JCtbrarg

J

THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL,

SCIENTIFIC AND RAILWAY GAZETTE.

VOLUME V.-1S42.

LONDON:

H. GROOMBRIDGE, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW •
H. HOOPER, PALL MALL EAST; J. WEALE. 59. HIGH HOLBORN ; J. TAYLOR, i. WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND-

WILEY & PUTNAM, NEW YORK; GALIGNANI. PARIS.

10, KLL'OYKR STREET. WHITEHALL. '"«.■.-> AL

3

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THE

CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S

JOURNAL,

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THE AMERICAN STEAM PILE DRIVING MACHINE. ,

( Willi an Engraving, Plate I.) j

In our last number we gave a brief account of this machine, which
has been exhibited fur the last two months at Smith's Wharf, Tedlar's
Acre, Lambeth. Our information was principally obtained from the en-
gineer, but since then we have had an opportunity of more carefully
examining the machine, and obtaining some accurate particulars, to- j
gether with a correct drawing of the machine, taken expressly for
the Journal. The machine was imported into this country from the
United Slates, by Colonel Cowdin, and some other parties, and con-
sists simply of a locomotive engine, similar in principle to those used
on our railways, having two inclined cylinders with their connecting
rods, working upon cruiks attached to the axes of two crab engines,
instead of the wheels of the locomotive engine. The two crab engines
perform the operation of driving the pile with a ran. of the s.ime
weight, and in the same manner as those generally adopted fur all the
large works in this country, such as the coHVr d.m to the new Houses
of Farlian.cnt and the bridges. With this machin,- two piles are
driven at the same time.

In America the steam machine has been generally adopted fur the
constraclion of railways on piles, for which purpose it is well adapted,
for as sMon as the machine has driven a pair of piles, it cuts ofl'the
Iieads to a level, or with a slight inclination according to the grade
required for the r.ulway, ami then rails are laitl upon the top either
with cross sleepeis or' not as may be desired ; the engine advances
forward another length and performs the operation again ; thus one
engine is enabled to drive two rows of piles at about live feet apart,
one mile in a month.

The i.rinoii)ai object of inquiry is to see how far this machine
is superior to those in ordinary use, and as we just si.il-d, in the steam
N.'. 52.— Vol.. v.— Janiary, 1812.

machine we have simiily engine power applied instead of manual
labour, for the working of two pile driving machines of the same mag-
nitude and power as those in ordinary use. For this purpose it is ob-
solutely necessary to make a series of obser\-ations and ascertain the
number of piles that can be driven in one day by the steam machine,
and the cost of labour, fuel and expenditure of capital, in comparison
widi the labour consumed in driving the same number of piles by the
ordinary machine. At present, our materials do not warrant us inoft'er-
ing any opinion, but we shall hereafter attempt to obtain some infor-
mation regarding this very important part of the inquiry.

For the steam machine, it requires to work the engine and apparatus
for driving two piles at one time, with a ram weighing h'> cwt. the
following men;— an engine-tender, one man fur throwing each appa-
ratus in and out of gear, aud one man to attend to each pile, making
altogether live men for driving tieo piles. For the ordinary machine
it requires four men to work the crab engine for lifting a ram of the
same weight, and one man to attend to the driving of the pile, making
fiv; mc.i for tiicA pile, or 10 men for two piles. With the steam ma-
chine the ram is lifted four or tis e times in a minute, thereby the opera-
tion of driving the piles is very short in comparison with the ordinary
machine. The coat of the steam machine with an engine of ten horse
power, tubular boiler aud apparatus is about 70 J.'., and the co>t of tlw
ordinary pile driving machine with crab engine is about 70/.

The following is a description of the American steam pile driving
machine, and the o|ierations for which it is applicable.

The machine consists of two pairs of leaders, similar to the common
iiand machine, placed Oft. from centra to centre, (the common Ameri-
can railway gauge), and firmly bulled to a strong horizontal framing,
and supported bv two oblique' la<lders. The frame is 9 feet wide to
the outside of the framing, and 2s> feet long, it carries at one end a
locomotive boiler 1 1 feet lung and 2 ft. 0 in. diameter, calculated to
bear 120 lb. per square inch pressure, but generally worked at hu lb.

2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

per square inch, and about 100 strokes per minute. Under the boiler
is placed the supply cistern. In the centre of the framing, and on each
side of the boiler is a pair of inclined cylinders 5i inch bore, with
solid pistons working well without packing, and 14 inch stroke, which
act on right angled cranks; and the gearing, drums, Sec, described in
the motions of the machine ; the shaft centres are 1' 3" apart, the
spur wheel has 5(3, and pinion 19 teeth; bevels 101 and 40 teeth;
saw pulleys 1' 9" and lOA inches diameter. The ram is generally raised
from 4 to 5 times a minute, the steam being at 80 lb. per square inch.

For river work the machine is made much more compact, the appa-
ratus is placed on each side and over the boiler, so that the stage is
little more than half the length of the machine shown in the engraving,
and it is also sometimes made with an apparatus for driving one pile
only, consequently requiring smaller power.

In the drawing, fig. 1 is a side elevation of the machine ; fig. 2, ele-
vation in front of leaders, showing saw, &c. ; fig. 3, a section taken
in front of gearing, &c. ; fi^. 4, a plan of gearing end ;with leaders
and ladders removed, and showing saw in plan, similar letters refer to
similar parts in each figure.

Taking iip ihe pile. — The ram A being secured by placing the stop
B under it, by means of the small ropes attached to the latter, and
passing over the small pulleys C C, to within 3 feet of the stage. The
dogs D are made fast to the pile (fig. 3,) the rope attached to which
passes upwards througli the small guide pulleys, and over the outer
pulley E, passes downwards and is coiled round the pulley F, fixed on
the shaft G, which being made to revolve, raises the pile to its place
between the leaders, and is then secured by the loose stay H, and the
iron work H' placed round it for guiding it perpendicularly.

Driving the pile. — The stop B being withdrawn from under the ram
A, the ram is raised by a rope, which being secured to a staple on the
top journal passes down under the pulley I, then upwards over the
pulley K, and again downwards to the drum L, upon which the rope
is coiled, the drum is placed on the shaft G, which is made td revolve
oy the spur wheel N, working in the pinion O, on the lower shaft P,
■which shaft revolves by the action of two cranks Q (Figs. 1 and 3,)
placed on each end of the shaft P, the cranks are set at right angles
to each other, and are worked by the connecting rods R, attached to
the piston rods, which are furnished with slide parallels as shown in
fig. 1. The slide valves of the piston are worked by the eccentric V,
on the end of the shaft P. Steam is supplied to the cylinder by the
pipe S, from the boiler T; the boiler is supplied with water from the
cistern M, (fig. 1) by the pump W, which is worked by the eccentric
rod X, fixed on the spur nave at Y, or by the handle at Z ; the supply
of steam is regulated by the handle (a) acting on a valve in the steam
pipe (S). The drum L consists of a fixed and a loose cylinder, the
latter revolving by the friction of the former (fixed), and is brought
into or out of contact by the hand lever (Y) figs. 1 and 4, which has
a fulcrum attached to the standard.

The follower/' is furnished with a pair of tongs or clippers, which
takes hold of a staple fixed in the ram, and carries it to the top of the
frame; then when the top of the tongs is pressed closer together, by
coming between the contracted checks e' e', the lower part opens and
allows the ram to fall.

For working the apparatus the engine-tender stands at the valve S,
and a man at the lever j/ of each machine. For raising the ram the
man turns on the steam at the valve S, which sets in motion the appa-
ratus of each machine, and coils the rope round the drums, at the same
time raises the ram, as soon as the latter reaches the top of the leaders,
the ram is detached and descends, at the same moment the engine-
tender turns off the steam, and the men at the levers y throw the drum
out of gear, which allows the clippers and chain to descend again and
lay hold of the ram ; when the drum is again thrown into gear, the
steam turned on and the ram again raised, and so the operation is con-
tinued until the pila is driven.

Draming a pile. — Chain tackle is secured to the pile and passed over
the top pulley to the drum L, and is then drawn by applying the power
to turn the drum of the apparatus.

The Saw Apparatus consists of a circular saw b, 4 feet diameter,

having teeth set 3 inches apart, secured to the end of a beam c, which
beam works on the upright shaft d for a centre, and slides laterally on
on the iron arc e ; when used the saw is adjusted to the proper height
by the screws/, and a bar having a hook in one end and fitting into a
staple in the beam's end, is used to press the saw against the work,
the bevel pinion g being raised into gear by the foot lever /i, (fig. 4),
motion is given to the pulley i and ;, and band k, which W9rk the
saw b. The operation of sawing off the end of a pile takes less than
a minute.

Progressing motion. — The hook I being fastened to a driven pile,
and the rope passed over the pulley m attached to the side of the
frame to the pulley F, round which it is coiled twice, and the end held
by a man — motion being now given to the drum, the machine pro-
gresses— this motion is shown by the dotted rope fig. 1, it should be
stated that the frame is intended to be supported upon six railway
wheels, which run on a temporary rail laid on the top of the piles as
they are driven. There is another mode of progressing, but which is
not found to answer so well, viz. by means of two sledge beams faced
with iron and attached to the under framing, these are placed six feet
apart from centre to centre, and pass under the whole length of the
machine, and slide on small iron wheels fixed to standards, which are
placed loose on the piles.

The plumb-bob I suspended to a line regulates the pile being
driven perpendicularly, and Y is a lever attached to a friction band
break passing over the end of the drum, which is only used occa-
sionally.

It is remarkable that writers on mechanics have not been able to
agree on the precise manner in which the force of the blow given by
the ram of a pile engine should be estimated, and the question appears
to have been greatly confused by confounding it with the effect pro-
duced in sinking the pile. Now it is one thing to estimate the force
of a blow, which is simply to determine the weight which, acting by
pressure alone, will produce the same effect as the blow, and it is
another thing of a widely different nature to determine what that effect
actually is. Any practical man at all acquainted with the nature of
pile driving, will at once scout the idea of being able to establish the
law, according to which a pile will actually sink by successive blows
of the ram ; because it is well known that the sinking of the pile is by
no means regular or proportioned to the friction opposing its descent
as determined by theory. On the contrary, in defiance of all theory,
a pile will sometimes sink more at the 4th or 5th blow, than at the
1st or 2nd, or perhaps more at the last blow than it did 10 or 15 blows
before ; and yet it is obvious that if we were attempting to investigate
theoretically the resistance of friction, we must estimate this resistance
to increase in some regular proportion to the depth to which the pile is
buried in the ground.

Practice, however, shows that occasionally the resistance is less than
at a previous blow, when theory would point out that it is more.
We therefore reject from our consideration every attempt to deter-
mine the actual effect produced by the force which we are able to exert
on the pile. In fact, whether the blow produce any effect or not, the
force exerted is still the same, and this is all that theory can deter-
mine, because the sinking of the pile depends on conditions of te-
nacity and consolidation of the ground to be driven into, which are too
various and complicated ever to be capable of general expression in
the formulae of calculation.

It is true that Belidor and other French engineers, in that ardent
spirit of investigation which leads them to build up theories on a
purely hypothetical basis, where a practical or experimental one is
impossible, have assumed the rate of consolidation of earth at each
successive foot below the surface, and then taking into account the
surface of the pile exposed to friction, have attempted to estimate
the rate at which the pile would sink with each blovf of the ram.
We doubt, however, whether practice would ever be found, in a single
instance, to confirm a theory so established ; at any rate we should
esteem the coincidence of the two almost miraculous, even if, in some
rare instance, they ever have agreed. — Apart, then, from all conside-
ration of the effect produced in sinking the pile, let us simply enquire

1S42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

the actual force with which the rim, in falling from a given height,
strikes the head of the pile. Obeying the law of accelerated velocity,

the ram will fall through any space s in the time /k/t, where g=i

IG^ij feet, the space through which a heavy body falls in one second
of time. Now it is a fixed and well established .rule in mechanics,
that the velocity acquired by falling through any given height is pro-
portionate directly to the time of descent, and that the velocitv ac-
quired at the end of the first second of time is equal to 32x feet per
second ; hence it follows that the velocity acquired by a body in falling

through the space « is equal to 32* ./ i. Then to find the force

of the blow, the weight of the body is to be multipliod into this ac-
quired velocity, which it must be understood is not the velocitv with
which the body has fallen, but the velocity in feet per second with
which it would fall during the next instant of time, were it not sud-
denly stopped by striking the pile.

According to this formula, the following table has been calculated,
showing in one column the time of descent in seconds of any ram fall-
iug from 1 to 4U feet, and in the other, the force in tons with which a
ram weighing one ton will strike, in falling from the same height.

Force in tons

Force in tons

FaU of

Time of

for a Ram

Fall of

Time of

for a Kam

Ram

Descent in

weighing

Ram

Descent in

weighing
one ton.

in feet.

seconds.

one ton.

in feet.

seconds.

1

0-25

1
8-0

21

1-14

3G-7

2

0-35

11-3

22

11"

37-6

3

0-43

13-9

23

1-20

38-5

4

0-50

160

24

1-22

393

5

0-56

17-6 :

25

1-25

401

6

0-61

19-6 ,

26

1-27

40-9

7

0-6G

21-2

27

1-29

41-7

8

0-70

22-7

23

1-32

42-4

9

0-75

241

29

1-34

43-2

10

0-79

25-3 1

30

1-37

43-9

11

0-83

26-6 I

31

1-39

44-6

12

0-80

27-8

32

1-41

45-4

13

0-90

28-9

33

1-43

4C1

14

0-93

30-0 '

34

1-45

46-8

IS

0-96

310 1

35

1-48

47-4

16

100

321

36

laO

481

17

103

331 1

37

152

48-8

18

l-OC

34 0 I

38

1-54

49-4

19

109

35-0 '

39

1-56

50-1

20

111

35-9 1

1

40

1-58

50-7

1

The force of the blow given by a ram of any other weight than a
ton may be ascertained from this table, by simply multiplying the
number in the column headed " Force, &c." by the weight of the ram.
Thus, if it be required to determine the force of the blow given by a
ram of 16 cwt. falling from a height of 30 feet, opposite 30 we find
the tabular number 43-9, hence l(i x 43-0 = 702 cwt. = 35 tons 2 cwt.
the force required. This is the greatest force of the blow which can
be given by the steam pile-driving machine described in our present
number, the error formerly made of stating the force of the blow at
600 tons was on the authority of one of the foremen superintending
the engine, and we take the earliest opportunity of correcting a state-
ment so exaggerated.

The annexed diagram is intended to represent, by means of the curved
line///, the law according to which the force of the blow increases
with the height from which it falls. For example, the distance a x
measured on the horizontal scale will be ti-l tons, the force with
which a ram weighing one ton strikes when it has fallen from a height
of 2S feet. The peculiar curve here shown is the result of that law
by which the forces vary as the square roots of the heights from which
the ram falls. If the forces varied directly as the heightji, the straight
lines 6 b would express the law of their increase, and if they varied

as the square of the heights, a supposition which, erroneous as it is,
has been entertained by some persons, the law of the forces would be
expressed by a curve of an entirely ditferent nature from the true one,
namely by the curves c c, according to which, if e i were the force for
a height of 5 feet, e e would be the force for a height of 10 feet. The
straight lines and the curves c c are of course both erroneous, the true
scale for measuring the forces being atTorded by the curved line ///J
so that the distance ax of any point x from the vertical line A A,
measureu on the horizontal scale S :>, will give the force of the blow
correctly in the same manner as the table.

THE LIVERPOOL PAVILION.

Ended at Lirerfool, July, 1841, /or tie Great Dinner of the Royal
Agricultural Sociily of England, under the direction of I. W. Wiu),
JEsj., Architect.

The object of this dinner is to afford an opportunity to the members
of the society, assembled from all parts of the kingdom, of hearing
persons eminently connected with agriculture and scientific men, speak
upon points of special importance to them. The pavilion requires,
therefore, no decoration, as it would for a festive occ.isiou; all that is
wanted is that it should be convenient for seeing and hearing the
speakers, and for serving the dinner, and that it should cost the So-
ciety as little as possible.

The plan of the Pavilion at Liverpool, as shown in the annexed en-
gravings, is a polygon of 24 equal sides, the greatest diameter between
the opposite angles being 171 feet; within this space was provided
accommodation for 28J0 people, allowing 1ft. Sin. by 3ft. '.Un. to each
person, besides the main passages, which were four feet wide, and the
committee-room and butteries. The staircases, 3ft. tjin. wide, were
outside the building. A portion within this figure being cut oil' to
form the ollices, the remaining space for the scats was nearly the form
of an ancient circus; the arrangement also was similar, iis there were
no galleries, the seats rising in steps around, and following the line of
the outer wall. In order to bring the President's and Vice-President's
tibles nearer to each other, the high table was advanced from the wall
some distance towards the centre of the building, thus leaving some
few seats behind the high table.

There were six entrances into the body of the Pavilion, two upon
the ground, leading into the pit, two above these into the upper seals.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

Fig. 1.— Elevation.

and two other st;urcasea leading also to the upper seats, and there
was a private entrance into the committee-room and the platform.

As the dinner was cold, the first part of it was served upon the table
before the guests entered, and from the position of the butteries and
pantries, the waiters found it easy to serve anything wanted after-

The roof of the building was supported upon its outer wall, and
upon two ranges of 12 columns each, one within the other; the dispo-
sition of the roofs and columns being symmetrical with the arrange-
ment of the seats, the sight was but very little hindered by these few
supports, which were posts, 12 inc. square, with the edges chamfered.

Fis. 2.

Plan of Seats.

Plan of Roofs.

Reieeence to Plan.'

A. Commit..e Room. B, B. Buttery. C, High Table ^""^ ^-f f ■^^•
D, Vice PresRleut's Table. E, Pantry. F, Passage to Upi-er Seats. G, Pas-
sage on the Ground to Lower Seats. H, H, Stancases.

The entire covering was divided into three roofs, one within the
other. The centre roof, 72 feet in diameter, was a pyramid oi 12
equal sides, the apex was 40 feet from the floor ; the base or top of
the posts supporting the wall plate was 29 feet from the floor. The
construction was 12 rafters, forming the angles of the pyramid, each
n3in.X4in.) abutting against each other in the centre, and secured
there bv a star-sliaped strap of half inch wrought iron, each leg of
which 'ift. 2in. from tlie centre, was bolted to each rafter; the other
ends of these rafters were secured and prevented from spreading, by
connecting the wall plates with strong wrought iron straps, each two
feet long, and forming thus a hoop round the base of this roof. 1 he

ends of these rafters were also bolted to the upright posts. Light was
admitted through a space round this roof under the wall plate ; the
purlines supporting the oil cloth covering were laid upon these prin-
cipal rafters.

The middle division of the covering between the outer and inner
range of supports was divided into 12 gable roofs, as their ridges
were level, and all tended to the centre; the valleys formed by the
sides of tliese roofs meeting each other, rise towards the centre, and
thus easily carry off the water. No ties were required, as the rafters
of each division abut against each other on the valley pieces, which,
supporting a considerable weight, required trussing; the trusses used
for these valley pieces (13in.x4in.) was an iron rod |in. thick, bolted
to each end of the piece, and an oak wedge being forced between this
rod and the underside of the beam formed the truss.

The gable ends of these 12 roofs also admitted light, and being
under trusses, their tiebeams formed a continued line of support to one
end of the rafters of the beam to the roof; the other ends of these
rafters (averaging 17 feet long) are supported on the outer wall, this
lean-to roof round the building, being the third or outer division of
the whole covering.

It is to be remarked that within the space included by the covering,
there is not one horizontal or isolated tie.

The material used for the covering was floor-cloth, prepared only
on one side ; it was returned to the maker after the building was
taken down; the floor of the Pavilion was supported on 9in. brick
walls, the outer enclosure was faced with the outside slabs, sawn from
timber; the average height of which was 15 feet from the floor.
Light was obtained through the gable ends of the roofs, and the up-
right portion of the centre roof, all of which were enclosed with white

calico.

Mr. Wild's plan, with a model explaining it, was submitted or ten-
der, together with the drawings, &c., of another plan previously exe-
cuted for the society; this other plan was a parallelogram 113ft. X
l'l7ft. offices attached 14ff. X 84 ft. The covering was a series of
lean-to roofs ; the accommodation off'ered by both plans was equal.
The tender for this plan was £1225; for the plan adopted at Liver-
pool £1115 ; this diff-erence of expense may be accounted for by the
quantity of external enclosure being much less in the Liverpool plan,
owing to the greater capacity of the figure; and as each of the 12
divisions of the plan is exactly repeated, without any curved lines and
very little cutting, the construction is very simple. The principal
waste was in the covering of the centre roof. As no ornament was at-
tempted, the effect of the building was rude and naked, but the
great multitude of people in still widening circles around, had a grand
eftect. As the plan was symmetrical, architectural decoration could
have easily been given had it been required.

The position of the building was very disadvantageous for hearing,
it being in a very noisy part of Liverpool: indeed, if, on the day of
the dinner, a space around had not been covered with refuse bark,
nothing could have been heard.

There was no echo perceptible in the building, the voice seemed to
spread and lose itself as in an open yard. It was generally agreed
that those who spoke clearly and articulately were well heard. For
instance : Lord Stanley made a long speech, and seemingly without
any great effort or loudness, and every word was distinctly heard m

all parts. , i ,

The building, with its covering, remained standing altogether about
six weeks ; it was exposed to some very severe weather, but showed
no sign of weakness any where. It was erected by the well known
and respected builders, the Messrs. Holmes of Liverpool, whose exe-
cution of the work gave general satisfaction.

„., ,• !• ■ „ Wo liavp seen a set of drawings of these engines,

P. area"^"^!?.' m7n fov"rlseratron"to''the Mod?l Gallery Somerset

, n wl^ch . 0 credit tJ the public spirit of the engmeers and the skdl of
h^' a^l Tl ev show fully how the most practical subjects when properly

eate Lec.nrK of heauty. We should like much fur every engmeet
!iri/resem s "clVcorfs to public institutions, where they may be studied by
'.he profession.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

OX ]?EAM AND DIRECT ACTION FAGIXES.
GORGON ENGINE.

BEAM ENGINE.

I 'I

Q

i.._ |i.p=

P

9

Sir — I am induced to address you from having read, in a contem-
porary work, a review of Mr. Scott Russell's publication on Scotcli
steam navig-ation, wherein concise mention is ni.ule of tlie engines
termed "Gorgon," so scitnlijiculiy named from tlieir liaving been first
fitted on board a vessel of that name.

Giving unto the manuf.icturers of these muciiines great credit for
their general talents and inp-'nuity, and having a high opinion of their
ability, I nevertheless, with reference to this particular case, have
great doubts of the correctness of their title either to origiiialily in
introduction, or to any credit in conception or invention. I trust also
that these gentlemen will not consider me to be actuated by any un-
friendly motives; some of the publisiied statements and assumed facts
seem to me to be a little overcharged, and my desire is to induce ex-
planation, and, by controversy, establish in your pages a conclusive
and convincing account of all the properties of the arrangcnuMit, and
at the same time, by comparative data and drawings, show its prefer-

ence|or^defect oter other plans, more especially to the common]4be.im,
or Boulton & Watt marine engine first fitted on board the "Favorite"
Margate steamer, in IS 18.

It must be in the knowledge of most of your professional readers,
th:it engines having a " direct action " were common many years ago,
and it was not until the novel arr.ingemput of the " Favorite's" engines
became generally known, that they were put aside; since then the
beam engine has reigned triuinph.int, to the jjartial usurpation of
the Gorgon; it is my object to show the said "Gorgons" are not
entitled to the position they m.ay be said to have attained in the royal
navy.

In the year 1S22 a vessel was built at Leith, and was Damed tlic
"Tourist;" her engines were of the "direct" kind, designed and
manufactured by Mr. UiTZMEK, also of Leith, and were, I may safely
say, the 7?r»/ crer m(i(/t for marine purposes. The arrangement was
very like Mr. Penn's oseillating engine ; the cylinders were of course

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Jan«

fixed, having one air-pump worked by a crank in the middle shaft ;
the condenser was a circular one, fixed before the air-pump in the
middle line of ship. The cylinder was 40 inches diara. and 3 feet
stroke, pqual to a power of 4U horses, the space occupied was 10 ft. 9 in.
in the fore and aft direction, and lift. Gin. athwart ; the vessel was
low, and the paddle wlieels being projiorlioiied to the stroke, the con-
necting rods were short. The piston rods were fitted with parallel
motions.

Thus, so far as the direct application of tlie poreer goes, the engines of
the Tourist, Goigon, Cyclops, &c., are identical. I therefore must
object to the Messrs. feeawards' nomenclature, it should be " Gutzmer "
not " Gorgon."

In 182G, Mr. David Napier completed his splendid ship, the
"United Kingdom." The engines were upon the direct principle,
with, I conceive, considerable improvements; these consisted of se-
parate condensers and air pumps, in a half side beam, an additional
crossbar, and side rods forming a connecting rod, by which means this
latter was doubled in length to what it would have been on the Gutz-
mer principle. I cannot give the exact space occupied by these en-
gines, but feel assured that with equal powers and capabilities, they
have the advantage over the Gorgons.

Having explained my objections to the claims of the Gorgon engine
on the ground of originality, I now come to its intrinsic value as com-
pared with its competitor the beam engine, and I beg to premise that
I use the term " competitor" in a Royal Navy sense only, for I be-
lieve I am correct in stating that, with the exception of the Russian
Emperor and Mexican Government, that this government is the only
patron of the Gorgon engine. I mean to say that it is entirely ex-
cluded from the vast commercial marine of this country. I think I
may also say entirely from France, but I am open to correction on this
point; at all events, the former fact shows plainly, thit if it has no
defects, it at least has not the advantages which are claimed for it. I
may observe, with reference to the value of government patronage,
and I merely state a plain and well known fact, that they are far be-
hind private knowledge and enterprise.

In a pamphlet published by Messrs. Seawards & Co., the following
statements are made, and a drawing given of the Gorgon's engine ; of
the latter's accuracy I have no doubt. I dispute the former. They
say, 1st, they occupy i less space, and weigh i less than the beam
engine. 2nd, that there is less friction, consequently less wear and
tear and loss of power. 3rd, that the consumption of fuel does not
exceed 64 lbs. per horse power nominal per hour. I purpose taking
these as they stand. 1st, the space occupied by the Gorgon and the
beam engine can only be shown by a drawing; such accompanies this
letter, sketched to the same scale, and placed relatively to each other.
The upper is that of the Gorgon, as copied from the above-mentioned
pamphlet, the lower is of a beam engine, in sketching which I have
not followed the "architecture" of any manufacturer, for obvious rea-
sons, having no professional object in view.

You will therein see that the base of the Gorgon's engine is 20ft.
Clin, long by 7ft. lOin. wide, that of the beam engine 20ft. 9in. long by
8ft. Gin. wide over the main gudgeons or widest part, being in excess,
three inches in length and eight inches in width only I This is an
astounding fact, and before publishing this paper (if it is doomed to
such fortune), I beg, Mr. Editor, that you will carefully look to this
point, and test its accuracy ; I believe it is fair and honest, and, if
published, will speak for itself. So much for the boasted Gorgon
engine, i less, — 'tis a hacknied phrase. It does not appear that any
claim is made for improvement in the boiler. I have a drawing of the
Cyclops' ; they are of the common construction, single flue (that is, all
on one level) having fires at both ends; they are across 19ft. by 31ft.
fore and aft, and 8ft. lOin. high; this is all common-place. I have
therefore no remark to make until I speak of their weight, and the
reported consumption of fuel.

I now come to the weight of the Gorgon's machinery, and premise
that this is a point of great importance, as I have reason to think its
reported small amount was one of the principal causes of the intro-
duction of these engines into the navy of Great Britain.

The engines were stated to the government to weigh 121 tons.
Paddle-wheels 24

Boiler 04

Water in Boilers 48

257 tons.
A total of 257 tons omitting the coal boxes.

The weight of a pair of beam engines of 320 horses power of most
approved construction, with boilers, paddle-wheels, coal boxes, and
water in boiler to working height, would not be more than 290 to 300
tons, but say the latter, to put the question on its broadest base, that
is '93 of a ton to a horse, which you will find a very ample allowance.
Supposing the 257 tons to include coal boxes (although not enume-
rated) we have a saving of 300 less 257 == 43 tons and -y^' := | saving
by the use of the Gorgon's engines! really, Mr. Editor, this appears
" too bad." Can the statement of i saving be made on honourable
principles, or wero the manufacturers so far carried away by enthu-
siasm as to slightly exceed the bounds of truth ?

A few words more on this subject; I have reason to doubt the accu-
racy of the total weight given to the Admiralty, viz. 257 tons. The
following has been handed to me by authority on which I can rely.
It may be said it is merely an anonymous statement. Granted ; but I
am ready, Mr, Editor, to give you the name of my informant (in con-
fidence), and you shall be the umpire as to its value.

Corrected weight of Gorgon's engines will stand thus ; —

Tons. c»t. qrs. lb.
Engines . . 123 3 0 13

Paddle-wheels . 40 0 3 24

Boiler . . 68 17 2 5

Chimney . . 6 3 3 6

Coal Boxes . 20 2 1 18

Water in Boiler . 40 8 0 0

*Total 298 15

10

I say I believe this to be correct, and leave your readers to form their
own conclusions, or to make further enquiries. All I can say is, that
it calls loudly for explanation.

I proceed to the second subject " That there is less friction in the
Gorgon's engines, consequently less loss of power, wear and tear, &c.

This I consider to be merely professional, and fear my inability to
make myself fully understood by casual readers; however, avoiding
all scientific observation as to the "laws of friction," I shall merely
point out the parts generally included in the beam but avoided in the
Gorgon engine, and allow your readers to draw a common sense de-
duction as to the saving in this particular.

The following are common to both constructions : the pistons, air
pump buckets, hot and bilge water pumps, shaft bearings, crank pins,
&c. The connecting rod bearing on cylinder cross bar of Gorgon, is
equal to the beam engine connecting rod cross bar; in this latter we
have the two main gudgeons, the air-pump gudgeons, the side rod
gudgeons, and the parallel motion, to be balanced by the rocking beam
and parallel motion of the Gorgon engine ; aud although last, not least,
the enormous friction on these parts caused by the short connecting
rod, and which I am assured is so great as to equal I the power of the
engine passing through them to sustain the piston rod to move in a
perpendicular line.

On this point I am content, that those who are cognizant of the
parts of both engines, or can judge from the drawing given, may form
their own conclusions.

3rd. That the consumption of fuel does not exceed 6i lb. per nomi-
nal horse power per hour.

Nothing can be more absurd than to draw any conclusions from the
consumption per nominal horse power, the merest tyro in the profes-
sion must be fully aware that in the same engine (or generally speaking
in engines from the same manufactory), the consumption of coal mill
always be as the work done; it matters not how you may turn and twist

* We must observe that this weight includes chimney and coal boxes, not
included in the before-mentioned weight of 257 tons. — Editor.

1842

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

this fact, it is still so; by loss on the slide valve you save steam, but
yon reduce your power* in the same proportion ; and was moderate
consumption of fuel the only desideratum it is easily obtained ; vou
may save coal by not using sUam, and that is simplv done by prevent-
ing its ingress to the cylinder. Thus actual power is reduced, but
nominal pow er is fixed, and hence the result of 6i lb. consumed on
board the Gorgon.

I may here incidentally obsers-e that a good marine engine should
exert an average pressure on the piston of 141b. per square inch, and
this exclusive of all friction of the moving parts; this, according to
Mr. Watt's computation is just double the nominal power. If under
these circu mstances it consumes 9 lb. of coal per nominal horse power per
hour, or 4i actual horse power, you may be content. I have known this
exceeded, but think it rare ; a pressure of 10 to IGi lb. on the inch is
common in these days, and that with a boiler pressure of U lb. There-
fore to form a fair experiment of the consumption we ought to be
favoured with an iiHlicutor figure, showing the average pressure, with
the speed of the piston per minute.

The Gorgon's cylinders are 66 inches diameter and 5 ft.G in. stroke,
and according to Mr. Watt's computation, (I take his data as I con-
sider it beyond cavil), should make 2U strokes per minute, or 220 feet,
producing a power of 160 horses, or 320 for both engines. This is
just equal to 18-57 cwt. per hour, is this fact » I put it Sir, to your
own knowledge, as well as to that of your general readers.

One other point only remains to be considered, the actual speed of
these Gorgon s engines. I am told in consequence of the great im-
mersion of the Gorgon, her engines seldom make more than U to 15
strokes per minute, if this is true the mystery is solved, the consump-
tion of coal is increased at once in the proportion of 20 to 14, equal
9i lb. per nominal horse, about the usual thing supposing the actual
power double as above stated.

Of the " Styx" I can speak with confidence, on her trial in the river,
with my Lords and a large party on board, with coal enough for the
trip, no masts, stores ("except, to the credit of the engineers be it said,
no mean supply of the rery good things of this world), guns, &c., at
her light draft she made 17 strokes per minute, and when loaded it is
reasonable to suppose the increased resistance would reduce that two
or even three strokes per minute at least ; therefore how utterly in-
conclusive it would be to form any judgment as to the consumption of
coal upon such data. No, this may do for the government folks, but
the steam public will require deeper investigation ; let us have an in-
dicator figure, the number of strokes per minute, the speed of vessel
with her immersed section, and then we shall be enabled to see if
modern ingenuity has done more than old "Gutzmer" did in the
"Tourist."

There are other defects attached to the Gorgon engine which de-
serve notice. It has been frequently observed, even bv unscientific
persons, that in the " beam engines" every part was beautifully adopted
to iU purjpose, and was so well balanced, that disconnected from the
shaft it preserved its position, it results that its motion is equable and
smooth, with a minimum friction on the moving parts. Although I
differ from those who suppose there is a mechantcat loss of power in
the use of the short connecting rod, still I conceive the most sanguine
supporter of the "direct engine" must allow there i» a loss of power
from attendant causes, the undue friction thrown upon the parallel
motion upon the shaft bearings and other parU, in consequence of the
oblique action of the connecting rod, and more than all the irregiUar
motion ariMng from the weight of the pistons, connecting rods, cranks,
cross bars, &c. being totally unbalanced, except bv the paddle wheel
which I consider so rude as out of the pale of civ'ilization, and which'
by tlie bye, cannot be carried into etfect when any app.-irafus is fixed
for disengaging the shaf^ as the paddle wheel woul.l not revolve, the
very end to be obtained by such device.

The ttrlttr of ihu piipcr <lon not il.ink it necessary to explain ihc theory
ofexp:insion, lo show llmt ihc power lost Ly it is ,,»/ in proiH-riion to tl.,.
•team 5^vo<l. nor is it worth while to .how that Ihe »|we.l ol the ship «.,., 1,1
!>« reduced m the cul>e rouu ol the lost power, his desire is to prove Ihc i,n-
soundmsi of reasoning up n nominal liursc power consumption.

Another disadvantage is that in order to get a moderately long con-
necting rod, you are obliged to construct your paddle whee'l much too
large in diameter for the stroke of the engine, and in order to reduce
your resistance, to contract the length of the board ; this applies to all
our Government vessels hitherto fitted with direct engines, and in fact
to this I principally ascribe their low speeds.

Puffing is a horrid resource ; I have been amused to see the manner
in which the Gorgon and Cyclops were brought l>efore the public on
the recent bombardment of the Syrian coast; surely this is unfair and not
national. The Phenix, Medea, Hecla, Hydra and many other? did their
duly, which I presume is all the first named were called upon to per-
form.

One observation more, and I fear I am only disseminating a generally
known fact, that the great majority of our war steamers have rtry Ion
relociUes. I know not what oilier countries possess, but this must be
evident to all, that (putting aside great disparity of force), the fastest
steamer will be the conqueror, and thus as In the American war, our
noble tars will be sacrificed to the miserable inefficiency of those who
have the governance of such matters.

I conclude with a prophecy. Fashion must have its course in steam
as in other matters, but ere long we shall come back to the scandalized
" Beam engine." The Gorgons may shake their heads, and Cyclops
wink their "central orbs," they will meet the fate of the " To'uritt,"
now propelled by a pair of beam engines. Like in the paddle wheel
mania, we gyrated from poor Buchanan who "shone" in lsl4,
through a vast series of minor inventors down to Morgan, who iffent
put in 1S3S or thereabouts;— this is all very well, and is good for trade,
but who pays ?

I remain, Sir, your's truly,

Vl-lcax.
London, December 9, ISll.

ON THE USE OF GOLD IN DECORATION.
Since architects are beginning to pay more attention than formerly
to the minor parts of decoration, it may not be venturing out of their
province to turn their attention to a very important branch of it—
though it is ground on which, from being confined by the impregnable
laws of fashiun, it is more dangerous to tread than even the slippery
path selected by Mr. Bartliolomew. When we have designed our de-
coration with the greatest attention to harmonious colouring, taking
care that each may have its proper proportions, and making a cautious
use of bright colours out of regard to those which are more subdued—
the artist comes, and to the injury of his own works, as wed as those
of the architect, covers the wall with a phalanx of rich gold frames of
precisely the same character, whatever may be the tone of the room or
the nature of the picture. If the statements of Mr. Clarke be correct,
that yellow is to be useil with great caution ami never in large quan-
tities, and it un<loubtedly is correct, and is universally allowed to be
so, except in this one point, it surely is contrary to every principle of
colouring, either in decoration or the management of a picture, to in-
troduce this dangerous material in a manner entirely regardless of
surrounding or surrounded objects. Pictures of the niost deliciie as
well as the boldest character have frames to match each other rather
than themselves — and this because no one has the courage to propose
a remedy. Artists are not much afraid to intimate with caution that
the talon-like form in wiiich the finger nails arc sulTt-red to luxuriate,
has no authority in the antique. Some one more h.ardy than tli,' rest
suggests to a la<ly that if her daughter's waist was really pinched as
small as she wished it to be represenlevi, "she would not be alive a
minute." But the other practice is too finely paid, for any one to
attempt its removal — though wc must not despair of time etreoting
what no other less potent .igent can. Equally absurd ami deeply rooted
fashions have given w.iy. It has been discovered that the human form
is seen to more advant.ig,- in a simple garb, than when the upper ex-
tremity appears emerging from a gigantic cheese. And posMbly it
may be found that works of art, more precious than diamonds, like

s

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Jan.

them Jo not require [to be set in gold. We have Sir William Cell's
authority, than whom no one h;id a better opportunity of studying in-
ternal decoration as practised by the ancients — that the suggested
innovation would be in accordance with the principles of those whom
we profess to follow and admire.

If the space taken up by frames at the Royal Academy were occu-
pied with some quiet separating colour, the pictures being snrrouuded
with simply a gold moulding, we should not hear so many complaints
of the killing effects of the exhibition to all pictures that are not painted
after Turner's manner. Gold in large quantities will some day as-
suredly be banished from the picture gallery, to situations where it is
required as an architectural decoration, and where it will therefore be
subjected to the disposal of the architect instead of to that of the
frame maker.

J L.

AN APPARATUS FOR DISCONNECTING THE PADDLE
WHEELS OF STEAM VESSELS FROM THE ENGINES.

By Mr. Grantham, North Foundry, Liverpool.

To effect the connection and disconnection of the paddle shafts of
steam vessels, has been the subject of many ingenious plans, but we
have not seen any which ap))ear better calculated for this purpose
than that of Mr. Grantham, a description of which we now give.

The parts of the annexed diagram marked 1, represent the paddle
shaft of an ordinary marine engine, 2 the intermediate shaft, and
3, 3, 3, the cranks by means of which the engines are made to revolve.
This new contrivance consists in having in the eye of the exterior

crank, a sliding brass step A, which may be moved in either direction
by the screw C. The screw to be worked by a ratchet spanner on the
square end F, and to be of such pitch that one revolution for small
vessels, and two for larger vessels, will be sufficient to effect the ope-
ration.

The sides of the brass step project unequally, as at G and H.

For Disconnuliiig. — The brass step is drawn back by the screw C
to allow the crank pin to pass clear.

For Coniitcting. — The brass step is moved forward [one' or two
inches, so that the crank pin can pass the side G, but comes in contact
with H. The correct position of the several parts being thus deter-
mined, the brass is screwed out to its full extent.

TILE MACHINE.

J\'ew Patent Invention for the Manvfadare of Draining and other Tiles and Bricks. By William Irving.

The advantages of the machine exhibited in the annexed engraving are its simplicity and cheapness in its construction and working. It is
stated by the Patentee that by the labour of one man and three boys, 5000 tiles per day can be made with ease, at a cost of less than 28.
per 1000. At one operation IG tiles are made, which an experienced hand would accomplish in one minute, equal to 9,(300 per day of 10
hours.

The machine is so portable that one man can carry it, and needs no fixing.

The machine may be seen at work at Richmond Wharf, Nine Elms, London, every Monday afternoon.

The process of making tiles by tins machine,
is as follows : a quantity of material sufficient
to fill the box, or mould, is thrown in as in
the ordinary process, and the surplus cut off
even with the top, by a scraper of any con-
venient form or material. Tlie end DD, and
the frame or hoop FF, are then removed, and
the workman (who stands at the end Z of the
machine) takes the cylinder U H by the
handles, and raising it up vertically, rests It
upon the top of the box, or mould, with the
rings, or guides a a npon the said cylinder
outside, or against the outer face of the sides
B C, thereby causing the wires attached to the
cylinder H H to be brought against the face
of the material left exposed by the removal of
the end D D. The cylinder H H is then
drawn along the top upon which it rests, and
the wires are made to pass through and cut
the material into the required number of tiles,
according to tlie arrangement of the wires
upon the saiil cylinder II H. The wires arc
thus brought through the material to the cuts
or openings in the end E K, and over the rol-
ler L L in the grooves of which they are re-
ceived and left.

The material being now completely separated into the required number of parts, the side D is laid down ui)on the table or bench A A (which is made
wider at that end to receive it), the board G G, with the material upon it, is drawn out between the guides J J, and the tiles are taken to be horsed or other-
wise, as may be expedient.

1842

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

ON COLOUR AS APPLIED TO DECORATION.

By Hyde Clarkx:i F.L.S.

CConlimitdfrom Vol. IV. page 409 J

In the last volume I g-ave an analysis of the principal colours, and
pointed out their several properties, reserving for the present occasion
those observations which refer to the practical application of this
knowledge in decoration, for which purpose I shall avail myself of the
labours of Chevreul and Hay. The former writer has, indeed, treated
the subject extensively and minutely ; Mr. Hay, attaching himself to the
elementary portion, which has been seriously neglected here, has only
discursive notices scattered through his pages. A complete work on
this subject is, in fact, one which yet remains to be written in English,
although very much wanted, particularly at the present period, when
attention is so much directed to decoration.

It has been before observed in the Journal, that there are two modes
of composition, one in which boldness of efl'ect is sought, and the con-
trasting or harmonizing properties of colours are made use of, and
the other in which softness being the object, the architect or decorator
avails himself of their melodizing properties. The next consideration
after this in a regular composition, is tlie choice of a key colour, that
is of the colour which is intended to preponderate in the arrangement,
and to which all the others are to be adapted. Of course, in practice
such a regular method can seldom be followed, and it is then that the
ability of the artist is called into requisition to make the most of his
materials. Limited as I am by the nature of the plan I have laid
down, I cannot enter into this subject at any length, but it may be
some guide to the student if I call his attention to some of the most
glaring errors, which too often beset our artists, and \ipon which Mr.
Hay so strongly dwells in his Laws of Harmonious Colouring. On the
side of contrast these are the preponderance of some striking colour,
nr the deficiency of strength of the balancing colours; with regard to
compositions in melody, we too often have to witness absolute mono-
tony, or else the want of media to unite the leading colours employed.
Another fault is confusion arising from inattention to the key colour.

Having dismissed these preliminary remarks, it will be our duty to
consider the subject first as it regards decoration generally, and then
as it concerns the several apartments, or as it influences the choice
and arrangement of furniture. In the first instance we shall have to
consider what is the aspect and the kind of light to be employed : for
if we have the warm tones of the summer sun from the south and
west thrown into an apartment, coolness must be preserved ; but if we
have a wintry aspect or morning light, recourse roust be had to warmth
of colouring. Where artificial light is used on a large scale, deep
colours must be proscribed, and pure yellow, purple, green, and orange
used with great moderation, all the former from being deterioratedi
and the latter one because it becomes too glaring. Where rooms are
lighted so that the direct rays of light are thrown entirely upon the
floor, and the walls left comparatively in shade, a bright scarlet has
been known to produce a good effect, the want of direct light prevent-
ing it from obtruding u|)on the eye (Hay, p. 51). In such cases, deep
toned colours must predominate on the carpet, and gilding may be ad-
vantageously resorted to. If the artist has to consult the ladies in his
arrangements, he finds that the tints of red, orange, and p\irple arc all
disadvantageous to the complexion, and that yellow, light green, or
light blue, are among the more favourable, and then whitish and gray-
ish tints. White may be advantageously used in decoration as a pre-
vailing coluur, when lowered in tone, and light marbles, gilding, sky
blue silk, and satin wood furniture, used with it. Yellow, when pure,
cannot be used in a large mass, but when lowered in hue is agree-
able ; when yellow is the prevailing colour, the tone of the accessaries
must be heightened, it docs not agree very well with gilding. Red
requires that the general tone should be warm, and cannot be used
in large masses, although It is a good key colour. Bright green
should not be used with it, but green, approaching more to an olive

tone, also russet aud brown. Into such arrangements gilding may be
introduced with happy elfect. Blue, requiring coolness of character
to be preserved, is a very advantageous colour, particularly when
light; it agrees well with gilding and mahogany, but must not be used
with pink. Orange is a good key colour, and although not a favourite,
may be advantageously used ; masses, however, must be avoided. It
requires a warm tone. When used, blue roust be kept subordinate to
it, and this subordination in intensity ought to be in shade rather than
in tint, or by neutralizing the blue by an admixture of a small portion
of orange. In this arrangement black and white must be left out,
russet, citron and brown should predominate, being occasionally re-
lieved bv the deepest shades of indigo (Hay, p. 17). A bright yel-
lowish green agrees very well with mahogany and gilding, and with
light tints of lilac or pink, and with it orange may be employed in
small masses. Mr. Hay recommends with bright green, for any light,
an arrangement of cream colour, French white, gilding on the cornice,
ceiling and wood work, with damask hangings of giraffe and gold,
and a suitable carpet. Where this arrangement is inverted, he says,
when the hangings and chair seats are green, and the walls of a warm
colour, the effect is equally beautiful in day light, but in artificial light
it is injured. Bluish green requires a cool tone, as does gray. Crim-
son requires a warm arrangement, and on account of its good effect
with gilding, is much used. Lilac and pink are considered to require
coolness, and brown, warmth.

Directing our attention lo the mode in which the uses of the seve-
ral apartments guides the artist in his treatment, we should observe,
that the drawing room being the scene of gaiety, vivacity and bril-
liancy should prevail, and that there the artist has his greatest scope.
This vivacity, says Mr. Hay, is produced by the introduction of light
tints of brilliant colours, with a considerable degree of contrast with
gilding ; but the brightest colours and strongest contrasts he recom-
mends should be upon the furniture, the walls being kept in due sub-
ordination, but at the same time partaking of the general liveliness
(p. 30). The dining room should be warm aud rich, the furniture
solid, and gilding not too prominently introduced. If coolness is
wanted, as in a summer residence, blue may be made the key colour.
A bed room should be light and cleanly, to produce which white and
yellow may be used, and on account of the bed and window curtains
forming a suflicient mass to balance tints of equal intensity on the
walls, brighter and gayer colours may be introduced on the carpet,
and a greater degree of contrast on the walls (Hay, p. 3"!. A library
should have an air of repose, and yet a solidity of character; grandeur
being produced by that amount of richness of colouring which is suffi-
cient to banish monotony. With picture galleries, ornament and
gilding should be sparingly applied as they tend to injure the effect
of the pictures ; fur the walls, crimson, buff, and salmon are the tints
that are preferred. In galleries of sculpture a pearl gray brings out
the marble or plaster figures, although, if they are of a reddish tinge,
the walls may be painted chamois or orange gray. Some sculptors
like to produce a bright light on their figures, and then a grayish blue
must be applied. Green has not a disagreeable effect, the statues
taking a pinkish hue. For halls, vestibules, staircases, ami lobbies,
where breadth and extent are desired, coolness of tone mu'*! tw pre-
served.

It will now be requisite to trouble ourselves with some few of the
many details, in accordance with which the decorator has to combine
his designs, or remler them subordinate. For clearness I shall dis-
tribute the short remarks I have to make upon these subjects in dis-
tinct paragraphs, regretting that it is not in my power to enhirge upon
them to a greater extent.

Stained glass can only be used with the medieval stylc<, and must
not be mixed with plain glass ; neither should the designs upon it be
complicated. Engraved or embossed glass, when used on a large
scale, has rather a dull effect.

Ciilding cannot be used in every situation, nor combined with every
colour, as yellow, but has a good effect with blue, light green, or
crimson.
With regard to paper, ;u that forms the groundwork of the design,

C

10

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan,

sufEcient has been said in the general remarks to require no further
notice, except to point out the mischief which is done in choice of
this as well as of other articles by the selection of patterns which,
however good when looked at on a small scale, are obtrusive when
formii)g a mass.

Hangings and coverings of sofas and chairs require great manage-
ment. If the wish is to contrast them with the wood, purple or blue
stuffs are of course used with yellow woods, and green stuffs with red
woods. Bright red colours, as scarlet, &c., must never be used vv-ith
mahogany, as they lower the tone of the wood, making it look like
oak or walnut. Where gorgeousness or splendour is desired, the
lines of orange, as gold or giraffe, do very well for window curtains,
chair seats, &c. In silk, bright blue is very pleasing, and black is also
effective in that material; with regard to worsted, however, although
blue and its various shades are equally useful, black is very apt to be
sooty and heavy.

As a room is never too light, and as the light may be diminished by
blinds or Venetians, and as at night-time artificial light is used, hang-
ings should be of a clear and not dark colour, so as to reflect light
instead of absorbing it. When used in masses the deep shades of all
colours should be avoided, as absorbing too much light; red and pur-
ple as nnfavourable to pink or lilac; orange, as before mentioned,
from being too intense. Yellow, only, and bright blue and green, are
really effective; yellow, as being gay and suiting mahogany, though not
gilding, blue ; as favourable to gilding, not injurious to mahogany,
agreeing better with yellow or orange woods, although unfavourable
to pink in day-light ; green, as being advantageous to pink, and to
mahogany and gilding.

Carpets have great influence in decoration, for in daylight they
receive the rays of light more directly than any other part of the fur-
niture and decoration. On this part of the subject Mr. Hay has many
iiseful notes ; he recommends that in carpets green should always pre-
ponderate, as it is most pleasing in daylight, and also relieves other
colours, and harmonizes with them in its various hues, more generally
than any other colour does. Its bright and vivid hues are easily neu-
tralized, and seldom produce crudity or harshness of eftect, while its
rich and deep tones, especially when neutralized towards a tertiary
hue, citron or olive, harmonizes with and give value to all denomina-
tions of warm colours. Thus far Mr. Hay ; he further says that its
cooler hues and shades ought to be used with more caution, for they
are apt to appear blackish and heavy, although the blue predominates
an them to the same extent that it does in tha hues of purple called
indigo, yet they have not the same clearness. In carpets, bright yel-
low, red, or scarlet should not preponderate, as they are apt to catch
the eye, and so spoil every thing else which it afterwards looks at ;
black and white must be used with equal caution, and, indeed, at pre-
sent their indiscriminate introduction is one of (he greatest defects of
the modern manufacture. In the finer specimens of Persia and Tur-
key we find the deep tones of indigo and brown predominating, while
the bright hues and tints only appear to point out and heighten the
effect of the pattern. Below indigo, raarrone or brown, the deepest
shades used in this manufacture should never go, and the highest tints
are recommended to be mellowed down with some warm colour.
White, when introduced, should in like manner be toned down by a
gradation of the lightest tints, so as to avoid the appearance of being
spotty and broken. When employed as the groundwork, white should
be reduced in intensity, and where red and yellow prevail, it should
be raised to a cream colour. When, however, the tone is cool, blue
or green being the prevailing colour, the authority which we have
already so frequently quoted, recommends that the white should be
tinged of a gray or purple, or any other cool tint or shade. Of course
when white is used as a contrasting colour and not as a medium, it
should be tinged of a warm hue. Orange, when used in a carpet as
the key colour, requires that the blue should be subdued either in
quantity or intensity, and neutralized by the introduction of a small
portion of orange. When orange is so used, russet, citron, and brown
should be employed as the medial hues, occasionally relieved by tlie
deepest tones of iudigo. Here black and white are particularly out

of place. Russet is particularly useful in all arrangements which are
adapted for carpet patterns, and so is indigo from its strong contrast
to bright yellow, while it dyes well, being clear and free from sootiness.
Mr. Hay points out, as a particular error in the designing of carpets
the introduction of deep and pale colours, which may have been well
chosen with regard to their hues, but not as to their particular degrees
of strength or tint. Thus a pale tint of blue is often introduced as an
equivalent to the brightest orange, and sometimes a small portion of
lilac or pink as a balancing colour to a quantity of the most intense
yellow.

What has been said as to hangings, &c., bears upon the subject of
wood furniture, for covers and seats must be made to accord with the
wood. In contrast, green stuffs must be used with red woods, as ma-
hogany, &c., and purple or blue with yellow woods; in melodizing
the woods a contrary course must be pursued. In this kind of ar-
rangement particular care must be taken that the tones are brought to
a corresponding degree of intensity, for which m\ich skill is required.
With regard to mahogany, with which the decorator has so frequently
to deal, it may be regarded as a russet or red, and we have already
cautioned him not to use bright red colours with it, as crimson, &c.,
nor orange or purple reds, as scarlet, &c., for the brightness of these
colours subdues the colour of the wood, and makes it look no better
than oak or walnut. Oak may be considered as a citron.

With regard to pictures, I have, when speaking of picture galleries,
sufticiently shown wliat grounds to use with them; as to frames, some-
thing further may be said. Gilt frames are preferred with large oil
paintings, and also with dark engravings, and lithographed portraits
when a sufficient white space is left around them. Bronze frames do
well with oils representing scenes lighted by artificial light. By using
coloured frames, pictures are very much modified in appearance.
Black weakens the shades, and bright tints suffer more than half tints,
while for lithographs the red of the ink is rather raised than lowered.
Gray does not weaken the bright tints and half tints, but then it does
not raise them so much as white, while it gives them a reddish cast.
Gray has the singular property of giving a perspective harmony which
is possessed neither by black nor white, and orange has an effect di-
rectly opposite. Red reduces the red tones and gives a greenish hue.
Green weakens browns, but heightens other tones, and is agreeable on
the whole. Blue has the strongest effect with lithographs, giving
them a bistre or sepia colour.

For bronzes those of a dark green colour require a red ground, and
when light coloured and new, a bluish ground.

REMARKS ON SHIPS OF WOOD AND IRON.

Remarks on the relative advantages of the employment of wood
and iron in the construction of ships have appeared at different times,
in Journals devoted to inquiries relating to subjects of this nature, but
a spirit of partizanship has been commonly displayed by the respective
advocates of wood and iron in favour of their own views. In an en-
deavour to avoid this charge, it will be expedient to advert in the
first instance, to the different modes in which wood can be employed
in ship building, especially as the advocates of iron are in the habit
of referring to the defects of ships built of timber, which are capable
of being obviated by a different system of construction.

The relative merits of wood and iron for this purpose will, I appre-
hend, come more fairly before the public by an exposition of some of
the plans that may be adopted in the construction of ships of wood ;
and it appears to me that three well marked systems may be distin-
guished. 1st. 'i he common plan of timbers, whether framed or single,
separated by spaces from each other, whose principal connection with
each other, arises from an external and internal series of planking. 2nd.
The plan used in her Majesty's dock yards, of timbers wedged up solid,
and covered by an external planking, (timbers placed close together
I conceive would be found to be a better raetliod.J 3rd. A plan of
constructing vessels of any si^e by two or more connected series of

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

II

planks without timbers; this method hns not been extensively used.
Clinker-built boats belong to this third system, and perhaps also iron
vessels, inasmuch as the plates of iron of which they are formed are of
far more importance than the iron ribs, which occupy the position of
timbers.

The advocates of iron have, I apprehend, by no means esaggerated
the defects of ships of the common construction, in which the con-
nexion of the timbers with each other is extremely imperfect, even in
the best built merchant ships, and the safety of the largest vessels is
depeudeut on the security of the fastenings of the butts of a l-inch
plank.

I consider these defects are so fatal that no increase of strength or
improvement in workmanship can more than palliate them in agreater
or less degree, and I propose to abandon any reference to these vessels,
and at once admit their inferiority to vessels constructed of iron, pro-
vided the latter are made of sulCcicnt strength.

A large proportion however of the present enormous annual loss of
merchant ships seems to have been sulliciently traced to defective
methods of construction, and tu the facility il allbrds in covering the
defects of cheap ships; still the causes that tend to foster the con-
tinuance of the present system are subjects foreign to the tenor of
tliese remarks; the fact that the rottenness of the timbers can be con-
cealed from casual inspection, is sullicient for our purposes. It has
been urged that unless spaces are provided between the timbers, for
the accommodation of water from leaks, that it would rise in the vessel
and spoil the cargo. This argument is founded on the assumed ne-
cessity of leaks, but it affords proof of their frequent occurrence in
vessels of the usual construction.

The rapid destruction of timber by the united operations of wet,
heat and liltli, and the generation of foul air from these causes will not
be denied ; and in addition to its weakness the rapid deterioration of
the frame of the vessel, from the above causes, seems an equally fatal
objection — though exceptions may occur owing either to care or
accidental conditions.

The second system of ship building with timbers wedged up solid,
has been in use for a considerable period for ships of war, and the i
success that has attended this plan has been amply proved by the ac-
counts of the escape of ditfercnt vessels, that have since its adoption
been driven ashore and got olf igain, in many instances without injury,
and in other cases damaged to such an extent as wouM have insured I
the total loss of vessels of the common construction ; fur instance, the I
Pique lost a large portion of her keel, and in some places the whole
of the g-arboard strake, and a part of the floor timbers weie ground
away by the rocks of Newfoundland, and yet this frigate crossed the
Atlantic without a rudder, under circumstances, it must be admitted,
of some anxiety to the oflicers and crew.

For merchant ships I should propose to use the same weight of ma-
terials as are now employed, tiie outside planking would remain with-
out alteration, but the quantity of wood iu the ceiling would be added
to the width of the timbers, and in case it was insuHicient to till up
the spaces between the timbers, the depth of the latter must be lessened
to make up the deficiency.

Under these circumstances the timbers would be about double the
thickness of the outside planks, and being placed close together, a
good means of connexion might be obtained by large dowells or coaks^
so as to produce a mutual dependance on each other, and so that any
pressure on the outside would exert a more regular strain on every part.
A ve>sel constructed on this principle would be ai^ irregular cask, anii
when caulked inside and outside would Hoat without planking ; and by
the addition of the latter, a frame of great stiHness, and equal strength
and thickne-is in every part would be obtained, on which one side of
every piece of ^vood u»ed in its construction would be visible, and
would allow an examination to be made of its state with great facility.
The other sides of the wood would be preserved from wet as long ns the
fabric of the vessel remained sound, anil the caulking was attended
to. It is obvious that a greater inside width of ' or 8 inches would
be gained in these ves-ieU, and no loss of space would accrue if it was
occupied by battens to admit of water accommodation for the leakage,

and the prevention of injury to the cargo from the escape, until at
least the present advocates of the assumed necessity of leaks in ships,
became convinced of the small prospect of their occurrence under
common circumstances in vessels so constructed.

It is true no provision will afford security to vessels on rocks among
breakers, but such situations atTord the best test of the merits of dif-
ferent systems of ship building, by the time each vessel is found capa-
ble of resisting these effects.

Numerous c;ises will occur where life is dependent on the time the
vessel holils tigether, but the partial saving of the cargo may be con-
sidered objectionable by ship owners, among whom the advantages of
a total loss are well understood. Opinions on these points are of
little value, we must wait fur evidence froiu wrecks under different
conditions.

The scantling proposed for merchant ships would, I apprehend, be
not quite so heavy as that in use for ships of war of equal site ; at the
same time, it is probable that the strength of timbers placed close to-
gether, except thatof the dockyard plan of timbers wedged up, to such
an extent that a greater strength may be perhaps obtained ut a smaller
cost. Plans of this nature are obviously only suited for good workman-
ship and good materials; but it ought to suit, for less iasnrance pre-
miums, whenever an inquiry on this subject is properly conducted, and
explanations are afforded to insurers of such a nature, as shall be fully
understood.

The third plan referred to, requires similar conditions of timber
and workmanship, but it has not been extensively adopted. Ten or
twelve series of inch planks were employed many years ago, in a 500
ton vessel built at Rochester, but I conceive three or four series of
2.J to four inch plank, according to the size of the vessel, would be
found a more convenient method of construction.

Several of the Gravesend st'eamers of 150 feet in length have been
built of three series of Id inch planks, and they have run for 4 or 5
years, and are now said to be as sound as wdien first constructed, such
at least was the case with the Ruby, when opened for the purpose of
lengthening the bow to increase her speed.

This method however requires farther trial, especially at sea, before
anv decisive opinion can be given on its comparative merit : it is fa-
vourable to soundness, as the necessity of sawing the wood into
plauks admits of the certain selection of good materials, and would
afford great facility in seasoning timber properly. While the expense
of selection would in some degree be lessened by the conversion of
the rejected planks to inferior purposes, or by working it up in inferior
or cheap craft, perhaps for river use. The increase of cost would not
answer unless it was accompanied by a proportional increase of dura-
bility, and perhaps the general opinion would be iu favour of the
latter result, as a necessary consequence of the selection of good
timber.

The launches used in the navy have for several years been made on
Johns' plan, of two series of planks crossed diagonally, their weight is
about ^ of the boats of the old construction, and their durability has
been much increased. The Gravesend steamers are built with two
similar scries of crossed planks in lieu of timbers, covered with an
outside planking in the common mode, the whole well fastened with
copper. — in large vessels perhaps a ceiling connected in the snme
manner might be deemed advisable: at the same lime it seems pro-
bable that a greater strength would be obtained by a less quantity of
timber in the third than in the second method of construction proposed.
Clinker built nhicli belong to this class, in which the principal strength
depends on the planking iastead of the timbt-rs, seldom exceed lOU
toiis iu size, and are usually of a slight scantling ; theirgreat durability
is well ascertained, provided they are kept from the ground, iu which
case from the thinness of the single part of the planking, boles are
easily knocked in their bottoms.

The introduction of these methods of constructing timber ships
is not likely to be eilected, except by the nearly total destruction of
the present trade in ship building, by the more general ailopliun of
iron vessels, and the interests of humanity «ill cause the earliest oc-
currence of this result nut to be regretted. Nothing perh«p» *<ut the

C 2

12

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

severe pressure of iron competition Mill induce the present race of
ship builders to turn their attention to the means whereby greater
strength, security and durability may be given to wooden ships; even-
tually perhaps its greater strength for a given weight, and its greater
elasticity may obtain a preference.

Prime cost undoubtedly will form a principal element in the ap-
proaching competition; at present iron vessels are often built too
cheap, or in other words too slight ; the error may be, and I believe
has been remedied. Innumerable questions will arise relating to the
elasticity, strength and durability of wood, as well as its qualitv ; and
also in reference to the destructive action of salt water on iron, the
strain on the rivets, &:o. &c., which can only be answered bv experi-
ence.

To a spirited competition between wood and iron I look for the
improvement of vessels of both materials. Recently I have met with
parties who being engaged simply as owners on the proposed con-
struction of a steam boat, in consequence of the difficulty in the choice
of wood or iron, have found it necessary to institute an inquiry respect-
ing their relative merits in ship building; these parties, but for the
difficulty of selection, would have gone on in the good old jog-trot
way of supposing, that British ships of the old construction were per-
fect specimens of the art, and would have patiently submitted to the
present rates of insurance, as founded on the average loss, deduced
from defective ships. The spirit of inquiry once roused among owners
of sliipping, will I trust lead to results as yet scarcely anticipated.

It matters little to the country whether wood or iron eventually ob-
tains the preference; if British oak is abandoned it will be only super-
seded by British iron, and the inhabitants of our land ought to be satis-
fied if the latter will uphold the character of the navy as well as the
former has done.

At present I consider the question of relative superiority as un-
decided, and though disposed to admit the inferiority of timber vessels
of the common construction, yet the advantages of iron may not exceed
that due either to the methods of construction adopted in the navy, or
in the Gravesend steam boats. The latter method is perhaps best
adapted for small, and the former for large vessels. Moreover, we
want the evidence likely to be afforded by the wreck of the largest
iron steamers, for the formation of an opinion respecting their powers
of endurance under the breakers of a rocky shore, or a sand bank.

In regard to the relative advantages of the two plans of ship build-
ing proposed for the merchant service, the method adopted in the
navy has received the stamp of experience, and the evidence is con-
clusive in its favour. The oOO ton vessel built of planks before alluded
to, was driven on shore in a heavy gale under Mount Batten, in Ply-
mouth Sound, when loaded with Ordnance stores, in company with 10
or 11 other vessels, all of which became total wrecks ; she afforded an
almost solitary instance of a vessel saved, when ashore on that point,
and she is reported to have rebounded from the rocks for a short time
like a cask, until a hole was knocked in her bottom ; after the "ale
she was got oft; and was repaired at a moderate expense, and pro-
ceeded on her voyage to the East Indies.

I should also be inclined to the opinion that a greater strength will
be obtained with a less quantity of materials, by means of several
series of planks than by close timbers and outside planking, but the
latter plan seems to afford greater facility for repairs. In conclusion,
I would remaik that it is ray object to assert the possibility of the in-
troduction of great improvements in the construction of vessels of
wood, without any increase, and perhaps at some reduction of cost,
and I wish to induce parties engaged in ship building to advert to the
fact, that the best portion of their business, the construction of steamers
is rapidly passing out of their hands, and that unless sailing vessels
are rendered stronger, safer, and perhaps lighter, this portion of their
trade may follow, as the establishments for building iron vessels are
increased, or at least such a depreciation of prices may occur as will
be equally ruinous to them.

At the same time I must acknowledge that great improvements in
regard to strength have been necessary, and have been adopted in
many of the larger steamers, in some instances perhaps to the full ex-

tent here advocated, at least in the engine room; similar principles
might be adopted in the fore and after bodies with lighter timbers,
and hence a less strain would be thrown on the midship body in pass-
ing over heavy seas. It is their general adoption that I would urge,
and I cannot but express my conviction that steam ships of the largest
class yet made, may be constructed to bear the winter seas of the
Atlantic, by a better disposition of the timber employed in their con-
struction.

Y.

HAS ATLANTIC STEAM NAVIGATION
SUCCESSFUL?

BEEN

Although practical men are usually ready to acquiesce in those
deductions of the philosopher which relate to the establishment of ab-
stract principles, they are too apt to resist any attempt to applv those
princi^ples to the analysis of the transactions of real life. General
truths are usually treated as if they were individual fallacies: and a
hypothesis however just, requires to continue inert in order that it mav
remain uncensured. All men look upon general rules as being appli-
cable to all cases except those in which their own antipathies or pre-
dilections happen to be enlisted, and however clear men's judgments
maybe upon indifferent topics, they appear incapable of apprehending
the force of the plainest argument if establishing a conclusion adverse
to their supposed interests. Hence the imperfect success of attempts,
to fix the current value of political or commercial measures by the aid
of philosophical research. Some powerful vested interest is sure to
step in to prove, "by most sufficient reasons," that the subject under
inquiry is exempt from ordinary jurisdictions — that its peculiar fea-
tures constitute it a case stii generis which the said vested interest is
by far the best qualified to illustrate. Truly the public has much to
be thankful for, from an intervention so discriminating and disin-
terested!

But the philosophers are sometimes censurable also. There is a
philosophical as well as a popular infatuation, the former consisting in
unwarrantable generalization, as the latter in irrational speciality.
Things alike are yet things different, and although in the generic dis-
tribution of a subject it is impossible to take cognizance of minute
differences, yet those differences must by no means be disregarded
when an individual case is singled out for examination. Philosophers
are too apt to pay exclusive regard to leading characteristics — to
overlook those limitations and peculiarities which distinguish every-
thing in nature from that which it most nearly resembles, and without
an attention to which, general rules cannot be rendered strictly appli-
cable to the diversified cases which arise in practice.

The obvious remedy for these evils is for the practical man and the
philosopher each to abate somewhat of his characteristic prejudice.
Let the practical man trust a little more to reason, and the philosopher
a little more to experience, and let the practical man take the proper
steps to cure himself of that mono-mania which the intermingling of
considerations of private interest with philosophical investigation
usually generates. He should adopt the synthetic rather than the
analytic method of investigation, and should be more intent upon trac-
ing resemblances than upon multiplying distinctions. He should rea-
son from principles to examples rather than from examples to princi-
ples, and should lather regard principles as the exponent of results
than attempt to raise results into an antagonism of principles. The
philosopher should carefully examine whether the case he has under-
taken to investigate be not an exception to a general law — or whether
it may not possess such distinctive qualities as may materially modify
the final result. He should ascertain the precise point at which the
case under review diverges from other cases the most nearly coinci-
dent, and should assure himself that he has overlooked no circumstance
capable of influencing his conclusions. It is only by an observance of
these rules that either practical or scientific men may hope to obtain
results undistorted by prepossession, prejudice or passion, and we

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOl RNAL.

13

should hope to witness the adoption of these means of arriving at a
correct conclusion in the investigation of the merits of Atlantic steam
voyaging, were it not an invariable attribute of keen disputations that
the attainment of a correct conclusion is regarded as matter altogether
unimportant.

The clamour and confusion which marked the original discussions
relative to Atlantic steam voyaging have now happily subsided, but
although they made such an unceremonious noise, they have left no
verv distinct recollection as to what that noise was all about. In truth
it was not very easv to tell that, even at the time : for so much of pal-
pable absurdity was mixed up in the doctrines currently attributed to
the most distin<niished of the disputants, as to destroy in the minds of
men unaiTected with the steam ra'jita — all confidence in the genuine-
ness of the imputed declarations. Men of penetration indeed regarded
the representation that suppositions pregnant with absurdity were
the sentiments avowed by eminent inquirers, as a sort of rune dc
giurrc intended to shake the reputation of those whose arguments
were unsusceptible of refutation. But the manoeuvre was successful —
the advocates of the Atlantic enterprise were " willing to swear any
tiling for their client," and the faith of the multitude was equally com-
prehensive. Manv of the absurdities so industriously disseminated as
thesentiinenfsof distinguished men, were really in some measure be-
lieved to be the veritable doctrines of those eminent persons, and of
those who rejected such a supposition, but a small proportion was
aware of what the actual doctrines really were. We have been at
some pains to supply this defect of information from authentic sources :
it is our present purpose to state, — 1st. The nature of the opinions
reallv entertained upon the subject of Atlantic steam transit ante-
cedently to its establishment; and, 2ndly, The present condition of
the Atlantic enterprise, restricting the meaning of that term to the
line of communication between Great Britain and New York, to which
it was originally applied.

The discussion of the question of Atlantic steam transit first at-
tracted the public attention during the meeting of the British Associa-
tion, held at Bristol in I'sSS. One party alleged that the establishment
of a line of steamers between Great Britain and New York, of suffi-
cient si^e and power to enable them to perform the passage i.v one
TRir, would inevitably be a most beneficial speculation. Another
party, of which Dr. Lardner was the representative, contended that
there were no good grounds for believing that the performance of the
voyage in one tkip was practicable, with sufficient economy to render
the enterprise successful ; but that if the voyage were resolved into
suitable stages, the enterprise might then be brought under conditions
which promised a fair prospect of a beneficial result. To understand
clearly the force of the reasonings, we must first have a clear concep-
tion of the capabilities of steam navigation.

If any given steam vessel, moved according to the ordinary practice,
by the conjoined agency of steam and sails, be laden with coals to the
extent of her capacity, she will in that state be capable of performing
a voyage of a certain determinate length, with her engines acting for
the whole time at their full power. Now it is well known that the
same vessel is capable of making the same voyage by the agency of
sails alone, for although steam vessels when propelled by sails alone,
without working their engines, may be inferior in speed, or in nautical
qualities, to an ordinary ship, yet we know that they are capable of
)).;rr ■rilling long voyages unassisted by steam, as has been abundantly
proved I'V the voyages of the Madagascar and other steam vessels to
India, .is well as by numerous government and other vessels. Between
the perfonnance of this voyage with the greatest expenditure of fuel,
which will in ordinary circumstances be when the engines are worked
at their full power, and with the expenditure of no fuel at all, we may
manifestly fix upon a given point where the expenditure of fuel
during the voyage shall be precisely what we please. For we may
cither work the engines during the voyage for such a proportion of
the time as shall exactly consume the quantity of fuel we li ive fixed
upon, or we may work the engines for the whole period of the voyage,
with such a diminished exertion of power as is capable of being pro-
duced by the quantity of fuel we propose to consume. We niav there-

fore easily maintain the machinery of a steam vessel in uninterrupted
action for any length of voyage we think proper, provided onlv that
the amount of power exerted by the engines be correspondingly dimi-
nished, or what is the same thing, that the engines be, if worked at
their full power, corresponding small. The question therefore of the
practicability of a steam voyage of any length whatever, resolves it-
self into the practicability of making ships very big, and engines very
little ; a question which can hardly be supposed any one should be so
insane as to contest. Yet even this absurdity has been attributed to
Dr. Lardner, who is represented to have said at the Bristol or Liver-
pool meeting of the British Association, that for a steamer to reach
America was a physical impossibility; and this too in the face of the
well known fact that the steamers Savannah, Ciir.noa,&c.,/larfa/rfa<fy
crossed the Atlantic long antecedent to the date of the Bristol meet-
ing! .And was a falsehood so preposterous believed ? It was and

is probably extensively believed to the present day. But it will be
objected, " Dr. Lardner said that we might as well attempt to establish
a steam communication with the moon as with America." If Dr.
Lanlner ever made use of any such expression, we presume he onlv
meant to intimate that the Atlantic enterprise was in bis opinion a
visionary one. When we talk of a bubble speculation, we do not in
general mean that the said speculation has reference to the manufac-
ture of hollow aqueous spherules— or if we speak of sunset or sunrise,
we are not usually interpreted as expressing our disbelief of the Co-
pemican system — so in like manner if we institute an analogy between
any given enterprise and a tunnel through the earth, or a railway to
the moon, we are usually understood to express our belief that it is of
a verv hopeless character. Of physical impossibilities we rarely venture
to speak— the subject is abstruse. We should not be warranted in say-
in"' that in reriim natiira it was a physical impossibility to bore
through the earth, or with the assistance of photography to hare a tele-
graphic communication with the moon, yet we are warranted in treat-
ing projects such as these as "trifles light as air," and in associating
by a common figure of speech, projects of which we would express our
disapprobation with these unsulKtantial fantasies. It is difficult to
discover upon what principle Dr. Lardner is to be deprived of the use
of the universally employed language of metaphor, or why a doctrine
is to be forced upon him which every man in his senses must utterly
disavow. But it appears obvious to us that no very figurative accepta-
tion of the expression attributed to Dr. Lardner is necessary, as will
appear plain enough from the following considerations.

The mere abstract practicability of performing voyages of any length
whatever by steam vessels is so palpable that it cannot require another
remark. But in practice other considerations arise. The vessels
must be of a sufllcient power to ensure a rate of progress considerably
superior to that of sailing vessels, and (they must be so capacious that
whilst furnishing suflicient stowage room for coals, they will render
comfortable accommodation to passengers, and space for a moderate
quantity of cargo. These questions being satisfactorily disposed of,
another question of still greater consequence presents itself. Will
vessels of the size indispensable for long steam voyages, of adequate
power, capacity and accommodation for the navigation of the track of
ocean between Great Britain and New York in one unbroken voyage,
p.vY THE PROPRIETORS? The question ofsuccess Or failure is sooner
or later merged into the question of profit and loss.

The profit or loss of steam voyaging is manifestly a function of a
multitude of local and individual circumstances, which are incapable o<;
reduction to any general form of expression. But f</(r/«^an!ii;)i, the
longer the voyage is w ithout relays of fuel the more remote becomes
the prospect of a successful result. For in proportion as the length
of the voyage is increased, the siie of the vessels suitable for th-- per-
formance of that voyage must be increased in a corresponding, though
not in the same ratio, and the expense of maintaining steanv vessels of
such power and tonnage as to be adapted to the pcrforrounce of un-
usually long 'ovages, is sudi that scarcely any line of im'ependent un-
protected traffic is sufficient to sustain it. It may '.leiice !«.• safely
assumed as a gener.il principle that in cases where tliij only sources of
revenue are flic profits u|>on freights and p isscugers, and the pecu-

14

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

Harities of the voyage at the same time demand the employment of
steam vessels of similar size and power to these constructed for At-
lantic voyaging, the success cf the enterprise, that is, the continuance
of a profitable and satisfactory issue, will be, to say the least of it, as
is proper in a case judged a priori, exceedingly problematical.

The limitation which exists to ocean steam voyaging is txptmejnot
impracdcahilily. This limitation is in the present state of the art
immoveable and insuperable, and the eslablishment of a steam com-
munication with the moon, is quite as feasible as the profitable exten-
sion of steam voyaging in the presentstate of the art, to cases to which
it cannot be profitably extended. The attempt to surmount difficulties
by shutting our eyes to them, is not merely futile, but is in this case
productive of unmerited disfavour towards steam navigation. For the
origination of enterprises, which from their nature cannot be capable of
yielding an adequate profit to render them permanent, destroys public
confidence, and fearfully represses the spirit of commercial adventure.
There is no achievement whicli ought to be more-grateful to the public
acceptation than the analysis and exposition of such illusive enter-
prises, yet there is none which frequently obtains a more ungrateful
requital. Persecution and calumniation appear to be the heritage of
the public benefactor, and the same dark spirit which administered
the poisoned cup to Socrates and Phocion, is not extinct at the present
day. Yet it is the part of philosophy to bear contumely without de-
pression— nor ought the sensibilities of the philanthropist be frozen
by the breath cf popular aspersion. If it be beneficent to attempt the
dissipation of popular delusion, to continue that attempt unmoved by
calumny, violence and derision, is surely an approach to divinity. We
trust that Dr. Lardner may lorg continue his patriotic endeavours to
direct aright the national energies in any questions similar to that
which forms the subject of the present enquiry. Those energies if
suffered to run to waste vpill jiroduce a vegetation which may be fair
for a season, but which will inevitably prove itself to be deadly and
delusive. Like waters poured out in the desert, they may cherish
flowers pleasing to the eye, but bearing death in their exhalations-
trees of luxuriant foliage and majestic stature, but hollow and poisonous
within ; fruit of tempting appearance, but turning in the grasp into
bitterness and ashes. With the view of assisting our readers to form
a correct estimate of the true character of the Atlantic enterprise, we
shall recapitulate some of the circumstances attending the discussion
of that question. The asperity which characterized the discussion at
Bristol, as well as the subsequent discussions at Liverpool and New-
castle was a prominent feature of the inquiry, the more so that it
happi'y rarely attaches to statistical and philosophical investigation.
The cause of this unbecoming heat has been attributed to the fact of
considerable interests having been already enlisted, antecedently to
those discussions, in the schemes which Dr. Lardner found himself con-
strained to condemn. The managers and directors of these several
embryo projects were, it is said, in conformity with our opening ex-
position of the besetting frailty of practical men, incensed at the ap-
plication of Dr. Lardner"s general conclusions respecting steam voy-
aging to this particular case, which they contended ought to be and
was an exception. It was considered that the clearness of Dr. Lard-
ner's expositions established a conclusion opposed to their interests,
and involved an indirect reflection upon their capacity or disinterested-
ness, whilst engineers and other artificers were not without that bias
in favour of the Atlantic enterprise which the anticipated fabrication
of immense vessels might be expected to create. Though unable to
J ope with Dr. Lardner in argument, this united party reasonably con-
.(.^ ded that Dr. Lardner was entirely wrong, because they were un-
doub tedly entirely right. They therefore attempted, and not without
some 'eiipo''^i')' success, to undermine his reputation for practical
sagacity ^^ attributing to him sentiments he never entertained, and
then show '"S '''"'^^ sentiments to be altogether fallacious. When the
phantoms t '^"^ arrayed, as if they had been real entities, had been
valiantly slain "^® victory was manifestly won, and was so adjudged
by "adiscrinii'n ''•'"S ^"'l ^"''g'''f"''f'P"b'i'='" That the popular voice
should have a li '''8'''^ '° '''^ advocates of the Atlantic scheme the
supcrioritv in the & '■^'^'^55'°" ^^ ^^^^ question is a circumstance which

has been supposed to be partly due to the effect which any doctrine is
capable of creating in the public mind if incessantly insisted on, but
chiefly to the contemporaneous development of the most extravagant
popular anticipations relative to steam agencies. This species of de-
lusion has been not inappropriately termed the Steam Mania. During
tlie severity of its paroxysms, projects the most preposterous were
received with eagerness and applause, the countiy was drunk with
expectation, and for a time appeared bereft of every atom of its ac-
customed discretion. In so distempered a state of the public mind
the project of Atlantic steam voyaging could scarcely fail to attract
numerous admirers. The magnitude and grandeur of the enterprise
captivated the popular sympathies, whilst the implicit faith in the
omnipotence of steam agencies smoothed down all difticulties and sur-
mounted all opposition. But although enthusiasm may win a battle,
it is only the material interest'of mankind which can keep the field.
Reason may be overborne for a season, but is sure sooner or later to
obtain the superiority. A few years of experience generally brings
with them the subsidence of the most inveterate popular delusions.
Men awake as if from a dream, and it is an honourable trait in the
character of public opinion that it has no resentments to perpetuate,
but is desirous to atone for whatever injury its frenzy may have in-
flicted.

A very clever writer in the Quarterly Review, No. 123, (1838) un-
dertakes to point out the magnificent prospects of Atlantic steam voy-
aging, and the advantages direct and consequential which may be fairly
expected from it. The period at which this article was written,
shortly posterior to the accomplishment of the first voyages of the
Great Western, was peculiarly favourable for lending weight to the
reviewer's conclusions, and the writer is evidently a man of much
general ability.

We shall proceed to make extracts from this article, as an example
of the arguments adduced in support of the advantage of the Atlantic
scheme.

" The effect of this achievement is by no means easily to be described
or foreseen. Even the Americans with all their reputation as a self
possessed and considering people, have displayed unwonted raptures
and antics on occasion of the first arrival of the Sirius and Great Wes-
tern at New York, quite as much so as our Bristol neighbours on their
return, and we are not sure that either party is to be blamed for it.
We are not sure that the former are far out of tlieir reckoning when
they speak of this as a new epoch in the history of the world. We
can enter into the feelings of the myriads who crowded the wharfs at
New York, when the English boats were hourly expected, when finally
after days of almost breathless watching (which to fearful spirits might
well have attbrded some pretext for disbelieving the new scheme, some
excuse for casting even ridicule on it after all), at length on the morn-
ing of St. George's day, the doubts, the fears, the scorn were alike
destined to be removed for ever from the mind of every living crea-
ture, (even, we dare say, but let us say it with due deference, from
that of Dr. Lardner himself), for now appears a long dim train of dis-
tant smoke in a somewhat unaccustomed direction, it rises and lowers
like a genius in the Arabian nights portending something prodigious;
by and bye the black prow of a huge steam boat dashes round the point
of some green island in the beautiful harbour

Against the wind, against the tide,
Steadying with upright keel."

It is not very easy to perceive what these doubts and fears really
are which the first voyage of the Sirius was destined to remove for
ever. The doubts and fears of the possibility of a steamer being able
to cross the Atlantic i Dr. Lardner can hardly be conceived to have
entertained these doubts and fear, for one small reason among many
others, the passage across the Atlantic had been accomplished by a
steam vessel about twenty years before. Are the doubts and fears
meant to have exclusive reference to the profitable issue of the under-
taking? How could the success of any enterprise in steam navigation
be ascertained by the performance of a single trip ?

" The British and American Steam Company who have just launched
at Blackwall a ship thirty-eight feet longer than any in her Majesty's

1S42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

15

navy, notify to us moreover that" next year they mean to have boats
like this running on each side on the 1st and lOtli of overy month.
This is but one company, one which has not yet moved we believe,
for we understand tlie Sirius to have lieen sent out by another, and the
Great Western it is well known belongs to Bristol, (jlasgow too will
DO doubt bestir herself, and above all we must leave room for Liver-
pool. The sole marvel is that Liverpool lias waited so long, a secret
onlv to be explained by the extent of interest there invested in the
American liners. We see that a company is now started at that port
who announce immediate operations."

To us it appears still more marvellous that the establishment of At-
lantic steam voyaging should have been accomplished by England at
all when America had palpably the greatest benefit to receive from
the execution of that measure. The Americans would it is alleged
have taken a share in the Atlantic enterprises had they not built their
hopes upon a project which was to send a ship across the Atlantic by
the instigation of a barrel of blue vitrei, but which failed. This cir-
cumstance is however insuflicient to account for the torpidity of the
Americans, where there is anything expected to be won. Had the
expectation of a profitable result been as sanguine in the United States
as for some time it was in England, it is the opinion of the best in-
formed persons that we should not have been left to enjoy the steam
monopoly of the Atlantic. The fact appears to be that the Americans
were better judges than we were of the amount of profit to be realized
by the transport of passengers and light articles of merchandise across
the Atlantic, arising in part from the experience they had had of At-
lantic steam voyaging before we began. " Scarce ten years had
elapsed after Fulton first committed his novel little pinnace to the
wafers of the Hudson, ere the Savannah, a new steam vessel of 300
tons crossed from New York to Liverpool, and at several subsequent
periods has the voyage been accomplished. The reason why Atlantic
steam voyaging has not grown up among the Americans maybe traced
to the conviction that the adventure would not be productive of that
Honey of Hyblas, vulgarly called monev."*

The Quarterly proceeds — "What is to prevent a fair competition
now ? What account is to be made of a curve or two in a river with
steamers of 300 feet long, and a speed of 15 miles an hour, as practical
men best versed in these matters expect to see in a very few years?
And indeed the American boats upon the Hudson have been running
at much more than this rate for years." We confess we should like
some verification of all this before we believe it. Our readers may
trv their penetration upon the following, which to us appears mere
childishness.

" We were speaking, however, of the first sensation, the achieve-
ment has produced, and which we venture to predict will at some
future diy be a matter of no little historical curiosity. The New
York editors seem scarcely able to contain themselves, 'side by side
with the old world at last,' says one, — • Now then for the coronation,'
cry half a dozen more — and then the files of European journals un-
rolled! Fifteen days from Bristol, &c. S:c. A revolution this such as
the world rarely sees even in our eventful age — a revolution thoroughly
overturning the old systems of most of the business world at least —
yet effected as it were instantaneously, and without one drop of blood."
The following is a magnificent example of that figure of speech
u?u illy termed nonsense.

" Some one has predicted that presently we shall have Covent Gar-
den market stosked by the other continent ; as to the floral depart-
ment there may be something in it for aught we know, and indeed in
some others too, for if the Miners' could bring the Duke a present of
fresh venison from his western admirers, we certainly get a clear vision
here of divers good things to come. We say notliiiig however even
of Yankee ice dropped in dog days at sun-rise upon every door step
in London as in Boston — not one word — ' Xil admirari,' we repeat, is
our motto ; ' keep cool,' that is, ice or no ice — dog days and all."

But further. "It is only thirty years since Fulton ascended the Hud-
son with bis boat. In lb 10 there was no such thing in all England,

* Tlioughls on Steam Lcxwmollon. Weale, IMO.

and as late as 1620 there were only thirty-five. The most important
improvements also have been rtn/ recently introduced, and without
particularizing these, it is sufficient to say lh.it the learned Dr. Diony-
sius Lardner's miscalculations on this subject of Atlantic naviguion,
have evidently been caused by almost wholly overlooking these same
improvements, even so far as some years past are concerned, Cand a
year in such a progress as this agent is making is a matter not to be
overlooked), or regarding them too much as mere speculations not
likely, or not yet fully proved to be capable of great practical effects
(as they have already been*, while as relates to what may yet be
established, though now it is but experimental ; or of what may be
discovered of which nobody now dreams, the calculations in question
have apparently left no lee way fur the ingenuity or our successors,
or even our contemporaries, it was taken for granted that all had
been done which could be done — that there were not any ' hidden
powers' hereafter to be brought to bear upon steam navigation, as well
as upon other things, and to supersede steam itself altogether. How
grand a mistake this was we need not say, let us beware of its being
made again."

In reference to this statement it is proper to observe that Dr. Lard-
ner's deductions relative to the Atlantic enterprise were formed, as
we shall presently have occasion to show more in detail, from the
performance of the Medea, and that the Medea was at that time the
most perfect existing steam vessel in reference to the distance over
which she might be propelled by a given quantity of fuel per horse
power.

In regard to the omission of "lee way" in his computation, it is
difficult to see upon what grounds the admission of such an element
conld be justified. Atlantic sleam voyaging in the year IS3l), either
was or was not beneficially accomplishable. The point was evidently
alone ca])able of being determined by a comparison of the difficulties
of the enterprise with the existing capabilities of steam voyaging;
and how were the existing capabilities of steam navigation to be as-
certained except by a reference to the performances of the best exist-
ing steam vessels ? If Dr. Larduer did this, he did all he was called
upon to do ; he was not called upon to say that Atlantic steam voyag-
ing would be profitable in lS3(j, because the progress of improvement
might perhaps render it so in ten years time, or in ten months time.
It would have been highly unphilosopliical to have basr>d computations
upon circumstances which were not really exist<'nt. No man can say
that in any branch of science or art all his been done that can be done,
but it is quite time enough to adopt discoveries when they have been
actually found out.

Once more — "It cannot be doubted, we think, that the passage of
the Atlantic by steam will even in the coming ten years be brought to
a state of (so to speak) artistical luxury and perfection, of which those
who have started the enterprise themselves little think."
Alas — alas I how has this prediction been verified !
But we cannot enter upon a subject so agonizing as the loss of the
President — the wouuils are not yet cicatrized, but bleed afre>.h at the
tenderest touch. The wail of the widow and the orphan — of the
affianced bride and the childless father, is yet sounding in our ears;
and memory rekindles emotions which are only to be assuaged by time
the comforter. The repetition of such calamities is now, heaven be
praised! unlikely. And oh! what can be the reflections of those, if
any such there be, by whom the one dire calamity Ims been directly or
indirectly superinduced ? Can any thing be more reprehensible than
that reckless ]>reclpltation which not merely sets at nought nil con-
sideration of failure and ruin, but tampers without compunction with
the lives of the best and noblest of the land !

Having in the preceding pages adverteil on several orcanloia to
what Dr. Lardner did not say, we shall now attempt to show the n.iture
of the opinions respecting the Atiiintic enterprise he rtalli/ did enter-
tain. We are fortunately in postcssion of un authentic and well known
record U(ion this subject, in the shape of nn article written by Dr.
Lardner for the Edinburgh Review, and which will be found in the
131st nunibi'r ( 1h37), of that publication. From thil article we shall
make considerable extracts.

16

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Jan.

"The imposing mechanical phenomena so rapidly and unexpectedly
developed by the invention and improvement of the locomotive steam
engine, and its application to railways have for several years so en-
grossed public attention that other means of facilitating the operations
of commerce, and expediting the social intercourse of distant masses
of people less fascinating perhaps, but not less important, have been
comparatively overlooked. The subject of water transport by steam
has from this cause received less than its due share of attention. A
re-action however appears to have been recently produced, and we
have now a swarm of projectors much more largely supplied with zeal
ttan knowledge, who not content with advancing in the march of im-
provement with that calm deliberation and salutary caution so neces-
sary to insure a permanently profitable issue for any great undertaking,
would rush to their ends without ever informing themselves of the
means at their disposal, and proceed /ler saltum from a channel trip to
the circumnavigation of the globe.

Within the last year, considerable public attention has been directed
to the question of the practicability and advantage of establishing a
line of steam communication between Great Britain and the United
States, and various projects have been started and companies formed
for the construction of vessels for that purpose, several of which are
already in a state of forwardness. At a meeting of the British Scientific
Association held at Bristol last September, one of the topics which
engrossed a large share of interest, was the question of the practica-
bility of a steam voyage across the Atlantic, raised in the mechanical
section. The statement laid before that section by Dr. Lardner ob-
tained such publicity at the time through the press, that it would be
superfluous to recapitulate its arguments. The conclusions however at
which he arrived were briefly these : — That in the present state of the
steam engine as applied to nautical purposes he regarded a permanent
and profitable communication between Great Britain and New York
by steam vessels, making the voyage ix one trip, as in a high degree
improbable : that since the length of the voyage exceeds the present
limits of steam power, it would be desirable to resolve it into the
shortest practicable stages ; and that therefore the most eligible point
of departure would be the most western shores of the British [sles,
and the first point of arrival the most eastern available parts of the
western continent ; and that under such circumstances the length of
the trip, though it would come fully up to the present limit of this
application of steam power, would not exceed it, and that we might
reasonably look for such a degree of improvement in the efficiency of
marine engines, as would render such an enterprise permanent and
profitable."

Dr. Lardner then goes on to state that it had been objected to his
conclusions, that the data from whence they were derived had been
obtained from the performance of steam vessels antecedently to 1S34,
whereas since that period considerable improvement was alleged to
have been effected in steam machinery, which by diminishing the con-
sumption of fuel was considered to have improved the prospects of
Atlantic steam voyaging. Of ah the vessels then existing the Medea
was universally allowed to be the one which was capable of being im-
pelled over the greatest distance with a given quantity of coals per
horse power ; she was therefore the most favourable actual standard
by which prospects of the Atlantic enterprise could be measured, and
was adopted as the basis of the present inquiry. Dr. Lardner then
proceeds to show that the same conclusion respecting the Atlantic en-
terprise which he had already deduced from the performances of ves-
sels antecedently to 1S34, was also deducible from the performances of
the Medea, and of other vessels between 1834 and 1S37.

The misconception which has existed respecting Dr. Lardners
opinions upon this question, and which nothing short of raisrepresenta-
tion prepense was sufficient to have created, renders it proper here to
repeat that the limits which exist to the achievements of steam power
are not imposed by any abstract impracticability of performing steam
voyages of any length whatever, but by the impracticability of render-
ing those voyages sufficiently profitable to confer permanency upon
enterprises in steam navigation. The doctrine attributed to Dr. Lard-
ner that a steam vessel (or any vessel), if only sea worthy, was incapa-

ble of proceeding from Great Britain to the coast of North America,
is so palpably absurd that it scarcely deserves to be noticed.

Dr. Lardner has however offered the following observations upon
the subject, which we extract from the Monthly Chronicle, Vol. IL,
1S3S.

" A vessel having as her cargo a couple of steam engines and some
hundred tons of coal, would be ceteris paribus as capable of crossing
the Atlantic as a vessel transporting the same weight of anv other
cargo. A steam vessel it is true would labour under some compara-
tive disadvantage, owing to the obstruction presented by her paddle
wheels, and the paddle boxes which cover them : still, however, it
would be preposterous to suppose that these impediments would ren-
der impracticable her passage to New York. If therefore such a ves-
sel merely transported her machinery and fuel without working the
one or consuming the other, she would still make the passage. That
a steam ship may be a tolerably good sailing vessel is proved by the
fact that the steam frigate Medea, one of the most eflScient steamers
in the service of the Admiralty, accompanied the fleet many thousand
miles propelled by sails, and without working her engines at ail. If
then a steam ship viewed merely as a sailing vessel, freighted with
engines and coals, can traverse the Atlantic with certainty, how absurd
is it to suppose that the abstract practicability of such a ship making
the voyage to New York with the aid of her machinery and fuel can
for a moment be doubted !

" In fact no doubt has been entertained or expressed as to the prac-
ticability of establishing a communication between these countries and
New York, by a line of steam vessels. But a difference of opinion
has been entertained as to what mode of accomplishing the object may
best ensure certainty, safety, regularity Und profit, without which last
element it is presumed the other objects could hardly be secured."

Returning from this digression to the Edinburgh Review, we find
Dr. Lardner explaining the inconveniences to which extended steam
voyages are subject, arising from the incrustation of salt in the boilers,
the deposition of soot in the flues, and other matters of that nature, to
which we consider it unnecessary more particularly to refer. He then
proceeds —

"The several circumstances to which we have adverted, constitute
difficulties, having the general tendency to abridge the practicable ex-
tent of an uninterrupted steam voyage. There remains a still more
serious impediment to the extension of steam navigation inherent in
the very substance from which the engine at present derives its me-
chanical power — an impediment which places a definite and assignable
limit, beyond which it is mechanically impossible to extend the voyage
of a steamer (of ordinary construction). To form an estimate there-
fore of the major limit of the extent of a continuous steam voyage, it
will be necessary that we should examine, 1st. The proportion in
which the capacity of the vessel may be distributed between the ma-
chinery, the fuel, and the objects of commercial transport; and 2ndly.
The rate at which the fuel will be consumed in propelling the vessel
over a given distance, regard being had to her tonnage and power.

" Assuming that a certain extent of the capacity of the vessel is
appropriated to the mechanical means of propelling her, that portion
will obviously be shared between the machinery and the fuel, by which
that machinery is moved.

" The proportion in which this space should be distributed between
the machinery and the fuel will vary according to the length of the
voyage. As the fuel may be replaced at the end of each trip, and as
it is generally advantageous to give the vessel as powerful machinery
as the extent of her capacity will admit, it is obviously expedient to
reserve as limited a space as possible for the fuel, and to give a pro-
portionably increased extent of room to the machineiy. In the shortest
class of voyages therefore a smaller supply of fuel being sufficient, a
larger space must be appropriated to the machinery, and in proportion
as the length of the voyage is increased, the quantity of space neces-
sary for the fuel will be augmented, and that allotted to the machinery
diminished. To this there must be an evident limit ; inasmuch as the
space for the machinery must be sufficiently extensive to contain en-
gines of the power necessary to encounter the difficulties of the navi-

184-,>.]

THK CIVIL EN(;lNEEll AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

17

gation, and to insure an average rate of ^'regress greater than that of
sailing vessels."

This limit, be it observed, is one of expediency — not of abstract
practicability. To state the matter in other words — a certain deter-
minate proportion must be observed between the power and tonnage,
else the vessel will be incapable of carrying coals enough for the voy-
age, or her speed will be so defective as to give her no prominent ad-
vantage over sailing vessels. And the adherence to this proportion
involves the necessity of employing vessels of such magnitude as to
be of too expensive maintenance for the profits of an ordinary trade.
For as in a symmetrical vessel the resistance increases nearly as the
square of the increment of one dimension, and the capacity nearly as
the cube of the increment of the same dimension, so it is in a certain
point only in the divergence of those series where a result is obtain-
able, answerable to the conditions indispensable to .Atlantic steamers.
And that point is so high up in the series, the resistance and capacity
are both so great as to indicate the necessity of employing those levia-
than vessels, whose voracious appetite is unappeased by the expendi-
ture of all the proceeds of any merely commercial enterprise.

"To arrive at a practical conclusion as to the major limit of a pro-
bable steam voyage under average circumstances of wind and water,
it will be obviously necessary that we should obtain some probable
approximative estimate of the impulsive virtue of a given quantity of
coals of average quality. The consumption of coals, other circum-
stances being the same, will be proportional to the power of the en-
gine, and it will therefore be sullicient to determine what is the average
rate of hourly consumption for each horse power in the machinery."

A table of the performances of a number of ditlerent vessels between
1834 and the date of the Bristol meeting, but which we consider it
unnecessary to insert here, shows that the locomotive duty of the
Medea was greater than that of any of the rest ; the locomotive duty
as defined by Dr. Lardner being " the distance over which a ton of
coals per horse power is capable of propelling a vessel."

Dr. Lardner proceeds — " To enable us to establish an analogy be-
tween the performances of these vessels and the circumstances under
which a steamer would be placed in navigating the Atlantic, it will
be necessary to explain some physical phenomena attending that ocean.

"The general atmospheric currents which prevail in directions near
and parallel to the equator, from east to west, called the trade winds,
would have a tendency to produce a derangement in the atmospheric
equilibrium, if not redressed by a contrary effect elsewhere. It is
known that those remarkable winds are produced by the influence of
the solar heat upon the atmospheric belt included between the tropics,
combined with the diurnal motion of the earth from west to east. The
heated air pressed upwards by its buoyancy, is replaced by currents
from either hemisphere, which carrying with them a less diurnal mo-
lion than that proper to the tropics, a relative atmospherical motion
is produced in a direction contrary to that of the earth's rotation.
Hence a nearly permanent wind is produced on each side of the line
from east to west. As these currents approach the line, they gradually
acquire the motion of the surface, which combined with their mutually
counteracting effect, produces those calms which prevail about the
line, and which are only interrupted by the hurricanes, whirlwinds
and other violent atmospheric commotions which are produced where
the contrary tropical currents conflict before their force is sufficiently
moderated.

"The stagnant atmosphere thus collected at the line, ascending by
the effect of solar heat, returns from the upper regions towards the
poles, and coming upon the surface in either hemisphere brings with
it the diurnal motion of the equator, which being greater than that of
the higher latitudes, prevailing winds are produced from the west.
The agency of these causes is manifested in the westerly winds which
prevail almost uniformly throughout the Allantic between the shores
of Europe and (hose of North America. There arc other physical
causes which mingle their effects with those to which we have just
adverted. The extensive regions of North America covered with
immense fresh water liikcs and primeval forests, supply a current of
cold air rushing into the warmer strata over the track of ocean between

the Azores and the American coast. This current from the north-west
consequently modifies the re-action of the trades just explained ; the
result is wind blowing generally in the westerly direction, but varying
between north-west and south-west, and sweeping across the face of
the Atlantic throughout nearly the whole year.

" Atmospheric didiculties are not the only ones which the navigator
has to encounter who crosses this extensive tract of water. The well
known Gulf stream is a great ocean current issuing from the channel
which separates Florida from the Bahama banks, taking first a direc-
tion a little to the cast of north, and becoming more ami more westerly,
until it approaches within a short distance of the tail of the great
bank of Newfoundland, where it sets in due cast towards the Azores.
The width of this current at first one degree, gradually increases until
it exceeds two degrees. Independently of the difficulty presented by
the stream itself, the zone of the ocean marked out by it is character*
ised by weather so extremely unfavourable to navigation, that it is
cautiously avoided by all outward bound vessels. They invariably
either take a course so far north as to be clear of its influence until
they approach the western shores, where by taking a southerly direc-
tion they convert the westerly winds into favourable gales ; or on the
other hand proceed first southward till they get beyond the lower
limits of the Gulf stream, and taking advantage of the trades, make
the western coast. This latter, however, is a route never adopted by
the best class of New York packets, except they are reduced to a dis-
abled state.

" The westerly winds which we have described as prevalent across
the Atlantic, are accompanied by a heavy sea, which is subject to
scarcely any subsidence or intermission. In land locked seas such as
the Mediterranean and the channels which intersect contiguous islands,
the effect of the wind in raising the waters is rapid and produces a
short and chopping sea highly unfavourable to steamers; but these
effects speedily subside, and in the Mediterranean especially they pro-
duce but a slight influence upon the average rate of vessels, when that
average is computed from long continued performances. On the other
hand the long swell of the Atlantic is not so unfavourable during its
operation, but its eftects are incessantly, and considerably more disad-
vantage to a steamer will be produced by its continuance, than any
which the occasional roughness of the more contracted seas to which
we have referred could give rise to."

It is right to observe that a " short chopping sea" is a rel.ative term,
having reference not merely to the nature of the waves, but the size
of the vessel. That which is a long swell to a row boat is a short
unfavourable sea to a small vessel, and that which is a long swell to a
small steamer, or even to a steamer of .')00 or 000 tons, may be a short
chopping sea to one of 2000 tons. The swell of tiie Atlantic therefore
may be of as prejudicial a quality to the large Atlantic steamers as
that of the Mediterranean, and of the channels is to the smaller vessels
navigating those waters.

Another formidable objection to Atlantic steam voyaging arises
from the overwhelming force of the Atlantic storms. The shock of
masses of water roused into violent commotion by the accumulated
momentum of every wave in the whole three thousand miles of foam-
ing waters is nearly irresistible, and is productive of the most injurious
effects to vessels of large dimensions impelled by immense steam
power. We ourselves happened to see the Liverpool in dock after
an exposure to one of these Atlantic storms, and she was really little
better than a wreck. The straining she had undergone was incon-
ceivable : the seams of the deck had opened greatly, a great part of the
coppT had been detacheil from the bottom of the vessel in consequence
of the irregular movement of the planking to which it had been n.iiled,
and the oakum hung out of many of the seams in the exterior of the
vessel, even below the water line, from which the great straining had
displaced it. The " British Ijucen," it is well known has been simi-
larly injured upon more than one occasion, and the frames of the en-
gines of the Great Western have been all broken by the working of
the ship. The wear and tear arising from this source is infinitely
more to a long large steamer than to a compact well built ship; and
the danger resulting from the same cause is not inconsiderable. The

U

1

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

icebergs which are not unfrequent in the Uititude of Newfoundland are
another source of danger, and the dense fogs met with in the same
region are highly unfavourable to steam navigation ; whilst the con-
sequences of tire, a by no means uncommon visitation in steam vessels,
in the midst of the Atlantic, are appalling to contemplate. Several
of these obstacles are manifestly irremoveable, and are therefore only
capable of being regarded as neutralizing to a certain extent, the bene-
fit, if any, of the scheme. But others, and those the most formidable,
are susceptible of diminution by the division of the voyage into suit-
able stages.

"Seeing then the unfavourable aspect under which the project of
establishing an uninterrupted line of steam navigation between Great
Britain and New York presents itself, let us consider whether by re-
solving the voyage into the shortest possible stages, the enterprise
may be brought under more promising conditions. For this purpose
it is obvious that the most western coast of the British Isles should be
taken as a point of final departure. The west coast of Ireland would
therefore be naturally selected, fringed as it is by numerous spacious
and well sheltered harbours. St. John's, Newfoundland, is the most
western port, but this harbour is attended witli so many nautical diffi-
culties that it could scarcely be regarded as accessible with that cer-
tainty which such a line of communication would require — Newfound-
land presents an iron-bound coast ; and even Nova Scotia should be
avoided were it possible to extend the passage : but the distance from
the west coast of Ireland to Halifax comes up to the extreme limit of a
(profitably) practicable steam passage. We greatly fear thai any
alkmjjl lo supersede the necessity of making Halifax a stage must prove

ABORTIVE."

In conclusion, Dr. Lardner observes, " Let us however not be mis-
understood. That the passage from Liverpool to New York cannot
on any occasion be made in one run by a steam ship, we do not main-
tain." But he declares his conviction that as a practical, permanent,
profitable thing, Atlantic steam voyaging will not and cannot be in the
j'resent state of the art successful. And this conclusion he is content
to avow, notwithstanding its unpopuUirily. " In confessing then as we
do, that after the most careful and anxious inquiry respecting this in-
teresting question, our fears of the result of such an enterprise greatly
preponderate over our hopes, we are sensible of expressing an unpo-
pular opinion. It is the natural and fortunate tendency of the human
mind to anticipate success, and we ourselves shared this feeling when
Vie commenced the present investigation, we were wholly unaware to
what point results since ascertained would lead us."

We shall oflfer no further remarks respecting Dr. Lardner's state-
ments, which are well able to speak for themselves, but shall at once
proceed to the second part of our subject, viz., the determination of
the present condition of the enterprises for maintaining a steam com-
munication between Great Britain and New York. This may perhaps
best be shown by an enumeration of the several vessels which have
been employed upon that line, and the mode of their respective dis-
position.

Sirius withdrawn.

Royal William withdrawn.

„ . T . , , r , 1 Now maintaining steam

Great Liverpool transferred! . , ■„ ,

IT •. J o. . ^ ^ ■ X ,^ , r , r communication with In-
United States (now Oriental) transferred ,. ,1 r> J o

^ ■■ dia, via the Red Sea.

British Queen sold.

President lost.

Great Western for sale. ]

Great Iron steamer, (un- f said to be.

finished) stopped. ■'

The Halifax line which carries out Dr. Lardner's recommendations
to a certain extent aloiie thrives; yet it has been questioned if even tl
could continue to keep the field without the aid it derives from the con-
veyance of the mails, unless it were to make the western coast of Ireland,
the point of final departure. The question might be worth consider-
ing by the proprietors of the Halifax packets as well as by the West
India Mail Packet company, whether it would not be greatly to their
advantage if all of their vessels were to make the western coast of

Ireland, their point of arrival and departure. But should the managers
of those companies think differently, should the shareholders resolve
in spite of common sense and Dr. Lardner, to throw thousands upon
thousands of pounds sterling into the gulf of direct communication,
they are quite welcome for aught we care to continue to indulge so
reasonable a predilection.

There is one circumstance connected with the preceding table of
the manner in which the vessels are employed in the Atlantic enter-
prise, which affords an example so striking of the coincidence between
the deductions of philosophy and the results of experience, that al-
though it has no immediate reference to the present subject, we cannot
permit this opportunity to pass without saying a word respecting it.
Dr. Lardner it is well known did not confine his inquiries to Atlantic
steam voyaging, he also discussed the merits of steam communication
with India, via the Red Sea, and it may be satisfactory collaterally to
ascertain what his opinions were respecting that line of intercommuni-
cation. We shall find those opinions stated in his letter to Lord Mel-
bourne, published in 1S37, from which we extract the following pas-
sage : " It has been contended that the question should not be regarded
as one to be determined merely upon a calculation of profit, that on
the contrary, it is one with which great political and social interests
are interwoven so closely that it ought to be adopted even though its
entire cost should have to be defrayed by the nation. This principle
has been implicitly admitted in the resolutions of the Select Commit-
tee of 1334, and it has been explicitly avowed by the late Governor
General, by several honourable members of the legislation, and of your
lordship's administration. But it is a principle which I think it un-
necessary to discuss in the present case, because there is no proposition,
however self evident, which carries to my mind a more clear conviction
than I have, thai this measure, if efficiently carried into operation, mill
more than return its own expences" Here is an opinion diametrically
opposite to that delivered respecting Atlantic voyaging. Let us in-
quire how far this conclusion is borne out by experience.

The "Great Liverpool" having in a single season earned a loss to her
proprietors of six thousands sterling upon the New York line it was
determined to withdraw her; and with another new vessel built for
Atlantic voyaging, now the Oriental, to open a communication with
India, via the Red Sea. The proprietors of the British Queen, who
we have been informed, have sustained a loss of about sixty thousand,
pounds in Atlantic steam transit, became competitors with the Great
Liverpool and Oriental for the Alexandrian line, plainly showing that
both of those companies after a vast expenditure of money, had arrived
at the very conclusion Dr. Lardner held three or four years before.
Has it never occurred to the proprietors of those vessels that they
might have saved about 100,000/., as well as vast responsibility, anxiety,
risk and discredit, if at the commencement of the Atlantic discussions
they had prevented their passions from exercising their favourite
calling, that of running away with their reason?

A recent meeting of the proprietary of the Peninsular and Oriental
Steam Navigation Company enables us to state that oriental steam
voyaging has been highly successful, and this result has been attained
with the same vessels and by the same management that were incapa-
ble of realizing any thing but loss on the New York line. It is plain
from this result that the Atlantic enterprise did not fail from mis-
management, even were we not assured, as we are, that Mr. Carleton
and mismanagement are altogether incompatible. Can a coincidence
such as this between prediction and reality be merely fortuitous ?

Has Atlantic steam navigation been successful? Has the establish-
ment of the several lines of steam communication between Great
Britain and New York been productive of a permanently profitable
issue? We leave the verdict to our readers, our part being merely to
furnish such remarks and data as may conduce to the attainment of a
just conclusion. Had we set out with a different resolution, we might
perhaps have given it as our opinion that the Atlantic scheme had
proved itself a signal failure — that Dr. Lardner's views had been con-
firmed with singular exactness — that

Earth has its bubbles as the water liatb,
Ami this IS of them.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

19

But we originally said, as we now repeat, that we do not mean to
divulge our own opinion-
One consummation there is .ievoutly to be wished, namely, that Dr.
Lardner will soon return to this country, to resume the wand which,
like Prosperos, none but its master can wield. We can see no other
antidote against that worst of Egyptian plagues, the swarms of vermin
with which the track of practical philosophy is now overrun. We are
death sick of the reign of minute philosophers. If the choice rested
with us, we would say, give us back our wolves again — restore the
dominion of barbarism — curse us with any thing e^ce\it the cant of
philosophical imposture — the disgusting egotism of idiotic mounte-
banks. Dr. Lardner's return to England would be the death warrant
of all such quacks, which is of itself a sufficient reason to inspire the
ardent desire that his return will not be much longer delayed.

Z.

►

REMARKS OK THE TR.\CTIVE POWER OF PADDLE
WHEELS.

In the theory of the nautical steam-engine there is no point that
deserves more attention than the means employed to obtain propelling
reaction from the water. The disadvantages which the various plans
at present in use labour under, have been very ably pointed out by
the iliil'erent writers in the appendix to the new edition of Tredgold's
treatise, and the mortifying result is that nearly half the effective
power of the engine is lost by the motion necessarily given to the
water by the paddles and their oblique action. Besides the lost
power from these causes, there are other disadvantages wliich the
nautical steam engine labours under. A change in the velocity of the
vessel, as well as a change in the immersion of the paddles, alters tlie
relation between the power of the engine and the propelling effect.
Under the most favourable circumstances, if the power of the steam
generated be reckoned 100, the efficient power acting on the paddle
wheel is about Gu, and the ellicient propelling power only from 35 to
•40; the power generated thus requires to bft nearly three times the
work done. It is evident that under given circumstances with a given
engine, a certain relation subsists between the extent of efi'ective pad-
dle surface and iliameter of the wheel, to obtain a maximum speed,
or in other words a maximum propelling duty. It is probable that the
experience of steam ship-builders enables them to lix upon very nearly
the best proportions for an average immersion, but is there any method
of proving that the best proportions have been exactly obtained.
There are not wanting very notorious instances to the contrary. It
may be s.iid that exactness in tliis is not of much importance, as the
propoitions that answer best in a calm will not do for rough weather,
and nee ni»<i. Suppose the best proportions have been obtained for
calm weather, and an average immersion the same propelling effect
•will not be maintained if the vessel,
Ist. H;is greater immersion.
2nd. Has less immersion.

3rd. Is employed towing when not constructed for such work.
4tb. Has to make way against a fuul wind or head sea.
5th. Has a fair wind, and employs both steam and canvass.
This arises both from a greater absolute loss of power in appli-
cation, and likewise from the engine being obliged to work with re-
duced duty. Since, then, the engine is liable to so many adverse cir-
cumstances, it would be a great desideratum if the projiortiun that
exists between the effective duty on the paddle-wheels and their pro-
pelling duty coulil at all limes be known. The advantage or disad-
vantage of any change in the paddles would then be pointed out in
a way that could not be misunderstood. The first or effective duty of
the paddle-wheels m;iy V considered as proportional to the number
of revolutions per minute with the same steam pressure ; the pro-
pelling duty is measured by the number of revolutions conjoined with
the horizontal forward strain of the paddle-shaft on its bearings, or
the direct tractive force ex'-rted by tlie engine on the vessel.

The difficulty is to measure this. Is it practicable to do so by
measuring the intea'<ity of the friction of two surfaces submitted to
the horizontal pressure ? The following has occurred to the writer as
one mode of doing this. How far it is practicable or likely to be
efficient, he must leave practical men to judge.

vrm

I

!_>!_

fTTNlml

'JjiilJIillii.

I'^l

The figure is drawn to show simply the mode of action. The beam
A presses on B with a varying force. Two wheels cc, worked by a
pinion/; and wi:icli w, are embedded between the beams on one side,
and the central friction piece d on the other: the contiguous surfaces
being ground perfectly smooth. To the centre friction piece d, an
arm A- is attached the extremity of which e is connected with a fixture
/by the intervention of «, a spring weighing machine or other dyna-
mometer. By turning the winch the wheels cc are made to revolve
slowly, these, by the friction of their inner surfaces against d tend to
draw it along with them with a force which, according to the experi-
ments of Coulomb, Renuie, and others, is nearly proportional to the
pressure of A on B, and quite independent of the rate at which the
wheels c c are made to turn. This force by means of the arm i will
be shown by .t. To set off the scale upon s, it will be necessary to
apply known forces to A. This is the only adjustment required, and
may be made on the apparatus before being applied to the engine.

Other arrangements of the apparatus will readily occur. In apply-
ing it to four bearings, one winch and s|)ring might be made to answer,
so as to give the measure of the tractive power at one obser^ation.
As an instrument for measuring pressure, this might perlwps be cn»-
ploycd for various other purposes. I fear, however, that it is too
simple to have escaped the notice of practical men, and that it lias
been tried and rejected. If not, the information it is intended to con-
vey has not been thought of such importance as to call attention to
any thing of the kind. But while so many conflicting opinions are
entertained on the subject of paddle wheels, it appears to be the only
thing that will properly bring out the true results of experiments, and
distinguish what is due to the build of the ship and what to the
paddle-wheels. Those paddle-wheels that evolve the greatest trac-
tive power with the full expenditure of steam .ire the best for the
given immersion, and this would be iu<licated by the spec I of the
vessel. But if it were required to find what immersion allowed the
engine to exert the maximum propelling duty, the speed of the vessel
would obviously not be a proper index, unless the relation bctweni
the immersion and tractive power were known. Again, if it were
<lesirable to compare the useful qualities of a paddle-wheel at the
same immersion but dilVorcnt velocities, a knowliulgc of the tractive
power is essential, ami would be sufficient. This would also Ije the
case in judging of the effects of a rough sea. If we might suppose

D 2

20

THE CIVIL ENGINEPm AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

steamers generally to have such traction gauges, and a careful register
of its indications kept during all weather, and at every variety of im-
mersion, each voyage would have all the character of exact experi-
ments, and the results would bear upon the build of the ship as well
as the efliciency of the paddles in the given circumstances. The
effects of fair or foul weather would also be made manifest. If the
best kept steam logs are examined with the view of obtaining infor-
mation in regard to the qualities of the paddles, it will be found im-
possible to make any deductions ; there is an absolute darkness merely
from there being no way of knovv'ing the tractive power exerted by
the engine.

The theory of paddle-wheels has received great attention from
several of the writers in the new edition of Tredgold, but it may be
questioned if the practical deductions are equivalent to the labour
bestowed upon the calculations. Indeed, the circumstances wdiich
affect them are too various to be embraced by mathematical formulae.
Besides, the whole depends on a law of resistance which is hvpo-
thetical. The masterly disquisition by Mr. Woolhouse seems to ex-
haust the subject ; but the formuhc given by the same gentleman in
the foot note at p. 301 will be found the most useful for (be purpose
of instruction. These, if a little modified and amalgamated with the
concluding formulae at p. 194, would be of great service to the young
naval officer. With a little knowledge of algebraic notation, so as to
work out the numerical values of each expression, taking numerous
examples, he would obtain a facile acquaintance with the peculiar and
unique relations that affect the working of the nautical steam-engine.
Thus he would become aware of the difference in the proportions that
ought to distinguish the paddle-wheels of a towing vessel, the disad-
vantages that a common steamer labours under when employed in
toviing, or a towing vessel when steaming by itself, the evils of too
deep or too light immersion, &c. A small publication adapted to such
views appears to be a desideratum at present, and would be calculated
to benefit a numerous class who ought to have a thorough knowledge
of the subject. The method of working out numerical examples from
the formulae w'ould be the means of communicating such knowledge
without the necessity of mathematical attainments.

It is sin ular that no notice is taken of the theory of paddle-wheels
in the treatises on the nautical steam-engine by Lieut. Otway and
Robinson, although in point of importance it deserves nearly as much
space as the engine itself. Indeed, it is a subject that deserves the
attention of the naval officer more than any other, as a difference in
the weather, immersion, &c. so notably affect the amount of work per-
formed by the engine. To be fully acquainted with the power he has
at command, he must know,Trom studying the theory of paddle-wheels
and their connexion with the velocity of the ship and of the engine'
bow much that power is liable to be diminished or increased by cir-
cumstances, that are wholly independent of the condition of the engine
itself. A single example will show the importance of this ; take that
of an 800 tons war steamer which makes 10 knots in a calm, the engines
working at full power. The velocity per second is 17 feet; the cir-
cumferential velocity of tlie centre of (he paddle boards is 23 ft. leav-
ing G feet for the back velocity of the paddle-boards. Now with a
head wind and sea sufficient to stop the ship way so that it is just able
to maintain its position without drifting to leeward. The greatest
power that the engine is capable of exerting, would be reduced to 4;
or i, what it was in a calm. Thus J of the steam raised in the boiler
becomes useless. The engine becomes paralysed from the connection
of the parts being adapted to only one velocity and immersion. If it
were possible to construct it otherwise, so that full duty could be
maintained in all circumstances, the steamer could make nearly ei" ht
knots against such a gale.

To look forward and answer the question— What is required to
render the application of the steam engine to navigation perfect?
Two great sources of disadvantage present (hemselves:

1st. The motion given to the water to gain propelling reaction.
2nd. The motion of the piston is not uniform under varying circum-
stances of immersion and speed of (he vessel, neither is the momen-
tum of propulsion communicated by the engine equal [in equal times.

With regard to the first it may be remarked, that if the reaction is
supposed to take place merely from projectile force given to the
water, the quantity put in motion to generate the same propelling
force in equal times will be directly as the area of the paddle boards.
But the loss from the back action of the paddles will be inversely as
the same. If the practical advantage of having small paddle-boards
is merely to present less surface to the shocks of a boisterous sea,
their surface may be reduced in proportion to the square of the aug-
mented velocity. Thus, taking the previous example, the area of the
paddle boards that require l> feet back velocity, and communicate a
propelling duty of 17, may be reduced one half without reducing the
duty more than 22 or to HA, and the velocity of the ship from 10 to
9i. On the other hand, by doubling the area the propelling duty
would only be augmented to 1S|, and the velocity to lOi.

The disadvantage of a considerable loss from receding in the water
will always exist so long as the propelling reaction is derived from it
in a continuous manner.

If the same extent of surface is made to move through the water
with double the velocity, it will gain the same propelling reaction
from the water in one fourth the time, and to do so will have to move
over one half the space ; so that if it were possible to apply the power
of the engine in this manner, the propehing duty w"ould rise from 17
to 20. But (0 effect this, it would be necessary to arrange the ma-
chinery so as to expend on the water, in a quarter of a second, the
power generated by the engine in one second ; and on the other hand
to distribute the force of reaction derived from the water in a quarter
of a second, so as to serve as a propelling power during one second.
The action of the oars in rowing is a familiar instance of this ; the
consequence is a considerable fluctuation in the velocity which on a
large scale would be very disagreeable if not otherwise objectionable.
To obviate the second source of disadvantage it would be necessary
to arrange the machinery so as to vary the absolute velocity of the
paddle floats, according to circumstances, while retaining the same
back velocity at all times. To effect this it would be necessary to
arrange the machinery so as to vary the absolute velocity of the
paddle floats, while, retaining the same back velocity, to obtain this it
would be necessary to disconnect the wheel from the engine, and by
a shifting leverage to bring the lowermost paddles only under its full
action, while the others are allowed to revolve passively by catching
the water. It is cjuite possible to make an arrangement to effect all
here that the theory demands, but how far such would be concomitant
with practical efficiency, is a much more difficult question.

It may be remaiked that the screw propellers are as much infiuenced
by these disadvantages as the common paddles, but they are not so
much affected by oblique action or by waves, besides not being so
much exposed to cannon shot.

J. W.
Bombay, Sept. 21, 1S41.

THE NELSON COLUMN.

Sir — On approaching this column from Whitehall, we become sensible of
what appears to be a great mistake in the position of it, for while the statue
of Charles the First seems to rise in the centre of the street, and in a line
with the centre of the portico of the National Gallery, the column is placed
quite to the left of that line, so as to appear engaged with the houses near
Drummond's Bank, and to rise not in the centre of the street or of the por-
tico, but quite to the left of both, thereby producing a most awkward effect.
Upon further examination I found this was owing to the architect ha\ing
thought it necessary to jilace it in a line perpendicular to the centre of the
plane of the portico, whereas had he erected it in a line from the centre of
the portico through the statue, this hne though not i/uite perpendicular to
the plane of the portico, would have deviated from it in so veri/ stiylit a de-
gree, as not to be perceptible to the nicest eya, and would have obviated
completely the very glaringly awkward effect of its present position, which,
whether viewed as you turn up Whitehall or from the centre of the portico,
is equally offensive to the eye, which would have been quite insensilde to the
very triHing deviation from the perpendicular in the line above mentioned.

Aestheticus .

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

21

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXIII.

" I nnisl have lil)er(y
Withal, as large a charier as ihc wimfs,
To blow on » horn 1 please."

I. A " little bird " has reporteJ to rae that there have been sundry and
several complaints, which complaints I am willing to accept as compliments.
Never did I for a single moment imagine that my Note Book would be pa-
latable to every body, being aware that it must, on the contrary, be unpalat-
able to a good'many bodies, who, nevertheless, it seems, cannot abstain from
reading it, notwithstanding that it is entirely optional on their part to do so
or not. If those particular articles are not at all to their taste, why, in the
name of common sense, do they not pass them over .> They are no more
compelled to read every column of every number of the Journal, than to
wade every morning through the whole of the Times newspaper, advertise-
ments and all.

They do not relish Candidus ; so be it— I will not quarrel with them on
that account ; nevertheless, I merely say that at all events their dislike
appears to be uo uiorc than a mere disliking, for which they either are un-
able or do not care to assign adequate cause, cUe wherefore should they be
so forbearing as not to e.'ipose what they consider my errors and mischievous
or unsound opinions. If my Note Book contains a good deal of " nonsen-
sical stuff," its nonsense must at any rate be of a very attractive kind, since
it compels them to read whether they will or no. Therefore, if it finds
readers, both among those who relish, and those who disrelish it, I have no
particular reason to be ashamed of it.

1 suspect there is another and more powerful motive than mere dislike
which makes mv Anti-Candidus express themselves with a soreness and
Boumcss. It is very true they themselves can skip over the offensive
Fasciculi, but they cannot compel others to do so. Aye, there's the rub !
Thev arc frightened, lest other people should read — and perhaps have their
eyes opened, by some of my remarks, to prejudices and abuses nliich they
would have remain untouched, and to abuses they would rather screen than
expose. No doubt there arc some who, were it in their power, woidd sup-
press architectural criticism, and architectural journals likewise, altogether ;
and that for very sufficient and prudential reasons, as far as themselves are
concerned. Well are they aware that the more the public are kept in igno-
rance of architecture, and the less any topics belonging to it are brought
under discussion, the better for them. No doubt there are several worthy
gentlemen who, if they durst, would protest against the exposures which
have from time to time been made relative to mal-practices in competition ;
others, again, who think that it is high time for this Journal itself to be
brought to a close. Such persons may not exactly be simpletons themselves

Q„ the contrary, exceedingly wise in their generation ; but assuredly they

must take editors to be complete simpletons and noodles, if they suppose the
latter will alter their places and arrangements according to the fancy of
every boily or any body who chooses to express a dislike to any part of them,
Surelv my Note Book is not so contagious as to infect with its virulence the
whole of ever) number of the " Civil Engineer; " should it, however, really
be so — in the opinion of certain people at least ; such persons had better
decline taking in the work. Awful would be the consequences — positively
fatal to the publication ; for our editor might then say, as 11 the cele-
brated bootmaker is reported to have done, when a blustering consequential
gentleman once threatened to deal with him no longer, " John, do you hear
that ■ Tell them to close the shop windows directly. It is all up with us

now — we are positively undone, for here is .Mr. going to withdraw

his custom from us '. But John, first of all open the door for Mr. ,

and wish him a vciy gooil morning."

II. Auiong the odd " y/iey »nyv" of the day, it has been rumoured that
the magnifictnt stnicturc now building in Tlirea<lueeille Street is destined
for nothing less than the reception of the Soanean Museum. That such
must ccrtaiidy he the case, is argued because no one can tell or possibly
divine, what it cm be intended for at all, if not for such purpose. Another
cogent argument is derived from Sir John's well known attachment to the
old lady of Threadnccdlo Street — her, I mean, who keeps the money-shop —
and although these may acem very inauflicient reasono, exceedingly vague
and chimerical ones, far graver hypotheses have been hatched into systems
all-compact, out of hints and surmbcs equally visionary and fantastical. It

will be objected that the Soanean Museum must not on any account be re-
moved from the house it now occupies — but then there is not Ihc slightest
necessity that it should be, since house and all may be removed from Lincoln's
Inn Fields to Threadncedle Street — a mere step of way compared with the
distance a house once travelled to Loretto — and be commodiously enough
placed in one of the spacious halls within the new structure, without under-
going any Procrustean operation. Though small as a house, it will cut a very
respectable figure stuck up in a room as a model. It may, indeed, further
be objected — however, I cannot stand to knock down objections, like nine-
pins, as fast as peo)>le choose to set them up, therefore must be allowed to
cut them short by calling upon any body who thinks himself capable to start
some more int/enhus idea than my own as to the proposed destination of the
building in question.

III. — Travellers have undoubtedly the privilege of romancing — that i>, of
lying, including a lit(le blundering also ; but when Mrs. Abigail Adams says
that Canterbury contains " a numbn- of old cathedraU," she does avail herself
of the traveller's privilege rather too freely, and indiscreetly also. Perhaps
the good lady " saw double " at the time, and seeing two cathedrals, multi-
plied them into a " number." Another no less extraordinary blunder occurs
in a very recent German work on St. Petersburg, in which the writer has
confounded the Kazan Sobor or Cathedral with the new St. Isaac's church,
and has ma<le the whole account a continued blunder, for he has gone de-
scribing and criticising the former building, mistaking it all the while for the
latter; which is the more unaccountable, because the last, which is hardljr
yet terminated, happens to be just now the great architectural lion of the
Northern capital. It is as if any one should mistake St. Paul's for the new
Houses of Pailiament, and describing the latter as having been erected by Sir
C. Mien, speak of their noble dome. In one of the volumes of Lardner's
Cyclop;edia, Covent Garden Theatre is said to be a specimen of Grecian Ionic
architecture, while the Post Ollice is similarly metamorphosed into one of
Grecian Doric — which proves that if Doctor Diogenes Larncdman, as Fraser
calls him, was not a downright humbug himself, that he ccrtaiidy employed
literary ignoramuses and humbugs to manufacture some of his books.

IV. " Love at first sight " is not always to be relied upon — at least not in
architecture ; there are many productions, whether buildings or design!,
which captivate the eye at first view, yet sadly disappoint us when we come
to examine them, or after nc return to them. One almost infallible test of
merit in art, that after the interest of curiosity has subsided, a work will not
only continue to captivate, but that beauties, at first scarcely noticed, make
them felt more and more. It would be well were every architect to apply
such test to his own designs and studies, to examine them scrupulously, after
laying them aside for awhile, for the purpose both of ascertaining whether
they satisfy him in his own mind as well as they did at first, and of consider-
ing how they might be further improved. Invention and fertility of imagi-
nation may do much, they indeed furnish the ideas upon which to work, but
the great secret of perfection lies principally in the careful study of the whole,
and no less carefully finishing up of every part. The " slap-bang " school
are above all such dilatoriness and trouble, they do not stand upon trifles ;
with them every thing is hit or miss, they never blot, they never revise; it is
always " first come, first served " with them ; they cousider it loss of time to
wait for a second idea. They are worse than bears, for they do not even
care to lick their own offspring into shape.

V. The character of the " celebrated Mr. Compo," in the tale entitled
" St. .Vntholin's or Old and New Churches." is by no means an over-drawn
caricature. The cheap-church mania has afforded employment of late years
to a good many Mr. Compos, manufacturers of Brummagem Gothic, or
Brummagem Grecian — tasteless noodles in themselves, hut who find (till
greater noodles who patronise them. The Compos may be said to be what
is usually termed " a fine family " ; they spring up like mushrooms, although
very few of tncm ever vfyrlale. There is a church now going on somewhere
in tow[i, which, it is to be feared, will turn out a veVy .Mr. Compo-ish affair,
a most dainty specimen of Brummagem Gothic. The necessity for strict
economy may be sufficient excuse for plainness, but none whatever for Ihc
insurtVrably vulgar taste and paltriness displayed in many structures of the
kind. Uherc the funds arc so bcggariy th.it nothing can he done, the most
advisable course would be to attempt ii.ilhing beyond hare walls and a roof.
llomeUness may be endurable, naj. even respectable, whereas the miserly
show of miserable trumpery finery, of which many new churches arc instances,
is so far from being respectable, that it is almost imlecent.

VI. Speaking of the recent competition for the Devon Lunatic County
Asylum, the Western Times eipressed the hope that there would be " a pub-
lic exhibition of all the ilcsigns, aeconlmj lo ttlabluhtd euttom m aU arcM-

22

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Jan.

iectural comjje/ilions " .' Unfortunately, the established custom is exactly
the reverse of what the Western Times, in its simplicity or its ignorance, has
conceived it to be. Any exhibition of the kind at all is quite an exception
from the general rule, the established custom being not to allow the designs
to be seen, if it can possibly be avoided ; Ijccause, if they are, the comparisons
made, and the opinions expressed, may be any thing but complimentary to
the judgment and taste of the selecting committee. The public is a strongly
inquisitive animal that, if not prevented, would be poking its nose in every-
where. It is an impertinent, busybody, mischief-maker, that would fain pry
into all the arcana of competitions, and the ingenious secret manoeuvrings
and plottings of those who manage them. In short, the public is such a pro-
fane beast, that I wonder no one has contrived some mode of knocking it on
the head at once. It is, therefore, to the honour of competition committees
they do their best to get rid of it.

VII. " Oil la ver/ti va-t-elle se richer ! " was the exclamation of Moliere
on one well known occasion ; and, substituting virtu for the other word, it
was mine a few days ago, ou quitting a bookseller's shop where a gentleman
had been purchasing some very costly foreign works on art. " You have
there a most excellent customer," said I, after the stranger had departed j
" pray who may he be — is he a professional man, or some wealthy amateur ? '
" Perhaps you will be somewhat surprised when I inform you that that gen-

tieman is no other than Mr. of Fleet Street." " What ! the same

who keeps the shop there ? " The same." " And does he purchase

many works of this description ? " " Yes ; he is a very diiferent customer

from Mr. whom you saw here the other day, a bachelor with twenty

thousand a year, and who has somehow got the reputation of being a person
of great taste, an admirer and patron of the fine arts ; yet, as yo\i saw, stood
haggling about a two guinea book, which he has not yet made up his mind
whether to have or not. But perhaps," added my friend somewhat sarcas-
tically, " as he has got the repuation for being a very great amateur of the
fine arts, he may as well keep his cash in his pocket." " Hang him for a
hypocritical curmudgeon ! But I hope you do not find many of his stamp."
" More, I am sorry to say among persons of that class, than would be gene-
rally supposed." " Y'et among professional men of the wealthier sort, you
must sell a great many foreign architectural works." " There, I assure yon, you

are quite mistaken ; I have hardly a customer of the kind. There is Mr. ,

Mr. , and Sir , all of whom it might be supposed would

liberally encourage and subscribe to every architectural publication of impor-
tance, yet I have heard that they never buy a book at all, though they are
by no means backward — two of them, at least, in borrowing them if they can."
' ' Then the greater asses those lenders who r.ccommodate such niggardly,
skinflint borrowers. Such fellows would not be ashamed to borrow a dinner,
and then return it second-hand. Do you find the nobility buy many books of
the kind?" "I have very few indeed of them ever come here. My best

customer of that kind is a lady — the Countess of , to whom I have

sold a great many French aud German architectural publications." " Xai
the British iluieum ? inquired I. " Why, Sir, as to the British Museum,
that, I suppose, you can answer for yourself. I dare say you know tolerably
well what works of the kind are not to be found there." " Indeed I do ; and
know that while tliat national concern seems to be a repository for all the
accumulated rubbish of our national literature, it is most shamefully defec-
tive in modern foreign publications on architecture and art generally.

HINTS ON ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM.— Part 4.

The Recapitdl.\tiov.

To reduce the foregoing observations into order ; we discover architecture
to be highly poetical, first, from the suggestive power which she exercises,
that is, from her aliiUty to move us towards some idea of beauty, or sublimity,
by attitude, or the expression of forms, as also by relative position ; and
secondly, from her independence of mere proportion, which is essential only
to delight, or that satisfaction which may or may not create delight. It will
be seen further, that no attempt is made to trifle with constructive talent,
nor to infringe on the properties and harmonies of proportion, the former of
w liich may still le scientifically viewed, and the latter agreeably entertained :
but it will be seen, that, for tlie purposes of criticism, architecture has been
viewed as a fine art, and that as such, her power over the emotions has been
briefly considered to support her claims to the rank of a fine art. We per-
ceive that poetry does not necessarily imply imitation, but that arts which are
not descriptive, or imitative, may induce emotion. It would be unphiloso-
phical to retread ground, further to confirm what has been assumed, but it

may be here remarked that compositions very often maintain their influence
by the indistinctness of the idea they foster, and that what is so remarkable
in poetry, viz., the sign of the effect, instead of the sign of its cause, being
the origin of emotion, is also applicable in a similar way to architecture. The
poet struck with some subliiue idea, often paints the idea, rather than the
cause of that idea, and this it is, which makes some of the denunciations of
prophetic poesy so overwhelming ; the mind having no definite idea of woe,
but on the contrary : — and the cause is obvious, for the feelings of a poet
being stronger than his reason, and those feelings being uppermost, he e.x-
presses Ihern. Hence arises the power of poetry, which is never truer than
when it exhibits its effects upon a mind. In the following passage from
Isaiah, nothing can be more effective. — " The noise of a multitude in the
mountains, like as of a great people, a tumultuous noise of the kingdotns of
nations gathered together ; the Lord of Hosts mustereth the hosts of the
battle." Here we have grand and mighty images, engnlphing our reason ; —
confusion of noises, and mvltitudes, and great people — tumnltuous noises, king-
doms of nations — the Lord of Hosts — the hosts of the battle. No one I think
will contend against the poetic grandeur of such a description, if description
it may be called, yet where can be found any thing about it, to give an ade-
quately clear idea, of the movements of the .\lmighty, by whom, as Lord of
hosts, we are arrested : we go indeed almost beyond the pale of nature by
contemplation. I quote in this manner from holy writ, not for the purpose
of allowing the sublime images of the bible, to become the pivot of an argu-
mentative treatise upon the power of art, but to show the origin of our emo-
tion. Now in architecture, many a man has felt something of this, when
entering the cathedral ; and this does not arise from our love of antiquity,
which is quite difierent in its effects, and which I will hereafter ti-y to make
clear, but from the mysterious union of vastness and of infinity, of obscure
images and of intricate beauties, amidst which reason is overwhelmed. So
that, in judging of poetry, we very often judge of the emotion, and pronounce
a composition as being good, or bad, according to whether the state of mind
it is intended to plinige us into, is evenly, or unevenly sustained : — and this
is essentially the iffovince of criticism. And here I cannot help noticing the
opinion whicli many entertain, of any attempt to reason philosophically upon
works of art, in sujiposing' that tlie promoter of such an attempt, is neces-
sarily trying to lay down some fundamental law, by which the artist is to be
ruled. It is impossible for any one, however vast his mind, or delicate his
perception, or care, to regulate the artist in his choice or adnptation of mate-
rials, because the relations of a composition vary to infinity, aud the mind,
which could conceive a code of laws, would have to anticipate every possible
relation. Criticism undoubtedly tends to invigorate and chasten, and one of
the signs of refinement in any art, is the pure language and sentiment of its
critics ; but criticism is no more than an echo of sensibihty subdued into a
whisper, or swelling into jiraise, according as the judgment admits by degrees
the full force of a composition. And all this accords precisely with a true
definition of taste, for the degrees of difference between the opinions of a
polished and an unpolished age, are, as the power of perceiving the influence
of associations upon the mind. For be it remembered that the influence of
associations varies, with our improved ideas concerning them ; whilst a com-
position is not always judged by the intrinsic features of design, but by the
ideas currcrit concerning those features, and by the activity or stagnation of
those ideas. Any one who has seen specimens of Indian carving, must have
been struck with their representation of God, which they contrive by imitat-
ing no one thing, but by mixing what Horace ridicules in his art of poetry.
Now they admire what we condemn and ridicule. We criticise their most
adored objects of art by a smile, because our ideas of that awful being tell us
that no attribute of his is exhibited. Had any barbarian of old exhibited his
design to an Etruscan, in the days of Zeuxis, how would the Etruscan, versed
from divination in forms, have smiled if the design had represented a group
of animals ? Just so is it with architectural criticism, which scarcely out of
its cradle, begins to feel shocked at the vulgar opinions of cotemporaries, and
this is the point I wished to arrive at, viz., to show the necessity to lay down
some general idea of the duties of a critic, and of the vast field over which
his sensibilities and judgment must move. I am aware that against such an
attempt there are two objections ; first, from the nature of the employment,
which generally raises up an army of critics, like gnats to sting secretly and
on the wing ; and secondly, from that dearth of genuine poetry amongst us,
which begets indiflerencc to such themes ; but I still hope to contend for the
duties of criticism, satisfied that though such attempts be ridiculed now, they
will not be hereafter.

Fkedf.kick East.
December 18il.

1S42.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

23

ON ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT.

No two classes of men ap|icar to have so great a respect lor precedent as
lawyers and architects ; by the one it is lookcil upon as of more importance
than equity, and by the other it is appealed to as being a greater authority
tlian any abstract principles of beauty or fitness; a juilgmenl biaseil by the
errors of our ancestors is considered as the best guide for conduct in modern
times by the lawyer, and the architect uniformly persists in copying the <lc-
signs of the ancients, however unsuitable they may be to tlie habits of the
present day.

The universality of this prejudice in the case of the architect is eridcntly
attributable to the system adopted iu his education. X youth is taken into
an architect's ofSce, and the first principle of any iniiiortancc that he learns
is that " it is impossible to excel the ancients, and that the only thing we
moilerns can do is to cojiy their works -." he sees .ill around him engaged in
making designs in accordance with the good old patterns, and is perhaps
himself chiefly employed in preparing enlargements after some of the ancient
examples : any natural taste that he may have for ornamental designing is
checked, by telling him that he will never be able to come up to the works
of our predecessors, and that he would be employing his time much better in
studying the precedents handed down to us. The consequence is that he
gradually imbibes the same veneiation for antiquity that influences his seniors,
and at the tenuination of his pupilage, instead of having had his natural
creative talent brought to some perfection, he is probably as little capable of
oriyiiialing anything worthy of admiration as he was at the time he was
articled; and he commences his professional career with the same determina-
tion to adhere to classic precedent that characterised his instructors ; and
this resolution being the result of a prejudice implanted in youth, is rarely to
be removed by any arguments that may be adduced.

Surely it is sadly derogatory to the dignity of the profession, to have to
acknowledge, that out of all the arts practised by the modems, arciiitccture
forms the only case (with the exception of sculpture;, in which the ancients
liave not been for outshone : such a conviction in the mind of an architect is
certainly rather inconsonant with due respect eitlier for himself or for liis
employment.

Is it then to be wondered at that there sliould be that want of public
respect towards the profession frequently complained of by architects .' Is it
likely that society should entertain any high veneration for an art whose very
professors acknowledge themselves to be mere copyists .'

Many persons will say that painting should be included amongst the arts
m which we have not excelled the ancients. Perhaps in no one case is the
notorious gtdlibility of John Dull more glaringly instanced than in the almost
nniversal veneration for old pictures ; every one sets himself up as a critic in
such matters, even though he never made use of a pencil or brush in his life,
and if a specimen coming under his notice happens to have the appearance
of age, it immediately elicits great approbation, probably expressed in a string
of cant phrases, which he recollects to have heard used on similar occasions :
U however any attempt he made to ascertain the meaning of these expressions,
the interrogator may consider himself clever if he can identify any ideas at-
tached to them; not one in fifty who alTect to be judges of the old masters
can really give any sensible reasons for the preference he pretends to have
for their works.

Tlic public generally arc aware of the advantage continually taken by pic-
ture venders of this undue devotion to what is old ; it is almost their every-
day practice to secure some of the more spiritless of the modem paintings,
and after having hung them for some time in a smoky room, and otherwise
dijguised their juvenile appearance, to palm them ofl' upon these pseudo-con-
uoistcurs u being some of tlie finest works of the old masters.

And yet notwithstanding the notoriety of this practice, and the conchtsive
eviilence it affords that a great part of the supposed superiority of the old
paintings is chimerical, the prejudice of society in their favour appears to be
nearly as strong as ever.

The permanency of colouring, and the transparency of shailc appear to be
the only points in which we have been really excelled in this art by our an-
cestors. These are certainly two very desirable qualities, and their attain-
ment is well worthy of attention, but after all they merely appertain to the
mechanical department ; the mixing of colours that shall be the most stable
or the most transparent, can hardly be put upon a par with purity of artistical
feeling or excellence of composition ; surely the mere technicalities of the
art are not to be compared with the grand imaginings of a Martin, or llie
exquisite truth of a Land seer.

The fact is that this affected admintion for the productions of our fore-
fathers is only another development of that most abominable of maxims " do
as the tforlj dom :" men mixing with society find it the custom to enlarge
upon the inferiority of modern art, and to laud the ancients, and even though
they may have sufficient t.iste to see the injustiic of the censure, they
acquiesce in the opinion rather than endure the sneers of their associates.

But to return. — In attempting to prove the possibiUiy oi improvement
upon the architecture of former ages, I am triumphantly met by au opponent
with the fact that there hare been men who sconied to follow in the beaten
track ; who have struck out a new path for themselves, and have attempted
to originate new styles but h.ive signally failed. Now what is there to he
surprised at in this - Is it likely that out of all the architects existing in
England, that the man who happens to he the most independent and liberal
minded should of course be the one best fitted to carry out his views, and to
compete with the combined efforts of the ancients .'

Is it likely that amidst all tlic opposition of the ad;nircrs of antiquity, the
prejudices of the public, and the jeers of the profession, that he should suc-
ceed iu his endeavours ': Is it probalde that when lenctation after genera-
tion have been engaged in servile copyism, and thai all exercise of original
taste has been discouraged under the belief that it was impossible to excel,
that a man should spring up who should at once be able to vie with the
ertbrts of those whose forefathers had been in the continual exercise of their
powers of design ? The faculty of creating new forms is obedient to the
same laws that govern the other attributes of the mind, and is only to be
developed by constant practice, and the Iraiismission of the talent from father
to son ; and if this talent has been allowed to lie dormant for generations, its
power will gradually be reduced, in accordance with the same law that what
is no longer exercised to the same extent, no longer retains the same capa-
bility.

There is then no ground for surprise that the architects of the present day
shotdd be unable to produce any thing superior to what already exists ; it is
even probable that if they were una'iimous iu attempting to originate, they
would all fall short of what has already been done : but what would that
prove r not that it is impossible to fix up a higher standard than that hitherto
attained, but simply that the faculty of design requires redevelopment, hav-
ing lost ground from want of practice during the latter ages. In short to use
something hke a truism, it is evident that so long as architects retain the be-
lief that they cannot excel the ancients, they never wilL

Tiie influence of precedent has been much increased by unfair criticism ;
it has been the universal custom to enlarge upon all the beauties of the old
buildings, and to pass over all the defects, and on the other hand all the im-
perfections of the moderu ones are sought out and magnified, and all the
merits passed over as unworthy of remark. The fact is that to an tinpreju-
diced eye there are in many ancient examples far more glaring errors than in
any modern buildings of the same character. For instance, if I recollect
rightly, in the nave of Glo'ster Cathedral, we have ranges of plain and massive
Norman columns supporting small circular Norman arches, producing the
impression of great stability, and then we find the adjoining aisles lighted by
pointed Gothic windows, with all the usual characteristic lightness of this
style of architecture. What can be more inharmonious than such a mixture .*
If one of the moderns had perpetrated such au incongruity, his reputation as
a man of taste woidd have been irrecoverably lost.

Again, if one of the profession of the present day, a little more liberal than
his brethren, happens iu making a design in accordance with the style of
some particular period, to introdnce an ornament which was onlj used at
some other era, although all the architects in England should not be able to
otler any cogent reason why it should not harmonise with the other features
of the building, he is at once sneereil at by the crili'-. and stigmatized as a
man of no purity of taste. But on the other hand if there should chance to
be in the elevation of some cathedral a range of Gothic windows with angles
of half a dozen ditfercnt degrees of aeuteness, producing evident want of unity
in character, and any one draws attention to the fact as a great defect, the
case is quite different — Oh, no ! this is one of the works of our great ances-
tors, and we nuist not dare to criticise the designs of such superior men.

It is inueh to be regretted that such erroneous impressions respecting the
ancients and their works should ever have crept into society : that same
veneration for antiquity, is one of the greatest olistacles, not only to the ad-
vancement of architecture, but to the progress of every species of improve-
ment. Perhaps no more ctTectual method could be ailopted to lower the
dignity of mankind, and to reduce the general tone of society, than to spurn
the doctrine of the superiority of our predecessors : no method better cal-
culated to produce want of confidence and couiequeut danger of incapabiUly,

24

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[Jan.

than to instil the belief that we have retrograded instead of advanced. And
then to lind not only that the impression is utterly erroneous, but that the
truth is directly the reverse, and that the veneration of society is directed
towards a people of whom it has been lately said by a talented author,* that
" their history is a fable, and their philosophy a farce," makes the case still
more to be deplored.

Perhaps it will be asked — how should this belief be so universal if it is
without foundation ? a very sensible question, but one to which there is no
difficulty in finding an answer, and I may remark that the same cause that
induces the feeling in society generally, is the origin of the predisposition of
the same character in the architect. That cause exists in the present system
of classical education.

H. S.

Derby, Dec. 15, 1841.

SIR FRANCIS CHANTREY.

The life of a man of genius, passed in the study, observes a celebrated
writer, has few incidents but the production of his works, and in no case is
this more true than in that of the distinguished sculptor whose loss to art we
liave to lament. Truly English as he was in his style, he had much con-
tributed to the formation of the present school of art, at the same time it
must be observed that his addiction to portraitureandneglcct of the imagina-
tive has not been without its influence in impeding the progress of high art.
Under all circumstances, too, and considering how his chisel has been em-
ployed in celebrating the greatest men of the age, and how his works are
distributed over every part of our vast empire, the name of Chantrey is indis-
solubly attached to the literary and avtistical history of the age.

Francis Chantrey, the son of a farmer in Derbyshire, was born at Norton,
a village in that county, on the 7th of April, 1782. Having been intended
for the legal profession, he was taken to Sheffield to be articled to a solicitor,
when a casual circumstance directed him to that career in which he was ulti-
mately destined to attain so much honour. Having arrived before his friends,
he was walking thrcugh the streets, and looking in the shop window of a
carver and gilder, he felt such a strong bent for art, that he prevailed on bis
relations to ajiprentice him to the proprietor of the shop, a Scotchman of the
name of Rogers, with whom he remained three years. Carving on wood, it
is observed, was not his bent ; before he was seventeen, he had applied him-
self to modelling in clay, and devoted his nights to that study. Having left
the carver, he successively visited Dublin and Edinburgh, but not meeting
with encouragement in either city, in 1808 he made his appearance in London
and soon found, in the exhibitions of the Royal Academy, the opportunity of
making his genius known. A bust which Chantrey sent to the Academy
attracted the attention of NoUekens, who, with his love of kindred art, ex-
claimed, " That's a siilendid work, let the man be known ; remove one of my
busts, and put this in its place, for it well deserves it." The words were
prophetic ; the bust that of John Raflael Smith, was generally admired, and
Nollekens, pleased with its success, took the artist under his protection,
saying often to his friends, when applied to on the subject, " If you want a
b'ust, Chantrey's the man." Tlie late Earl of Egremont was another of the
young artist's early patrons, and g.ive him a commission for the execution of
a work in marble, but so rapidly did Chantrey's practice increase, that the
work was never executed.

Early in his life Chantrey is said to have visited the Louvre, and inspected
the magnificent collection of works collected by Napoleon from all parts of
Europe. In 181G our artist was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy,
and in 1817 it was that he exhibited the celebrated group called the " Sleep-
ing Children," erected in Lichfield Cathedral in memory of the two infant
children of the late William Robinson. The homage paid to this work has
been great, for when exhibited, young mothers are said to have wept over it,
so affecting was the expression ; for this work Stothaid furnished the design.
In 1818 he was elected a Royal Academician, and exhibited another well
known work, the statue of Lady Louisa Russell when a child, now at Woburn
Abbey. In the following year Chantrey visited Italy, and we And, among
his works, a statue of Dr. Anderson executed for Madras, and monuments to
Kirke White, Porson. and FoxTownsend at Cambridge. Chantrey, it may be

* Philosophic Nuts, by Edward Johnson.

observed, was much employed for India, many of his largest works having
been executed for the three presidential cities. He had now a very great
share of the public husiness, and a curious anecdote is told in relation to this.
Handling the brush as well as the chisel, Chantrey sent in such a model for
the George III. statue for Guildhall, that the wise men of the east intended
to reject it on the supposition that the artist was a painter ; and it was not
until Sir W. Curtis sent for him to be examined on this point that the pre-
ference was given to him.

In 1820. 21, 22, and 23, we find few important works exhibited in the Aca-
demy, but his chisel was far from idle. In 1821 he exhibited his statues of
the Countess of Liverpool and Dr. Cyril Jackson, but in the next year his
name was wanting in the catalogue. In 1826 he began casting in bronze,
and we find, among his works, bronze statues of Pitt for Hanover Square,
Grattan for Dublin, and George IV. for Brighton, Windsor, and Edinburgh.
He had also a commission from the United Stales for a statue of AVashington-
In 1827 he executed statues of Sir Joseph Banks for the British Museum, and
Mr. Stephen Babington for Bombay. The only work exhibited in 1828 was
a bust of Sir W. Curtis. The next year produced a statue of Sir Edward
Hyde East, for the Court House, Calcutta, and a classical has relief, and
1830, a statue of Bishop Heber. In 1831, he completed his statue of
George IV. for Edinburgh, 12 feet high, and the coronation medal of Wil-
liam IV. and Queen Adelaide was executed by Wyon from his models. In
1832 he completed a statue of Canning for Liverpool, and in 1833 one of Sir
Howard Elphinstone. From William IV. Chantrey received the honour of
knighthood. In 1834, 5, 8 & 9, Chantrey did not exhibit, but in the inter-
vening years he exhibited his statue of Sir John Malcolm, and one of Dr.
Dalton. In 1840 our sculptor produced statues of William Roscoe, and of
Northcote, the painter, and of Sir C. Forbes, and also an equestrian one of
Sir Thomas Munroe. In the present year only two works were exhibited,
namely his statues of the late Bislmps of Norwich and Lichfield, executed
for their respective cathedrals.

On the 25th of November, having only returned on the day before from a
visit to the Earl of Leicester at Holkham, he died at his house in Eccleston
Street, between eight and nine o'clock in the evening. In the morning he
was in his usual spirits, inspecting the progress of the various works in his
studio, and conversing cheerfully with his assistants ; but during the day he
had complained of illness, and had been compelled, by violent pains in his
stomach, to return from Buckingham Palace, whither he had walked in
company with a friend. He then received some medical advice from which
he obtained relief. At seven he dined moderately as usual with a small
circle of friends ; but feeling unwell, he sent for a medical man, who directly
required the attendance of his physician ; but before the arrivalof Dr. Bright
Sir Francis breathed his last, it is supposed from apoplexy.

In person Sir Francis was under the average height, possessing a compact
form and a highly intellectual countenance. He drew with taste, and en-
gravings from his views in Dovedale were published ; he was also an admirer
of less artistic pursuits, having recently purchased a large geological collec-
tion for five thousand pounds. In his studio he possessed all the resources
for carrying out great works, having for his assistants Allan Cunningham,
who had been with him 28 years, Mr. Heffernan 30 years, and Mr. Weeks,
and possessing a regular establishment for casting in bronze. He had in
hand an equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington, which is in a forward
state, and he was appointed to execute the statues of Sir David Wilkie and
Mrs. Siddons. Sir Francis Chantrey was a Royal Academician, Member of
the Academies of Rome and Florence, and a Fellow of the Royal Society.
He was married, and has left a widow but no children ; his large fortune he
is said to have bequeathed, after his Lady's death, to the Royal Academy, to be
devoted to the promotion of the arts. Of him it may be truly said, that his
good deeds will survive him, and that his fame and good report will live for
ever.

Of his works we have not yet seen any complete catalogue, but will en-
deavour to furnish one as copious as our materials allow, with the dates of
exhibition and places in which preserved.

Equestrian statues :— Wellington (Mansion House, not completed) ; Sir
Thomas Munroe (Madras, 1840).

Statues :— George III. (Guildhall); Go rge IV. (Brighton, Windsor, and
Edinburgh); Washington (United States, 1826); Pitt (Hanover Square)

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

25

Grattan (Dublin, 1826); Canning (Town Hall, Liverpool, 1832, Westminster
Abbey); Nelson, Dr. Dallon. Bishups Ileber. (St. Paufs), Balliursl (Nor-
wich. 18-n). and Ryder fLichneld, I84I); William Roscoe (Tovm Hall,
Liverpool, 1840); Watt (Westminster); Nollckcis (1810); Sir Joseph
Banks (British Muselun, 1827); Sir J. Malcolm (Westminster, 1837); Sir
Howard Klphinstone (1833) ; Sir Edward Hyde Kast (Court House, Calcutta,
1829); Dr. Cyril Jackson (Oxford Cathedral, 182*); Countess of Liverpool
(Kingston Church) ; Lady l»uisa Russell (Wubum Abljey, 1817); Dr. An-
derson (Madras, 1819) ; Marianne, daughter of Mr. Johnes of StafTold ; Mr
Babington (Bombay, 1827); Sir Charles Forbes (Bombay, I&IO).

Monuments: — Sleeping Children (Lichfield, 1817); Majors General Gore
Skerritt, Bones, and Hugbton, and Colonel Cadogan (St. Paul's) ; Matthew
Baillie (Westminster Abbey); Admiral Bickcrt.n (Bath Abbey Church)'
Mrs. El«in (Bristol Cathcdnil); Kirke White, Porson, and Fox Townsend
(Cambridge).

Busts, see Statues, Also William IV. ; Queens Victoria (1840) and Adelaide ;
Duke of Sussex ; Princess L.ouisa of Saxc Weimar (1833) ; Duke of Suther-
land (1829); Marquis of Ix)ndondery (1821); Earl Spencer (1819) ; Lady
Nugent (1820) ; Viscount Melbourne; Lord St. Vincent; Southey (1837) ;
Scott; Sir Jeffrey Wyatville (1637); Sir John Soane(1830); Horace Hay-
man M~ilson (Asiatic Society, 1837); Mrs. Somervile (Royal Society, 1837)5
John Raflacl Smith; Wordsworth; Sir W. Curtis (1828); W. Manning (1819).
Sir B. Hobhouse ( 1819) ; John Fuller, (1820) ; Sir Charles Clarke (1840) ; Dr.'
Mill (Asiatic Society, Calcutta, l&W).

The Waterloo Vase in the National Gallery is also by Chantrey.

DANNECKER THE SCULPTOR.

0>- the 8lh October last, died at Stutgard, after a short illness, the well-
known John Helnrich Danneckor, the Nestor of German sculptors. He had
but a short time previously completed bis 84th year. Stutgard was his native
town, where he was Iwm on the 13th of October, 1758, of poor parents. In
spite of the disinclination of bis parents, he determined, when very young,
to turn his attention to the plastic arts.and by a personal application to Duke
Charles of Wurtemberg, in u hose sluil his father was employed, he succeeded
in gaining admission, in 1771, to the military artisiical academy at the " Soli-
tude," a Royal castle near Stutgard, where pupils were instructed free of ex-
pense in music, [.aiming, and sculpture. The instruction he received here,
hoiiever, was but a faulty one. It was in his Ifitli year that he carried oil
the prize for a model of Milo of Cortona. He next executed the Caryatides
and other statues which at present adorn parts of the Royal residence at
Sttitgaril. It was while studying in this academy that he made the acquaint-
ance of his fellow-townsman Scliiller, and of this friendship a lasting monu-
ment remains in the statue, which he afterwards took from life, of the illus-
trious poet. He left the academy in 1780, at the same time as the poet, and
attained the situation of Court sculptor, with the paltry salary of 300 llorins,
or about 25/. per annum. The following year he was permittdl to visit Paris,
receiving, however, no further pecuniary assistance than that his salai-y was
raised in the second year of bis absence, to 400 florins.

At Paris he met with the sculptor Scheffauer. and became a pupil of Pajou.
While in the French metropolis he devoted himself more to the study of na-
ture than that of the antique models. In 1785 he left Paris with ScbefTauer.
with whom he travelled to Rome, where he became known to the immortal
Canova, whose friendly instruction bad a very beneficial influence on the
youthful artist. It was here, too, that be made the .acquaintance of Go(>the
ami Ilenler, then residing there in order to become acquainted with thcstoros
of art whirh sere contained In the Papal capital.

Whilst in Italy his excellent marble statues of Ceres and Bacchus first
raised him to a greater reputation, and caused the academics of Mil.an ami
Bologna to cho<.se him a member of their bodies. He sub.«eqiiently returned
to Stutgard, and was engaged for a long time modelling various subjects fur
Duke Carl. It w.is not till 1796 that be again began to work in marble,
when he executed his celebrated Sappho, the original of which is now at
Monrepos. After this and other ideal cflorts he turned his attention to the
taking of busts, and now it was that he took the likeness of Schiller before
alluded to. a colossal copy of whirh graced hii atelier. The then Crown
Prince of . Bavaria, now King Louis, rmploynl him in vanous work.s, among
which his bust of the celebrated composer Qluck is one of ihe most remark-
able, i'he performance by which he is most known to the English lover ol'
art is bis delicious Ariadne as the bride of Bacchus, borne on a panther, which

is to be seen in the house of the banker Bcthman, of Frankfort. His Eros at
the moment that Psyche is pounng on his shoulder drops of burning oil, ac-
cording to the well-known Mj thus of Apuleius. is also a Ijeautiful piece of de-
sign. His best bust is supjxised to be that of the physiognomist Livater.
But the rliff-rl'ccurre of the artist is his statue of Christ, for the idea of which
hu is said to have been indebted to a nocturnal dream. The completion,
which took place in 1824, has cost him eight years of study and lalxiur. It
was then sent to the Empress Maria Feodorouna, of Russia, who afterwards
made a present of it to the Emperor Alexander. The successful manner in
which he succeeded in exhibiting Christ as the Mediator, and the divine ex-
pression w hich he imparted to the forehead of the statue, have often been ilie
theme of praise. Tliorw al.lsen, w ho saw the model in the artist's workshop,
expresseil his opinion that the desi,;n of representing the .Saviour as fully
clothed w ould be a failure ; undeterred by tliis, however. Dannecker main-
tained his original idea, deeming Ibis as the most fit manner of treating the
subject, and he succeeded in giving to the flowing drapery which envelopes
the form a degree of lightness and truth seldom w iinessed.

Dannecker's style was formed principally on the antique. His composi-
tions are full of truth, life, and nature. His most distinguished pupil is Mar-
tin vor Wagner, Secretary to the Academy of the Fine [Arts, at Munich.
For some years he had ceased from all active employment, and had fallen
into a state of second childhood and oblivion.

DR. BIRKBECK.

WmLE recording the death of .Sir Francis Chantrey, we litll ■ expected to
have so soon to chronicle in our obituary, the name uf a professor of the use-
ful arts. In Dr. Birkbeck we have lost a man who has greatly contnbutetl
to the progress of education among working men. Although several indivi-
du.als preceded him in the attempt, Birkbeck must certainly be considered as
the founder of Mechanics' Institutions.

William Birkbeck was a member of an opulent and respectable family of
the north of England, belonging we believe to the Society of Friends, but
whch they afterwards left. He was the son of a merchant and banker, and
bom at Settle in Yorkshire, in 1776. Having studied for the medical profes-
sion in the first instance at Leeds, he came to London and became a pupil of
Dr. Baillie, afterwards removing to Edinburgh to complete his education. At
that university he became the friend of Brougham, Jefl"rey, Horner and Scott,
and having distinguished himself by his attainments, he was appointed in his
22nd year Professor of Natural Philosophy, in the Andersonian Institution
of Glasgow. It was while fulfilling the duties of this appointment that Dr.
Birkbeck laid the foundation of the system of Mechanics' Institutions, and in
1822 be founded the Loudon Mechanics Institution, of which be w, as for
nearly twenty years the President, and which he aided both by his influence
and his purse. He did on Wednesilay the 1st of December, of a severe pro-
tracted illness, lamented ,and honoured by men of all parties and all ranks.
He was twice married anri has left behind him a widow and five children,
three sons and two daughters, one by the first, and four by the second wife.
As a physician he enjoye<l much reputation and considerable practice, but as
a philosopher and a mechanic his abilities were not less eminent. Dr. Birk-
Ijeck's mortal remains were interred in the General Cemetery at Kensal
Green, and were attended to the grave by the members of the Mechanics In-
stitution and many hundred people.

MR. THOMAS STEVENSON'S IMPROVEMENTS ON LEVELLING
INSTRUMENTS,

Sir — In last month's Journal I perused with interest Mr. Townsend's ob-
servations on my improvements on Levelling Instruments. His remarks are
in general judicious, but he appears to hav« mis.ipi reheiided the main object
which I had in view, and in some places h« bas entirely mistaken my mean-
ing.

The rod is only 121 feet long, and not 23 feet is Mr. Townsend supposed,
and is divided as the old rodh used to be divided in Scotland, tn lOtlis, lOlltbi,
and either by vernier or appreciation to louuths. Tlic object aimed at by
me therefore was not to attain greater accuracy in the graduation of the slid-
ing vane rod, but simply to -iwe time in tb^ u>c of that intirument. " Kor,"
(as Mr. Simins observes in bis excellent Treatise on ln>lriimcnl>), " it not
unfreqiicntly happened in using the old ita'cs that when by a succession of
signals the slalT bolder had nearly Imnigbt the wire of the vane to coincide
with that of the telesropr, he would i*i hi* attempt to jwrfect it, remove the
vane further from coinciiloiice than at (Uit,' To obvule thij defect, as I
formerly mentioned in my commanicalioD to the lastitution of Civil Engi-

E

26

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

[Jan.

ucers, 1 intioiluced a clamp to he used by signal Tilien the cross hair of the
instrument has been brought nearly to coincide with the centre of the vane,
leaving the rest of the adjustment to be made with the screws, liy this ar-
ranecment the great loss of time arising from the rough process of adjusting
the Vane by the hand is completely obviated, and the sliding vane rod, which
is certainly the best instrument where great nicety is required, is thus freed
from these objections. This iiistrun)ent is tiierefore adapted to the most
accurate purposes, always, excepting indceil researches such as those of Mr.
Bunt, who read i ff to /our places of decimals, while at the same time the
self-reading graduation on the back of it renders it equally well adapted for
every operation connected with engineering, and there is no reason, as Mr.
Townscnd seems to imply, why the readiiigs should be pushed to a greater
degree of accuracy than the wants of the observer, or the delicacy of his in-
strument may warrant.

^Vith legard to the spherical or circular level which Mr. Townsend seems,
so far as I can understand, to employ in a somewhat ditferent way to me, I
have to mention that n;y communication on that subject to the Institution
is dated the 30th of January, 1841, although it was not read till tlic 4 th of ilay.
The great superiority of the spherical level as used by me consists in the
tlii/ness of its mo/ion, a quality rendering it peculiarly fitted for the pur)>ose
assigned to it.

Mr. Townsend takes exception at the ball and socket joint, but I would
oljserve that the surface of the ball which is in contact with the clamping
zone is very considerable, aiul the friction produced so great that no un-
steadiness is found to be produced by this construction in instruments for
ordinary purposes. In such an instrument as a single second-level, which is
only to be used for extraordinary purposes, I would not [)ropose to adopt the
ball and socket, as any metliod for saving time in setting such an instrument
is of no value. In such a question as this, experience is erer;//hinff, and I
have to state that having now used that instrument on some 40 or 50 diffe-
rent occasions, I cannot forget the great facilities it has afforded, and the
time it has saved me, more especially when a rising tide rendered time of
paramount importance. I firmly believe that any one offer a dni/s experi-
ence of it, would admit it to be the most desirable instrument he had ever
used.

I remain, your obedient servant,

Thomas Stevenson.

Edinlurgh, Dec. 10, 1841.

P.S. I do not consider it necessary to occupy valuable room in noticing
the observations of Mr. Bewlev.

PROCEEDINGS OP SCIENTIFIC SOCISTIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

June 29. — Henry Robinson P.vlmer, V. P. in the Chair.

The following were elected : — George Briant Wheeler Jackson, as a
Graduate; William Crellin Pickersgill, William Millar, Robert Cantwell,
Thomas Clark, and Hugh Roland Laljatt, as Associates.

" Description of the Bann ResoToirs, Cortnty Down, Ireland." By John
Frederick IJateman, M. Inst. C. E.

The construction of the reservoirs described in this communication was
undertaken with the view of regulating the quantity of water in the River
Bann, and more effectually supplying water power to the flourishing and in-
creasing estabhshments on ils harks; this liver is, from the bare and naked
character of the Moume Mountai , among whicli it rises, naturally liable to
the greatest irregularity in its •\ uiiuue ; devastating floods frequently pour
down the channel, where a few hours previously there was not sufficient
water for agricultural purposes : greatly injurious as this must have been to
the agriculturalist, it was infinitely more so to the mill-owners, who depended
entirely upon water power for their manufactories.

Mr. Fairbairn was consulted on the subject; he examined the locality, and
advised the formation of reservoirs : the author was then appointed the engi-
neer, and a' ting in some dt^grec upon the suggestions of his predecessor,
whom he continued toiconsult, the works were undertaken which are described
in the present paper.

The peculiarities in the act of parliament, granted in 1836, constituting the
proprietors of the mills a Joint Stock Company, for the formation of the
Bann reservoirs, are detailed.

The works were originally intended to have been more extensive than have
beenically executeil. The reservoir at Lough Island Heavy, is alone described :
the groinid in tliat spot was admirably adapted for the work, being the bot-
tom of a basin, which was bounded on all sides by rugged hills of granite ;
in the centre of the basin was a stnall lake, at the bottom of which was dis-
covered a bed several feet ip thickness, of fossil conferva;, similar to those
discovered by Professor Silliiwan at Massachusetts, North America. This in-
teresting geological Act was tirst notic&d by Dr. Hunter, of Bryansford ; the
conferv.T appeared like an ijuijalpabfc powiler, but when viewed through a
powcrfid microscope, they w ere fouml to be regular parallelograms, many of

them covered with stritc. They are described by naturalists as the fossil
skeletons of minute vegetables.

The situation fixed upon for the reservoir, rendered necessary the con-
struction of four embankments between the hills, so as to raise the water to
a height of .35 feet above the summer level of the lake.

These embankments were all constructed in a similar nianner, only varying
in the slopes and thickness of the stone facing according to the extent and
situation.

The whole substratum of tlie valley was water-tight, either from the ex-
istence of the solid rock, dense clay, or of hard, compact, mountain gravel;
so that there was no difficulty in securing the foot of the puddle. A trench
was sunk into the water-tight stratum, whence the vertical puddle vTall was
carried up with the bank to the required height. It was 12 feet in width at
40 feet below the top, diminishing gradu lly to 8 feet wide at the summit,
and was worked in regular layers of 8 inches in thickness.

The embankments were formed in concave layers 3 feet thick, each layer
being completed before another was commenced, steps being cut in the ground
where necessary, to receive the layers.

In order further to secure the tightness of the bank, a lining of peat 15
inches in thickness was brought up on the inside of the puddle, and a layer
of the same material was laid upon the face of the slope; it was cut small,
placed in thin courses like the puddle, and merely trodden down without
more moisture than it naturally contained. The author advocates the use of
peat in such positions, as, from its light and fibrous nature, in case of a leak
occurring, the draught would attract into it all the fibrous particles, which
by degrees would stop tlie holes sufficiently for the silt to settle over and
eflfectually close the aperture.

Above the peat a course of gravel 3 feet in thickness was laid, and upon
that the stone jntcbing, forming the inner side of the bank.

The inner slopes were for 20 feet below the top of the bank, 2J horizontal
to 1 vertical ; the outer were 2 horizontal to 1 vertical ; where they were
deeper than 20 feet, the remainder of the backs sloped 3 to 1 on the inside,
and 2J to 1 on the outside.

All the embankments are 12 feet wide at the top, and 5 feet above the
water level.

The centre of the deepest part of the embankment was traversed by a stone
culvert, in which were placed two row* of cast-iron discharge pipes, 18 inches
diameter, with suitable valves. A leak was discovered in the centre of the
masonry of this culvert, occasioned by the engineer's instructions not being
obeyed. The details of the methods employed for remedying this defect are
given at length; as also those of the experiments upon cements made by the
author after the data given by Vicat. The materials which were most acces-
sible for the work were tested veiy carefully, and from the results, it was de-
termined to employ mortar composed of rich Manx or mountain lime care-
fully slaked, and clay burned with peat in the open air. The proportions
were 2h of clay to 1 of lime. They were gromid together, and being mixed
with as much water as was necessary, the mortar was used immediately. The
mortar for the backing had one measure of sand added ; the grout had two
measures of sand in it, and was used thin.

The concrete was composed of one part of lime, two and a half of calcined
clay, and about three jiarts of sharp gravel.

This cement appeared to set hard, and to be perfectly tight ; but when the
reservoir was partially filled, several leaks were discovered, which rendered
an examination necessary, and some energetic measures were taken to stop
them, all which are described.

The result of the author's experience seems to be, that mortar made from
rich lime and calcined clay, as recommended by Vicat, may set and harden
under water when there is little pressure, hut that it is not able to resist the
pressure of a considerable depth of water.

The details of tlie construction of the masonry of the valve house, the fore
bay, the waste weir, the bridge of three arches, constructed over the feeder
from the river Muddock, and the various feeders for supplying the reservoir,
are given at length, with the particulars of the expenditure of the sum of
£14,891, which was the cost of the work, exclusive of land compensation, or
salaries and professional charges.

The particulars are also given of a series of observations with rain gauges
continued for two years, for the purpose of furnishing data for computing the
extent of reservoir which would he necessary to insure a supply of water
throughout the year.

The communication is accompanied by detailed drawings of every part of
the works, and a plan of the district in which they are situated.

" Description of a machine for seioing Flat Ropes."
Grad. Inst. C. E.

By Eugenius Birch,

In a previous communication, Mr. Birch described and gave drawings of the
ingenious machinery invented by Captain Hnddart : tlie subject was uot en-
tirely complete without the description of the present machine, which, al-
though uot of great importance in a scientific point of view, is well worthy
of notice, in consequence of its being attached to this valuable rope machinery,
and of its having been worked so successfully.

It is used for sewing or lacing together ropes, and forming them into flat
bands, which are used for mining purposes, &c.

The bands or flats generally consist of four ropes, which are placed parallel
to each other, and paired in contrary directions to the angle of the lay ; being
held under an equal degree of tension, they are sewn together with two cords

r==-r^^BBBB

1S42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

27

or linos, l.y needles wliirli arc (iriveii tlirough lioles previously pierced in the
ropes, at an angle of 4 j degrees, and the cards are then drawn tiglitly in a
lateral direction.

That the ropes may be pierced more easily, it is necessary that the tar
whicli they retain from the process of warm registering, should he softened ;
this is accomplished by passing them through a steam chest, whence they are
drawn into a frame composed of four plates, wliicli arc p!ar-ed so as to com-
pre-s the ropes while thi-y are in the softened state, ami form a die which
can be regnlated to the size of the ropes required to he scwu. The piercing
operation is performed in the die, which has slots in its sides for passing the
piercers through.

There are not any recorded experiments on the >lrcngth of the ropes, but
it is considered, that the amount of strength possessed by the tiat rope is not
equal to the sum of that of the four ropes before they were united ; still the
advantages of this mode of asscnd)lage are su great, as to insure its preference
in mining operations, and many other applications.

The drawings which arc numbered onward from the commencement of
the set presented to the Institution, in the session of 183S*), display the en-
tire machine, with details of all the parts.

End of the Proceedi.vcs, Sessions 1841.

ROY .\L. INSTITUTE OF BRITISH .\RC11ITECTS.
Dec. 6. — P. Habowick, Esq. R..\., in the Chair.

Mr. Ilardwick opened the session by congratulating the members on the
increasing interest shown in the proceedings of the Instilnte, and especially
on the honour conferred on the Institute by His Uoyal Highness the Prince
.Mbert, having graciously consented to become its patron, and on the arrange-
ments which bad been effected between the Committees of the Institute and
of the Arcbitectur.ll Society, for a union of those bodies. — The Foreign Se-
cretory. Mr. Donaldson, read letters from Sig. Clemcnti Folchi, of Rome, and
Sig. K.iffaeic Politi, of Ciirgenti, acknowledging the honour conferred upon
them by tl.oir being elected llonorar; and Corresponding .\Ieml)ers.

A paper w.is then read of the (Ireat Pavilion erected at Liverpool, for the
Royal .Vgricnliural Society of Lnglaml, by J. W. Wild. This paper will be
found in another part of tlie Journal.

Dec. 20.— Jos. Kay, Esq., \.\'., in the Chair.

Mr. Donaldson read a description of the Column erected on the Place de
la liastile, at Paris, to commemorate the last of the French revolutions, viz,,
that of 1H30.

The evening concluded by a concise and interesting description of the
Escurial, compiled by Mr. Ilayward, the Librarian of the Institute, and illus-
tra(c<l by a large plan. — The Institute adjourned for the holidays, until the
17th of January.

ARCHITECTURE IN MANCHESTER.

\VuiL5T ill London we hear too many complaints of the profession
being overstocked, in Manchester, wliere, (luring lite years the num-
ber of architects has doubled, all seem to be full of employment. No
duubt this excitement is but temporary, being caused by the exertions
of a party, who, despite the very general depression in the manufac-
turing districts, have .succeeded in raising funds tuw.irds the erection
of ten cluirclu's, some of which are actu.illy in progress. In addition
to these are other chnrches and chapels, and some public buildings,
but few private mansions.

The first church we shall notice is from tlie design of Mr. E. Wal-
ters, an architect of consider.ible talent, who to much scientific and
practical knowledge, unites the feeling and nice perception of the
.irtist. It is in Gr.inby Row, .ind st.inds on ground descending at a
considerable angle from the street to the river, the retaining wall of
which is about four feet from the east end of the church. The archi-
tect li.is surmounted these obstacles; and though the f<Ju:.d.itions
swallowed up the sum of £ |kO, he is confident of being able to com-
plete the church for £.HW. It is to contain >(W people, GUO
adults, and 200 children. The west elevation, whicli is all that is
seen from the street, is of the early English style, and has been care-
fully studied. .Mr. W.dters is the architect of a larger church at
Hroughlon Uridg.'. which is contracted for at A'29.'iO. Tlie fuimda-
tions ji.id to be l.ik'-n down to the depth of 12 feet. The church is
b'iilt of brick .ind >lon<', and is in the Norni.in style, with two windows
in each bay, whosi- heads are supporteil by sh.ifts. The entrance door
has Norm.ui mouldings and shafts, and tliongli svitli little orn.imenl, is

• Junmal, Vol. I. page iJi.

very good. The architect has shown some skill in overcoming the
difliculties of his roof, which is in one span, and witliout a tie-beam,
st.ibilily being inniiriU by inserting concealed rods, which, passing
along the timbers, retain the feet of the princip.ils. The cliurch will
contain lino people. Messrs. CutHey and Starker are jli.' architects
of a churcli near Tin .Mill lirow, which will cost £.i'i'M), and will con-
tain 1 150 people. The level of the ground being considerably beneath
the road, brick piers were carried up to support the beams, on which
is laid the floor of tile church. The pews under the galleries ascemi
in steps from the passage, and each person will look towards the op-
posite side of the clnirch, ;is in the galleries above. The style em-
ployed is Norman, and the tower will be surmounted by a low Norman
spire. Messrs. Cuffley and .Staikey are also the arrhitccts of a church
in Regent Road, which is also Norman. It displays some noveltv in
its windows, but appears faulty in its details. .Miss .\therti)n has "pro-
vided the funds for a large church in the new .^tretford Road, the
coinpetilion for which w.is g lined by Mes'irs. Scott and MotFatt, of
London. Mr. Moseley, of London, lias lately been successful iu a
competition for a church at Red Bank. Mr. I'ligiu is at present
building a large Catholic church, in the township of Huhne, which we
cannot too highly praise. It consists of clerestory- and side aisles,
with roofs of very high pitch, and we have heard that a tower is to
be raised at the angle. Its exterior in the flanks is very plain, being
of red brick and stone, with early English lancet windows placed singly,
the opening of each being little in comparison with the extent of neigh-
bouring wall, and with a north porch and a south door, having shaft*

itegrity.

We have heard some of those self-created critics who "rush in" with
their opinions, though confessedly entirely ignorant of architecture,
assert tliat the church w.is b.id in design, that it was " like a barn."
Oh 1 that instead of the paste-board Gothic of the cluirch commissioners,
we had some of those picturesriue old barns. The Ijaptist chapel in
the Oxford Roail, just opened, is from the design of .Mr. Walters.
The sides will be enclosed by buildings, therefore enrichment is con-
fined to the front, which is of stone, and in the early English rich stvle,
with a centre door, over which is a two light window, the whole sur-
mounted by the highly pitched g able and s(iuare pinnacles. The re-
cess in the east, in which is the baptistery, is decorated with three
early English arches. The whole was executed for .£2.'}0il. These
are not the only chapels in progress or just completed, but the others
we were unable to visit. The .M.incliester and Birmingham Railway
Station is a stupendous work, and h.is been performed w itii so great
care, and with such good materials, that it m.iy well last for centuries.
It does not yet exhibit many of its decorative features. We noticed
a building at the bottom of Market-street, which possessing some good
points, is a glaring specimen of a bid modern mode of building. It
iVuiils three ways, and the lower story is of shops, the ponderous
superstructure appearing ready to crush (he glass beneath. Leaving
out of the question the bad efiectof such a mode, it is positively inse-
cure. The shrinking of timber bressummers is one part the cause of
the cracks, whioli disfigure our buildings — and in case of fire, the w hole
front becomes one general ruin, lii this case little is got bv using
iron, for the beams having become heated, snap when placed upon
with water. The Iinlependent College stands about three miles south
west of the town. It furiiis three sides of a square, and is understood
to have cost i." 14,000. The front has two stories supported upon an
arcade, and a bold entrance door leading to a flight of steps by which
the hall and principal fioor are gained. Over the door is a fine Oriel,
and above rises the tower surmounted by an octagonal lantern. The
slyle is til, it of the latest period of Gothic .ircliitectore, and Is well
kept up ihiuugh the whole of its details. — .Mr. Irwin is also the archi-
tect of a building in Pool Fold, which li.is the superimposed orders of
the late Eliz.ibelli.m, or e.irly It.ilian school. In the neighbourhood of
Cheadle, .Mr. .-Atkinson, now of Londun, is erecting some Italian lodges
(if rhisie design. Thi< .irchiteel, whom we mijilit fe.irlosly |daoe at
the head of modern professors of the Gothic sivie, has enriched the
neiglibourhuod of .Manchester with its best buiulings. His church at
Cheethain Hill h.is been already noticed in this Juuru.il : — we merely
stop to praise the great beauty of its details, whicli will prove a mine
of stu<lv to .ill who carefully ex inline them. The church .it Openshaw
is mudi pi. liner than, though sc.ircely inferior in ertect to, that ut
Clieetham Hill. It is in the e.irly English style, with arcades and
windows in the clerestory, similar to those in bcverley Minster. At
the west a lantern rise', from the ruuf, surniuutited by a le.ided spire.

Whilst we were in .M.iiicliestcr, a paper by Mr. tioliUworthy Gurney,
W.IS read at the Victoria (iallery, and excited much discussion, the
subject on which i*. trcited — that of Heating by Hot Water Pipes — .

E J

i

28

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan"

having lately been much canvassed, in consequence of numerous fires
having been ascribed to this cause. Mr. Gurney had found tha t ea
can be carried through the air along a pipe, a distance of forty feet,
sufficient to melt lead, and that these results took place with the low
pressure pipes. The safety valve in certain cases was no protection.
On placing stop cocks at certain distances along apipe communicating
with a boiler, he found that when the temperature was sufficient to
bum saw-dust, an invisible and inflammable elastic fluid escaped. He
advised that six inches of the circuit in pipes for heating be made of
lead. A new cement has been used at Manchester called Lithic ce-
ment, it is as hard as stone, and has a face as smooth as earthenware.
It would be useful in the metropolis where our cements scarcely merit
the name. In architecture generally, we were glad to see a gradual
movement onward, and though the progress is slight, it is ol that kind
which augurs well for its continuance.

E. H.

December 1841.

BEVIEVrS.

Practical Essays on Milbvork and other Machinery. By Robertson
Buchanan, afterwards improved and edited by Thomas Tredgold,
C. E., and now re-edited with the improvements of the present age,
by George Rennie, C. E., F.R.S., &c., 2 vols. 8vo., with numerous
plates. London: John Weale, 1841.

The name of Rennie would be embalmed in the history of millwork
improvement, did it not possess still nobler claims to immortality. It
was the father of the editor of the present volumes who first gave a
real practical efficacy to those philosophical speculations which ascer-
tained the true geometrical configuration of the elementary parts of
wheelwork that was essential to produce uniformity of impulsive action
and durability of operation. The millwork of the Albion mills was
the first public manifestation of the late Mr. Rennie's abilities, and the
improvements introduced by him upon tliat occasion gave an impul-
sion to millwright operations, such as tlie art had never before ex-
perienced, and of which it still feels the beneficial effects. It is little
more than half a century ago that the teeth of all the miliwheels in
this country, with a few inconsiderable exceptions, consisted of no-
thing better than round wooden pegs. Smeaton accomplished some
amelioration. But it was reserved for Rennie to give to miliwheels
their present form and structure, and the achievement would have
been sufficient for his fame, had it not been thrown into the shade by
those more brilliant tiiumphs of genius by which he is now almost
exclusively remembered.

In opening a treatise upon millwright operations which has been
published under the supervision of a son of this distinguished engi-
neer, and who is himself already honourably known as a scientific and
practical mechanician, our expectations were naturally commensurate
with the auspicious quality of the circumstances under which the work
had been produced. We cannot say that these expectations have
been wholly disappointed. There is a considerable infusion of infor-
mation in these volumes of the highest utility, and there is evidence
of extensive erudition, and an intimate acquaintance with the subject.
Yet the execution of the work is by no means satisfactory. There is
a want of vigour and of unity discernable throughout the whole
treatise — the needless prolixity of some of the chapters is extremely
fatiguing to the reader — obscurity is not unfrequently produced by
excess of simplification ; and the arrangement, notwithstanding the
exertions of an excellent analytical table of contents, is very much like
the Gordian knot which no one can disentangle. We do not remem-
ber to have met with any work which required a more painful exer-
cise of attention on the part of the reader, and this attention is not
rendered necessary by the difficulty of apprehending recondite investi-
gatious, but by the difficulty of ascertaining the mutual relation of the
several parts of the discourse— of unwinding the tangled thread of tlie
enquiry. In fact these volumes can scarcely be regarded as a connected
systematic treatise, they are rather a disorderly collection of mis-
cellanpous papers of varying quality, from which the reader may make
a selection, and which he must arrange for himself. In addition to
Buchanan's original work with editorial notes and emendations, and
two long papers in the form of appendices, besides supplementary
definitions and other irrelevant matter, we have avast number of "ob-
servations," "general observations," and "supplementary observa-
tions,"—the greatest part of them trite and trivial, mingling with the
text, and dancing through every page in the most disorderly and fan-
tastic array. The thread of the discourse is broken at every step.

and the reader is almost tempted to throw a work aside which de-
mands a severity of labour that bids fair to rival the toil of Sisyphus.

Another source of considerable perplexity is the absence of all
means of determining what portions of the work are due to the origi-
nal author, and what to his respective editors. Additions and com-
mentaiies are mixed up without scruple with the original text, so that
we are utterly at a loss to know, unless by a reference to previous
editions, to whom we are paying attention. After having listened for
some time to Mr. Robertson Buchanan, we find that by some undivulged
metempsychosis, he has been for some time changed into Mr. Thomas
Tredgold, or Mr. George Rennie. In page 5, for example, it is ob-
served, "Were the teeth of wheels infinitely small, their action would
be regarded as that of cylinders simply touching, having the property
required. The finite and sensible teeth given to wheels will therefore
be of the most advantageous figure when one wheel conducts another,
as if they simply touched ; or, when their pitch lines have in every
part of their revolution equal velocities. That teeth have this pro«
perty when formed in a certain manner will be evident from the following
proposition and its connexions." This quotation we find by a note at
the foot of the page, to be a part of Buchanan's text, and we naturally
conclude that the text continues to be Buchanan's until we receive
some intimation to the contrary. But we have not advanced above a
dozen lines further before we meet, "Before proceeding with our
author, it will be," &c., whereas we imagined it to have been Me
author himself, we bad all the time been listening to;

At what point in the compass of a dozen lines Mr. Buchanan has
been transformed into Mr. Tredgold or Mr. Rennie, we have no means
whatever of ascertaining. We are unable to distinguish between what
is said by the one person and what by tlie other person without collat-
ing the different editions— without, in fact, ourselves editing a book
we merely wish to read. In page 26, we read, "To make that part
of a tooth which is within the pitch line or proportional circle, a
straight line as proposed by our author, seems to be the most advan-
tageous form ;" and in page 27, " When part of the action takes place
before the teeth arrive at the line of centres, the method of forming
teeth proposed by our author (Art. 41), seems to be equal, if not supe-
rior to any other ;" yet the article from which these quotations are
taken are a part of the text, in no wise distinguishable as such from
Art. 41. In page 41, we find, "It has been mentioned to me that the
following rule in order to determine the length of the teeth of wheels
is employed by the ingenious Mr. Murray of Leeds ;" and a note at
the bottom of the page accidentally shows us that this is a part of
Buchanan's text, and in page 45, we meet, "On this Tu\e Buchanan
remarks that it does not seem founded upon any satisfactory principle."
In page 34, "Sometimes it may be requisite to have but few teeth in
the pinion. In such cases, in the conducted whether wheel or pinion,
Buchanan preferred staves to teeth;" and in page 3(3, "Everyone
considerably experienced in wheel-work knows that when a pinion
comes to be considerably worn, the friction is greatly increased.
Whereas no such thing happens to the trundle." In a note referring
to this passage, it is said, " This is a mistake, as trundles inconse-
quence of the surfaces of contact being small, become soon indented
by pressure, and cease to turn round in their sockets;" but whether it
is Mr. Buchanan who makes this mistake or Mr. Tredgold, we have
no means of finding out. We are inclined, however, to believe it is
the latter gentleman, as Buchanan is usually distinguished by name,
and five lines further on from the text we have last quoted, we meet,
" It appears, however, to Mr. Buchanan, that a wheel might be made
which would combine the advantages of both the pinion and trundle."

We will not tire our readers with further quotations upon this head,,
we might extend them indefinitely, and it is no extenuation to say that
the value of the information rendered is unaffected by the name of the
preceptor. The confusion of persons might be excusable if it v ere
essential to achieve some highly beneficial result, but only upon that
untenable supposition. The perplexity it occasions to the reader is
extremely disagreeable — it creates moreover a species of responsibility
such as might be expected to arise from anonymous authorship that
is by no means beneficial or expedient. That in re-editing a work
relating to the practical arts or inductive sciences, it is right to make
such additions and corrections as are answerable to the progress of
improvement, we do not deny. But we deny to any editor the right
to mingle his own commentaries or speculations with the original text
in such a manner that they are indistinguishable from it. What would
have been the fate of all ancient authors if their successive editors
had assumed such a prerogative ? If Mr. Buchanan undergo many
such purifications, we fear he will be sublimated altogether. Where
a work by the suppression of any palpable errors, and the addition of
separate supplementary notices, is incapable of being rendered an-
swerable to existing conditions, it is much better to reject the piece
of antiquity altogether in favour of a new treatise. There is little

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

»

benefit in Ptnulating the consprvators of the ship of Colchis, who ac-
complisihed repair after repair until not a vestige remained of the
original stnioture.

The definitions at the commencement of (he volume, showing the
precise acceptationof the terms wheel and pinion, trundle or wallower,
teeth, cog, leaves and staves, are suitable enough, but we cannot see
the utility of inserting in a work like the one before us, simple geo-
metrical definitions, which may be found in several professional edu-
cational elementary works, besides about 20 pages filled with tables
of square and cube roots. Surely the roost moderate penetration might
have discovered such insertions as these to be not merely superfluous,
but to constitute a sort of "caput mortuum," highly detrimental to the
quality of the work. Without conferring the smallest degree of benefit
they create prolixity, induce confusion, and increase the expense of

I the book, at the same time that they diminish its value. Having said
thus much on the superfluous part of the work, we shall now proceed
I to direct the attention of our readers to the more valuable portions.
i The following remarks (page 192) are judicious.

I " Nor perhaps doe-i the timptieitt) of a machine consist strictly in having
, few moving partt. if the part^ of a machine be few, they arc perhaps more
easily taken in by the eye at one view, which may make them morr eaiily
comprehended hy the mind, and in that sense )>c more simple. But in ma-
chinery the kind of simpUcity at which we ought to aim has more regard to
the nMnjie^ qf action than to the number of moving parti."

I In page 95, we have a very useful table of the proportions of wheels
I in actual use, which we very willingly insert here.

TABLE OF PITCHES OF WHEELS IN ACTCAL USE IN IIILLWORK.

Kind of Machine.

Horses'
power.

Pitch

in

inches.

Breadth

of teeth

in inches.

Wheel

•

Pinion

•

Breadth pro-
portionate to

10 horses
power, and pre-
sent velocity.

Present velo-
city per second,
in feet.

Breadth in
inches propor-
tionate to 10
horses' power,
at 3 feet per
second, that is,
reducing all
the examples
to the same
denom.

Teeth.

Kevo-
lutions

per
minute.

Diameter.

Teeth.

Revo-
lutions

per
minute.

Diameter.

10
30
15

H

1

I
24
46
32
14
20
10

6

4

2
10
12

4t
3

3
3

2i
2J
3i

I
3

n

2i
2J
2
1*

u

5i
lOi
C
4
4

4i
6
8
6
5
5
5i

*\

4*

6

3

304

204

207

91

91

96

152

116

64

90

77

60

48

62

77

66

■3+
4i

'3

3

19

17*

19

25

18

25

28

32

25
44

1

Ft, In.

24"

16 2

16 5i

6 Oi

6 Oi

8 0

8 io

5 1
5 11

4 n

3 7

2 lOJ

3 6
3 10
2 8

"3
44
50
22
20
42
54

29
38
40
27
25

40

48

318-47
20

12-9
13-13
43-32
50

55"

42-63

48-5

62-6

6M1

48-5
60-5

Ft. In.

3" 6
3 111
1 5i

1 4
3 6

2" '4

2 7
2 45
1 74
1 6
2

1 lU
1 9

3-41
4^

7^27
400
450
2-5
1-7
1-87
3-37
2-3
5-73
8-73
11-87
3-75
6-
2-5

3-95

3-8

3-
•949
•949

7^95
\\-

8-78

6-65

5-57

6-2

5-25

4-8

8-8

5-

5-99

5-5
4-489
5-06
7-27

12-63

14-23
6-625
6-2
5-47
7-91
4 64

11-88

15-31

18 99

11-

10.
4.95

Water-wheel ■ , A

Water-wheel-, B

Water-wheel, C

Water- wheeP, D

Horse-mill, E

Horse-mill, F

Steam Engine, by B. & W. G.
Steam Engine, by B & W. H.
Steam Engine, by B. & W. I.
Steam Engine, by B. & W. K.

Steam Engine, L

Ditto, ditto*, M

Ditto, rlitto', N

Ditto, ditto", 0

Ditto, ditto, P

Ditto, ditto', Q

Ditto, ditto, R

1 Has b'.^n 16 years at work. Teeth much worn. r . , , • ■

2 Ua^ been 16 years at work. This geanng was found rather loo narrow for the strain, as it is wearing much faster than the rest ol the wheels m the

3 Tlie only defect in this Rearing, which has been IC years at work, is the want of breadth in the spur-ttheel and pinion : they ought to have been 6

inches or more, as they will not last half so long as the bevel-wheels and pinions connected with them.

4 This is a tieiter pilch for the power than Q.

5 ilii» wheel has wooden teeth, and has been working for three years past.

6 Ditto.

7 This pitch has been found to be too fine.

EXPLANATION OP THE TABLE OP WHEELS IN ACTUAL I'SE IN HILLWOBK.

The wheels are all reduced to what may be called one denomination.

First — Dy proportioning their breadths all to what they should be to have
the same strength, if the resistances were equal to the work of a steam en-
gine of ten horses' power.

Second — By supposing their pitch lines all brought to the same velocity
of three feet per second, and proportioning their breadths accordingly. I
have chosen this particular velocity of 3 feet per second, because it is the
Telocity very common for overshot water wheels.

Such cases as appear to have worn loo rapidly, are marked, which may
tend to discover the hmit in point of breadth.

The Appendix A on the teeth of wheels by Professor Willis, is an
important and well written paper, already known to the public, through
the Reports of the Proceedings of the British Association, at the meet-
ing held ut Newcastle, and the Transactions of the Institution of Civil
Engineers. The leading feature of this piiper is the development of
a method of making any pinion to work correctly with any wheel of
the same pilch. 'Tlie following extract explains the manner in which
this is accomi>lishcd.

" From among the infinity of cnrvei that may be oifered the epicycloids
and involutes have been universally prefencd, on account of the facility with
which they can be merhanieally denoribed, and perhaps because Ihcy admit
of ready and independent dcuionitrations of their poticising the properties

required. But the practice has liitherto been confined to that class of epicy-
cloids which work correctly with straight hnes or circles. Teeth formed
upon these principles possess this inconvenience, awheel of a given pilch and
number of teeth, say 10 if it be made to work correctly with a wheel of 50
teeth of the same pilch, will not work correctly with awheel of 100 teeth of the
same pitch. This is obvious, for the diameter of the describing circle by which
the epicycloid is formed must be made equal to the ra.lius of the pilch circle
of the wheel with «hich the teeth are to work, and will therefore be twice
as large in the second case as in the tir»l.

In the old style of niillwork in which the teeth of wheels always consisted
of wooden cogs, this property offered no very serious im|>eiliinenl, although
as we shall sec it introduced some complication of method ; but in the mo-
dern practice of making cast iron wheels the objection is a very serious one.
A founder must make a new pattern of a wlieel of 40 teeth for every com-
binalion thai it may be required to make uf this wheel with olliers, and the
same for a wheel of any other number. Besides, it often hap|)cns in ma-
chinery that one wlieel is required to drive two or more, whose number of
teeth arc dilTirenl, and in this case the teeth cannot be correctly formed at all
on the common principles ; ond again the |ierfeclion of machinery is impaired
from the temptation to employ in one combination patterns which have tieeii
formed for another combination very nearly the same, for example, Io make
a wheel of 40 teeth Ihal has been formed to work with one of 811, serve fur a
reipiired combination of 41) «illi 85.

" It is essentiul llicrefurc that the teeth of wheels should if possible be •«
formed as to allow a given wheel to work correctly with any other wheel of

30

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

the same p'.tcli. Xow it has long been known that involute teeth have this
property, but the objections to tljese teetli on the score of the obliquity of
their action have operated fatally against their introduction. I sliall now
therefore explain a metliod of impartiuc; to epicycloidal teeth tliis property,
and that without making them deviate very much from the gencial form
winch has been establislicd by practiee.

" To effect this it is merely necessary to employ a proposition well known
and stated by almost every writer on the subject, namely, if there be two
pitch circles touching eacli other, then an epicycloidal tooth formed by caus-
ing a given describing circle to roll on the exterior circumference of tiie one
will work correctly with an interior epicycloid formed Ijy causing the same
describing circle to roll on the interior circumference of the other. This
proposition liaving been already demonstrated, it is unnecessary for me to
dwell upon it longer than to remark that our author (Buchanan) like all other
writers on tlie sidiject, has passed from it to recommend for practice that
particular case of it in which tlie describing circle lieing made equal in dia-
meter to tlie radius of the pitch line, the interior epicycloid becomes a radial
straight line, the inconveniences of which practice I have shown. The fol-
lowing corollary is I believe new, and constitutes the basis of the system I
projiose to explain.

" CoROLL.VRV. — If for a set ofii'/ieels nf the same pitch a constant describ-
ing circle be taken and emploi/ed to trace those portions of the teeth ichich
project beyond each pitch line, tjy rolling on the e.rterior circumference, and
those which lie vnthin it, by rolling on its interior circumference, than any
two irheels of this set will work correctly together.

" For in the first place it is well known, and can be sliown from general
principles, that the portion of tootli within the pitch line of a driving wlieel
works only with the portion that lies beyond the pitch line of its follower,
and that its action is confined to tlie approach of the point of contact to the
line of centres, .\fter the point of contact of the teeth has passed that line,
then the case is reversed, and the portion of the driving tooth which lies be-
yond the pitch line is in contact only with that part of its follower's tooth
which lies within its pitch line. Now as a constant describing circle is used
for the whole set, it is clear that the proposition will apply to any pair of
wheels both liefore and after the teeth have passed the line of centres, for in
each case we have an exterior epicycloid working with an interior epicycloid,
and both have been drawn by tlie same describing circle, that is, by the con-
stant circle of the set.

" To carry this scheme into practice it only remains to settle the propci
diameter to be given to this constant describing circle, wliich may be done by
considering the effect of this (its) diameter has upon the form of the tooth.

" Let B C ?j be a pitch circle
whose centre is O, then upon this
system tlie flank of the tooth or
that portion which lies within the
pitch circle will be an arc of an
interior epicycloid (or hy|)0cy-
cloid) m' n or m n. Now if the
describing circle be of half the
diameter of the pitch line, the
flank will become a straight line
coinciding with the radius O n.
If the describing circle be of less
than half the diameter of the
pitch line, the flank m n will be
concave, and the base of the tooth
will spread. But if the describ-
ing circle he more than half the
diameter, the flank m' n will be
convex, and the base of the tooth lessen inwards, a form manifestly unpractical
and useless. Hence the describing circle must not be greater than half the
diameter of the pitch line.

" On the other hand if the diameter be too small the base of the tooth will
spread inconveniently, and the curvature of the exterior epicycloids be inju-
riously increased, therefore on these grounds it should lie made as large
as it can, consistently with the limitation just stated, so that we finally obtain
this rule for fimling the diameter of the constant describing circle for a set of
wheels.

" Make it equal to the radius of the least pitch circle of the set.
'■ .\ud as pinions sliould never have less than 12 or It teeth, it would be
well to establish one of these numbers as the least pitch circle.

■■ The proposition and corollary being perfectly general, will apply to racks
which must be considered as (portions of) very large wheels, and also to an-
nular or internal wheels. Accordingly, if the constant describing circle be
employed in tracing their teeth, they will work correctly with any wheel of
the set."

In page ll'.\ Professor Willis describes a moile of drawing the
teetli of wheels by means of compasses, that will work upon the pre-
ceding principles, and which, though not inatheniaticaUv exact, is
suthciently so for practical purposes. We shall endeavour to describe
this metliod without the aid of a diagram.

First describe the pitch circle — draw a diameter, and from the ex-
tremity of the diameter, with a radius of one-fourth of llie diameter,
set oil' an arc of the pilcli circle. The point of iutersectiuu is the
centre from wliicli with the same radius, tliat part of the side of the

tooth extending beyond the pitch line is to be swept. To describe
that portion of the tooth within the pitch line, draw a line through the
extremity of the diameter, which makes an angle of 7.5^, with the line
of centres, and fix upon a point in this line suilicientlv low down to
give a moderate concavity to the inner portion of the tooth when
swept from that point as a centre. In the description of this method
in page 1-19, the word "radius" is twice put for the word "diameter."
There are various similar mistakes in other parts of tlie work.

The Appendix B on Roofs, by Mr. James Nasmyth, is a highly in-
teresting paper, it explains the great utility of the lathe with the slide
rest, and its importance to engineers.

The plates attached to the work are for the most part excellent,
they exhibit several splendid specimens of machinery to be found in
tlie manufactories of government and mechanical engineers of the first
class. The typography is of the very first quality, and reflects much
credit upon the parties concerned in the production. Notwithstanding
the imperfections we have pointed out, the work will, we are confident,
meet with an extensive sale. The subject of niillwork is an important
one, and there is no better treatise upon it than this edition of Bu-
chanan's essays.

The Companion to Ihi .Almanac, lS-1'2.

Our Christmas companion always affords us much pleasure, contain-
ing as it does a general view of the progress of many public works in
this country. In the volume for the present year, we have some very
excellent specimens of architecture, w liich clearly show that we mo-
derns are not quite so far below the ancients as to be unworthy of
notice. Liverpool before many years will have in St. George's Hall
and the New Assize Courts, judiciously combined under one roof, and
forming a splendid facade of the Corinthian order 420 feet in length,
with a portico in the centre of 200 ff>et, one of the most splendid
buildings in the country. The name of the talented architect is Mr.
W. H. Lonsdale Elmes, the son of Professor Elmes, and it is with
pleasure we learn that he is a very young member of the profession,
for the design is one of promise. Sincerely do we hope that the
Liverpool corporation will not frustrate him in carrying out his views;
if allowed to carry out the design to the extent he proposes, Liverpool
may then be justly proud of having a noble edifice.

l>y the same architect there is also another building, and in tlie
same town, the Liverpool Collegiate Institution, which shows that Mr.
Elmes is equally able in the Gothic as he is in the classic. The wood
engraving, which is very badly got up, does not do the architect jus-
tice ; we fortunately have seen the drawings and can speak of the
building from them, and hope that we shall be able to illustrate our
Journal with a view of the building, together with that of St. Georgt's
Hali. The other buildings illustrated in the book before us, are
Strtatkam Church, arcliitect, Mr. Wild ; St .Mary's Church, Soulhmark,
architect, Mr. B. Ferrey, who, as our autlior observes, has shown great
discretion in not attempting too much, but endeavouring to produce
efFect by form rather than by decoration. Trinity Chapel, Poplar,
architect, Mr. Hoskins; he has displayed considerable judgment in the
construction of the roof, by which means a clerestory, is very ingeniously
obtained, "containing five windows on each side over the galleries,
and is formed within the general line of the roof in such a manner that
it is not visible externally." — Sarings Bank, Bath, architect, Mr.
Alexander. "The structure is entirely faced with freestone, and is a
tasteful piece of Italian aslylar composition stamped by certain vigour
and breadth.

We perceive that Oxford is making progress with its various archi-
tectural works.

Bartlett's Index Gcologicus.

This is a diagram 3 ft. C in. tiy 2 ft. 9 in., containing a coloured section of
all the geological strata, with conijilete catalogues of the fossil animal and
vegetable remains, and of the series of minerals peculiar to eacli. Anotlier
column contains "statistics of tbc soils and indigi-ncms flora," and the locali-
ties where the separate strata prevail, not only in Great Britain, but in other
parts of the world, are jiarticularly specified.

As a complete table of convenient reference, embracing in a highly con-
densed form and great body of information wiiich bad heretofore to be sought
amid heaps of scattered materials throughout the works of many different
authors. We strongly recommend the Jndi'r Geotogicus to agriculturists,
engineers, students in geology, and all others interested in this most imjiortant
branch of natural history.
-■/ Description and Historical Account of the Churches in the Dieision of

Ifolland, in the County if Lincoln, with Illustrations. By Stephen Levvin.

The fii■^t numl er of this moik contains views of Kirton Church and Algar-

1S42.]

THE CIVIL EXGINEEIl AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

31

kirk Church, and also a view under the Tower of Boston Church. To those
who feel nn interest in the many splendid Churches to be found in the rich
diocese of Lincoln, we rccomn^cnd a look at this work.

Tyax's Geology of Emjland and ll'alrt. By Samuel Hughes, C.K.

AVe have before us I'art the first of a cheap Geological Atla*, whith contains
a map of the distiict round the metropnhs, with a de'-criplioii. The eililor-
ship has been entrusted to Mr. Samuel Hughes, and the work appears to us
for accuracy to he superior to any of its predecessors, while being at the same
time a detailed map, it is much more availabk- for all purposes.

The Raibraya of Great Britain and Irdmid. By Francis Whishaw, C.E., &c.

Additional Plates.

This is an interesting .iildcnda to .Mr. Whisbaw's large work, which wc
noticed a few months since; the first plate shows the Icneth, summit, and
general levels of the main English lines above the Trinity high w.iter datum —
the next plate contains drawings of six different wheels in use upon railways,
the third and last plate is a curiiuH iliagram exhibiting at one view the prices
of railway shares on the London Sloik Exchange, from the first commence-
ment of the railway to the end of October 1810.

An Ettay on jirchitectural Practice. By T. L. Walker, Arch. F.R.S.B.A.

This essay is the first section on the ronstruction of general working draw-
ings; it contains the contract drawings, speciliration and bill of quantities of
one of the New Churches built under the author's siiperintendanre, in the
vicinity of Bcthnal Green. The ilrawings are shown with great clearness,
with their dimensions correctly marked thereon, and the specification is well
drawn,detailing with great pcrsjiicuity the nature of the work to be executed.
The student will find this essay a good example for study, to whom we
strongly recommend it.

CHUBB'S P.\TENT WELL-SAFE.

Mant parties purclia.iinR fire-proof safes, would gladiv avail them-
selves of the further security, bv depositing tliem in a well, or pit,

under ground ; but tliey liave been unable to do so, in consequence of
the space required, and cumbrous nature of the apparatus hlllierto
employed in r.tising nn.l lowering the safe : Mr. Chubb lias provided
against this inconveiiience, by bis newly-invented apparatus, as shown
ill the anilfexcd engtaving.

The Safe, which stands in lis appropriate place in the coimting-
licuse, may be lowered to any depth, by means of machinery concealed
in a protecting encasement under the 'floor; the movement is effected
by means of nieclianical action, which any individual can perforin, and
the .Safe is lowered or raised, in an incoiisiderable time, without noise,
or the possibility of d.inger to any one. Bnt an additional safety, of
special importance, that of concealment to the whole, is prov ideil bv
the iron fire-proof door, level with the floor of the apartment, anil
secured by a strong detectcir loci;, with bolts throning each way. It
will be at once obvious, that this mode of securing the .Safe under
ground, will aflbrd effectual and entire security against the most ex-
traordinary ravages of fire, or the danger arising from the occasional
violence of riotous attacks for the purposes of depredation.

MISCELLANEA.

KiiifilUibriHgf Improvevienls. — The Cannnn Briwery and the Kox and Bull
public-house have been taken down to nr^ke room lor a splendid arrhiliclural
entrance into Hyde park, to be called the "Albert Kntrance." The houses
o eilhir .«ile aliaig the park, extending to the Horse Barracks, belong to
the Dean and Chapter of ^\■estmlnstn■. In furmer limes, priiir to the disso-
lution of tlie monasteries by Henry VHl., where Lo»ndes-«juarc stands »as
a coppice which supplied the Abbot and ccmvent of M'estminslcr uiih fuel ;
and even to this day the We-slminsler scholars an- permitted to burn large
logs of bcechunod in their dnrmitory. uhich are noiv supplied by the C ollege
porter. M'eslminster Abbey has been, from a very distant pcriocl, sujp'ied
with spring water from an acjuediict at Bayswaler. communicaiing to .i very
pretty (Jothic conduit -bouse ercc:c<l by the Dean and Chapter at the lower
end of the Serpentine in Hyde-park. The pipes are leaden, an I al. hough
they have been under ground fur many centuries are vct perfectly souid.
Thev pass through the (ircen-park and the end of the ornamental 'water in
St. James's-paik. at the spot where a stone is erected, and through IJueen-
square, to the Abbey.

Thr fmprovemenis in Threadnecdie Sirerl. — The building w hich is now in the
course of erection on the site of the old French Protestant church, in Thr.-.id-
needle-slreet, has, for some lime past, attracted the alleniion of all p,i«ers-
by. although it is not yet completed, nor likely to I.e so Inr some months to
come, on account of the nature of ilie ornamrnlal designs, which reciuire the
strictest attention on the l>art of the artists employed. The b.asso-relie( o is
intended to occupy the whole extent of ihe front of the building. Thi- skill
and taste displ.aved in the erection of ibis new edifice are well worthy of ihe
allention of all lovers ol the fine arts, who will do well to take an opportunity
C)f visiting it. The proprietor, who bought the ground from the c ty autho-
rities, after it had been determined to Iiull down the old French church, very
bandsi mely conceded to the latter, without receiving any consideration what-
ever. 10 feet of the entire frontage, for the express purno.se of Riving that
additional width to the street, the narrowness of wliicn has always been
found so excessively inconvenient. This disinterested conduct on the pari of
an individual sb.oukl. and doubtless will, call for h a corres|K)ndlng Ic-eling on
the part of the city authorities, who. with this example betjre them. are. as
it were, bound to proceed with the improveinenis. .-n 1 to con:inue Ihe addi-
tional vidih ihroughout the whole extent of Tbie.idneedle-strcet. If iho
whole of the northern side of Ihe sireel. from Okl Broad. street to the Okl
.South Sia House, were taken down, and thrown Ixick a s|>ace cd ten feet, in
order to correspond with tbe building in ingestion, a noble street would bo
formed, well calculated to make a fine apprench to the new Ko\al Kxcbange.
In fact, we know of no part ol London where a greater dispfav of elegant
architecture will he found, than that which will be exhibited in ihe course of
nixt year in the immediate vicinity of Cornhill and Old Hro,id-sireei. &ic.

.Si/Hc/.r/rt/ic/.— Last month the Ni » Church, recently er.cled at lirptfe.rd.
was consecraled. It is built in the early Kiiglish stvic e.f archiieeiurr. and
is large and Cennmeielious. Icing 110 feel !) inches Icuigbv 54 feci broad. There
are three galleries in ihe church, which is alt> geilii-r capible of selling
about twelve hundred persons, nine hunelred of which arc free sitlinin
I'lic archilect is Mr Tliomas Moure, of Stmderlanel.

Prnfrtnnnhip of .ircliileclurr. I'liinmili/ ro//c;,v.— The move ineiil 05 to archi-
tecliiral i ro essorship continues. Mr. Deinalilson has U-en npp^.inU'd lo ihe
chair in University College, Lonelon, a choice whrh will be of advanti
the ceillege and profes-sion.

TW Tliame^i " Slinm Ship.—'{\\\s spleneliel vessel, built for the West India
Mail Sle.em I'acket Coiiiuany. ma.le a trial trip on I4lh nil. She wn.<e I uilt
by Mr. I'ilcher. of Norlfilleet. and is n fine siircimcn of naval arrh teriuic
for standing sea ."ervice-, an.l al llie same lime having every convenienre for
passengers. I'or ni.-ikmg ilie p:isMnger.s couiforlable every coiilnvance lliat
could be iniroduccel has leeii ihoo^ht ol, while the saloons have born filled
up with great l.-uile anel beaiilifully eleeoralocL Ihe en^ilnes were eon>tnicte<l
bv Messr-. Mauiblaysnnil hleliKanil atcof 400 horse power, bii g maele Jr. m
tbe s.une ipoelels as the Ureal Western, which h.i\e done so much cJclit tu the
tnlen:ed engineers. The »|ved atlalneel at the trial mile In Long Reach was
aUiut twelve' miles through Ihe water.

iitage to

32

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jan.

The King of Prussia has given orjers for the restoration of the palace at
Coblentz. ami it is suiiposecl tliat the Rhenish States will meet tliere and at
Dusseldorf alternately. The Kinp; has ordered 50,000 dollars for the bnilding
of the cathedral at Cologne, and has promised from the treasury 30,000 dol-
lars yearly, in addition to sums for the purchasing up the houses at present
surrounding that magnificent building.

LIST OP NE'W PATENTS.

GBANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 25th NOVEMBER, TO 23rD DECEMBER, 1841.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment,

Robert Wilson, of Sowerby Bridge, Halifax, currier and tanner, for
•^improvements in the tnamtfacfure of leather." — Dec. 2.

William Irving, of Princes-street, Rotherhitbe, gentleman, for "im-
provements in the manvfactitre of bricks and tiles." — Dec. 7.

James Colman, of Stoke Holy Cross, Norfolk, starch manufacturer, for
*' improvements in the manufacture of starch." — Dec. 9.

■William Henry Fox Talbot, of Lacoek Abbey, Wilts, Esq., for " im-
provements in coating or covering metals with other metals, and in colouring
metallic surfaces."^Dec. 9.

John Hall, of Breezes Hill, Ratcliff Highway, sugar refiner, for " im-
provements in the construction of boilers for generating steam, and in the
application of steam to mechanical power." — Dec. 9.

Archibald Templeton, of Lancaster, silk spinner, for " a new or im-
proved method of preparing for spinning silk and other Jibroiis sttbstatices." —
Dec. 9.

Jonathan Guy Dashwood, of Ryde, Isle of Wight, plumber, for " »»-
provements in the construction of cocks and taps." — Dec. 9.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, gentleman, for " improvements in the con-
struction of masts for ships and vessels, and in applying the shrouds." — Dec.
9. (A communication.)

JosiAH Taylor, of I5irmingham, brass founder, for " improvements in the
construction of lamps." — Dec. 9.

Robert Henderson, of Birmingham, china dealer and glass stainer, for
" certain improvements in apparatus for heating and lighting apartments, and
for other like purposes." — Dec. 9.

Henry- Wilkinson, of Pall Mall, gun maker, for " improvements in ma-
chinery to be used in constructing buildings, and in raising and lowering
weights and materials." — Dec. 9. (A communication.)

John Edwards, of Shoreditch, warehouseman, for " improvements in
giving signals on railways." — Dec. 11.

William George Henry Taunton, of Liverpool, engineer, for " im-
provements in machinery for raising weights." — Dec. 11.

William Westley Richards, of Birmingham, gunmaker, for "improve-
ments in the construction of gun and pistol locks and primers for the dis-
charge offre arms." — -Dec. 14.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for "im-
provements in printing and delineating patterns, and printed cloths for floor
cloths, covers, and other uses." — Dec. 14. (A communication.)

Francis Mar, of 81, Eaton-square, Esq., for "certain improvements in
the construction of ships or other vessels, mid the method of propelling them."
Dec. IG. (A communication.)

William Neilson, builder, David Ly'On. builder, and Peter M'Onie,
engineer, all of Glasgow, for " improvements in cutting, dressing, preparing,
and polishing stones, marble, and other substances, and also in forming flat or
rounded monldi7igs, and other flgures thereon." — Dec. 16.

Charles Edward Austin, of Fulham, engineer, for "an apparatus for
what is commonly called ' changing the line,' on railways." — Dec. 16.

James Stewart, of Osnaburg-street, Regent's park, pianoforte maker, for
" an improvement in the construction of castors." — Dec. 1 6.

William Prowett, of Northamptonshire, victualler, for " improvements
in giving signals on railways." — Dec. 1 6.

Henry- Booth, of Liverpool Esq., for " improvements in the method of
propelling vesseh through water" — Dec. 16.

John Norton, of the Junior United Service Club, Regent-street, Esq,, for
" improvements in sheathing ships and other vessels." — Dec. 16.

Antoine Mertens, of the London Coffee-house, publisher, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of plaited fabrics." — Dec. 16.

William Church, of Birmingham, civil engineer, and Jonathan Har-
low, of the same place, manufacturer, for " improvements in the mode of
manufacturing metallic tubes, and in the mode of joining them, or other tubes
or pieces, for various useful purjioses." Dec. 16.

Thomas Starkey", of Birmingham, copper cap manufacturer, for " im-
provements in percussion caps for discharging fire-arms." — Dec. 16.

John Americus Fanshawe, of Ilatfield-street, Christ Church, gentleman,
for " an improved manufacture of waterproof fabric, applicable to the pur-
poses of covering and packing bodies, buildings, and goods, exposed to water
and damp." — Dec. 16.

William Buckwell, of Trinity-street, Borough, civil engineer, for " im-
provements in scaffolding or frame-work for building purposes." — Dec. 16,

Charles Loosev, of Ilalf.moon-street, Piccadilly, civil engineer, for " im-
proveinenls in steam-engines, and which improvements are also applicable irt
raising or forcing ivater and propelling vessels." — Dec. 16.

John Bould, of Overden, Halifax, cotton spinner, for " imp.ovements in
condensing steam-engines." — Dec. 16.

Antoine Jean Francois Claudet, of High Holborn, glass merchant, for
*• improvements in the process or means of, and apparatus for, obtaining
images or representations of nature or art." — Dec. 18.

Henry Hough Watson, of Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster, consulting
chemist, for " improvements in dressing, stiffening, and finishing cotton, and
other fibrous substances, and textile and other fabrics, part or parts of which
improvements are applicable ta the manufacture of paper, and also to some
of the processes or operations connected with printing calicoes and other
goods." — Dec. 21.

William Edward Newton, of the Office for Patents, 66, Chancery-lane,
civil engineer, for " improvements in lamps and burners, and in the means of
supplying air and heat thereto, for the support of combustion." — Dec. 21.
(A communication.)

William Newton, of the Office for Patents, 66, Chancery-lane, civil en-
gineer, for " improvements in cleansing wool, and facilitating the operation of
dyeing ; and also in washing and bleaching cotton yarns or fabrics." — Dec.
21. (.4 communication.)

Ovid Toph.^m, of Whitecross-street, engineer, for " improvements in en-
gines, machines, apparatus, or means for extinguishing or stopping the pro-
gress of fire in any room or part of different buildings, which may have be-
come ignited, such as noblemen or gentlemen's mansions, houses, factories,
store and warehouses, and consequently preserving them from destruction, and
preventing the loss of life." — Dec. 21.

George Palmer Henry-, of Peckham. chemist, for " improvements in
apparatus, to be applied to the glass chimneys of gas burners." — Dec. 21.

John Cox, of Gougie Mills, Edinburgh, tanner and glue-maker, for " im-
proved processes of tanning." — Dec. 21.

John Oliver York, of Upper Coleshill-street, Eaton-square, engineer, for
" improvements in the construction of railway axes and wheels." — Dec. 21.

William Carron, of Birmingham, lathe-maker, for " improvements in
the construction of clogs and pattens." — Dec. 21.

V/iLLiAM Henry Smith, of Finsbury Chambers, Bloomfield-street, ciril
engineer, for " improvements in the construction and manufacture of con-
nectors or fastenings, applicable to garments, and other uses." — Dec. 21.

Adolphe Fourment, of Museum-street, engineer, for " improvements in
castors for cabinet furniture, and other purposes." — Dec. 21.

Thomas Wright, of Church lane, Chelsea, Lieutenant in the Royal Navy,
and Alexander Bain, of Percival-street, Clerkenwell, mechanist, for " im-
provements in applying electricity to control railway engines and carriages,
to mark time, to give signals, and print intelligence at distant places." — Dec.
21.

Henry Alphonse Bonnevialle Bouveiron, of Trevor-square, mer-
chant, for •' improvements in axletress." — Dec. 21. (A communication.)

William Burge, of Bristol, sign painter, for " improvements in propelling
vessels." — Dec. 21.

William Carr Thornton, of Cleckheaton, machine-maker, for " im-
provements in machinery or apparatus for making cards for carding cotton
and other fibrous substances. — Dec. 21.

John Watson, of Chorley, Lancaster, Gent., for " improvements in the
construction of filters, used in the manufacture of sugar." — Dec. 23.

William Baillien, of Gloucester-street, Queen-square, Bloomsbury,
musician, for " improvements in apparatus to expand ttie human chest,"—
Dec. 23.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

On account of the Jndex, SfC., being more than usually heavy, this month, wc
have been obliged to postpone some valuable communications, parlicuiarly one on
Egyptian archilecture, and also the important evidence respecting the explosion of
a boiler at Manchester.

Communications from " Seyton '' and others must stand over.

" A Civil Engineer.'* Several designs have been submitted to the Corporation
of the City of London, for the improvement of Holborn Hilt.

" 13." must, upon consideltttion, see that wc cannot insirt his communication, for
our Journal might be filed with similar announcements.

All controversial articles must be subject to our cutting them as sliort as pos-
sible, for- we do not wish to extend discussions unnecessarily ; too often they con-
tain a great deal of acrimony.

"A." His communication wants revising; will he do vs the favour to say
where it can be sent for correction.

Commnnications are requested to be addressed to " The Editor of the Civil
Engineer and Architect's Journal," No. 11, Parliament Street, JVestminster.

Boohs for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20tli (if with draivings, earlier), and advertisements on or before tlie ibth
instant.

Vols. I, II, HI, and IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

33

THE NATIONAL SCOTCH CHURCH,
CROWN COURT, BOW STREET.

The tasle and feeling which a professor of architecture brings to
the practice of his art, may be evinced not alone by his style of erect-
iag new buildings, but in a scarcely inferior degree by a judicious
alteration of old ones, and though it is not our practice to notice these
latter, we think ourselves justified in departing from it, in the instance
of the Scotch National Church exhibited in the annexed wood engrav-
ing, which has lately been remodelled by Mr. Robert Wallace.

This structure, being under every disadvantage of situation, is likely
to be seen by few ; having its " locus " in a retired spot called " Crown
Court," which forms a connecting link or thoroughfare between Bow
Street, Covent Garden, and Little Russell Street.

Though far from being an erection of yesterday, the claims of the
original building do not reach to aniiquilij ; it would appear in fact, to
have been erected something like a century ago, when Presbyterian-
ism and plainness were held to be synonymous, and when the "Scots'
Kirk," notwithstanding its national character, and the legislative sanc-
tions under which it exists in the sister kingdom, ranked only in the
public mind m a variety of the Methodist or dissenting chapel. The
conventicle or sectarian character was, up to September last, broadly
impressed upon it. Its plain brick front, extending to GO feet, was
pierced in the upper part by a range of 7 semi-circular headed sash
windows, between which and the lower openings, consisting of 5
windows with outside shutters, and 2 wood door pieces, with fan-
lights; over, was a considerable space (10 ft.) of plain brick-
work, occasioned by the steep rise of the gallery within. The pro-
jection of the porches was about 34 feet, leaving an unoccupied space
or area intermediately, and at the ends, enclosed by au iron railing.

With these elements for the architect to deal with, and with the de-
siderata impressed upon him, 1st, of imparting to the building an
ecclesiastical character, and 2nd, of obtaining an external access to
the galleries, without injury to the existing lights, he has produced
the fa9ade represented in our engraving, the round-headed windows
which prevailed throughout the upper story of the building, having
suggested the Norman style. It may help to explain the diagram to
observe, that the large open arch in the centre of the front gives
access to the new external stone stairs, which ascend to the right and
left (passing over the heads of the two ground Boor entrances) between
the pierced screen and the miin wall : that the two higher features
which break and give variety to the line of front, result from the ne-
cessity of forming a headway to the staircases, continued up in them,
and entering to the highest level of the gallery, below the sills of the
two extreme windows, which receive their light from the front and
lateral openings in the towers which mask them in the view. It may
further be observed that all the apertures m the new front are open or
unglazed (except the two lowest ones in the turrets) in order not to
impede the light to the old ones in the main fabric, all of which retain
their old forms and positions.

The principal alteration in the interior, coasisting of a large semi-
circular arch behind the pulpit, emliracin|; in its infrados two smaller
ones glazed heraldically, is in correspondence with the exterior, while
the pulpit, gallery front, and fittings, it was thought justifiable to
render into the Tudor tasle.

34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Fkb.

ON REVERSING ENGINES.

Fig. 1. — Section oi Smoke-box.

Fig. 2.— Transverse View of Smoke-box.

Sir — As we have seen in your pages a plan of reversing engines,
signed G. Coe, civil engineer, which is in principle similar to ours, of
which we have been constructing a small sectional model for a locomo-
tive engine, we take the liberty of sending you a small sketch of it, with
the request, if you think it worth your attention, to give a place in
your Journal. Figs. 1 and 2, show only those parts of a locomotive
engine, which are wanted for the explanation of our new improve-
ment.

A is the steam-pipe which carries the steam into a cylinder B, fixed
in the smoke-box. In the cylinder B, of about 8 inches inside diame-
ter, move 2 pistons C and D, connected by a pipe E, which can be cast
between the pistons, as the distance between C and D must be always
the same. The piston rod is connected with the pistons by means of
a boss fixed to D, by 3 stays, and is guided in the stuffing boxes G
and H. On the top of the cylinder B, is the exhausting pipe F, on
its sides are short pipes K K' and L L', which have a section of Sin. by
liin., where they enter the cylinder, and a round section on the other
end.

The steam cylinders M M', have instead of valve boxes, cylinders
N and N', with pistons 1 and 2, similar to those in the cylinder B,
and those cylinders N and N' are connected with B by means of the
pipes K K' and L L. The pistons 1 and 2 will act exactly like a
common valve in respect to shutting and opening the steam pas-
sages 3 and 4 of the steam cylinders M M', as they are moved by
a common eccentric, (keyed to the crank shaft) by means of the levers
R S and Q F.

As we have given now all the explanation of the different parts shown
in the sketch, we will next explain how we start, reverse, and stop the
engine, without disengaging the spindles of the pistons 1 and 2, from
their eccentric rings.

Suppose the engine is to start in the direction shown by the arrow
the stand of the pistons C D in the cylinder B, would be as the sketch
shows it. The steam will pass through the pipe E, go through the
pipes L L, down to the cylinders N N', round the pipe 5 through the
passage 3, into the steam cylinder, and drive the piston in the direc-
tion of the arrow ; the steam on the other side of the piston will pass
through the passage to the pipe 5, up through K K', and enter the
cylinder B, from where it can freely exhaust by the pipe F. If it is
wanted to stop the engine, the rod O is moved, by means of a lever or
a handle with a screw above the fire-box, towards B, till the pistons
cover the pipes L L', in that case the pipes K and K' will still allow
the steam to pass round the pipe E, into the pipe F, and as there is
not any more steam entering the steam cylinders, the engine will stop.
It is clearly to be seen that the engineer has it quite in his power to
change the areas of the pipes L L', by moving the pistons backwards
or forwards, without altering the areas of the pipes K K'.

To show now the reversing of the engine, the rod O is moved in the
direction towards B, so that the piston D' opens the communication
between the pipes L L' and the exhausting pipe F; and by this the
pipes K K' will come in communication with the steam pipe A. The
steam will pass through K K',the pipe 5, and the passage from 2 into the
steam cylinder, and force the piston 6 in the reverse way ; the steam
from the other side of the piston passes through the passage 3, round
the pipe 5, up through the pipes L L', and out in the exhausting pipe F.
After this explanation it will be seen that by moving our apparatus
for moving the engine, a regulator is not required.
We have now to describe how to get lead.

There is only one broad eccentric keyed to the crank shaft, with
two eccentric rings, each having a circular slot, which is shown in
fig. 3.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

35

Suppose DOW the pin of the lever S (moving the piston rod w, by
means of the lever R on the shaft P), stands in the point 2, then the
engine would have no lead, but as the friction between the eccentric
and its ring, wanU to take the ring with the eccentric, it will go round
with it till the pin of the lever S has come in the point 1, when it will
have the position wanted for the lead. When the engine is reversed
the eccentric ring will turn with the eccentric till the pin of the lever
S has arrived in the point 3, which will then give the position re-
quired for the lead of the reverse of the engine. The eccentric line 2
of the circular slot of the other eccentric ring for the adjoining ma-
chine, stands in an angle of 90 degrees to the centre line of the circular
slot of the other eccentric ring, through which the lever T and Q,
works the piston rod of the adjoining machine.

The levers R and S, and T and Q, can work on a fixed shaft P, by
means of loose bushes, or the shaft P has to be divided in two, and
then the levers can be keyed or forged on the shaft.
We are, Sir,

Your obedient servants,

H. AND P.
15, Bedford Street,
Chorltoii'Upon-Shedlock, Manchaler.

BRAITHWAITE'S APPARATUS FOR DISCONNECTING THE PADDLE WHEEL OF STEAM VESSELS

FROM THE ENGINE.

Fig. 1.— Side view.

Fig. 2. — Section.

In' our last number we gave a description of aa
apparatus for connecting ana disconnecting the paddle
wheels of marine engines. We have now another
apparatus to describe, which appears equally as effec-
tive, and very simple in its action. It has Utely been
tried at Woolwich, on board H. M. steam vessel
" Kite," and found to answer the purposes intended ;
it is the invention of Messrs. Braithwaite, Milner
& Co., of the New Road. The annexed drawings ami
description fully explain its action.

A, Paddle wheel shaft.

B, Crank pin.

C, Cast iron disc keyed to shaft.

D, Brass friction band fixed by screws to the ex-
ternal wrought iron rim G.

E^ Brass friction break.

F, Iron key wedge, head, 4"xli".

G, External rim, 2i"X6" of cast iron keyed to
crank pin.

For the purpose of disconnecting the crank, it is
only necessary to drive out the key, which imme-
diately relieves the brass break E from pressing
against the cast iron disc, and allows either the ex-
ternal rim and the crank or the internal disc and shaft
to revolve independently of each other.

For the purpose of connecting the apparatus, it is
only requisite to drive in the keyed wedge, which
forces the brass break E against the iron disc.

ON THE PROPORTIONS OF STRAPS FOR DRIVING

MACHINERY.
Sir — Although the subject of the present communication may, to
some of your readers, appear of a nature too frivolous, or not alto-
gether adapted to the character of your journal, it is still a subject of
the must frequent occurrence to the practical mechanic, and probably
that which receives the least of his attention. However, I cannot
recollect ever seeing in print any rule or proportion relative to the
breadths of straps for driving. Probably this is owing to the great
variety of circumstances to which straps are subject, and which difler
more or less in almost every case ; such for instance as horizontal,
vertical, long, short, open, and crossed straps, the pliability of the
leather, and so on. A horizontal stmp is better than a short one, and
a long horizontal strap will always perform its work with much

greater ease than a short one. A crossed strap, whether horizonta
or vertical, is known to be more powerful than an open one, &c. But
I will not pretend to give any rule for determining the power of a
strap ; the object of tbis communication is, to direct your attention
to a combinatwn of str.ips.

In a combination, that is, a number of straps one working another
over drums and pulleys for multiplying the number of revolutions, it
is very common for one or two of the straps to be constantly breaking
or giving way, while the others work for montlis and months without
requiring the least repair. The straps which most frequently gel out
of repair are generally those which tr.ivel at the greatest velocity, ami
it is to the rapidity of their motion that their frequent breaking, Sic,
I is generally attributed ; but 1 am inclined to think that this is not the
real cause, in proof of which I will here give an instance of a very
recent occurrence that came under my notice.

36

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

The annexed sketch shows the arrange-
ment of the drums, straps, &c. The
strap A was 4i inches broad, B, on account
of its greater velocity, was at first made
only 2 inches broad, but when it came to
be tried the consequence was, its not being
able to drive the machine without being so
tight as to be constantly breaking, where-
fore it was replaced by one an inch broader;
this too was far from performing its work
in a satisfactory manner. Although this
strap was two-thirds as broad as the driv-
ing strap A, and travelled at a velocity
three times as great, it was still found ne-
cessary to increase its breadth to 4 inches, and even then it required considerably more atten-
tion to prevent it from slipping than A.

The peculiarity of this circumstance induced me to give the matter a little consideration.
The proportions of the pulleys were such as caused the velocity of B to be three times as great
as that of A; this informed me that a given force applied to C would only produce one-third of
its effect atD, and consequently, that the strap A demanded a breadth three times that of B,
which I knew not to be the case in practice. A second thought reminded me of having occa-
sionally observed the pulley E perfectly still, at the same time the strap B was carried round
with the drum D at full velocity. This pointed my attention towards the very small amount of
strap-surface acting upon E, compared with that acting upon C. At this moment it occurred
to my mind, that the breadth for the strap B, necessary to communicate power to E proportional
to that possessed by C, depended not upon the breadth of the strap A, but upon the amount
of its surface acting upon the circumference ofC

I next proceeded to ascertain the length of strap aC a, which being multiplied by 44 inches
(its breadth), gave 12 1-5 inches, the amount of its surface in contact with the pulley. Then
as 1 (the velocity of A) : 121'5 : : 3 (the velocity of B) : 40-5 the amount of surface required to act upon E. Now 40-5 -^ 8 inches
(length of strap acting at c E c) =: 5- &c. 1 was then clearly convinced that the strap B, which had been increased from 2 to 4 inches
broad, demanded a breadth of 5 inches to render it capable of producing an effect upon E proportional to that produced by A upon C.

In some instances straps thus proportionate may require to be of an unsightly breadth, but then is it not evident that in such cases, the
first determined strap is broader than necessary ? However, I am of opinion that in many cases of ordinary occurrence, the broad straps
are more suitable to occupy the situations of the narrow ones, and vice versa. In conclusion, I trust, supposing what I have here said to
be successful in conveying my meaning, that those whose curiosity may lead them to give the subject a little consideration, will with my-
self agree, that the breadths of straps in a combination ought no/, as cog wheels, to be proportionate to their velocity; but that their
breadths are dependent oa the amount of their surface acting upon the smaller pulleys, in proportion inversely to their velocities.

I am. Sir, in every respect,

Your humble servant,
Vesper.

Lads, January 11, 1842.

ON ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT. (TO H. S.)

The remarks on architectural precedent by H. S. were particularly
pertinent, and would have been perfectly clear, had the concluding
paragraph been omitted; but the opinion there expressed is very far
from self-evident, and will certainly require further explanation. Our
endeavours should always be to surpass our predecessors in the scale
of excellence, not by undervaluing them, while we remain stationary,
to prove that they are inferior to ourselves; and something more is
surely required than a neat antithesis, to depreciate the character of a
people whose works, whether of art or literature, have been the
delight of men of taste for more than 2,000 years.

The system of classical education 50 years ago might well keep up
the prejudice against Gothic architecture; but that is now in a great
measure done away, and the evil of architectural precedents is as
great as ever, and influences Gothic quite as much as Grecian. There
must therefore be some other cause for the evil than that cited by H. S.

Every ancient building is useful in the education of an architect, as
exhibiting what has been produced by the genius of our predecessors,
and what method of proceeding circumstances have induced them to
adopt. Grecian architecture affords specimens of carefully-studied
and accurately-beautiful proportions ; the grandeur produced by sim-
plicity of plan and construction, and the careful treatment of detail :

and the excellence of their sculpture, which no one has ever questioned,
indicating a superiority in one branch of art, demands from us a more
careful examination of their architecture than a superficial view might
first appear to render necessary. Roman exhibits the effect of
magnitude, combined with greater multiplicity of parts, increased com-
plexity of plan, and skill in construction. In Gothic we see a rather
less complicated plan — the extreme of constructive skill — and a gran-
deur of effect united with a richness and delicacy of detail combining
in this respect the excellencies of the Greeks and Romans. In the
same manner something may be learned from every style, Egyptian,
Indian, Mahometan, &c. From these studies the architect discovers
the principles of taste, and the power of criticising not only the works
of others, but what is more difficult, his own. At the same time that
he is profiting by their experience he must exercise bis invention by
constant practise, and he need not fear the greatest exuberance of
fancy, if restrained by good taste, being only dangerous where it ob-
tains the mastery over judgment. Beyond this, as materials, which
are the common property of every body to cut and remodel, or copy
with such variations only as indicate that while we assume the manner
we entirely disregard the spirit, they are absolutely worse than
useless. This, however, is the abuse, and should not discourage a
judicious use of them.

J. L.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

37

DITTO TO H. S.

Sir — Of the "Hints on Arcliitectiiral Criticism," I say notliiiig, they
being to me as mysterious as Lord Burleigh's shake of iiis liead, and
□0 doubt equally significant, althougli few, I suspect, can comprehend
the writer's meaning ami " attitude." But the paper of your Derby
correspondent, H. S., has afforded me very great satisfaction; for, as
far as it goes, it is exceedingly sensible, and very much to the pur-
pose. Without at all unden-aluing the merits of classical architecture,
without depreciating it in itself, it is time for us to get rid of that
extravagant pedantry and that bigoted reverence for it, which are for
the most part no better than cant. And it is owing to this cant, by the
bye, that the belief in the vast superiority of the ancient orders is "so
universal," such belief being adopted ready-made, without inquiry or
investigation, and consisting of little more than "raptures learnt by
rote."

Were it found that ancient architecture accommodates itself per-
fectly to, and is all-suiiicient for, our purposes at the present day, there
might be something like reason in deprecating any departure from its
precedents. Such, however, is by no means the case ; on the con-
trary, it inevitably becomes more or less changed in its character — iu
some instances, has been most of all metamorphosed by those who
affect the greatest veneration for it. It is, therefore, quite absuril to
lay so much stress as is done on the mere copying by routine a few
details, when, after all, the aggregate effect — the ensemble — must be
totally unlike that of the structures from which some of the individual
parts are mechanically borrowed. Surely, if an architect does not
scruple to iitnorale so largely as to introduce windows within por-
ticos, or between Grecian columns, — if he does not consider features
of that kind as at all foreign to classical architecture, or as derogatory
from its so greatly-extolled simplicity and purity, — it is most con-
temptible affectation, or something still w orse, to insist upon, and even
make a merit of, strictly cojiying the mere conventional embellish-
ments of the order itself that happens to be employed, and which is for
the most part dragged in, sometimes with, but oftener without, any
appearance of utility or pt'opriety. In fact, such pretended veneration
for the models of antiquity is seldom little better than a plausible
excuse for not bestowing any study on, or attempting any originalitv
in regard to the character of an order — even such modification as
would render it more of a piece with the rest ; whereas, as now-
treated, the classical order chiefly serves to show how very unclassical
the structure itself is. In fact, it is only cant on the one hand, and
custom on the other, which reconcile us to the practice of /i(i.''hiiig-iijj
(■irecian architecture after the fashion we do, sticking the columns
borrowed from some antique example before a building full of win-
<lows, the latter being, perhaps, only so many holes in the wall. Except
that custom is not in its favour, it would not be a whit more prepos-
terous to introduce pointed windows of rich design into an otherwise
perfectly plain front, and pass it off as a specimen of the Gothic style.

Under the plausible pretext of reverential respect for the prece-
dents of antiquity, its ultra admirers would limit us at the present day
to "servile copy ism," although necessarily imperfect in itself ; and
strenuously set their faces against, and deride, even beforehand, any
attempt to originate novelty in architectural <letail. Most trium-
phantly do they refer to previous failures, although the last in fact
prove nothing, except that those who made the unlucky experiments
were in every respect unfitted for the task they assumed, since they
plainly showed themselves to have no principle of taste in common
with that of the ancients. To enlarge upon the present system of the
orders requires a taste lal'.-iiounthed by previous study of them, and
not, as seems to be assumed, mere fanciful caprice and whim. Kithcr
architecture is not a fine art at all, or it admits of originality and
invention— guided, be it understood, by judgment and good taste. It
most assuredly does not follow, that everyone is capable of displaying
those qualities; yet, though it maybe advisable for the many to
adhere with exactness to established precedents, as being by far their

safer course, that Is no reason whatever why all without distinction
should be interdicted from exercising their originality ; nor is it in
accordance with common sense, that no liberty of invention shoidd be
allowed, merely because, in aiming at originality, some have run into
the most puerile and tasteless extravagances. Emancipating himself
from precedent, Emiyn invented "a new order," and one so prepos-
terously absurd and tasteless, that it has deservedly covered his name
with ridicule. What then ( Schinkel, also, emancipating himself from
precedent, produced several novel designs for capitals, exhibiting the
most refined and exquisite taste. " But," exclaim the bigots, " we do
not want new capitals or new orders ; the old ones are quite sufficient
for our purpose :" which is but a very sorry kind of argument in
matters of art. They assure us, moreover, that it is impossible for us
to improve upon the ancient orders, or to produce anything new that
shall rival them. Yet this is but silly and evasive reasoning ; they
might as well tell us that St. Paul's was intended as an improvement
upon the Parthenon, and is consequently a decided failure. If origi-
nality can produce what is good in itself, it is not to be condemned
because it may happen to fall sliort of foregone excellence.

Ditto.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXIV.

■ 1 niiist have iiberly
Willial, .IS larj^e a charier as '.he Hintfs,
To blow on '.i liwn I |.!tafc.''

I. We have had both Rejected Addresses, and Rejected Articles,
and why not Rejected Designs ? Were some productions of the latter
kind published, they would assuredly be of service, either one way or
other ; either by reconciling us to those which have been preferred to
them, and carried into execution, or by showing what sort of t.iste and
judgment it is that generally decides in such matters. That the best
design offered is invariably the one selected, is what people in general
may suppose, it being according to common sense that such should b«
the case; but it is what no one who is in the slightest degree conver-
sant with such transactions will for a moment believe. We have seeu
rejected designs, which have been in every respect greatly superior
to the une that has been adopted, and which could have been executeil
for the same sum, if not even for less. Greatly, therefore, is it to be
desired, that some " coiitrasls" of the kind should be published, in
order to let peojile see how much better things they might have had
than what they have now got, and what kind of wiseacres they are
whom they suffer to choose for them. In one point of view, such con-
trasts would be amusing enough, yet in another they would he sadly
mortifying; still, the very mortification itself might have salutary
consequences, by teaching greater caution for the future, and making
Competition Committees more careful and scrupulous, from the dreail
of ultimately committing themselves.

U. Mr. Thomas Roscoe shows himself to be either the most men-
dacious or most ignorant of writers, when he assures us that Burgos
cathe<lral bears a striking resemblance to that of York. " lis steeples,"
he says, " terminating in spires, and vast square towers with eight
))innaclcs, correspond ctitcthj with those of the English church ; anii
to complete the likeness, we have a lower octngonnl buibling witil
eight pyramidal turrets, terminating in needles, piercing a star-like
ornament, which the reader will at once recognize as the counterpart
of the Chapter-hou-se at York." Mr. Roscoe's readers may, perhaps,
be capable of swallowing anything ; yet, doubtless, some even of thoni
must have been startled — at le.\st strangely puizlcd and perplexed —

0

83

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Feb.

on compniing that description with the accompanying views by
Roberts, to which it was intended as explanatory ; for if they know
anything at all of the English cathedral, they must have wondered how
any one can trace anv sort of resemblance between the two edifices, or
between their respective Chapter-houses. Whether Roscoe had
\infortunately got hold of a print of York Cathedral at the time,
supposing it to be the representation of that of Burgos, I know not ;
but nothing short of some strange mistake of the kind can account for
lis blundering remarks. It is true, both Burgos and York have two
■western towers, yet so also has St. Paul's ; and therefore, at least as far as
the facade is concerned, he might as well have compared it with that of
the last-mentioned structure. The exact similarity which Roscoe is
lucky enough to be able to perceive between Burgos and York, is
exaclly like that which exists between a dog and a cat, both of them
being animals with four legs and a tail ; and no doubt he would have
pointed out that remarkable coincidence, had he been writing a book
of natural history. The west front of Burgos has two very rich spires
of open-work tracery, and is otherwise of peculiar design, while York
has nothing whatever of the kind. The centre compartment of the
first shows no gable, but terminates in a horizontal deep parapet of
open arches, &c., with a canopied niche in its centre : the other, on
the contrary, has an embattled gable or pediment, covered with tracery.
At Burgos, this portion of the front is divided into two tiers of win-
dows, viz. a large rose window below, and two arched ones above it ;
whereas, at York it has a single large window, gabled and em-
battled, and remarkable for the pattern of its tracery. In fact, there is
no sort of resemblance between the two structures ; since whatever
they have in common constitutes also a decided difference. It may per-
haps be some little excuse for Roscoe, that his Spanish excursion was
merely an invention, and that he travelled no further than to the British
Museum ; whereas, if he really did visit Burgos and the other places
he mentions, he must have forgotten to take his eyes with him.

III. A plague upon all description-mongers of the Roscoe, Ritcliie,
Gore, and Co. genus ' — people who only blunder and bungle most dread-
fully, when they attempt to speak of buildings, and who, to give them
their due, Mrk saying anything about them at all, if they can possibly
avoid it, and find any other filliug-up stuff, no matter what, so that it
does but eke out the quantum of pages, wliich is all many publishers
care for, or indeed, the "intelligent public" also. The letterpress to
Pugin's Paris is a precious specimen of this sort of description ; done,
it would seem, by one of the publisher's shopmen or porters. The
blunders and proofs of ignorance are innumerable; and no w^onder,
when the writer does not even know the difference between a portico
and a portal. Nevertheless he has shown some contrivance, in con-
triving to give dtscriplions of plates, without saying a word relative
to their subjects. Such is the case, for instance, in regard to the view
of the staircase of the Chambre de Paris, where not the slightest in-
formation of any kind is afforded — not even so much as a syllable.

IV. Pedantry, I am happy to say, seems to be far less rife among
the juniors of the profession, the rising generation of architects, than
it has been among their predecessors. They seem to be imbued with
more artist-like feeling, and willing to shake off the trammels of rules
in themselves merely conventional, and little better than hindrances
and obstacles, when allowed to interfere with aesthetic principles.
Probably Professor Hosking has contributed in no small degree towards
this very desirable liberalism in architectural taste, by the remarks
contained in his " Treatise," and by the courage he showed in ven-
turing to impugn the authority of Vitruvius, whose writings may
certainly now be dispensed with, or retained only for their philological
value, since we have now become far better acquainted with ancient
architecture from actual examples of it, and carefully-drawn delinea-
tions of them, than it was possible to be at the time so much importance
■was attached to the work of Vitruvius. The study of those examples has
further tended to show how imperfectly Vitruvius understood his own
art, and to what a plodding mechanical system he endeavoured to reduce
it. Though he indulges in a great deal of idle pompous verbosity and
twaddle, — pretty much as if he was an F.S.A., — on no occasion does
be make a single remark in the spirit of an artist, or say anything that

in the slightest degree amounts to criticism. Of principles he seems
to have no idea ; on the contrary, he is deplorably dull himself, and
his dullness appears to have been hereditary, and to have ever since
infected the greater portion of writings upon architecture since his
time. It is perhaps — or for "perhaps" I should be inclined to say
it is " undoubtedly " — to be regretted that his writings were ever dis-
covered, since they have exerted a most unhappy influence on the art,
checking it in the very bud, when it would else have expanded itself,
if somewhat more slowly, with greater freedom and geniality. But
for that unlucky discovery, architecture would probably never have
fallen into the hands of order-mongers, but have been left to develop
its powers without artificial restraint, as was the case with the Gothic
stvle.

ROBERT STEPHENSON'S NEW LOCOMOTIVE.

With the progress of the locomotive engine, it has, like other
machines of extensive use, attained that period when its economy
becomes of the greatest importance. Influenced by such consider-
ations, Mr. Robert Stephenson has directed his attention to a less
consumption of fuel, and to effecting a more simple arrangement of
the machinery, both of which points have been well managed in his
new engine now running on the York and North Midland Railway.

Economy in the consumption of fuel has been obtained, by adding
considerably to the length of the tubes, without increasing the distance
between the front and back axles of the engine ; consequently the
space occupied by the engine upon the bearing is precisely the
same, therefore no alterations are requisite in the turn-plates, or other
arrangements made for the accommodation of the ordinary locomotive.
The machinery is simplified by placing the axles of all the wheels
under the cylindrical portitn of the boiler, the axle of the front wheels
being placed close to the smoke box, and .the axles of the hind wheels
close to the foremost end of the fire box, instead of the back part.
This arrangement allows the axle of the driving wheels to be placed
in the centre of the other two axles, or at such intermediate distance
as may be found the most suitable for the moving parts.

The alteration in the construction of the boiler and tubing gives a
heating surface of SOU superficial feet, whereas in the ordinary engine
it rarely exceeds 450 feet, being for the new plan a superiority of
fully 350 feet. Such is the effect produced by this addition, that the
temperature of the air escaping in the chimney scarcely exceeds the
temperature of the water in the boiler ; a circumstance which has a
farther beneficial eSsct beyond the economy of fuel, for it has been
found, by increasing the extent of heating surface, and employing
usefully the whole of the heat generated in the fire, that a less violent
draught of air is required ; the consequence is that very few hot
ashes are thrown out of the chimney; this peculiarity is quite
remarkable in the engine now running. A few days since, a journey
of 90 miles was performed by this engine, during which no ashes were
thrown out of the top of the chimney, and at the same time the accu-
mulation in the smoke box was very trifling, not exceeding a fourth of
the usual quantity. As the tendency to eject ashes from the chimney
is dependent upon the speed, it is necessary to state, that the speed
was never below 20 miles per hour, generally exceeded 30, and for
several miles a speed of 48 miles per hour was uniformly attained,
with five loaded coaches.

The consumption of fuel during the above experiment was 19'2 lb.
per mile, with a load of S coaches over half the distance (45 miles),
and 5 coaches over the remaining half. This consumption includes
the whole of the fuel used in lighting the fire and raising the steam.

We may truly say, that we have never witnessed an instance where
speed and economy were combined to the same extent ; indeed, under
no circumstances have we heard of the consumption of fuel being re-
duced to so low a figure. It must, however, be borne in mind, that this

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

39

result is from a single experiment, and that we must not be deluded
by isolated trials ; but we are glad to hear that on the line where the
engine is now working, the Company have ordered an accurate record
of the performance, and quantity of fuel consumed during each trip,
which we hope will be made public.

Mr. Stephenson has introduced tubes of wrought iron, instead of
brass or copper, in order that the increased heating surface might be
obtained without a corresponding augmentation in the price of the
engine. This he has not adopted without making several experi-
ments. During the last twelve montlis, he has had several boilers
working under his own eye with iron tubes, for the special purpose of
determining how far he could recommend them for general adoption.
The result has been all that he could desire; and it is owing in some
degree to this, that lie has introduced them with greater confidence.

Having now described the modification in the boiler, we shall pro-
ceed to point out Mr. Stephenson's alterations in the mechanical
arrangement. In the ordinary engines, the mechanism for working
the slide valves is very liable to derangement, and considerable wear
and tear. This part of the engine he has so far simplified, as to
require only a simple connexion between the eccentrics and slide
valves, thus doing away with a considerable number of moving parts,
which have hitherto given rise to more casualties than any other part
of the ordinary engine. This is attained, by placing the slide valves
vertically on the sides of the cylinders, instead of on the top, as here-
tofore, so that the direction of the sliding motion of the valves, and the
central line of the valve rods, will intersect the central line of the main
axle, at the point where the eccentric is placed. In this case, the
eccentric rods are connected immediately to the prolongation of the
valve rods, without the usual intermediate levers and weigh bars ;
besides the slide valves of both cylinders are placed in one steam
chest, between the cylinders.

Another iiuprovement is that ertected in the working of the feed
pumps : it consists in connecting the ]iuinp rods to the eccentrics
used for reversing the engine. By this arrangement, the velocity of
the moving part of the pump is greatly diminished, by which is secured
greater regularity of action. In addition to what we have already
described, there are several minor alterations, which we cannot fully
explain without giving detailed and elaborate drawings.

The following are the principal dimensions of the engine now
working on the York and North Midland Railway : —

Diameter of cylinder 14 inches.

Length of stroke 20

Diameter of driving wheels 5 J feet.

Ditto of small ditto 3

There are 150 tubes, giving a heating surface of "G5
Copper fire box, with a heating surface of . . 30

Total heating surface
Length of boiler, Including fire and smoke boxes
Weight of the engine in working order

795 feet,
ir feet.
15 tons.

ON THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE OBLIQUE ARCH

WITH SPIRAL JOINTS, AND THE VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES

FOR IT.

Mb. Editor — The interest taken by you in this subject is fully
evinced by your inserting in your journal of 1840 several papers by
the following authors: Edward Parry, C.E., Edinburgh; B. H. B.,
Edinburgh ; (i. W. Buck, W. H. Barlow, Peter Nicholson; and in
l-jll by W. H. Barlow, I'eter Nicholson, and G. W., York; I there-
fore trust you will tind me a comer, being an original subscriber to
your very valuable journal, for some observations on the same
suljject.

The following are the writers on the oblique arch in the order of
lime : —

Rees' Cyclopedia, title. Oblique Arch, by William Chapman,
C.E. ; Encyclopedia Britanuica, On the Oblique Arch, by Thomas
Tredgold; Treatise ou Masonry and Stone-cutting, ISC^, by Peter
Nicholson ; Paper read before Literary, Scientific, and Mechanical
Institution of Newcastle, June, 1833, James Losli, Esq., Recorder of
Newcastle, in the Chair, (>n the Origin and Progress of Architecture,
and of the Arch in particular, and especially to sho»v that W. Chapman
was file inventor of the Oblique Arch — by Henry Glynn, Newcastle;
London and Edinburgh Philosophical Jounial, a paper on the con-
struction of Skew .\rches, by Charles Fox, April, l!?3ti ; ditto, March,
1S37 ; London and Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, A Letter from
Henry Welch, Xewcaslle, to Peter Nicholson, March, 1S37; Society
of Art*, Edinburgh, A Paper by Edward Sang, C.E., on Oblique
Arches, read Nov. Dec, iS3.'>, Jan. 1^30., and May, 1838 ; Treatise on
the construction of Oblique Arches, by James Hart, Mason, Weale,
1837 ; Essay on Oblique Bridges, by George Wutson Buck, July,
1S30 ; Treatise on the Oblique Arch, by I'eter Nicholson, published
in parts, part 1 published Jan., and part 2 in May, 1S39.

The following are the facts, as brought forward in the paper of
Henry Glynn, claiming the honour of the invention for Mr. W. Chap-
man. In the article in Rees' Cyclopsriia, Mr. Chapman says " It
occurred to him" that each course of voui-^oirs should be rectangular
to the face of the arch, and their beds spii il, and their soffits curved
in that direction, and twisted in their sommering, and that the head
of each roit^soir in the acute angle of the bridge would make an
obtuse angle with its soffit decreasing towards the brim, whence it
becomes acute, and increasing as it approaches the other abutment.
The beds of the roussoirs are also twisted, and under equal widths of
bed, the space between the intrado and extr.ulo are increased upon
the face, as the haunches are approached (in the proportion as the
secant of their angle of deviation from a rectangle, with a line drawn
between each extremity of their soffit). The joint at the centre of the
arch is only rectangular from the face, the others diverging towards
the obtuse abutment, and increasing as the haunches are approached,
and converging towards the obtuse abutment. The development of
the face line of arch convex where acute with abutment, and concave
with the obtuse abutment. This curve he calls Polygonic, and the
convexity will depend upon the versed siue of the arch, and that the
form of arch to be preferred is the flat segment ; that the head of each
roussui'r on the acute angle makes an obtuse angle with its so8it,
decreasing as the crown is approached, thenceforward becoming
acute, and increasing as they approach the obtuse abutment. Finlay
Bridge near the town of Naas, over the Kildare Canal, a branch from
the Grand Canal, was erected by him in the year 17B7, on the above
principles. It is 25 feet span, with a rise of 54 feet, and the obliquity
is 51", or iU supplement 39". Mr. Chapniaii says "since the above
period the plan in a few instances has been followed; the same idea
may have occurred to others, although he never heard of it." Mr. C.
was a native of Whitby, Yorkshire, and practised extensively as an
engineer in Ireland, and died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1S32. He was a
member of the Uoyal Irish Academy, and of the Institute of Civil
Engineers, London. In the works of the writers ou this subject since
Chapman's time, no new principle has been developed, but only more
improved modes of working the arch stones; and none of the writers
notice Chapman, except Peter Nicholson, who tamely says, "He
seems entitled to the honour of originating the idea of oblique bridges
in their present form, but ho does not appear to have laid down any
sound principle by which it might be done ;" and even this brief
notice is suppressed in the second edition, and in many copies of the
first of Peter Nicholson's work.

Previous to Chapman's bri<lge, all bridges of this description had
been built with the roiisioim laid parallel with the abutments, and
their ends bevilled olF in the <lircction of the roadway, and had been
carried by this means to an obliquity of \S^ from a right angle ; and for
others, where the obliquity wms greater, tho arch was turned square,
and the parapets curved in the direction of the roadway, leaving
alternate triangles outside them.

The following bridges liave been built on Chapman's principle: —

G 2

40

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Feb-

1 on llic High Peak Riuhvav, 1629. Thomas Jackson Woodhouse,
Eiigiiioer.

1 on the Stockton luiii D.irhngton ditto, 1S25. John Dixon, Engineer.
1 on the Great Xortli Road, three miles north of Newcastle, on the
road to Morpeth.

15 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 1830, of the following
spans— 14 ft., loh ft., 31 ft., Si! ft., two 38 ft., 47 ft., 32A ft., 34 ft.,
33 ft., three 3u ft., 54 ft., and one of two arches, G5 ft. span each.
The one 54 ft. span is built at an angle of 5ii°, or its complement, 34°,
at Riiinhili, and wholly of ashlar. George Stephenson, Engineer.
1 on Hartlepool Railway, at Castle Eden, 1834.
Several on the York and N. Midland ; 1 over the river Aire, G54 ft.
span, at an angle of 150"^ ; 1 over the Calder, of three arches, 50 ft. span,
at an angle of 75"; the arches are brick.

0 Newcastle and North Shields, of small spans, IS ft. each, 1830.
Robert Nicholson, Engineer.

Great North of England Railway, bridge over the Tees at Cross,
1830 ; four arches of 00 ft. span, being segments with a versed sine of
14i ft., built at an angle of 50^. The height of the bridge is nearly
70 ft. from the water, and measured from out to out of parapet, in the
square, is "23 ft. 9 in., whilst, measured in the direction of the abutment,
the length is 37i feet; 19 courses of the arch stones spring from an
abutment, and 44 are independent of either, (each stone is 13^ in.
broad on the soffit, lO-J in. long, and 2-2 ft. in depth,) making a mass of
stone in each arch, without including the haunches or parapets, of
oOO tons weight, suspended in mid air, capable of bearing as many
tons more passing over it, at th<; rate of 3u miles per hour. Truly
this is a work of which modern science may be proud. This mag-
nificent work was designed, and superintended during its execution,
by Mr. Henry Welch, the surveyor of bridges for the county of Nor-
thumberland.

On the Brandling Junction Railway, 1 bridge Ss % ft. span, with a
versed sine of 0 ft., segmental at an angle of 7(3°, 1839. John Benj.
Green, Architect, Newcastle.

1 on Midland Counties Railway, near Sawley, 30 ft. span, built
wholly of ashlar, at an angle of io\ Thomas Jackson Woodhouse,
Engineer.

The extraordinary expense in executing the oblique arches, coupled
with the risk of insecurity when carried to any large extent, has
induced engineers to find some other material than stone, and the
following plans have been adopted. In the year 1827, Mr. Leather, of
Leeds, constructed a bridge at Monk Bridge, near Leeds, and another
in 1833, at Hunslet, near Leeds, both of cast iron, on an ingenious and
novel plan, viz. two arches of cast iron, with the roadway suspended
below. This principle has been adopted on the London and Birming-
ham Railway, and the North Midland at Derby. Wooden arches on
the laminar principle have been similarly used by J. B. Green, of
Newcastle, and framing on the SchafFhausen plan, by Mr. Blackmore,
engineer to the Carlisle Railway. Cast iron arches and girders have
been extensively used, by building the abutments askew, and placing
the girders in the direction of the intended roadway. There is one of
cast iron, of 47 ft. span, over the Uppingham Road, on the Midland
Counties Railway, Thomas J. Woodhouse, Engineer; one on girders,
37 ft. span, over the Paddington and Grand Junction Canal, on the
Great Western Railway, I. K. Brunei, Engineer; on the Manchester
and Birmingham Railway, over the Fairfield street, Manchester, G.
W. Buck, Engineer; a cast iron arch, of 128i ft. span, at an angle of
25". The abutment is in the line of the street, and the arches placed
in the line of the railway, IJ ft. apart, and the stone abutment above
the spiinging line, set back square, with the end of each arch or rib so
as to form its abutment on the principle of a common square bridge.

On the Midland Counties Railway, where the Loughborough and
Stamford road is carried over the railway, Mr. Woodhouse has erected
a bridge wholly of brickwork, on the principle of the iron bridge of
Mr. Buck. The ribs of brickwork, if we may use the term, are
elliptic, 42i ft. span, with a versed sine of 11 ft., and ;ue 4 ft. in
breadth, measured on the square. The soffit of the arches, or ribs of
brick are level or flush, in the direction of the centre of the railway.

u^ are not so in any othe:- direction, dipping below each other in
succession, and increasing gradually as the abutments are approached,
being greatest at the obtuse end of the abutment. The above is a
unique specimen, being the only one ever erected, and is the bold
invention of Mr. Woodhouse, and was erected in 1830-40.

I trust that, as the origin of the arch in architecture, as also the
time of the introduction of the pointed arch, are both lost in the annals
of time, it will be a sufficient ground for your republishing, at full
length, the article of Chapman in Rees' Cyclopedia, that the time of
the introduction of the oblique arch may be more fully known, and the
real inventor have his due meed of praise. This is certainly due to
the memory of Chapman, and I trust, from the principles developed
in the paper of Henry Glynn, as first promulgated by Chapman, will
justify me in coming to the brief conclusion, in respect to the other

writers on the subject, that they have developed no new principle, but

only improved the mode of working the stones, and perhaps mystified

the subject \\i:\\ unnecessary technicalities.

I am, Sir,
.S7. Ann's, Your's obediently,

Newcastle-upon-Ti/iic. Oliver Twist.

MR. CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS AND HIS BOILER
PROJECTS.

Considerable attention has been lately excited by the disquisitions
of Mr. Charles Wye Williams, respecting two alleged inventions of his,
one of which has for its object the prevention of smoke, and the other the
increase of the evaporative rate of boilers, by studding them over with
spikes, "like quills upoH the fretful porcupine." In the belief that
an analysis of these projects will be acceptable to our readers, and
may possibly be beneficial to this gentleman himself, we are induced
to offer a few observations respecting them.

Let us first anatomize tl;e spike boiler plan. The following account
of this notable invention we extract from the 950th number of the
Mechanic's Magazine : —

"When the gases which are the products of combustion (and which
contain all the heat arising from such combustion) pass along through
the flues impinging against the surface of their metallic plates, the
heat is conducted in a direction at right angles to these surfaces, to
the water in the boiler. This then may be called transverse conduction,
as the heat passes transversely through those plates. But if we heat
one end of a rod of iron, we find a very large conducting power is
brought into action, by reason of the heat passing longitudinally along
its fibres, and with great rapidity. This may, therefore, be called
longitudinal conduction, in contradistinction to the former tranaverse
conduction. Now this is the power, or modification of the power, of
metallic conduction, which it is proposed shall be rendered available,
and the application of which is at once so practicable and eflfective.

" Independently of the conducting power which a metallic pin of
any size mav have, it is manifest that it possesses an absorbing or
receiving power, in proportion to its length as well as its diameter,
and this it is which gives it an available applicability in the flues of
boilers. Suppose an iron or copper pin, of half an inch in diameter,
inserted into a metallic plate, and projecting 3 inches beyond its sur-
face. In that case, a portion of such surface plate, equal to a circle
of but half an inch in diameter, is occupied, while the pin itself presents
a heat-receiving surface equal to 43 inches, or as 9 to 1. If this pro-
jection be presented to the stream of heated gaseous matter in the
flue, w^e obtain an effective heat-receiving surface, nine times greater
than the area of the plate which the pin occupies. In other words,
the half-inch circular portion of the flue plate which such pin has dis-
placed is thus made to possess the faculty of transmitting as much
heat as is received and absorbed by nine half inches superficial."

Well ; if this be not carrying absurdity to an imperial pitch, we
really do not know what is. Were the evidence of the existence of
the scheme less unequivocal, we should be disposed to regard the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

41

whole affair as a hoax, for vie are at a loss to conceive how any man,
woman, or child, could have seriously propounded such a project. But
there can be no mistake in the matter. "The half-inch circular portion
of the flue plate wliicli such |)in has displaced is thus made to possess
the faculty of transmitting as much heat as is received and absorbed
by nine half inches siiperticial," by which we understand, that the pin
has the effect of transmitting to the water nine times as much heat as
the half-inch disc it displaces. We care not, however, whether this
is or is not the precipe proportion of alleged beneticial effect. It is
plain, that some increased evaporative ethcacy is attributed to the
use of the pins, otherwise they would not be used ; and our reasoning,
by a mere numerical adaptation, will be found equally conclusive,
v9hetlier the ratio of alleged benefit be '.) to 1, or 1,00' i to O'.tO. The
description of the plan given in the Mechanic's Magazine is, we have
uo doubt, authentic. Mr. Williams is a frequent contributor to the
pages of that periodical, and the description of his plan which appears
there, carries an internal evidence of having been writtL'U by himself.
We have said, that the object of the spike? fixed into the iron of the
flues is to increase the evaporative power of the boiler. These spikes
will of course speedily attain the temperature of those particular parts
of the flue where they are inserted ; and our philosopher informs us,
that all the surface of these iron spikes exposed to the action of the
hot air proceeding from the fire is efficient heating surface. If this
be true, the rate of evaporation will be about the same, whether we
employ a great number of short spikes, or a small number of long
spikes, provided only that the quantity of spike surface be the same
in both cases; and a single spike will be as efficacious as any given
Dumber of spikes, provided it have a commensurate surface. It is
maoifest, too, that since a given quantity of spike surface is by hypo-
thesis of equal, or nearly equal efliciency to the same quantity of
ordinary Hue surface, an excellent boiler may be constructed with-
out any flue surface at all, the conduction of heat to the water being
accomplished exilusively by the agency of spikes, or by the agency
of a single spike. .\11 that is necessary to realize this idea, is to
subject sundry connected coils of rod iron to the heat of the furnace ;
care being taken that the one end of these connected coils is immerged
in some convenient vessel of water. The faculty which these coils
possess of receiving and transmitting heat in proportion to their sur-
face, will enable them to convey the whole available heating elhcacy
of the furnace into the water. The heat will very obligingly run
through the coils, after the same fashion that lightning runs through a
metallic conductor, and an abundance of steam will be generated at
the ends of the coils immerged in the water, without any boiler at all.
Such is the simple developiuent of this inimitable project. But it is
plain that the profundity of our philosopher prevents him from dis-
cerning the difference between elevation of temperature and quantity
of heat. We shall not insult any school boy, by reminding him, that,
rapiditv of conduction U celiris paribus simply proportional to the
difference of temperature between the hotter and the colder body :
now our philosopher says, that if a red-hot bar of iron hf. cut into two
unequal lengths, and, whilst maintained at a constant temperature, the
end of each segment of the bar be applied respectively to pans con-
taining water, the end of the larger segment will in the same time
communicate more heat to the water thin the end of the smaller seg-
ment. But to do this, the larger segment must be hotter than the
smaller segmeut, while by hypothesis its temperature is the same;
therefore the two bars are of equal and unequal temperatures at the
same lime, which is manifestly impossible. If a spike of three inches
long inserted in a boiler transmit more heat to the water than a spike
of one-eighth of an inch long of the same diameter and temperature,
it will be necessary to diminish the temperature of the longer spike,
to equalise the ipiantities of heat transmitted by the two. Of two
spikes, then, of one-eighth of an inch in diameter, a certain increase in
the length of the one is equivalent to a certain increase in temperature
of the other ; and it might, therefore, on our philosopher's theory, be
possible to generate steam, not only without a boiler, but also without
a fire. All that is necessary to attain thii object is, to have plenty of
long spikes ; for, as increase in the length of a spike is by supposition,

equivalent to a certain increase of its temperature, a dozen long spikes
of a low temperature must be equivalent to a dozen short spikes of a
high temperature. An indefinitely long spike, therefore, cannot but
communicate heat to water, whatever be its temperature, provided it
be not at the point of absolute zero. According to the same doctrine,
a pint of boiling water is only half as hot as a quart of boiling water ;
and as to a spoonful — why a spoonful of boiling water can only exist
in the shape of ice. We should be sorry to deprive Mr. Charles Wye
Williams of the credit of a project which involves such important and
reasonable deductions.

We can foresee, that to all we have said it will be verj- triumphantly
objected by our philosopher and his satellites, "The accuracy of the
doctrines you impugn has been demonstrated by experiment." We
crj- your mercy, gentlemen; that is certainly a poser : yet, tlmugh we
cannot fail to be convinced by such an argument, we unhappily are not
converted. We retain certain qualms and conscientious scruples,
which ilisenable us to embrace the creed of onr philosopher; yet we
cannot be insensible to his extraordinary merits as an experimentalist,
whereby he has obtained results such as no one else is able even to
verify. Upon this part of the subject we refrain from enlarging,
seeing that ive do not possess the power of manufacturing facts ad
libitum.

Some of this gentleman's partisans, who happen to possess sense
enough to see the absurdity of his spike-boiler theorv, have offered
another explanation. The hot air, in its passage through the flues,
say they, quickly gives out the heat originally resident in its upper
stratum. The upper stratum of air is therefore comparatively cool,
whilst the air in the central part of the flue is exceedingly hot. The
spikes, they contend, by virtue of the impediment they offer to the
passage of the hot air, create eddies within the flue, which mingle the
two strata, and facilitate the absorption of the heat. But it is a fallacy
to suppose that two strata of air, of great difference in temperature,
can continue in juxtaposition, with the heavier stratum uppermost.
And even were the case otherwise, the employment of spikes rivetted
into the boiler is not essential, to produce the desired effect. Any
other equally impeding substances would be equally beneficial : and
tire brick would answer just as well as iron or copper. The expla-
nation fails ; yet it has the m<»rit — a n^'gative one certainly — of being
unattended with glaring inconsistency ; and it manifests the extremely
reputable desire on the part of this gentleman's attendants to moderate
the wildness of his speculations, and to insanify him with a few grains
of common sense. But it all will not do ; madmen will sometimes elude
or overpower their keepers, and perform their antics before every
passer-by: and this gentleman will write and will print, whatever
may betide. It would be hopeless to attempt the extinction of
the cacoithes of a being that will rather stand in the pillory than
remain unnoticed.

Let us proceed to consider the smoke-preventive plan. From what
we gather from this gentlennn's book, and from circulars and adver-
tisements, we conclude that his invention for the extinction of smoke
is founded upon a principle difl'ering entirely from that of all lire-ex-
isting |)lans : that instead of endeavouring to bitru smoke, as others
have vainly attempted to do, he aims at prcrailiiig tht /otmatin-i of
smoke, and that hence arises the unprecedented efficacy of his plan.
The distinction is certainly an important one ; and the chemical views
which indicate the superiority of the smokc-pievenlive principle aro
indisputably correct, .is will be apparent from the following remarks : —
"The combustion of smoke, as an obvious means of economizing
fuel, has been frequently tried, and the attempt as frequently relin-
quished. The great waste resulting from smoke, the product of
imperfect combustion, which must be estimated not merely in tiio
proportion of its unconsumed carbon, but .\lso in regard to the heat
which becomes latent in its formation, and is dissipated with it in the
atmosphere; and the many inconveniences which are consequent on
its production, are such as to render it expedient that all schemes pro-
fessing considerable economy in fuel should make the removal of these
defects their st irting point. Many plai.s have therefore been devised,
and some of them of considerable ingenuity, for burning that smoke

42

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Feb.

which in ordinary furnaces coal must of necessity produce, and some
of these perhaps would have been completely successful, except for the
radical defect they had all to contend against, originating in the
chemical composition of smoke, which, once formed, can never be
completely consumed without the admission of so much air as will by
its cooling agency more than compensate for whatever heat the com-
bustion of the smoke occasions. Smoke may therefore be regarded
as a mixture of combustible and incombustible gases, in such propor-
tions as to prevent the combustion of the mixture with practical
economy ; the incombustible portion being chiefly composed of nitro-
gen and carbonic acid, which prevent the combustion of smoke, on the
same principle that water shaken up with it prevents the inflamma-
tion of oil. Hence the attempt should be, not to burn that whicli is in
its nature incombustible, but to ignite the gases extricated from the
coal immediately on their evolution, and without affording tliem the
opportunity cf becoming commingled with the uninflammable products
of combustion."* In other words, it is gas, not smoke, that should be
attempted to be burned ; and this it is that this gentleman professes
to do. The distinct enunciation of the smoke-preventive principle,
as being susceptible of practical application, and as pregnant with the
most important eftects, is one thing; the contrivance of the means
proper for the successful application of this principle, is another
thing: and we are quite willing to render to this gentleman whatever
honour appears to be due to him, for a priority in either of these
achievements.

All smoke-burning projects operate upon tlie principle of admitting an
excess of air into the furnace or flue, and this principle is attended
with two insuperable and fatal objections. First, the refrigerating
effect of the great excess of air it is necessary to admit to a mixture
of combustible and incombustible gases, to accomplish the indispen-
sable condition of combustion — proximity of the atoms to be combined;
and second, the impracticability of apportioning the admission of air
to the ever-changing quantity of smoke evolved from an ordinary fur-
nace. Smoke-burning furnaces, therefore, although they have in some
well-authenticated instances succeeded in accomplishing a saving of
from 12 to 14 per cent., with the attention accorded to novel and
experimental projects, have in the aggregate of ordinary working
invariably been productive of a diminished efficiency, or an increased
consumption. Though again and again revived, the project of smoke-
buruing lias as often expired of perfect inanition. Yet each successive
projector has had some modification to propose, which it was alleged
would render success inevitable. Thus, one having admitted the air
through a round or square hole, and having failed in realizing a satis-
factory result, another has attributed the failure to tlie indiscretion of
not having admitted the air through a slit, and has based his proceed-
ings upon that discovery. One has worked with the assistance of an
air valve, and another without that assistance. One has transmitted
the air to the smoke through orifices in the sides of the furnace im-
mediately above the bars of the grate; another through a hollow
bridge, and a third through pipes which carry the air into the flues ;
the efflux of the air being in some cases through one hole, in other
cases through many holes. But it is plain, that all such modificatioas
as these leave the real difficulties of the case untouched ; inasmuch as
there remains the same necessity to admit a great excess of air, to
accomplish anything like complete combustion, and the same imprac-
ticability of adjusting the quantity of influent air to the variable con-
ditions of the fire. These difficulties are not inseparable from the
smoke-preventive system ; and we were therefore warranted in
expecting from Mr. Williams some contrivance from which they would
be altogether excluded, and which might be regarded as an incarnation
(so to speak) of the principles of smoke-prevention. But the partu-
rient mountain has again brought forth a mouse. This learned
pl'.ilosopher, after vapouring about atoms, gases, and prevention,
throughout the length and breadtli of an octavo volume, presents us
with — what ? a veritable antique smoke-burning furnace. A smoke
BUBNISG furnace? Yes, readers, 'tis even so. You may well be

" Thoughs o.n S'.eam Locomotion. Ldinlon : W"er.^>, 18'IC).

petrified at tliis most lame and impotent conclusion. Yet so it is. Our
philosopher, after raising us to the tip-toe of expectation, by pro-
mising to shew us, NOT how amoke vtaij be burned, but how coals may
be burned withoul smoke, ruthlessly demolishes the fairy fabric our
fancy had created, and congeals us into stone, by holding up a iledusa's
head, in the form of a smoke-burning furnace, of which the sole pecu-
liarity is, that the air enters by a greater number of holes than usual.
Whether of two smoke-burning projects the least exceptionable is
that which admits the air at one hole, or that which admits the air at
many holes, it would be irrelevant at present to inquire. Our own
predilections are in favour of the latter method ; though we are by no
means prepared to maintain, that the admission of the air through a
few judiciously disposed long and very narrow slits might not be
greatly preferable to both. At present, it is sufficient for us to shovT
that this gentleman's furnace operates not upon the smoke-preventive,
but upon the smoke-consumptive principle; tliat it is a mere smoke-
burning furnace, attended with the objections we have already men-
tioned as fatal to smoke-burning plans.

To the proof then. At the back of the fire bridge of this gentle-
man's furnace the air is admitted through a number of minute orifices,
and mingles with the aeriform matter proceeding from the coal upon
the bars of the grate. There are no means provided of regulating the
quantity of air admitted through these minute orifices, other than pre-
existing smoke furnaces possessed. The only question therefore to
be decided is, whether the triform matter proceeding from the coals
on the bars of the grate is gas, or smoke. To determine this it is ne-
cessary first to ascertain whether combustion does, or does not take
place, in the furnace during the evolution or production of the said
aeriform matter. Our philosopher says that combustion does not take
place, inasmuch as he has doors to his ash-pit which he shuts immedi-
ately that the furnace has received a charge of fresh coals, and which
he keeps shut until the gas is all expelled. If this be done any aeri-
form matter presented for combustion at the anterior air orifices, will
certainly be noi smoke but gas. If on the other hand combustion take
place within the furnace during the carbonization of the coal, the
sriform matter presented for combustion at the air orifices, will be
not gas but smoke. The question therefore resolves itself into this
Does or does not combustion take place in the furnace during the car-
bonization of the coall Now if combustion do not take place in the
furnace during the carbonization of the coal, and as the volitilization
of the unfixed parts of the coal requires a large amount of heat for its
accomplishment, there must be some available source of heat other
than combustion from which the requisite quantity is supplied, our
philosopher says that the red hot embers of the fire are this source of
heat. But it is manifestly impossible for any body to give out half
its heat to another body and remain as hot or nearly as hot itself.
Besides the great quantity of heat which becomes latent when solids
or liquids are transformed into gases, is left without any provision. A
very simple computation would show — the weight, temperature and
specific heat of the incandescent embers, and the weight, temperature
and latent heat of the gases, (or vphat is equivalent — their weight,
temperature, volume and specific heat) being given — that no practica-
ble method of working this gentleman's furnace, would render the
embers on the grate an adequate distributor of the heat requisite to
expel the gases resident in the coals which constitute a charge of the
furnace. But it would be preposterous to resort to Algebra to esta-
blish a self-evident proposition. Every one knows that if green coals
be thrown ujwn a fire, and at the same time air be excluded, the coal
will not be carbonized, but the fire will go out: and even in a coke,
oven carbonization will remain unaccomplished, unless air is admitted.
If this effect be consequent upon the exclusion of air even where the
process of carbonization is aided by the heat of a mass of incandescent
brick work, how preposterous would it be to conclude that carboniza-
tion can take place in a hermetically sealed boiler furnace, where the
process is impedtd by the refrigeration of the water of the boiler ! If
then there is no combustion in this gentleman's furnace, and if at the
same time gas is evolved, there reuiains no conceivable source of the
heat absorbed during volatilization, except the act of volatilization it-

1840.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

43

self; and to say that tliis is the source of the heat, is tantamount to
saying that cold water is not merely able to raise itself into
steam, but to leave a considerable surplus of heat after having
done so. We have no altem.itive then but to conclude that combus-
tion does go on in this gentleman's furnace, if it be iu action at all. If
there is combustion, that combustion is either perfect, or imperfect:
if perfect, there is no necessity for any appliance, either smoke con-
sumptive or smoke preventive : if imper/ect, it is not gas but smoke
that is evolved, for tlie very definition of smoke is the product of im-
perfect combustion. This furnace is therefore a smoke generating,
and consequently a smoke burning furnace. He may gay otherwise.
He may call it a patent Argand, or patent any-other-and, but a smoke
burning furnace il i«, and we defy him and his legion of chemical pro-
fessors to prove the contrary.

Upon what ground then can we be called upon to believe that this
smoke burning proji>ct will be one whit more beneficial than other
smoke burning projects, in all essential points identical with it ? And
what shall we say of those who have lent themselves to the reputable
endeavour of puffing oft' the paltry nostrum ? Of such men as Mr.
Brande and Dr. Ure, it is painful to be obliged to speak in any other
terms than those of commendation and respect. Their names are
household words: and we are distressed at anticipating the possibility
of such names becoming epithets of contempt, instead of continuing to
be expressions of reverence and admiration. We trust therefore that
the attempt to elevate this ponderous gentleman, will be relinquished.
The attempt exhibits much good nature, but very little good sense —
and it mint be unsuccessful. A tortoise can never be taught to fly by
being hoisted into the air — and though a dunghill cock may by dint
of estmordinary exertions wing a flight of 20 yards at the height of
three feet above the surface of our planet, yet the achievement only
serves to show that he is any thing but an eagle, and that his native
mire is his most a^jpropri.ite element. There is no real kindness in
trying to raise this gentleman out of his appropriate and very humble
sphere ; and is Mr. Brande so confident of the imperishable virtue of
his laurels as to suppose that they have nothing to sufter from so ill
judged an attempt? Is Mr. Brande likely to enhance his own reputa-
tion, or the value of his art, in the estimation of [ftactical men by tell-
ing tliem that the product of the dtstructive distillation of coal is
rendered uninflammable by mixing with the cold air in the chimney,
and at the same time praising a project possessing to correct the evil
by introducing a still larger quantity of cold air into the flues than is
usual ? Of Dr. L're's attainments in every department of the philoso-
phy of the arts there can be but one opinion; and we should perhaps
attach a value to his praise commensurate w ith our sense of his ability,
had we tha iissurance that he was a landed proprietor of ten thousand
a year, whicli we regret to find is not the case. It is really a reproach
to this country that abilities like Dr. L're's should be wasted in the
ignoble occupation of compiling or revising specifications of patents,
and furnishing encomiums to patentees ; and we do trust that the
award of some adequate place or pension to this distinguished philoso-
pher, will speedily remove such a stigma from cur land. As to Doctor
Kane of the Apothecaries Hall, Doctor Brett and Mr. Something a
chemist of Leeds, we need only say that we shall not condescend to
notice such celebrated gentlemen, further than to assure them that
they would find much more reputable occupation behind their counters
ili^ipensiiig mercurial pills and doses of Glauber, than in soliloquising
aijout things of which they know nutlii g. They may save themselves
the trouble of casting t/iiir perfume upon the violet. Engineers and
boiler makers know their business much too well to lack instruction
from a p.ick of effervescent chemists and drupgi>ts.

Having shown that this gentleman has failed in i<roducing any con-
trivance capable of giving practical efficacy to the smoke preventive
principle, it only remains that we should ascertain whether he is en-
titled to the merit (if it be anyj, of having been the first to suggest
that principle— the first to distinctly enunciate the doctrine that ihe
smoke preventive principle is practically applicable and peculiarly
beneficial. The circumstance of having himself failed of making any
practical application of this principle, does not deprive him of what-

ever honour miy be attached to the distinction of having been the
first to suggest it for practical application in the furnaces of steam
boilers. This point must be decided chiefly upon the evidence of
dates, and as the inquiry is only of collateral interest, we must hurry
over it as quickly as we can.

The first edition of Mr. Williams's book on combustion was pub-
lished in 1>)4U, but po<!(no:- to the essay entitled "Thoughts on Steam
Locomotion," pui)lished the same year, from which we have already
given a quotation. This essay is anonymous, but is, we understand,
ascribed to Mr. Bourne, and it contains a clear though a concise
exposition of the principles and advantages of smoke -prevention.
'Ihis gentleman's patent was, it is true, taken out in 1S3'.'; but Mr.
Bourne, we are informed, has a patent for the same thing, of the date
ISS?, and a paper descriptive of this patent, written iu l^S?, and now
before us, describes the patent to be for the " prevention of smoke,
and economiiation of fuel." We have also before us a copy of a letter
written by Mr. Bourne in ]S3',of the date September, which develops
in the first pLce, the hopelessness of the endeavour to burn smoke ;
and in the second, the benefit derivable from the smoke-^jrereri/ire
principle, which is shewn to be practic;il!y available. "Smoke," says
this letter, "cannot be effectually burned ; the object should therefore
be to prevent its formation." We have also before us reports by Dr.
Lardner and Mr. Farey, of the date of January, IbSS, relative to Mr.
Bourne's invention, and other papers and documents, which it is un-
necessary to mention. Now, up to the end of 1^37, Mr. Charles Wye
Williams had done nothing whatever in smoke-prevention. In liSS,
even, he was occupied, not with schemes for the prevention of smoke,
but with projects for making resin and other artificial fuel — projects,
of which the smoke-] reventive project was the immediate successor,
— whilst we have evidence which shows that Mr. Bourne's experi-
ments tentative and illustrative of the advantages of smoke-prevention,
extend as far back as 1''34, years before this gentleman had turned
his attention to the subject.

So far we have only shown that Mr. Williams has no pretensions to
that priority in the development of the superiority of the principle of
smoke prevention claimed for him by some of his certificate-monger-
ing encomiasts. Let us go a step further and inquire whether he is
entitled to the merit of independent development or invention. Hf
may, at the time he commenced his operations, have been in perfect
ignorance of all Mr. Bourne had previously said or done. Our readers
will find little difficultv in concluding whether or not he Kas in igno-
rance, when we inform them that the letter which we have already
mentioned as containing a complete development of the principles
and advantages of smoke-prevention, written in September, 1"53", was
addressed to Mr. Williams himself, confidentially, at his invitation ;
and that it was shortly after the reception of this letter that Mr.
Wilhains threw aside resin fuel, compressed peat, and a host of kin-
dred projects, and commenced might and main upon his own account,
on the sraoke-preventive plan.

ON EXPLOSIONS OF STE.\M BOILERS.

I.v another part of the Journal we have given the evidence taken
before the coroner at an inquest held in consequence of the death of
several individuals, occasioned by the bursting of a boiler at Messrs.
Elce i: Cottam's munufactorv- at Manchester. We now have an op-
portunity of giving the translation of a letter from Mr. Jobard, of
Brussels, to the Baron Seguier, on the principal cause of the explosion
of steam boilers, which may throw some new light on the cause of
the accident.

"When the water in a boiler becomes so low as to leave some part
of the sides CNpdsed to the direct action of the fire, those parts arc
raised to a red heat ; the received opinion is, that the steam, coming
iu contact with the heated iron, is decomposed, and fortns hydrogen

44

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Fkb,

gas, but not to such a degree as to become explosive, because a con-
siderable quantity of oxygen, or atmospheric air, which does not al-
ready exist in the boiler, is required to render it so. It is, however,
this very air, which, I consider, does really enter the boiler in con-
siderable quantity, and is evidently supplied by the feed-pump itself,
which, from some cause or other, although it continues at work, thus
permits the water to lower in the boiler. In such case every stroke
of the pump injects a certain portion of air into the boiler. There
might also exist a slight crack, or i defect in the working barrel, or in
the packing of the stuffing-box. These defects would cause the feed-
pump to become a real air-pump, if any accident happened to the
valves of the induction pipe, or if the water in the reservoir got below
its proper level. There can be no doubt that these accidents do
occur.

"Let us now examine what takes place when atmospheric air is thus
forced into the boiler. This air passes through the remainder of the
water in the boiler, and occupies the space above the injection pipe,
without being immediately mixed with the gas, which continues to be
produced from the heated sides of the boiler, but so soon as the engine
is set to work, a considerable ebullition is produced in the water, and
a detonating mixture of air and gas is formed. So soon, therefore, as
this explosive mixture comes in contact with the heated surface of
the boiler, it inflames in the same manner as carburetted hydrogen
gas does against the wire of a Davy's lamp when heated to a cherry
red.

" There is also another means of accounting for the tiring of the ex-
plosive mixture, namely, by the electric spark which is formed every
time that the steam is struck or forcibly pressed by the edges of the
valve, as was shown in the experiments made by the Commission at
the Museum, and as you yourself witnessed in those with the engineer
Tassin. The experiments of Lavoisier show that if a valve be opened
at the moment the explosive mixture is in contact with it, the slight-
est electric spark is sufficient to cause an explosion. It might also
happen that the disc of the valve produced the eftect of the plate of
the electrical apparatus, and caused the spark on being lifted from its
seat.

"This will account for the greater part of the explosions happening
at the moment the engine is set to work, or the valve opened, as oc-
curred on the I3th of November, 1841, at the manufactory of Messrs.
John Elce and Cottam, at Manchester.

" There can be no longer any doubt as to the production of hydrogen
gas in boilers where the water is deficient, since the dangerous expe-
riment made by Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, when he proved that the
steam emitted from a boiler heated red hot (the feed pumps being
stopped and the water suffered to get low), burnt like hydrogen gas :
the onlv reason that this boiler did not explode must have been, that
in this particular instance there was no atmospheric air mingled with
the gas.

" In support of this theory, several cases of explosion have come to
my knowledge, among others, one that took place at Ghent in the
year 182G, which puzzled all the believers in the efficacy of safety
valves, as the man-hole was open, and there was no water in the
boiler, or fire under it ; yet it exploded, and caused great damage.
This accident may be thus explained : —

" The boiler had been emptied on the Saturday, in order to clean it
on Sunday, leaving only a little water in it to wash it out. This boiler
having been emptied before the fire was completely extinguished,
must have been heated in parts to a red heat, and thus the steam
decomposed. The next morning, the workman, having taken off the
man-hole lid, held his lamp, according to custom, within tlie boiler.
The hydrogen gas, rendered explosive by the admission of atmos-
pheric air, immediately exploded, and destroyed the boiler and work-
shop, and killed the man.

" As the water cannot be thus decomposed in copper boilers, they
are consequently not liable to explosion from the cause thus shown.

"In discovering this cause of accident, its remedy is evident; if the
reservoir for the feed is placed above the pump, as is invariably done
in Prussia, the introduction of air into the boiler becoming impossible.

This arrangement, enforced by law in Prussia, has caused explosions
to be of rare occurrence.

" If my opinion on the cause of explosions be correct, and which it is
desirable should be verified by official experiment, the regulations at
present in use are worse than useless, safety valves become dangerous,
and the fusible plates are of no avail. The chief attention ought to
be bestowed on the supply of water in the boilers, and then the ex-
plosion of boilers rivetted by machinery need not be feared, because
the rivet holes become oval before giving way, and permit the steam
and water to escape by the seams of the boiler. It is hoped this suc-
cinct explanation will enable the proprietors of steam engines to take
the necessary measures to avoid explosions.

JOBARD."

ENGINES OF H. M. STEAM SHIP "VIRAGO," OF
THREE HUNDRED HORSE POWER.

By BouLTON, Watt, and Co. Designed June 1841.
( With an Engraving, Plate II.)

These engines are of the kind termed " direct," and were designed
to meet the views of the late Board of Admiralty, with reference to
the saving of weight, space, and placing all the moving parts below
the line of flotation, out of the reach of shot.

They are of the collective power of 300 horses, cylinders 04^ dia-
meter and 5 feet stroke, the velocity of piston being fixed at 215 feet
per minute, agreeably to the general rules of the late Mr. Watt.

Tlie Boilers are made to the full power of the engines, as it regards
evaporating surface, and occupy 19ft. x 20ft. superficial, and in height
they are 12 feet.

The length of the engine room is 53ft. Gin., and the coal boxes are
constructed so as to entirely protect the boiler and engines, and con-
tain from 350 to 360 tons of coals, (at 48 cubic feet per ton). The
space required by the engines is 18ft. Gin. athwart, and 11 feet fore
and aft, that is, over the air pumps, which being placed in the centre
of the vessel, occupy comparatively useless space, — for so large a
power as 300 horses we believe this to be unprecedented. It will be
observed that there are two condensers, air pumps, &c., so that either
engine can be worked separately; in consequence of the compactness
of the engines, the weight must be very much reduced in comparison
with the beam engine.

REFERENCE TO THE ENGRAVINGS.
Similar letters refer to similar parts in each figure.

Fig. 1 is a Front View of the Engines. Fig. 2, Plan. Fig. .3, Side View.
Fig. 1, Horizontal Section of Air Pumps and Condensers.

Fig. .5.— Transverse Section tbvough Condensers,
Hot Water Cisterns, and Eduction Pipes.

A, cylinder; B. piston tod ;
C. connecting rod ; D, guides
for pistun rod cross bead (
E, brass sliding valves ; /,
induction sleam pipe ; g,
eduction pipe trom lower
thoroughfare ; A. ditto from
upper thoroughfare ; /.-, open-
ings into condensers from
eduction pipes ,f and h ; L,
condensers divided in the
centre ; M, hot water cis-
tern ; N, air pumps ; c, foot
valves two to each air-
pump ; P, beam to work air
rumps, feed and bilgepumps;
H, teed pumps ; .S, bilge
pumps ; 1, waste pipes; D,
tiilge water pipes ; c, holding
down bolls; jc, doors to
condensers ; X, keelson run-
ning through condensers ;
J/, engne sleepers.

JIMtmi }»•

1S42.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

•15

ON EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

Is commencing ihis subject it is requisite to premise, that we intend
to limit the inquiry — except as far as collateral illustration may be
requisite to throw a light on the subject — to the temples and palaces
of Egypt. A glance at its domestic architecture, as far as our imper-
fect knowledge in that particular extends, may be permitted. But
the sacred cave and the pyramid belong to an anterior period of civi-
lization ; that which immediately followed its first stage — the period
of cairns and of rough stones, set up for memorials of events. The first
cannot be comprised in the term architecture, the latter can. But dis-
sertation on the pyramids and on the pyramidography of Egypt, would
burdt-n or complicate the subject, or cause it to deviate from the
right track to its appropriate point of view. It would, it is true, fur-
nish materials for a long and elaborate essay. Such an essay might
not be uninteresting to the readers of the "Civil Engineer," nor out
of place in its pages; especially after the curious and romantic discove-
ries of Caviglia, the ardent inquiries conducted on the spot by Colonel
Howard Vise, and the recent and elaborate publication of Mr. Perrin,
the civil engineer, giving such minute details of the great pyramid's
structure, both exterior and interior, that the most untravelled reader,
in bis arm-chair, may form as correct an idea of the whole astounding
fabric, as the most adventurous traveller who has dived, by the aid of
a frail cord, amidst Arab ejaculations, to the bottom of the well, or
disturbed the long repose of the bats in the mirky and squalid recesses
of the closet over the central room. But for the reason we have as-
signed, and with a view equally to commodious brevity and lucid
order, we shall, as we premised, confine ourselves to the palacial and
ecclesiastical architecture of Egypt.

The character of the Grecian temple was grave and dignified
beauty, while that of the Ionian wa* voluptuous elegance. The
Roman expressed the ambitious magnificence of the founders. The
essential type of the Egyptian temple was sublimity. The sacred
edifices of ancient Egypt were impressed with the sublime charac-
teristics of the universal deity to whom they were devoted. Great-
ness of dimension was so contrived as to imitate infinity by vmiformity
of succession. On the same principles of succession and uniformitv,
the grand appearance of all the ancient Doric temples of Greece and
Magna GrsEcia, which may be generally designated as oblong forms
with a range of uniform pillars on every side, will be easily accounted
for. From the same cause, also, may be derived the grand effect of
the aisles in many of our old cathedrals. The long avenues of
sphynxes which preceded the approach to the Egyptian temples were
constructed on the same theory ; long ranges of unhewn stones occupy
the same position in forming the approach to the circular temples of
tlie Druids. Denon, Belzoni, and ChampoUion describe, in vivid
and forcible language, the effect produced upon them by the sublime
character of the Egyptian temples. Denon says that when the French
army came in front of the temple of Tentyra, they were seized with
a simultaneous feeling of admiration, and halting on the plain in front
of the portico, demonstrated their wonder and delight by a general
acclamation and clapping of the hands. Whence did this consummate
perfection arise ? The architect, in the social scale, was ranked next
to the Prince. The art and the artist were studied and valued as
they ought to be, in Egypt. An architect was, according to the true
definition of the term, superintendent of the works and workmen. He
was the creative mind (mus) presiding over the mechanical producers
of the greatest labours that human ingenuity and labour are capable
of creating on the earth.

Certainly the old architects connected all the deepest mysteries and
profoundest secrets of theology and science with the forms of archi-
tecture, and with the lines, angles, and curves of masonry. Hence
arose freem.asonry. The Dyonyslacs who were privileged to build
the sacred edifices of Asia Minor, and the theatres of initiation which
were attached to the most celebrated, as they were at Memphis and
Elcusis, were freemasons. Their first great lodge was possibly the
great pyramid ; their dramatic mysteries, the origin of the modern

drama, were founded on the judgment of the dead ; their secret signs
were confessedly derived from the geometrical theology and philo-
sophy of the Egyptian masons, and were handed down to the pro-
fessors and masters of the monastic architecture of the middle ages,
An architect of this class was of necessity imbued with all the theo-
logical and scientific knowledge of the sacred colleges. His works
may be said to represent the various eras of civilization, and the suc-
cessive steps of man's social and scientific progress.

The eye of disciplined taste can readily discern what the common
observer cannot — four distinct periods in Egyptian architecture: first,
the period of pyramids, cairns, rock-built forts, granaries, treasuries,
and sculptured tablets or steles ; second, the period of sculptured temples,
which succeeded the former, whether troglodyte — i.e. sculptured from
the face of the rock — or detached and isolated ; third, the period of the
rise, progress, and maturity of architectural forms, which may be
traced from Osirtesen to SesDstris; fourth, their decline and
fall, which may be traced to that period till their tot.al corruption
under the Greeks and the Romans. With respect to the first period,
as connected with Egyptian architecture, very little can be said. It
is to the temples and palaces exhibiting architectural design that we
shall confine ourselves. The period, however, exhibits a remarkable
analogy, and seems to indicate a particular fact in the history of the
first colonization of nations. The architectural and sculptured forms
of the first period resemble the sculptured forms preserved on the
old temples and palaces of New Spain, ascribed by writers to the
Tultecans, who preceded the Mexicans GUO years, or by the native
Indians to the Giants, or wandering Masons, a well known designation
of the expelled Cyclopean or Shepherd family. It is still more sin-
gular, that the monuments on which these sculptures appear, or con-
nected with them, resemble the unvarying characteristics of those
which are called Cyclopean, and many may doubtless be ascribed to
them without exaggeration. Some of the pyramids erected by them
are larger in base than those of Egypt, and composed of equally per-
manent materials ; their rock-hewn Treasuries resemble in every
respect the Cyclopean fabric called the tomb of Atreus. Their
fortifications resemble similar Cyclojean structures at Tyrios, and else-
where ; and their subterranean sepulchres are approached by similar
descending galleries, and distributed into similar sepulchral rooms.
Their palaces are characterised by galleries constructed with the well
known Cyclopean arch, consisting of receding courses of stone in a
triangular form ; in one of these monuments, viz, the flower temple of
Oaxata, appear individuals precisely like those called the Pomasata,
conquered bylSesostris, both in physiognomy, head-dress, and costume.
Now were these the same people? were the Pomasata a branch of
the Shepherd race ? was there any affinity between them and the
aboriginal American Indians ? We do not atHrm it, because the mode
of reaching America, either aboriginally or cotemporaneously wit'i
Sesostris, would still be unaccounted for. But another remarkali!--
fact should be added, which gives additional reasons for the inference,
though it does not prove it. These men are red and beardless, ever
the well-known characteristics of the American Indians. Were they
then East Indians, as ChampoUion supposes, and was America origi-
nally peopled, as many learned men have argued, from the East In-
dies, and from the adjacent Indian isles ? If, then, the Tultecans, or
whatever nation built the monuments ascribed to them, came from the
south of Asia, it is quite certain that the Asteks, or Mexicans, came
from the north of Asia, and, conquering them, occupied their place;
the passage across Behring's Straits is no great geographical difficulty.
With regard to the period, extending from Osirtesen to Se-
sostris, it is indicated by a gradual rise from primitive simplicity to
magnificent and gigantic form ; but there is scarcely any difference in
the archetypal model of their temples and palaces, or in their sculp-
tured ornaments, except that the first were more primitive, more
limited and simple, while the last became successively ostenUtious,
complicated and magnificent. The second period was equally charac-
terised by troglodvlc, as detached temples and palaces. The
last period, in which the architecture of Egypt w.is corrupted by
Roman and Greek innovation, requires lets comment, as it must be

H

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

46

obvious to the casual observer. The tirs. period is at once distinct
and remarkable. The republican forms of government of the great
pastoral communitv, as Aristotle proves in bU history of all the
first republics, clearly assignable to this extraordinary race, and
generally embracing a community of goods, were disseminated through-
cut the world wherever their wanderings led. These people carried
with them in their wanderings all the favourite forms of the pastoral
or Cyclopean architecture— pyramids, gateways, triangular or gradu-
ated arches without the key-stone, cellular cairns, unsculptured
initiatory caverns, irregular courses of colossal masonry, cyliudric
columns, and rock-built fortresses, which, wherever they are found,
attest their presence. These were superseded in Egypt by the more
magnificent forms, costlv embellishments, and tasteful refinements of
the inscribed temples ;.nd palaces of the eighteenth dynasty of
monarchs who expelled them. The sublime and magmhcent monu-
ments erected by this ancient race of monarchs on the plain embraced
by " Hundred-gated Thebes," attest to this day their taste, their am-
bition, their wealth, and their power. They suggest ideas of the
works of fabled enchanters rather than of ordinary human beings. Of
that Thebes Homer wrote twenty-five centuries ago —

* * 'ou5' offO 0i;8ar

Ai7i'TTias oudi irAeiffTo lo^l0is (v KTij/iara kcitoi,
Ai 6' (Karojj.Trv\oi (i(n, SiijKOJioi 5' av' (KO-irrav

It was on that myriad-columned plain, beneath its gorgeous archways
and gigantic colonnades, that ChampoUion, in the excited language of
astonishment, exclaimed, " These porticos must be the work of men
100 feet in height! Imagination sinks abashed at the foot of the 140
columns of the hypostyle hall of Karnac." It was there that Belzoni,
filled with the fervour of dreamy enthusiasm, which, as he says, raised
liim above the petty cares of mortality, pronounced his joyful Eureka,
and exclaimed, "I have at least lived one day."

"It appeared to me," he added, "like entering a city of giants,
who, after a long conflict, were all destroyed, leaving the ruins of their
various temples as the only proofs of their former existence." One
brief passage will depict the architectural ambition of these great
monarchs. ''our well-known column called "the Monument" has been
deemed a wonder. The great hall of Karnac was supported by 140
columns, most of the same diameter, and some of two-thirds the
height of that "Monument." The illustrations of Rossellini and
ChampoUion prove that imagination itself has scarcely invested this
line of potentates with attributes of too surprising a character.

A few preliminaiy words on the domestic architecture of Egypt,
may be expedient for the purpose of clearing the ground. One step
led from the sacred cave (heion aiitrou) to the tomb, and one step
from the tomb to the palace. The house of the dead was, probably,
in all instances, as well as those of royal and illustrious personages,
meant to be a shadow of the living. The tomb of Psamrais, opened by
Belzoni, or rather of Petamon, as we read the Phonetic characters of
the royal inmate's name, supplies no doubt a good image of the in-
terior chambers, staircases, communications and acconmiodations of a
royal palace, or of the hotel of a Theban Magnate. Of the house of
the merchant and tradesman we have an extant model. Among the
most curious of the memorials of the new Egyptian Room, British
Museum, is the model of an Egyptian dwelling in " hundred-gated
Thebes," which was, as Homer calls her, the "proud mistress" of the
world. It is on the left hand side in case K 2. It had probably been
a child's doll house, but the representation is not tlie less accurate and
curious on that account. It appears to be the dwelling of a corn-
factor. The model is an oblong of 2 feet in length by 18 inches in
width; the walls are 5 inches in height, and the door, which is near
the angle of the side, is 4 inches in height by 2 in width. We see,
in its simple construction, the model of all the private houses in the
East up to the present time. It is the model, on a smaller scale, of
Homer's palace of Ulysses, in Ithaca. It is the model of the oid-
fashioned inns in this country, which were originally constructed like

[Feb.

the caravanserais of the East. A high wall, without windows, cori-
ceals the mansion from the street. It is entered by a portal, which
appears almost similar to the doorways let into similar dead walls in
Cairo at the present dav fas described by Captain Lane). The rude
wooden bolt bv which it is fastened, passing, when shut, nearly across
the entire door, appears to be an improvement ou that of Ulysses, who
merely used a cord and a knot to fasten the royal bedchamber door.
The door opens into an interior court, at the end of which are ware-
houses of corn, the windows of which are closed by similar wooden
bolts. A staircase ascends from the court to a gallery, which had two
chambers above, one without, and the other with, a roof; the first
probably being the sleeping, the latter the dwelling apartment of the
mansion. It is probable that the defensive arms and valuables of the
family were kept here, as thev were in an analogous situation in the
palace of Ulysses. In order to complete this sketch of the domestic
architecture 'of Egypt, one example (the only one extant) of a royal or
lordly mansion, intermediate between the merchant's dwelling and the
temple palace of the pontiff kings, exists in the Banquetting Palace or
Pavilion (as it is called in the French great work " D'E^yple") at
Gournu. // Aas two floors, the upper exhibiting the only instance of
windows in the Egyptian style, harmonizing with the sloping door,
ways. Tlie lintels of the windows are ornamented with the zigzag
mouldings, and the imposts are elegantly enriched with the globe and
winged serpents. A balcony has been supported by caryatide heads
of conquered people. The front elevation is handsomely crow^ned
with a semicircularly crenated parapet. The whole, if restored,
would make a striking front for a mansion or Regent-street shop. It
has had two projecting wings, forming, with the corps de ?oo;s— (like
Buckingham Palace and the Louvre)-a quadrangle which may have
been completed bv a palisade or propylon,— the origin of the triumphal
arch. The interior decoration is light and graceful, unlike the usual
severity of the Egyptian style.

The ordinary model of Egyptian temples and palaces was grandly
simple, but extremely monotonous. Nothing could be more uniform.
Two obelisks first, and then two seated statues, sometimes two andro-
sphynxes, usually preceded a gateway, permeating two turrets con-
structed in the form of flat truncated pyramids. The gateway gave
access into a quadrangle, the covered cloisters of which were usually
supported by pilasters and caryatides. At the extremity of this
quadrangle another gateway lead into a second colonnaded court; the
gicrantic face of the colonnade, facing the entrance, constituted the
op'en portico of the temple. Sometimes the judgment hall, as at
Luxore and Karnac, supported by larger and loftier columns than
those of the portico, succeeded. Then followed the Pronaos, and six
smaller chambers and Sekoi, as it might happen, all roofed and dark,
sometimes supported by caryatide pillars and sometimes not, and
uniformly terminating in a rectangular isolated small chamber, which
was the " holy of holies," and usually contained either the monolithic
cage of the sacred animal worshipped within the temple, or the sculp-
tured and seated forms of the three-fold divinity, which presided ove»
the sacred edifice.

This was the ordinary form of the principal temples, including the
ecclesiastical palaces of the pontiff kings. In the more ancient
temples generally sculptured from rocks, as well as those of districts
which were more limited in expense, the gorgeous accessories to
which we have referred, such as avenues of sphynxes, obelisks, statues,
colonnaded courts, many pillared porticos, and judgment halls, were
retienched, and the temple assumed the more primitive character of
a double columned portico, and three rock-hewn chambers, the pro-
naos, the naos, and the holy of holies.

We shall find, as we examine the most ancient temples of Egypt,
which stud the two rocky sides of the Nile with magnificent relics,
from the southern confines of Nubia to the cataracts of Phite, that the
general description we have given of the ecclesiastical monuments of
Egypt, applies, with slight variations, through the whole series, to one
prevailing and unvarying archetype.

Thus the ground" plan of the great palace of Luxore resembles,
though far short of it in colossal dimensions, the ground plan of the

28-12.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

47

astonisbing temple and palace of Karnac. It is clear, from history
and pxt.int relic?, that the same analogy is assignable to the almost
obliterated palace built by the celebrated Memiion.

Let us glance at the most authentic accounts of the modern ruins of
the Memnonium, in order to carry out our example. The two seated
and broken statues, both ascribed to Memnon, but one identified with
Lis vocal statue by the inscriptions on the leg, now the niostcunspicu-
ous objects on the great plain of Thebes, preceded the gatevpny.
They may have been preceded by an aveuue of spbynxes, and suc-
ceeded by obelisks. They are at a considerable distance from the
first gateway, and front the Nile, but they are in perfect line with the
entire direction of the remaining ruins. " Within the tirst court, close
to the pyramidal gateway, is a large colossal statue," says Pocock,
" broken off about the middle of the trunk." The head of this statue
was brought, after much labour, to England by Belzoni, and is now in
the British Museum. Here it has obtained the name, though f»lla-
laciously, of the younger Memnon. "In the second court," says the
same author, continuing his description, "are the remains of two
colossal statues sitting, of black granite, the head of one of which is
three feet five inches long." This second court of caryatide columns,
a 1/iird court follows, in which are the remaiiu of two seated colossi of
black marble, one of which is also in the British Museum. A fourth
court succeeded, which is not characterised by any remarkable re-
roairs. This court was probably, in its integral state, surrounded by
a colonnade, as that portion of it which fronts the entrance, and which
formed the portico, remains. The portico is primitively simple but
sublimely impressive in its character. It consists of pillars of the
oldest *tyle of architecture, resembling those of Elephanta, in India,
having large gourd-shaped capitals instead of cushions, which, iu the
latter case, appear compressed by the encumbent architrave. This
leads into the pronaos, roofed and supported by gigantic columns,
much loftier than the preceding, and having bell-shaped capitals.
Another portico, -.vith similar capitals and columns, follows, and most
likely, like the preceding, formed one side of another quadrangular
court, being the fifth, and at this the ruins end. It is probable that
a considerable number of courts, porticos, ukoi, may have occupied
the irrtervening space between this part of ,the ruins and the exca-
vated tombs of the kings. Judging from the line of direction which
the series of ruins take, and from the analogy of the sepulchral
Palace of Osymandes, this would seem to be the case. Let us now
see whether there be any probabiiity in the supposition that Diodorus
Siculus, in describing from Hecateus the sepulchral Palace of Ismendes,
described in fact the Memnonium. Norden and Pocock show them-
selves to be decidedly against this opinion, by searching for the re-
mains of the temple of Osymandes at Luxore, on the eastern bank of
the Nile ; for Diodorus Siculus gives the account from Hecateus, after
describing the ether sepulchres of the Theban kings, which are noto-
riously on the western bank, and not far from the Memnonium. It is
tnie that they discover paintings in Luxore similar to those which
Diodorus Siculus describes as being in the palace of Osymandes. But
it \i not probable that the pictorial narrative of such exploits should
be confined to one locality. Indeed, similar representations are found
at Ipsambul. The real fact is, Cand considering the vicinity of the
royal tombs, it goes far to establish the identity of the Memnonium
with the lepvdchral palace of Osymandes,) that the very pictorial
sculptures referred to by the historian, are seen at this day in the
Memnonium. The modern ruins, too, correspond with the description
of Diodorus. First there are entrance courts, after passing the usual
entrance g;ife between two towers (truncated pyramids^. After this
there was a colonnaded quadrangle, supported by "animals after the
antique manner," says the historian, and as, indeed, is obseri-able in the
temples of India and Japan to this day. The roof of this quadrangle
was " spangled with stars on a sky-coloured ground," as in " BeUoni's
tomb," as at Dendereh, and other extant palaces and temples. Another
unadorned court followed. In this were three statues, all of one
stone, erected by or for " Memnon the Syenite." One of these was
the largest in Egypt, and was in a sitting posture. The first exceeded
seven cubits in length. The other two, which were not to large, were

placed at his knees, one on the right, and the other on the left. This
was the famous statue of Osymandes, on which the boastful iuscrip«
tion, "I am Osyraaudes, King of Kings," was written. This lias beea
supposed to have been the vocal statue of Memnon, the word Ismen*
des meaning to girt a touiid. That this, however, is not the broken
column of the plain is quite clear. It is accompanied by another, and
neither are so large as the one described. There can scarcely be a
doubt, however, that this is the statue described by Norden as broken
in the inidille, and lying in the entrance of the second court of the
Memnonium. The size precisely agrees. It w;is 42 cubits or 03 feet
high, and the foot described as 7 cubits in length lies there at this
day, ami was seen successively by Belzoni, Capt. Light, Leigh and
other travellers. It can scarcely be doubted, therefore, th.it the sepul-
chral palace of Osymandes was the Memnonium. After this court
there followed another colonnaded quadrangle, "of more note than the
first." In this was pourtrayed all the King's wars against the Bac-
trians." Upon the first wall the King was represented storming the
wall of a city surrounded by a river, and fighting in the front of the
battle against his enemies, with a lion by his side, and making terrible
slaughter." This battlepiece, perfectly concurring in every particular
with the historian's description, has been copied by Cbampollion.
"On the second wall the King was represented leading his captives,"
This was also copieil by Champollion. "The captives were engraved
without hands, to indicate their unmanly character." This represen-
tation is also given by Rossellini and by Champollion, the King being
seated in a car, a pile of hands before him, and the captives (Bac-
trians, probably, by their costume, with plaited locks, beards, and
striped tunics open in front) waiting the operation of the executioner.
"The third wall represented the King offering sacrifices and celebrat-
ing his triumph." This historical picture, in all its elaborate details,
is copied by Rosellini and Champollion. The procf, therefore, may
be regarded as curiously established, that the Memnonium was the
sepulchral palace of Osymandes. "On the fourth wall, says the his-
torian, two statues were placed sitting, each 27 cubits in length."
These are clearly the same as those described by Norden in the
second court, that which follows the caryatide court. " Two sitting
colossal statues of black granite, the head of one of them 3 feet
5 inches long.

" Near to these," says Diodorus, "three passages led out of the
colonnade into a hall supported by pillars into a musical theatre.
This agrees with the Covered Hall (the Hypostyle Hall at Karnac is
built in the same manner) supported by columns which still remain,
and which was faced on both sides by a colonnaded court, the pillars
of which are lower, and of different capitals from those which support
the hall. This appears to have been the judgment hall or court of the
40 nomarchs or judges, where they held their sessions, and where
the thirty days general assemblies of the people were also in
all probability convened. Norden, speaking of its decorations, say»,
that " they surpass in strength and beauty every thing he had saen in
al fresco or mosaic work ;" and that "the gold, ultranuirine, and other
colours employed hail preserved their lustre unimpaired."

The chief variety in the forms of the columns has been described.
Were the five orders known to the Egj'ptian architects? The nega-
tive must be admitted. The Doric alone can be claimed by the Egj'p-
tian architects, as borrowed by their Greek colonists and pupils.
Rosellini settles this point by exhibiting the Doric column and entabl.1-
ture in the portico of the tomb (containing the tableau of Joseph ami
his brethren) at Beni Hassan. However, the elements of the capitals
of the four remaining 01 ders may be detected among the colonnades
and porticos of the Egyptian temples. The germ of the Ionian volute
and capitid (both derived from a female face and its ornaments) m,iy
be seen at Dendirch and Philir.

It has been remarked that the pillars of the Hypostyle Hall at Kar-
nac are Saxon in their waved ornament, bell-shaped capital, ami sturdy
cylindric shaft. Many of the capital! employed by the monastic ar-
chitects (see the multiform capitals in the "Temple Church," by
Robert Billings) are strikingly like the exuberant variety of graceful
I'ornis, derived from trees, (lowers, tendrils, or creeping plants adopted

H 2

48

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Feb,

by the architects of Egypt, and forming the first elemenls of the Co-
rinthian and composite orders.

It is true that there is a deficiency in, the portico of Doric columns
at Beni Hassan. But if the metopes and triglyphs appertaining to
the perfect Doric style be wanting, oval metopes (adopted as mys-
terious emblems under the name of veiica piscis, by the monastic ar-
chitects of the earliest Christian eras, alternating with triglyphs,

are found on the entablatures of the most ancient rock-hewn temples
of Nubia, also at Esueh ; while Dendereh exhibits a more elaborate
metope, alternating with pentaglyphs.

which consists of a Sheckinah, or golden flood of light descending on
an ark from between two cherubic serpents (the Urim and Thummim),
whose wings are stretched over the ark.

The ground plan of the temples supplies curious matter for remark.
As our architects adopt the Christian cross +, so the architects of
Egypt adopted the Tau

or three limbed cross of Hermes, indication of future life. This
ground plan may be traced equally in the palace, the temple detached
w troglodyte, and the tomb. The ground plan of the tombs of Lyco-
polis consists of a series of laits mysteriously, as in the freemason's
royal arch,

r

nnited. Ilw tau and sgiwre united, form the elements of the most
elegant of the scrolls called Greek, and borrowed from the Egyptians.
In the temples and palaces of New Spain, the Christian cross is
adopted for a ground plan, and such a cross is sculptured in the sacellum
of Palenque. But the Palmer's cross was familiar to the Egyptians

t

and often seen in the hands of Horus, the second person of the Trinity.
United with the symbol God.

It meant Saviour God. Sir G. Wilkinson says that the Christian
Cenobites identified the Egyptian cross with the Christian, and adopted
it as a predictive mystery and symbol in their own ritual. It appears
among the sculptures of their chapels. It by no means follows, there-
fore, that the cruciform ground plan of the tombs and temples of New
Spain proves the conveision of the builders to Christianity. Both the
tau and cross were among the most ancient sacred symbols of Egypt.

The ground plan of Lusore, and the series of obelisks, statues,
gateways, and sekoi, so entirely resemble the ground plan and model
of the Memnonium, which Champoliion ascribes to Ranieses, the father
of Sesostris, instead of to Memnon, while he assigns Luxore to Sesos-
tris as the Sesostreum, that the description of the one may almost pass
for the description of the other. Karnac, built bv successive kings of
the same dynasty, exhibits all the peculiarities of the same original
ground plan and design in its most highly developed and ambitious
character. It may justly bear competition with the troglodyte temple
and palace of Ipsambul, which was built by Sesostris, and olfers favour-
able means for comparison between the two styles : that of the de-
tached and that of the rock-hewn temple and palace. We have said
before, that the rock-hewn temples and palaces occupy both sides of
the valley of the Nile, from Meroe to Syene. The modern localities
may be named in succession, Ibrim, Deir, Amada, Sebou, Derri, Gar-
sery, Dukey, Offadooneh, Ipsambul.

The whole series maybe described under one category. This holds
good as far as regards the larger number of the series of temples, sculp-
tured from the living rock. In a few instances, as at Gorsery, Dukey
andOft'adoonek, the rock-hewn temple is preceded by propyla, seated
statues and sphynxes. In all the instances, the portico of the temple,
the naos, pronaos, and holy place are cut from the living rock.
There is scarcely any difference in the model. The 4 or 6 cubic
pilasters which,-in the primitive temples, support the pronaos, in the
more elaborate shadows, as at Sebou and Ipsambul, are examples
by gigantic caryatides.]

The great work of the late Champoliion "Momtmeiils de VEgypte
et de la Niibte," published, as it will be seen from the title, by a special
commission appointed by the French government, under the olis-
tinguished auspices of M. Guizot, the present premier of France, and
his late colleague, M. Thiers, when minister of public instruction —
contains, in its recent number, illustrations of the great architectural
monuments of Egypt, when architecture was in the most " high and
palmy state " of the ISth dynasty. It is devoted to Ipsambul ; but the
numbers comprise details of the two structures erected by Sesostris at
that place, the Speos of Athor, the goddess Venus, and the Speos, or
Sesostreum, cut out of the solid rock, and apparently consecrated to
the combined purposes of temple, palace, and tomb. In the temple or
Speos of Athor, there is nothing which calls for prolonged commen-
tary. The founder's favourite wife, whom Champoliion calls Nofre-
ari, is represented throughout as the presiding divinity of the temple
of Venus ; in one case apotheosized and worshipped by Sesostris in
the character of Athor; in the other associated with him in the pre-
sumptuous claim of divinity, he being enthroned by her side in the
character of Ammon. Part of a dilapidated statue of Athor appears
on the extreme walls of the sacellum of the temple. The figure has
a cow's head surmounted by a lotus, and the name Athor, which signi-
fies House or womb of the Sun, the Egyptian Messiah, or Bethshe-
mish, threatened by the prophet "with having a fire lighted in it,
which should destroy its images," is clearly visible above the head of
the broken and decayed statue. Marks of fire are met with through-
out the interior. The antithesis implied by the prophecy between
the real fire threatened and the profane fire lighted up within this
temple by the orgies of Venus, and the presumptuous deifications of
mortal beauties which cover its walls, is obvious and striking. The
eighth and ninth folios of the first livraison represent the front ele-
vation of the great Speos of Ipsambul, which, indeed, depicts and re-
cords the Titanian ambition of its great founder.

Four of the Caryatides wliich support the architrave are enormous
colossal statues of Sesostris himself, and two of his favourite wife, in
the characterof Venus or Athor. At the foot of each of his statues stand

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

49

two of the princes, his sons, and at the foot of each of lier's, two of
the princesses, her daughters. But the latter do not rise above half
the height of the leg of the six colossi which compose the magnificent
and unique portico of this astonishing troglodyte palace. On the left
side of the portal, Sesostris is sculptured in the act of slaying a van-
quished negro, who wears large gold earrings: on the right side he is
represented in linnl conflict with the same chief of the nation of the
Robou, whose duel with him is depicted at Luxore. The gigantic
character of ihls/aradt may be appreciated by a glance at the large
head latelv built up over the doorway of the Gallery of Antiquities,
British Museum, which was cast by Mr. C. Smith, from one of the
fallen Caryatides. The resemblance of Sesostris to Napoleon is re-
markable.

It is our opinion that the Egyptian style might be applied to new
buildings of a particular class, as well as to street architecture. We
recommend it as being preferable in many respects to Greek, Palla-
dian, or Gothic. We do so looking at it with a view to saving, to appli-
cabilitv, and to capacity. This noble and impressive style of architecture
has been too much neglected in this country, although it has been
adopted with great advantage in some of the chief cities in the Ame-
rican Union. That it is the incorporation of the sublime and beautiful
in architecture no one can deny. But it is also capable of as great
elegance, harmony, and beauty as the pure Greek style, by which we
mean, not the Roman Greek adopted in our street and sacred archi-
tecture, and represented in its high state of improvement by the chef
d'aeurm of Michael Angelo and Sir C. Wren, but the pure Greek style
distinguished by its peculiar characteristics of the barn shaped cella,
poi tico and peristyle. The Egyptian style, in its severer characteristics,
is ecjually well calculated for churches and for palaces, for lordly man-
sions and for prisons. Again, nothing can be better calculated for ceme-
teries, piers, lighthouses and quays. It has the special merit of being
eminently economical. With regard to ecclesiastical architecture, the
lantern spire of those churches which have been lately built on the
Greek model, is an invention of modern times, as a substitute for the
towers and belfries of the Gothic sacred edifices. In some cases it
has been well adapted, in others badly ; as in the instances of the
Lanthem of Demosthenes, the Temple of the Winds, and the Choragic
Monument. Although there be no instance, except the single example
of the pavilion we have noticed, of two stories being employed in
the Egyptian sacred or palacial structures, and no instance of the ad-
dition of a turret nr spire, yet it is our opinion that an addition of this
description, in couforn\ity with the Egyptian style, might be rendered
applicable both to palaces and churches. A steeple supplied to the
flat roof of the Egyptian pronaoi in the form of an obelisk or pyramid
would, we apprehend, be a failure; and in proof of this we need
look no further than the steeple of All Soul's, in Langham Place, and
the pyramidical spire of St. George's, Bloorasbury. But architectural
ingenuity would conquer the difficulty ; and it must be recollected that
the imposing facade of an Egyptian temple was in all cases grandly
associated with lofty towers of truncated pyramids ; towers which,
beyond a question, originated the belfries of the Eastern Christian
churches, and the minarets of the Turkish mosque.

These few concluding suggestions are neither uninteresting nor
unimportant at the present time, when a city of palaces has suc-
ceeded, as if by magic, a congregation of narrow and squalid streets.
The result is in every respect good, whether we look to mere grati-
fication, or to the improvement, by the dilTusion of good models, of
the public taste, so intimately connected with the arts of design, on
which our manufacturing prosperity depends.

E. C.

THE EASTERN PENITENTIARY OF THE STATE OF
PENNSYLVANIA.

CDeiigneil and executed by Jobs IIavila.vd, Esq., Anhilect.)

'INii-. admirable specimen of priion architecture is tituated in the North-
western environs of Philadelphia, about two miles from the centre of the city.

it occupies an elevated site near the river Schuylkill, and presents one of the
noblest, and most comm-inding architectural objects in the country. It was
commenced in the year 1822, and completed in 1837, at an expense of
COO.OOO dollars.

The principal front is 070 feet in length, and is wholly composed of finely
wrought grauite, accurately jointed, and employed iu unusually large masses.
Tlie character of the composition is strikingly appropriate to the olijectjof
the building; its bold and massy features, its broad lights and deep shadows,
its well proportioned and well managed openings, and the expressive unity of
design which characterizes the whole, produce on the mind of the spectator
a most solemn and impressive effect.

The entire fai^ade is caslellaled, and its embellishments are in the " early
pointed," or " lancet" style of English Gothic. The gate of entrance, which
occupies the centre of the front, is 15 feet wide by 27 feet high; the upper
portion of it is secured with a massive wrought iron port-cullis, and the
lower part with immense oaken gates, studded with projecting iron rivets;
the jambs of the opening are strengthened by massy buttresses, which at the
same time, imp.irt a bold architectural effect to the composition.

On either side of the entrance a square tower is constructed, of 50 feet in
height, crowned with an embattled parapet, supported by pointed arches
springing from corbels. These towers define the extent of the centre build-
ing, which is about 200 feet, and tlieir projection from the face of the main
wall is 10 feet. The curtain between the towers is also embattled, and its
height from the ground is 41 feet.

The extremities of the front arc finished with octagonal towers pierced
with loop-holes and pointed windows, and crowned with embattled parapets;
and a massy octagonal tower rises out of the centre of the front to the height
of .SO feet, thus forming a picturesque termination to the group.

The outside walls are 30 feet in height. 12 feet thick at the base, and 640
feet in length on each side, thus enclosing a space equal to about leu acres.

The cells are built in seven blocks or ranges, radiating from seven sides of
an octagonal building of 40 feet in diameter, situated in the centre of the
enclosure. The cells of each block are built on either side of a spacious
corridor, and these corridors all lead to the centre building, thus affording a
view of every cell door in the whole establishment from one and the same
point of sight. The upper part of the centre building constitutes an obser-
vatory, from which a complete supenision may be had over the entire en-
closure; and the lower part, or cellar, contains a resen'oir for supplying the
establishment with water.

The whole niunber of separate cells contained in the seren ranges, amounts
to 844. The three blocks which were first erected are but one story in height,
and to each cell is attached a separate yard of 18 feet long by 8 feet wide,
surrounded by a wall of 12 feet in height : these enclosures were intended
as airing yards for the prisoners, but it has been found, by experience, that
the ample dimensions of the cells, and their perfect ventilation, render it un-
necessar)- to remove the prisoners at any lime from their cells, except in case
of sickness ; hence, in the four ranges which were subsequently erected, the
yards have been omitted, and the cells made two stories in height. The
second stories are approached by means of galleries extending along the cor-
ridors, supported by cast iron brackets ; the stairs, and the balustradiug on
the galleries are also composed of cast iron.

The cells of the different blocks, or ranges, differ in dimensions, the smallest
being 1 1 feet 9 inches long by 7 feet 0 inches wide, and the largest, 1 1 feet
9 inches long by 9 feet wide. Each cell has a separate hydrant, a water
closet, an aperture for admitting pure air, and a flue for ventilation.

The whole prison is warmed on Perkins' plan of hot water circulation
through iron pipes, and those who have the management of the institution
seem to be satisfied that the plan is a good one for such an establishment.

The front budding, through which the prison is entered, contains, on the
right of the gate-way, commodious apartments for the Warden, and chaniben
for the meetings of the Inspectors. On the left are the clerks' offices, and
the rooms of the deputy keepers. Over the entrance, on the second floor,
are the apothecary's apartments, and in the left wing, the infirmary.

A high clegree of architectural taste and skill is evinced in the whole de-
sign of this noble and costly structure, while the beauty and joliiiity of iti
execution are equally creditable to its accomplished and tasteful architect,
John llaviland, Esq., whose name it it destined to transmit with honour and
renown to after ages. — Franklin Journal.

\

50

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

ON DKEDGING BARS OF RIVERS.
By a. C. Jones, Engineer.

Having seen in the American newspapers several projects for deepen-
ing the water, or removing the bars at the passes of the Mississippi river, I
am induced to give a sketch of what was done by the United States steam
dredger Balize, as I am firmly convinced that the only feasible plan for im-
proving the passes is by dredging. First removing all the lumps in the ship
channel, and then deepening the bar by carrying it away as raised. It is
idle to talk of damming, ploughing, or dragging, as these projects would never
enter the brain of any person that was conversant with the ditiiculties to be
encountered.

An impression exists that the bars consist of soft mud, and are easily re-
moved. This is erroneous, for the bars are hard, and studded with mud
lumps, which are forced by some subterranean agency through the bottom,
and up sometimes as high as ten feet above the surface of the water. These
lump consists of a compact clay (alumine,) of the consistence of cheese, and
the surface receives a fine polish when cut with a sharp knife. The action
of the water has very little effect on the lumps, (some have perpendicular
sides,) except during severe storms, when the tops are washed oft' to the sm--
face of the water. When the surface is slightly inclined, it is generally
covered with innumerable clay pebbles, the fragments of the lumps taking
that form by the action of waves on them.

For a perfect understanding, I will give a short history of the Dredger
from her commencement. The boat was built by John Vaughan, at Ken-
sington, in a substantial manner, and the engine and dredge machinery, by
Messrs. Levi Morris and Co. ;* all being fair specimens of Philadelphia work-
manship. The whole being under the immediate direction of Captain Andrew
Talcott, United States corps of Engineers. The machinery for one side being
so far completed as to make a partial trial in the dock ; all bidding fair to
perform well. The boat was hurried otFin the early part of January, 1838,
before the full completion of her machinery, through fear of being detained
by ice. The Balize did not prove to be a good sea boat, owing to the pecu-
liar distribution of the machinery on board, and in consequence of the rough-
ness of the sea, caused considerable rolling ■, the boilers being cylindrical,
and on the guards, at times, it was difficult to keep the water at the proper
height. I found great benefit in knowing the level of the water, by the use
of my gauge tube, as described in the Journal ; the ordinary gauge cocks
giving incorrect results, especially when foaming. The boat drawing nearly
two feet more water than her proper draught, made the passage long.

I may mention here that I found the carbonate of lime in the boilers in-
crease in quantity, in a given time, as we proceeded South, although the pre-
caution of cleansing the boilers at the stopping places, and constant blowing,
was strictly attended to during the voyage.

On the arrival of the boat at the North East pass, it, and all the force, was
put in requisition to assist the corps of engineers in the survey which was
then going on ; and it was late in the season before all the necessary fi.\tures
were completed to commence dredging. After several trials, it was found
that the chain being part of cast iron, (although proved to a strain of twenty-
seven tons, at Philadelphia,) frequently broke, owing to the hardness of the
bottom, coupled with the great size of the buckets, the contents of each
being one cubic yard. New chains were immediately ordered, but owing to
shipwreck, and other causes, the chain for one side, although first made, did
not arrive until eight months after. On the receipt of chains for one side,
numerous experiments were tried at difterent parts of the bar, perfecting the
machinery, and driUing the men. In November, orders were received to
proceed with the dredger to Red river, to remove a bai' at the mouth of the
Ghute — prior to our arrival, the pent up water had cut a channel of sufficient
depth. The only obstacle was an island of mud, 140 feet long, and 50 feet
at its greatest breadth ; the whole being two feet above the surface of the
water. The dredger was moored alongside, and operated on it with the
buckets of one side, and in 23 working hours, one-half of the island was re-
moved down to 13 feet water. As the particles of mud were only carried
away by the current, the same mud was raised by the buckets several times,
and as many of them came up heaped, so as to contain two cubic yards, it

* As a proof of the excellence of the workmanship of the engine, I will
give one example. When I left the boat, the key of the connecting rod, at
the cross head end, remained as driven when steam was first ajjphed to the
engine, it not having been required to alter it.

was computed that the dredge raised the enormous quantity of 600 cubic
yards per hour,t which is far surpassing any other machine in the world.

The Balize then removed back to her station, at the North East Pass, and
proceeded to cut away a mud island, or lump, standing in the centre of the
main channel, at the mouth of the Pass. The weather being stormy, the sea
forced us to abandon the lump, after making several partial days work on it,
and we then operated at the head of the bar proper, which extends five-
eighths of a mile from the sea ; this enabled us to work in smoother water.
The bar being formed of alternate strata of sand and deposit from the river,
making the bottom hard ; and as the buckets were designed for soft mud,
their size prevented their acting well — but with this disadvantage, 1500 cubic
yards have been conveyed away by the hoppers, without extra exertions, in
eight hours working.

On the 5th of March, we again moored alongside of the island which we
previously worked on, and commenced working actively at it, when the sea
would permit. The subduing it was necessarily a slow operation, its size
being about 350 feet by 150, at its greatest breadth ; the top being almost
at the surface of the water, with nearly perpendicular sides. The dredge was
a long time cutting at it with the buckets of one side before any mud could
be raised by those of the other side, to be conveyed away by the hoppers.

On the 5th of April we had cut and removed nearly half of the lump dowa
to 13 feet water, the boat was then shifted to the north side of it, and on the
12th the dredger (drawing 8 feet water) passed over the top of the lump,
operating with both sides and filling two hoppers at the same time.

On the 17th of -\pril, 1839, orders were received to stop dredging and lay
the fleet up, the appropriation being expended. A few thousand dollars more
would have removed this lump from the channel, as the smoothness of the
sea at this season of the year admitted of nearly constant working — subse-
quently the fleet was ordered to Mobile and there laid up.

The principal diflSculties encountered in our operations were, 1st, in placing
the machinery from the want of correct knowledge of the bottom — for al-
though several partial surveys had been made by difl'crent persons from 1S20
down, and inquiries from shipmasters and others supposed to be conversant
with the actual state of the bars, yet their reports left the impression that
the north east bar was soft mud and easily removed ; as this proved to be
incorrect, the consequence was that niimerous alterations had to be made as
experience pointed out.

2nd. The operations being on the margin of the Gulf of Mexico, great loss
of time was experienced from the prevalence of easterly gales, which blowing
against the current of the river caused considerable sea, the depth of cutting
being from 13 to 15 feet, the force of the sea had a great effect in deranging
the machinery.

3rd. In conveying the mud away from the dredger often considerable time
was lost by the hoppers not discharging their load (100 cubic yards) owing
to the mass beco.niing compact.

A great loss of working time was also owing to the tow boat frequently
getting aground and blundering iu bringing the receiving vessels to, and tak-
ing them from, the dredger, all these, coupled with the general inexperience
attending works of this kind and magnitude, and being distant over 100
miles from the nearest workshops, prevented a successful beginning; but the
latter part of the operation, owing to the perfection arising from practice,
was highly successful, and will bear a comparison with any other dredging
operation.

In connexion with the foregoing, I give yon the mean of a number of ex-
periments made with the engine at Mobile, during the month of June, 1839,
these may be relied on as correct, although differing from some of the theo-
retical properties of expansion. I was unable to give higher speeds to the
wheels on account of bringing home the anchors, the boat being moored in
the stream.

The horizontal cyUnder is 19J inches in diameter, and 7 feet stroke, and
works either by a whole stroke eccentric or a -| cam, the exhaust either way
being the whole stroke. Each wheel is of the double form, 18 feet 7 inches
in diameter ; extreme length of the bucket 6 feet 10 inches ; each section has
12 buckets 21 inches deep.

The shaft has two fly wheels and couplings to admit of the engine being
worked independent of the wheels.

The time for experimenting was chosen when there was little or no current,
the engine being in perfect order, and working with httle friction.

' That there may be no doubt of this, I will state that tight buckets were
raised per minute.

8 X 1 X 60 = 480 cubic yards, even measure. The bucliets being tept heaped,
600 yards is a safe estimate.

1S42.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

51

One pair of boilers were used, these being on the guard mad" t'.ie length
of the steam pipe about 13 feet, it and the cylinder being covered so as to
lessen the radiation of heat. At the time of the experiments the boat had a
list to port, which made the immersion of the starboanl buckets two and a
half inches, ami the larboard ones seven inches. The pressure in the boilers
being one and a half pounds to the square inch, the throttle valve being open
(during the experiments,) and the whole stroke on, just kept the engine in
motion, being equal to the friction.

Pressure in the

Steam as

Revolutions

boiler, lb. per

applied.

per minute.

Remarks.

square inch.

6

Cam.

;•:.

,

6
5

Eccentric.
Cam.

18-3
None.

> Engine alone

5

Eccentric.

12

J

4-4

ti

Just move.

Starboanl wheel coupled.

6-4

,1

,,

Larboajd.

lO-l

M

„

Both wheels.

13-3

3-3

If ^

20-4

Cam.

Just move.

ir f

24-4

,,

6

24-4

Eccentric.

9-5

»»

I also verified the experiments noted in this journal, to prove that the
water displaced bjr steambo.-.t wheels did not come from before them. I
strewed the surface of the water with chaff and then set the wheels in
motion, and found that six inches in front of the wheels the chaff floated
uodiiturbed. — Franilin Journal.

EXPLOSION OF A STEAM BOILER AT MANXHESTER.

Ln the beginning of the month of October last, an awful occurrence took
place through the bursting of the boiler of a steam engine, at the factory of
Messrs. Elce St Cot tarn, in Jersey .Street. Manchester. uLich occasioned the
death of nine individuals working at the factory. An inquest was held upon
the bodies before James Ch.ipman, Esq., the coroner for the borough of Man-
chester, u ho has very kindly furnished us with a copy of the depositions,
from which we now extnct the most important part ; the inquest was held
on the Hth day of October last, and was adjourned until the 5lU day of
KovemUer. for the purpose of allowing competent parties to examine into
the cause of the accident.

St.waril Sands «as examined. He stated that he is a pattern maker,
and had much experience in the working of steam engines, and has been
in the employ of Messrs. Elce and C'otiam for the last nine months. The
engine was a six horse puwer high pressure engine, and was an old one;
the boiler was cyhnilrical. with eggtJ (Aa.t) ends 6f wrought iron, three
eighths of an inch in thickness, and stayed from enil to end by an iron
rod passing through it, and cottereil at each end. He thought the boiler
had been overweighted from the quantity of machinery the engine had
to move. The engine had not started, as he was going into tlie yard,
to any «ork ; but the safely valve attached to the boiler would be weighted
for the machinery it had t'l put in motion during the day ; this was too
much, and caused it to burst. On the first Ijoor there were two grinding
atones, seven lathes, a drilling machine, a smith's bello.vs, and a boring .ii'-
par.itas lor head stocks. On the second floor were one small grinding stone.
nx lathes, a planing machine four feet long, a centreing machine, and .t
wheel-cutting mncbine. In the third floor there was a roring or jack frame
containing 72 spindles. With the cxcepiion of the centring nnchine, all
lia 1 been at work up to six o'clock the previous afternoon, and had been
turne I by the engine. The roving frame. «hich started about a forlnighi
ago, worked only at inttrv.ils. It had been at work the day before the acci-
dent from three In the afternoon until six, and It was intended to be worked
with the others the following day. The boiler was 3ft. 6in. in diameter, bu°
be couM not speak to its length, and was in good condition and well calcu-
lated to work .in engine of six horse power, but no more. The cylinder was
eight in h bore, and two feet stroke. For this engine thirty pounds to the
wjuare inch was sufficient, and from the quantity of turning that had to be
done, he thought tlic engine n as overworked . It would lake three or four
borses power more to |erform the work the engine had to do. When the
engine is not overweighted, if goes so freely that Its motion is not heard, but
when it is ovcnvclghted It goes stiffly, and makes a loud hissing noise. Me
prrceired, for the last three monthi. by those signs, that the enjiine was
OTcrwetghtel. He thinks it will lake two horses power to drive the jack

frame. He knew Elward Alien, the late foreman. He is quite sure the en-
gine and boiler were overwe:gh!ed ly about three or four horses power the
evening before the accident. Yesterday, about half pust three in ihe after-
noon, i told Mr. Elce that the engine had been overworked : he said be
thought not before the jack frame had been put on. .Sands said " You mutt
know it was ovtnveighteil ; " and Mr. E'ce replied, it was not overweiyhie 1.
but he thought ihc jackframe was more than what it was calculated to work.
JaliH Lfe, of Manchester, machine maker, was exam ned. He stated tliat
he had much experience in engines and boilers. .Saw the premises imme-
diately after the accident, and since the bo:ler w as fouiul, and Itis examined
It and the ruins, in order to ascertain the cause of the accident. He first
thought that the boiler had been sli rt of water, and that by pumping cidd
water upon the heated plates, it had generated some elastic force very sud-
denly, so as to cause explosion : but on enq.iiry. he found tliat the engine
had no; started that morning Boilers oftener l.urst at starting than after-
wards. If there was too much steam in the boiler, or if it was overloaded, if
the pressure had l.een gradually generated, and the valve was not fast, dan-
ger would not ensue : but f su'ldenly generated, or the valve fast, explosion
would take place; the valve was of suflicient size to ciny oil the steam in
case of over pressure. He thought trom the first that the valve was not fast,
because the first projectile force was given ihrough the safety valve, which
threw the blowpipe across the two yards, a distance of l(jC) feet, and forced
the same six inches into the brick embankment, and from an examinaliun of
the valve since, he was of the same opinion. He found the valve in good
order, but the valve rod was bent in consequence of Icing thrown fr^ro the
boiler at the time of the explosion. He got the rod straightened, took off the
gland, and :ound inside a greasy substance, and the packing was in good
order. From this he conclude 1 that the valve had not been neglected. He
thinks the boiler was sufficiently strong, the plates being thicker than those
he had seen in boilers for a similar purp se. His o, inion is that the stay
rod was not sulficieiit to coiinteract any sudden expansion of tlie steam, but
it is such as is generally made and in use at the present time. It would ha>e
been better had there been more stay r.ds. He thought the fink to which it
had been attached to the back end, being the one first found, was defective,
the same having been bent the wrong way of the iron; had it been bent the
right way, it is possible the explosion would not have taken place ; the shell
of the boiler he conceives to be as good now as when it first came out of the
mtxker's hands. He was of opinion that the plates had never been led hot.
It was net possible for explosion to have taken place in case of the plates
becoming red hot, unless (?) cold water had been poured upon them, which
could not have been the case in this instance, as the p.imp h.id not Lecn
worked that morning, the engine not having started. He could not speak
with certainty whether, if there ha I not been sufficient wa.er in Ihe boiler,
and the boiler had become heatel, the effect upon the water would U sucb
as to create explosion before the safety valve could be acted upon. It ii the
opinion of some that decomposition of water in a close vessel by heat create*
hydrogen, but that could not explode « ithout an admixture of oxygen, and
not even then until it was ignited; were it possible for this effect to take
place, all the safety valves that could be affixed could not have prevented
explosion. He could not risk an opinion as to what has been the c.-.use of
the explosion in this case ; it must have been from sudden expansion, but
how originating he could not tell. If such e.vplosion had taken place at the
stopping of the engine instead of the starling, he should not have fell so
much astonished, as engines are repeatedly slopped when the steam is up at
the full pressure, which must throw the elastic force instantaneously into
the boiler; but in doing this, he has never known explosion to taku place.
He does not think there is more danger in high pressure than in lov pressure
boilers, provided they are properly attended to, because, from olserntlon.
he conceives that the majority of explosions liave been from lo« pressure
boilers. He does not think that any add tional valve was necessary in this
case, but a second valve is certainly Utter. H,; has frequently U-en oo
Messrs. Elce & Co.'s premises, and from what ho has seen, and their ^leneral
mode of conducting business, he does not think there is any llame atiribut-
able to them. He has measured Ihe boiier. It is 3lt. Ilin. in dr.meter by
9ft. 6in. long, being round, and having flat ends, and was capable of workinn
from 7 to 8 horses i«)» er. The apparatus attacheil for iiuhciiing the pressure
were, a 5,alety valve at the top. with a lever attached to a. Salter's balance,
which indicated the pressure per inch by figures engraved on the face of it,
and a glass gauge in front indicating the lic.ght of llie steam (water P) but
these, except the safetv valve, he has not s.en as they were destroyed by the
explosion ; there werc'also two pipes »ilh taps at the ends inserted at the
top of the boiler, the one for steam, Ihe o;het for ».aler; if the bjilcr was
shortof water, the latter so being oi*iieJ would allow the sic.am to escape.
which would be a sufticicnt indication th.U the boiler wanted water. He
thinks these, if in good order, were quite sufficient, anil from inquiries be bos
made, they were in good order. If cold water ha.l been thrown in amongst
Ihestcam whilst the water was boiling, the boiler would have colUpseJ.
There is no such appearance about It now. If upon the plales when hot. it
would ^create expuniion (?conlr,iclion) — there weie no such apiearances

52

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

about tlie boiler when pulled out of the canal ; the back end of the boiler is
protruded about six inches, owing to the stay rod having given way ; the
slay rod has lately been found, from which he was satisfied that the boiler
had flat ends. Such a boiler is not so strong as one with egged ends, but
still it was sufficient for a seven or eight horse power engine.

Ceorge Brnnsoii, of Manchester, engineer, stated that lie was on Messrs.
Elce k Cottam's premises on the 8th of October, and observed the same so as
to be able to speak particularly to the whole of the machinery. He saw the
boiler at the same time, and has seen it since the e.iiplosion. He thought it
a good one, and he is still of the same opinion, and the body of it has not
gone out of circle the eighth of an inch. He thinks the accident was not
owing to pressure from steam, but the hydrogen and c.xygen gases coming
into contact with the red hot plates of the boiler ; if the water was boiled
down lower than where the fire acts upon the boiler, the plates of the boiler
would then become red hot, and would change the water into hydrogen and
oxygen, the iron would take up a poriion of the oxygen, and the hydrogen
•would then be in the space of the boiler, and explosion would take place
without the presence of atmospheric air from without. I come to this
opinion, not from my own experiments, but from having seen the electric
spark applied when the vessel has been hermetically sealed, by means of a
wire being passed into it, and in this case the heat from the fire would, in
like manner, pass through the iron plate, but it could not have passed if
there had been watei' inside. He has known explosions to take place from
low as well as high pressure boilers, where parties had professed to work
with only four pounds to the square inch ; we very frequently work low pres-
sure boilers with only three pounds to the inch, but not where explosions
have taken place. I think such a stay rod was sufficient for this boiler, and
that there was no more than five and a half horses power on the engine
when all the machinery was at work in the usual way ; there were on the
premises thirteen common lathes, which would take two and three-fifths
horse power ; two slide lathes, half horse power ; one large grindstone, which
was worn down, one half horsepower; two small ones, a third of a horse
power ; one upright drill, one fifth of a horse poH er ; a planing machine four
feet upon the bed, one fifth of a horse power ; a centring machine and cut-
ting engine, a fifth of ahorse power, because both could not be employed
together ; a roving frame with 72 spindles, a fifth of a horse power ; and an
eccentric machine for blowing a smith's bellows, a tenth of a horse power, or
half a man. He has had much experience in fitting up mills for the last H
years, and he has always proceeded and disposed of the power in this ratio.
If the gauges were defective, the water m'ght get too low without the engi-
neer observing it, but it was more likely to be owing to the negligence of the
engineer, as he has often found them negligent, even when they have been
short of water, and water could not be forced into the boiler, the steam being
so high. The machine and tool work were all light.

Robert Armstrong, of .Salford, engineer, was examined. He stated that he
Lad examined the boiler since it was found, and should not like to have
trusted it with a pressure of 401b. to the square inch, but for the quantity of
machinery to be turned, there was no occasion for any such weight ; he knew
of many in the town egg-ended without stays, to work with 401b. This
might be worked with 301b. without danger ; such a boiler was sufficient to
work an engine of from 6 to 10 horse power. He considered the accident
arose from the water getting too low, and too much steam rising too rapidly,
the water rising over the heated plates, and being suddenly flushed into
steam with great pressure ; there are marks inside the boiler which show
that the water had frequently been allowed to get too low, so as to allow the
plates to get overheated above the surface of the water, but could not speak
positively to this having been the case in this instance ; had it been so, and
had the boiler been ten times the strength it was, it would have exploded.
All high pressure engines, from the mode in which they are fed with water,
are liable to such accidents. This boiler was too little for 10, but it would
drive from 6 to 8 horse power very well.

Tliomss Banks, of Manchester, engineer, stated he did not make either the
engine or the boiler. About 16 months ago he put a Salter's spring to the
boiler and weighed it to forty pounds. Mr. Elce was very anxious to prevent
accidents, and since this Mr. Elce has got a waterfloat, which he always con-
sidered the most dangerous thing about boilers, more accidents having hap-
pened through them than anything ever appended to boilers, as I have proved
from an experience of near fifty years ; they are very useful if attended to,
but the engineer must not depend upon them too long ; tliey cause the engi-
neer to be over confident. Two good gauge cocks, a Salter's spring, and a
safety valve, which this boiler had, were sufficient in any case. He had no
doubt if Mr. Elce had never got the w aterfloat, the accident would never have
happened ; he also put up a steam gauge. He thinks if the engine had been
weighted for nine or ten horse power it would have broken down, but the
boiler would have stood. He thinks the explosion was owing to the boiler
being short of water. He has known of many explosions, all of which he
attributed to the same cause.

Ci'orge IValion Buck, of Ardwick, and }yi!liam fairiairn, and Richard

Roberts, of Manchester, engineers, gave their evidence jointly ; they stated
that they had examined Messrs. Elce and Co.'s premises, for the purpose of
endeavouring to ascertain the origin of the bursting of their steam boiler.
The engiue was on the high pressure now condensing principle, and called a
six horse power ; the boiler was cylindrical, measuring 3ft. lOlin. internal
diameter, and 9ft. 4iin. long, with fiat ends ; each end was composed of two
semicircular plates rivetted together in the centre, in the direction of its
horizontal diameter; the ends being of this weak form were sustained or
strengthened by a tie bar passed through the centre of the boiler, and con-
nected by cotters or keys to staples or stay bar straps of iron rivetted to the
centre of each end ; the part which first gave way, we think, on close examina-
tion, was the staple to which the tie bar was keyed at the end next the fur-
nace ; that the key or cotter had been driven until its larger end was in con-
fact with only one inch in length of the staple, and that the pressure of the
steam was then sufficient to draw the cotter through the plate of which the
staple was made ; the staple and the cotter indicate that this efi'ect must have
taken place after the fie bar was thus liberated, either end of the boiler might
next give way, but it appeared that the opposite end being accidentally the
weaker of the two, which it must have been, (probably from its being more
subjected to the action of the hot air of the flue), then gave way. being torn
asunder horizontally at the rivets ; the two halves of the end then flew open
like folding doors, and detached themselves from the boiler by breaking the
angle iron to which they were rivetted ; at the same moment the cylindrical
part of the boiler, with its other end, was projected horizontally with prodi-
gious force, its end came in contact with a heap of coals and the earth, which
was scooped out to the depth of two feet, lying in its path, by which the
other flat end of the boiler was driven into the cylindrical part where it was
afterwards found. This obstruction of the coal and brick wall against which
it was lying, and also of the earth, changed the direction of the motion of
the boiler, and deflected it into the canal where it was afterwards recovered.
The boiler did not appear to have suffered injury in any other part from the
explosion ; we observed that the safety valve was loaded by means of a verti-
cal rod passing through a stuffing box, and this rod we were informed was
acted upon by a lever and spring balance of Salter's construction, and that it
was capable of being screwed down to a pressure of 451b. to the square inch,
and no more ; on examining the vertical rod attached to the valve, they were
led to conclude that it appeared to have been set fast, or that it must have
offered much resistance to the rise of the valve independently of the pressure
of the lever, from the following considerations. If at the moment of the ex-
plosion the pressure of the steam had exerted a force of only 451b. to the
square inch, or the maximum according to the spring balance, the strain upon
the tie bar >»ould have been about 25,5001b , but the force exerted to draw
the cotter through the staple, on the supposition that the metal was of average
strength, must have been about 57,0001b., which indicates that the expansive
force of the steam must have amounted to not less than lOOlb. per square
inch ; this they believe was the real cause of the accident, but whether the
valve was held down accidentally or intentionally, in all probability can never
be known. They think that the ends of boilers of this description for high
pressure steam should be convex instead of flat, and that the safety valve
should be so constructed as to be acted upon by the weight or spring without
the intervention of a stuffing box or any other obstruction, between it and
the lever spring or weight acting upon it, and that although injudiciously
loaded, the boiler would not give way for steam at a pressure of not more
than 45 lb. to the square inch, but that it would have been better had there
been several stay rods or tie bars instead of one, and that no accident would
have happened had the above precautions been adopted ; that they could see
nothing in connexion with the death of the deceased for which any one could
be chargeable with blame, except only that it was injudicious to depend upon
one tie bar, and they have no reason to believe that there was an insuflSciency
of water ; and that from 5 to 5^ horse power would turn all the machinery
except the jack frame, which we cannot speak to; the accident we attributed
to the valve, which they consider did not act from some cause unknown, al-
though it might be in good working condition.

The Hannibal. — The keel of a 90 gun ship, to be named the Hannibal, has
been laid in the same spot where the Trafalgar was built in Woolwich Dock-
yard, and a number of workmen are actively employed in preparing the tim-
ber for her constauclion. The Hannibal will be a splendid vessel on Sir Wil-
liam Symond's plan, and have a great breailth of beam, for which vessels
designed by the present surveyors of the navy are distinguished.
The following are the dimensions of the Hannibal :—

ft. in.

Length on the gun-deck , , , 204 0

Breadth extreme 60 0

Ditto for tonnage 39 2

Ditto moulded 38 4

Depth in hold 23 8

lS-12.]

Tin^ CIVIL ENGINKKK AND ARrilTTECTS JOURNAL.

53

INSTRUCTION IX DESIGN, AND SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH
AND EICIITEENTII CENTURY.

Great as tlic outcry has liccn of late with regard to scliools of design,
the plan is liy no means new to the metropolis. At the latter end of the
scvcnteentli centurj', while what we may call the mediaiiical portion of art
was still llourishing. the symptoms of decay were apparent ; and a little later,
the general introduction of coinpo.-ition ornaments c.iusod a rapid decline.
The foundation of the school of drawing in Clirist's Hospital is perhaps the
first instance of the recognition of de>ign as an essential part of useful edu-
cation ; and it is surprising tli.it it had not a more extensive influence, .\liout
tlie commencement of the oightecutli century, when Strj-pe puhlishcd his
edition of Slow's Survey, the overthrow of the lower branches of art may be
considered as complete ; ami we find Mr. 15. Lens exerting liimsclf to
produce a better state of affairs. His arguments, published by Strype, arc
quite identical with those which have been lately urged; and it will perhaps
afford some gratification to extract at length Str\-pe's account of his school,
(vol. I. p. 1 73.)

" Another school for drawing, limning, and painting, set up anno 1077, by
one Mr. II. Lens, now or late living in Fleet-street, an art exceedingly useful
for all sorts of people, .is for gentlemen that travel, * * and for trailesuien ;
such as arc concerned in buililing, as masons, carpenters, joiners, painters,
and the like. The professor of this art teachcth on Tuesdays, Thursdays,
and Saturdays, in the morning from 8 to 11, and on Mondays, Wednesdays,
and Fridays, in the evening, from C to 0 ; the price, a guinea entrance, and a
guinea a month. * * He bath very well set forth the general usefulness of this
art by a printed paper, which may deserve to be here inserted. Craphice, by
.\ristotlc is generally taken for the art of drawing anything (FpacfiiKe)
whatsoever, with the pen or pencil, and was reckoned aiuong the cliiefcst of
those Ills waiSfvfiaTtt, or generous practices of youth, as renilering them so
many ways serviceable to their country, and profitable to themselves. Of
incredible service and advantage it would be to our smiths of all sorts,
masons, bricklayers, carpenters, joiners, carvers, turners, embroiderers, tapes-
try-workers, siUersniiths, jewellers, nay, to all our handicrafts in general.
For, show most of the workmen abovcsaid a draught of what you would
have ilone, their want of skill in drawing renders it almost useless to them.
For example, should an engineer invent a machine, and draw it in all its
parts, with its views per front and sides, the whole iu perspective, a ground-
plot thereof, with a scale annexed thereto ; with what dilliculty do they
work, and the projector must be always by, or all will be marred : whereas,
could our handicrafts and mech.inics draw, a man might send his work from
a hundreil miles' distance, drawn as abovesaid, ami be satisfieil it wouhl be
performed to his mind, and .'according to his directions, ily what has been
said, I would not have it thought that none of our handicrafts and mechanics
can draw, for some do. of my knowledge, very well ; which qualification hath
made them the most excellent of all others, for the best draughtsman will be
the best artist, in what art soever. The design of this school is to have a
constant nursery or breed of youths proper for artificers. * * For proof of
what hath been said, discourse with the meanest of all our handicrafts, though
he cannot draw, yet will endeavour to chalk out, after his fashion, your
meaning and his ; knowing by pure instinct, that all the rhetoric in the world
cannot convince like a drawing. * * If parents sent their rhildren to
drawing, as customarily they do to Latin ami writing, it being altogether as
useful to them, they wouhl soon find the advantage themselves, and their
children would reap thereby; for a master would take ;i servant qualified with
drawing with half the money, and be a gainer thereby, for the boy would
come to work in half the time." * *

That Mr. Lens's intention was a good one, there can be no doubt ; but
whether in making i charge of twelve guineas a year he made his school
acceptable to the working classes, ailmits of great question. As being a
l.ibourer in the cause of public instruction, he is, ueterthelcss, entitled to
much praise, although the time was so unfavourable to a successful issue of
his attempt. .Mr. Uuis was also a private teacher, and afterwards became
drawing master in Christ's Hospital.

OBSERVATIONS UPON THE COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES AND

iNtONvi;sii:N(i:s of the employment of ikon wire,

OR BAR IKON. IN Till; CONSTUUtmON OF SUSPENSION
BRIDGES OF GREAT SPAN.

Ily M. Lk Bi.axc, Chief Engineer of Bridges and Roads.

(Tranxlatnlfram the t'rench.J*

Cables of iron wire, and chains composed of bars of wrought iron, miy
be compared with reference to their economy and their durability.

.\s regards economy, the <|uestion scarcely lle^cr^cs discussion, ami it U
easy to prove « priuri that, in all possible cases, iron wire liaa the advantage
over wrought iron.

In fact, the Council of the Punts el C/iauiera has adopted the principle,
th.it cables of iron wire should be submitted to a tension of \2 kilogrammes
(JCJ lb.) per square millimetre (-UUli; square inches) of section; but for bar
iron, it was decided that the maximum of tension iUall not exceed n kilo-
grammes (17'G lb. nearlyl.

This principle is founded upon the comparative resistances of iron wire,
No. IS, ordinarily employed in the construction of cables, and of iron bars 3
to G ccntrimetrcs (1-2 to 21 inches) in diameter.

The natural consequence of this principle is, that the section of a chain
should be greater by one half than that of a cable, for the same tension ;
this involves a proportional increase of its weight. In cables of iron wire no
joints are used, or at most, but a single one, as in the bridge of Argcntat,
and this joint made up of two sm.iU eyes, weighs but little^on the contrary,
they are numerous in chains, and where the system is rather complicated, as
1 shall prove it should be in bridges of great span, each one of these joints
weighs at least 1 tO kilogrammes (309 lb.). On the supposition that the
suspension rods are 1'2 metre apart (47] inches), as there is a joint for each
rod, there will be 233 kilogrammes (jlllb nearly) for a bridge of 180
metres (590 ft.) span. This additional weight, together with that of the
bars themselves, which, as we have just seen, is one half greater than that of
the cables, produces an excess of tension which must again be resisteil,
whence there arises a new increase of section, and consequently of weight in
the chains. In applying these principles to individual cases, it is found that
the weight of the unit of length of a system of chains exceeds double that of
a system of cubles.t Now, as the price of iron wire is once and a half that of
bar iron, it is plain that the use of iron wire is more economical than that of
wrought iron.

1 have proved that the total tension is much greater when chains are used,
it follows that greater strength must be given to the moorings and to the
intermeiliate piers, when the bridges have several openings or bays — a new
cause of increase of expense.*

It appears to us to li.ivc been thus thoroughly proved, that in regard to
economy, the cables of iron wire are superior to chains of wrought iron.

Let us now compare the two systems in relation to their durability.

The principal objections which have been made to the employment of iron
wires are the following :

1 at. They otTcr greater chances for rapiil oxidation.

2nd. The imperfection of the jtrcsent process for manufacturing the rabies
does not allow us to give an equal tension to all the wires, so that when the
cables are raised to their places, the wires which arc under most tension
have to support many pounds in excess — while those under least tension do
not draw at all.

* We arc indebted fur the tninslation to the American Railroad Journal. —
Kditor.

I In the rnmparalive iiroposnls which I presenleil for the bridge of Korhe
liernard, 1 showed tluit these « eights are in the pro|>orliun of II to 'ii ; in
order to replace 11 kilognimniis (2Hb.) of irun wire, uhicli at I f . .'lOe. rost
lli francs, M cen., we must employ 2.'i kih gramrnvs (55 lb.) of Hrouxht iron
wiih 2'> francs.

; In bridges of several Inys the cables or chains kliouM be flxrd to the
inlernu-diate piers, in order lo avoiil the great changes of form which result
friun une<pial loads upon the two bays, if the chains and cables can shdc
freely over the lop of the piers. Boc.iuse these [irn h.ivc to rajsl oidy the
dillereuce nf the tractions produrol by illfTerent .iddilional loads iipun the
two Inys, it would app.'nr at first sight a m.ttier of IndifTerence whether the
jierTnanent load.s wliirli .ire in |.<piililirio .ire greater or leu: iievrrllielr.s.1 it is
plain that ihe less these permanent loads nre, the Ivtier the piers are in
rimdiliiin tii resist the maximum lo.id of <me bay, the other Ix-ing Heslniyed .
it is, then, not unimportant that we diminish the [lermancnl load as much as
ivslible.

64

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

3rd. Cables form a system less rigid than chains of -wroHght iron do, so
that the horizontal oscillations of the roadway are more considerable in the
former than in the latter case.

I believe that I have not withheld any of the objections urged against the
emplovment of iron wire, nor vieakcned those I have presented. I shall now
examine them in order.

First objection. — They offer a much greater chance for oxidation.

It is certain that if we expose to alternations of dryness and humidity a
bar of iron and a certain number of isolated wires, the sum total of their
individual sections being equal to that of the bar, the surface attacked will
be far greater in the wires, and in them the oxidation will be most rapid.

In confining ourselves to this general /ac/, without reference to any of the
means employed by art for retarding this oxidation, it will be well to examine
if even this inconvenience of the more rapid destruction of the cables, is not
more than counterbalanced by the advantages which they present.

It is very evident that if the cables remain only forty years without being
renewed, while the chains may last for sixty or one hundred years, we must
calculate what will be the amount at the end of forty years of the sum saved
by the use of iron wire instead of bar iron.

To render this more plain, I will give an example. I suppose that a given
suspension bridge requires 200,000 kilogrammes (441,090 lb.) of iron,
(which was nearly the quantity for the bridge of Roche Bernard).

The expense of the system of suspensions . . . 300,000 francs.

According to note (1) to replace the iron wire there
must be used 454,545 kilogrammes of wrought iron,
which would cost 454,545

Saving in favour of iron wire, 154,545 francs.

Now this sum put at interest, will amoimt at the end of twenty-three
years, to 475,506 francs, and supi)Osing that the cables must be entirely
renewed at this time, there will still remain a surplus of 175,596 francs,
which will be more than sufficient to produce at the end of another twenty-
three years, a new capital equal to the cost of tlie system of suspension.

In the case which we have considered, caljles of iron wire lasting but
twenty-three years will then be preferable to chains of indefinite duration.

Tlie s\ipposition that isolated wires will last twenty-three years without
the necessity of being renewed, is not without foundation — and we shall
produce a fact which strongly tends to confirm it.

M. Mongolfier, jun., having learned that a grating of iron wire from the
church of St. Martin's at Paris was about being taken down, after having
remained forty years without any repair, had the curiosity to prove these
wires, after having carefully ascertained their number, and he was convinced
that they bad lost but one-fifth of (heir entire strength.*

Tliis loss of strength is not sufficient to require a complete renewal of the
system of cables.

But the most determined opponents of the use of iron wire confess that
cables do not afford such facilities for oxidation as detached wires. The
greasy substance which covers them afl'ords a powerful preventive to rust ;
their union preserves them in tlie interior, more or less, from moist air ; the
ligatures are a still further obstacle to its introduction; and fiually, the careful
superintendence which should be given, are all reasonable motives for hoping
that the effects of oxidation may be diminished in a remarkable manner.

It may be olijected that experience has not fully confirmed the opinion,
however probable it may be, that cables arc less susccptilde of the attacks of
oxidation than iron wires. I confess that no one fact can as yet, incon-
testably, prove the justice of this opinion, but there are several which we can
])roduce, dipable of giving much strength to it.

The bridge of Tournon has been in existence eleven years, but no very
considerable trace of oxidation has manifested itself, at least, to my obser-
vation, ujion the surface of the cables ; and if there existed any in the
interior, it would not have failed to show itself by a brownish stain upon the
outside of the paint which covers them.

A bridge of iron wire was built at Brest, in 1520; the cables, exposed to
the salt air, which attacks iron with so much energy, should have undergone a
remarkable deterioration in the space of three years. M. Trotte de la Roche,
Chief Engineer, who, on account of the ])lans adopted for the port, was
obliged to dismount it, took the pains, at the invitation of M. Inspector

* The increase of oxidatinn is not as rap'd as would be supposed from the
first observations made — for the first layer of rust which covers the surface of
a bar of iron, instciul of favouring this riNirlntiun, pruvcs a coating which is
an obstacle to it.

General Lamblardie, to prepare a process verlul of the state in which be
found the cables.

It appears from the T^rocess verbal, 1st. That the continuous ligature which
covered the cables was slightly attacked, but that by the first scratch of the
file, the oxidized portion was removed. 2nd. That the exterior wires of the
cables showed slight traces of oxidation, but that the slightest scratch of the
file caused them to disappear. (M. Trotte de la Roche supposes that the
oxide was only deposited upon the wires of the cables, and that it came from
the ligatures.) 3rd. That the interior wires were perfectly untouched.

Eight years is a short space of time, but if we consider that the effects of
oxidation probably continue to decrease, we may conclude that they are not
so very rapid, and that the fears entertained upon this point are greatly
exaggerated.

An observation has been made, which is worthy of remark ; it is, that in
chains the surface of the bars which is attacked by oxidation proves the
portion of them offering the most resistance, while in a cable the interior
portions have the same strength with the others.

Second objection. — The imperfection of the present process for manufac-
turing the cables does not allow of an equal tension in all of the wires, so
that when the cable is raised to its place, the wires under most tension are
overstrained by many pounds, while those under the least tension do not
draw at all.

This last objection is a serious one, and cannot be absolutely done away
with, that is to say, it is impossible to prove that this defect does not deserve
the most serious attention ; but we can employ, in defence of iron wire
negative arguments, or in other words we can prove that it is not possible to
resolve the problem of equal tension in a more perfect manner by the system'
of chains than by that of cables of iron wire.

We must, in the first place, distinguish carefully between bridges of large
or small span ; in the latter, where the tension requires only a section of the
chains equal to that of 4 to 8 bars of about 0-05 metres to 0-OG m. (2 to
2-1 in.) in diameter,* (dimensions beyond which the quality of tlie iron be-
comes considerably deteriorated,) we can establish on each side of the bridge
two or four separate chains in one or two layers, each chain being made of a
single bar only ; in these two cases the problem of equal tension is perfectly
resolved, and althougli in the second each suspension rod bears upon two
chains which cannot have exactly the same curvature, the holding plate of
the rods will always bear upon the two chains, which will then support
equally their share of the whole weight of the bridge.

By establishing three or even four layers, we can form an excellent system
of 16 chains, each made of a single bar; but these 16 chains present only a
total section of less than 44,000 millimetres (97,041 lb.), corresponding to a
tension of 352,000 fcilogrammes, (776,329 lb.) that is to say, to bridges of
medium span ; but if we pass to bridges of such a span that the tension in-
creases to more than a million of kilogrammes, it will be necessary that the
chains should be composed of 48 or even 64 bars, that is, 24 or even 32 bars
on each side.

Let us consider the last hypothesis, which applies to the case of the bridge
of Roche Bernard.

It is impossible to employ the simple system of suspension roils resting
upon a couple of chains, of single bars, and arranged in layers, for we would
then have 10 of tliese layers, one above the other, which, beside the incon-
venience presented by a considerable height, would allow of the attachment
of suspension rods only at every sixteen intervals upon the same chain.

Here then it is necessary to employ a more complicated system, namely to
form the chains of several bars fastened together by a single bolt — in this
case I would reduce the number of chains to eight, and form tliem of eight
bars, fastened by one bolt.

We can double the number of chains, and so reduce to four the bars in
each, by making each rod rest, by means of plates, upon two chains at once,
but if the two chains forming the couple are not in the same plane, the upjier
plate of the rods will bear only upon one of the chains — for it must remain
parallel to the iilane of tlie four bars — and one half of the system will sup-
port nothing ; this disposition is too faulty to be adopted — this is my o]iinion
in the hypothesis of eight bars to each chain and fastened by one bolt.

Whatever may be the manner of forming the eye at the end of the bar,

* I reason on the supposition of the use of round iron, of which I need nol^
prove the superiority over square iron, that is hammered again aflcr being
re-heated to a cherry red.

t I suppose it would not be desirable to emjjloy more than fuur l.iyers—
this number is alreaily considerable and troublesome in the passage over the
towers and in the moorings.

1 842. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEKIl AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

either by welding it lo tlic ciul itself, or by liendiiig over a porlioii of tbc
liar, it apiicnrs to iiic very dilticult to prevent diircreiiccs in length of at least
a millimetre between tlie bars.

iNow if there is this difterencc between bars, 5 metres (lG-4 feet) in length,
the shortest luust lengthen a luillinietrt:, or "0002 of their length before the
others draw.

lint we know that a tension of two kilogrammes per sqnarc millimetre of
scelion produces npon a bar an elongation of 'UOOi of its length.

The bars then of which we are now speaking, arc strained to the amonnt
of I kilogrammes (9 lb.) (per sq. niiHinictrc) before those busiile them sniTer
any tension ; what will this amount to if the differences in length arc more
than one inillinietre ?

We see then that tlie problem of equal tension is as difficult of resolution
fur a complicated system of chains as for iron cables, for supposing that in
the two systems, the excess of tension, either of one wire over another, or of
one bar over another, is the same, tliis c.\eess will be a much smaller fraction
of the absolute strength of wire than of bar iron ; moreover, the manufacture
of cables aliords a greater hope of pcrfectio:i than that of chains.*

We sec now that the second objection has no raoie weight than the first,
lo decide us in favour of wrought iron chains.

On the other hand, there are objections against the employment of bar
iron more dilhcult to remove, and wliich will give additional strength to the
reasons which have induced me to yield the preference to iron cables.

These objections arc as follow :

1st. The greater part of chain briilges which have fallen have given way
at the bolts which unite the links. Now it is extremely ditlieuU to calculate
the strength wliieh should he given to them, as wc do not perfectly under-
stanil the manner in which they resist the strain ; if we compare them to
bars placed upon lixed bearing points, and charged with a weight in the

middle, and the resistance of which is derived from a formula P = M -r —

wc find the dimensions very small, too small indeed, according to many
experiments.

If we suppose them to resist as if drawn in the direction of their length,
(and many constructors admit this hypothesis,) we arrive at large sections,
which greatly increase the weight of the joint ; besides this, wc liave no cer-
tain information as to the nuality of the iron w hich they need ; it should not
be so soft as that of the chains, because no curvature is required; but still it
should not he brittle. To avoid mistakes prejudicial to the durability of the
work, it is wise to m.ike them rather too strong than too weak ; hut as I
have just said, an increase of weight is the consequence of this precaution.

•Jnd. The making of the eye rc(iuires great attention ; it has been observed,
that when the holt is too Uttle, during the proof, a rent takes place from the
outside to the inside of the head of the eye ; when the bolt is too large, the
rent opens from the inside toward the outside. Now, as it is almost impos-
sible that the work of man should he jjcrfect, in order to avoid the incon-
venience above-mentioned, several constructors have proposed to swell out
the head of the eye, in order to give it greater strength ; but to do this we
must re-disturb the particles of iron by hammering after having heated it, an
operation which I have already designated as faulty.

3rd. During the oscillatory motions, which take place in all suspension
briJ;cs, the irons rub forcibly against encli other at all the joints, and this
tends to wear them in those parts which have the greatest strain. This
inconvenience does not exist in wire cables.

4th. In the moorings we are compelled to use curved irons, which have of
course been re-heated, and are most often squared; this new heating, and
the difficulty of proving them, obliges us to give a greater size, which involves
another increase of expense.

5th. In very cold weather iron becomes brittle ; wire enveloped in grease,

* To make the bars as equal as ]>ossiblc, we can indccil, after having bent
and ueldcd the ends, drill llirougli all of them uliich make up u link of the
chain, Hhen rnld ; but it is evident in this en.->e, that to prevent the driliin.;
from diminishing the strength of the c)e, \ic must either give greater size tii
the bar in ibis part or llatti-n it, involving' u lieaiuiK »hieh injures Uic quality
of the iron.

\ There arc, fur instance, some red shear (hot short) irons wblcli lose
nothin^ by being wrought at a Mhitc heat, but whirb are injured in qicilily
when uriiuglit at a leu rlevalr'l tempcr.tlnre. IJut the wurkni"!! cannot con-
fine ihi'inselvcs l<> lullii these ciiwlilions exactly, whence it liippcns, In ir<<iis
uheh li.ivc even been proved, that llic rc-forgxl |nirtiiiiis Ixcoine lud, ami
cun.scquenlly, that only the fuuil piouf can give evidence of thi.t im|>eXiCctiun ;
but OS wc have jus: auid, it is very tliOicuU tv proTe curvcU Uiri,

and not in immediate contact with the air, must be less brittle than naked
bars of iron.

Cth. Cables in bridges of great span, can be much more ctsily raised to
their places than chains. In the proposal for the bridge of Koelic llcriiard, I
have calculated that the weight of a cable would be 7,U0K kilogrammes
(17.G7.1lb.), while each chain would weigh 31,19G (69,102 11).); a work
eipially dilHcult, it may he said, has been executed at the Menai bridge ; but
if this proves that it is not impossible, it docs not prove that it is not very
difficult.

Jl. Vicat has asserted, that wires before breaking, suffer a considerable
elongation, which announces the rupture beforehand, and thus gives time to
make the necessary repairs, while chains break instantaneously.

This advantage of iron v^ire has been disputed, in the case of wires united
in bundles by ligatures, and the interstices of which arc filleil by grease. M.
Frinot thinks that these bundles form a brittle system ; he doubtless would
like to say, as brittle as bar iron. In suppoit of bis opinion he h.ts cited the
fieme, a sort of skein of hempen tlireail, which has most strength when its
elements are free, and loses part of it as soon as the loose threads arc bound
together, and approximated to the condition of lopcs. If this assertion is
confirmed by experiments — and I have prepared some for Ibis puri>ose —
cables will in this point of view, be neither worse nor better than bar iron.*

Third oi/ec/ioii.— Cables form a less rigid system than bars of wrought
iron, so that the horizontal vibrations of the roadway arc much greater in
the former than in the latter.

For equal curves and weights this is true, but when wc have once given
the preference, even in point of durability, to wire over bar iron, (and I con-
fess I have done so,) will we not gain more by increasing the rigidity, by
meaus of the greater weight of heavier timbers for the roadway, and by
diminishing the curvature of the cables, or the tension which they should
bear per square millimetre of section, than by substituting chains for cables .>
These latter likewise admit of an arrangement which cannot be adopted
for chains. I refer to the cradle form ; and in this case the outside cables
being in a plane, inclined from the vertical, have a tendency to draw the
whole roadwav towards them, and as this takes place on both sides, it follows
that the roadway is kept in its position better than it would be by means
of stays.

1 offer these reflections to the readers of the Annate; as the result of )M;r-
fect conviction in my own mind, after deliberate consi.lcratioii, and I can
indulge the hope that this conviction will be shared by at least a small
number of my associates. I shall examine in a snhscciucnt article the advan-
tages and inconveniences of a diminution of curvature, and the defects in the
proof wliich chains and cables undergo, cither before or after being pUced.

Siif;"Cslionfor the Pnienliim n/ Fin- in <hurches.—\ correspondent of Tlir
T'lmcsrremarkins upon the frequent occurieiice nf fires in churches, as well
as other old buildings, in which the modern practice of warming by stoves
has been introduced in buildings not originally coiislmcted for that purpose,
suggests that if the nl.in were adopte-.! in all new churches, and in such of the
old as are capable of it, of sinking a well near the crcal western di.or of the
ehiireh, and fixing a foriini; pump tberetn. lo the spout of which ;i short
hoscmight be adopted, and which miKbt also be so contrived .is to fit Uic
hose of the parish engine, and be under the caie of the sexton, many very
destructive (ires might be prevented by the timely application of water thus
easily supplieil on the spot, as in most cases where a lire occurs it is small at
first 'brciiking mil, ami a f.w buckets well applied wimld bo sumcunil.i extin-
guish it ; while, as is well known, from llie extreme dilTicully which now
occurs in proeurinn water at these generaliy isnlite<l buildings, the lire has
made an alarmin-.,' progress bcforo any supply of water can Iv nimle available.
In some places, the rain water from llio root might be eunductejl into a lank,
whicli wouhl answer the purpose c<|ually well, and al-o be made very usrlul
when repairs are being made, and lor the purposes ol aljlulion, now so much
neglected, from the absence of water in the churchyard.

• M. Lauraut recently atlended to ihe work of the bridge of Roche Ber-
nard, and has given me some details in regard to the *rr«-, whicli can explain
the objection of M. Frinot. The /.rr...- is made by laying the threads in a
circle, and if they ar,> perfectly parillcl and evenly stretched, the inside ones
arc shorter than those ouuide ; if Hgalures are appliel. and the hfif u
drawn out, as it must be to lift or pull loads, wc see that the thrc.iils of the
bundle, which Iron, being circular are now slraigbl. or even bent in opiwaitc
directions-thc outside ihrc;ids Uien must be thrust up logcllier, while the
inner ones, if Uiey do nut stretch, must break. Without the hgaturos Uiere
would be a rumiK'noiioii l.twc^n this Icngllicning and »li(.rlening, so that
they actually injure the strength of Ihe bundle ; but it is llie rh.inge of form,
and' not the ligature, whirh is the cause of the evil, and the hrrir, b<mnd or
not bound, wuukl have the s;uiie slicnBll'. "f U ictmncd its primitive form, a«
IS the casv Willi cables uf wu«.

o6

Till'] CIVIL ENGINEER AND AllClllTECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

LEVELLING.

Sir— At page i'M of your juunial, I have just read \V. 13cnlcy's remarks
on tlie sulijcct of attaining the correct bisection of a levcllini; stalt'; and
althongli I cannot asrec with his plan of " tlie liolder moving it slowly and
firmly to and fro, in the jilane of the observer, the base of the stall' acting in
its seat as a hinge," because I believe, by such means that the base of the
start' would in some degree work itself into the ground (except an universal
joint was attschcd to the foot), which, if at a back station, would occasion a
certain error ; probably of much greater amount than would be occasioned by
a reading from the statt' when in an oblique position. The principle of adopt-
ing the Icaxf reading on the staff is of course correct, and is really well worth
the attention of every person engaged in levelling operations. But I have
always found, that with the most carefid holder, and on a calm day, the
inevitable unsteadiness of hand was suflieient to enable one to practise this
plan with certainty. In windy wcatlier, the vibration of the staff always
ensures the same result, constantly passing and repassing the perpendicular.
In conclusion. Sir, allow me to state, that in my opinion, the shiiple plan
detailed in W. Rowley's letter is well worthy of your readers' attention ; and
there is the reproach conveyed in the postscript to W. Stevenson's letter, at
page 20 of your last uumber, unmerited.

1 remain, Sir,

Chariotle-strcet, lUoomsburi/, Your obedient servant,

Jan. 13, 1812. Peter Brui'f.

LONG AND SHOUT STEAM VOYAGES.

Sin — A correspondent Z in your last number appears to lean to the opi-
nion of Dr. Gardner respecting the profit to be derived from long and short
voyages l)y steam. 1 think, however, he is not borne out by the examples
adduced. With respect to the hst of transatlantic killed and wounded, men-
tioned by him, it is necessary to say a few words in explanation.

" Sirins withdrawn." — The Sirius was a small vessel, and was never in-
tended to be kejit permanently on the transatlantic station. She was char-
tered for a voyage or two by the lomjiany owning the British tjuecn and
President, while their shijis were building, and though sailing from an Irisli
port, was, I believe, the most unprofitable of all, and the soonest withdrawn.

" The lloyal M'iUiam " — was also a small vessel, chartered by another
company until their own vessels were ready.

" Great Liveipool transferred." The Liverpool was certainly nnsuccessful.
This arose jiartly from the circumstance of her retiu'n on the first voyage
after being out some days, which created an unfavourable impressiou against
her, anil being an indifferent sea-boat, she never attracted many jiassengers.
She has since been altered by giving her six feet more beam, and is now, I
believe, a very superior vessel.

" United States or Oriental transferred." — She was intended for the sta-
tion, hut never made a voyage.

" British Queen sold." The British Queen made an average profit on nine
voyages of .i'1256 per voyage ; and before the opposition of the Cunard Hne,
which is assisted by a Government contract, considerably more.

" The President lost."— The President made an average profit of .C1350
per voyage Tvhile she ran. These two ships belonged to the same company,
and would have paid a handsome divi<lcnd on their cost, had it not been for
the Cunard* opposition, and the unfortunate loss of the President, which
was insured for a fourth )iart of her value only. She therefore took to the
bottom with her the .fCO,000 of the company's capital mentioned by Z, and
swamperl her owners.

" Great Western and Great Iron Steamer for sale." — I am unable to say
whether these are for sale or no. The Company have some disputes whether
they shall budd their own ships or not ; and as the courts have decided
against them, their building-yard is advertised for sale. The Great Western
has regularly divided nine per cent, on her cost, besides laying by a consider-
able reserve fund ; so she can scarce be quoted as a proof of non-success
with long voyages. Your correspondent says that a "recent meeting of the
Peninsular and Oriental Company enables us to state, that oriental steam

voyaging has been highly successful ; ami this result has been attained with
the same vessels, and by the saine managcnicnt, that were incapable of
realizing anything but loss on the New York line." That the vessels are
under the same management, is entirely a mistake ; tliat they pay a good
dividend (seven per cent), is quite true. But how .' The Company's capital
is .t'300,000, and they receive from Government £00,000 for conveying the
mails to Lisbon, Gibraltar, and Alexandria. It is evident that without this
Government assistance, the Company's vessels, with their short voyages,
woLild not be dividing .£21,000 a year among the proprietors, but would, as
Z says, be still realizing a most considerable loss. I think therefore, from
what I have said respecting the Great Western and these latter vessels, it
will appear, that the length of the voyage is of far less consequence than the
probability of a full ship to make it with.

I have the honour to be. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

jVn Amateur.

• The Cunard opposition is stated to have reduced the passage money
20 per cent, and to have reduced tlie number of passengers from an average
of 240 to an average of lO.'j per voyage.

MODEL MAPPING.

Sir — I have perused with considerable iuterest your report of Mr.
Sopwith's paper on the construction and use of Geological Models, for
which he was awarded a Telford medal by the Institution of Civil
Engineers, — and I trust you will allow inc to make a few remarks on
the analogy his jiroposition bears to the one I liave advanced in my
little work of Model Mapping, in which I suggest, that in all cases
where the owners of estates are desirous of informing themselves, of
the material and undersoils, as well as the surface and contents of
their lands, Model Maps should be extended in their usefulness, so far
as to portray geological formation. The mode I propose is to sink
shafts in the model correspondingly with the borings taken on the
ground, and into these shafts to insert rods of the same length as the
depth iif the borings, coloured geologically, to vertical scale ; each diffe-
rence of colour agreeing precisely with the strata of subsoils, as reported
by the borers. The rods wouUi be made to fit neatly in the shafts,
though easy of removal, and would assimilate in use to the (jrocer's
CktSftasIci; which, when \\ithdrawn from the cheese, identifies its
rpialities. Of course, I would not be understood to feel otherwise
than that Mr. JS.'s method is superior for mining ]iurposes, but as the
one I suggest does not render a division of the model necessary, but
conveys to the observer the pure information derived from the borings,
1 am induced to believe that landowners interested in geology, and not
initiated in civil engineering, would prefer it, as the simplest and
least troublesome method, were their attention turned to the matter.
I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

J. Bailey DiiNXuN.

0, Gray's Inn, Deamher U, 1S41.

STUDY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE.

Sir — Believing you are ever ready to give publicity to any sugges-
tions which may have utility for their object, I beg to ofter the follow-
ing considerations, which, should you deem ot sullicient importance to
claim a place in your Journal, you will kindly insert. A very few
years since there was no place in existence where the study of Civil
Engineering or Architecture could be prosecuted as a separate science.
The student designed for either of tliese professions was compelled to
wander through an intricate maze, w ithout guide or compass to direct
him, and often, as is too v\'ell seen at the present time, entered upon
his duties without having even laid the foundation of a scientific
education. There have been some attempts of late to till up this
chasm in the educational establishments of tliis country, by instituting
departments in several of the Colleges and Universities, where the
attention of students is exclusively devoted to subjects in relation to
these branches of study; as also by the foundation of the College for
Civil Engineers. Now these have, I am aware, in part supplied this
desideratum, but in part only. Who is it that derives any benefit
from these existing Institutions? are they the few or the many ? most
undoubtedly those only who have money in plenty, and the greatest
portion of their time to devote exclusively to the acquirement of
knowledge. But there are still a considerable number who not having
such advantages, enter prematurely into offices, and therefore engaged

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENCJIMiliU AND AKCHlTECrS JOURNAL.

.17

f

thruiighuut the day, cannot aviiil tlicmselves of these opportunities,
;in(l arc consequently K'fl withmit the means of preparinc; tlu'rnsclves
for such important callings. To what can be attributed the fact that
ill nine cases out of ten, pupils pass tlirough the term of tlieir articK--
sliip without having advanced in any material [)oint ' merely, tliat
thev commence and continue almost wholly in ignorance of any prin-
ciples, and unable to apply even those they do know. Now it appears
to me possible to remedy this evil in a great measure by the establish-
ment of some place where the evenings only would be set apart for
the pursuit of the necessary ciualilicutions, and unto wliii-h a library,
nuiseuni, \c. might be attached, if practicable ; thus all'ording to those
so situated means of improvement which are at present not to be found.
Could the attention of those in whose power it is to carry into eflect
so desirable an undertaking, be roused to a sense of its importance,
that the subject might be tairly considered, there is little doubt but
that the result would be beneficial.

I am. Sir,
Your's, respectfully,

A Student.
DiumUr 15, 1841.

ON COMPETITION.

Sir — Your correspondents have descanted frequently and largely
upon the abuses of competition, and I concur generally in their cen-
sures upon existing practices. Without attempting however to dis-
cuss the merits and demerits of the subject, I will give you a case
which may furnish matler for further comments ; inasmuch as I believe
it is in a great measure, if not entirely original, in respect to the
course adopted.

The Magistrates of Devonshire advertised for designs for a County
Lunatic Asylum, offering a premium of 4; 100, or the chance of being
employed to erect the building. About 20 designs were submitted ;
and after the committee had repeatedly conned them over, they can-
didly acknowledged their inability, without assistance and advice, to
enter sufficiently into the consideration of all the numerous details, so
;is to be able to form a satisfactory judgment of their comparative
merits. Accordingly they called in the aid of Mr. Hardwick, to ex-
amine and report upon the designs, in order to furnish them with clear
and tangible data upon which their judgment might be grounded.

Mr. Hardwick having so long held the appointment of architect to
Bethlehem Hospital, was therefore peculiarly fitted for the task ; and
it appears that he adopted the following course.

In reporting upon the whole collection of plans, after some cursory
remarks upon the greater portion of them, which he deemed not worthy
of a detailed consideration, he selected seven or eight of the most
eligible, and made a t-ibular analysis of their contents under nearly
tliirly different heads; by enumerating of their various parts, by cal-
culating the small qu.inlities superficial and cubical, and arranging
them in juxta position. Thus presenting at one view a comparison of
the whole in all the various relations that can be expressed by figures ;
accompanied also by remarks upon their comparative merits in other
respects.

The result was very curious and interesting; as for example, taking
only the cubical contents and cost, the calculations of the competitors
were found to range from \-id. to dd. per foot!

No conclusive judgment was proi'ouuced in favour of any particular
plan, the selection being left entirely with the committee.

Now it may be worth the consideration of your correspondents,
whether the course described is not desirable in order to arrive at a
fair and judicious decision — and if so, is it in the^o;rtr of any com-
nnllee, however zealous and honourable, to fulfil such a task; or even
if they had the ability, could they devote the nccessarv lime for com-
piiring, analysing, calculating, &c ? Further, if they could, and would
do so, is it not better to be done by a jirofessional nxm, who is not only
more competent, but also rcupoimbk for the advice he renders ? Is
not such an ordeal of the designs calculated to detect fillacy ami de-
lusion, and thus prevent an injudicious selection? and is it not at the
same lime a great check upon collusion and jobbing? for under such
an arrangi'nieiit few committee men will be so daring as to vote in do-
fiance of the iiirrits of the c;i3e, with the liability of their corruption
or ignorance being so readily exposed.

F. 13. A.

MR. Vl(iN01.E.S' I.ECTl'RE.S ON ClVlI. ENtilNEEKING,
AT THE LONDON UNIVER.SITV COLIJXiE.

[We are indebted to our cotemporary the " Mining Jourual " for an
abstract of Mr. Vigiioles' very valuable lectures, now in tlio course of
delivery at the Lomloii L'niversity College. They will be found to
abound with information of tlic utmost importance, not only to the
student, but also to the profession generally.]

ON ARTinClAL KOU.VDATIOXS.

Lecture I. 25tli Nov. 184 1. After offering some comments ou
engineering generally, the lecturer alluded in particular to that im-
portant portion where the skill of the engineer was most required —
viz., foundations. After some instructive remarks upon the subject,
he said that for the foundation of bridges a network of timber had
been used, and was found to be very good so long ;is it was under
water; but if it were liable to become dry, and exposed to the effects
of the atmosphere, it was sure to fail. He recommended concrete as
far superior to timber; he had seen concrete forced into u quicksand,
auil no weight could afterwards force it out. Brick earth and clay
form excellent foundations — the whole of St. Paul's, except the north-
east corner, was built upon such a foundation, of from four to (we feet
thick ; at the north-east corner, the architect being afraid to trust to
the ground, it being rather softer than the other parts, had the clay
removed, and a well of from twenty to thirty feet s(|uare sunk to a
depth of about forty feet, where the hard bed w;is found ; he then
raised a solid mass of masonry to within nine or ten feet of the surface
— arches were turned, and the foundation finished at an enormous ex-
pense ; whereas, a few cubic yards of concrete would iiavc answered
equally well, if not better. All must have noticed the hole that was
filled u)) iji laying the concrete foundation of the Royal Exchange;
there a few cubic yards of concrete did the work more expeditiously,
and as well as the ingenuity of the mason could have effected it; he
alluded to some of the most remarkable instances of the prodigality of
architects in laying foundations, as the Barricrc de I'Etoilc (a trium-
phal arch at Paris;, where the cost of the foundation far exceeded the
amount of surface work ; and the viaduct of the Valley Elon-, in which
a mass of soliil masonry, thirty feet thick, was erected, extending all
across the valley. In these cases concrete would have answered the
purpose equally well, and at an enormous reduction in expense. Mr.
Vignolcs stated that the leading principles he wished to impress upon
the minds of the students were — extension of base ami equality of
surface. He then, at some length, explained the different foundations
that had been used for bridge building, and mentioned particularly
Ranger's patent for curing defects where foundations have given way
— viz., by using hot water to concrete applied in boxes, the hot water
causing the concrete to expand. This was applied to the foundation
of the Custom House when it had given way in consequence of a failure
in the piling, which rend«red necessary the application of an artificial
for a natural foundation. He then remarked upon the various methods
now in vogue for keeping the piles of bridges dry while under repair,
alluding to caissons, ana Mr. Tierney Clark's method of putting in
the foundation of the landing place at (iravesend by portable colfer-
dams. The Professor concluded his instructive lecture, stating his
wish to popularise the knowledge of eugiueering as a means of bene-
fitting the public at large.

LixTi'i'.E II. Wednesday, the 1st Dec, ISll. — In the first lecture
Mr. Vignoles gave the general principles of the various descriptions
of foundations ; in the present he proceeded to illustrate those princi-
ples by diagrams. He stated, that if a good foundation were provided
by nature, the subse<iuent operations were simple, the main point
being to imitate nature as closely as possible. Where the soil was
bad, considerable skill was recpiired ; for instance, in laying the found-
ation for the pier of a bridge, a wall, or a column, the first point was
to give the base extensibility, in proportion as the natural soil w.-ui
weak, so in ecjual proportion must the size of the base be incre.ised —
the pressure must also be equal ; the soundness of the foundation not
depending so nnicli upon the amount of settlement as upon its equality.
There were various ways of obtaining this — viz., by the use of con-
crete alone, or in conjunction with timber, timlH'r alone, or stone, or
brick. Having so much insisted upon the necessity of an uniformity,
it must be sup|iosed that no portion of the artificial soil should escape;
where that was likely, itluft liili"H nuist he resorted to. He then, by
means of diagrams, explaineil the naliirii of that method — it being by
driving piles dose together, all rounil tlie found itiun ; the piles l)eing
(siy) four inihi's thick, and as long as might Ik; necessary. This
method entirely prevented the escape of the soil in any manner but in
a vertical direction, an<l ensured an uniform sinking, however bad the
natural soil might have lioeu. He then alluded to a very large chim

58

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

[Feb.

ney, fwnnly-two feet square, where the natural soil wag a shifting
quicksLiml ; concrete was put in in layers, until the bed was eight feet
thick ; on tliis was jilaced a layer of flag-stones, five feet square ; eight
days after the work was completed, the whole sunk eighteen inches,
without the least deviation from the perpendicular. Other modes
liad been adopted, amongst which was f lie following: — A number of
tiniber balks were laid across, and concrete placed in the spaces be-
tween ; then filled up with bricks; timbers were laid in a cross direc-
tion, and the fiat stones placed upon them. In this instance the wood
was laid where no change of atmosphere could affect it. The nature
and use of a coffer-dam was then explained, and the Professor, at some
length, showed tlie danger of incautiously drawing the piles; the va-
cuity occasioned by their withdrawal being filled up by the surround-
ing matter, greatly injured the stability of the foundation. In making
one of the London bridges, a great disfigurement had occurred in con-
sequence of the incautious withdrawal of the piles, one side of the
pier having sunk one foot. The modern plan to prevent such acci-
dents was to have a double coiler-dam — the piles of the inner one
being cut oft', and the outer piles might be withdrawn without danger.
In laying foundations, lie supposed there was a hiyer of soft ground, of
moderate depth, with a hard substrata; piles must be driven through
the soft soil into the bard bed ; a very slight depth would be suflicient,
but still, in most cases, t.heet piling would be necessary.

The Professor said that he was lately indebted to an officer of the
Bengal Engineers for an account of a very ingenious method, almost
universally practised in laying the foundations of bridges and temples
in India. It would not answer here, labour being so dear ; but there,
where wood was very scarce, building materials in great plenty, and
labour very cheap, it was the simplest and most effective that could
be imagined. From the explanation, it appeared that the system was
the same as piling, but, instead of using wood, small wells of brickwork
were substituted. Take, for instance, the pier of a bridge ; a small
well of brickwork was constructed — say, six feet deep, seven feet in
diameter, with a hole through it, three and a half feet in diameter ;"
this is placed on the sandy bed where the foundation is to be made ;
a workman gets into it, and undermines the well from the inside, the
earth being drawn up in buckets, additional layers are added to the
top of the weU until a sound bottom was reached ; and the singularity
was, that there was not one or two of these little wells, but hundreds,
and, in certain cases, to a depth of fifty-five feet ; arches were then
thrown across, and the superstructure raised. Wheu the foundation
was in the bed of a river, the excavation went on by the workmen
diving through the water to the bottom of the well, anil working there
until obliged to come to the surface for air; for instance, through ten
feet of water in the river and to the extent of forty feet of water in
the well — one of the most extraordinary instances of perseverance
upon record. English engineers bad somewhat abridged the labour
by substituting an oblong square of fifteen feet by four feet, "vith two
elliptical holes for the workmen, so that, instead of three v^clls of six
feet, they get one of fifteen feet — the principle being precisely the
same.

In France a number of bridges had been built where the water was
not rapid, upon a very simple foundation; a framework of timber
being made, furnished with short piles at the corner, and laid in the
bed of the river, and the superstructure raised upon it by means of a
wooden diving-bell. The pier perdue was another way, but could only
be used in still water ; a quantity of stones were thrown in until a
foundation was obtained ; where there was any current this foundation
was sure to give way, as in Plymouth Breakwater and Kingston Har-
bour. He then alluded to the case of one of the London docks, where
the wall, being made with too great a curve, from the want of pile
sheeting, the soil gave way— the engineer adding fresh matter until
the toe of the wall actually appeared (to the astonishment of all) above
the surface on the other side. He then gave examples of several ori-
ginal methods of preparing for the formation of foundations in Italy
and Ireland by means of baskets of stones, &c.

CONCRETE.

The Professor next explained tlie nature of concrete, and gave
directions for its formation — viz., one part of lime, twice that quantity
of sand, and twice as much broken stone, or gravel, as there was sand.

The goodness of the concrete depended upon the quality of the
lime. In making concrete, it must be borne in mind that the materials
were far more bulky separate than when mixed ; for instance, to make
a cubic yard of concrete, which contained twenty-seven cubic feet, it
would be necessary to liave thirty-four cubic feet of materials, besides
the water. The three ingredients should be mixed dry, and the water
added ; iu slaking, the concrete will expand about one-thirtieth in
bulk.

The great expense of cofler-dauis, and of piers generully, had lately

. led to a very peculiar construction of bridges by piling only, as, for
instance, in iron bridges, no masonry being used. The Professor
stated, that he had built seven or eight bridges upon that system ;
the piles were driven in and the iron work erected upon the wood. It
had been tried to substitute cast-iron for piles instead of wood, but
they had not succeeded, the iron being very liable to break. He also
alluded to a beautiful arrangement for fixing branches to piles by means
of a sliding collar, but which it is impossible to explain without dia-
grams. A French work, above 2U0 years old, was produced, with
some very curious engravings of the modes then in use for securing
foundations, and which proved that we are using the same means at
present, and that many of our so-called new processes were in use at
that time. He then concluded by stating, that, at his next lecture, he
should bring forward some more general rules respecting foundations,
and after that proceed to .consider the best method of securing slopes
of earth, now so generally in use.

Lecture 3. Wednesday, Sth Dec, 1S41. — Mr. Vignoles explained
that at his former lectures he had applied the term "concrete" too
generally, and would now explain the difference between " beloii " and
" concrete." Beton was formed of the usual quantity of sand and
gravel, broken stones, &c., but, instead of using the ordinaty stone
lime, hydraulic lime was applied. He then stated that beton is used
exclusively under water, concrete only where water does not get in ;
beton never sets until it is under water, while concrete will not set
except it is dry. The lime used for beton must be first slaked, while
for concrete it slakes in the process of mixing. Beton sets best when
let down gently in cases, and concrete when scattered from an emi-
nence. Beton takes months to become hard, while concrete hardens
in a few minutes. The both are in purport essentially the same — to
form an artificial stone or rock — the one for works under water, and
the other for those on land. He then alluded to the knowledge of the
ancients of beton and concrete, and read extracts from the works of
sundry authors, from Josephus to the present time, proving that asser-
tion. The use of piles was also very ancient, the foundation of a brick
pyramid in Egypt having been constructed on that principle. After
impressing upon the minds of the students the great importance of a
good foundation, and the efficacy of concrete for attaining that end, he
concluded, by stating that his next lecture would be again on the sub-
ject of foundations, and after that he would proceed to lecture upon
slopes of earth, and explain the causes of the late accidents upon the
different railways, pointing out where the errors of judgment had
occurred.

Lecture 4. Wednesday, 15th Dec. 1841. — Mr. Vignoles commenced
by explaining the mode in which piles were driven in, and produced
a model of a pile-driving machine (from the museum of the cohege),
by means of which he showed the meihod in which steam power was
applied to that machine for expediting the work — stating, however,
that, far from that application being a novelty, he had used it himself
twelve or fourteen years ago.

ROCK FOUNDATIONS.

Having treated in his former lectures upon foundations in natural
soils, or various kinds of artificial bases, he would now notice such as
were of the composite order, being partly on rock, and partly requiring
artificial means to render them sufficiently sound for the required pur-
pose. It often happens that, in making a bridge, there may be rock
on both sides of the river, and the first pier may rest upon rock, while
the second and third may have an insecure foundation, in consequence
of a " pot-hole " (as it is called) of sand unexpectedly being discovered
in the very spot where these piers are to be erected ; the only plan
to get over this difficulty is to cut the edge of the hole in steps ;
sheet-pile it a short space from the wall of the hole, and fill up the
intervening space between the piling and the hole with beton, or some
other substance, and thus form a continuation of the rock itself. Diffi-
culties also present themselves in solid rock foundations ; for instance,
in such an erection as that at the Devil's Bridge ; the ravine over
which the bridge is to be thrown may have been formed by the run-
ning of water — the strata, accordingly, runs with the usual inclination
on both sides. If foundations for the piers of the bridge were not
sunk deep enough into the rock, the press of the water filtering
through the fissures of the strata have such force that, notwithstanding
the resistance of the arch, he had known instances of the pier being
actually pushed outwards. The only method of avoiding this was to
sink the pier so low into the rocks, and, by means of steps, secure it
so firmly, that the force of the water must break the pier — not force it
outwards — before it could destroy the bridge. The Professor, before
going into the question of rock foundations, begged to state, that, iu
these lectures, he only laid down the general principles of foundations ;
he could not go into the details of the business, and the circumstances
of stoue foundatious were so varied, that it was only by a life of labour

1S42

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.'50

I

and experience that the best metliod could be arrived at ; lie wished
that each student should, in his private study, well consiik'r, and, by
reading, tost the correctness of the principles which he laid down fur
their guidance. A whole year's lecture, repeated every day, would
be no more than sufficient to draw the attention of the student to im-
portant points — the details could only be gained by practical experience,
in preparing the foundation of lighthouses, the whole resources of the
engineer must be called into action. A lighthouse must be built in
such a manner that it must actually grow from the rock; there are in-
stances where lighthouses have fallen in a body. He could mention
one in Ireland, the foundation of which was a solid rock ; he saw a
party who witnessed its fall, and who informed him that it fell in a
solid mass, tearing away a portion of the rock with it. The fault was,
that the foundation was not sunk deep enough into the rock. He
then alluded to the celebrated Pharos (of Pharos) of Alexander, which
was justly reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was
built about 2>3 vears B.C., and received its name from the island on
which it was built ; it was TijU feet high, and the base was 150 feet
square, and could be seen at a distance of lU English miles. Josephus,
and many other authors, had given descriptions of it, which pretty
well agreed : and what was most extraordinary, that the very same
method of making the foundation was jiractisod then as now. The
stones were dovetailed together, dowellcd, and run with lead, so as to
firmly secure them in their places. The cost of the building amounted
to no less a sum than 200,(X)U/. of our money, and it lasted above l(j
centuries; no iliminution in its height occurred until after a 1000
years from its erection, at which time about one-third of its height
was wasted awav by time, and it Wiis only within about tOO years that
the whole is supposed to have been destroyed, and that only by means
of an earthquake. He then remarked, that it was very seldom that
the name of an engineer was handed down fur 2UOO years, but all ac-
counts agreeil that Sosastros was the name of the engineer who erected
this wonder of the world. The celebrated Corduan, or, as it is gene-
rally called, Cordovan Lighthouse, at the mouth of the Garron, is
built upon the same principles .is the Pharos; this lighthouse is, how-
ever, circular, but the masonry is not calculated for durability, it being
built of freestone. The expense of this lighthouse was enormous, as
must be supposed, when millions of francs were expended upon orna-
ment, which was the more aljsurd, when it was considered that it
stood upon a barren rock, in the middle of the sea. He could not help
quoting a line of Pope —

'Tis only usefulness that sanctifies expense.
This is a sentiment that he wished to impress upon the minds of all
his students, for it was a great fault of modern engineers to expend
great sums upon ornament, which could be far better employed U])on
actual necessaries. He then turned to the Eddystone Lighthouse, and
related the histories ami fates of the two lighthouses preceding the
one now standing, which was erected by the genius of .Smeaton, and
strongly recommended his pupils to read the account published of that
great work. The Eddystone rock is peculiarly interesting to the en-
gineer ; it is found first at about one mile deep in the ocean, and then
rises gradually about one foot in ten, until it reaches near the level of
the sea, when a sudden crop makes its apjiearaiice, and rises above
surface. From the )ieculiar formation of this rock, there is always a
heavy run upon it, which renders it so verv dangerous. The learned
Professor, after explaining at some length the process of the erection
of this celebrated lighthouse, concluded his lecture.

ON EARTH WORK.

Lecture .'. Wednesday, 2-2nd December, IS 11.— The Professor com-
menced by stating that earthwork, taken in the present extended sense
of the word, was but little known to the ancients. The gigantic opc-
raticjns in earthwork ol modern times corresjiond with the viaducts of
the ancients. Our earthwork may be confined to excavation, cutting,
and cmbanknieiit, or getting and 'filling, as ordinarily denominated bv
contractors, lie then went through the whole process, giving the
s.ientifir and common names of each description of work. With
respect to the works of the ancients, in the canal made bv Cyrus, the
Pha-niciaiis were the only workmen who cut the canal with slopes — all
the rest employed cut straiplit down, and, in consequence, the former
stood, while the latter fell in. The River I'o, in Italy, was a curious
instance of enihankinent ; this river is situated in a very flat country,
ami makes an annual ileposit of a calcareous matter, which, liartlening,
raises the bed of the river in a sliglii degree every year. The ancient
inhabitants, to prevent their country from being inundateil, were ob-
liged to raise a small embankment on each side of the river— perhaps
two or three feet high — which, having served fur some years the de-
sired purpose, and llie bed of the river having become' higher from
the depi.^il, the einbankinenLs reipiired to have still more addi-d to
theni, until, after the lapse of centuries, tlic bed of the river, from the

constant deposit of calcareous matter, and the consequent accessary
adilitions to the embankments, to the height of thirty feet, is now
several feet above the level of the surrounding country. This work
looks like one of our modern gigantic works, but it bears no compari-
son to the labours of the present day, it being but a work performed
from year to year, in small portions' at a time, while ours have been
formed at one operation. From all his researches, he, therefore, came
to this conclusion, that, until late years, eartliwork was but little known ;
he could make the same remark with respect to cutting. This work
was first treate<l systematically by military engineers in fortificitions
on the continent after the invention of cannon ; authors of that period
lay down many curious rules for forming ramparts. Various useful
calculations are given to determine the best mode of making the mat-
ter taken from the ditch exactly sullicieut to form the rampart, in order
that there should be none either to procure or carry away. The next
is in the construction of canals; the same rules were followed as in
the construction of ramparts. In road-making the same calculatioas
were made ; the whole aim of the engineer being to make the imagi-
nary line, called the "balancing line," so perfect, that the earth re-
moved from the eminences should fill up the hollows in the irregulari-
ties of the country through which the road was to be made. The
cause of these fine calculations was the difficulty and expense of carry-
ing away the superfluous earth to another place. The absence of
great undertakings on the continent is attributable to the want of our
modern appliances to get rid of the superabundant matter. In the
contracts sent in by foreigners for works abroad, it is amusing to see
the finical exactness with which the contractors calculate the expense
of removing the first 100 yards, then the next 25 yards, and so on in-
creasing until they get to 300 yards, beyond which the price is enor-
mous. It is only within the last three years that they seemed to have
the slightest idea of the plans in use in Eugland for facilitating this
work ; it is certainly not more than 30 years ago that we commenced
ufing the tramroad. First of all the' only plan was to remove the
earth in barrows, then the clumsy three-wheel cart was introduced,
after that tramroads, and now edge-rails, with the apjilication of a
locomotive, so that 30 years has changed the load from 2i cubic yards
to nearly 10 J.

Before railroads came into general use, deep cuttings were executed,
and one remarkable instance Telford has left behind him in the Bir-
mingham Canal, which is remarkable for boldness of idea and success
of execution. Near Market Drayton there is an embankment, begun
15 or IG years ago, and which is as yet hardly finished, so great lias
been the slipping and so difficult the remedy. This work is a re-
markable instance of combined had eflects of a bad mixture ; the slopes
have flatted down until nearly in the proportion of 14 to 1, and it is
now more like a large hill than an embankment. There is an instance
of a deep cutting, by Dodd, at the Highgate Archway; it was in-
tended, first of all, to make a tunnel, but, from the constant slipping of
the earth, it was obliged to be made into an open cutting. The pre-
sent bold moile of cutting down large hills and filling up deep valleys,
in the formation of railways, is due to (ieorge Stephenson, ami in the
construction of large cuttings and embankments for canals to Telford,
whilst Dodd made the largest cuttings for roads. On the Holyheacl-
road the failure of the embankments and cuttings in the London clay
will teach a goud lesson to the young students. The point to Im> con-
sidered is, which, of m.isonry, ;iqueducts, tunnelling, embankments, or
cuttings, would be the cheapest nioile of doing the work proposed.
At the present time earthwork is the cheapest, for modern practice
has reduced it to a price per cubic yard. In the contracts for the
Paris and Kouen Railway, the contracts sent in by the French engineers
were invariably 3 or 1 times the amount of those sent in by English
contractors — thus, notwithstanding the expense of transporting the
workmen into France, the whole of that work is in the hamis of En-
glishmen.

The engineer, to form a just calculation, must well study the charac-
ter and inechauical properties of the soil and the necessarv slopes.
Experience alone can teach these points. There are manv varieties
of the London clay, which, when cut dosMi to a certain depth, on ex-

fiosure to the atmosphere are sure to slip; another cause is, the great
laste with which the embankments, Xc., are formed. When the water
does not penetrate, this clay is very h ird, but after exposure it melts
aw:iy, like tallow, anil the only remedy is to get riil of the water bv
rlrainiiig. When a slip tikes place, the toe of the embankment bulges
forward; in the first instance, the surface should 1m' well drained a
short distance from the edge the drain to Im" puddled, in order that
the water should nut penetrate ; borings should lie inaije liori/ontallv
anil the water tapped ; when expei.se ami time are no objects, the
whole should be cut in steps, ami ilraineil by means of w.iltles, so that,
if a slip takes place, it is only partial. The force with which the toe
of the embaiikinent bulges out is sucli that a wall of masonry would

GO

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Fee.

l)p of no iisP, ;i3 it would be pushed o\it; the most elVectual preventive,
or remedy, is wattling and IjhsIi drains. Wlien time will allow, it is
belter to make tlie enibankments in layers, and between each layer of
earth putting in a course of brushwood, clippings of hedges, or wat-
tlings. When embankments are obliged to he poured out hastily,
allow thein to take their natural slope, and if it slips let it remain, for
however much it may he attempted to reduce it to its former shape,
it will still again slip and regain its position. A good practice to
provide against slips is to forma slight abutment of earth, a short dis-
tance from the toe of the slope, so that it should stay the slip if it
takes place ; this plan is more particularly available when the work is
obliged to be erected on a natural slope — for instance, on the side of a
hill. The Professor, then, for the information of the younger students,
explained, by diagrams, the nature of slopes, and the meaning of the
expression "two feet to one," &c., and concluded by recommending
that, in forming slopes, the engineer should run some risk of slips, in
order to save the great expense of removing more earth than is actually
necessary — the cost of repairing these slips being but little in com-
parison. He likened the work to an insurance on life — the risk to be
run being calculated upon by precedents. The principle is to get the
greatest extent of work finished at the least possible expense, and
many of the great slips that have taken place might have been pre-
vented, or speedily cured, had the plans he laid down been better fol-
lowed.

Lecture G. Wednesday, the 29th Dec. 184 1.— Professor Vignoles
stated that, before continuing the subject of earthworks, he wished to
set right an erroneous impression with the public, in consequence of
an expression he made use of at his last lecture ; he had then recom-
mended that "the engineer should run some risk of slips, in order to
save the great expense of removing more earth than was actually
necessary — the cost of repairing those slips being but trifling in com"
parison." He need not say that he so ex|)ressed himself, but it vv^is
alwavs on the supposition that no risk was to be run where there was
the remotest probability of danger. He mentioned this because of the
circumstance of the slip on the Great Western Railway, which was
atteniled with such fatal results, and liappening only a few hours after
he had niaile that statement. From all that had been stated, it appeared
that the slip itself was but very inconsiderable; the cutting where it
took |)lace was .')7 feet deep, the slope two to one, and the width
of the road 'lU feet; the slip took ])lace about half way up the bank.
A number of smaller slips had occurred, and tiles were used for drain-
ing instead of bushes, c&c, to cure them — still the mode of curing
them was the same as he advocated — by drainage. As he had before
stated, the slip itself was very inconsiderable, but, by having nothing
to check it, the earth fell vipon the rails. A doubt seemed to exist
whether the concussion produced in the air by the passing of the
former train had not brought it down, for the accident happened in
the interval between the passing of the two trains — the lirst one
having proceeded uninjured, wdiilst the latter was attended with such
fatal consequences. If the precaution had been taken, when it was
first observed that a slip was likely to occur, to put up a fence of
hurdles to check its advance to the rails, doubtless the accident would
not have happened. The manner of the slip showed that it was
caused solely bv the infiltration of water, probably a considerable way
back from the edge of the cutting, or, perhaps the water had found
its way in by the ditch along the top ; the water which had thus got
info the soil having expanded during the frost, the sudden change of
the weather brought down the earth. The Professor then, by means
of a diagram, explained the nature of the cuttuig, from which it
appeared that the "top lift" was deposited in spoil bank ; at tbe top
of the cutting a drain had also been cut, but he was of opinion that
such drains were injurious, when the soil was at all precarious. The
spoil bank was not the occasion of the slip, since it did not take plate
at the top, but bulged out in the middle. Although this slip was very
small, from the latal effects which attended it, it was the more
necessary to guard against the recurrence of the like ; there were but
a few feet of earth on the rails, yet the effect was the same as if so
many planks had been placed upon them. The Croydon slip arose
from' the same cause, but, though so much larger, no accident occurred.
In the late accident there were but thirty or forty waggon loads of
earth, and all was right again in a few hours, while in the Croydon
slip 3,000 or 1,001) cubic yards of earth fell ; the soil in both instances
consisted of the London clay, with pot-holes of sand. It was clear
that the accident was not to be set down as one of cutting, similar
slips having taken place upon cuttings not more than twelve or four-
teen feet deep. He must impress upon the nnnds of the students
that it was not the length or depth of the cutting which regulated the
slopes, but the soil and practicability of drainage ; unfortunately it was
impossible to know exactly how these matters might stand, experience
alone could teach them. He had dwelt long upon this subject, but he

wished it to be understood that it was well-judged economy he advo-
cated, not such as would, in the least degree, tend to produce such
fatal eflc'cts as in the case previously alluded to.

The balancing of the line was equally necessary for railroads as for
canals or common roads; it should be the engineer's aim that the quantity
of earth from the cuttings should be as near as possible sutlicient for the
embankments; compared with former times, the mode of transit was
so much facilitated, that where some years back it was necessary that
the balance line should be limited to the hill to be cut through, and the
valley to be filled up, now the line might extend two or three miles.
It was essential in balancing that the engineer shoidd be aware of the
different degrees of compressibility of the matter; it was known of
sand that it would occupy the same cubic contents in the embank-
ment as it did in the hill, and one yard or 100 vards of gravel would
be still the same, but in clays it was very different, they occupying
less space in the embankment than they did in the hill, in their original
position ; 100 yards of clay would nOt make 100 yards of embankment,
the average amount of compressibility being not less than 10 per
cent., or even, upon occasions, as much as 15 per cent. He had known
occasions when 100 yards cut from a hill had only made 85 yards of
embankment, but, upon an average, it would require 110 yards of clay
to make 100 yards of embankment. Rock cuttings, on the contrary,
expanded, because the solid rock could never again be restored to the
same degree of density ; tlie difference would vary much, according
to tlie size of the fragments, but where the pieces were large, 100
yards would make 120 yards of embankments.* Chalk, again, would
be rather upon the excess, though much depended upon its quality. In
rock cuttings you might make them nearly perpendicular, but in chalk
much discussion'i' has arisen as to what was the proper slope, some
engineers having even recommended that it should overhang the road,
but he contended that it should slope, to carry off the water; he had
found a slope of one quarter to one generally sullicient. Rock chalk
would stand perpendicular, while several of the softer descriptions
would require a slope of one-half to one, or even two to one.

The Proi'essor then proceeded to speak of the correct mode of com-
puting the quantity of earth in a cutting or embankment, and made a
section of a hill half a mile long, to be cut down, the true cubic con-
tents of a portion of which was 332,000 cubic yards, computed
according to the prismoidal formula; but the ordinary method by
which contractors would calculate the contents of the hill, by mean
heights, would only show 310,000 cubic yards — that is to say, there
would be a difi'erence of 22,000 cubic yards against the contractor, the
consequence of which had beer, that the person contracting to cut
down such a hill, at so much per yard, wouUI lose, from his bad method
of calculation, above .t' 1,000. Another methotl was also in use —
calculating by the mean area; which system, instead of 332,000 cubic
yards, would show 37(5,000 cubic yards, being an excess in favour of
the contractor of 14,000 cubic yards. Many contractors had realised
large fortunes by mean areas, and sustained serious losses by mean
heights. Having thus shewn the erroneous methods of calculation in
use, he then, at some length, explained the prismoidal formula,
accompanying his instructions with many diagrams, without which any
attempt at explanation on our part would be useless. The learned
Professor concluded his lecture by strongly recommending a close
study of mathematics to the junior (all) students, as the greatest assist-
ant to the labours of the civil engineer.

F.mbi-Wilimenls of imiAin.— We have heard it stated, and wc believe on
"110(1 grounds, thai a great and strikuig improvement is about to be made in
the appearance of Piccadilly, conscqiicnl upon the removal of the ranger's
house in the Green Park, which will be demolished early in the spring. Tliis
tasteful suggestion, we have heard, was made by the Premier, and is to con-
sist of a noble terrace ami pnbhe walk, from the gate into the Palace-gardens
at Hyde Park corner, to the jimctiou of the houses at the lower end of llie
basin. The form ot the ground on this line is particularly favourable to jiic-^
tiuesfjue elfect in laying out and planting, and to arcli'tectural beauty of
design in the esplanade. Fountains and statues, too, are likely to he inlro-
diieed, to add to the grandeur of the plan, give cncour.agement to the arts,
and comhine the whole with the palatial residence of llie Sovereign, by
carrying it, perhaps, further on hereaft r, along the line opposite to (iros-
venor-place. The magnificent ec|uestriau statue of Wellinglon, now casting
by Wyalt, «dl surmount the areh facing Apslcy house ; and wes ee no reason
why it should not he b.alanced at the other termination by a statue of 8ir
Robert Peel, together with his name to the work, the idea of which, as we
liave mentioned, is understood to have emanated from him. At all events it
will be a splendid embellishment of this principal street in entering the
caiptal from the west. — Literary Gazette.

» These remarks strongly corroborate tho.se of .an American engineer,
inserled in the .K)Urnal of December last.— Fn. C. E. & A. Journai,.

I .See the evidence on the Brighton Railway before the House of Lords.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

IRVIXGS TILE MACHINE.

Gl

In the last number of the Journal, page 8, we gave a plan and description of this machine, which was not properly understood from the want
of the annexed perspective view of the apparatus, which we have since had drawn.

THE INDUSTRIAL STATE OF BELGIUM.*

The Belgians, besides a soil made fertile by their own exertions,
possess in tneir mines of coal and iron the elements of a great manu-
facturing power ; and we have already found them, by their productions
of cotton and woollen cloths and hardware, formidable rivals in many
foreign markets. Once the tame occupants of the battle-field of
Europe, they have now in this age of peace availed themselves of
their frontier position, to harass the trade of the surrounding countries;
often, it must be acknowledged, by expedients not the most justifiable.
The only characteristics which the Belgian tribes possess in common,
the only features of a national organization, are of a very unpromising
nature ; but it takes time to make a nation, and give it the high-souled
character of a great community. We do not complain of the Belgians
for employing English workmen to beat us out of tlie market, for that
is rather a good accessory of a disposition to enterprise; but we fear
that the spirit of piracy, which breaks out in their literary under-
takings, is too deeply-rooted, and that its demoralizing influence will
long affect them. We find the Belgian journals ever holding forth to
public attention some promised wonder of native growth ; but we do
not find, on after-inquiry, that these visions and speculations are ever
brought to any tangible form. The spirit of imitation is a good one ;
but that of piracy is so demoralizing in its influence on the mind, that
we cannot augur well of future success to Belgian enterprise. It will
take many years before the Gascons of the north can be sobered down
to the business-like pursuits of a steady people ; and until that takes
place, England has little to fear from their rivalry. These are remarks
which are not unnaturally suggested to us, when we read the priiem of
a new Belgian periodical, devoted to the industrial arts. " Belgium,"
says the author, "occupies, without fear of contradiction, a first-rate
position among manufacturing nations, as the brilliant exhibition of
its productions demonstrates to every eye." This is an introduction
so truly Belgian, that we shall be prepared for any future escapade of
our new contemporary.

Until the present time, it appears that, with two exceptions of works
produced by the editor of the one now founded, no periodical devoted
to the mechanical sciences has yet been attempted in Belgium. We
are rather surprised at this, but we hope that the effort now made may
be successful. Belgium, it is known, has at Brussels a very fine mu-
seum of the industrial arts, which is thrown open to the public, and is
a favourite Sunday walk of the working classes. The Director of this
museum is M. Jobard, a gentleman to whom Belgium is nuich
indebted for his exertions. The state of school instruction is very
good ; but the poii.t in which the Belgians are mainly deficient is in a
workmanlike character, uhich is not to be created in a moment. The
number of patents issued in Belgium is pretty large, but they form no

* Bulletin (lu Mumc tic I'lnduslrie. Brussels.

criterion, either of the progress of the arts, or of the ingenuity of the
Belgian people. We find that the numbers are: —

1830 ... 5 183t) . . . 7l>

1831 ... 15 1S37 . . .134

1832 ... 30 1838 . . .280

1833 ... 42 183'J . . . 2G'J

1834 ... 48 1840 . . . 320

1835 . . .02

The small number in early years is to be accounted for by the effect
of the revolution, and the embarrassments of the country.

THE "SLIDING SCALE."

Sir — Being fond of the combination of utility and simplicity, I send
you an idea of a "Sliding ScaU," not for debate in the House of
Commons, I assure you ; but to be submitted, through ijuur journal, to
the judgment of the honourable professions of the civil engineer and
Architect, for their universal adoption. The sliding scale I propose
is to be drawn on a separate strip of paper, and substituted in lieu of
or in addition to the present one usually put on plans, maps, sections,
&c. It may be in length proportioned to the size of the plan, and
about half an inch in width, of the same paper, and kept always
with it, by being slid through two or three cuts made with a penknife
at right angles to the roll of the paper. There it lies, and is available
at a moment's notice, for examining the plans as to details, additions,
alterations, and so forth. About five minutes extra care in drawing
this scale makes it an invaluable attachment to any plan. The expe-
rience of almost all persons conversant w itii these matters must suggest
cases of occasional great inconvenience arising from not having a pair
of compasses, ulotting-scalc, or even rule, aye, or pencil at hand, at
the moment wlien most wanted, say in a field, on a scaffold, wheu
exhibiting designs to directors, noblemen, gentlemen, &c., by your
having put on hastily your No. I coat, to be punctual to appointment,
leaving all your conveniencies in the pocket of your working one, snug
in your study. In some instances very unusual sizes for plans may
have to be adopted ; and here, too, the sliding scale becomes useful
Trusting to the valuable assistance of your vote, in my endeavour to
pass the above suggestion, on its announcement in your February
number,

Believe me, .Sir,

Your obedient servant,

W. Bkwley,

Dublin, Jan. 19, 1842.

P.S. By way of addendum, in reference to the iii>t letter on his
vernier reading-staff (staves, I doubt,) of Mr. '1 . Stevenson, and his
few parting wonls, — I am sorry, for bis sake, my estimate of his
impruting qualifications was so just.

62

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

REPORT ON THE GAS FURNACES USED IN THE IRON

WORKS OF WASSERALFINGEN, BY M. H. SCHOENBERG.

( Translated for the C. E. and A. Journal, from the Bulk'.in du

MusC-e de V Industrie.)

One of the most important modern improvements in the manu-
facture of iron we owe to M. Fabre Dufaiire, Wining Counsellor,
Director of the iron works at Wasseralfingen in ^yurtenlburg, who
lias succeeded in collecting from the chimney the gases which are
formed in blast furnaces, wliich constitute the fl.ime which escapes,
and to use them as fuel in the refining, puddling, and balling furnaces.

The use of the furnace fiame for several purposes, as warming the
air used for the blast, roasting lime and ore, making coke, and heating
steam engine boilers, has been known these seven or eight years. It
lias not, however, been hitherto practicable to produce a higher tem-
perature than red heat, which was a limit to its application ; while by M.
F. Duf.inre's process any degree of heat required may be obtained. The
principal distinction of this method is in the mode by which the gas is
burned, by the introduction of atmospheric air supplied by bellows,
and in the ingenious construction of the furnaces ami fire-places.

At Wasseralfingen there are now three furnaces in uje worked by
gas, but the refining furnace is sujiplied from the southern blast fur-
nace alone, which is done by simply introducing a tube to a certain
depth in the fire-place of tlie blast furnace. It appears that about a
sixth or a fifth of the gas evolved is collected by this method ; and,
notwithstanding this subtraction, no diminution is observed in the
power of the fiame which escapes. In the refining furnace there are
thus produced 175 metrical quintals of fine metal, partly with a radi-
ated crvstallizatiou, and partly with a ball-like structure, but all of a
silver white. The gas refining is so complete, that the iron is pro-
duced higlily decurburetted, and freed from all impurities; among
others, from phosphorus and sulphur. The waste, which in common
English refining is never less than from 9 to 10 per cent., is not more
here, when the furnace is in good order, than 1 to 2 per cent.; and by
this process a greater quantity of fine metal is obtained than if pig
iron bad been used. It is to be further observed, that the pig iron
passed through the furnace here consists only of castings, which, as is
well known, have often a good deal of sand mixed with them.

The operation is so well arranged, and proceeds with such uni-
formity, that it rarely meets with those casualties common in the usual
process of refining, while the cost of manual labour is also less.

The results of puddling by gas are not less satisfactory. The
puddling furr.ace at Wasseralfingen is supplied with gas from the
northern blast furnace, into the fire-]ilace of which are plunged two
suction pijies, by which enough gas is collected, to work a puddling
furnace and a refining furnace ; but the power of the water-wheel
which works the blast apparatus not being great enough, these works
can only be supplied alternately. The temperature of the puddling
furnace is, from the nature of the process, higher than that of one fed
vith wood, coal, or turf; the flame also is clearer, and transparent, so
that the workmen can easily watch the operation, and carry it on regu-
larly. Ill each of these operations the furnace is charged with Ij or 2
metrical quintals of fine metal, previously heated to a red heat by
another lurnace; and at the end of an hour and three-quarters, or two
hours, the elfect is produced. The waste of fi;!e metal in this process
is very small, the mean being only from 1 to 2 per cent. The quality
of the iron is excellei t. A feature peculiar to gas-puddling is that
the forir.alioa of slag and its reduction goes on simultaneously, so it
is never thrown away. The produce of the puddling furnace is 125
metrical quintals per week.

The operation of refining in the gas furnace has, like the pre-
ceding, considerable advantages; but the results have not yet been so
important as in the preceding cases, and the qu.u^titv ( f waste is still
considerable. The draught of the furnace is good, and the temperature
suHiriei.tly raised ; so that, unless an accident occur, the produce is
l.'iO metrical quintals per week.

I'rom what has been already said, it will be seen that the results of
the, gas furnaces at Wasseralfingen are most satisfactory. Even with
castings and rubbish, bar iron of excellent quality is produced, with a
waste of not more than from 12 to 15 per cent., and without any con-
sumption of costly fuel, or rathei-, by making use of a combustible
matter, which hitherto has not been turned to account.

Belgium is the only country in v.diich M. Fabre Dufaure's process
has not been introduced, while in other places it has been extensively
used. In England, at Messrs. Kill's works, at Merlhyr Tydvil ; in
Germany, at the iron works of the King of Bavaria, Grand Duke of
Baden, Fiinces of Furstenburg and Signuiringen, Duke of Anhalt, the

Saxon Iron Company, Count Einsiedel in Prussia, &c. ; in France, at
Lucelle ; in Hungary, at the works of Count Andreasky and M. Inglo;
in Russia, at those of the Prince de Bukna and Count Malzon; in
Sweden, at Mr. Ekmann's; and in Italy, at the works of Doigo, on the
Lago di Conio.

At one of the last meetings of the French Institute, M. Dumas read
a letter from M. Girouvelle, giving some further particulars not con-
tained in M. Schoenberg's report, as to the process used by M. de
Fabre Dufaure in the iron works of Wasseralfingen. The practice
is to carry into the refining furnace the pig iron delivered from the
high furnaces, and not cold iron, as is usually done. The object is to
save the caloric employed in the fusion. The puddling furnace pro-
duces ]0,tJOO kilos, or about 9i tons of iron per week. At this time a
third blast furnace is being constructed, and steam engines are being
put up, to work the gas plan on a large scale. M. Fabre Dufaure's
first experiments began in lb'37, and took place on refining cast iron;
and the processes used by him at Vv'asseralfingen were kept secret
until the present time, by desire of the King of Wurtemburg, viho
was unwilling that they should be known immediately in other
countries.

After making this communication, M. Dumas reminded the academy
that he had rec:eived about two months ago specimens of iron obtained
in France by gas puddling in blast furnaces, by means of the process
adopted at the iron works of Treveray, by the proprietors, Messrs.
D'Andelarre and Lisa, and by the engineers, Messrs. Thomas and
Laurens. He added, that the puddling furnace set up at Treveray
has worked very well, and has already sent produce into market. In
this furnace is refined iron, which is produced in the same way
as bv the common puddling furnace used in Champagne. The gas
of a single blast furnace iirodncing 5 cwt. of iron per day is enough
to feed it ; a result which proves that all the cast iron produced may
be converted into bar without farther fuel, while such a result cannot
be deduced from the work at Wasseralfingen, where the quantity of
iron produced even at present is much smaller than the quantity of
cast iron afforded by the two blast furnaces at those works. W. Dumas
states the advantage of the Treveray gas plan to be an improvement
in the quality of the iron, which has all the properties of charcoal
iron, a considerable diminution of waste, and a great saving of fuel.
It is to be further observed, that no effect is produced on the blast of
the furnaces from the shafts in which the gas is collected. M. Dumas
remarked to the academy a passage in M. D'Andelarre's letter, that
the idea of using combustible gases for the same purposes as other
fuel had been lung since suggested by M. Thenard, in his public
lectures ; and the impoitance of these processes, which promise much,
lies principally in the apparatus, which has enabled them to be suc-
cessfully used.

THE ROYAL EXCHANGE.

We had hoped that the silly, nonsensical fuss of " first-stone-
laying" was nearly gone out of fashion. The ceremony of the kind
which has just taken place at Cornhill must have been a somewhat
expensive one; and so far perhaps may augur well, as an indication
that no cost will be grutlged in decorating and finishing up the new
Royal Exchange, not forgetting sculpture to the pediment of the por-
tico. Still, the money which has been so idly squandered away, might
have been laid out with some little degree of reason, had it been
applied to the erection of a temporary model, formed of timber and
canvass, of the portico itself, executed on the intended scale, as has
been sometimes done in France. A full-sized model of that fafade of
the Exchange— which might have been allowed to remain until that
part of the structure shall be actually commenced — would have enabled
us to judge what efi'ect the portico will have upon the Bank, and other
buildings in its immediate vicinity. It would have been better still,
had the money expended upon a mere brief and unmeaning ceremony,
been ap,iropriated as the nucleus of a fund towards a new facade to
Guildhall, since nothing can be more detestable than the present one.

/Jnffmcei-j' Co™p«(/'m.— !t is announceil that the Ch.w.ilicr de AVcobekmg,
Ihe eriKinecr of the railways between Aiunich and Augsburg, Fiirih and
Kurcniburgh, is about to istue a circular, inviiint; all llu' celebrated rail'.vay
enginecri> lo assemb'e at Munich, in the cour.-e of the present year, (ur the
lairpose of muiually communic.uing iidurmaiion on the consiruciion and
working of railways. We very much doubt the utility of such a meeting.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

G3

RSVIE-WS.

Domestic Archttetim : contaimng PriiieipUs of Dmigninz Public
Building)), Priralt Diceiling-houuo, \c. ^f. By Richaku Brow.v,
Professor of Architecture. 4to. Parti — 13.

There are occasions on nliicli to show lenity would argue either
stupidity or dishonesty, rather than mercy; and most assuredly the
present is one of them, for scarcely ever have we met with a more
egregious specimen of arrant book-making, of quackery and charla-
tanry, than this publication. Of ((uackery and impudence tlie very
title itself bears ev idence, the author there assuming to himself the style
of " Professor of Architecture I" Undoubtedly any man may call
himself "Professor" of anything, if it so pleases him; yet, as custom
does not warrant the use of the term as signifying no more than one
who fullows any particular tr.uie or calling, the self-assumption of it
is so far from conferriui? any respectability, that it is rather a sign of
vulgar-mindediiess, and low paltry artitice. Absurd at the very best,
tins kind of self-bestowed professorship becomes <!oub!y or trebly so
in the cise of Mr. Richard Brown, since lie might with equal propriety
have signed himself Professor of Poetry. Whether he has any quali-
fications for setting up in the latter character, we know not ; but we
do know that he possesses none whatever for that of a professor of the
other art, it being very plain that, instead of being at all capable of
instructing others in architecture, he is most profoundly ignorant of it,
even of its first rudiments, and the commonest principles of taste, and
that he needs to go to school, though we question whether it would
be to any purpose.

The work is altogether a very flagrant instance of " Catch-penny."
— Whv then, it will be said, bestow any notice on it? why drag it
from its obscurity ? why not pass it by with silent contempt ? — Because
it is, in our opinion, a very fit subject for castigatifn.- The treating
offenders of the kind merely with contempt, is nothing else than grant-
ing them impunity. What care they for contempt, who know them-
selves to be contemptible pretenders, and who are utterly indifferent
to public opinion, that is, to the opinion of the intelligent, provided
they can but impose upon the ignorant and credulous, and obtain their
favour and patronage ? Exposure tliey may dread, contempt they
only mock at. We do not say that even exposure does much good,
as far as correcting the offenders themselves goes ; still it is attended
with salutary effect, opening the eyes of the public, by putting them on
their guard against productions of the kind, and by making others shy
of risking similar castigation. Were publications of the kind merely
worthless, they might be allowed to pass without very strict inquiiy:
but they are, on the contrary, positively mischievous, since they not
only do not promote good taste, but diffuse the very worst, amongst
workmen and mechanics. It is to trash of this kind, published under
the name of collections of " Designs," that we may ascribe those abor-
tions and monstrosities in brick and mortar, which spring up in various
parts of the country. Instead of promoting the advancement of the
art, they positively retard it; and instead of being at all creditable to
anv one concerned in thcni, they cast a sort of slur upon the whole
profession, and tend to bring the very study of architecture into
contempt.

It certainly is most mortifying to reflect upon the humiliating light
in which foreigners must look upon the present state of the art in this
country, if they judge of it, — as they are most likely to do, — from such
publications as the present one and some others ; more especially, if
to their appearance be added the non-appcarnnci of architectural
works of a higher order, of which there certainly has been a great
dearth of late, far more so than used to be the case when the profession
was by no means so numerous as at the present day. Whatever may
be the cause of this — whether it be jiartly owing to a very increased
demand in this country for foreign architectural works, in preference
to those of our own production — we pretend not to judge. Such is
lie fuct ; and it is one that has been stated by otiicr writers, not
without some degree of bitterness. Let the remote cause be what it
may, there can !>•• little doubt that the immediate one is the wiuit of
encouragement among us for works of the same class as are continually
issuing from the publisning houses of Prance and (iermany. Hardly
is the profession any more lucrative on the continent than in this
country, else that circumstance might be taken as a sulVicicnt explana-
tion of the matter ; yet, such not being the case, we must leave our
readers to account for it in the btrst way they can, — satisfactorily, if
they can ; although it is anything but satisfactory in itself.

At all events, it is deplorable enough that, while very inadequate
encouragement is given to works which would be really creditable
both to the art and tu the profession, there ahould lo any at all fur the

vamped-up, catch-penny productions, of which the one before us is so
egregious a specimen. As for the literary portion, it consists either of
mere scissors-and-pa«te work, or of ihe most irrelevant, far-fetched rig-
marole, that can well be imagined, ami a great deal of what, if not
actually absurd in itself, becomes absurd, when Itiggid in for the nonce,
as we here find it, without having any sort of connexion with the
subject or the occasion. What, iu the name of common sense, li:ui the
mention of antediluvian architecture, or meagre, schoolboy sketches of
the history of Egypti m and other still less known early styles of an-
tiquity, to do wiUi mu Jem " Domestic Architecture," — more especially
in a volume of designs for ordinary vilhis, or rather, of villanous
designs of most extraordinary ugliness i Very far more discreet
would it have been, to have omitted the mention of styles altogether,
since the less people understand about them, the more likely they will
be to tolerate those samples of them which the Professor here exhibits,
and which most convincingly prove that lie h is not the very slightest
knowledge of any one style whatever, his designs being actual bur-
lesques upon the different styles they purport to exemplify. Evident
it is also that he cannot yet copy the Grecian orders, for the three
figures pretending to represent them are only monstrous caricatures.
In fact, the drawing of all the plates is most atrociously bad, so bad .is
to be the onlv consolatory circumstance of all. Had the plates them-
selves been tolerably well drawn and engraved, — had they been, io
young-lady phrase, " exceedingly pretty," — we should have been
almost in despair; but, as good luck would have it, they are »o
wretched in every respect, as to display the designs in unmitigated
uf liness ; coiisequentiv, the mischievousness of the work is so far
neutralized. The designs now show themselves at the first gl ince to
be utter trash ; whereas, had they been flittered by the engraver, —
had they been managed with a little taste and adroitness on his part,
— the ignorance, the blunders, and the barbarous ideas they display,
might perhaps have p;issed undetected by the class of persons among
whom the Professor, or his publisher, looks for customers. As it is,
no one, we feel morally assured, that is, no one who is not a candidate
for Bedlam or some county asylum, will be ambitious of building for
himself in the Brownean Florentine, Tudor, Flemish, Stuart, or any
other style whatever, according to the learned Professor's notiotis of
it. But, hold ! the suspicion has just come across us, that, after all,
the Professor is neither more nor less than a wicked, prankish wag,
who, in order to discover how far gullibility will go, has here ma-
liciously put forth a series of hoaxing, farcical caricatures, as exarnples
of the respective styles, and perhaps as a covert satire on the aftecta-
tion of imitating all' sorts of outlandish styles, and that in the most
barbarous manner. Certainly such must be his intention in regard to
the specimen he has given us of the Grecian style, which partakes far
less of Greece than it does of my grandmother: therefore, as the
character of Grecian architecture is now tolerably well understood, he
would hardly have ventured upon such an example, except as an
obvious burlesque. In his design for an " .\nglo-tirecian Museum,"
he makes a scurvy hit at .Soane, caricaturing his architectural eccen-
tricities most unmercifully; and, among other freaks, placing Ionic
columns with the balusterside of their capitals outwards! The section
of the building, in which this Anglo-Grecian peculiarity manifests
itself, is further remarkable for the «r.uiiU_fic construction of the roof,
and for showing Doric columns with chamber-pot-shaped capiuU
supporting arches, another Anglo-(irccian neculiarity I — the said
columns being very little higher than the hand-rail of the staircise.
Lest the drift of the satire should by any possibility be misunderstood,
this plate is entitled ".Soanean Museum, section ami component parts,"
the I ist being little better than the scrawls an idle boy would make
upon his slate.

If he chooses tu avail himself of it, we give the ingenious Professor
the full benefit of our suspicion; but if he rejects it, we must set him
down as one of the greatest ignor imuses that ever ventured before
the public. It is really astonishing that a person who shows himself
so thoroughly incompetent in every respect, so utterly destitute of
every qnalification, should have Ihe effrontery to offer to the public a
parcel of disgracefullv miserable drawings,— so execrably vile, that It
is incomprehensible how any respectable, or how any publisher at al,,
could be induced tu touch' them. It is possible that the latter parly
may have been impos.vl upon, and, owing to his own ignorance if the
subject, has been led to that whi.li, as a respectable and f.ur-dca lOg
tradesman, he otherwise wouM have rejected with scorn, and m)t leol
himself in any way to such a piece of impudent quackery.

However devoid of merit thov may have Iteeii in tiicmielves, wc
have generally been able hitherto to pick up a s-rviceaWe idea or
hint, from productions of the kind. Not so, however, from Professor
Brown's : his designs are as (hill a.s they are hideous ; they offer
nothing whatevi-r that can, by any uossibilitv, be shaped to any pur-
pose. His plans are about as' absurd as his elevations j corUinly most

K 2

64

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

clumsy, and without any sort of study or contrivance ; while, as to tlie
few sections he has given, they are perfectly ridiculous ; nor do they
always correspond with the ground plans. If there be still a degree
of worseness, a " longer depth within the lowest deep" of vileness, it is
manifested in the details, or "component parts" of the accumulated
deformity here presented to us.

That we are severe, we do not deny; but we cannot possibly be too
severe, on the present occasion, for we hold this publication to be
thoroughly disgraceful to all concerned in it, and nothing less than a
positive insult to the architectural profession, and a libel upon the
architectural taste of the country, in the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury. Far better architecturaldesigns than those of this Professor
may any day be seen at almost any confectioner's shop-window. They
are in fact so supremely wretched, that it is utterly impossible to
convey any idea of their preposterousness, by words alone ; and were
it not that it actually is published, we should say that no one in his
senses would publish such execrable trash. It is matter of doubt with
us after all, whetlier the Professor be really in his senses, for his draw-
ings manifest as much insanity as did those of Messrs. Baddock and
Buckland for the Houses of Parliament, which some of our readers
will perhaps recollect, and which certainly struck with amazement
all who beheld them. How far it is a proof of sanity, or the contrary,
on the part of the Professor, that he intends to give his own portrait
in the concluding number of his work, we leave our readers to decide.
Probably he may be, or may fancy himself to be, a perfect Adonis ;
but unless his own face be very much better than his facades, he must
be a perfect scarecrow-.

London Bridge, Drawn by B. ^Ibano, M. Inst. C. E. and M. R. I. N.,
and engravtdhy Lowry. London: Weale, 1842.

We have received a magnificent engraving of London Bridge, from
the drawing of Mr. Albano, executed by Lowry in his best style,
being one of the finest delineations of an engineering work which
has yet appeared. This print, from a plate 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft., possesses
an accuracy and fidelity which are the best qualities of such a work ;
while as a production of art it is truly splendid. As the engraving
depends for its importance on the bridge itself, we think it better to
give some account, from Mr. Albano's notes, of the dimensions of this
triumphant mouument of Sir John Rennie's skill.

The drawing was presented by Mr. Albano to the Institution of
Civil Engineers ; it was made with great care and accuracy, from
dimensions taken by him during the progress of the works.

Centre arch 151 ft. 9 in. chord, 37 ft. 10 in. rise.

Piers on the side of centre arch each 24 ft. in width at springing.

Arches on either side of centre 140 ft. chord, 3/ ft. rise.

Piers of land arches each 22 feet in width at springing.

Land arches on each side 130 feet chord, 33 ft. 10 ia. rise.

Total length of bridge from face to face of abutments 783 ft. 9iu.

Width of water way at spriug of arches C91 ft. 9 in.

High water Trinity datum 8 ft. 4 in. above spring.

Low water Trinity datum 10 ft. 1 in. below spring.

Length of bridge from end to end of abutments 1005 feet.

Width of Ijridge from cut to cut 5G feet.

Width of cariiage road 35 ft., of each foot path 9 ft.

Greatest depth of foundations 23 ft. 7 in. belo%v low water datum.

Total number of piles, forming the colfer-dam 7708.

Total number of piles, 20 ft. long, under piers and abutments, 2092.

Quantity of granite and stone used in constructing the bridge and abut-
ments, 120,000 tons.

Fust pile driven 15th March, 1824. First stone laid 15th June, 1825.

First arch keyed 4th August, 1827. Last arch 19 Nov. 1828.

Bridge completed and opened 1st August, 1831.

Cost of the bridge .-£542, 150.

Cost of tiie bridge and approaches, including alteration and removal of old
bridge, f 1,401, 234.

Examples of Inlaid Got/iic Tiles. London: Nichols and Son, 1842.

This work comes very acceptably at a period when so much attention is
directed to the details of architectural ornament. Encaustic tiles are to be
met with extensively in our cathedrals and ancient churches ; although it is
only of late years that they have been re-introduced. Mr. Harvey Eginton
was, wc believe, the first to use them in 1837, in the repair of Stratford-on-
Avon Church, and they have since been used at Wilmcote Chapel, near
Stratford ; St. Michael's, Worcester ; St. James's, Malvern ; the Temple and
St. Mary's, Stafford.

The little volume before us contains engravings of twenty-four specimens
of tiles, the size of the originals in Winchester Catlicdral, Romsey Abbey
Church, St. Cross, Winchester, Warblingam Church, and Worcester Cathe-
dral. These illustrations are nearly all from Hampshire, so that as the mode of
engraving is cheap, we hope to see similar works for other districts.

The editor of this volume has done considerable service by leading the way
in the illustrations of such an interesting subject.

A Familiar Explanation of the Nature and importance of Assurances vpon
Lives. By Lewis Pocock, F.S.A. London : Smith and Elder, 1842.

To professional men, more than to any other class of persons, the import-
ance of life assurances is strikingly great. Too often, although in the receipt
of large sums of money annually, they are led, by the necessity of maint.ain-
ing an appearance in society, to expend their whole income, so that, in the
event of death, their families would be left entirely unprovided for : whereas,
by appropriating a portion of their revenue to assure the payment of a
certain sum of money to their relatives, after their death, all solicitude is
removed, and, in the words of the intelligent author of the hook before us,
"a safe termination to an uncertain event is secured."

Strange to say, the principle of life assurances is hut little understood,
their advantages hut slightly appreciated. It is the object of Mr. Pocock's
book to set the whole matter in a clear and familiar point of view, to explain
the different systems of assurance now in use, and the routine reqviired for
effecting a policy. It likewise contains the principles, terms, and tables, of
seventy London assurance oliices, and forms altogetlier a perfect vade meciim
for those wishing to tmderstand, or desirous to avail themselves of the many
advantages arising out of this very important species of assurance. We
hope, as much for the sake of the public as of the author of this usefid little
book, that it will have a large circulation.

We have from Mt Ferdiuard Pelzer, A Practical Guide to Pianoforte Play
ini;, of which we ourselves do not profess to bt judges, notwithstanding the
injunction of Vilruvius as to the intimate union of architecture and music.
We have referred Mr. Pelzer's work to the female department, and are told
that it is calculated to be useful to the young student.

ON THE DECORATED BUILDINGS OF LONDON.

While so much attention is being devoted to the introduction of the other
arts into public buildings, it may l)e of advantage to the advocates of decora-
tion to have a list, although an imperfect one, of those buildings in the
Metropohs in wliich it has been already applied. Theatres and places of
amusement it will be unnecessary to enumerate, so that we shall turn our at-
tention to other edifices.

St. James's Palace has painted ceilings in most of the state rooms and
staircases.

The ceihng of Whitehall Chapel, painted by Rubens, represents the apo-
theosis of James I.

The grand stair-case and ceilings of the principal rooms of Kensington Pa-
lace were painted by Kent.

The Painted Hall of Greenwich Hospital was executed by Sir James Thorn-
hill, and the ceiling of the Upper Hall is also painted, representing Queen
Anne and Prince George of Denmark, surrounded by various allegorical
figures. The Chapel has been ornamented by the pencils of West and others.

The British Museum, now about to be pulled down, is too well known to
requii'c any description. The artists employed have been Charles de la Fosse,
Jacques Rousseau, and Rigand.

The dojne of St. Paul's was ornamented by Sir James Thornhill with paint-
ings illustrative of the life of St. Paul.

The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Marj', in Moorfields, is painted
throughout.

The Dnke of Beaufort's House was recently painted by Mr. Latilla and Mr.
Owen Jones ; descriptions of it will be found in tlie Journal.

The Hall of the Society of Arts is indebted to the pencil of Barry.

The Library of the Royal Academy has a painted ceiling by Angelica
Kauffman.

The ceiling of the Library in the Soane Museum vras executed by Howard
the Academician.

The Reform Club is one of the most brilliant modern specimens, the whole
of the decorations of which have been executed from the directions of the
architect Barry.

The Hall of the Drapers' Compau\', in Throgmorton Street, is well arranged.

The stair-case of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, paiuted by Hogarth, at his
own expense, represents the Good Samaritan and the Pool of Bethesda.

Many private liouses have painted ceihngs. That in Buckingham Stre
where Peter the Great resided, the House of the Westminster Discou
Company, the Linnean Society's House in Soho Square, &c.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENCxINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

05

COMPETITION DESIGNS.

Mr. Editor — By inserting the folloning account of a competition job, in
your widely circuLiting journal, you will enable me to fulfil my promise to
the perpetrators of it, ami contrilmte soinetliing to the general tide of indig-
nation against the system .is now practised.

In June last the Commissioners appointed under an Improvement Act, ad-
vertised for designs for a Pump Koom.at Low Ilarrowgate, and staled, amongst
other particulars, that no premium would be given, but that the architect
producing the most approved design would be employed to carry it into exe-
cution. This bait drew designs from about twelve architects, all, like myself
doubtless, expecting they would have fair play in return for their expenditure
of time and talent. The designs were sent in, and the Commissioners met on
the 16tli of .Vugust following; the meeting was tlien adjourned to the 20th ;
and again to the (jth of September for linal decision, lieii::,' at Ilarrowgate
on the eve of the last uamed day, I was astonished to learn from several of
til ' Commissioners, that Mr. Strutt, one of the competitors, and a native and
resident at Ilarrowgate, had prepared ano/Afr design, introducinga prominent
fi^jture of my own design ^a dome) which had been privately banded round
amongst the Commissioners, preparatory to its being introduced i\t the
meeting for the final decision. Though I strongly remonstrated against this
most dishonourable proceeding, the drawing was actually brought into the
Commissioners' Room by one of the body, but the Uevercnd Chairman, to-
gether witli some others, would not sanction it to be produced. On dividing,
my design was rejected, and Mr. Strutt's chosen by a majority of five; after
which I received the following note from the chairman.

" High /larroirjate, SepteniSer 6, 1 84 1.

" Sir — Being of opinion that the plan for the IIarrowg.tte Pump Room has
been deciiled not upon merit, hut by favour. I beg to inl'orm you that I have
withdrawn my naiue from the list of Coraniissioners iu consequence. It will
not be unsatisfactory for you to know that I gave my vote in favour of your
design, as in my judgment the best offered to the acceptance of the Commis-
sioners, at the estimated cost prescribed in the instructions given by them.

" I remain, Sir, your obcdioul servant,
" To Mr. Mallinson, Architect, Thos. Kexnion."

lirig/iowie."

And which was afterwards endorsed by two others of the Commissioners —

" Mr. Charlesworth expresses his perfect concurrence with the above re-
marks of Mr. Kennion."

" I also beg to give my testimony to the foregoing, and have withdrawn my
name from the list of Commissioners in consequence.

J. G. Palky."

Captain Thackwray (who was prevented from indisposition from attending
the meeting) and Mr. Dearlove subsequently withdrew their naiues for the
same reasons. I understand the Chairman also addressed notes to all the ex-
cluded competitors, stating his opinion of the transaction.

The Rump probably alarmed at this serious defalcation from its numbers
and respectability; then attempted a compromise, and proposed that I should
be joint architect with Mr. Strutt. To this I stated my readiness to accede,
provided they would revoke their precious decision, and give the award to
me. This being objected to, after freely expressing my opinion of their con-
duct, I took my leave, not without the hopes expressed, after a long interval
(for reasons therein stated) in the following : —

" To the Commissioners appointed under the Ilarrowgate Improvement Act.

" Gentlkmen — I have hitherto been silent on the subject of the architec-
tural competition for the Pump Room, Ilarrowgate, hoping that due reflection,
and the secession of five of the most influential members of your commission,
would have led you to reverse the partial and must unjust decision, by which
a majority of your body rejected my design.

"The letting of the works and laying of the stone have been managed with
a secrecy so unusual in such cases, that I have seen no notice of either in any
public print. Your advertisement for a loan, a few weeks ago, led me to
make inquiries, which have informed me of the commencement of the build-
ing, and the consequent futility of my expectations.

" Presuming you to he not iudiflcrent to the good opinion of your fellow-
t'lwnsinen, and wishful to pass for men of character and honesty, you are
bonnd to disprove the charge made against you in the note addressed to me
by the Chairman and other retiring Commissioners, a copy of which I here-
with enclose. It is due to m; self and the other competitors, as well as to the
profession gcner.dly, that the particulars of this unprecedented transaction
should be made as public as possible. I, therefore, ask you for copies of the
design first sent in by Mr. Strutt. which you selected as the best j also of the
one now being carried into execution (which I presume to he the amended one
sought to be substituted in place of the first one, li^ore the comjietition was
decided !), in order that I may publish them together with my own design,
and thus alTord the public an opportunity of judging between us. I need not
add that your refusal to comply with this request will he a tacit admission of
the correctness of the charge.

" I remain, Gentlemen, your very humble »cr\ant,

" Urif/hoiae, near Ilalifa.i , •' Jaues .Mali.i.vsox."

Dfcfmbrr, 2Uli, ISll."

This produced the following reply—.

" Commiltee I'ovm, llarrowgalf, Dec. 27, 18tl.
•• Sir — I tm requested by the Commissioners, in reply to your letter ap-
plying for copies of Mr. Strutt's plans for the Pump Room at Low Ilarrowgate
to inform you that they cannot comply with your requc«t; and, that they do
not consider you have any right to ask for them.

" 1 am. Sir, yours obediently.

" S. Powell, Jun."

Being thus for the present deprived of the benefit of the comparison, I am
compelled in some degree to be both plaintiff" and judge. But having seen
all the designs, I can conscientiously athrm. that, with perhaps one exception,
the approved design was the most unsuitable for the situation. Several
designs of merit were cast aside, almost without examination, for the whole
and sole reason, that their estimated cost exceeded the stipulated sum of
.fl.JOO, and yet this approved design was estimated to cost only ill, 900! !!
What the amended design may be 1 know not, but I intend to send you a
sketch of it when completed, also of the original one, of which I have a sketch
from recollection, made immediately after seeing it, together with my own,
that yon may judge of the correctness of my assertions; meantime,
I remain, Mr. Editor, your very obedient senant,

James Mallinson.

P.S. One of your correspondents suggests, that in such cases the names
and occupations of the parties should be given. I consider his suggestion a
good one, and give them, first apologising to my supporters for placing their
names in a company they have so long repudiated.

Fon.

Reverend Thos. Kennion, Incumbent of High Ilarrowgate Church.

John fircen Paley, Esq.. Magistrate.

Charles Charlesworth, Esq., Gentleman.

Mr. John Dearlove, Innkeeper.

Mr. Nicholas Carter, Wine Merchant.

Mr. Thomas Gordon, Proprietor of the Cheltenham Pump Room.

Against.

Mr. Jonathan Benn, Retired Innkeeper.

Mr. Thomas Hall, Innkeeper.

Mr. George Ilobkinson, Milkman and Boarding Housekeeper.

Mr. George Kuowles, Plumber.

Mr. George Morely, Baker and Grocer.

Mr. George Harper, Innkeeper.

Mr. Richard Stanning, Innkeeper.

Mr. Joseph Waitc, Druggist.

Mr. Richard Whincup, Porter Dealer.

Mr. Christopher Wright, Coach Builder.

Mr. J. H. Walker, Wine Merchant.

RAILWAY WHEELS.

Mu. Piiiips. of Deptford Green. Engineer, has obtained a patent for im-
provf mcnts in the construction of r lilway wheels, the cbject of which is to
supersede the process of " shrinking on,'' which he proposes to do in the
folli'wing manner : —

A bar of wrought iron is prepared, by rolling in the usual manner, with
an outer llanxe on one edge, and an inner flange in the centre of the bar:
this bar is bent into a circular form, and then welded. ."Sixteen wrought iron
spokes are prepared, with an extended end or palm, which may Le drawn out
by hammering, or welded on; the Inner end oi each spoke is jagged or per-
forated, ill order that the cast metal may embrace and fluid it fast. Eight of
these sjiokes are then laid in a mould, aiid one portion of the boss or nave of
iron east upon tbier inner ends : ibe olber eight spokes have the correspond-
ing portion of the boss or nave cast upon them. The two pans of ilie nave
are then brought together, and secured by scrvw bol;s. and the enlarged ends
or palms of ibe sfiokcs strongly secured to the alternate sides of the inner
flange by screw bidts, or by rivettini,'. Another method cimsisis in placing
all tlie spokes In their respeciive positions around the wheel, and casting the
boss or nave in one piece, the palms of the spokes being afterwards rivctled
to the inner flange.

Another patent has been granted to William Losh, Ks^., of Litlle
Benton. Northumberland, for improvements of railiiaj wheels, by the appli-
cation of wood, felt, lope, or other such like flexible or yielding mat.-rLil.
between the inner tire and the ring or felloe or iK-nrin^A produri'il \.y
the prolonnalions of the bars of iron n ' ' i

spoki'S. Willi or wilbout the Intervcniici: i

such Ixarlngs and such flexible or s „ "f

wrought iron mil«.iy wheels will be les.s lial>le to lie prejudicmlly nrlrd on
by the vibration lo which such wheels are liable when in use, than if they
were composed of iron alone The wheels lo which these improvemenU are
applicable, aie those included in the palcntce's former patent, of August,

mo.

66

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Feb.

SUPPLY OF PARIS "WITH WATER.

An Englishman of the name of Miles lias addressed a memorial to the
Frfnch autliorities, on the subject of a projiosed supply of water to Paris.
Some of the statistical facts put forward may interest our readers. The city
of Paris, he observes, possesses very peculiar advantages for such an under-
taking. In London, the quantity of water consumed daily is 168,826 cubic
metres (French) for 191,066 houses. In Paris there are about 40,000 houses,
which is little more than one-fifth of those in London. The expense of
pumping by steam-engines this quantity of water from the level of the
Thames at London, to an elevation equal to the Canal de I'Ourcq, above the
Seine, would cost £69,000 per year, the whole of whicli would be saved by a
supply from the Canal de I'Ourcq. The houses in London may be calculated
at six persons each, making a population, in 191,066 houses, of 1,146,396
inhabitants. The 40,000 houses in Paris contain 909,126 inhabitants, equal
to 22 or 23 to each house, or of four families of six persons each. The length
of the pipes required for Paris will not exceed a fourth part that of London,
and their dimensions will be less, on account of the descent of the water
affording a greater velocity. The exact length of pipes required cannot be
stated without a plan and section of all the streets — it is probable that the
length required would measure about 1 70 English miles. If this quantity of
iron pipes were delivered atf20 sterling per ton, it would amount to the

sum of £480,000

The expense of laying, with the apparatus of cocks, &c., for ser-
vice, may be stated at , 120,000

Making a total of £600,000

Supposing 10 per cent, interest, the sum to be paid annually would be
±'60,000. At present, it is allowed that Paris pays annually for the purchase
of water, not exceeding 50 litres per day for each house, £160,000 ; so that,
upon the present rental, a saving would take place of £100,000 per year,
and the inhabitants would receive tlie most abundant supply of water. M.
Girard estimates the quantity of water supplied by the Canal de I'Ourcq at
260,820 cubic metres per day. Supposing this calculation to be exact, it wdl
be necessary, first, to deduct all the water necessary for the supply of the
present public fountains and markets ; and secondly, what is consumed by
the locks on the Canals St. Martin and St. Denis, which may be calculated
at 1,0.54 cubic metres for the passage ofa barge, or of 105,400 cubic metres
for the passage of 50 barges on the two canals. The quantity of water con-
sumed daily in each house in London, in 1810, before the establishment of
the new water companies, did not exceed 50 gallons, but since that period
the consumption has reached 200 gallons (.') per house per day. This includes
manufactures, baths, &c. If a similar increase in the consumption should
take place in Paris, the quantity required would be 140,000 cubic metres per
day, for the use of the 909,126 inhabitants. London pays annually for water
the sum of .£284,188, averaging about 32s. (58) per house for six persons;
consequently, if Paris were called upon to pay .£60,000 per year, it would
average about eight shillings for every family of six persons for an equal
supply. When plans and sections of the streets shall be made, the engineer-
in. chief will be able to construct a system of perfect drainage, parallel to the
water-pipes, and of the same inclination. — Athenienm.

THE PALMIPEDE.

We have a long account in the Morning Post of a newly-invented loco-
motive po'.ver. (the invention of the Marquis deJoufiVoy,) said to be applicable
to steamers, from which we select the following extracts, describing this
wondcrfid invention ; but to our dull comprehension it appears to be a
" mountain in labour" ; —

'■The scientific world will readily appreciate the justness of the prin-
diples, according to which the Marquis de JouSniy constructed his machinery,
and ai'plied it with complete success, as we can asssert, to aschooner of about
120 tons (French) burden, rigged as usual, like a sailing vessel. Her measure-
ment is as follows : —

'• Twenty metres 15 (62 feet French) from stem to stern, and 5 metres 20
(16 feet French) beam,; drawing when hiden two metres forward, and two
metres 37 abaft; the area of the parallelogram of the portion immersed
amid-ships. 11 metres square, allhous^b. on account of the build of tlie ship's
bottom, this area is really but seven metres s'Uiare. 8he carries a steam-
engine, mean pressure, of from 20 to 40 horse-power, ml libitum.

" Ahnfl the vessel, on deck, is a platform four metres long, moving horizon-
tally on a vertical axis fixed in the stern-post, cine half of the said platform
being without the vessel, and the other half witliin. the hitter sustains the
two oscillating cylinders of the steam-engine, the piston-stems of which
communicate the movement, in a direct manner, to an iron arm fi.xed to the
platform outside tlie vessel. This arm is composed of five cranks, two of
v.liich receive the extremity of the pistons, the three others, articulated by
means of double cranks to the levers, serving as a fulcrum in the fluid. Tliree
couples of these levers are suspended from pivots at the exterior extremity of
the platform ; these act parallel to the course of the vessel, and carry articu-
lated jialms, three in number, which reach to the level of the keel, each
presenting to the fluid, at the moment of pressure, a surface of two metres
s(;iiare. After each impulse forwards, these palms close of themselves to
return, and open again only to give the next impulse.

'• The cranks of the pistons being fixed according to two planes, each at a
right angle with the oilier, the moving force is nearly equally distributed
during one evolution of the articulated arm ; but. by the arrangement of the
double cranks which CGnimnuicate to the articulated palms, each of these
exercises its pressure ujjon the fluid during only one-third of the evolution,
and the maximum of this pressure takes place in a very short space of time
the remaining two-thirds of the evolution are taken up" in the return and in
tilt' opening of the palms.

"Although the technicality of the above description may render a con-
ception of the new invention rather difficult at first sight, its eft'ects may be
easily conceived by imagining the backward and furward motion of two
v.ebbed palms, propelling a vessel forwarils. one palm opening and moving
parallel to her course, whilst the other, having [ crformed its functions,
closes by the pressure of the fluid acting on the articulations, and returns to
its place in a direction opposite to the vessel's course, again to advance when
its companion is on the point of returning, having in its turn performed its
office."

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Dec. 20. — .Announcement was made of the completion of the great Geolo-
gical Map of France, by Messrs. Dufresnoy and EUe de Beaumont. It was
commenced in 1823, under the direction of the late M. Brochant de Villiers;
eleven years were occupied in geological researches in loco, and the other
seven years in the classification of materials, in drawing, engraving. &c. The
map, divided into several sheets, is now published, with a volume of descrip-
tive letter-press.

A report was read on the works undertaken by Dr. Fontan and M. Fran-
cois, engineer, for improving the thermal sources at the Bagneres de Luchon,
in the Pyrenees. By driving horizontal galleries into the rock, near the old
mouths of the sources, they had succeeded, not only in obtaining water in
great quantity, but also of greater heat. Some of the old springs have dried
up in consequence, but the general improvement of the springs was very
great, and it had been accomplished at a cost of only 30,000fr. The works
lasted two years.

.\ series of observations and questions was addressed to the Academy, from
the Minister of Marine, on the natural history of the silk-worm, with propa-
gating the growth of silk in the West Indies. M. Perottet had been sent
out to examine into the best means of promoting this object. This gentle-
man had remarked that silk-worms' eggs carried to the West Indies from
France, and kept in those hot countries for seven or eight years, could not be
hatched until the end of eight or nine months, notwithstanding the high
temperature, and then only at long and irregular intervals ; but when the
same eggs were put in an ice-house for four or five months, they were hatched
within ten days from their being exposed to the circumambient atmosphere,
and nearly all at once. Directions for the proper treatment of worms under
these circumstances were demanded of the -Academy. The subject was refer-
red to the Section of Rural Econoajy.

The greater part of this day's sitting was occupied with the reading of me-
dical and anatomical papers.

THE RIVER CLYDE NAVIGATION.

In the " Glasgow Jrgus.'' of the 6th ult. we find an address presented to
the Owners of the Steam Boats on the River Clyde, to the Trustees : wherein
is mentioned that the steamers on the River Clyde carrying passengers have
competed most successfully with the New Railway runniig parallel with the
Clyde, from (ilasgow to Greenock. The following is an abstract of the ad-
dress.

Gentlemen— The first season since the opening of the (ireenock Railway
having terminated, we beg to apprise vour honourable Board of the compara-
tively great and almost unlooked-for success which has attended the River
traffic during the summer months, notwithstanding the formidable opposition
we have had to encounter, in our novel and confessedly powerful competitor.
" '' " We beg specially to express our gratitude for the invaluable
boon conferred on us, in authorising the river steamers to arrive at and de-
part from the New ^Vharfs. adjoirung the Glasgow Bridge, and which we
have no hesitation in stating has been the means of cntinbj mving our River
trade ! '■ ' '' Seeing the resolution by w liich this grand measure has
been effected was passed unanimously at yu'ur Board, we feel that it w^ould
be almost invidious to particularize any individual as being more .serviceable
than another in carrying that resolution into practice. Vet. while we know
that we are deeply indebted to every member of the Trust individually, we
cannot close this address without adverting in marked terms to the greai ex-
ertions and personal sacrifice made by James Hutchison, Esq., as contriljuting
in a very eminent degree to the succtss of the new arrangements. Tlie almost
daily attendance of this gentleman at the new wharfs tor a considerable
period about the time of their opening, striking evinced the warm interest he
felt in the object for which they were erected. We would beg most respect-
fully also to notice the unremitting diligence, and skilful co-operation of
your invaluable river engineer, Mr. Bald. The care and attention with which
he studied the working of his plan in all its bearings,— carried into efiect
whatever suggestings he judged likely to be useful, and in every possible way
devoted his tune and his talents to the furtherance of this new undertaking.

1842.]

THE CIVIL EXGIXEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

67

are above all rr.ise, am! will not soon be forgotten by any of our number.
• • " It is not for us to hazard an^ opinion aJ to the ejn'ei^ious tolly
of hying a line of rails aloni; the mar^n of such a noble and magnificent
river as the Clyde. We only Know that, with vour conlinueil co-o[)ention
and support, ue have nothing whatever to dread from any such uncalled-for
competilion. On the contrary— confident of success as herclofnro— we can
now Toarlessly hiil dellanco to this new rival convryancl. with all ils boasted
advinlaue<. and have no doubt that the Clyde, in every branch of its traffic,
shall slill as powerfully as ever coatribule to Uie prosjierily of Glasgow !

laiSCELIjANEA.

I.akt r/Como.—la tht' Era ddla Barsa of Milan, there is an account of an
experimental trip, m.ade on the 1.5th N'ovcmlK-r Ia.st. of the iron steam boat
S'rrne. c. nslnictol for and under tIicsii|>erintin(Ienccof Mr. B. .-Mtano. C.K.. of
London, for the navipaiion of the Lake of Ciimo. She is 10.5 tons burden,
and was built in b;ni!and by Messrs. Ditchburn & Mair. and fitte 1 with a
pair of be.im engines of onlv 16 horses power each, by Messrs. Kennie. Tlie
following account is taken from the report of M. Caronti of Como (agent to
the "^leam Fkiat Company) to the directors at Mil.an. After a minute e.Nami-
nalionof the boat and engines by M. .Mbano, who m.a(le the reiiuired ar-
rangements for a trial, the boat lelt the Olm.> and arrived at the point of the
town of Torno, a distance of 5 miles, in 2J minutes, and in 5 minutes more
it renchcd the Pliniana with a strong head wind, and relumed direct from
the iMiint of Tonio to ilie port ot Como in 20 minutes. Al the first e.>;peri-
mental trip made on the 1 tih of October last, with the directors and a pnrty
en lionrd of above 100 persons, the boat performed then a journey from
fomo to Domaso. a distance of more than 30 miles, in 2 hrs. V> min.. aiicl
from Domnso to Como in 2 lirs. 35 min., the engines making from 3" to ,3n
strokes per minute, and the biKil remaining v.^ry steady in the water. Willi
sncl»sm:ill power this boat has done woniUrs. and it will prove a great de-
sicleralum to the travellers on the l^ike. who li.ive teen u.'id to travelling by
the old sleam barge, tunning at a speed of oiily 4 miles per hour.

frrlavil.—A Presbyterian church has teen erected at Porlafirry, on tlic
site of llie former edifice, from the designs, and under the immediate super-
intend! nee of Mr. Millar, architect. The didicully of the sile (being a piece
of sloping grcund, at least 10 feet in 100) with which he had to contend, has.
in tliis instance, been changed into a positive and original beauty, such as
does not exist in any public building that we are acquainted w ith in the three
kingdoms. The first story, or body of the house, as it is usually termed, i-;
contained in a stylohate, eleven feet high, or massive pyramidical basement,
c(T which rises the columnar edifice. The lower portion of the building is en-
tere<l from the south end, through a vestibule on the same, or lower level, on
vihii'h this stylobate rests. (3n the north end. the stylobaie returns east and
west, formng an elevate 1 terrace level wiih the lack gallery entrance, and a
higher part of the street, thus giving space large enough lor a carriage to turn
with case, al the north jiropvlaum, which presents a front of si.t elegantly
proprrtioncd and massive Doric columns. The intercolumniaiions of the
lour centre ones, and returns to their aula-, are filled up to about one thirl
of their height with thin freestone slabs of larue superfici:d extent, reaching
from column lo column ; the rem.ining two-thirds being filled with giaz d
cast metal sashes of an exceedingly light descrip:ion; thus giving, by this
simple, though unique expedient, the great advantage of seeing the columns,
Internally as externally, which, by their undecorated finish, give the Hho!e
edifice the effect anil proporiion of simple, yet claiisic beamy. In a parallel
line to these, at nine feet farther b.ack, stand Ionic columns in anla-, sustain-
ing a vast beam, forming a marginal line to the ceiling of the house, « hich is
richly coffered ; the four angular coders being filled with ornamental venti-
lating centres of elaborate workmanship, and chaste design. At the south
end a similar screen extends from column to column, separating the vestry
from ihe lody of the church, agi'.iii.st which is placed the pulpit, in form of
the ancient rostrum, supjiorted on massive scroll tnis.«es. projecting from Ihe
wall, and fini.sbed in Sienna marble, so as to harmonize with tlie galleries
mud Its anKT in colour, it being part and parcel of the general design,
connecting them from right to left.

Tlie style of architecture which Mr Mi lar has adopted for the very pecu-
liar site, i.i thai which prevnilol in (Jreece during the architectural age of
Pericles ; its dimensions are sullicienily birge to produce an impression of
grandeur and sublimity, which is not disturbed hy any division of parts;
and whether viewed closely, or from the opposite shores of .Str ingford, there
is nothing oblru.sive to divert the min I i f the sjieclator from couiemplaling
the miity. as well .as the majesly of miss and outlines — circumstances whitli
form liie first and most remarkable characterislics of the great prololyj'es
erected during the purer age of (irecian art, on which the architect has evi-
dently foundeil his studies ; thus stamping his works, where they have been
carried out under his own eye, with perlei lion and harmoni./us Ijcaulv, with-
out stooping I . Ihe factitious aiil mi adveniiiious emiHilishment. V/e would
fain hop," that such buildings as this, ended from the designs of a profes-
sional mm. may serve n» a stimulant in direcling public atienlion to tliis loo
much n.glened mI • • ' • Micularly in rousing ihe sell-eslecm of mem-

liers of all religious lAa.— Thc fluwupalriek lUcorder.

King'i CoUear—y i, on Tuesday, the 25 h ult., delivered his

introductory lecture on Ine ptiiiciples and practice of architecture, in which
he dwell at lengih upon the importance ol a'lending to constrodion, iiiui
conrludcil by olferin^ some advice to ihc architect on making cumpetaion
designs.

Wmtwirh.—Om the Stil Jnnimr^ 'i- ■ ■"-•,.. i r -■'■- "r Oliver Lnrg.

of WooUich ill < I>)aril, Wr. Jd/ . irii. Mr J.inin

Atkins, of >h*-eme«H dockyard. . .■ . : i tiih dorkvnrd.

Mr. niomas t'. Ha»k«, of I'lyiiiju.b uui;k)afJ, ji.ii Mr. Uuberis, lute of

Dcvonpirt dockyard, assembled a! Woolwich dockyard to dec le upon the
plans which it would b,- most desirable to ailherr to'in future. .as a lixed prin-
ciple for building vessels for Her Majesty's mvv. This reso'u:ion on th»
part of the Admiralty will prevent all chances of difli'r.nce of o)iiiiinn on
such matiers. and prevent the pos^il,ility of the work ol ore niasler ship-
w right be;ng alter.d or condemned when the vessel is j-ent to any i.iher
dickyardthan the one where she was ccnslructed for repair, wliich has
sometimes been the case on former occasions. One fixed princi;>lc of ship-
building at all Her M-ijestv's dockyanls will be atlendcd with very beneficial
results to the service, and it would be advanla-iniis were the master ship-
wrights to meet annually, or nftener, to take into con-sideration such dis-
covenes as might be made owing lo the present advanced state of scientific
knowledge.

French Line of Slenm Ships lo AVic }ort-.— France and Ihe United .Slates are
to be more nearly allied by'a line of sleam"rs The r„i,rri^r rf», Fjntt I'nis
s.nys that M. D'AuUgnyl captain in the IVench • it

New York, had been seiit hither by the .Minister I'i i|

purpose of investigating the actual condition ol :; e

Inited States, and of slii lying the improvements that hive iicen miidc. .\l.
D'Auhigny is of opinion, that the close of 1?}2 mav be .issiL'ned as the lime
at which a first line of four seam-packeis. between Hn' - ' ' V ;..

may be put in operation Vessels it is s,aiil, are alreidy :
progress, of the war model, bu; .so constructed as ti sin ..e

of l>eace. for the transport of goo Is and the convey i liters, ihry

will be commanded by olbcers of the navy, as ibc I; ;, are. Their

capacity is to I.e alxiut 1200 tons, and their power ju.. . i . s. .1. D'.Vubigny
will set out, in a ifv days, for the south, whose principal rivers and seap^iru
he 'ill examine. ^He has given minute attention to the steam fri-ates .Mis-
souri and Mississijpi, at the Navy yard on Long Island.— .Vrui i'ork paptr.

The Siram Engine.— ^-l. llelfcUiz.' has lately made a discovery among the
manuscripts i f Leonardo da Vinci, carrying back a kno«le.I_'e of the steam-
engine to at least the 15lh century. He Ins | ubii.'.hed. in lbc> .Irlislr. a notice
on the life of Leonardo da Vinci, to which he adds a fac simile of a paT
from one of his minuseri[ils. and on which are five sketches with the i«n,
representing the details of the apparatus of a slenm-gun, with an explanatory
note upon what he de.-ignatcs umier the name of the " Architoniicr.-p.'' and
of which note the lolluwinj is a translation : — " Invention of Arcbimeles. —
The Archi'.onnerre is a machine of fine copper, which throws balls with a
loud report and great force. It is used in the following manner ; — one-third
of this instrument contains a large quantiiy of charcoal fire. When tlie
water is well heated, a screw at the top of 'the ve.isel. which coniaius the
water, must be made quite tight. On closing the sfri'.v above, all ihe water
will escape below, will descend into the heated portion of the insirument,and
be immediately converted into a va|>oiir so abundant and powerful that it is
wonderful to see its fury and hear the noise it prinluces. This m.ichine will
carry a ball of a talent in weight.'" It is worthy of remark, that J.,eonarflo
<la \ irci, far from claiming the merit of this invention lor himself, or the
men of his time, attributes it lo Archimedes. — Galignani's Missiugrr.

The Milan and Mmza Rnilwnii. — We have seen a report from Mr, Scott, the
locomotive engineer of the railway, lo Mr. Albaiio, C. V, , who Is snperin-
tendimg the conslriiclion of the locomotive engines in the country f r the
alove lailway, ilaiing •• that no en-ine that he ha I yet s-en at all ap-
proached the locoMotive engine " f.ambro," in any respi'c vbatever ; in the
economy of I'm 1, in her imm^'nse drag.;ing power, and in the exc dlency and
Ihe solidity of her framing, and working gear." This engine was built by
Messrs. G. and !. Kennie, under the directions of Mr. Albano. She has
cylinders 13 in. diameter; 18in. stroke; 5ft. Gin. drving wheels ; weight 22
tons; steam pressure 50 1b.; average velocity 3ii mihs (ler h'.ur; weight
drawn 143 tons. She ci mmencc I running on Ine 24!h June last, llie fol-
lowing account shows the very small quantity of fuel consumed each
journey : —

June 24, 1841. 140 miles, coke consumed 5612 lb., or 40Ib. permile.

'• 29, 140 " " 4612 33

Sep. 8, 180 " " 3800 22

Nov. 1, 120 " " 2634 22

Palmeri Patent Elertrotint. — We have just seen some proofs printed from
plates prepared by a process for which Mr. Palmer, of Newgaie-sireel. has
laktn out a patent. The p oofs wliich we have seen are a do.;'s head, by
Mr. T. Sam;ison ; a study of a head by Wilkie, by Mr T. Samiaon ; a fisher-
man, skelcbe 1 by the same artist ; an I a fruit piece by Mr. G. Lance. This
method of prt'paiing copier plates and obtaining printed copies is callid
" clectrolint ; " and ilie fol'oving description of it. in ihe wonis of the in-
ventor himself, will best explain lis nature and caiiabiluies of application.
" 'Ihe name of •* KIccirotint '■ is given in distinction from " Klectru!y[»o ' to
this invention, the latter being pr'^diicci from en;.'raved platen, v he-eii the
elecrolint plates are deposileri. by the elecirolvio p. »

made by artists upon a while metallic surtace, niih :i

black paint. In the while portions ol the disigu the «m ^ .,

an 1 the ci.inpo.siilon used sparingly in the middle iinis: bui where uarK or
black (lorlions occur, it is laid on thickly and ro'ighlv — riieelertnilinl pUvs
will ol course be cotereil with indenlalionacorri ' ' '

of the coinpo-iition. which will rrciive ih- i rir
<lcplh, and convey ii in pnn'in.; 10 the pujcr.

apply to printing from rtised surfices. .such «■< woun 0|ov-n». Atmuoih biork
.Mirtace is chosen, .ind a while c mpnsi'om III on with a iiiffbnuh. Kc. All
tlmsc por.iors mI ■ . ■ ■ . -«

(lodtion will, in I

from Ihe prin'.in;, . >

that .irlisis, by udupiiog (iii.> nirilK.i, e iii iiuikslvc lo ilie i 'ipi^er ,jr ,tutfti-
p'ales. and 1 hence to piitr. copii* miiiiieU correc. of lhv.ro >n |>rcuharslylea
of liani'I'.ng. ai.d. .as It were, Mttl i ' '' ' ' i t o' their

orign.al C'Miposiiions. Ihe lour | ■ 'nl) bi-iu-

tilul ; lliey are chir an I iTillinnl. ., o. s.mi in

(he shadows by which lithugrtiphic pnnis, t^., ^le uci-iU^u>i<ily ditfi(jarcU.

68

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Feb.

The new invention is yet in its very infancy, but from what it has already
developed of its powers, it may be safely foretold that it is likely to attain a
speedy and a lasting maturity in the history of the fine arts. — Times.

Preservative for Water rolour Draieings and Engravings. — Mr. .Spilsbury, of
Pall Mall, has invented a solution for washinpr over water colour draw ings
and engravings, which preserves them from the action of the atmosphere,
and at the same time allows them to be washed the same as an oil painting,
a great desideratum ; it is deserving of a trial by those who wish to preserve
their engravings, without going to the expense of plate glass.

Ede's Portable Cliemieal Laboratories. — They are very compact cabinets,
fitted with a great variety of tests and re-agents, glass tubes, blow pipes,
and other appendages necesssary for performing numerous experiments.

OBITUARY.

Died, on Thursday, the 13th ult., at his residence, near Plymouth, J. Foul-
ston, Esq., M. I. B. A., aged 69. Th edeath of Mr. Foulston cannot fail to excite
a melaucholy interest, in these towns and their neighbourhood, with which
his name as an architect is almost as much connected as that of Wren with
the city of London. Before his arrival among us, we had been for centuries
in darksome ignojance, as to the meaning and merits of architecture. The
success of ilr. Foulston, iu his competition for the Royal Hotel and Theatre,
fortunately established him as our resident architect ; and his subsequent
labours for many years were directed to the improvement and adornment of
the three towns, naturally promoting that advance of the public taste, which
is now manifesting itself in a general feeling for the " beautiful." The sim-
ple magnificence of our Hotel exterior, majesty of the Portico to the Devon-
port Town Hall, and the classic elegance of the Athenanmi, and Plymouth
Library, bear ample testimony to the distinguished merit of Mr. Foulston, as
a disciple of the Grecian school ; while his ability and taste in treating the
other varieties of design are shown iu the Gothic Chapel of St. Paul, Stone-
house, and the Egyptian and Moorish buildings of Ker-street, Devonport.
The monumental column in the latter town is also a pure and striking
example of the architect's feeling for Greek simplicity. And we would
suggest that this especially should be individualized as his monument, by an
inscription to his honour, cut on a brass or marble slab, and let into one of
the panels of the pedestal. Mr. Foidston was buried in St. Andrew's New
Cemetery, on Tuesday, the 18th ult. — Plijmouth Paper.

LIST OP NE'Wr PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 24tH DECEMBER, 1841, TO 27tH
JANUARY, 1842.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment.

William Robinson Kettle, of Waterloo-street, Birmingham, W^arwick,
accountant, Benjamin Wakefield, of Ryland-street, North, Birmingham,
civil engineer, and William Crosher, of Cumberland-street, Birmingham,
aforesaid, screw manufacturer, for " an improved holt for building, and other
purposes." — Sealed 24th December.

Montagu Macdonogh, of St. Alban's-place, Middlesex, gent., for "im-
provements in spindles, flyers, and bobbins, for spinning, twisting and reeling
all sorts of fibronn or te.rtile substances, and in the application or adaptation
of eittier, or all of them, to machinery for the same purposes." (A communi-
cation.)— Jan. 6.

Edward Hall, of Dartford, civil engineer, for "an improved steam
boiler." — Jan. 11.

Samuel IIearne Le Petit, of St. Pancras-place, St. Pancras-road, for
" certain improvements in t/te mannfacture and supply of gas." (A commu-
nication.)—Jan. 11.

James Chesterman, of Sheffield, mechanist, and John Bottom, also of
Sheffield, aforesaid, mechanist, for " certain improvements in tapes for mea-
suring, and in the bo.resfor containing the same," — Jan. 11.

Charles Wye Williams, of Liverpool, gent., for " improvements in the
construction of furnaces, and effecting combustion of the inflammable gases
from coal." — Jan. 11.

John Tresahar Jeffree, of Blackwall, engineer, for " improvements in
lifting and forcing wafer and other fluids, parts of wtiicfi improvements are
applicable to steam engines." — Jan. 11.

Richard Dovor Chatterto.s', of Derby, gent., for " improvements in
propelling." — Jan. 11.

James Ions, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gent., for " improvements in smelt-
ing copper ores." — Jan. 13.

Julius Bordier, of Austin Friars, merchant, for " improvements in pre-
paring s/cins and hides, and in converting them into leatlier." — Jan. 13.

Caleb Bedells, of Leicester, manufacturer, and Joseph Bedells, of

the same place, assistant to the said Caleb Bedells, for " improvements in
tlie mannfacture of elmlic fabrics, and articles of elastic fabrics." — Jan. 13.

Joseph Barnes, of Church, near Accrington, Lancashire, manufacturing
chemist, for '* certain improvements in the working of steam engines." —
Jan. 13.

Henry Waterton, of Winsford Lodge, Chester, Esq., for " improvements
in the manufacture if salt." — Jan. 13.

John Jeremiah Rubery, of Birmingham, umbrella and parasol furniture
manufacturer, for " improiwments in the manufacture of a certain part of
umbrella and parasol furniture." — Jan. 13.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's-inn, gent., for " improvements in the construc-
tion of lochs." (A communication.) — Jan. 15.

John Thackeray, of Nottingham, lace thread manufacturer, for " im-
provements in the process of ^ireparhuj and gassing tliread or yarn. — Jan. 15.

Thomas Lambert, of Regent's-park, musical instruemnt maker, for " im-
provements in the action of cabinet piano-fortes." — Jan. 15.

Edward Palmer, ofjNewgate-street, philosophical instrument maker, for
"improvements in producing, printing, and embossing surfaces." — Jan. 15.

James Cole, of Youl's-place, Old Kent-road, brush manufacturer, for
" improvements in the construction of brushes." — Jan. 15.

Cornelius Ward, of Great Tichfield-street, musical instrument maker,
for " improvements in flutes." — Jan. 18.

William Tindall, of Cornhill, ship owner, for " a new aud improved
method of e.vtracting or tnanufacturing from a certain vegetable substance,
certain materials, applicable to the purposes of affording light and other uses."
—Jan. 19.

Antoine Mertens, of the London Coffee-house, publisher, for " improve-
ments in covering surfaces with wood." (A communication.) — Jan. 22.

William Baker, of Grosvenor-street, Grosvenor-square, surgeon, for
" improvements in the manufacture of boots and shoes." — Jan. 27.

John James Baggaly, of Sheffield, seal engraver, for "improvements in
making metallic dies and plates for stamping, pressing, or embossing-" —
Jan. 27.

Andrew Kurtz, of Liverpool, manufacturing chemist, for " improve-
ments in the manvfactnre of artificial fuel" — Jan. 27.

Francis Marston, of Aston, in the county of Salop, Esq., for " improve-
ments in apparatus for making calculations." — Jan. 27.

Samuel Ma.son, of Northampton, merchant, for " improvements in clogs,
— part of which improvements is applicable to shoes and boots." — Jan. 27.

Gottlieb Boccius, of the New-road, Shepherd's Bush, Gent., for " im-
provements in gas, and on the methods in use, or burners for the combustion
of gas." — Jan. 27.

William and John Galloway, and Joseph Haley, of Manchester,
engineers, for " imjirovements in macliinery for cutting, punching, and com-
2>ressing metals." — Jan. 27.

Pierre Journet, of Dean-street, Soho, engineer, for " improvements in
steam engines." (A communication.) — Jan. 27.

Henry- Benjamin, of St. Mary-at-Hill. fish factor, and Henry- Grafton,
of Chancery-lane, machinist, for " improvements in preserving animal and
vegetable matters." — Jan. 27.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Tlie American Pile'driving machine. — We neglected to mention in our last
number, that this machine had been patented in this country, as well as on the
Continent, hif Col. Cowdin and others. We have received two communications on
the subject of the table on the force of fa/ling bodies, questioning the accuracy of
the formuhe upon which the calculations were made. These cunimunications we
have deferred until next month, in order that we may in the mean time make some
practical e.rperiments on the force of falling bodies, which appears up to the present
time to ha^e been neglected by all our mechanical writers.

Bunnett's Patent Railway Breaks and other improvements. — We had intended
to hove given drawings and descriptions of these in the present number, hid we
have been prevented, in consequence of the wood engraver not being able to get tlie
cuts finished in time.

./. M. on Architectural Precedent will appear ne.rt month.

We shall be glad to hear again from " Oliver Twist."

Sandstone. — We will notice his eominunieal/on in the ne.xt Journal.

Communications are requested to he addressed to '- The Editor of the Civil
Engineer and Architect's Journal," A'o. II, Parliament Street, Westminster.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements mi or before the 25th.
instant.

Vols. I, II, III, and IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume

ERRATA.

In Mr. Weale's advertisement of last month, the price of Buchanans Mill
work was printed 21. .'is. instead of 21. 10s.

On the Use of Gold for Decoration, page 7, line 7 from bottom, for fimlt/
paid, xedA firmly fixed.

Oa^lPILQIKl S^M© L^SMTC^®y SE o

Mtjh

JidW

Ifatcr

Water

Souih Elevation.

liffhz 45Jeet abmre' the wAm/Jevel afihe. Sea,
iirst eocMnted crv-dw ragfct ofike. /O^FtF'fS^I

Scale- i_

_jeJea,

Tmaui k/ JJiJtiitimi. S, 'iSrwic* ^

184-2.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

6f)

THE MAPLIN UGHTHOU.SE.

Engineers, Messrs. Walker & Burges.

(fVM an Engraving, Plate J II.)

In the second volume of llie Juuroal, page 38, we announced tlie
oommencenient of this lightliouse, and at piige 132 of our l;ist volume,
«e bad the pleasure to notice its completion. We llien gave some
iiccount of its construction, to which we must now refer our readers.
The lighthouse, since its completion in October, 18 lU, has stood the
trst of several severe gales, and is ut this day as tirm as when first
I'rected. Coupling this with the equal success of the Fleetwood
lighthouse, it is in our opinion an indubitable proof of the utility of the
^(rew pile system, and of the resources wliicli it presents to the en-
gineer in the construction of lighthouses on sands, in the place of
rioaling beacois as now adopted, which are so apt to drive from their
moorings in stormy weather, and which thea produce such disastrous
consequences.

The annexed engraving is a correct view of the lighthouse, and
clearly shows its construction.

PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN POITIERS AND

ANGOULEME: WITH SOME REMARKS ON EARLY

ARCHITECTURE.

By George Godwin Jun., F.R.S., &c.

Chapter 1.

Poitiers, the Limonum of the Romans, and present capital of the
department of Vienne, is nearly two hundred miles from Paris, on the
read to Bordeaux. It is memorable as the field of three of the most
important battles recorded in the annals of France ; by two of which,
at all events, the progress of society was materially affected.* The
Gauls, the Romans, the Vandals, the Visigoths, the Franks, the Nor-
mans, and the English, have alternately held dominion here, and have
left their impress on the soil, or in the customs of the people. To
llie passing traveller, Poitiers, ill-built and mean in appearance, seems
hardly to offer sufficient inducement for a stay, giving no evidence at
first sight of the many singularly interesting remains of ancient skill
which it possesses. It is in all respects an old town, — a bye-gone
tiling, — and takes one back to times when society had not educated
itself into so many wants as now, and men cared little for their own
habitatiiin, but raised magnificent temples to (jod. To the anticjuary,
the architect, the student in history, — in fact to all inquirers, — Poitiers
will afford a harvest of information, and be fruitful of suggestions :
moreover, being situated on a hill, at the cohfluence of two rivers, it
• (jinmands some pretty country, and becomes in itself a picturesque
ul ject, when viewed from a distance.

The Gauls have lelt but one monument in the neighbourhood of
Poitiers. It is called there the pierre len'e, and is considered by
archtcologists to be either a tomb or a Druidical altar. It is said to be
ii block of calcareous stone, i'Z ft. 3 in. long, I .'i ft. wide, and 2 ft. 9 in.
in mean thickness. In form it is a lengthened oval, pointing south-
east and north-east, raised 3 ft. 4 in. from the ground at one end oulv,
the support at the north-eastern end, if there ever were one, having
been removed.-j- It is hardly necessary to remark, that many mar-
vellous stories are told touching the origin of this stone; but with
these we may not meddle.

'Ihe remains of an amphitheatre at Poitiers, sufficiently large to
accommodate more than twenty thousand persons, show clearly the

• In ihe sixth ccninry Alaric. kir.g of ihc Visigmlu. was dcfiMicd hero by
C'lovis; in the cikIhIi crnlury thi- Sariu-ens. vmilcr AljcJ-rl-ralinian, »rrc
\anuui'lieil Ijy Cliarlfs Marli-l ; and in the fuurucnth century EUwaril the
I'lUcK I'riiici' (lainCil here- his (jrrat renown.

t " Memuirea de la 8uci<M6 des Anlii|uairc> de rOuvit."

No. 54.— Vol. V.— Marcu, 1842.

importance of the town in the Roman times. It is supposed to have
been built in the third century, and considerably exceeded in size both
tliat of Pompeii and of Nismes. The various ranges of steps, divided
by corridors and st.iircases, are still to be traced, as well as a large
arched vault, IS or 20 feet wide, and OU or "0 feet long, (formed of
rough flat pieces of stone, and mortar, now like a rock,) which inclining
rapidly, opens from the outside into the arena, and afforded entrance
to the wild beasts, or the little more civilized gladiators.

The most ancient, and at the same time most interesting building
in Poitiers is known as the temple of St. Jean. The origin and date
of this very curious structure have afforded matter for many disqui-
sitions, and have been the cause of much controversy amongst the
French antiquaries. Some believe it to have been a Roman temple,
others a tomb erected at the end of the third or beginning of the
fourth century, in memory of Varenilla, a Roman lady, to whom the
city voted a statue and public monument; while a third set of writers,
amongst whom is the Abbe Leboeuf, consider that it was, even origi-
nally, a Christian church, in the erection of which the materials of
some pagan temple were used. From the discovery of an octagon
excivation beneath the pavement of the edifice, strengthened by tra-
dition, it is further supposed that it served as a baptistery as well as a
chapel. M. de Caumont, who inclines to this opinion, considers the
peculiar form of the building is accounted for by its double destination.

Fia. 1.

The accompanying sketch, fig. 1, shows the plan of what is supposed
to be the original building, in form a long square, measuring about 3ii
ft. by 42 ft., with an absis at the north-east end, raised one step nbov«
the main apartment, and measuring about IG ft. by IS ft. In the
opposite wall are three lofty arched entrances, beyond which is a
vestibule of more modem, although still ancient, construction, being
probably of the eleventh or twelfth century. The floor of the building
is several feet below the street level.

Sketch No. 2 represents the general appearance of the north-
east end of the buihiiiig, and although slight, will enable the
reader more easily to comprehend the description. The walls,
about 4.') ft. in height, arc divi<led into two stories, the upper-
most of which contains two arched opening*, with small columns
at the angles, and a triangular-headed space between, and the
lower story, the entrance to the absis. The columns in the lower
story are of coloured marble, and were evidently brought from some
other building, being mostly different from one another In size and

L

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March.

Fie. 2.

height. The sculptured capitals, which are greatly injured and
defaced, indeed, tor the most part destroyed, vary in design, and are
ill-fitted to the shafts. The capitals of the small columns in the win-
dows are formed of comparatively large flat leaves. The upper story
of the two side walls is similar in arrangement to that represented by
the sketch, with the exception, that in the latter the triangular-headed
opening is wider than it is in the two side walls : in the one case it is
about six feet, in the other about three feet six inches. The arches
of the windows, (now only circular lights, having apparently been
blocked up at some remote period,) and the arched entrance to the
absis, are formed of stones about fifteen inches long and three inches
wide.

The walls of this building have been covered with paintings or
mosaics, many of which still remain. Around the upper part is
painted a fret, with birds and other devices on a white panel, in each
compartment. The colours in the fret are blue, red, white, and
yellow, and have an antique appearance. Over the windows a zigzag
line is either drawn in white, or inlaid ; and beneath the openings are
ornamental scrolls, or other decorations, in colours. On the walls various
figures of large size are painted, some few of which have names
against them, formed by letters placed one over the other in an
wpright line : the prevailing colour of the whob is red. The trian-
gular-headed compartment over the absis contains a painted figure of
Christ, within a vescica piscis, of which mysterious form and its con-
stant recurrence in works of the middle ages, I shall hereafter take
occasion to speak.

The soffit of the inner arch leading to the absis is painted; and on
the domical ceiling of the absis appears a very large seated figure of
Christ or of the Almighty, within a pointed quatre-foil. This has
been lately drawn by M. Seguin, for the " Comite Historique des
Arts etMonumens," and is described in one of their Bulletins to be
probably of the thirteenth century : some other figures which surround
it appear to be more ancient.

In the absis there is a series of arches and small columns, with
capitals closely resembling those of the Corinthian order; one of these
is quite so, and the shaft of this displays a slight swell or entasis, as
is also found in the larger columns at the entrance. Some writers
liave considered that this portion of the building, like the vestibule,
is less ancient than the body of the structure; but this has been
warmly combatted, on the ground that the materials composing it and
the style employed correspond throughout both. M. Magnon de La-
lanie is of opinion that the north-west wall, originally similar to that

represented by sketch 2, was altered to its present state when the
building was converted into a baptistery, and that the absis in question
was constructed at this same time, with the materials of the old wall.*

Fig. 3.

The exterior of one side of the ancient part of the building, both
being similar, is represented by sketch No. 3. The upper part of the
gable, originally inlaid with glazed bricks or coloured marble in
patterns, has been rudely repaired, but still displays a portion of its
early adornments. The triangular pediments, as well as the square
compartment with a triangular head, contain flat rosettes, formed like-
wise of glazed or encrusted brick. The semicircular opening in the
lower arcade presents a small Greek cross, (by accident not repre-
sented in the sketch,) and serves almost to identify the original
connection of the building with the Christian religion. The
series of corbels below the gable originally bore a cornice, now
destroyed. Beneath these, ranges of tiles or thin bricks are seen,
alternating with the stones composing the remainder of the front.
The pilasters, with their capitals and bases, project but slightly from
the face of the wall, and, together with the small entablature which
they bear, display very rude workmanship.

On first entering this building, or viewing attentively its exterior,
one cannot avoid regarding it as a type of those edifices which we
term Saxon and Norman; a most interesting link in that chain which
connects the stupendous monuments of Egypt, and the glories of
Athens, with the cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne, or York. In most
of those architectnral remains in England which are acknowledged to
be Saxon, as, for example, the towers of Earls Barton church, North-
amptonshire, of St. Peter's church, Barton-upon-Humber, and of
Barneck church, Northamptonshire, triangular-headed openings, or
straight-lined arches if they may be so called, occur; and they are also to

* "Memoires dc la Sociele Ro)ale des Antir|uaires de Fr-ince." Tom. xir.
M. Caumunt is of opinion there was a similar aUsis, or small chapel, at the
nnrlh-wpst end. before the alteration: this would render the plan of the
buililing criuMform. The same writer is disposed to think the small columns
in I he windows and the absis are of less ancient workmnnship tlian the larger
cnlumns, but ihat they were worked out of some similar co'umns, as tlicy
are of the same marble. " Cours d'Anlitiuiles." Turn. iv.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

71

be found delineated on some Saxon MSS., by writers of that period. A
striking example of these arches may be seen on the entrance to the old
monastery at Lorsch, between Darmstadt and Heidelberg, attributed
to the end of the eighth century. This pedimental form was often
used in Rome for decoration,* when architectural skill and knowledg«
were declining there, as indeed it was greatly at Constantinople. In
the baths of Diocletian, at Rome, columns piled one upon another on
either side of window-openings are thus surmounted; and it may
likewise be found on many sarcophagi in the catacombs of that same
city.

Again, in the Saxon buildings of which we have spoken, small
columns are found swelling in the centre, perhaps a rude remembrance
of the classic entasis; at other times banded in the centre, and so
forming a sort of baluster. Id more than one of them, loo, the Greek
cross in circular panels, or over the heads of windows, forms a pro-
minent ornament.

The temple of St. John has experienced many vicissitudes, and has
been used at different times as a bell-fumidry, a kitchen, and a manu-
factory. St;mding very much in the way of some proposed improve-
ment in the line of streets, it would have been taken down in 1S32,
had not the "Socicte des Antiquaires de I'Ouest" vigorously inter-
fered, and ultimately succeeded in purchasing the venerable fabric,
which is now occupied by them as an architectural museum. Had
the society effected no other good than this, they would merit the
gratitude of all admirers of ancient art; beyond this, however, they
have done much to elucidate the early history of Poitou and the
neighbouring departments, and to induce the preservation of monuments
of antiquity.t The destruction of the bnilding in question, which is
•Imost unique, would be a most serious loss, as it could never be
replaced or compensated for.

The present cathedral of Poitiers, called SI. Pierre, was commenced
in the year 1151, by Henry II. of England, who held Poitou in right of
his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine,X but was not completed until 1379. Of
the original foundation of the cathedral little seems known. In 101b
the structure which occupied the site of the present church was burnt,
and being rebuilt soon afterwards, was again destroyed.

.St. Pierre is a cruciform church, of great width as compared with
its length, divided into three aisles, and presenting in its western
front, seven steps below the street level, three entrance doorways,
Cover which are a large rose window and two pointed-headed win-
dows,) flanked on either side by an ugly squat tower. In the mouldings
around the door-heads are four series of figures ; and in the tympanum
of the centre opening are sculptured groups, representing Christ sur-
rounded by angels sitting in judgment, the resurrection of the dead,
and the separation of the good from the bad, — the latter being thrown
into the open mouth of a monster. In the heads of the side doors
are represented the ileath of the Virgin, and St. Peter receiving the
keys of Heaven. The whole of this front, with the exception, perhajis,
of the lowest story of the towers, is pointed ; indeed, very little of the
early circular work is anywhere a;)p.irent, excepting an attached arcade
withinside ag:>in«t the north and south walls and in the transepts, and
some windows at the east end of the building, the capitals of the
•■ohimns in which latter are exceedingly curious, being formed of the
(inures of men in a variety of distorted positions.j^f There is some
little stained glass in the church: the easternmost window displays a
figure of Christ within a mclca pincia.

* In carlirr limes, »hfn llie princiiilcs of the arch were liiile if at a.l
anderstiioil, thia form was ujeil constniclively. as in the pyramlila of Mexico
mnil Ku'yi't ; I'Ul to ihis Viplicatiim «e nreii not refer.

I This Society mecis In I'uitieri every Thursday during the Session : M. dc
therse is llic si'creiary.

1 Poitou »a»ciMifi«aleil to Philip AurusIus in the reign of KinK John
(\M); came auain inicjjlie hands uf the Knglisli in 1360; and ullunalely
revcrlefl to Krance in 1370.

^ A I'rench writer, si«aking of this church, observes. " En C-ludiant le»
feni-lres, ilepiiis eeliesdu clia-urcnnslnitteii h Infinclu douxidme sii'cle, jus(|u'ik
eelles du ixirtail. ijui (latent de In fin clii trez Ome. on |ieut auivre la trans-
ition du Roman au (iolhi<|iie. imi •'cfi^Tail alcirs, transition hien mari|u6«
dans la forme de» feiii'iri s. dani leurs meiieniix, dans les cintres et le» ogives
<|U1 les (leodrenl ; ic (|ui e^l uiie nmivelle preuve de I'lisnae d.ins letjuel on
^•tait aulrefoLH. lurs ile ces ci>iislruelii>nB fort longurs. <Tc eommencer iiar
I'abjide ct de finir par le porlail."'— i'ottkr* .- par M. E. /'. Foucarl.

The interior of this building, although wide and lofty,* has little
beauty, and has been much disfigured by modem repairs and additions,
—the Antiquaries de POiiest may here usefully exert their influence,
as occasions offer. I cannot avoid mentioning, that the walls of this
building both inside and out present on the face of them large numliers
of ma-sons' marks, amongst which is the ji»h, and other apparently
religious emblems. Several precisely similar marks the writer hits
found on buildings of much later date in England.t

BUNNETT'S PATENT RAILWAY BREAKS, &c.

Mr. Bunnett, of the firm of Messrs. Bunnell and Corpc of Dept-
ford, has taken out a patent for several iin|)ortant improvements, for
the better control of railway trains, and the prevention of accidents.
They are simple, cheap, and applicable to the present locomotive
engines and carriages; and, if adopted, such a perfect command over
the train will be obtained, that it may be slopped within so short a
distance as effectually to prevent trains coming info collision with eack
other, or with obstructions of any kind whatever.

The improvements are as follow : —

I. — A powerful engine break acting upon the upper half of the dri-
ving wheels, and also simultaneously on the trailing, or the leading-
wheels, and occupying the place of, and forming, the wheel-guards.

II.— Self-acting spring-breaks for carriages and tenders, attached to
the buffers, and acting on every wheel in the train, partially or alto-
gether retarding it, as the necessity of the case may be.

III. — A very simple and powerful manual break for carriages, &c.
This, and the above breaks, are formed of an elastic materfal, thereby
avoiding the disagreeable jar and noise now so generally complained
of.

IV. — A simple and efficient mode of increasing the adhesion of the
driving-wheels of the engine to the rails, by instantaneously throwing
the whole weight upon them.

V. — Spring axle-guides, capable of adjustment, allowing sufficient
play in the boxes for the axles to adapt themselves to any curves, or
to irregularities of the road.

VI. — A means of communication between the guards and engine-
driver, by an alarm bell on the engine, which is struck by a spring
lever, acted upon fiom any carriage in the train.

VII. — A method of shutting off the steam on the instant that tiie
engine-driver takes his hand off the regul iting-handle, thereby pre-
venting accidents that might possibly occur from drowsiness, tits,
sudden illness, &c.

In illustration of the value of an efficient system of breaks, we need
only subjoin a portion of the evidence of no less an authority than Mr.
(ieorge Stephenson, as given by him before a select committee of the
House of Commons.

t^uestion 1317. You have, of course, devoted much attention to
the means of preventing accidents upon railways ?— A. I have.

Q. 132U. You have paid much attention to the subject of breaks ?—
A. I have.

(j. 1321. Do you consider them an important element of safety in
railway travelling?— A. Certainly; the most important of ;Hiything
tli.it can be contrived for the safety of railway travelling. I believe,
that if self-acting breaks were put upon every carriage, scarcely
any accident could take place.

* The hcifjhl uf the nave is lUtcd to b« 90 feet , that of the lidi-aiiln
80 feel.

t To Ihis very curious subject,— the mnsoiis' marks of tlie middle aRes,—
to which the wiiler's nulice was fir.^1 given tliree or four years ago, hr ha«
lately liirerlod llie nller t on of llie Suciety of AiUi(|ii.iries anil the Institute
of AriliiliTii, »ilh llie view of oblnining n large eolleclion of the marks for
exoininalion and coin|uirisun, Ihe '• Comilf llitloriqur dri JriM rl iloniinu iit"
of I'aris have recently invitetl communications on tlicsulijcct.

72

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[M4RCH,

BUNNETT'S PATENT RAILWAY CARRIAGE BREAKS, &c.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig.- 3.

1S42.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AxND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

73

Q. 1322. What do you mean by self-acting breaks ? — A. When-
ever the power is taken off the engine by the engine-driver, it imme-
diately ceases to proceed so fast; all the carriages immediately run
towards the engine, with the impetus put into them before tlie engine
was retarded. Every carriage, as it approaches the next carriage,
sball apply the breaks itself. Every carriage is brought into the state
of a sledge; the rolling motion of the wheels ceases; ami supposing
that an engine was running on with twelve or fourteen coaches, and
that every coach had a breaksman (that is, twelve coaches and twelve
breaksmen), and the whole of them upon the look-out to see if any-
thing went wrong in the engine, to apply the breaks immediately, I
conceive that the self-acting princij-le is fifty tinus bitter.

DESCRirnox of drawings.

Fig. 1 shows a mode of applying breaks to the engine : a is a strong
iron carriage for the breaks laying flat against the side framings, bear-
ing on and attached to the centre cf the springs, and supported also
by sliding freely through a plate or staple bolted to tlie su\e frame, to
allow for the play of the springs; 6 is a vertical shaft, on the bottom
of which is a worm, taking into a worm-wheel, keyed on a horizontal
shaft, which passes across beneath the foot-plate ; on the same shaft
are keyed two pinions c, working into two racked sectors or levers d;
on bringing the levers to the position shown, the break-bands are
brought down on the tops of the wheels on both sides of the engine ;
on fiving the handle a contrary motion, the break-bands are lifted into
the position shown by the dotted lines. Any elastic substance, or
wood segments in an iron box, may be bolted to the underside of the
break-bands, if thought desirable.

Attached to the tire-box of the engine is a bell f, on which, by an
arrangement of spring-levers, a sharp blow, or several blows, can be
instantaneously struck by the guards from any carriage in the train, a
simple and effectual mode of communication with the chain g running
along the tops of all the carriages.

Fig. 2 is a side elevation of a railway carriage frame. At one end
is a self-acting break, proposed to be applied to all the wheels; a is
a connecting-rod attached to the buffers ; 6 is a bell-crank, the axis of
which is attached to the side frame of the carriage ; c is a strong belt
of leather, plaited hemp and wire rope, or any suitable material, to
the underside of which, if necessary, plates of metal may be rivetted;
rf is a curved spring, to the end of which, and to the bell-crank b, the
belt c is fastened ; upon the buffer being driven in, the bell-crank 6 is
moved in the direction of the dotted line, and the belt c is brought
down on the periphery of the wheel, with a force proportionate to the
strength of the spring d, which, on the buffer resuming its position,
takes the pressure of the belt c off the wheels.

The ether end of Fig. 2 shows a Manual break : e is a vertical
shaft, on the bottom of which is a worm, working into a worm-wheel
on a horizontal shaft /, and giving motion to a pair of bevil-wheels g,
one of which is attached to a short vertical shaft, carrying a piniou h,
which takes into two racks i »', kept in gear by friction-rollers at the
back ; the ends of the racks are prolonged, and attached to the centres
of two bars passing across the carriage, and carrying at each end the
bows ti' fitted with elastic bands, on boxes fitted with segments of
wood or otherwise.

Fig. 3 is an elevation of a railway carriage frame, showing another
form of atlf-nclivg break ; a a are strong iron rods attached to the
centres of two cross-bars b b, which are lixed at each end to the back
of the buffers; the other ends of the rods a a are forked, and pass
over a spring c c, the ends of the sprinpp impinge against bars d d,
passing across the carriage, on the ends of which are fixed boxes fitted
with segments of wooil, or w ith bows, &c. similar to k k in Fig. 2 ; /
is a curved stay in the plane of action to the centres of the wheels, on
which are formed guides for the ends of the bars dd; the springs c c,
and the bars d d' ', are shown in section ; the rods a a are capable of
adjustment in the length, so as to bring the breaks into action when
the buffers shall have been driven in to any point desired; the action
of the breaks on all the wheels is simultaneous, and the force equal to
the strength of the springs c c' '.

It will be perceived, that one advantage in these breaks is the
absence of concussion on their being applied, as they are governed by
the bulfers. More or less force is applied, as more or less occasion
exists for the same. Should the strength of the buffer springs be at
any time insufficient to admit of the backing of a train, there is a readjr
mode of preventing the action of the breaks upon the wheels.

SLUICE GATES.

Description of the Bear Trap Sluice Gates of the Lehigh Descending
Xacigalion. j5y Ell wood Morris, Civil Engineer.

(From the American Franklin Journal.)

The public are indebted to the inventive genius of Josiah White,
Esq., President of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, for the
admirable hydrostatic contrivance which has received the singular
name of Bear Trap.

These sluice gates were devised in the year 1^18 by the " Lehigk
Kiivigation Company," for the purpose of improving the Lehigh river
by means of wing-dams, iS;c., so as to form a descending navigation
suitable for the transportation of coal from the Anthracite mines, near
JIauch Chunk, to the city of Philadeljdiia.

This work was commenced upon the lOlh of August, ISIS, and did
not originally contemplate the use of sluice gates as a primary expe-
dient; the residents upon the margin of the Lehigh river having
pointed out "a certain mark in a rock at the Lausanne landing," as
the low-water level of the stream, the Company were induced to
believe that there would always be a sufficiency of wafer for their
purposes, if it were "confined by wing-dams in its passage over the
ripples, or shoals, from pool to pool," and under this impression the
work was begun; but in the autumn of I'slS " the water in the river
fell by an unparalleled drought, as was believed, fully twelve inches
below the mark which has been mentioned as shown by the inhabi-
tants to be the lowest point to which the river ever sunk. Here was
a ditficulty totally unanticipated, and one trhich required a rtry essen-
tial alteration in the plan. Nature did not furnish enough water by
the regular flow of the river, to keep the channels at the proper depth,
owing to the very great fall in the river and the consequent rapidity
of its motion. It became necessary to accumulate water by artificial
means, and to let it off at stated periods, and let the boats pass down
with the long wave thus formed, which tilled up the channels. This
was effected by constructing dams in the neighbourhood of Mauch
Chunk, in which were placed sluice gates of a peculiar construction,
invented for the purpose by Josiah White, one of the managers, by
means of which the water could be retained in the pool above, until
required for use. When the dam became full, and the water had run
over it long enough for the river below the dam to acquire tlie depth
of the ordinary flow of the river, the sluice g;ites were let down, and
the boats, which were lying in the pools above, passed down with the
artificial flood."

It was to meet the exigency created by the discovery above-men-
tioned, that Mr. White contrived the beautiful sluice gate, which we
are about to describe, and upon the successful operation of which the
whole enterprise very much depended.

At that day the scene of the Company's operations was almost a
perfect wilderness, and the carpenters having been set at work to
frame a sluice gate for trial, it became an object of great curiosity to
the settlers ; who being far more riiniliarwith the implements u«ed in
the chase and capture of the beasts of the forest, than with the hy-
draulic works of a flash navigation, either in jest, or from sunic fancied
resemblance of the sluice gate to a Bear Trap, quickly gave to it this
cognomen, which it ever since has borne.

M

74

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

Fig. 1, Plan.

Fig. 2, Section.

.W-Ii.

;;v;;;^/-Jf?;^;^;|»j;.f!V^; •,^^jSg?i-S;SSipSU^.'<;= @J?^v?ifc?/'^^^S^^-'.-^-'.;0.'.r i--a''V-;r-777~T'— ■' — ■ ;

Refekences.
A, Upper leaf of sluice. B, C, D, Water chambers. E, F, 'Wickets. G, Cribwork. H, Pool of dam. I, Plank floor. J, Finders of timber. W L, Water line.

The Btar Trap Sluice Gale, vphich is exhibited in plan and section
in the annexed diagrams, consists of two leaves or shutters, reclining
against each other so as to present a triangular vertical section, and
contain beneath them a space capable of being filled with water from
the superior level, and emptied thereof at will ; the contained angle at
the vertex, when the gates are up, being rather more than 100°, in
order that the leaves may slide easily, one over the other, which they
evidently would not do if the vertical angle of the uplifted gate were
either a right or an acute angle ; this sluice gate is raised and depressed
by liydrostatic pressure, applied and removed upon the principle of
that well known philosophical instrument called the Hydrostatic Bel-
lows ; in its usual form, as applied upon the Lehigh, it will not work in
dead water, but requires the action of a head more than sufficient to
«vercome the weight and friction of the gates, to enable it to be
manoeuvred with facility.*

By an inspection of the diagrams it will be perceived that the leaves

* Mr. English, formerly a contractor upon some of the works of the
Lehigh navigation, having for many years observed the action of the Bear
Trap .Sluice Gates, has conceived the idea of rendering them applicable as the
upper gates of Lift Locks, by placing a large air vessel under the lower leaf,
■«hich bv its buoyancy enables the gates to rise m dead water : and he has
exhibited at the Franklin Institute a working model of a lock having the
Bear Trap Gates, with his attached air vessel applied as upper gates ; and.
though liable to some objections, there is reason to believe that tor the upper,
if not for both, gates of Ljft Locks only, they will prove to be a valuable
improvement, though it is evident that the same object may be attained by
the application of counter weights, but not perhaps as well as by an air vessel

of the gate are hinged horizontally with hollow quoin joints, at some
distance above the floor: the hinge of the upper leaf being higher than
that of the lower, by something more than its thickness, so that even
when the gate is down there is a vacant space into which the aper-
ture opens from the well C, because the height of the hinge of the
lower leaf is fixed at about the same level as the tops of the openings
communicating with the well.

Catch blocks on the under side of the upper leaf A determine the
height to which the rise of the gate is limited ; the well C is con-
stantly in communication with the vacancy beneath the gate ; the
water chamber B, is constantly open to the water from the upper level,
whilst that of the lower level flows freely into the chamber D ; it will
be observed that both these chambers communicate by suitable wickets
E, F, with the well C; now it will be evident from inspection that if the
wickets F, between C and D are shut, whilst the wickets E between
C and B are opened, the water from the upper level will enter beneath
the leaves with the upward hydrostatic pressure due to the head, and
the gate will consequently rise. Now, on the other hand, if the wickets
E are closed, whilst those at F are opened, the downward and lateral
hydrostatic pressure of the water in the upper level, acting then upon
the top surface A of the upper leaf, will force down the gate ; and thus
by simply putting the vacancy beneath the leaves of the sluice gate,
in communication separately with the upper and lower levels alter'
nately, the gate is elevated, depressed, or arrested at any stage of its
movement, by hydrostatic pressure alone ; the only manual labour or

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

75

attention needed for the highest and widest gates, being that which
is requisite to manoeuvre the wickets E or F, a duty for which a mere
bov would be piiysically competent.

The sluice gates used upon the Lehigh descending navigation, as
there is no necessity of making them perfectly water-tight, are allowed
a plav on each side of half an inch or more, which eirectuai;y prevenU
lateral friction; they are generally twenty-four feet wide, formed by
•spiking together three successive layers of thick plank, and the lower
leaf is strengthened by bolting upon its back a few heavy beams, (as
may be seen in the sketch annexed,) which rest their extremities
against suitable stops when the gate is up.

Where the water, violently descending the sluice, leaves the plat-
form, it usually excavates the bed of the stream and forms deep water,
the sudden entrance info which, of boats shooting down the sluice,
would prove very injurious to, or even destroy them, if it were not
for the ingenious device called fingers ; tliese consist of the trunks of
trees placed side by side, and bolted to heavy subsills, with their butts
up-stream, the to]>s freely projecting over the lower sill some twenty
feet or more ; they receive in part the shock of the boat in its plunge
into the deep water, and by their elasticity ease off its momentum so
that it glides down with the swift stream uninjured. This dexterous
mode of avoiding concussion is found in practice fully to answer the
end for which it was designed.

For the purpose of guarding the horizontal hinges of the leaves of
the sluice gates against obstruction from the deposition of gravel, a
glove of plank is ingeniously secured across the hinge by a curved
spring; and in contact with this plank glove, the leaf revolves upon its
hinges, without the possibility of being impaired in its action by the
lodgment of hard substances.

From the above description and the annexed sketches, which are
designed more to develope l/ie principle of the sluice gate, than to
display all the details of its construction, it is hoped that the plan and
mode of action of the Bear Trap Stuice may be gathered without
fuither explanation, and we will now proceed to make a few remarks
upon the great usefulness of this inrention.

UTILITY OF THE BEAR TRAP SLUICE.

This skilfolly devised hydraulic machine continued in use upon the
lower Lebigh — giving perfect satisfaction in practice — from the year
1S21 until lb2'.', when the descending navigation upon the main part
of the river was abandoned for an improvement which admitted of
transit in both directions : though a section upon the former plan, with
its Bear Trap Sluices, still forms the navigation for the lumber trade
betwen Whitehaven and Stodd.irtsville, a distance of 121 miles, m
which by wing-dams, channels, and sluices, a fall of 336 feet is
overcome.

The causes which led to the substitution of a slaekwater for a flash
navigation, and the difficulties met and surmoimted by the ingenious
and energetic individuals who directed the works of ttie Lehigh Com-
panv, are so interesting, that we will make a digression to quote a few
more passages from the Company's published "History,"*

"The bouts used upon the Lehigh descending navigation consisted
(if square boxes, or arks, from lii to 18 feet wide, and "20 to 25 feet
long. At first two of these were joined together by hinges, to allow
llipm to bend up and down in passing the dams and sluices, and ius the
men became accustomed to the work, and the channels were strength-
ened and improved as experience dictated, the number of sections in
each boat was increased, till at last their whole length reached 18u
feet. They were steered witli long oars like a raft. Machinery was

* Id (he nulilialinl history from nhich wc '|Uotp, the upniion is advni)cr<l,
that " the (lesccnilinf navi,;ati(m liy ivrlificial frcshctii on ilie Lclii^li, is the
lirst on rccoril as a |)ertnniiiril thing."

Thin. howoviT, is a mistalcc. for the sysltm of renricrini? shallow streams
n iM.:.ilj1e bv till' mudi- calleil Fliuhini^, uliicli is " to rroaiu aaarulicial (luod
: ■iiiir. fiy pi-nn n^; iip iIh* ii.itcr in tin- river ilM'it," aii'l then opcnmtJ the

-v!;i ■■ "r fluud'K^tPS, when thf boats nro piissin;;. is supposed to bavp i>e<Mi
inventnl by tlic Kifypiian:, aflcr the t>me ol Alexander, and was found in uae
in il.c hyilraiilic works ut the inlrrlur uf Chum, wlii:ii '.hat cm(':rt' was vibiled
by the first Hnsllsli embassy.

Sec New Edinburgh Kucyclop., Art. NaT. Inland.

devised for joining and putting together the planks of which these
boats were made, and the bands became so expert that Jirt intn nould
putone of the xctioM togither an! launch it in forty-fire minuttn. Boats
of this description were used on the Lehigh till the end of the year
1831, when the Delaware division of the Pennsylvania Canal was par-
tially finished. In the last year, 40,9G(j tons were sent down, which
required so many boats to be built, that, if they had all been joined in
one length, they would have extended more than thirteen miles. These
boats made but one trip, and were then broken up in the city, and the
planks sold for lumber, the spikes, hinges, and other iron work being
returned to Mauch Chunk by land, a distance of eighty miles.

" The great consumption of lunibi."r for the boats very soon made it
evident that the coal business could not be carried on, even on a small
scale, withcut a communication by water with the pine forest*, about
It) miles above Mauch Chunk, on the upper section of the Lehigh.
To obtain this was very didicult. The river in that distance had a
fill of about 300 feet, over a very rough, rocky bed, with shores so
forbidding, that in only two places above Lausanne had horses been
got down to the river. To improve the navigation it became
necessary to commence operations at the upper end, and to cart
all the tools and provisions by a circuitous and rough road through
the wilderness, and then build a boat fur each load to be sent down
to the place where the hands were at work, by the channels which
they had previously prepared. Before these channels were effected,
an attempt was made to send down planks singly, from the pitie
swamps, but they became bruised and broken by the rocks before
they reached Mauch Chunk. Single saw-logs were then tried, and
men sent down to clear them from the rocks as they became fast. But
it frequently happened that when they got near Mauch Chunk, a
sudden rise would sweep them off, and they were lost.

" It became evident that the business on the Lehigh could not be
extended as f.>st as the demand for coal increased, while it was neces-
sary to build a new boat for each load of coal ; l)esides the forests
were now beginning to feel the waste of timber, (more than -lO'J acres
a year Ijeing cut off,) and showed ])lainly enough that they would soon
disappear, in consequence of the increased demand upon them.

" Under all these circumstances, it was concluded that the time had
arrived for changing the navigation of tlic Lehigh into a slaekwater
navigation. The acting managers, who resided at MaiKh Chunk,
formed a plan for a steam-bout iwvigation with locks 130 feet long
an<l 3u feet wide, which would accommodate a steam-boat carrying
150 tons of coal. These locks were of a peenliar construction, adapted
to river navigation. The gates operated upon the same principle
with the sluice gates in the dams for making artificial freshets, and
were raised or let down by the application or removal of a hydrostatic
pressure below them. The fiist mile below Mauch Chunk was arranged
for this kind of navigation. The tocka prvred to be ftrfeetly tffcctiTt,
and could be filled or emptied, nolmitkatanding their magnitude, m thru
minutes, or about h>ilf the time of an ordinary lock."

One of the writer's objects, in making the nbove lengthy extract,
was to enable the rea«ler to trace the causes which led to the abandon-
ment of the fl.ish navigation on the Leliigh, and to see tliat it arose
from no defect in the sluice g-ates or other works at first ereifted.

It must be evident to every one that the bear Trap Htuict Uattt,
finding as they do their operating power in the hydrostatic pressure
consequent upon the difference of level which they overcome, are
capable of application to almost any width of opening; and that a
gate of lUO feet or more in length could U> manceuvreil as readily a.5
one of 24 feet, the only .iddition.d labour requisite being that of open-
ing and closing a few more wickets.

In the descending navigation of the Udiigh, a case occurred where
a fall of Il"> feet in about 3t»ii w.is overcome by one of the Bear Trap
Sluices, though it was foui.<l necessary here to bolt a scries of b<>anis
upon the platfbriii, transversely across the opening, so as to mo<ierate
the velocity of the desceixling volume of water, by increasing it«
friction upon the bottom of the passage.

N 2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

CAKDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXV.

" I must have liberlv
■\Vitlial, as large a charter as the wincfs,
To blow on whom I please.''

I. I am not aware that Welby Pugin has been compared to Victor
Hugo, but Victor may certainly be compared to Welby, for the one
speaks in as depreciating a tone of the productions of modern archi-
tecture in France as the other does of those in England. Both are
such outrageous admirers of the antique, that is, the Gothic style, that
they have no admiration for anything else. In his " Notre Dame" the
French writer has commented very freely, though somewhat u la
Smel/ungiis, on several of the buildings of Paris, and, among others,
on the Pantheon, which he designates a "Savoy cake " ! In an article
by him in the " Revue ck Deux Mondes," he has since poured out his
vituperation on the Hotel of the Quai d'Orsay, the Ecole des Beaux
Arts, the Chamber of Deputies, the Madeleine, — which it pleases him
to describe as "a second edition" of the Bourse, — and the CLapelle
Expiatoire, of which he says "rien au monde de plus bossu." "Oh,
qui me delivera," he exclaims, " des colonnades!" including under
that term porticos also. It is, therefore, to be apprehended, that
some of our own classical buildings — those of the Smirke school of
design — would not find any favour in his eyes. After all, architectural
criticism does not appear to be his forte, for he certainly can under-
stand very little of the style he so energetically reprobates, when he
insinuates that there is a strong resemblance of character between the
Madeleine and the Bourse ; — an opinion pretty much akin to that of
the learned traveller who discovered a striking likeness between the
temple at Baalbec and Covent Garden Church ! There is, however,
one expression of his that deserves to be noted, viz. " I'architecture
seule, entre tous lea arts, n'a plus d'avenir." In this, it is to be feared,
there is some truth ; and a rather disagreeable truth it is, since the
very models that ought to stimulate us to rivalry are converted into
obstacles in the way of originality and all effort of our own. What-
ever be the style we happen to take up, we make no attempt at
carrying it forward, moulding it according to present circumstances.

II. Among some other rather crotchety fancies in the article on
"Gothic Architecture" in the last No. of the Quarterly Review, it is
asserted that the Grecian style requires that caryatides should be
made to express exertion and effort, as if oppressed by the weight of
the entablature they support. Now, such figures ought, on the con-
trary, to manifest perfect repose of attitude, and tranquillity of
countenance,— not any sort of effort to bear up against the burthen
laid upon them — for that would indicate weakness, and their insuffi-
ciency for the office imposed upon them, but the ease derived from the
more than ordinary power and strength adequate to their office. The
mode recommended by the writer in the Quarterly would be at variance
with evetV principle of asthetics and architectural taste, and also
opposed to the practice of the Greeks themselves, who made their
caryatide figures to "stand at ease." Some over-sensitive critics
protest against the employment of such figures at all, as suggesting
painful ideas ; — an over-strained refinement of feeling that ought to
cause them to be very disagreeably affected bv the sight of many
other statues, put in situations which would be most perilous for any
human being. They who ate compassionately distressed at beholding
female figures performing the duty of columns, ought to be filled with
terror at seeing a statue stuck up on the top of a lofty column, or
made to stand as sentry in a niche, exposed to every change of weather
— frozen at one time, and fried in the sun at another. There is a good
deal of the kind in art, which it is impossible to reconcile with common
sense, supposingthat mere common sense is to be the judge of it, and that
the things which are so shown are intended to be mistaken for realities.
How many extravagant absurdities are tolerated in painting I The

representations of Cherubim, for instance, are not only absurd, but
disgusting; for a child's head cut off, and having a pair of wings tied
to it, would be an object which, instead of affecting the heart, would
be more likely to turn the stomach.

III. In the " Discours Preliminaire" to the first volume of his " Edi-
fices de Rome Moderne," Letarouilly makes some sensible remarks,
one of which is to the effect that those purely numerical relations and
proportions, upon which so much stress has frequently been laid, have
been greatly over-rated, since architectural beauty is not to be esti-
mated arithmetically. It is, in fact, evident enough that mere
mechanical beauty of proportions alone will go but a very little way
in satisfying the eye, for those proportions may be observed « la n'gueur,
and the design itself may nevertheless be in abominably bad taste, or, at
any rate, dull and insi pid. The same writer also opposes the silly notion of
the science of music being of any service to the architect. There exists
only a certain vague analogy between the two arts; therefore, to fancy
that any direct application of the rules of the one can be turned to
account for the other, is no better than a chimerical whim, worthy of
the philosophers of Laputa. If any such application be possible at
all, it ought to hold good one way as well as the other ; and the
musician might certainly profit just as much by a knowledge of archi-
tecture, as the architect can possibly do by studying the laws of
musical composition.

IV. In reporting the King of Prussia's visit to the British Museum,
the newspapers have not informed us what opinion his Majesty-
expressed of the architecture of the building, on the plans and model
of it being exhibited to him. Perhaps he thought it more advisable
to keep his opinion to himself; and he might, moreover, be excused
if he felt more astonishment than he expressed ; — astonishment at the
rigorous economy manifested in that national edifice, compared with
the prodigality of the doings at Windsor Castle.

V. About two years ago the newspapers assured us that Prince
Albert possessed more than ordinary taste for the fine arts, and that
art might accordingly look forward not only to more hearty, but more
intelligent patronage than it has hitherto been its fortune to obtain
from a British court. Alas ! for the sycophantic prophecies of news-
papers 1 The so-boldly-predicted encouragement of art has as yet
produced no other fruits than portraits of royal babies, and dog-ken-
nels for royal puppies, except it be the huge royal christening cake —
a most unequivocal specimen, no doubt, of superior tasle. It may be
that the predicted patronage is still to come — that we have mistaken
the mere buddings and blossomings of it for the fruits. Such, it is to
be hoped, is the case, but at all events, the blossoms themselves are of
a very sickly kind. For aught that at present appears to the contrary,
the future is likely to prove very much like the past, in a country
where the sunshine of royal patronage to art has never amounted to
more than mere moonshine.

VI. If we may believe Toussaint, mathematical science and theory
are of comparatively little service in actual construction, and in fact
are never trusted to, as architects themselves, he says, very well know,
although they do not care to confess as much. " We are aware," he
continues, " that such assertion will excite a hue and cry against us from
the mathematicians, who will endeavour to prove, by A plus B, that
it is mailiematicalbj false, and that we are altogether mistaken. Yet
if we ask them how many architects they can reckon up in Paris who
know anything of mathematics, we suspect they would be compelled
to reply, in the verse of Boileau,

" U y en a jusqu'ii trois que je pourrais citer."
and even out of that number, how many are there who have recourse
to their mathematics in constructing their buildings? On the other

hand, we can oppose to their example that of Messrs. ■ , and ,

and . But we yield to the force of prejudice and opinion, other-
wise we could here produce a rather long list of names of those who
will deservedly stand high in the estimate of posterity as celebrated
architects, although they are absolutely ignorant of mathematics ! " If
for Paris we read London, the remark will, perhaps, liold equally
good.

1^42.1

THE CIVIL EXGI\EER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

77

SUPPLEMENT AND ADDITIONS TO CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ARCHITECTS WHO DIED IN THE IStu AND

19th centuries.

By W. H. Leeds.

Where the precise date of an architect's death could not be ascertained, it is indicated by ab. (about). An asterisk * is prefixed to the names of those who
have distinguished tlieiuselves, not as architects, but as writers on architecture, lic. The names of places in Italics denote that the architect was chiefly
employed there.

DIED.

174-2
1750
1753

17:.3
17:>3

17S0

KSl

17'>5

17^5

17ni;

1789

1797

1799

1^01

1M.13

lbU4

1>0-1

180b

ISlo

ISIO

IS 12

1S12

Ibll

ISM

ISlo

IblGal

IblO

lbl7

ISIS

IslS

1S19

1S19

1S19

1819

ls20

1820

1820

lb21

ls23

1S23

lv25

1S2.-.

1529

1529

Isi'J

1531

1 532.1 '^

1S33

1839

1539

l5l0
15 10
1510
l5lO
1540

1841
1^41

1541

1842

NAME.

Naum.inn, Joh. Chr.

Pitrou, Robert

Haerleniann, Baron

Hartpm.inn

Neumann, Bait.

Morelli, V.

Cooley, Thos.

•GiotVredo, Mario

Garcia, Josef

Ivory, Thomas

Hiorne, Francis

Duran, Ramon

Harsdotr, Caspar

Hiernoe, Jens

Palmstedt

Fantoni, I'io

Desprez, Louis J.

Picrmarini, Giuseppe

Platzer, Jos.

Cassels, Richard

*Patte, Pierre

Molinos, Jean

Magens, Joh. B.

*Serous, d'Agincourt, J. B. L.

Eralyn, Hen.

Crichton, R.

Tempelmann

Stark, William

Pacassi, Baron von

Petit-Radel, Louis Fran.

Stem, Raphael

Paris, P. Adrian

Viel, Chas. Fran.

Pisson, Joh. Bapt.
Aikin, Edmund
Tlioroton, Rev. Sir John
Hart, Abrali. van der
Walters, John
Heurtier, Jean
Hurtault, Max. Jos.
Pini, Ermenigildo
Jussov, Hen. Christ.
♦Rondelet, Jean
Harrison, Thomas
Shaw, John
Peyre, Antoine Marie
Johnston, Francis
Pertsch, John Nepomuk
Valadier, Giuseppe

Galbaccio
Moreau, Charles
Huyot, J. Nicol.
Albortolli, Giocondo
Gusse, Stefano
Meinecke, Carl Geo.
Rickman, Thos.

Ehrenberg, C. F.
Schinkcl, K. F.
Foulstone, John
Aman, Joh.

BORN.

1684
1700

ir,87

1730
1740
1718
1700

1741
17G0
1739
1748

1721

173.;
17G2

1723

1748
1730

1758
1740

1747
1745

17ii3
17>-0
1758

1752
1739
1755
1739
1754

1774

1770

17->0
1702

ISOO
1759
1752
1742
1779
175(;
1777

1754
1771
17G5

WORKS.

Drtsdeii, &c. Author of several publications.

Inspector of Bridges, &c. " Projots li'Arch. de Charpente," &c.

Sluckholm.

Smtden.

Palace at Brucksal, Wiirzburg, and Werneck ; Abbey at Schwarzacb, &c.

Rome. Palazzo Brasclii, Theatre at Iinola, &c.

Dublin : Exchange, Four Courts, &c.

Xapks. " Dell'Architettura," &e.

I'aUnciu, &c.

Blue-coat Hospit.il, Dublin.

Sessions House, Warwick ; Tetbury Church, &c.

Madrid ; Pal. Torrepi lares, &c.

Co/.txhagiu.

Architect and Sculptor, Copenhagen.

Exchange, &c. Stockholm.

Engineering and Hydraulics.

Painter and Architect, iiiaJai.

Milan. Pal. Reale ; Belgiojoso, Mellerio, Villa Monza.

Didiliii, Waterford House, Kildare ditto, Lving-in Hospital, &c.

"De I'Arcbil. Tlieatrale"; "Etudes d'Arcliit." &c.

Paris. Theatre Feydeau, &c. with Legrand,

Coptnhagcn.

" Histoire de I'Art par les Monumens."

Repairs St. George's Ch. Windsor. "New Order of Archit."

Scotland. Chiefly Gothic style. Bank of Scotland.

Siceden.

Court-house, &c. Glasgow.

Hof-architect, Vienna, the Franzens Bridge, Vienna.

I-'arm. Palais Bourbon, Tresor Royal. "Recueil de Ruiues d'Arch."

Ronu. Braccio Nuovo Mus. Pio Clemeutino, &c.

Facade, Orleans Cathedr.il, &c.

Pans ; Mont de Pii-te, Hup. Cochin. " Decadence de I' Archit." and other pub-
lications.

Ghent.

Wellington Rooms, Liverpool. " Essay on the Doric Order." "Designs for Villas."

Belvoir Castie, additions and improvements.

Amsterdam.

Chapel at Stepney, Auction Mart, &c.

Parii ; Theatre Italien, &c.

Several Hotels at Paris, &c.

Church at Saregno. " Dialoghi suU'Archittura."

Cussil ; Palace, &c. M-'ilhclmihi'ihe.

"L'Art de Batir," and other architectural publications.

Countv Hall, Chester; Bridge ditto; Theatre and Exchange, Manchester.

Hall, C'hrist Church Hi'spital. St. Dunstan's West.

Pang, Ecoiicn, Altfort ; Villa Trocadero, &c.

Dublin ; Post Office, Roy. Hib. Academy, built at his own cost.

Aliinich; I'rot. Church. Frohnfeste or Prison.

Rome ; N'illa Poniatowski, Tordinona Theatre. Piazza del Popolo, altered.
" Edifizi di Roma."

I'iinna ; Austrian National Bank.

Arc de I'Etoile, Paris.

Milan.

NupliB ; Observatory.

Ihriin.

New Court, St. John's Cambridge ; Oulton Church, .'v:c. " Styles of Archil, in

England, &c.
Zurich. " Bau-lcxicon."

liirlin ; Museum, Theatre, &c. "Entwurfe," &c.
Phimuiilh; Hotel and Theatre, Alhenirum. &c. "Designs."'
Hof-architect, Vienna. Theatre at I'esth, \c.

* \\'c know not if Aman Li; yet living or not.

78

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.

Intnductory Lecture on the state and study of Civil Architecture,
delivered in the Theatre of the Royal Dublin Society, on the oth and
Sth of January, 1842.

By Hexry Fulton, M.D., Author of "Travelling Sketches in Europe
and Asia," — "Collegiate Architecture," &c.

" From the remains of llie workp of the nnc'ents tlie modern arts '.verc
revived, and it is by their means that they must be restored a second time.
However it may mortify our vanity, we mus' be forced to allow them our
masters ; and we may venture to prophecy, tliat when they shall cease to be
studied, arts will no' longer flourish, and we shall again relapse into barba-
rism."—Sir J. Reynolds,

The study of civil architecture is a subject too much neglected.
Civil engineering, painting, sculpture, and all the other branches of
the arts and sciences receive public attention, while that of architec-
ture is comparatively unaided and unknown. It is not to be expected
that Arts' Unions will be established for the purpose of erecting
temples and palaces ; but I hope to be able to suggest a plan more
feasible, and not less efficacious ; for it is the privilege of few to erect
edifices such as I have mentioned, but it does come within the reach
of all to appreciate the beauties of such constructions.

I feel that, as an amateur, some apology is due to you for appearing
in this place as a lecturer. The importance of the subject, and its
not having been taken up by others better qualified, must excuse me ;
and I trust that any deficiency, arising from inexperience, may be
balanced by the desire of furthering that object.

Should this effort be followed in this city by more scientific labour-
ers, mine may in the interim obtain what astronomers call a heliacal
rising, befor#any light I may be able to throw on the subject shall be
lost in the superior attainments of those who may follow.

Feeling that I must leave to others to teach the art, I shall content
myself if I succeed iu creating in your minds that which so strongly
exists in my own, — a desire to become better acquainted with its
principles.

It is not difficult to prove that the ancients excelled the moderns in
the fine arts of sculpture and painting. With respect to sculpture,
■witness the Apollo, the Venus de Medici, the Laocoon, and a host of
others. As for painting, we have not any of the ancient master-pieces
existing in our days; but we have the frescos found in the Baths of
Titus, and other places in Rome, and a crowd from Pompeii and Her-
culaneum : and may we not argue, that as our best ]iainters have not
excelled, in drawing at least, the mere decorations of the ancients,
how could modern works stand a comparison with those finished pic-
tures, of which the frescos alluded to were probably copies executed
by very inferior artists? It is well known that Raffaelle himself took
his designs for the Arabesques of the Vatican from those of the Baths
of Titus.

The great number of frescos discovered in the places alluded to,
forbids the supposition that their execution could have been expen-
sive, such as we read (in Arbuthnot's Tables of Ancient Coins,) of
their finished paintings — that a picture of Aristides was bought by
King Attains for lUU talents, i.e. about £19,000; that Julius Ctesar
gave 80 talents, i£1.5,.500, for the Ajax and Medea; and that Apelles
was paid nearly £39,000 of our money for his picture of Alexander.

Both painting and sculpture have, in the hands of such men as
Bupnarrotti, Raffaelle, Canova, and Thorwalsden, made rapid progress
to the high goal of perfection attained by the artists of Greece and
Rome : hut shattered and ruined as the works of Grecian architecture
are, enough remains to eclipse the efforts of modern art, whenever a
comparison can be made : that is, by comparing things of the same
description with one another — the columnar ordinances of the Greeks
witli those of our own times — the originals with those professing to
be derived from them.

We must admit that painting and sculpture have an advantage

which architecture has not, in the possession of models and objects of
nature, from the study of which a correct taste can be formed; but it
is more difficult to lay down fixed rules for the formation of taste, or
say what should or should not enter into architectural composition :
still we are not altogether left to steer without compass — for if we
are to suppose that the first idea of architecture was taken from the
erections of the feathered bipeds, then convenience and simplicity, so
evident in their erections, should never be lost sight of in ours; and
although we may add embellishments to the requisites just mentioned,
such ornaments must harmonise with utility and simplicity of design,
to constitute, as a whole — beauty : and in all the works of creation,
as far as we can understand them, we see that each part has a purpose
for which just the requisite degree of strength is bestowed ; and the
painter or sculptor who would represent the club of Hercules wielded
by a Ganymede, the burden of Atlas borne on the shoulders of Apollo,
or the muscles of a Vulcan thrown into action to break a fly on the
wheel, would be considered as devoid of taste. The same observa-
tions apply with force to the laws of proportion in architecture.

Let us now enquire why does not the revival of architecture advance
in equal degree with the sister arts of painting and sculpture. It
cannot be for lack of pecuniary patronage, for some of our architects
make enormous fortunes. It cannot be for want of talent and inform-
ation, for we have many who posjess both : for instance, are we to
suppose that the architect who delineated the ruins of Magna GrtEcia,
was unable to produce a more correct building than the National
Gallery at Cliaring-cross? No ! The cause must be sought for in the
ignorance and want of judgment of those who patronise them. Large
sums are not given for bad statues or paintings, except by fools or
dnpes, because men of good taste know something of the value of both
the one and the other. Not so in architecture ; and the architect,
feeling that it is in his power to pass on his ignorant employers any
elevation which may look well in a drawing, hxas not a proper stimulus
for exertion ; and the science never will flourish, or architects be con-
vinced of the necessity of a closer application to the principles of
architecture in its purest era, until those who patronise them learn
something of its rules and proportions.

I am not aware that it at all forms part of t!;e acquirements taught
at any public school, where so much is learned of the religion of the
gods, but nothing whatever of the temples erected in honour of them;
and which, as existing monuments, and affording useful models, we
ought at least to be as well acquainted with as their worship, manners,
or customs.*

Many are deterred from studying the theory of the art, from what
they suppose to be the jargon of names which, it may be, convey no
meaning to the mind. But let not this difficulty deter : when the
thing is known, its name, if forgotten, can easily be found out, and it
is not necessary for the amateur to enter minutely into all the details ;
without which labour, a respectable degree of information can be
attained. And the eye which can appreciate the excellence of a
statue or a picture, will soon learn to estimate the beauty of a well
proportioned edifice; the taste and judgment will call for and be grati-
fied by the reproduction of works of merit, instead of a multiplicatioa
of deformity, such as disgraces the national taste, and disfigures the
capitals of our country.

In giving a brief sketch, it is not my intention to commence with the
fabulous origin of architecture, or to dwell on that of the Etruscans
and Egyptians, whose gigantic works, still existing, are objects more
for admiration than imitation, more interesting to the antiquary than
the architect. But I shall take the subject up when the art had
attained its zenith in Greece, in the age of Pericles, when the three
columnar orders of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian existed in a state of
perfection, which all subsequent alterations and modifications tended
only to degrade and destroy. After the conquest of Greece, the
Romans carried -off many of the statues and paintings to Rome, which
served them as models ; but being unable to remove the temples, they

" I recollect showing a model to an architect's apprentice, of some two or
three years' standng, who did not know a Doric from an Ionic column.

i8^2.n

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCMITl'CTS JOURNAL.

70

could at most carry bome sketches, perhaps on'y mere descriptions of
them, and like those of Vitruvlus, erroneous ones; hence we have the
Doric order with ne-.v proportion-;, and stripped of all ornament, and
then called Tuscan, or left with some of them, and with the addition
of other parts, and still called Doric. Hence also the shafts of the
Ionic and Corinthian columns were attenuated, the capitals altered,
and by the combination of the bst-mentioned onlers, a new one called
Composite Wiis formed. Xone of these alterations appear to be im-
provements, as we may see by a comparison of the Roman with the
Grecian remains: the former indeed may strike the eye of an igno-
rant observer by its gaudy ornaments, but the latter recommends itself
by its noble simplicity and well adjusted proportions.

All the buildings now existing in Italy, of a date prior to the subju-
gation of Greece, are destitute of columns (unless it be the temples at
PoEstum, the date of which is unknown, and which were the works of
a Grecian colony settled there), nor indeed have we any remains of
buildings of a date immediately subsequent to the conquest ; but of
those which do exist, the buildings of the earlier times, such as the
Sybil at Tivoli, the Jupiter Tonans, and the Pantheon at Rome, are
mere to be admired than those of a later date, such as the Uaths of
Dioclesian, and the Vesta at Rome, the palace at Spalatro, as also the
Tuins of Palmyra and Balbec, in Syria, in exact proportion as they
exhibit a departure from the Greek models, and to the length of time
the practice of the art had passed into other liands.

It must be admitted, however, that the Romans, during this period,
invented the arch, and its application — the dome. The Egyptians,
from whom the Greeks learned architecture, covered their buildings
■with a flat roof, of a single stone ; and as a roof for the clioragic
monument at Athens, commonly called the Lanthorn of Uemostheiies,
Tve find a single block of marble, nearly 12 feet in diameter, and
hollowed out so as to resemble a dome.

The Greeks improved on this monolithic covering, and advanced
one step further towards the discovery of the arch, as we see in the
corballed roof of the tomb of Agamemnon, at Mycenee.*

But with the exception of the arch and the dome, the practice of
architecture in Roman hands passed on from bad, in the age of Diocle-
sian, to worse in that of Constantine, when it appears to have lost all
its pristine purity. And in the dark ages, when all the arts and
sciences may be said to have been lost, architecture lay buried in its
own ruins. The only attempt made to revive it in Italy, during this
night of ignorance, was by placing the old columns of the Pagan tem-
ples in the churches, without reference to their proportions, as we see
in the Church of Aracoeli, on the Capitoline hill, and that of San
Sebastian, outside the walls of Rome.

After this period there arose in Europe a new style, which is gene-
rally supposed to owe its origin to our intercourse with the East during
the Crusades; a reference, however, to the ruins of Dioclesian's palace
at Spalatro, will show the probable origin both of the Saracenic and
the Gothic, the offspring of the same parent, the Roman modification
of the Greek. And so far from the Gothic being derived from the
Saracenic, both are modifications of the same style, taught by the same
roasters to the inhabitants of dilTerent countries, and each of these
styles has as much resemblance to the Dioclesian, as this latter has to
the Greek. It is true we do not see at .Spalatro the clustered column
and the pointed arch, but we have slender columns placed on consols,
supporting circular arches, and distorted human faces are introduced
as ornaments, just as we see them in the florid Gothic. As it was,
until w itliin these very few years, contrary to the creed and practice
of the Mussulmans to make any reprcsiTtation of the human figure,
this practice could not have originated with the Saracens.

Time will not permit our fcillowing up this part of the subject, how-
ever interesting it may be. We shall therefore leave the Gothic or
Pointed style for some other occasion, and pursue that which is called
Grecian.

It has been already stated that Grecian architecture, as well as

* I here beg to correct an error midc in the Travelling Sketches, vol. ii.
. 209, where the choragic monument it mentioned, instead of the tomb of
pgamcmnon.

painting and sculpture, were neglected and unknown for centuries,
although the world possessed the elements of all three. The works
of the ancients were gems, the value of which was not appreciated by
the possessors ; for the rude figures carved by modern sculptois,
before the middle of the 1 Ith century, or the bard, wiry, stilf paintings
before the age of Da Vinci, cannot bo honoured with the names of
sculpture and painting. The revival of both we owe to Italy. That
country also lays claim to the resuscitation of Grecian architecture ;
and a number of her sons, at the head of whom stands Palladio, boast
of complete success, although it does not appear that one of them
ever saw a single specimen of Grecian architecture, ami that their
knowledge of it was only derived through the text of Vitruvius, and
the Roman debasem-nts, which presented to them beauties they did
not profit by — taking only the worst parts of this deteriorated style,
whicli however formed the only beauties of their own compositions.

The estimation in which Vitruvius and Palladio are held in our
own country at this day, may be judged of when we hear, «jr cathtdrii,
"that the highest in rank in Italy are not ashamed to b-? profi-ssors of
an art whiidi Palladio adorned and Vitruvius taught." To the archi-
tects who hold such sentiments I would say — Gentlemen, until vou get
rid of all such opinions, pure architecture will not flourish, or your
profession be placed on that pinnacle of public estimation to which by
birthright it is entitled.

About the middle of the 16th century, Palladio flourished. Many
other architects of equal merit (if indeed he had any), lived before
him ; but it would be useless to detain you with a mere catalogue of
names. Palladio stands confessed as the author of a style, and the
founder of a school, still much admired in this country. He has left us
drawings of most of the Roman buildings which were in existence in
his day, and of course more perfect than they are at present. So far
we are his debtors ; but strange to say, that although he must have
spent much time in measuring the ruins, and designing their restora-
tions, not one of his own designs, except the internal arraugements of
a little theatre at Vicenza, appears to harmonise with, or bear any
resemblance to the buildings of the ancients.

The chief defects of this school are —

Columns raised on stilts.

Columns placed one above the other.

Columns of dirterent orders ranged in the same elevation.

The two frequent use of engaged columns.

Columns swelling in the middle (oflensive to the eye, because an
indication of weakness).

Thin columns having wide and irregular interspaces.

Tapering pilasters.

Finishing the tops of doors and wiudows like the c.ibles of houses,
or the roofs of camp bedsteads.

Swelled friezes. And lastly.

All simplicity destroyed by broken lines and partial projections.

I orter no excuse for dwelling on this catalogue of vices, because
they have been copied, anil are copied every d.iy, in too many instances
in our own city. We shall therefore proceed to particularise and
notice these errors in detail — that when you see them in your daily
peregrinations, you may know them; and when public taste and judg-
ment arc better informed on the subject, we may hope they will not
continue to be perpetrated.

In speaking without reserve of the modem buildings of this cily, I
am aware that a door is opened for criticism on the opinions advanced.
Well : let it come ! However the controversy may terminate, it must
lead to the eluri.lation of a favourite subject. I freely admit that
they who have designed those buildings have what is esteemed high
authority for what Ihey have done: and if they have not done belter,
it is because public taste (ill informed as it is) sought for no im-
provement.

I feel that it would be unworthy both of you and myself, were 1
to stoop to conquer by flattery the displeasure of any, in setting before
you all a stimulus for exertion in the acquirement of architectural
knowledge.

Most of the errors I have mentioned may be found in the Palace of

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Dioclesian at Spalatro. That emperor, like our own George IV., was
a patron of tlie arts, and immense sums were lavished both at Rome
and Spalatro, at London and Brighton ; but architecture is not much
indebted to the florid taste of either.

The innovations of Dioclesian's time are so striking as to merit his
name being given to the style ; and as the term Gothic was applied
by Sir C. Wren and others to the pointed style, may we not call the
Palladian modification of the Dioclesian by the name of Vandal.

The term Gothic, as a name of contempt, is now felt not to be
deserved by the beautiful pointed style, which although charged with
meretricious ornament without limit, regardless of all order, trifling
and weak in detail, is yet magnificent and beautiful in the aggregate.

The Vandal is chargeable with all the defects, which are not re-
deemed by any of the beauties of the Gothic. But to proceed with
the list.

Columns on stilts. — These may be seen at Spalatro, though not in
the same perfection as on the front of Trinity College, or the con-
tinuous stilt or too lofty stylobate of the College of Surgeons in
Stephen's-green. We also find it in the portico of a temple in
Urabria, which Palladio says was the only instance of the kind he had
seen. He seems, however, to have been enamoured with the inven-
tion, for it enters largely into many of its structures. At best it is a
shabby expedient to save the expense of larger columns, which would
be required to give the height of these smaller ones and their stilts.
1 ask, what is the use of columns in any case, unless it be for efi^ect ?
And if that be the object, is it not defeated by placing them above the
range of vision ? Wherever the columnar ordinance is used, columns
must be principals ; and is it proper to place principals above the
range of the eye.

Colmn7is placed one above the oilier. — We have no very striking ex-
ample ofthis in Dublin; but we find it in the west front of St. Paul's
and many other buildings in London ; and Palladio says the Tuscan
should be placed underneath, then the Doric, then the Ionic, then the
Corinthian, and lastly, the Composite order — rules fit for the erection
of a tower of Babel. It must be granted that columns should harmo-
nize in apparent solidity with the weight of the superincumbent cor-
nice which they are to support. This effect will be destroyed, if one
or two other rows of columns and accessories are to be placed above.
The Greeks used the expedient to a certain extent, as in the example
before you ; but only as a choice of evils — for if the internal columns
of the cella had been large enough to reach the inclined roof, they
would not have harmonized with the other columns which they were
to be viewed in connection with; besides, they are of the same order,
and were placed almost out of view.

Columns of different orders ranged in the same elevation. — A design
never can be chaste, if it contain more than one order ; and in this
respect, the west front of the Bank of Ireland, the old Parliament
House, is disfigured by the Ionic semi-columns in juxta-position with
the Roman Corinthian portico. The Bank is like a man wearing a
coat with one sleeve of a different colour, both from the other and the
body of the garment — a fashion not yet adopted in dress. This Co-
rinthian portico wants the elevation of a basement, and by giving it
that, it would be made to overtop the body of the edifice. I under-
stand that originally it had a basement, before the street was filled up
to its present level. In short, this deficiency is to be objected to
almost as much as the other extreme of having a too lofty stylobate .
and so sensible was the architect who erected it, of the injury it sus-
tained in being shorn of its fair proportions, that he never could bear
to pass through Westmoreland-street, after the operations of the Com-
missioners of Paving.

Did time and place permit, the history of this portico would be as
instructive as the account given by an Irish historian, called Swift, or
some such name, of the violent contest between two powerful nations,
as to which end of the egg should be broken. Suffice it to say, that
our domestic struggle for prerogative coeval with that for the Bill of
Rights, terminated by the belligerents, the Lords and Commons, se-
lecting different orders of architecture for their respective entrances
to the same edifice — thus agreeing to differ, and furnishing most con-

vincing arguments, which may be used (according to an ordinary for-
mula of our profession,) pro re nata, for or against a repeal of the
legislative union.

It has been said that the Greeks, particularly with the Doric order,
placed columns without any base. They did no such thing ; you will
see, in the example before you, that the steps form an ample base-
ment. What would the finest statue that ever was made appear to
be, with its feet sunk in the ground or cut off? The eye of criticism,
and we are all critics in our way, dwells rather on defects than beau-
ties ; and one blemish more than counterbalances twenty excellencies.

Engaged columns. — The too frequent use of this expedient is to be
condemned. The eflfect of columns in a composition arises not only
from their graceful forms and well adjnsted proportions, but from the
lights and shadows which play around them — the chiaro-oscuro of ar-
chitectural composition ; and this eflTect cannot be obtained by engaged
columns. Instances of this may be seen in the front of Trinity Col-
lege, and the College of Surgeons in Stephen's-green. In the example
before you, (the Maison Carroe) may be compared the engaged and
disengaged columns. We are not, however, to take the engaged
columns of the Bank of Ireland as the design of its architect, for they
originally formed an open piazza ; but for some wise reason, or per-
haps for no reason, they were subsequently built up as we find them
at present.

But if we must have attached or engaged columns, I would suggest
that they should not be diminished at all, but carry the same diameter
from base to top. I never heard of any example of this — but on look-
ing at any of the Palladian Arches, as for instance, those in the prin-
cipal front of the Bank of Ireland, you will find that the back ground
(if I may so speak) to which the columns are affixed, appears like an
inverted pyramid, a figure which cannot have a pleasing effect. This
is not the case when the columns are detached, on account of the
depth of the shadow.

Interspaces of cohmms. — In the Doric order, the rule is clear and
well defined — one triglyph over the centre of each column, and another
over the centre of each interspace. The spaces between these tri-
glyphs, called metopes, must be a square, the length of whose sides is
regulated by the diameter of the column at its base. These triglyphs
are supposed to represent the ends of the beams intended to form the
ceiling, and if too many of them be introduced, the architrave on which
they rest would be too weak, or what is the same thing, appear to be
too weak, to support the weight. I admit that there is an additional tri-
glyph introduced in the propylea on the Acropolis ; but it ought to be
considered as forming the exception — not the rule; and appears to
have been for the purpose of leaving a wider space for the entrance of
processions. Another instance occurs in the Doric Portico of Augustus,
but it is of Roman construction. This innovation has been extended
by Palladio and his modern followers ; and we find, in some instances,
six or more introduced, and in situations where they are not at all
requisite ; for instance, on the cornices of windows or door-ways.
Vv'liy should beams be placed there, or in the inside of buildings, as
we see in the chapel in Marlborough-street ? I am not aware of any
ancient example of this. The east portico of the chapel just alluded
to shows a great poverty of conception in the architect, who has
placed an additional triglyph between each column — indicating either
that the columns are too thin, the interspaces too wide, or the frieze
too low. At least a hundred instances of this bad taste occur in the
public and private edifices of this city, and scarcely an example of the
contrary. But compare the portico in Marlborough Street, notwith-
standing its defects, with the Vandal Doric one in the College Park,
the design, I believe, of Sir William Chambers, and you will perceive
its superiority.

Tapering pilasters. — This extraordinary practice is of the Vandal
school. As the situation of these square columns or pilasters is at the
angles of the building, they cannot of course square with the wall
unless it were made pyramidal also — the absurdity of which is
obvious.

You will find this in every building in Dublin where they are used,
except those of a late date — a departure from the Vandal school to

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be hailed with satisfaction. The Greeks never tapered their square
columns or pilasters; uor did the Romans, in some of their best erec-
tions, as for instance, the portico of the Pantheon. I beg to call the
attention of the profession to this, as I have heard a contrary opinion
expressed in this countr)'. You will find the pilasters of the portico
in Upper Gardiner Street partially tapered ; which is surprising, as a
Greek model appears to have been taken for the Ionic capitals of its
columns. In the same example may be seen the poverty of a four
columned portico, as the tympanum of such a structure must neces-
sarily appear heavy, ami have too high and abrupt a jjitch. Still it is
in better taste than the unfinished and much admired Vandal portico
of St. Thomas's church. It has been considered by many, that the
circumstance of this latter portico being allowed to remain unfinished
is discreditable to the parish; but tha reverse of this conclusion is
nearer the truth, as far as architectural taste is concerned.

Gable-lopjxd mindoics and doors. — Of all the strange devices of
which I have given a list, this is the most strange. The earliest ex-
ample of this practice with w hich I am acquainted, is to be found in
the Pantheon at Rome, the most recent in our own city ; of late it has
been discontinued in London, but still finds admirers in Dublin. I do
not know whether we are indebted to an architect for this, but I pre-
sume not. And here I may allude to the practice of taking builders
out of their proper sphere, and allowing them to supercede the archi-
tect. This is as foolish as it would be (could we suppose it possible,)
that one whose personal tabernacle required repair, should have re-
course to the manipulator of medicines, instead of the well informed
professor of the healing art. But I must add, if the art is to be laiight
from the dogmas of Vitruvius, and adorned from the designs of Palla-
dio, it matters not to us on whose shoulders the mantle of patronage
may fall, on that of A. or B., the architect or builder. After all, it
may be my misfortune not to be able to appreciate the beauty of the
building in question ; no doubt posterity will do it justice, for it will
come under their notice as the property of the President of the Royal
Institute of the Architects of Ireland.

The profession of architecture in this country is placed in a false
position — pressed on the one hand by that of aspirant builders, and
neglected on the other by a diactniiug public, which is not only unable
to decide on their respective merits, but is also ignorant of those
principles on which alone good taste is founded. Under these cir-
cumstances, it is not surprising that every edifice assuming an archi-
tectural form, is praised or revileil according to the number and influ-
ence of the friends of the architect. Committees and individuals re-
quiring architectural plans, decide on the relative merits of designs
submitted for their inspection, more from the beauty of the drawing,
than any reference to the efteet likely to be produced in stone and
mortar: hence he who is the best draughtsman will be the most for-
tunate competitor ; and the work may be executed without producing
credit to himself, or satisfaction to his employers. This state of
things could not exist, if public taste were better informed.

The Pantheon wiis first used as a church by Pope Boniface IV., at
the commencement of the 7th century ; but the state of the arts in
those days forbids us to suppose the altars had not been erected be-
fore that period ; they are supposed to have been added by Septimus
Sevenis. Almost all the Vandal school have left specimens of this
innovation. Palladio, M. Angelo, Inigo Jones, Sir C. Wren, Sir Wm.
Chambers, and many others of our own times, who seem to follow, for
no better reason than because others have led the way. Some of
these architects, conceiving, I presume, that variety is pleasing,
give us a gable-topped and an elliptic bed-topped window alter-
nately.

When I see a well proportioned window or door thus disfigured, I
am forcibly reminded of the story of the worthy country squim, who
liired a strolling artist to paint wigs on the heads of Vandyke's por-
traits of his ancestors. I was unable to discover the use of thcsi?
window tops until I saw, on the front of one of Palladio's palaces in
Italy, two undraped colossal figures, reclining in a perilous posture
above each window, literally in a li'li-a-trle position, like slack-rope
dancers resting themselves. Would it nut be in better taste to con.

sider these window-tops as hobby-horses, and place a saddle and a
rider on the summit of each, in a more secure position.

Sicclkd Friezis. — This invention bears a close resemblance to an
article of dress said to have been used by our great grandmothers,
called a buatle ; and if it be true that these ancient dames wore any
such ornament, no doubt the hint was taken from them.

I cannot discover that the ladies of old ever placed the bustle on
the front elevation, as we see it in the Bank of Ireland ; nor can I from
memory say whether the old lady in Tbreadneedle-street has it or not
If the frieze were constructed of any plastic material, such as wet clay,
this is exactly the form it would take on being subject to pressure
from above ; therefore it indicates weakness. As bustles have long
since gone out of ^hion, we may hope the swelled frieze will follow.
On examining the Bank of Ireland, you will rind it discontinued on the
east, and afterwards on the west front, for which the architect of that
portion of the building deserves great credit.
The last subject of the list is —

Broktn lints and partial projections. — A knowledge of painting and
sculpture is among the many requisites laid down by Vitruvius, as
necessary to constitute an accomplished architect. But architecture
has suflTered in the hands of the professors of the sister arts ; and M.
Angelo, Buonarrotti, and Raffaelle have tarnished their bright fame
by their architectural productions. Inigo Jones left England as a
painter, and returned as an architect.

The finest field that ever was opened for the genius of man, pre-
sented itself to M. ^Vngelo. He enjoyed the patronage of Leo X., a
prince born of a race of patrons of the arts. Rome presented to him
a vast quarry of marble, ready chiselled ; he was required to erect on
the Capitoline a building for a senate-house and museum, near the
site of the Temple of Jupiter, which once crowned the mount " the
pride of Rome, the admiration of the world." Before him lay the
ruins of the Forum Romanum, and on his left that of Trajau ; to the
right and behind he had ruins of temples, triumphal arches, and co-
lumns in abundance : he began by turning his back on the Roman
Forum and all the beauties of art which it presented to him, and con-
structed three sides of a square, mean, trifling, and frivolous in design,
presenting specimens of nearly all the monstrosities of the Vandal
style. He has adorned Rome after the manner of Palladio, his cotem-
jiorary ; but his works stand no comparison with the still existing
monuments of past glory: and the descendants (if such there be) of
the Scipios, the Ciceros, and of him who was " the noblest Roman of
them all," although the possession of St. Peter's may flatter their va-
nity, yet sigh as they pass on — ma Roma, Roma, non epiu com era prima.
It must be admitted that M. Angelo's lofty dome on St. Peter's, and
the cornice on the Faranese Palace, redeem his name from indis-
criminate censure. It was part of his plan to make St. Peter's a Greek
instead of a Latin cross, and to give it a portico like the Pantheon.
As it is, the exterior of the dome cannot be seen from ordinary situa-
tions; and in taking the design before you, the painter must have
been on the top of one of the houses between the church and the
Tiber.

Canova, too, the bright star of modern sculpture, into whose works
the spirit of the Apollo, the Venus, the Laocoon is instilled, has left
us a design for a church, sufficient to show that he studied not the
architecture as he did the sculpture of ancient Greece.

In fact, painters cannot well be good architects, as far as the Greek
style is concerned. Accustomed to feel that " there is no beauty in
straight lines," they break up the building for the purpose of giving
pictorial eflfect to the design, and "however contradictory it nny be
in geometry, it is true in taste, that many little things will not make a
great one." An architectural drawing uf a (ireek subject is a slifli
formal production, totally diflerent from Hogarth's line of beauty.
Models are the fittest representations for the public to judge from.
Take this temple and break np all its cornices; place its columns in
any line but a straight one, and the painter w ill prefer it for a subject ;
but if in that state it be raised in stone, its beauty will be lost, because
its simplicity will be destroyed. According to Burko, simplicity is a
source of beauty — it is essential to that of Grecian architecture.

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The Parthenon, and the temple of Neptune at Poestum, are now
stripped of oruament, yet they make up by simplicity and unity of
design, for the want of it, except in the estimation of those architects
who conceive that they are defective in not having steeples !

We mav not be going too far in saying, that the Parthenon is the
best, and the temples at Poestum the earliest examples of the Doric
order. The former was erected nearly 500 years before our era, in
the best days of Grecian art. Of the date of the latter we know
nothing, except that a colony from Greece settled in Calabria, and
founded the city of Posidonia, before Rome was built : even if we
did not know this, they bear the impress of Grecian mind, and reject
the hand of any other master.

It is the practice of modern times to take a Greek or a Roman por-
tico, and place it in front of a windowed, corniced, and balustraded
building like our Post Office (Dublin). By this expedient, unity of design
is destroyed; and however correct or beautiful the portico may be in
itself, it will not appear to the same advantage as if its cornice
squared with the sides of the building. When this arrangement may
be incompatible with the required purpose, it is much better to dis-
pense with the columnar ordinance altogether, and have recourse to
some of the other styles. I am rejoiced to find that a new system has
lately been introduced iuto England, of erecting plain, symmetrical
structures, surmounted with a handsome unbroken cornice, such as
that of the Faranese Palace at Rome. In some remarks which I
published on architecture, I pointed out the advantages of this style,
before I was aware that its introduction was in contemplation.* The
nearest approach we have to this style in Dublin is the Royal Hiber-
nian Academy. The unbroken line of the cornice at the top of the build-
ing has a good effect. It will stand a comparison with the Palladian one
on the newly fronted edifice in Merrion-square ; and the recessed por-
tico 13 much better than one placed up against the main structure would
Lave been. There are however some great defects in this building : the
Vandal headed windows, resting on little bustles; the Doric columns
of the portico are too slender, being about seven diameters high, which
is two more than they ought to have been under such a superstructure.
The angles of the walls, next the columns, should have had pilasters
or antis. The balustrade at tlie top of the building is in bad taste.
Balusters are deformed dwarfish columns of the Vandal, and are not
in good keeping with columns of the Greek school, no more than a
pigmy would be a suitable quiver-bearer for the Pythian Apollo :
besides, a cornice is the proper finish for an architectural structure.
The arrangement of the windows also is bad, not corresponding at all
•with the opening of the recessed portico.

One cannot view our Custom House (Dublin) without feeling that all
simplicity was sacrificed in its construction, according to the false taste
of that period. If the cornice had not been so much broken up, and
there had been no balustrade or attic above it, the eSect would have
been good: as it is, the building can only strike us for its magnitude,
the good quality of the stone, and the fine situation it enjoys. It
must be admitted that when viewed from such a distance that its
faulty details cannot be observed, the eft'ect is fine, and just such as it
would have been from every point of view, had Greek simplicity
guided the architect in its design.

What is it that rivets the eye on the Irisli Round Towers ? It is
not any historical association, for the history of our country does not
speak of them: neither are they Vitruvian nor Palladian; they are
better — simple, graceful, and beautiful; and therein lies their attrac-
tion. May I be permitted to speak on behalf of that of Glendalough,
which, for want of a little restoration, bids fair to be in ruins ere it be
recorded in the long expected work on Round Towers, from the pen
and pencil of Mr. Petrie. Surely his Grace the Archbishop of Dublin,
who is lord of the soil, cannot be aware of its delapidation.

The same observations apply to the Egyptian obelisk, commonly
called Cleopatra's Needle, of which there are so many in modern
Rome. The best imitation of this, with which I am acquainted, is to
be found in the Primate's demesne at Armagh ; and although it is not

• Travelling Sketches in Various Countries, vol. ii, p. 206.

to be compared in magnitude to the Wellington Testimonial in the
Phoenix Park, and did not perhaps cost one tenth of the sum paid for
the erection of that trophy, yet far excels in beauty of proportion ;
showing us that mere masses of material, unless arranged with taste,
fail to produce satisfaction, whatever name maybe given for the
purpose of rendering them imposing.

The combination of parts of different orders in the same building is
to be avoided, for although the association of Goths and Vandals, as
the destroyers of the remains of ancient art in the south of Europe, be
strong in our minds, yet the union of the Gothic and Vandal styles
cannot be recommended. A striking example of this occurs in the
Duomo at Milan; it has Vandal windows and doors, although all the
other parts of the edifice are florid Gothic.

The Greeks never surcharged their buildings with ornaments ; yet
both they, and after them the Romans, devoted the greatest care to
the composition and finish of works never intended to come in close
contact with the sight. I have been perfectly astonished at the
beauty of the mouldings and capitals, when strewed on the ground
amidst rubbish and ruins. Together with a deviation from the Greek
models, a desire for multiplicity of ornament and novelty was intro-
duced; and long ere the fall of the Roman empire, luxury and refine-
ment, which sapped their power in the government of the world,
tended also to the decline of architecture. May we not express a
hope that a recurrence of the same principles may not produce the
same effect in our own times and country.

The Elgin marbles in the British Museum, which challenge a com-
parison with the best works of antiquity in the possession of other
countries, were, for the most part, placed on the tympanum of the
Parthenon, upwards of 50 feet above the level of the eye. The
column of Trajan is 132 foet high. These casts were taken for me by
a man who was suspended from the top in a basket; you may judge of
the finish of the marble by the casts, after the original had been
exposed to the weather during so many centuries.

I have now endeavoured to set before you some of the prevailing
errors of modern architecture, and some of the beauties of the ancient.
In advocating a closer acquaintance vi'ith the latter, I may quote the
words of an eminent painter, who observes, " From the remains of the
works of the ancients the modern arts were revived, and it is by their
means that they must be restored a second time. However it may
mortify our vanitj', we must be forced to allow them our masters; and
we may venture to prophesy, that when they shall cease to be studied,
arts will no longer flourish, and we shall again relapse into barbarism."

ON ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT.

Sir — Permit me, through the medium of your journal, to make a few ob-
servations on your correspondent H. S.'s remarks on " Architectural Prece-
dent," which appeared in your journal for January last. I think it is but
right, before we condemn in toto the use of precedent, to inquire a little into
its origin.

Precedent I conceive to be coeval with architecture, and that of archi-
tecture with the necessary wants of man ; and as age after age became more
refined, so the wants, and necessarily the architecture. It would be impossible
to find a nation throughout the world,'at any period of its existence, whose
architecture did not progress in an equal ratio with its refinement, but
throughout never changed its character. The first laws being laid down, the
architects invariably followed them : and why .' because they were made to
suit the wants of the nation, both as regards climate and economy. Indeed
to such an extent has this been carried, that were it not for the remains of
architectural elegance scattered up and down that part of the once refined
world, what would there now remain to tell of the highly polished Athens,
or of the internal comfort and domestic economy of the ancient inhabitants
of Pompeii and Herculaneum ? Your correspondent, in liis desire to do
away with precedent, starts out with condemning the course of study pur-
sued in an architect's office. Now I should rather say, the fault (if it be
one,) does not commence here, but in the very first dawn of the pupil's infant
mind, because it is the most natural course of events, and necessarily so, that
seeing one kind of architecture, the mind gets imbued and impressed with a

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83

love, and I might almost &ay with a veneration for it. To produce au entire
change in architecture, which appears to be the wish and aim of your corree-
pondent, it nould be necessary that the inventor, if I may be allowed the
term, should be brouglit up in utter ignorance of our present style, and
almost destitute of any knowledge of oiu- domestic economy ; and then it
cannot be expected that he should bring the same to perfection, as it is the
DOtoral course of Providence that all things shall progress, " necessity" being
made the •• first law of nature."

Precedent, I think, must appear to every person to be necessary to the
right discharge of almost every duty of onr lives. It must actuate all ; and
indeed so mi.xed up is it in every grade of society, that it does actuate all our
movements. It has done so bom Adam's fall, and must continue to do so to
the end of time.

Your correspondent next repudiates the idea of adhering to one period of
architecture in fonning a design, and inquires, why should not an ornament
of a late period be introduced in a design of a much earlier, provided the
same looks well ? And forsooth, why not ? why not unite the chirolt mould
of the Norman to the compressed arch of the Tudor, and the mongrel column
of the late degenerate Ehzabethan school - Perhaps your correspondent
would affirm that this would not look well ; and truly it would not to a cor-
rect eye, but to a pupil brought up according to your correspondent's wishes,
such a cmtglomrration would not appear incongruous, neither would he
understand why it should not be so. Should such a state of architecture
ever arrive, when an architect could with impunity amalgamate different
periods, and I might add ditferent styles, for the evil when once let in would
not stop, — should such a time ever arrive, architecture will then be on the
■wane, England's glory will be setting; for, to go back to precedent, there
has never been a country whose architecture has degenerated, but whose
whole energies have been crippled, and whose glory has set. Mliile at the
same time I woiUd give to precedent its place, I would not be unmindful of
the great use of it. 1 conceive it to be the curb of the architect's imagina-
tion ; not that he is servilely to follow all its dictates, but to guide his
judement, and having studied fully all its bearings in ancient architecture, he
will be better able to come to a correct notion of what true architecture ought
to combine, and will act rightly, having had his mind thus well schooled.
This I conceive to be the great use of precedent, not only in architecture, but
in every other study.

Having thus inquired into the great use of precedent, allow me now to
inquire into the right use of it. To make a right use of precedent, it requires
a thorough knowledge of ancient architecture, and not of architecture only,
but also the domestic habits and economy of former ages. To do this, it is
impossible that any man can gain it by the "road side," — it unfortunately is
not written so clear, that he that runneth may read. What then is required ?
much more than, I am sorry to say, the Royal Institute of Architects
imagines, or I cannot believe that men in the highest ranks and ability
in the profession would ever remain so supine to the best interests of their
profession. Why is it that that body does not bestir itself, for now is the
time, while they have such interest, their President being the representative
of royalty in the sister land - Why not obtain for architecture what the
Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons have done for medicine ? Then,
and not till then, will architecture and architects take their proper stand
throughout the country. What can militate against architecture so much
as the fact which is a very common occurrence in the country, of a common
joiner, with a httle more nous than his brethren, practising as an architect,
to the great detriment of the legitimate architect .' And that man gets sup-
ported ; why .- because he undertakes work at a much lower charge than the
other ; and merchants, who only look at the pounds, shillings, and pence, are
well utisfied, although there is the greatest incongruity, such as I have seen.
Amongst numbcrleis others, to mention a small thing, of putting the Tudor
rose in the facia of a Grecian shop facade, and otherwise mutilating the
style. Of course this, to your correspondent, would not be any detriment or
eye-sore, as il loolti vtU to a man who knows no better.

I am. Sir,

Sheffield, Your obedient servant,

Jan. 26, 1842. j. M.

ARCIIITECTl'RAL ITIECEDENT.

I WAS agreeably lurpriwd upon finding two correspondents cipreuing
ideas 90 nearly coincident with my own on thii nibject, when I bad rather

expected that, if any notice was taken of the matter, it would emanate from
the adverse party, and convey anything rather than approval. It would be
well for architecture, if a larger proportion of its professors held the same
liberal views as those espoused by " Ditto" and " J. L."

The remarks of the former so entirely agree with my own notions on the
subject, that they do not call for any reply : J. L., however, in consequence
of the want of exphination, has not taken that view of the influence of classical
education wliich I had intended to convey. Its general effect upon the pub-
lic mind— the bias which it produces in the feelings of society — the erroneous
impressions it gives rise to — were the results to which it was wished to draw
attention.

It will. 1 think, be at once conceded, that if one subject be allowed to en-
gross any mind, to the exclusion of all others, that subject will be almost
certainly magnified in importance far beyond its proper standard, even though
that mind may be "well informed in other departments. How much more,
then, will this be the case, when the attention has been confined to one study
during the whole course of education, when all other kinds of iofurmatioa
have been withheld, and when there has been no opportunity of drawing any
comparison between the meriu of different branches of knowledge, or differ-
ent races of men ? Is it not probable, therefore, that when a young man has
spent all the early years of his life in close attention to one study— the his-
tory of the ancients, their wars and enterprises, their heroes and their

victories, their cities and temples, their orators and statesmen when ho

looks on their philosophy as the highest attainment of human wisdom—
when he reads of their deeds in the high-flown poetry of Homer and Virpl—
when, in the warmth of a youthful imagination, he paints their actions, if
possible, in brighter colours than even the poets themselves have done, and
takes his imaginations for realities — when he becomes infected with the
admiration for martial glory, and thinks nothing so noble as war — when he
attaches to virtue the meaning given to it by the Romans, and looks upon
animal courage as one of the highest attributes of human nature ; — when, I
say, he docs all this, and at the same time knows little or nothing of the
grandeur of modem science — when he has not the faintest conception of the
gigantic mass of knowledge collected by the philosophers of the present day
— valuable knowledge, cnnobUng knowledge, knowledge which enlarges the
mind, and advances mankind physically and mentally — when he knows
nothing of what is done, as well as what is ihioirn — nothing of the wonderful
achievements of modem ingenuity, nothing of the almost miraculous results
of the applications of science to the arts and manufactures : — under all these
circumstances I ask, is it not probable — nay, is it not certain — that he will
get up from his studies with a prepossession in favour of the antienta ? — a
prepossc!sion which will tinge all the opinions of his after life— which will
lead him to admire all that is old, in virtue of its antiquity — wliich will lead
him to make wrong estimates of the beautiful and the noble — a bias, in
short, which will be an injury to himself and to society.

This is a very interesting subject, one on wliich much more might be said,
were it not irrelevant to the character of this pubUcation ; and as it is, these
remarks are only admissible in virtue of their relation to architectural prece-
dent. Under these impressions it is that I come to the conclusion, that the
prejudices of society in favour of what is ancient are to be mainly ascribed
to classical education, and that the readiness with wliich architects accede to
the dogma of the unsurpassibility of ancient architecture is probably attri-
butable to the same cause.

I quite agree with the opinion, tliat the study of existing specimens of
architecture is necessary for the cultivation of taste, and that taste requires
education as much as any other faculty, and I never for a moment intended
to imply any general disrespect for the works of antiquity : on the contrary,
I admire many examples, both classic and (lothic, perhaps as much as any
one. But there is a great difference between admiring an object because it ii
really beautiful, and admiring it because it is old, or because it is the work of
a certain people. There is a great difference between praising what is worthy
of praise, reserving to one's-sclf the right of censuring what docs not please,
and subscribing to a wholesale approval bf everything. There is a great
difference between studying examples handcil dunn to us with a view to the
cultivation of taste, and studying with the iutention of copying.

II. S.

Derby, Feb. 16.

P.S. In the original paper, page 23, second colimiD, and the third line
from the bottom, for " ipuru" read " spread."

N 2

84

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

FRESCO PAINTING.

A Paper by John \\'hite, Fellow, relative to two Tablets of Slate covered
■with Pozzolano and Stucco, and painted in Water Colours, read at a
Meeting of the Poijal Institute of British Architects, January 31, 1842.

As the public attention is at present directed towards ornamental wall
painting, particularly to the mode called Fresco, I have thought that it may
be interesting to the Royal Institute to inspect two preparations made in the
year 1824, on which have been painted in water colours subjects calculated
to demonstrate that there exists a capability of painting on a permanent base,
and with equally permanent colours.

The mode which has been adopted, was to cover two tables of slate with a
coarse clay Pozzolano of British manufacture^ and upon t)ie surface to trowel
with a glass float a thin stucco, composed of finely-ground Ume and fine flint
Pozzolano, mixed with weai alum water.

The paintings were executed before the stucco was thoroughly dry, and
on them was added a thin solution of white wax in spirit of wine : this was
done in order to insure the colours from being washed off when the paintings
required to be cleansed, which has recently been done.

Seventeen years have elapsed, and the paintings are in the same condition
as when first done ; and I believe they will endure for any period of time.
The tablets were prepared by Mr. Henry Grace, who painted that which is of
an oblong form; the upright one was painted by a student of the- Royal
Academy, since dead, of the name of Robinson.

The advances recently made on the Continent in the decoration of build-
ings, by the introduction, or rather the restoration, of fresco or wall painting,
has led me to observe that historical painting is capable of being executed in
this country, and of being employed as an embellishment of our public
edifices on a suitable basis, and to congratulate the Institute on the sentiment
which is rapidly progressing, that the artists of England ought to be patro-
nized in the enlargement of their ideas, by offering them the walls of our
newly-constructing buUdings as fields for their exertions on an expanded scale.

That this sentiment may not be checked, it is hoped that the Royal
Institute wiU, by its expressed approbation, assist in forwarding even- effort
which it shall deem worthy its attention, and that the sense of the country
generally will exhibit itself in favour of such patriotic labours as those which
the late James Ban-y has displayed on the walls of the great room of the
Society of Arts in the Adelphi, unfortunately, alas ! too little imitated or
patronized since their execution, now much more than half a century ago.

One difficulty in water painting on stucco has always presented itself,
namely, that arising from the caustic quality of the lime used destroying most
colours of a metallic or vegetable composition, leaving few more than the
earths as proper articles to be employed by the painter on fresh walls ; and
when the walls are become dry, then the water colours adhere ill, and never
are brilhant.

To remedy the evil, it will appear, on the inspection of the tablets now
presented, that the surfaces they exhibit are not only sufficiently smooth to
admit of vast facility or rapidity of execution, but that, inasmuch as the
qiiantity of lime used in then- preparation is small, it has not materially taken
away the power or brilliancy of the work. In the upright tablet, which
represents a copy of a fragment of a cartoon by Julio Romano, in the pos-
session of Wm. Lambert, Esq. of the Woodbouse, Finchley, Cologne earth
and a little blue has been used, diluted with water, in which a Uttle shell lac
■was dissolved, by pounding it with borax, this solution making the colour
pass very freely with the painting brush, and only tinting the mixture by the
rose colour arising from the lac — in my opinion not at all objectionable. In
the year 1825, this picture was shown at the Society of Arts, where it was
■washed, and rather rudely rubbed by some persons in their investigations as
to its permanence. It has never been touched since that period, excepting
that within a few days it has been rubbed with a flannel, to remove the dirt
and smoke on the surface. The oblong tablet was painted, not in my presence,
by Mr. Henry Crace. I am not acquainted with what solution he \ised with his
colour, other than that it was water ; but it is not permanent against washing.*
Respecting it, it is to be observed that the artist, in proceeding from the left
to the right, has evidently improved, and that there is great deUcacy in the
shading of the figure on the right, more indeed than I have remarked on any
other surface, excepting enamel.

There is a Uttle splendour on the face of both pictures, but it does not

* I fear it was white of egg, too much used by ancient painters on walls
and stone.

amount to the glare of oil paintings. I persuade myself that at almost any
distance from paintings executed in this mode, what they intend to re-
present will be conspicuous, whether observed far or near, with almost
equal advantage to the spectator, which is not the case with oil painting.

I have noticed in my letter, that the stucco which has been applied on the
face of these tablets has been composed with very fine ground lime and calcined
flint reduced to a powder, mixed with a little alum water, and trowelled on
with a glass instrument. These materials have been smoothed down till the
surface was sufliciently perfect, l)ut yet not so triturated as to destroy the
setting quality of the lime : great care is to be observed in this particular,
and the skill of the workman is to be called into action. I need hardly
notice, that it is the combination of the mechanical disposition of the frac-
ture of the pozzolano flint and its burnt nature, which produce the strong
adhesion and strength of the whole plaster, as most architects now admit
this to be the fact. It was well known and understood by the Romans, who
so extensively used the natural as well as the artificial burned earths.

This latter observation leads me to the importance of reflecting on the
necessity of constructing buildings with materials which are incompatible,
either by working them, as it were, stone and stone, or brick and brick, so
united by workmanship as that there should be no shrinking, either in the
foundation or superstructure ; and that no wood band should exist in them,
but that the union of the materials should be accomplished by a cement
which, neither by exsiccation, by frost, or by moisture, shaU shrink or perish,
for it will be a waste of effort to employ artists' labour on substances which
will neither resist the ordinary effects of time or acccident. Perhaps it may
be said, that when walls have become settled, as it is called, that little danger
can arise subsequently. This, however, is not always the case, as some sea-
sons (in this country especially,) have very injurious action on buildings, and
many salts escape from sands, stone, and lime, little expected by architects.
Now, in properly burned, properly combined, and properly worked mortar,
(the solid ingredients of which have passed through fire,) little change need
be calculated upon ; hence it probably is that pozzolano has been found to
be the best building sand, though it is true that that which is imported is
frequently brought from the shore of the Mediterranean, where the sea water
has been, wherefore it necessarily partakes of the variable quality of the salt,
and consequently is inferior to that fabricated of our own earths properly
prepared and selected.

To return to the paintings exhibited : — it is hoped that the Institute will
make allowance for their being merely experimental. Doubtless, much im-
provement will take place, should there be made any future attempts : as
they are, they will perhaps show, that for such a city as London, the mode
used is proper and cheap for decorative and historical painting ; that the sub-
stance is, as well as the paintings, of a permanent nature; that the surfaces
are such as neither to harbour dust or dirt ; that they are easily cleansed,
and can be employed for the most magnificent and talented displays of the
efl'orts of our rising artists.

ON EARTH WORK, EXCAV.ATION, CUTTING, AND FORMING
EMBANKMENT UPON RAILWAYS.

Article I. — Getting, Filling, and Tipping.

" Modern practice has reduced it to a price per cubic yard."

Professor Vignoles^ Lecture. Dec. 1841.

Sir — I need not occupy your space in any introductory remarks on the
importance of the price per cubic yard for earth work, both to the profession
and the public, and with your assistance I will endeavour to show what it is on a
medium cutting, or what in the execution can be taken oflf at a single lift, when
the material is common earth, the eye of practice alone is able to proportion
the cost when the material is of a harder or more obdurate nature. I shall
fine my present remarks to the quantity that can be moved or carried into em-
bankment per man per day from the cutting, the rate of wages of the excavator
at[the timev>ill then show the cost of getting and filling. The cutting I am about
to describe was in the line of railway, or what is called bacli-cutting, in contra-
distinction to earth got out of the line, which is called side-cutting, it consisted
of good gravel , covered with a varying depth of vegetable mould, and a small
quantity of brick earth, and would average in depth 14 feet, and one mile
in length, and was used to fill a valley of similar extent. The wagons used
were estimated to contain 2 J cubic yards each. The men were counted four
times each day, and the average taken on the number of men employed.
The wagons also were counted daily. The time of year was the most favour-

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

85

able to show the action of change of weather on the result, also the effect of
thaw after frost in assisting the operation of the excavator. In the first
column is the date, in the second the number of days' work made in a week,
•which divided by the days will give the number of men. In the third
column are the number of wagons of 24 yards each carried into embankment,
and in the fourth column the number of cubic yards moved per man per day
in the excavation.

1837

So. of days
work.

A'o. 0/
wagons.

Cubic
yards.

Jan. 7

348

920

61

U

201

831

6A

21

28

Feb. 4

11

IS

3J4

189

85

232

359

950
4G6
171
733
1147

8

8A

5

8

7 nearlv

'Hard frost, thermometer
20' below zero — work
limited on account of
tenacity of earth.

25
Mar. 4

419

458

1140
1630

6t%

9 nearly.

Work easier on account of

11

458

1440

8 nearly

thaw.

18

387

1238

8 full

25

458

1263

7 nearly

Apr. 1

463

1276

7 nearly

8

479

1569

8 full

The quantity removed and carried into embankment in one tip was nearly
400 cubic yards per day, which I consider very fine work. The width of cutting
at the formation level was 31 feet with slopes of two to one. and the width
of embankment, out to out at top of slopes, 34 ft. 6 in., which would confine
the deposit to that width, as the embankment was carried to the full height
of bottom of ballasting at once, and not in layers.

From the above table it will be seen that eight yards is nearly the quantity
moved per man, and if the wages be 3s per day, the price per yard will be
4J(/, which is the fact under the circumstances above stated. The work
was carried on vigorously, but not pushed night and day, and every modern
operation was taken advantage of, viz., gulletting, faUing the earth by gravity
over a bench left in the bottom for the purpose. The difference between
the expcnce of excavating in side cutting out of land not in the line of rail-
way is a small fraction cheaper, but the amount in value of plant is greater.

The above gross results are more satisfactory to my mind than the most
careful division of the men into getters and fillers, as whoever has seen a
work in full operation must be aware that some are gulletting, some filling.
some carving under, and some filUng into wagons, others wheeling at top
with barrows, some casting out at bottom, and all contributing their mite to
the same set of wagons, and in many instances to the individual wagon.
I cannot omit to mention that I found my results exactly to coincide with
those of Mr. James Day, in his Treatise on the Construction and the Forma-
tion of Railways, who states eight cubic yards as the average that is cut and
loaded by each individual ; his maximum having reached to twelve, and his
minimum to six. In the detailed account of how much per man excavated
you will find that my minimum is one only less than Mr. Day's, and that
minimum was on account of the extraordinary frost ; but that the ratio of my
minimum amount to his is much smaller than in the maximum, his being
twelve, and mine only nine, and that in only one instance. -Mr. Day docs
not state in what period of the year his observations were made, nor in what
year, or the nature of material, he only states that the locality was Durham ;
my observations were made on a portion of the Great Western Railway in
Buckinghamshire. Mr. Day's book reached a 2nd edition in 1839, and I
believe is the only writer who has entered into much detail, which, however,
he does not give.*

The lectures of Professor Vignoles at the London University College,

* 1 do not think any Information in detail is to be found in the " Public
Works iiftireat Brit.iin," the " Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers "(who have however this year attempted to remeily the defect byoflcrinj,'
a Telford Medal on the subject, viz., on the various modes .iilupted for moving
earth in railway tunnels, cuttings, orcmb.inkment, with the cost ibireof). in
the " Papers of the Corps of Koyal Kngineers. " •• Wood on Railways, "
" 'Tre'lKold on ditto," " Brees' Railway Practice," the " Book of Lonilon and
Birmingh.-jm, and Grand Junction Railways," the " Railways of Great Britain
and Ireland," ir in^leed in any book professing to treat on the subject, except-
inK the one already nieiilioned.

Much lime Hould,ljes,-jvid to parlies entering on a new course of study If indi-
viduals connected with any particular subjects for atudy, would eommunicalc
the results of their reading and practice to each other. A bold attempt to
carry out this is Ivlng made at the Literary and Philosophic Institution of
this town (Newcastlc-on-Tyne.)

reported in the Journal, at the commencement has had a powerful effect, and
1 hope his wishes expressed in his first lecture will be accompUshed. " To
po|)ularizc the knowledge of engineering as a means of benefitting the public
at large."— rC. E. &i A. Journal, Feb. 1842.^

I have introduced the above remarks, although a Httle irrelevant to the
subject, knowing as I do the prejudice that prevails against scientific know-
ledge. I will now proceed to notice the relative quantity of earth removed
by estimation of the wagon at 2^ cubic yards, and by measurement with the
tape. In the period from Jan. to March, 19,660 cubic yards by measure were
removed, and 23,570 cubic yards by wagon ; from Jan. to the end of March
28,834 cubic yards by measure were removed, or 29,912 cubic yards by
wagon ; the wagon being in excess both for the long and short period, but
not in a greater ratio than it would be were too indifferent parties at
different times to use the tape; indeed, 2A cubic yards per wagon was so
well established, that the men were indifferent whether they agreed per yard
or per wagon, the price paid per wagon was lOd. Another coincidence which
show that the foregoing remarks are founded on sure data, is that 2^ cubic
yards at the rate of i^d. per cubic yard nearly agrees with both the yards per
man, and the rate of remuneration and estimated load of each wagon.

The following table will also he instructive, as showing the proportionate
effect of small or large gangs of men on the quantity turned out. I will not
specify the times seriatim, but merely observe that it was over the same
period as the former table, and the same wagons were used. In the first
columu are the number of men employed at one time, in the second the
number of days, and in the third the number of wagons employed, and in
the fourth the price per cubic yard.

Men.

Days.

lI'agoHs.

Price per yard.

15

5

140

4K

72

846

7 upward

74

192

6 above

74

761

6

75

847

7

80

240

74

83

1045

8 above

80

742

5*

86

248

7

From the above table it will lie seen that, like all questions, this has two
sides, viz., that the hurried work cost the most money, and that when the
work is not carried on with sufficient vigour, the same effect is produced.
The price of 4V/. will be seen is a fair estimate when the work is carried on
with a fair proportion of hands. The sub-contractor or ganger was paid 6i/ per
cubic yard, for which he had to superintend the navigation and the finding
of shovels, tools, and sharpening picks, advance the men money when come
off tramp, lay down the temporary road, including turn-outs, shunts, cross-
ings, boxes, spurring?, &c. take up and relay the road at the gullet and tip-
head, as the work advances both in the excavation and the embank-
ment, and to keep the road in repair, and tip or turn the dirt. Tl>e price he
paid for tipping was 13». 6rf. per hundred wagons, or nearly Jd. per cubic
yard, leaving i4. per yard for roads, and ^. for superintendence. He was
advanced subsisting money weekly, after the rate of 2j. Grf. per day )>er man
from the time-keeper's return, and his work measured every fortnight. There
being the following checks, viz., time, tape, and estimated quantity per
wagon : out of the }</. per yard, the price of keeping up the road, ^. per
yard, was retained in hand .is security until the final measurement at the
completion of the cutting. The price of Grf. was for the bulk of the excavation,
some portion of the bottom, say three feet, in depth, being taken up l)ack-
handcd I'tliat is, as the work was cleared up, and the temporary road taken
up) was paid for at the rate of 1^. .\gain, at the commencement of the
cutting at the balance level, where cutting and embankment commence,
barrows were use<I for a short way into the hill before the rails were laid
and wagon-work commenced, the prices varying from 3</., 3J</., 3Ji/., \d., 4^^.,
hi^., 6d., and 7</., the latter being for a distance of about sixty yards, barrow,
work being rated at about bd. per cubic yard for the first run of 20 yards,
and 1(/. per additional run, when the tenacity of the earth requires no get-
ting, so that the earth can be as easily excavated as refilled.*

Again, the top surface of cuttings and the seat of embankment are usually
uncallowed for the purpose of rcsoihng the slopes. The uncallowing and

• A run IS 20 yards, allowing for the inclination, allhounh when on
descending ground it is taken at 25 yards, but in m.st cases the level and
ascent or descent, arc computed us e<)Uivalent, and 20 yards is used as the
measure in practice.

86

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

resoiling together, not each separate operation, must be taken at the lowest
price of 3</. and SArf. Setting the above low price and the greater price of
Td. for the barrow-TCork against each other, and taking into consideration the
comparative small cubic quantity of each in comparison with the bulk or
body of the cutting, I do not think that the medium price of 6d. will be
materially influenced. Furthermore, the effect of the gradually increasing
" face," or depth of the hill from the balance level of cutting and embank-
ment to the summit acting in favour of the operations of the excavator, will
also much tend to equalize the two prices.

In conclusion I will glance at what you have already done in yom- Journal
on the subject of earthwork, which I think will more fnlly shew the value to
the public and profession of the preceding tables, and the correctness of your
views in the review of "A Practical Inquiry into the Laws of Excavation and
Embankment, by a Resident iVssistant Engineer," in tbe C. E. i( A. Journal,
vol. iii, 1840, p. 391, to which I most respectfully call the attention of your
readers; as also to vol. iv., p. 417, where the performance of the American
horse-scoop is noticed, and the quantity removed an average distance of 34-^
ieet per scoop per day, is stated to be 40 yards, and the cost i-^d. to 5-Jd. per
cubic yard, rating the hire of scoop and driver at 12*'. 5irf. per day, each scoop
contains ttt "^ * Quhic yard ; also to page 59, vol. v. for 1842, where Professor
Vignoles in his oth lecture, on earth work, states that " the causes that
have thrown the railways of the Continent into the hands of the English
contractors to be the ' finical exactness with which they (the French) calcu.
late the expense of removing the first 100 yards, then the next 25 yards, and
so on increasing until they get to 300 yards, beyond which the price is enor-
mous." This will form the subject of my next communication, and for the
present 1 subscribe myself, with sincere thanks for your former kindness, to

be,

Yours obediently,
St. .inn's, Newcastle.-upon-Tyne. 0. T.

ON .ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM.

Sm — A knight, who has just entered your lists with his vizor down,
having enpassant permitted me to hear a little harsh voice, which it may be
can sound agreeably, I have thought it quite as well to whisper a few words
in his ear ; not because, under the notion that he disesteems me, I would
descend to parley, but because from his appearance and " at/itude," 1 &m
quite sure I should be addressing one to whom the affectation of contempt
is more natural and becoming than would be the reality of that feeling.

Changing then my position, I had thought that no one, who presumes to
love abstract speculation, would deny, that however deficient my papers may
be, however in their direct tendency they may bow to the very able paper of
H. S., vet, that upon that most debcate tissue of thought — the philosophy of
taste (out of which emanates so much that is refining to us as students), I
had not disgraced my subject, and that in an attempt to establish the poetry
of an art which I love, I could have done no less than discuss those elements
from which our emotions arise. My reasons for commencing the " Hints on
Architectural Criticism," were upon the showing that critics very often
debased, by their weak and capricious opinion, the art they professed to
extol, and that, as a consequence, that art was held inferior to the art of the
sculptor and the painter, and so in order to elevate our art, I found that the
philosophy of our claims to the rank of a fine art should be clearly made out,
otherwise we should be in the same position as we were.

It is upon these grounds that I have tried to show how those arts which
are not descriptive may maintain an influence over the emotions.

If J. L. will tell me that he is indiffeient to my attempt, I must I suppose
believe him, but I cannot help thinking that as a lover of art he must know,
(whatever he admits) that the more we can establish the philosophy of our
claims to a rank disputed by many, and the more our inferior critics see and
feel the foundation of our claims, the more honourable will be the defence
of our art.

I only ask, Sir, of J. L., disgnised as he is, not to show his dislike in the
ignorant and common way of sneering at what (he says) he does not under-
stand, but to dispute in the manner of a gentleman for that truth which, as
a gentleman myself, is all 1 wish to estabbsh.

I am, Sir,

Yours very obediently,
Feb. 9th. 1842. Frederick East.

ON STAIRCASES.

To the Penny Cyclopaedia we are this month indebted for an inte-
resting architectural article, upon the subject of staircases, which not
only contains very far more information than is to he met with in
any other work of the kind, but a great deal of excellent original
comment. Hitherto encyclopaedia articles of this class have usually
been very meagre and unsatisfactory, and have consisted of little more
than compilation and repetition, vf ithout any attempt to supply pre-

vious deficiencies. The Penny Cyclopaedia, on the contrary, displays
unusual carefulness of execution in its architectural department, and in
the articles of architectural biography, in proof of which we have only
to refer to Ohlmulltr, Oritl, Portico, Pulpit, Rodriguez, Roman Arch'
ieclure. Rotunda, Rustication, iSaloon, Sansorino, Scagliola, Scomozzi,
Skylight, and Socnt. Very few of these have till now obtained any
notice at all, unless a brief definition of their meanings deserves to be
so called ; nor is it always that even that is to be found. In this
respect, therefore, the Penny Cyclopaedia manifests a very great
improvement upon all its predecessors. Nevertheless there might be
some additions and enlargements ; and we would suggest to the pro-
prietors of the work, that, on its completion, all the architectural
articles (including the biographical ones,) should be collected and re-
printed in a separate form : and when we say reprinted, we do not
mean verbatim, but that they should be revised and extended, and
illustrated with additional drawings. Were this done, we should have
what is still a desideratum — a good architectural dictionary; in which
opinion most of our readers will, we think, concur with ourselves,
after perusing the annexed extracts from the Penny Cyclopaedia.

"It was not till about the time of Elizabeth that staircases began to
be planned more eommodiously in this country, and made a decorative
feature in tbe interior of a mansion. But though tliey were greatly
improved, tbe flights being made wider, and the steps parallel to each
other, with intermediate landings or resting-places between the several
flights, and although considerable decoration was bestowed upon them,
the walls being panelled, and the parapet of the stairs formed either
by richly-carved balusters, or open fretwork, frequently with heraldic
figures of animals on the pedestals at the angles of the different flights
— the staircase itself was usually enclosed within a comparatively
small area, so as to admit of no general view of the whole of it, there
being very little open space, or rfell, as it is termed ; sometines none
at all. The staircases at Aldermaston, Berks, Crewe Hall, Cheshire,
and Knowle, Kent, may be taken as examples of the kind. At a later
period staircases in mansions of a superior class were made dispropor-
tionably spacious, being upon a scale as to size with which the
apartments themselves were not at all in keeping.

"The planning of a staircase is generally considered one of the most
diflScult matters in internal arcliitecture, and it is certainly one that
requires great consideration. Yet there is no particular difficulty,
except where, as is generally the case in moderate- sized houses, the
architect is cramped lor room ; more especially if, while restricted in
that respect, the ascent from one floor to another is greater than
usual. The number of stairs and the space required for the conve-
nient arrangement of them, are easily estimated when the height of
the ascent from one floor to another is given, and the dimensions are
determined for the risers and treads. Stairs are technically described
as consisting of Risers and Treads, the former being the fronts or
heights of the steps, and the other their flat surfaces or breadths.
Stairs are further distinguished as being Fiyers, those which ascend
straightforward ; and IVinders, which having their treads triangular,
coming quite to a point at their ends nest balusters, aftbrd no footing
there, and ought consequently to be avoided whenever it is at all prac-
ticable to do so. A Flight is a consecutive series of stairs in the same
direction, or between one Quarter-space or Ha!/-space (Palier de
repos) and another, which last are short intermediate landings, serving
to lessen the fatigue of a continuous ascent, by subdividing it into
shorter flights. For the area containing, or rather constituting, the
staircase itself, we have no distinct term in addition to the general
one, similar to the French Cage, the Italian Gabbia, and the German
Trepptnhaui.

" We proceed to notice the most convenient proportions of the stairs
themselves, as to height and breadth, for their length. As to the
breadth of the flights, that is comparatively arbitrary : it should never
be much less than four feet, so as to allow two persons to pass, except
in back-staircases; hut it may be as much more as the space will per-
mit, or the effect aimed at in the design may require. The best
general and what may be considered standard proportions, are ti inches
for the risers, and 12 inches for the treads; though from Gi to 7 inches
may be allowed for the former, and only 10 for the latter, in secondary
staircases. In those of a very superior kind, on the contrary, the risers
do not exceed 5 or even 4 inches (less height than which last would
be more fatiguing than convenient), and their treads are then made
from 14 to 1(5 inches. The height, therefore, to the landing of the
floor to be reached being given, it is easy to calculate either how
many risers of a certain number of inches wiU be required, or what
must be the dimensions of the risers and treads, in order to ascend
within the space allowed. Supposing the first-mentioned height to
be 14 feet, and the risers G inches, two risers will he equivalent to one
foot of ascent, and consequently twenty-eight risers will be required,
or twenty-seven treads, the upper landing being the tread to the last

1841.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

S7

riser. In such case, hardlv l^s; lliaD an area of 20 by S feet, on th^
level of the upper floor, would be sufficient for the stairciise, unless
there wer.- winders instead of quarter-spaces, or of a single half-space
between the two flights. The number of risers required is afe-ertained
by reducing the given altitude of ascent to iacbes, and dividing it by
the height of the risers: thus, taking the altitude as before (14 feet),
and the risers at 5 incli.-s, there must either be 33 risers a trifle nio.e
than 3 inches each, or 34 a trifle less.

" Palladio, and others foUoving him, have laid it (<own that the
staircase ought to be seen immediately on entering a building; but it is
impossible to establish any positive rule for what must depend upon
particular circumstances, and this is by no means the best as a general
rule. Id a public building, or place where strangers go in and out
without inquiry, it may be desirable that the staircase should present
itself at once; but eertainlv this is not the case in private mansions.
On the contrary, it is in every respect better that the staircase should
be kept out of view until the' first vestibule lias been passed through,
and that it should be placed as remote from the entrance into the
house as the plan will adnii'., l)Qtli ifl onier that the approach to it
may be lengthened, and that, in case it has any architectural preten-
sions at all, it lUiiy strike the more by net coming into view at once.
At all events, only the lower part of the staircase — nu more than is
aufticient to indicate its situation— should be visible from the entrance,
otherwise it will be inconveniently "xposed ; and if there are doors to
several rooms on the upper landing, persons passing from one to the
other would be seen from the hall. It is, therefore, a great error to
place the staircase, as is sometimes done, in the first or entrance hall
of a mansion, because, in addition to the inconvenience just pointed
out, such hall must be made the height of bvo floors, and consequently,
if otherwise suitably proportioned to such height, it will be the most
spacious and loftiest room, and so far be attended by a degree of eflijct
which, instead of being afterwards increased or kept up, is greatly
diminished. Such arrangement also cuts off the commuuication above
between the rooms oo one side of the hall aj:d those ou the other,
except there is a gallery or continuation of the landing carried over
the entrance."

"One of the most simple and effective yet least common arrange-
ments of a staircase, is that which may be described by the term
jir<nue ulaircam, the stairs being continued in a straight line, though
broken by apactn into a succession of flights, within what would else
be a level corridor or gallery, and occupying its entire wi Ith. There
is something particularly noble and majestic in a staircase of this kind,
for althougli it may be narrow, considered as a gallery, it looks unusu-
ally spacious ;is a staircase, the fi^hl itself being wider than those of j
staircases placed within a much larger area. Besides which, the
■whole is more regularly disposed, and forms a more striking piece of
perspective. Still simple as such plan is in itself, it is by no means
adapted to general application, because, although it requires only
moderate width, it requires considerable length, short nights, and
ample spaces between them, and stairs with low risers and broad
treads ; otherwise the descent as viewed from above, being in a
straight line, looks precipitous, cr at least has no dignity of appear-
ance. Another circumstance which limits a staircase of this kind to
particular cases is, that in order for it to produce proper eflijct, the
ueight to be ascended should be very moderate, hardly more than
seven or eight feet ; for else the space at the foot of the stairs looks
confined, and the upper flights scarcely show themselves from that
station. Hence, though it may be referred to as an instance of an
avemie staircase, the one leading to the keep or round tower at
Windsor Castle is more remarkable than beautiful or grand, leaving
decoration out of the question ; the altitude ascended being so very
great. Sir John Soane has given some ideas of the kind in his designs
for a "Scala Kegia," — a favourite subject with him ; and hu executed
such a staircase, though upon a more limited scale, for the royal en-
trance to the House ol Loids. The width of that staircase is only l'>
feet, by 4y in extreme length, and the ascent 9 feet. Though not free
from little conceits, the whole has considerable elVect, as may be
judged from the perspective view of it in vol. 1. of the "Public Build-
ings of London," by W. H. Leeds, which also contains a longitudinal
section of it. The staircase of the Chamber of t'oers at Paris, designed
by Percier and PunLaine, is another example of the kind, upon a larger
scale, but not the very best, for the ascent is so great, that the columns
on its ai<le3, on the same level as the landing, look quite insignificant.
That at Covent Garden Theatre also bflongs to the same class,
although it differs from the preceding in being extended in the upper
part, by the lamling being continued along its sides as a gallery divided
from it by columns ; the ascent is about lU feet, in two flights. The
National Gallery, ag.iin, ;iiVordi instances nf a diflereiit modification of
the same arrangeineut, half the ascent being by an external flight in

the vestibule, the remainder by another within the corridor leading
from it; and though not exactly suited for such a building, the idea
is pleasing in iUelf, and vfould produce a striking effect io one of less
pretension.

"In public ediiices or large mansions, whatever be the plan of the
principal stairriise, it is generally tramhtd, that is, there is first a
wide central flight, and then two other narrower on»s brandling off
from it, one on each side, either at right angles to it, or as return
flights parallel to it : and it is hardly necetsary to observe th.it in all
such staircases \.\\e/<Mit-»pact» are large, and that there are no winders.
The staircase at Goldsmiths' Hall, which is parted off from the ves-
tibule bv a glazed screen, is an example of more than ordinary splen-
dour, being lighted by a dome. The branching flights at right angles
to the first, lead to a landing on each side, which his a double screen of
Corinthian columns, so that the view across from side to side. In the upper
part, is unusnally rich. At Buckingham Palace, there is first a very
wide flight, entered from between columns, branching off right and
let in curved flights, the cage, which is about 3i> by 2'j feet, being
curved ellipticalTy on those sides or ends. In tliis example, the slaira
rest upon a graduated podium or wall enclosing the space imnii'diately
b-ueuth, which serves as a private passage behind ; a mode frequently
adopted in similar cases, being one which contributes to nolidity and
ntbleness of appearance, and prevents that mass of shadow beneath
the stairs which gives a gloom to the lower |)art of the staircase."

« * » ¥

"The staircase of the Fitzwilltam Museum, Cambridg.', rlaims
notice, not only on account of the richness of the general design, but
of some peculiarities i i its arrangement Strictly speaking, however,
this example can bar ly be given as that of a staircase, according to
the usual meaning of the term, the stairs being mere flights of steps
in the entrance-hall. Tliat in the centre is a broad descending one,
leading down to the libraries, which are on a lower level than the ball;
and on each side of it b a rather narrower ascending flight to the
spacious landing carried around three sides of the hall, and serving as
a statue gallery. Though the lower area is only 32 by 2l) feet, con-
sequently that of the floor very much less, owing to the space occupied
bv the flights of steps, tliat of the upper part on the level of the
landing is i>S by 44 feet, the landing itself being about 17 feet wide.
In some degree similar in plan, although very diflerent in design, is
the hall at Holkham, the seat of the Earl of Leicester, which lias a
noble flight of steps within a recess or tribune, enclosed by columns,
which are continued along the sides of the hall.

"The grand staircase of the Reform Club-house, London, is an

example, somewhat unusual in this country, though common enough in

Italy, of w hat may be called an tiiclvstd staircase ; the flights are shut

up between walls, and consequently there is no open ml, nor can the

whole be seen at one view. A plan of this kind, therefore, differs

from the avenue staircase, merely in not being carried straightforward,

but either returning in a parallel flight from tlie half-space or first

I landing, or having the second flight at right angles with the first. The

I last is the case at the Reform Club-house, where the staircase consists

, of three enclosed flights, the last being a return one to the fir«t, and

' landing upon the gallery around the upper part of the inner hall or

saloon. That at Burleigh, too, is similarly planned. The same mode

may be adopted for circular or semicircular as well as rectangiilar

plans ; and one advantage attending it is, that, while the ascent itself

is as spacious and commodious as if the whole were entirely upen^

there may be a secondary staircase for servants, shut up within the

larger one."

' * « » *

' " The architectural effect of a staircase will greatly depend upon the
mode of lighting it. Where it is carried up only une floor, the beiC
mode is to light it entirely from above, either through a dome or
lantern in the ceiling, or by making Wie upper part of the walls just

'. beneath the ceiling a continued lantern. If there are windows on the

' landings of the several flights, the ellect will be iinproveil by their
being hlled with stained glass, especially if toward* a back court; or,

[ if a conservator)' can be carried out on the level of the first lamling, so
as to show itself through glazed folding-doors, a very pleasing and
cheerful eflect is obtained, even though tlie conservatory itself should
be hardly more than a glazed viraiida. .■\s to material, slone is greatly
preferable to wood for stairs, if only on account of greater security in
c.uie of fire ; in lieu of stoue, cast-iron ni.iy Iw employeil. M.irble is
very rarely used for sUiirs in this country, and whenever it is, it should
be left unpolished on the I read*, or it would be dangerous to descend
them. The siuue remark applies to st^iirs of wainscot, unless they are
carpeted nearly tlitir entire width."

88

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

NAVAL ARCHITECTUR E— S TEAM VESSELS.

We have, at very considerable trouble, formed a complete Table of proportions of the whole of the timbers, with but few exceptions, used
in the construction of Timber-built Steam Vessels. We believe that this table is the first of the kind that has appeared in print, and doubtless
it will, we hope, prove a valuable acquisition to all parties connected with steam navigation, and become a model for forming similar tables of
other vessels.

The "Royal Tar" and "Don Juan" were built for the Peninsular packet service; the first vessel is now on duty, and running between
Southampton and Gibraltar, the other vessel was lost. The specification of the West India Mail Packets is very deficient ; we understand that
those built for this service by ditFerent builders vary in their proportions, excepting such parts as are described in the table.

Abbreviations. — mat., m., material; No., number; diam., diameter; th., thickness; mo., moulded; qr., quarter; A. 0., African Oak; Am. 0"
American Oak ; E. 0., English Oak ; E. E., English Elm ; A. E., American Elm ; D., Dantzic; M., Memel ; N., Norway ; R. P., Red Pine ; Y. P., Yellow
Pine ; P. Poplar ; P. D., Prussian deals ; I., Iron ; C, Copper ; Perpen., Perpendicular.

Ml the figures tvhich are not represented as feet or numbers are inches.

W. E. Mail

W.E.Mail

Name of vessel

Royal Tar.

Don Juan.

Packets.

Royal Tar.

Don Juan.

Packets.

Date of construction

1832

1836

1841

bolted through

every floor

every floor

every floor

Name of builders of vessel

Duffus & Co.

Fletcher &

various

and keel

and keel

Fearnell.

diam. and mat. of holts

c. H

C. M

c. u

Name of makers of engines

Duffus & Co.

Girdwood &

various

Umbers, every

4 ft.

Co.

Engine keelsons — No.

4

4

4

Length of keel

155 ft.

180 ft.

207 ft.

mat.

A.O.

A.O.

A.O.

Breadth of beam, moulded

27 ft. 10

29 ft. 4

35 ft. 9

moulded and sided

12x16

14x18

18 by 15

Depth in hold

19 ft.

20 ft.

20 ft.

bolted through

every floor

every floor

every floor

No. of tons (register measurement)

500 ft.

diam. & mat. of bolts under engine

C. H

c. \\

C. 11

No. of tons (builders' measurement)

775|»

1285^

ditto before and abaft engine

C. 1

C. 1

c. u

Length on deck

167 ft.

194 ft.

Framing or Timbers.

Breadth on deck at shaft

27 ft.

28 ft. 2

34 ft. 6

Built in frame ?

Yes

yes

Breadth over paddle boxes

55i ft.

Short floors— mat.

E.O.

E.O.

E.O.

Draft of watei forward, hght

10 ft.

lift.

in engine room moulded & sided

12

13x12

15 bv 13

Ditto, loaded

12 ft.

13 ft.

before and abaft engine room

10

13x10

■ 11

Ditto, aft, light

lift.

13 ft.

at the cutting down

13

Ditto, aft, loaded

13 ft. 4

14 ft. 6

at the heads, moulded

13

12

Rise of floor on half breadth

3

none

Long floors — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

E.O.

Angle of bow at light water-mark

in the engine room, moulded and

Rake of stem or angle with heel

7 ft.

perpen.

sided

12

13x12

15 by 14

Rake of stern post

8

perpen.

perpen.

before and abaft, at the heads.

Sheer forward

3 ft.

1 ft. 6

moulded and sided

10

10

13A by 12

Sheer aft

2 ft. 6

1 ft.

Futtocks — second futtocks — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

E.O.

Keel — mat.

E.E.

E.E.

E. E.

between paddle beams, moulded

moulded and sided

13

13x14

15

and sided at heels

10

12x12

11

length of scarphs

3 ft. 6

5 ft.

4 ft. 6

moulded and sided at heads

8

8x12

lOi

No. of holts in each scarph

6

6

in room and space, moulded and

diam. of bolts in scarphs

U

1

i

sided at heels

10

12

10

Stem — mat.

E.G.

E.O.

E.O.

moulded and sided at heads

8

10

9

sided at head

12x14

15

top futtocks — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

E.O.

moulded and sided at heel

12

17x13

16

in rootn and space, m. and sided

Six 7

8x12

9

Stemson — mat.

E.O.

A. 0.

E.O.

forward and aft, mo. and sided

4i

0x12

8

moulded and sided

12

13

12 by 16

bolted horizontally ?

Yes.

vcs

yes

Apron — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

distance between bolts

4 ft.

3" ft.

length on keelson

8 ft.

10 ft.

diam. and mat. of holts

iron J

iron J

iron }

sided

as stern

as stern

Room and space— length of

50 ft.

60 ft.

70 ft.

Stern post — mat.

E.O.

A. 0.

E.O.

space between floors

none

none

none

moulded and sided at head

8x 12

12 X 12

16

space between frames within

„ on keel

14x12

25x12

21

paddle beams

none

none

none

Inner post — mat.

E.O.

A. 0.

E.O.

filled fore and aft to turn of bilge .'

yes

yes

yes

moulded and sided at head

8x 12

10x10

9

mat.

D

M.

R. P.

„ on keel

14 X 12

10 X 14

16

caulked within and without .'

yes

yes

felted

Wing transom — mat.

E.O.

20

shape of ends of futtocks

square

square

sided and moulded

12

13 X 15

how secured

dowelled

dowelled

Deadwood — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

diam. and mat. of dowel

A. 0. U

A. 0. 2i

sided

as keel

as keel

Stern and counter timbers — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

length on keelson

moulded and sided at head

5Jx4

6^x5

Stemson knee — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

moulded and sided at heel

7ix5i

84 X 6J

length

Timber heads— mat.

A. 0.

A.O.

moulded at throat

No. on each side

4

6

bolted, every

18

12

moulded and sided

12x6

12x6

diam. and mat. of holts

C. 1

c. n

Towing timbers — mat.

Fashion pieces — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

No. on each side

none

none

sided

8

9

moulded and sided

length above transom

1 ft.

3 ft.

Diagonal iron plates — angle of.

Knights-heads — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

E.O.

with keel

45'

50° to 60°

sided

12

13

13

space between

4 ft. 6

4 ft.

diam. and mat. of bolts

iron 1

iron 1

iron 1

width and thickness

4xi

4xJ

Hawse pieces and chocks — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

Thick streaks within board— mat.

A.O.

A. 0.

sided

10

11

No.

3

5

No. on each side

2

3

Mean breadth and th. amidships

10x3i

12x4J

hawse pipes, diam.

9

10

Stringer.

Keelson — mat.

A. 0.

A. 0.

A.O.

Main deck or shelf piece — mat.

A.O.

A.O.

A. 0.

moulded and sided

12x16

as keel

moulded and sided amidships

7x12

12 X 12

13 by 15

IS42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

S9

W. E.Maii. I

W.E.Mail

RovalTar.

Dox Jl-AN.

Packets.

Royal Tab.

Dos JOAK.

Packets.

ditto and sided at ends

Gxll

12x9

15 by 9

breadth of each

12

13

as deep as
the mould

extent of abaft quarter deck

Cft.

Gft.

th. at lower edic amidships

7

9

Quarter deck stringer — mat.

D

D.

th. at upper edge a!iiidships

4

5
6

' of vessel

moulded and sideil

-xS

7x8

th. at lower eilge forward \ aft

5

will admit.

Forecastle deck stringer — mat.

D.

Y. P.

th. at upper edge ditto

3

*\

moulded and sided

7 < 5

8x6

Bottom plank — mat. and thickness

E.E. 4 &3

k. E. 4*

D. 44

Fore cabin sole stringer — mat.

D.

A.O.

length of shiftings

moulded and sided, aft

9 ' "

10x3

Bilge plank— mat. & No. of streaks

A. 0. 4 _

A. 0. 4

A.O.

„ forward

«.< ;

7x8

mean width of streaks

7

8

Saloon sole stringer — mat.

.\. 0.

A.O.

thickness at middle of streaks

4

54

moulded and sided

Ox 7

7x i

thickness at upper side

3

li

(

Deck under saloon sole stringer —

thickness at under side

3

*l

1

mat.

Q. 0.

A. 0.

Bends or wales — mat. and No. of

1

moulded and sided

6x7

7x8

streaks

D. 0. 3

.K.O. 4

A.O.

.

Stringcrthrouehengineroom — mat.
moulded and sided

A. 0.

A. 0.

breadth of streaks

10 by 3 = 30

4 by 10-40

7x7

10x8

1
1

thickness at centre of streaks

6

6

^

Clampi.

1

thickness at upi)er side

C

6

H

Under main deck stringer — mat.

-V. 0.

A. 0.

X. 0. and D.!

thickness at under side

0

G

'•'4

No. of streaks

1

2

3 Black streaks — mat. and No.

20

D

breadth of each

12^

12

mean thickness

2i

4

thickness amidships

7

G

8 Paint or sheer streaks— mat. & No.

A.O.

A. 0. 2

k.0. 2

I

thickness forward and aft

5

t

5

1 breadth and thickness

3i

24 by 4

8 to 3

under quarter deck stringer — mat.

D.

D.

iPlan sheer or gunwale — mat.

A.O.

.\. 0.

A. 0.

No. of streaks

1

1

breadth and thickness

3

4

0

breadth and thickness of each

3i

J

Top sides — mat. and thickness

E. 0. 2J

A.O. 4

E. 0. 34

under fore cabin sole stringer — mat.

.\. 0.

A. 0.

Stern and counter — mat. and th.

E. 0. 3

E.O. 3

No. of streaks

1

2

Deci Plaiilsing.

1

breadth and tb. of each forward

12x4J

10x3i

aft

12x5i

10x3

Main deck covering board — mat.

.\. 0.

D

under saloon sole stringer — mat.

D.

A.O.

and th.

3

G

No. of streaks

I

2

Main deck water way— mat. & th.

A.O. 4

D G

E.O.

Ireadth and thickness of each

10x4

10x4

flat of the deck — mat. and th.

D. 3

U 3

D. 3

under cargo deck stringer — mat.

D.

A.O.

copper nails, No. of lb. per 100.

14

15

and No.

1

1

partners for masts — mat.

A.O.

E.O.

breadth and mean th. of each

11 ■ 4

10x31

gammoning chocks — mat.

E. 0.

E.O.

under engine room stringer — mat.

.\. 0.

A.O.

steps for masts— mat.

E. O.

A. 0.

1

No.

2

2

Quarter deck, covering board — mat.

.\. 0.

A. 0.

breadth and thickness

10x5

12by G

and thickness

21

4

Ceiling — mat. and thickness

D. 3

D. 3

water way — mat. and thickness

.\. 0. 3

D. 4

D.

Deck — Beams.

flat of the deck — mat. and th.

D. 25

D. 3

D. 3

Paddle beams — mat.

A. 0.

.\. 0.

A.O.

nailed or dowelled ?

nailed

dowelled

moulded and sided

20 X IG

22 by 18

12 by 18

composition nails, No. of lb, per

length of 8car)>bs

oft.

8 ft.

100

14 1b.

No. of bolts in each scarph

8

10

Cabin sole — mat. and thickness

N. 2J

R.P. 24

P. I).

Paddle bearers — mat.

A. 0.

A.O.

iron nailed ?

ves.

ves

No. on each side

1

2

Cargo deck — mat. and thickness

X. 2i

Y. P. 3

P.O.

moulded and sided

18bv8

each 12 bv 10

Forecastle deck — mat. and th.

U. 21

D. 3

Crank beams — mat.

A. 0.'

A.O.'

Fore cabin sole deck — mat. and th.

N. 2\

Y. P. 24

moulded and sided

1\ by 8

y bv 1 1

Breast hook, upper deck — mat. and

Hatchway beams — mat.

A. 0.

A. O".

length

E. 0. 12 ft.

E.O. 12 ft.

E.O. n ft.

moulded and sided

9 by 10

9 by 11

Iron breasthooks. No. of

2

3

14 ft. long
> 5ft broafl

Fore and aft beams of boiler hatch —

weight of 1 St size

1 cwt. 2 qrs.

2 cwt.

mat.

A.O.

A.O.

weight of 2nd size

2 cwt.

2 cwt.

3i at ena&

1 moulded and sided

H bv 10

14 bv 10

weight of 3rd size

4 cwt.

j Beam at break of qr. deck — mat.

A. 0.

A. O.

Diagonal oak chocks — No. of each

moulded and sided

0 by 10

12 by 10

side

4

4

Beam at after extremity of quarter

breadth! 'hic!c-.3:i

9 by 4

lObjS

deck — mat.

\. 0.

A. 0.

Sponsons — k i (~of

fiddle shaped

fiddle shaped

moulded and sided

9bv9

10 by 12

lenc'h of tuck

44 ft.

Gft.

.Main deck beams — mat.

D. ■

D.

A. 0.

Raik — quarter "c.V —mat. and th.

A. E. 3

A. E. 3

moulded and sided

9bv 10

9 by 1 1

11 by 12

stanchions — mat.

E.O.

E.O.

spaces

5 ft. ■

3 ft.

moulded and sided

4 bv4

4 by 4

Beams of quarter deck — mat.

D.

D.

D.

Tatt'rail— mat. and thickness

E.E. 31

E.E. 4

moulded and sideil

9bvl0

9 by 10

Oby 7

breadth

7

8

spaces

5 ft. ■

3 ft.

lyferail — mat. and thickness

Am. 0. 3

Am. 0. 3

;l!eams of forecastle deck — mat.

1)

D.

breadth

71

n

moulded and tided

laby 8

10 by 8

Forecastle rail — mat. and thickness

1 U

I *

spaces

•lift.

4 ft.

j [till board — mat. and thickness

|Beanjs of fore cabin sole — mat.

U

D.

A. 0.

PadiUe Borea — stanchions — mat.

E. 0.

E.O.

I moulded and sided

9 bv 8

10 bv 9

11 by 11

moulded and siiled

8 bvG

12 by 8

spaces

5 ft.

3 ft.

plank — mat. and thickness

D. ■ 2

1). 2

Beams of saloon sole — mat.

U

1).

ploughed and tougued

yes

yc»

moulded and sided

9 by 8

10bv9

Ihtlkhcad abcft engine room

spaces

5 ft.

3J ft. ■

stanchions — mat.

Am. 0.

Am. 0.

Beams of cargo deck — mat.

D.

U.

moidilcd and sided

7bv6

12 by 4

1 moulded ami sided

9bT8

10bv9

plank — mat. and thickness

R. P. 21

P 24

1 spaces

5 ft. ■

3ift.

lilleil with sawdust

yes

ye.

[loam across engine room — mat.

A.O.

A. O.

Bulkheail br/ore rnyine room

moulded and sided

Shy 10

9 by 1 1

stanchions — mat.

Am. 0.

Am. 0.

OutHide I'lankiufj.

moulded and sided

li by 5

7 by 6

Garbnard streaks — mat. and No. on

plank— mat. ami thickness

Y. P. 21

Y. P. 24

each side

E. E. 1

A. E. I

E. 0. 1

ploughed and tongucd .'

yS

yes

m

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

Deci hmises — extent before paddle
box

extent behind paddle bos

top timbers — mat.

mouldeil and sided

spaces between

stancbions — mat.

moulded and sided

planking of top — mat. and tb.

ploughed and tongued ?

planting of front — mat. and th.

ploughed and tongued ?
Front of poop, stanchions — mat.

moulded and sided

plank — mat. and thickness
' Soughtree — mat. and thickness

breadth
Bulwarks, timbers — mat.

moujded and sided

spaces

plank — mat. and thickness
Skylights, No. of, in saloon

length of

breadth of

height of
Companions, main cabin, timbers —
mat.

moulded and sided

plank — mat. and thickness

length

breadth

height
Companion fore cabin — length

breadth

height
Combings of hatchways — mat.

moulil.?!l and sided

of crank hatches — mat.

moulded and sided

of deck houses — mat.

moulded and sided

of skylights — mat.

moulded and sided

of companions — mat.

moulded and sided
Side ladders — mat.

length

breadth

breadth and thickness of sides

thickness and breadth of steps
Figure head, timbers of — mat.

moulded and sided

plank of — mat. and thickness
Figure head — height of
Cutwater, projection of, from stem

thickne.-s of, at outer extremity
Stern, width across over galleries

depth of, from quarter deck to
name board

rouiiu 6ii, or projection beyond
galleries

Quarter galleries, projection of from
side

depth of, between mouldings

length 01, one side
Uiulder, kind of — mat.

moulded and sided at head

mo. and sided at tail at inner side
„ at outer side

WimJlass, Winch and Crane.
Carrick bitts — mat.
i moulded and sided
Pawl bitt— mai.

movildcd and sided
Windlass — mat.

diameter in middle
„ at ends
Length between carrick bitts
Length of windlass ends
Diameter of spindle
Hiding chock ?
Purchase wheels .'

Am,

Royal Tak.

16 ft.
20 ft.
E. 0.
2\ bv 3
3 ft.
E. 0.
5 bv 3
D. 2
no

D. 1
ves

E. 0.
4 by 4

D.
0.

H

bi
£.0.
3A bv 3

24

E. 0.
1
9 ft.
4 ft.
2 ft.

Am. 0.
4 by 4
H
Gft.
5 ft.

4 ft.

5 ft. 6
4 ft. 6
3 ft. 6

A. 0.

12 by 3
A. 0.

18 by 2
A. 0.

Cbv3
A. 0.

G hv 2
E. 0.'

7A bv 3
A. E.

lOi
2 ft.

9by li
10 by U
E. 0.
Gbv4

D.

.') ft.
10 ft.

29 ft.

Don Jlan.

20 ft.
20 ft.
E. 0.

3bv3i

3 ft.
E. O.

7 bv 5
D. ■ 2
no

D. \i
ves

E.'O.
6bvG
D. 3
Am. 0. 3i
6i

E. 0.

4 by 3^

D. 34
2
6 ft.

4 ft. 6
2 ft.

Am. 0.
4 bv 44
■ 1|

2 ft.
6 ft.
E.O. common
12 bv 14

E.O

18 by i\
E.O.
12 bv 10

E. a

2 ft.
2 ft.
9 ft.

2 ft.

no

yes

Gft.
5 ft.

4 ft. 6

5 ft. 6
4 ft. 6
3 ft. 6

A. 0.
12 by 3
I

10 by i
A. 0.

9 by 3
A. 0.

SbvfA
A. 0.

8bv3
Am. d.

lOJ
2 ft.
9bv2
10 bv 14
E.O.

7 by 5
D. 2
bust
15 ft.

5
34 ft.

3 ft.
2 ft.
8 ft.
E.O. common
14 bv 16

18 bv 5i
E.O.
10 by 14
A. 0.
2 ft. 8
2 ft. 2
10 ft.
2 ft. 8

W. E. Mail
Packets.

yes

" rule joint
1 inch less
than stern

^ post

Royal Tar.
7 to 1

3 tons

Don Juan.

9 to I

4 tons.

2*

10 ft.

G

10 ft.

6

15

16

cast iron

cast iron

4 ft.

6

5 ft.

3

10

11

H

U

U

2|

4 ft.

3

8

9

3

U

2

2|

12 ft.

13 ft.

6

fiddle

fiddle

4 ft.

6

Gft.

26 ft.

20 ft.

20 ft.

22 ft.

7 ft.

6

Gft.

6

7 ft.

Gft.

7 ft.

Gft.

6

Gft.

6

Gft.

G

Gft.

6

6 ft.

50 ft.

52 ft.

54 ft.

56 ft.

G

4 ft.

4 ft.

12 ft.

14 ft.

5 ft.

5 ft.

lift.

13 ft.

35 ft.

6

37 ft.

37 ft.

40 ft.

36 ft.

41 ft.

28 ft.

29 ft.

27 ft.

5

28 ft.

2

3

52 ft.

58 ft.

1ft.

6

1ft.

38 ft.
68 ft.

9

GO ft.

64 ft.

1 ft.

G

1ft.

8

18 ft.

26 ft.
52 ft.

1 ft.

3

33 ft.

60 ft.

64 ft.

104

Hi

60 ft.

64 ft.

40 ft.
8 ft.

54 ft.

60 ft.

174

48 ft.

184

40 ft.

10

114

40 ft.

42 ft.

14

15

5

32 ft.

5

34 ft.

36 ft.

IS

20

12

14

W. E. Mail
Packets.

Increase of power by ditto

Size of winch chain

Diameter of chain barrel spindle

Weight winch is warranted to lift

Size of chain of crane

Radius of sweep of crane

Diameter of crane jiillar

Material of crane pillar

Diameter of spindle of chain barrel

Steering niieel — diameter (over all)

No. of spokes

diam. of spokes at smallest part

diam. of wheel spindle

length of tiller or quadrant (from
rudder centre)

diam. of barrel at end of wheel
spindle

diam. of tiller at neck

„ at outer end

increase of power by the wheel
Deck JIeasurements.
Paddle Box — height above deck

kind of sponsons

projection of sponsons
Deck Homes — extent before shaft

extent behind shaft

width at paddle bos

width at fore end

■width at after end

height at paddle bo.x

height at extremities
Qr. Deck — length from stern post

total length

height above main deck
Forecastle Deck — length

height
Breadth of vessel at after side of
forecastle

at fore side of deck houses

at after side of deck houses

at break of quarter deck

at stern post

at after extremity of qr. deck
Masts.*
No. of masts
Foremast — height above deck

mean thickness

distance from stem

ditto from funnel
Main Mast — height above qr. deck

mean thickness

distance from funnel
Mi:en Mast — height above qr. deck

mean thickness

distance from main mast
Foretop Mast — height

mean thickness
Maintop Mast — height

mean thickness
Ui:entop Mast — height

mean thickness

Spars.
Fore-yard — length

thickness at centre

thickness at extremities
Foretop-sail Yard — length

thickness at centre

thickness at extremities
Main G«#— length
thickness at jaw
thickness at outer extremity
Mi:en Go/— length
Bowsprit — length
thickness at inner or lower end
thickness at outer end

» All topmasts should be one inch in diameter for even- yard in length
in other words, their diameters should be one thirty-sixth ot their length.
The same proportion holds gond for top-gallant masts. , ., „,

Yards are propovti.med as f.Uows: namely, lo«er yards seven-tenths o
an inch for every yard in length ; top-sail yards five-eighths of an inch ; and
top-gallant yards six-tenths ot an inch.

lS-12.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

91

Table Ceonliniiedj.

1

W. E. Mail

KoyalTak.

Don Juan.

Packets.

Jib-boom — length

40 ft.

48 ft.

thickness at inner end

12

14

thickness at outer end

5

7

yiarlmgale — length

15 ft.

ICft.

thickness

Rigging.

Size of fore stay— circumference

34

6

main stay

H

4}

mizen stay

3i

4

.

No. of fore mast shrouds

7

7

main mast shrouds

6

6

mizen mast shrouds

3

funnel shrouds

Size of fore mast shrouds

5

6

main mast shrouds

'i

H

mizen mast shrouds

3*

funnel shrouds

J

H

Funnel shrouds, rope or chain ?

oliain

rope & chain

iV-VCHORS AND CaBLES.

Working anchor cable, si/e

length

wei^jht

Bower anchor cable, size

length

weight

Cat heads — mat.

E. 0.

E. 0.

I moulded and sided

11 by 12

11 by 12

:Fish davits — mat.

E. 0.

E.O.

moulded and sided at heel

6 by 6

6bv6

moulded and sided at head

5 by 5

5 by 3

Copper — weight per square foot at

water line

28 oz.

28 oz.

28 oz.

on bottom

26 oz.

2G oz.

28 oz.

all bolts below water line coppei

"1 and for 2
J feet above

if coming through ?

yes

yes

PROFESSOR HOSKING'S LECTURES ON THE PRINCIPLES .\ND
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.

Intbodcctory Lectvbe, January 24tb, 1842.

In the remarks with which I introduced my course on the Arts of Con-
STRiCTioN, last year, I intimated how much more extensively the term archi-
tecture applies, and how much more is embraced in the complete practice of
architecture than is generally inferred from it, or understood from its appli-
cation. I considered my duties then to he restricted to the consideration of
the technical combinations of matter to form constructions, hut I have now
to treat of the mental skill and the regulated taste which direct the employ-
ment of the arts of construction, and of the means of acquiring such skill
and taste, and of applying them in practice. These, together, — the mental
skill to arrange and adapt, the technical knowledge to construct, and the
regulated taste to dispose and decorate, — form the architect, and the result
of tiie combinatiou in his productions is architecture. The best constructions
applied unaptly, or incongruously disposed, the most skilful arrangements for
use, unsymmetrically disposed, or inconsistently decorated, or the most clas-
sically disposed and chastely decorated exterior to an ill-contrived plan, are
alike imworthy the name of architecture and the reputation of an architect.
I nle>s ihe arrangements for service and use are the best that the case admits
u{. unless the constructions arc perfect in themselves and in their combi-
nation, he the materials what they may, and unless the dispositions for de-
coration, and the decorations themselves, be well |iroportioncd and consistent,
a work is undeserving to be distinguished as architecture. There must be
excellence in letter an<l in spirit, in form and in substance, to constitute an
excellent work of architecture, and it is only those who combine in them-
selves the skilful arranger, the tasteful disposer, and the sound and econo-
mical constrictor, who can claim the character of architect.

The general acceptation of the term architecture is in its most restricted
•ensc, the decorative di9|>osition of buildings, or that which I refer to the
regulated taste of the architect ; but this is to take the chased and enamelled
case for the watcli, or the setting for the jewel. A ijuaint and often (|uated
writer of the I'lh century it- '■■■i. tint "the cud of architecture is to
build well," and that •• well ih three conditions, commodity, firm-

ness, and delight." All the- -, i have alrcaily said, must be fulfilled

(0 constitute architecture, and more muat be andentood by them thin the

mere words in which they arc expressed would appear to convey, but not
more than they really imply. All the operations, of wliatever kind ihey may
be, necessarv' to the (lerfect ful6lment of those conditions, arc includeil in
the system of architecture, and consequently fall within the province of the
architect to originate and direct.

I endeavoured, on the former occasion to which I have alluded, tu indicate
the line that might he drawn lietween the architect, couiniuiily so called, and
the civil engineer, constituting the latter the hydraulic architect ; hut the
first step the architect finds hiiuself called upon to take, the first eiiliject that
claims his consideration in any work that he may he employed upon, ii
strictly within the practice of hydraulic architecture, so that if the architect
be not also, not merely inlorincd, hut skilled in tiiat branch of practice, he is
unlit to take the first step, to undertake Ihe consiileration of the first subject
that presents itself in commencing the process of buihUng well. .Vn archi-
tect may he called upon — and who so competent as a thoroughly accomplished
architect .' — to choose or select a site for a town — or more comiuoiily intrin-
sic circumstances, some peculiar advantage or advantages it may posse-ss, in a
commercial point of view or otherwise, dictate the site, and it dcvulvcs uixm
the architect to fit the site for the purpose to wliich it it devoted. Euy
access by roads, which roads must be laid out and set out with prop'.r incli-
nations, and with bridges and cidvcrts to carry them over streams and
gullies, and they must he cut, formed, drained, ballasted, and metalled, or
otherwise paved ; quays to the river or the harbour must be arranged anil
formed or embanked, and constructed, encroaching upon the tideway or
widening the watenvay, as the ease may require ; or, in the absence of natu-
ral facilities for navigation, it is a question for consideration and determi-
nation— can arlilicial navigation be obtained, and how and in what manner
shall the site be best disposed of to take advantage of it ? The site of the
town must be drained, and the soil drainage taken otf, roads as streets and
open places within and about the town, must be laid out and disposed in such
manner as to be best adapteil for the buildings to be erected in and akout
them, and generally as to light, aspect, and ventilation; water must be led
to, or raised by artifice within the site of, a town, and accumulate in reservoir*,
from which it may he distributed for use and enjoyment. Many of tbcae
things may, indeed, be referred to the engineer or other extraneous prac-
titioner, but most of them arc generally left to chance, or to ha created or
corrected when the hard teacher Experience has pointed out what ought to
be, or to have been, done. It may nut happen, indeed, to very many to have
towns to originate and design, but, almost everv- building or cluster
of buildings — a nobleman's mansion or an estabUshment for manufacluriug or
other commercial purposes — a plain country house or a county asylum — a
church or a palace — all make some demand, greater or less according to situ-
ation and circumstances, upon the skill of the architect in hydraulic works
and constructions, and consequently demand, of every one professing himself
an architect, perfect competence to originate and execute them. \Mth refe-
rence to these considerations I may remark, too, that the widely evtcnded
and daily extending and improving colonics of this cmi>ire present a wide
field of emplov-mcnt to the architect and engineer, and where every thing
will be required of the pr.ictitiouer single banded, or rather where be will be
well and beneficially employed only if he can turn his hand to every thing —
to drain a marsh as well as to raise a column, to build a church or a town-
hall as well as to make a railway or to form a canal.

It is not often, perhaps, that the civil architect will have occasion for a
knowledge of military engineering, but it is very desirable that he should be
able to work with the niiJitary engineer, or rather, with reference to what the
military engineer would deem nece.ssary for the defence or protcctiuii of a
town, whether from external force or from internal commotion, and to know
how to make his arrangements accordingly. Gates and guard-houses are
not of common occurrence amongst lis at home, truly and happily, but such
works are not the less in demand in some places, and the arciiitcct who
might be called upon to assist the military engineer with the constructions
that he may not he architect enough to design and direct, or to act in the
absence of an cthcient officer of that class, would be most unfitly prepared
for the varied duties of active professional Ufe, if he were then and in cither
case founil wholly wanting.

An architect should, then, have an eye to defences and defensive erections
in laying out towns of certain kinds and under certain circuinstiuccs ; he
would act unwisely to place a n liarf or a landing-pier or jetty in that part of
a harbour where a battery may be essential for its protection, or to raise
buildings tlint woiilil intercept the fire of a fort whose guns should range
across their site.

The architect will be called upon for the exercise of skill and taste, guided
by a thorough knowledge of the peculiar rei|uireinrnls of everv- class of a
community, and of the coinmnnity as smb. in Ihe distribution of the parts of
a town, anil of the various public and private errcticins and estahlishnients
that every civilized comniiinily requires, and ei|>ccially with reference to Ihe
peculiar circumstaneci of the particular town and community. There must
be public places, as open markets or otherwise, in or u|K>n which some of the
requisite public buiMings may open and di.^play llicm>rlvei, and where foun-
tains form oninmciital and appropriate objects, an ' ' ' ' ' , .irul
gardens for exercise and recreation, sites for pi il,,-
varieties of private 'l^.^li"--. -1 iJ I'l-i'- i.ir iii:i , .,1
hiiililings anil esi i-.
These are all to lie I i i.-
general convenience and witaittagci «ud lu»aid> cllecUug lliu, the irlalivo

02

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

levels of the lowest floor of the buiUUiigs to the drainage level, together with
the requisite provision for general ventilation, should all be settled, so that
it he not left to chance or to the ignorance or caprice of individuals in build-
ing in detail, whether the town shall be pleasant and wholesome, or be the
seat of discomfort and disease.

Operating in detail, tlie architect will have to study closely the means of
securing what must be deemed essentials to every building. There must be
convenience and facility of access to the building itself; — relief from water
must be secured in everj' direction, and in whatever form water can present
itself, from the earth or from the skies, by the foundations or by the roofs,
and with this the relief of every building in which such can arise, of soilage,
must be fully provided for ; the admission of air is to be regulated and
brought under control, to ventilate without establishing injurious draughts ;
and light is to be admitted and diffused so that cverj- part of an interior may
be appropriately and sufficiently lighted, and lighted from a general cource
directly, or with as little recourse to borrowed ami artificial lights as pos-
sible ; equable temperature throughout the varying seasons is to be main-
tained by the exclusion of excess of heat at one season, and by the promotion
and ditTnsion of heat to warm at another ; and perfect facility of intercom-
munication to the fullest extent that intercommunication may, in each par-
ticidar case, be desirable, between the parts of an interior, whatever may be
the relative levels of the parts, or at whatever distance they may be from one
another.

Next to the general essentials, which are as much so to a Peniten-
tiary or to an Hospital as to a Palace, are the particular arrangement and
distribution of each peculiar class of buildings. This does not admit of
general definition, but to take one and a large class of buildings — dwelling-
houses, — and their congeners, buildings which include offices for state, as pa-
laces and other official residences, and houses which include offices for ser-
vice, as professional, mercantile, and commercial houses, as well as domiciles : —
every building of this class may be resolved into three departments — the public
and the familiar or social, — the private, — and the domestic oreconomic ; all being
alike severed and connected by means of halls, vestibules, courts, corridors,
passages, and staircases, and so that every apartment may be at once secluded
and accessible, and without destroying the power of secluding or of making
accessible every other whose use demands one or both of these qualities.

The economical composition of a building, with reference to the materials
to be employed, in drains, foundations, walls, partitions, floors, roofs, ceilings,
stairs, doors, windows, chimnies, and all other essential and accessorial de-
tails, with the details of their construction and combination as to quantity
and quality of material, and the ])roportion of each jiarticular kind, and the
nature, quality, and extent of work or labour required, or to be employed in
constructing and combining the materials, is an important part of the study
of the architect. The basis of this study — the arts of construction — I treat
of in another course addressed to both architects and engineers, but in the
practice of the architect the economical composition of materials involves
the application of the arts of construction with a nmltiplicity of detail un-
known in the ordinary practice of the engineer or hydraulic architect. There
is not only the formation, construction, and faU of drains, but their ramified
distribution to take off both water and soil drainage, and to make the water
act upon the soil to scour it away ; supphing water, too, sufficient to effect
this from some certain source, trapping them in such manner as to cut off
and prevent the return of offensive smells, arranging so as to render them
easily accessible for repairs, and in arranging to avoid running them through
the bases of the superstructions ; — all form essential studies for the architect.
In like manner with the various kinds of materials in parallel constructions,
and having irregular or unequal tendencies to settle, as brick or stone walls
and partitions, and partitions of timber, — brick walls and stone stairs set in them ;
—these, and numberless other things in the ordinary practice of the architect,
call for the exercise of much forethought and consideration in the economical
composition and combination of materials, where the unpractised observer
would not discern a necessity for either,until the effects resulting from the want
of lioth.and of sound practical knowledge to guide them, are displayed in bulged
walls, cracked ceilings, rounded floors and doors, sashes and shutters that
will not shut when opened, nor open when shut.

The particular arrangement and distribution of buildings according to the
purposes for which they are respectively required or intended, to adapt every
kind of building to its special use, demand tliet the architect be of ready
apprehension, and that he possess ingenuity in devising, combined with skill
in constructing ; for practice will more frequently require him to make his
plan to fit the place than supply a place to receive the building as be might
prefer to plan it, and he will thus be called upon to invent arrangements in
almost every particular case, to secure what is required in the manner best
adapted to the circumstances of the case. The uses of buildings are, indeed,
so various, and the requirements of each particular use so dift'ercnt from those
of every other, in all the classes of buildings, — every individual building of a
class requiring or possessing peculiarities in site or other circumstances, and
thus presenting in every case a new study, — that an architect cannot stereotype
the drawings and specification of a design for any particular class of building,
though rendered as perfect as the most careful study with the most intimate
knowledge of his subject can make it, any more than the lawyer can stereo-
type bis brief, or tlie physician bis prescription, unless, indeed, the architect
be, — what the ))hysician who did so would be called — a (juack. Every case
brings to the lawyer its own circumstances, — in which be finds it to differ from
every other, though the name of the process be the same; the physician finds
every new patient to present something different, though suft'ering from the '

same disease ; and the architect finds the data upon which he has to work, —
be the subject a church or a college, — a mansion or a cottage, — to differ for
every church, college, mansion or cottage, to which his attention may be
directed. The usual premises are the subject, the site, the kind and the eatent
of accommodation required, and the money to he expended. Instead of this
last premiss, it would be more proper to give the kinds and qualities of tua-
terials to be adopted, and the quality of work required, as to finish and deco-
ration, though it is too frequently expected that these shall be of the more,
if not the most, expensive, while the outlay is limited, and the architect has,
not only the task of adapting the subject to the site — frequently no easy task —
but thefurther complex Procrustean operation involved in fulfilling the other con-
ditions,which — it maynot be wondered at — architects seldom succeed in doing
peifectly. In the first jdace, and indejiendefitly of site or other circumstances,
and irrespective of cost, the various subjects present themselves to the archi-
tect with their varying general characteristics, and, as I have said, the con-
sideration of these alone will show that the requirements of the classes of
buildings are neither few nor easy of fulfilment, without perfect possession by
the architect of all the technical knowledge and skill already indicated, and
of science to guide and regulate the process ; nor, indeed, with all these un-
less he have acquired haljits of observation and possess ingenuity in the ap-
plication of what he may know and observe, together with facility of ifiven-
tion and power of adaptation, even in the arrangement and distribution of
buildings with reference to their uses only, and without any reference to
decorative disposition, which last may be said to form almost a separate
study.

Taking the rarious sulijects or classes of buildings which form the common
range of architectural practice, it will be seen how they justify these obser-
vations. And first as to Churches. This important class of buildings de-
mands an arrangement which will give peculiar prominence to one person —
the fuinister — who must be brought within the eye and ear of every individual
of a congregation, and enable the congregation to unite with the minister in
public worship, and that without confusion from imperfect means of com-
munication ; whilst, at the same time, the largest number of persons must
be brouglit within the smallest space consistently with the comfortable
accommodation, in the varying attitudes of sitting, standing, and kneeling,
of every person provided for ; together with freedom and ease of access and
egress to and from every jiart with the least possible display. In Courts,
H.iLLS, or Chambers for DELtBERATivE Assemblies, it is required that
every individual congregated shall [he alike visibly and audibly prominent.
Courts of Law, and for the administration of justice, demand prominence
to be given to particular persons, as the judge or the magistrate, the accuser
and the accused or their counsel, the witnesses and the jury, and so that
each and every one may see and be seen, hear and be heard by all the rest ;
whilst a continually changing auditory must be provided for, and in such
manner that the movements of unoccupied persons may not disturb or de-
range the business of the tribunal. Town and Guild Halls combine many
of the requisites of both chambers for deliberative assemblies and courts for
the administration of justice, on a smaller scale, hut their compound charac-
ter demands for them, nevertheless, a particular study. Theatres, as usually
understood, for the exhibition of dramatic performances, require the peifect
exposition for both sight and hearing of one part to the occupiers of all the
rest of their interior, with separation of the occupiers or auditors amongst
themselves into classes, and some of the classes again into secluded parties,
giving to all classes separate means of ingress and egress, and at all times
without disturbance or confusion. Oth'er than dramatic theatres require
their own particular objects to be provided for, and all but theatres for dra-
matic exhibition and performance require the admission and difi'usion of the
light of day as well as provision for artificial lighting, which latter alone is
supplied to dramatic theatres, and constitutes them singular in that important
particular. Exchanges, or Markets without the presence of the commodities
to he bought and sold, require accommodation for large concourses, and in
such manner that people may move about singly or in groups, and thus inter-
communicate without confusion. Markets, for the exposure and sale and
purchase of goods. These are real and substantial Exchanges, and they may
be general or special, and according as the market is devoted to one par-
ticular purpose, — when the aiTangements must be specially adapted to the
conservation of the jjarticular article, as well as to its exposition for sale, — or
the market being general, it must possess in different parts the peculiarities
necessary for diff"erent articles ; — whilst, in all, every facihty is to be provided
for freedom and ease of passage to the public in every direction, and all con-
venience of exposition for sale must be made subservient to facilitate the
examination and selection of articles by buyers. Baths, though not so
much called for, indeed, in this country, as public establishments, as they
may and ought to be, require much skill and tact to arrange and distribute
them without loss of space, and to effect the separation and seclusion of one
part from another, and to provide for the combined publicity and privacy
vihich the use of swimming-baths — the best sort of bath — compels and de-
mands. It would, however, be endless to rehearse in detail the requirements
of every particular class of buildings, and the recital of their designations
will convey a sufficient idea, for my present purpose, of their varieties, and
of the demand made therefrom upon the architect for ready apprehension of
the peculiar requirements of each jjarticular class of buildings, and for intelli-
gence and ingenuity in siip])lying and producing what may be required. There
are buildings for fiscal and admin isTRATivEpiu-poses in almost endless vari-
eties :— Public— as Custom Houses, Excise Offices, Jlints, Stamp Offices, Post
Offices, Offices and chambers for the departments of Stale, Treasury adminis-

1812.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

0.3

tration, administration of the army and navy; — combination of public and
private,— as the buildings of the Bank of Enilaii.i, and the East
India and South Sea Houses in Loudon, ordinary banking-houses,
oliices of assurance, and other companies administering business in public
and with the public. Collegiate and I'niversitv Uiildings have cer-
tain general requirements in common, but these arc few compared with the
iliversities that occur in them according to local, social, and other circnm-
stances, so that arrangements admirably adapted in one case niav be totally
unfitted for, or unsuited in, another. Suppose the buildings of any college
at Oxford or Cambridge. — suppose those of King's College at the latter imi-
versily. — to have been selected as models for the buildings of King's College in
London ; it will be obvious at a glance, that when the site of tiie latter is
determined to be part of that of Somerset I'lacc. the models are of no more
use in this case than a model of Somerset House, with its deep substructions,
would be for a Royal Palace upon the high and open jilatforni of Hyde Park.
The comliined school and hospital, as at Christ Church in London, must re-
(juire buildings widely ditt'erent from a proprietary college school, and so on
througli every variety, from the splendid collegiate buildings at Eton to the
humijle p.irish school. Miseims or Conservatories for the safe keeping
and preservation and convenient exposition of various objects, demand pecu-
liar treatment in their arrangement and distribution to fullil the ilitiercnt and
chifering conditions. — for exposure and preservation are with many tliinirs
almost incompatible with one another. Exhibition Rooms and Oalleries,
whether for works of art or for productions of industry, must be arraneed to
suit their peculiar ends, and with direct reference to them. There is room—
yerj- great room— for improvement in the arrangement of this class of build-
ings, for too frequently light is admitted in such manner as to throw heavy
shadows over the objects intended to be displayed, or the objects are rendered
invisible by the manner in which the light is made to fall upon them, or
again, the objects being placed behind or under glass, the observer linds a
reHection of himself or of the skylight frames, or other apparatus by which
light is admitted, instead of the picture, preparation, or specimen, which it
is his object to see. It may almost be considered waste of time for a young
architect to occupy himself in studying the arrangement and distribution
necessary to a Roval Palace, as it may be quite time enough for such a
matter when the occasion shall occur, but such buildings as Uoyal Palaces
have been wanted, and the arcliitect has been found wanting. ' Moreover,
buildings for combined state and service, part.-iking of the nature of palaces^
though not royal residences, are not so unfrequently required, so that the'
study of even that class of buildings may not be thrown awav. Hospit\ls
for the sick in body, and .AsvLL'Ms for the diseased in mind— Prison.s for
the accused, and Penitentiaries for the convicted— Barracks for soldiers
and .Vrmoiries and .Vrsenals for the preparation and conservation of war-
like stores— Mills and Manvpactories, suited to the thousand arts of
industry— Storehouses for receiving and laying up the raw material, and
«AREHoisEs for thc reception of the manufactured goods— Shops and
f=ALE-Roo.Ms for the display and distribution of the various articles in a con-
■■n for use- all h.ivc their peculiarities and ever,- peculiariiv in each par-
liar case is to be learnt and applied, so that the' brewer lua'v find that the
arciutect can improve upon the arrangements he bad deemed perfect in his brew-
cry, and the surgeon confess that the operating theatre of his hospital is better
adapted to its purposethan he bad imagineil possible. The largest class of build-
ings yet remains, and it will be found that great as thc varictv of requirement is
in buildings distinguished as public, it is even greater in the class of dwelling
HoisEs ; for although every house may be resolved into the three depart-
ments which the uses and habits of social life require.— everv house having
its sitting room, its sleeping room, and its cooking room,— the nobleman's
mansion must have these multiplied and extended, with accessories to include
all that hiiinan wants and wishes can demand, whilst the shopkeeper is
content to expose his gooils for sale in the best parts of his hmise, and to
ook, eat. and sleep where his business mav leave him room, and the la-
bourer in his turn is hut too glad to find his cottage so arranged bv the
economic ^kill of the architect, that cooking, eating, and sleeping, have' each
■larate apartment. The idea of a peasant's cottage being included in thc
■ esof an architect may excite a smile, but if architects were more em-
L-d u|ioi. peasant's cottages, there might be less occasion for their ser-
in liuibnng County Hospitals and Union Workhouses. With the class of
- ' luses may be included thc study of buildings which often become
to the dwelling-house, as stables to the mansion, and airicultural
^ •. the farm-house, though, indeed, both have their peculiarities,
require much obscnation and careful consi.leratioii to adapt propcrlv to
I uses. Inns, hotels, club-houses, public libraries, and buildings for 'the
■if societies or institutions for thc promotion or acquisition of knowled-e
their museums, their theatres or lecture rooms, and their reading
, imssess a mLxed pubUc and private character, and must be treated

!e. in the cour<e of study for the architect— to make the course of

•• comidele-the i.arlicular de^ign. arrangement and distribution

1 hydraulic architecture : for the scpaiation of this into another

u 01 practice, induced in great measure bv a ciiuse to which I shall

h-^> left the architect ignorant of much that he ought lo know, whilst

■r has not learnt what architecture in its complete form would

There is, indeed, one class of works in particular, usuallv umbr-

■;; the engineer, susceptible of being greatly impro\cd and' greailv

mized. but It IS through an alteration in thc jtcreotvped arrangemuit

. long usage has sanctioned, and thc cnginccr-architect is not architect

enough to discover the fitness of the innovation, and ardiiiect^ have been
such slaves to a stereoty|icd system of architectural disposition that thev
would not venture upon, if they had discovered it. I allude to brid-es of
masonr.v, of which the design may. I believe, be greatly improved, while the
cost ol construction is materi.illy diminished.

The Jirmneis and camnioilily of buildings being provided for. the deco
rative .lisposition. or the condition that Sir Henry Wotton distinguishes bv
the term rfeV,/ is to he considered ; not that thc consideration to this end
IS to be deferred or postponed, for if it be not present to thc mind of the
architect in designing for firmness and commoditv— if everv arrangement for

a vertical tendency,
. , „ • ,^''^ ""^ """=• ^'i E?.vptian obelisk, a Grecia'n

temple, a Roman aqueduct, a Gothic castle, and a pointed cathedral.

the elements of beaut

this the more especially, as they diifered from tiie commonly reccfi^d' doc-

trines as to authority and example in these m.itters ; and'aslhave
believe, by means of the publication to which lallu.le. influenced the opi'i

of m

as I

opinions

rn'>rii
accui'l

any ot my juniors in thc profession, whilst the appointment which I have
thc honour to hold in this college renders it probable th.it the etrcet of mv
opinions will have yet a still further influence upon those who mav be and
become students of architecture here. I have met the accustomed fate of
innovators, having been misrepresented by garbled extracts from what I have
said, in one quarter.— and my suggestions and illustrations have Iicen adopted
cxemphtied, ami put forth as his own, by another writer, who intimates in
the same volume, that I shall retract my opinions when I have crown old
enough to know hotter. The name that I was the first to suggest for the
beautiful style of architecture of which we mav be proud to possess the
finest exemplars and the best school in practice, has been adopted and
employed by many, but never, as far as my observation has reached, with the
slightest acknowledgment of the source from which tliev derived it.

I can perceive, in what I wrote between ten and twelve vcars ago, manv
remarks that more practical knowledge, derived from loneer experience and a
more matured judgment, the gift of added years, would enable me to improve
in revising; but 1 do not find anything to retract in the opinions 1 expressed
or in the advice I oftere^l. I make thjs statement after havini: again looked
carefully througli the writings of Vitruvius, in the Enslish version of one of
his best-qu.ililied translators that 1 might not have to guess, with one of his
most ardent admirers and devotees, at his Greek as at his Latin, and thereby
come to a worse conclusion. I find now, as 1 found before, much fabulous
narrative, many unintelligible or inapplicable descriptions and direction*
some truisms upon thc art of building, some curious antiquarian reminis"
cences, and some excellent remarks upon professional conduct ami practice •
and I continue, thereupon, to bold the ojiinitu that I formed before I was'
twenty.five years of age, and published before I was thirtv, and now rc|>eat to
you, that " a student would acquire as correct a knowledge of history and of
geography from the 'Seven Champions of Christendom' and ' Gulliver's
Travels,' as of architecture from the existing writings of Vitruvius."

.My own treatise upon architecture will be my text-book iu treating of the
various modes and styles of design, and of their appUcation in practice ; but
1 shall prefer to illustrate my observations by reference to works in execution
to any other mode, believing th.it I may thereby induce a habit of observation
in the student, which will be of much greater value to him in the formation
of his mind and in directing its application, than can ever be obtained bv thc
in-door study of drawings and models, or by the attempt to orisinate' and
design before the mind is formed and before the judgment can bc^naturcd.
Thc various forms, modes, and styles of design usually recoenizcd in archi-
tecture are generally conned by the student in drawings, and'lcarnt bv rote
III cojiying ; and the details thus acquired are often applied in practice, with-
out a thought or an idea on the part of the practitioner that architecture
consists in anything more than a repetition of those certain forms, disposed
according to certain fixed rules. In truth, however, each particular stvle
may be considered as a distinct and peculiar language ; and, like a language,
before a man can compose in it, he must not only learn to rcid and to%iic"ak
it, but to think in it ; and more than that, his liiind must be fully imbued
with the genius and spirit of the language, before his composilions'in it can
he rendered deserving of admiration, even when the power of original thought
is present. It is not all lueu that can speak and write, who can speak and
write u'ell even in their mother tongue; they are few who can compose with
e.-isc and elegance in another than their native language ; but where is the
mull to be found, competent to compose and to cypress himself with propriety
in each language of all the languages that possess a literature ? And wheie is
thc architect who can use with truth and iVeedom all the various st\les of
arehitectiirc ? Kathcr learn to use one stjle well than many styles bailly,
or )our (ireek will be like the nonsense verses of ichool-boyj' oinl your
English or Pointed C(uh| . , ., . 'of modern;

with scraps fruiii all the . ibc sun. n:

to the mere Lnglisli reaii. ,... and tattet,,, , ,.. an

literate language, when useil Willi propriety, with proper knowledge of their
powers, and with sutbcient power to wield them.

From what I have already laid, it will 1 think appear iiifticitntlv obvioui that

04

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

the iiualifications of an architect are neither few nor trivial ; and that when
acmiircci, thcv place him as much beyond the mere artist, as the artist is
beyond the artisan. Architecture and architects sufler together, from their
association in the public mind with the imitative arts, and with mere artists :

the practice of arclutectnre is thought to consist in maliing drawings, and

the architect to be at best but a drawer of plans '. Hence the responsible
duties that devolve upon the architect are quite lost sight of; the careful
study required to fulfil the conditions necessary to building well— the labour
of pre-arranging and specifying everything for useful service, and as to labour
and materials, their proportion, composition, and combination, in detail, so
that the cost of execution may be minutely estimated beforehand— the
anxious care in supervising, that the work be properly executed, preparing
and supplfuig in the meanwhile perfect delineations of tlic constructions and
decorations in detail, and tlie eventual investigation of accounts;— all these
things are unknown, overlooked, or unheeded, and the architect is considered
as an overpaid artist— artists being Unked in the same category with
plavers, fiddlers, and dancers ! , , ,

But whv, it may be asked, is this so ? Why are men who must have
extensive scientific and artistic qualifications— who must, moreover, be good
men of business, when they arc properly qualified to practise as architects—
and who must, withal, be in a certain condition of life, to be trusted with
directing the expenditure of large sums of money- wliy is it that this class
of men is so lightly esteemed ? I have already said, that it is in a great
measure because architects have sunk into mere artists : as such they are
considered, and they submit tbereuiion to be treated in a manner that would
he resented as iusulting liv anv well-regulated profession. An architectural
design is looked upon as an artist's sketch— a work of nought,— and every
man how ignorant soever, deems himself competent to judge of us merits ;
and the unworthy practice of architects is to sulimit to have their productions
so considered and so adjudged. Consequently architecture, as at present
practised, is not a profession for a gentlemau ; but it is in tlie bands of
architects themselves to amend the practice, and if every young man entering

the profession would determine for himself that it should be amended in liis
cpse— as it has for a long time been in mine— a very few years would suffice
to render the profession of architecture as honourable as it is useful.

I shall have been understood to refer to the existing practice of making
designs by what is termed competition. Now competition, properly con-
ducted.'isthe sure way to obtain excellence; but there are many conditions to
the proper conduct of a competition. There must l)e perfect explicitness in the
terms —careful investigation to determine that the terms are complied with,—
perfect competence in the judges to select,— and perfect honour in making the
selection. But to be what they ought to be, the terms of a competition
should go to the extremest degree of minuteness, and amount to an iinap.
plied specification ; every design should be accompanied by a specification of
the terms applied by the author to his particular design ; and every design,
with its specification, should be tried by competent and trustworthy investi-
-ators,'upon the specified terms. Such of the designs presented in a com-
petition as should pass such an examination might be then examined as to
their fulfilment of the conditions in building veil, and with special reference
to the existing case, and the selection made accordingly.

But where are the parties requiring designs for works of architecture who
will incur the expense, and take the trouble to propose terms as they ought
to be proposed, while architects will speculate upon the chances of interest,
or upon tlie effect of a clap-trap drawing or model ? where the architect who
would take pains to act up to the terms— if the conditions were as I have
supposed— for a mere lottery-like chance of being either re-irabursed bis
expenses, or paid for his labours ? and where the tribunal to which designs
for works of architecture could be submitted, with the remotest probability
of their being examined, understood, and appreciated, in such a manner as to
insure the selection of the best design ? Such a tribunal is not to be found,
and such an one cannot exist under the present system ; and all the schemes
hitherto propounded, as far as my knowledge goes— and I have not been a
blind observer— are utterly inadequate to answer the true end of competition
— the production of excellence.

Some would form a jury of architects, to investigate the merits of designs
submitted in competitions ; but the favourite project is to exhibit competition
designs, that the imtlic may judge of their merits. Exhibit Greek odes, and
hieroglyphic inscriptions, and ask the public to judge of the merits of the
one, and to give translations of the other ! for there are as many of the
pulilic as competent to cither of these things, as to judge of the comparative
merits of a series of different architectural designs for the same tiling:— I
mean, of course, with reference to all and everything that a design should
include. It seems strange, too, upon reflection, to find that in every propo-
sition it is the architects who are to bear the expense of any proposed
investigation ! But who are the parties to be benefited by a competition ?
Surely, not the architects ! Only one can have the commission contended for,
and the most likely man, if there were to be no competition, is the most certain
when there is one; neither is the amount of business for tlie profession, nor
the remuneration of the successful competitor increased, by the establish-
ment of a general concurrence. How then is it to be managed, that the
public shall have the advantage of competition to obtain pre-eminent designs,
whilst architects mav not lie degraded by submission to insult and injury .'
Simply thus ; that architects should do as,— or rather, should not do other-
wise than,— lawyers and physicians do. AVhat barrister takes a brief, or what
physician visits a patient, without an konorarimn .' Wlio ever saw an adver-

tisement from a town council or a corporation committee, addressed " To
Barristers," asking an opinion upon a legal case in which they might happen
to be interested, intimating that a copy of the case would be supplied to
competitors Ijy the town-clerk, on payment of a guinea, and that the party
whose opinion the aldermen or the committeemen might think the best
should have a premium of ten guineas, and perhaps be employed to con-
duct the case ? Or who ever heard of a sick man sending for half a dozen
physicians, with an offer of a guinea to that one of them whose advice he— the
patient— might think the best ? And why should it l)e otherwise with archi-
tects than with barristers and physicians ?— The only way to estal^lish and
maintain " respectability and uniformity of practice" in ungoverncd profess-
ions is, (bv mutual consent, which a minority in standing and reputation
must yield,' if a majorit^• require it.) to hold no brief,— to give no advice,- to
furnisii no design,— without a competent fee. it is the parties seeking designs,
and who desire to derive advantage from the application of many minds to
the same subject, that are to be benefited ; and they who seek a lieneat must
be content to pay for it. Moreover, it can never happen, but that in several
designs for the same thing there will be some points or parts in some or
other of the designs, than that which may be generally the best, better than
the same parts in the best design. When all are paid for, aU may be used;
and the best design in a concurrence may be greatly improved by the incor-
poration of the excellencies of the others.

Had the course I recommend been pursued in the case of the Houses Ot
Parliament Designs, the eminent architect who was most deservedly success-
ful in that competition must have been included iii any number called upon,
however bmited, because of his already attained eminence, and the country
would thus have had the advantage of sucli improvements in the preferred
design as the other concurring designs miglit have suggested ; and this with-
out submitting the architect himself to the insults he received in being
charged with pirating un-premiated designs. Reference to this calls to my
recollection an instance in connexion with it of the disadvantages architects
suffer, from the habit the public, and with the public the pubUc authorities,
have acquired of considering architects as mere artists. The architect of the
palace of the Legislature was put into leading-strings during the formation
of the foundations of his work ; and the construction of the river-wall, winch
forms the effective liasement of its main front, was taken entirely out of his

bands ! , , , ^ i • •

\gain, it is essential to the proper understanding of an elaborate design in
arcliitecturc, that the architect should explain his intentions, with the draw-
ings before them, to tlie parties who may have the selection. 'Ihis lieing
do°ue by the four, six or eight architects who may have lieen called upon, —
for where fees are to be paid to all concurring, there would be no advertise-
ment, such as I have often seen, giving permission to, rather than inviting a
concurrence of, " masons, builders, survei/ars. and architects /'— unpractised
persons would be able to determine, without great risk of error, upon the
design best adapted for what they may want. Favour may determine the
selection, certainly, but that is the case now, and to a much greater extent
than could be when the more intelligent man was seen in connexion with the
better design; and besides this, the uncommissioned competitors would,
accordinn- to my proposition, be paid for their trouble, and would receive no
substantive injury bv the wrong the parties might thus do themselves, or
those for whom they act, in selecting by favour rather than l)y merit.

The general com'petition system has liecn defended upon the plea that it
gives young men opportunities, or cliances rather, of obtaining employment
that they could not otherwise hope for; but I believe that the moral iiijury done
by the system to young men, in leading them to bow and cringe in seeking
favour, and from the unworthy too, and the expenses they may be drawn
into, are evils liut poorlv compensated by the advantages, such as they are.
Young men have been ruined for life by success in a general competition;
some have been cheated out of the prizes they were declared to have won ;
and many have been driven to despair by failure, who might in due time have
succeeded in obtaining business, had they worked duly, and had they not been
tempted out of t!ie beaten path of industry by these ignes fatm. .Vnother
plea is, that competition designs give architects employment for their pupils.
This must, of course, be in the absence of practice ; and 1 introduce this sub-
ject here, to take from it the opportunity it affords, of warning students
against offices where the usual occupation of pupils is in making speoulation
designs. You mav do such things, if they ought to be done, without paying
hi»h premiums fur the privilege of doing tliem in an architect's office.

To make the profession of architecture worthy of a gentleman, you must
determine, each man for himself, thiit it shall be so; and to this eftect
decbne to render jirofessional services in any form, without that species of
acknowledgment wliich it is essential you should obtain, to secure respect
for either your services or yourselves.

The Artesian Well at Grenelle.—h new tube is now making for tbe ued of
Grenelle in iron, of such a thickness that it will bear the pressure ot oO to m
atmosi-heres. Experiments have lieen tried on two tubes placed one within
the other, as the tubes were in the bore of the well, to ascertain wliat degree
(,f pressure would be necessary to force them in ; but though the hydraulic
ram was employed, it required a pressure of from 12 to lo atmospheres to
produce any eftect on the tubes. The water still llo«s as copiously as ever,
moderately warm, and alternately limpid and black as the sewers ot 1 aris.—
GalisnanVs Messenger^

1842.]

?THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

0.5

MR. VIQNOLES' LECTURES OX CIVIL EKGINEERIN'G, AT THE
LONDON" UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

( Continued from page 60.)

Lecti-re VIL J.nn.5. 1842.— Tlie Professor ccmmonced liy stating that he
had then readied the tliird division of the firs! courso, and his present lecture
would L* upon retaining walls. The meaning of the tecl nical term.s of " rc-
taininvr" and "sustaining"' walls was— when a wall was used eilluT to support
water or earth arlificially put together; but when it was used to supp rt
natural earth, it was often called a "breast-work." As the term "batir"
would often be maiie use of in that and the following lecture, he proceeded
to explain that the batir was the base of a triangle, formed by the slope of
the wall and perpendiculars of the other two sides — thui a batinng wall
was a 'loping wall. The introduction of retaining walls was very ancient;
in Italy there were several of great antiquity, formed of concrete, rubble,
8;c., an.l even some parts of the great wall of China were built in that way.
Retaining walls were generally introduced at the ends of bridges, to connect
the aluiments ot the bridge w ith the natural ground ; but in these cases they
were ca led " w ing walls." In forming roads retaining walls were sometimes
carried along the sides of the valleys— the road itself having to be cut at
times .i^ung the sides of hills so precipitous, that half was embankment and
half cutting. In the celebrated road formed by Napoleon across the Alps.
there were many instances of work of this kind, and good lessons c uld be
learnt from the failures which had taken place, the reasons for which were
generally very apparent. In Telford's grand road through AVales, there were
many instances of retaining walls, and one in particular, where the road h.ad
to pass along the side of a hill which was nearly perpendicular. The great
cutting' from Camden-tonn to Euston-square was another instance, but, from
certain causes, which he very ably expbiined, the walls were giving way in
many places. He then proceeded to lay down, by numerous diagrams, seven
forms of retaining walls mailc use of, and pointed out, by mathematical for-
mula and practical e.\i)eriments that had been made, and which the diagrams
explained, the best forms for use. In No. I the batir was represented as being
equal on each side of the wall ; in No. 2 the batir was on the side next the
earth to be supiiorled ; No. 3 was a parallel batiring wall ; in No. 4 the
batir w.as next the earth, but at the bottom of the wall, No. 5, the batir was
on the outside, at the top ; No. Gwas a parallel and [lerpendicular wall, with
no batir on either side; and No. 7 had theb.itir at the outer side of the wall,
and next the earth the slope was cut in steps ; these seven diagrams showed
tlie common forms of retaining walls. The grand points to be considered
were — 1st, the \alue of the pressure that the earth exercised against retain-
ing walls ; and, 2nd, the description and dimension of the n all nccessiry to
oiler sufficient resiit.ince to that pressure. It was found that if you take
away the wall, the earth will for a short space of time retain its position, but,
after exj osure, it will lx>gin wiih crumbling at the edges, and ultimately gain
a slo| e so .as to lie at the angle, which is called the " angle of repose." This
requires, m building retaining walls, that the angle of repose of the descrip-
tion of earth to be supported should be ascertained : this done, the pressure
to be resisted might be calculated, and the dimensions of the wa 1 be decided
upon accordingly. Of all the descriplions of retaining walls. No. 3 was the
one which oflertd the most support with the least quantity of material, and
which had, by experiments made at Dublin, under the direction of Sir J.
Durgoyne and the Board of Public Voiks of Ireland, been fully proved. The
Profe.^^or then explained the nature of the several experiments, and the effects
uiion ;he walls, exemplifying them by very instructive diagrams. The atten-
tion of tlie students was next called to the cunilinear batir, and several very
interesting cases were adduced of failure in that plan, from v.arious caus s,
but principally from water, lie then allulcd to two or three failures of bis
own. and fully explained to the students the causes of them, and the nie.ins
be should have adopted in the first instance for their prevention. The occa-
sional supporting of walls was judicious in various instances; suppose there
Was a ease, that, wliilc the earth was in an unsettled state, the pressure
against the wall was double what it would be when it had settled ; in such a
case he would recommend supporting walls until the settlement took place-
not to go to double I lie expense fot'w temporary purpose, lie then mentioned
a very remarkable instance of an abutment, which was practically a retain-

ng wall, giving way. Me had to make an arch of twenty feet span lor a river,
through an embankment eighty feet high ; the foundation «as rock, but a
sudden liitch look place in the body of the (ml>ankment,anil the earth forced
its way through very many feet of saiul backing, drove the .ibutmenl or re-
taining wall clean oil the rock, and tnoved the whole twelve or thirteen feet.
Several giH)d rules were then laid down to calculate the do^cliptiotl of wall to
be used, and melhiHl of giving a temporary support until the ear h settled ;
nnd the learned lecturer, in eonclrsloii. stated tb:it hbs next lecture wi uld lie
given on ^^'orm«oad Scrubbs. where there were some most remarkable

instances of failures in retaining walls, the reason of which he couU better
explain on the spot th .n by diagrams.

THE ATMOSrilERlC KAILW.W.

Lf.cti-iie VIII. Jan. 10, 1842.— TliiB being intended as a practical illus-
tration of some interesting and important jioints, the lecture was delivered on
the works of the railways situated at, or near. Wormwood Scrubbs, in place
of being given, as usual, in the Ircture room of University College.

The fust point to which Mr. A'ignoles directed the attention of the class
was to ilie atmospheric railway, or rather, a portion of railway laid down on
that principle for experimental purposes, u[<on the line belonging to the
West London Railway Company. The length of this experimental line is
half a mile, and, according to the Professor's statement, it fully answered
the pnrpose ; and he, at some length and with great ingenuity, explained
the principles of the system. The iron tube fir^t attracted attention; it is
nine inches in diameter, w ith a grooved slit along the upper surface, which is
closed by means of a valve ot le.ither, slrengihened by plates of iron, flat on
the outside, and forming the segment of a circle on the inside, so as to com-
plete the diameter of the tube when it is shut ; at the edge of the valve it a
composilion of bees'-wax and tallow, which renders the tube air tight. Next
was examined the carriage, to which was attached a piston, fitting into the
tube, and a very ingenious contrivance was shown, by which the valve was
first opened, and afterwanls closed down, immediately after the piston had
passed, however great the velocity of the carriage. The imjiossibilily of pro-
curing a perfect vacuum had long been assigne<l as the great objection t(>
this principle of ] roducing locomotion ; but Professor Vignoles showed that a
good working half vacuum was. by the simple contrivance he had explained,
quite attainable, and sufficient for practical purposes. The engine and air-
pump were next severally examined and explained, and the lecturer then gave
some very interesting CNplanations of matters connected with the present
experimental railway ; he stated that the air from the half mile of tube could
be extracted in about one minute, while it \>ould take nearly eight minutes
for the leakage of the valve and air-tube to admit the air to fill the tube. In
consequence of the imperfections in the present line, vibich had been merely
laid down for experiment, the leakage was very much more considerable than
when a perfect line should be formed for service ; and the formation of a rail-
way on the atmospheric principle would not exceeJ, perhaps, one-third of
the cost of many of the great lines hitherto contracted for, as it would do
away with much of the cutting and embankment, ihe slips of which had
recently been so troulilesume and dangerous, by the trains being able, on
this method, to ascend eonsi.lerable acclivities. Tlie present experimental
line had a rise of about one foot in 110, and he had gone along at the rate of
forty-five miles an hour, notwithst nding the imperfections of the machinery
and the wretched state of the line. He pointed out that it would be practicably
impossible for a locomotive to travel upon such a line, as it would be off the
rails immediately, in consequence of their being so uneven and loose ; yet he
hiid travelled at the rate he before mentioned, with jierfect ease and safety,
and. furthermore, the extreme simplicity of the machinery rendered it very
unlikely to get out of order. A feiv weeks back the line n.is required suddenly
for some experiment, and, although the tube was half full of ice, in less than
half an hour everything was in readiness, and the trial was very satisfacton .
The power obtained by the present small tube is 500 lb., with an atmospheric
pressure of about 8 lb. per inch only. The engine employed to work ihe air-
pump is sixteen or eighteen horse-power, and the economy of stationary
over locomotive power was admitted by every body. He concluded his
remarks upon this interesting, and what promises to be most useful applica-
tion of the power of atmospheric pressure, by det.ailing, at some length, the
minutiffi of the saving that would be elTectcd by its general ailoption, and
stating that two miles were to be laid down upon the Dublin and Kingstown
Railway, to try the experiment upon a larger scale, with a tube fifteen inches
in diameter, and more perfect apparatus. The Professor then, .as the party
walked along the line, pointed out to the class various slips that had taken
place, some of w hieh were slight and others extensive ; one part in particular,
situated between the Great Western and London and Himiingham Uaihiays
(which arc here within a quarter of a mile of each other), attracted general
atlenliun, the wliok-, for nearly 100 yards, lieing a perfect ch.aos A r.inark-
ablo instance of a failure of a retaining wall here presented itself, it havin«
for about forty-five yards, l-een actually pusliwl forward ofl ilie fuund.ation.
to a distance of eight or ten feel, the wall still standing, which apiieared to
U alx.ut four feel thick, strongly built of brick and concrete, and strength-
ened with bands of iron nnd wood. The causes of this destruction were
explained by Mr. Vignoles as arising from the lodgment of water, which,
having no outlet, had settled the earili against the back of the retaining wall,
turning the clay into mud. and. by the great additional weight, f.rr.ng ii
into the position in wliicb it now appe:ir>. If the water had lieen cut oil in
time ihis would not have liappmeil, and that water was the occssion of this
accident seimcd very apparent. The lecturer then pi inted out the manner of
supi>orting retaining walls, several portions uflhe London and Birmingbam and

no

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

Gveat 'Western Railways were then examineJ, and much valuable information
was "iven on the various contrivances made use of by these companies, and
he concluded by appointing the class to meet on the Croydon and Brighton
Railways the next morninj, to proceed to the great slip near New Cross.

"THE slip" on the CROYDON RAILWAY.

Lecture IX. Jan. U. 1842.— According to appointment, this Lecture was
delivered at the great slip near New Cross, on the Croydon and Brighton
Railways. The motive of this visit was to explain to the class the reason of,
and to "point out the means which might have been taken to have prevented,
the great slip which occurred there recently. On leaving the train, the Pro-
fessor led the way to the spot, which is situated about half a mile from New
Cross. The length of the slip is very considerable, the depth of the cutting
very great, and the mass of earth thnt has slipped down from the top of the
bank Is of an imposing appearance. The appearance of the slip is as usual-
perpendicular at the top for some depth, and then bulging out near the
centre ; a sreat number of labourers are employed in shifting the immense
quantity of earth to be removed, in consequence of the slip, which is estimated
at many thousands of yards. In the meantime, a convenient covered walk
has been made for the passengers to pass from one train to another. On
both sides of this cutting, for some distance along the line, slips have taken
place, but on the left-hand side going from London, they are of but httle
importance, compared with the one that was to be particularly inspected by
the class. The sell consists of the plastic clay, with numerous strata of sand
and gravel, the clay itself lieing very binding, but being, from the recurrence
of these strata of sand and gravel, very lialjle to the infiltration of water;
and, consequently, to slip, when the up-drainage is not particularly attended
to, and the most constant attention paid to every symptom of a slip being
about to take place. The Professor then pointed out what he considered to
have been the occasion of all the mischief. Nearly all along the slip the
earth had given way at the side of a top drain, parallel with the railway, and
in some places it was so apparent, that the declivity looked as if made pur-
posely ; this had invariably occurred where there were cross drains from the
neighbouring ground (which is considerably elevated), leading into the main
dram along the top of the cutting, and wliich. not being puddled, or made
watertight, had allowed the waier gradually, and during many months, to
insinuate itself into the veins in the clay, and had at length forced the mass
out as it appeared. He then stated, as his firm opinion, that the slip ought
never to have taken place : the earth having stood for three years, was a
sufficient proof that the slope was correctly laid out ; and, finally, it could
only have been by subsequent natural causes that the accident occurred,
while, if the precaution of preventing the drainage from the upper fields
getting into the body of the slope had been attended to in time, it might
have prevented the slip, and it was obvious that the great evil— water— had
beengradually insinuating itself into the bank a long time before. In another
part of the cutting, he pointed out a place where a slip was expected to take
place in the slope ; but he disapproved of what liad been done hy way of pre-
caution, and explained that any operation of making cuts or vertical holes in
the slopes, which would admit water, ought to be avoided by all means in the
engineer's power, instead of Ijeiug encouraged. The apertures should be
driven in horizontally, and brushwood drains introduced, or a kind of hurdle
01 fascines, which would act as a drain, and be extremely efficacious ; on this
principle he strongly oljjected to the cutting of slight surface drains on the
slopes, as he thought them worse than useless, lieing more likely to admit the
water than to drain it olV. He alluded to a curious circumstance which had
occurred a little higher up the line, where the railroad was made in what used
to be the bed of the canal. It appeared that there was a spring, and the
water, instead of finding its way out of the slopes, actually raised up the
rails. .Several other points of interest were then examined.

Lecture X.—\A'edncsday. the 19th Jan., Professor Vignoles delivered his
tenth lecture "On Civil Engineering.'' on the West London Railway, at
AVormwQod Scrubbs. This was rather a practical illustration, by way of experi-
ment, than a lecture— it Ijeing a practical exemplification of the working of the
system of locomotion by means of atmospheric pressure, elVected by the peculiar
valve invented by Messrs. Clcgg and Samuda. In addition to the ordinary
class, which was fully attended, there was a large assemblage of scientific
men, including several of the engineers of the Belgian railways, and officers
of the corps of Royal Engineers ; Mr. James Pim, and many of the principal
proprietors of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway ; Col. Jones, Col. Alderson,
.Major Matson, Mr. Woodhouse, Capt. W. Moorsom, and several other
engineers.

SECOND COt;RSE.

On 'Wednesday, the 9th Feb., Professor 'Vignoles delivered his Introductory
Lecture to the second course of lectures. He stated that, having in his first
course of lectures touched upon several of what he might call the cardinal
points of civil engineering. lie was then about to enter the second course, for
which (according to previously concerted arrangements) one only of the nu-
merous branches of this profession had been selected as the theme, with a

view of en'erin" considerably into its details, rather than to discuss in a more
-eneral manner a varietv of subjects, which, though perhaps equally import-
ant, equally interesting and useful, and equally necessary for the student,
could not be thoroughly investigated in the course of a single session. In
this introductory lecture he would, however, touch concisely on the wide
topic of the internal communications of civilized countries, as falling within
the scope of the theories and practice of a civil engineer, treating them here
as on a general theme ; but the subsequent discourses to the class would con-
sist of the details of that more modern branch of internal communication, of
so much interest in the present day-the Railway system. It had been well
and truly remarked by an enlightened observer, that the great characteristic
feature of the present age « as the appreciation of the value of time. In an
eloquent introduction to a pamphlet on one branch ot mlernal communica-
tion the author expressed himself in terms which he was tempted to quote,
as an appropriate preliminary to his own remarks :-" In that career of im-
provement which has distinguished the last thirty years beyond, perhaps,
any previous history of the world, and in which the sum of the vast ameho-
rationseflected in all that relates to the condition of man. is not less striking
than the rapidity «ilh which their details have followed upon ench other ;
one important lesson seems to have been in an especial degree impressed upon
those engaged in the pursuits of industry, and upon the commercial and ma-
nufacturing classes in particular-they have been eftectually taught to appre-
ciate the value of time, and to apply to its use a degree ot rigid and judicious
economy, of which the past afibrds no example ; a lesson which is daily
illustrated by the vast expenditure, in this country, upon works affording
facilities in accelerating intercourse, since it is universally felt that distances
are virtually shortened in the precise ratio in which the time occupied in
travelling them is abridged." And it is the practical application of this
axiom, which it is almost peculiarly the lot of the civil engineer to be called
on by the statesman and the capitalist to realise. In looking back through
the vista of centuries, and endeavouring to pierce the mist of tradition, we
are led to conclude that the formation of roads must have been amongst the
earliest rudiments of civilization ; but until science, or. at least, until system,
was applied to their construction, it is evident (from the traces of the simple
paths of comparatively modern times, and of no remote countries) that tlie
merest tracks sufficed to satisfy our ancestors, who had not yet learned the
" yalue of time.' ' Little more was then required than a path upon naturally
firm earth-all marshy grounds were avoided-the fords of the rivers were
alone resorted to-and the irregularities of surface, or inclination of the road,
or its circuitous course, were of little consequence to the pedestrian, or even
to the mounted traveller, wlien man had learned to subdue the horse to his
wants and wishes. The path generally traced from one distant wig-wam to
another became the track from village to village, and at length served as the
road from town to to»n, or even to the capital. The line once traced out,
indolence and habit seem to have prevented any great exertion to improve or
repair, beyond what was indispensably necessary, even after the invention of
wheeled carriages : and the system of following the ancient course ot roads
seems to have been pertinaciously adhered to in all countries until the
advance of civilizition, and the wants of the community, produced improve-
ment and gave rise to the calling of the road-maker, and ultimately to the
profession of the engineer. The first exercise of his art-for it did not reach
the dignity of a science until within very modern times— was, probably, in
the formation of raised roads, or causeways, to strong holds, dwellings, or
cities, accidentally or artificially made liable to inundations ; and of this kind
were the approaches to the passage of the River of Babylon, which the fables
of antiquity magnified into a bridge, as long, and consisting of as many
arches, as that in the celebrated vision of the Arabian sage. The first step
towards internal communications being roads, it may be well defined as the
first step in true civilization, and the Abbe Reynal has justly remarked—
" Let us travel over all the countries of the earth, and wherever we shall find
no facility of trading from a city to a town, and from a village to a hamlet,
we may pronounce the people to be barbarians, and we shall only be deceived
respecting the degree of barbarism."

By this test we should probably be induced to judge of the Chinese, if their
water communications did not. to a ceriain extent, supply the absolute want
of anything like a ro:id capable of passing a loaded wheeled carriage, even at
the gates of Pekin. Of all the people in the world, perhaps the Romans took
the most pains in forming their roads, and vast was the labour and expense
bestowed to make them spacious, firm, solid, and smooth— roads, in fact.
from two to even ten or twelve feet thick, formed of what we call in these
days " concrete ;" but, as le^ards the system of laying out, in the modern
engineering sense, they do not^appear to have had the slightest idea. Straight-
ness of direclion seems to have been their only charac;er, and. with a lofty
disdain of the effects of gravity, their grand military routes, excepting near
Rome itself, were carried direct over hill and dale. Thirty roids, of an
aggregate length of 50,000 miles, radiated from their magmficent capital, in
Raly, to the furthest extremity of their almost boundless empire ; they only
served as internal communications, for keeping down, by their legions, the
rebellious spirits of the Briton, the Hun, the Greek, or the Persian, who had.

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

07

in succession, howcil to llic Roman yoke — yet. as momimenis of tlic highest
degree of art an'l civilization of ihose ages, must tliey he admired by all, and
may be usefully studied by the ('n;;incer of the present ilay — few of whose
constructions, even ihe gigantic railway, will probably endure as some of the
Roman roads have done — such as the Appian Way, for instance — through
the long period of nearly 2.00O years. The number and extent of these roads,
made by the first conquerors of Albion, through Uiis island, have only been
ascertained and appreciate 1 since the publication of the magnillccnt maps of
the Ordnance Survey by the corps of Royal Knginecrs, by those who have
studied their beautiful and surprising .accuracy, and their minute topogra-
phical details, which enable a curious inquirer to trace, by tlieir remarkable
straightness of course, these ancient routes, through woods ami remote dis-
tricts, and over wide ranges of hills, where their origin. e\en in tradition, is
now forgotten, and where the long lane, grassed over and forsaken, from its
steepness or sec1u>ion, accurately laid down, m its true course, by Ihe science
of the present day. marks, at intervals, over whole counties, Ihe former line
of the sl.ilely march of the Roman soldier. I!ut it remains to this day an
unsolved problem in engineering, to discover by what uicaiis these roads were
laid out in such perfect truth of direction, tlirouRli the thick and trackless
forests which then covered the whole island. It h.as been observed, that it is
one of the most dilllcult points for a political economist to define, with any
degree of certainty, the line of demarcation between public and private enter-
prize, in theejiccuiiiin of works of internal improvement. In a former lecture,
he observed that it was undoubtedly owing to the cslablishment in Fr.-ince,
by Richelieu, of the Hoard of Roads and Bhilges. that that country was in
possession of e.\cellent roads long before the principal part of Europe ; he
might have added, also, canals — at least, before weliad them in Great Britain.
and yet have a good reas<m to believe that, at the presi-nt lime, that very
establishment is a serious obstacle in retarding the introduction into France
of tlic modern system of improvement of internal communications, by para-
lysing the self-dependence of the districts. In this country, the very opposite
system, of leaving a!most everything to private enterprise and individual
e.\erlion, has been mist strikingly successful, and has fostered and matured
the talent, the ingenuity, the skill, and the experience of the civil engineer,
from Ihe competition cealed by the necessity of individual exertion, which
it is prcsimed would not have been developed, had he been a Government
dependant. The origin of the system of forming and repairing roads by
trustees, and the collection of lolls for that purpose at turnpike g.ales, dates
somewhat more ihan a century lack, and the rapid improvement of our
internal communications, both by land and water, about that time ; and it is
a remarkable fact, that, when land was of comparatively small value, it was
more difficult to obtain ground for a new road than at present, when a square
yard of land sometimes costs more than would have purchasctl a rood in
former days ; and w hen one of the public objections seriously urge<l was,
that if so m.any riLids and canals were made, it would diminsb the quantity
of land required for agricultural purposes ! But, happily, general knowledge
has been dilTustd. and the former prejudices have yicliled to calculation, as
man has ac<)uired a knowledge of Ihe value of time, and has found that the
payment of turnpike tolls, for gi.otl and level roads, is cheaper than to keep
extra horses to drag his teams up steep hills, or through marshy ruts. The
Professor next staled, ihat he should not go into the dclriil, either of the lay-
ing out, or the construction of roads, but be must add a few observations, as
connected with the duties nf an engineer, in regard lo some of ihe general
principles. He should accommodate a new line of road lo local circum-
stances, so far as could be without superseding public advantages. It would
be ridiculous to follow the old Roman fashion, on the mathematical axiom,
that a straight line is the shortest that can be drawn between two points.
This would not make Ihe most commodious road— hills must be avoided,
towns must lie resorted to, and the sudden bends of rivers must be shunned.
It is not .suggested that roads should be made serpentine, merely for Ihe sake
of the picturesque; but the skill of the engineer is to be exerted in avoiding
irregularities of ground and irregularity of inclinations, and he will generally
find, that a strict adherence lo a slraight line is of much less consequence
than IS usually supposed, even in actual dist.anceover long lengths. It was
well known that a blind man was, some years ago, ailvantagei usly employed
through Yorkshire and Derbyshire, in laying out ro,ids through tho.se hilly
counties. He followed the streams which made their way amongst Ihe hills,
and, by finding out the chonls of such arcs, or bends of Ihe river, as passed
on practicable ground, he succeeded in his attempts. It is obvious that, when
the arc described by a road going ever a bill is greater than that described
by going round it, the circuit is preferable ; but it is m.t known lo the ordi-
dinary ro.ad surveyor, though it ought to be ingrafled in Ihe mind of the
engineering student, that, within certain limits, it would Ix' less laborious lo
go round the hill, ihougli the circuit be much greater than lhat which w ould
be m.adc in crossing it. Thus, when a bill has an ascent i.f no more than unc
loit :n Ihirty, the thirlicth part of the whole weight of the carriage of Ihc
load, and of the horses, must be lifted up, whilst they ailvaiice thirty feet.
In doing this, one thirli«th part of the w bole load continually resists the horses'

draught : and thus, in drawing a waggon of six Ions weight, a power to
overcome resistance equal to the force of two additional horses must be
e.verlwl. But what is here said of level roads must not be str-oined into an
assertion that a perfectly level road is always the best for every description
of draught or load. Allernations of rising and level, or of falling ground ,
are serviceable to horses moving very swiftly ; the horse has time to rest his
lungs .and ditferent muse es, and of ihis the experienced driver knows how to
take advantage : but while this qualification is made, care must Ije taken not
to strain it too much, as did one provincial road maker, who very ingeniously
carved a naturally quite level road into a series of short billowy undulalioiis,
which his successor h.ad lo level again. Without tr.-ivelling through the
whole history of road improvements, he mi^-ht state that Telford in England
and Scotland, and in Ireland. Nimiiiu, GrilTiths, and tilgeworlh, brought the
laying out and eonslruclion of roads lo the present perfection ; and of the
writings of Ihe latter he had availed himself in many of Ihe prece<ling oljser-
v.ations. The many roails of Great Britain were just arrived at almost the
highest degree of perfection, when again the increased .ippreciation of the
value of time led speculators to conceive, and our engineers to realize, the
idea of the employment of iron surfaces for roads. Before, however, follow-
ing the gradual transit of roails into railways, he would make a few oljser-
vations on the other branch of international communication— the navigable
river and the canal.

Tlie tiistes and speculations of the last fifteen years have l)een so exclu-
sively ilevoled to railvv.iys as Ihe fashionable mode of internal communication,
that canals have almost l>een lost sight of, and it is now nearly forgotten by
the modern speculator, though it may be interesting to the young engineer
to be informed, that fifty years ago the mania for constructing canals and
improving river navigation was as great, even if not greater, lhan the enthu-
siasm displayed very recently about railways. Parliament was then deluged
with applications to grant Acts of Incorporation for canal companies; the
press teemed with canal publications, the shop windows were filled with canal
maps and sections, and the papers and periodicals with adverlisements and
paragraphs on canalization. Canals appear to have been duly appreciated in
ancient times, and used for the purpose of drainage, irrigation, supply of
water, .and navigation, (ii bis former introductory lecture he alluded to the
canal of Xer.\es, at the foot of Sloiuit Athos— an attempt wh eh is stated lo
have been renewed by the Roman emperors in later ages. A canal navigable
for large boats was constructed by the Ptolemies between the Nile and the
Red Sea, though it is doubtful whether ihe state of engineering skill in those
days perm tied an .actual junction to be made: this grand navigation was
re-opened by the caliphs in (he seventh century. Traces of it arc slill exist-
ing, .and lis termination in the most easterly branch of the Nile was
discovered by M. Bouiier, in 1707. and is still open. Under the enterprise
of the present ruler of ICgypt it may yet fall to the lot of an Knglish engi-
neer lo re-open this magnificent canal. Herodotus .assures us that the Nile
was in itself, or by lateral canals, navigable by the ancient Kgyptiaus for 500
miles above Alexandria, and the Delta of ilie Nile was formerly like modem
HolLind. filled with canals. The Romans m.ade more than one canal in
Kngland ; Ihe most remarkable was that called the Caerdykc. which united
the river Nene, a little below Peterborough, with Ihe river William, three
miles below Tiverton ; it was forty miles long, and fifty years since appeared
distinct enough, and must have been originally very deep; and what led to
the impression that this can.al was used for the purpose of internal communi-
cation, was lhat there was a continuation of this canal from Lincoln to the
Trent above Gainsborough by the Koss Dyke, which is .at Ihe present lime .i
fine navigable canal, Ihougli, in former times, it had been repeatedlv fdled up
and gone into disuse. It is believed, on good authority, thai by these two
canals the favourite colony of the Romans at York received their chief supplies
of grain. The canals of China have always excited great interest since the
description given of them by ilie Jesuit missionaries ; their accounts, as far
as regards the Great Canal running from north to south (connecting, except
at one short portage, C'anlon and I'ckin), have lieen completely confirmed by
modem travellers, particularly by Barrow, who travelled Ihe whole length.
Should the existence of ihe numerous lateral and other canals over the rest
of the country be confirmed, of w liich there is little reason to doubt, it will
sufficiently explain the non-existence of anything like good roails. .and the
almost tolal absence of wheeled carriages for goods, to which ihe iliminulive
and b.id breed of horses in C hina. no doubt, conlribules. There is, however,
a wide field opening in lhat country for the exercise of ihe skill of an enter-
(irising engineer, since that ingenious iwnple are as yet ignorant of the
niiidern lock for their canals, and when two canals meet, the diU'erenee of
the level is sometimes from fifteen to twenty feel, and the boats are holsteil
from the lower canal up .an inclined plane of smooth miaonry by capstans,
and slide down another into Ihe upi>or canal. The profeuor 9l.il(.<l it would
le.id him too far lo go much into the hisiory nf eanaU, l/iit he must allude
to Ihe great canals anil inland water eommunir.ition nf the Mogul country,
in the Ivist Imlies, made by ihe l-Jn|>eror9 .100 or 600 years since, for which
Ihe natural features and vast rivers ot Hindoslen alTorded great facihiics, and

98

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

rendoreJ lockage tinnecessary, and. indeed, roads were unknown, and may
be considered as still wanting all over India, excepting our recent military
roads. This country presents a vast field for the civil engineer. Of all the
canals of modern Europe he would only notice two remarkable instances ;
J. Perry, an English civil engineer, was employed by Peter the Great in the
beginning of the last century to design and execute several canals, in which
the German military engineer (Brockel) who had attempted them, had en-
tirely failed ; Perry's designs were subsequently completed by Peter's suc-
cessors. The canal of Trolhatta, in Sweden, the difficulties of which liad
long baffled the engineers of that country, was finally completed by the skill
of the late Mr. Telford, whose engineering resources were equally ilisplayed
in the design and execution of the Caledonian Canal. Many remarkable
instances of success in making an imperfect river into a good navigable stream
might be quoted both in Europe and North America, and which present in-
structive instances to the young engineer. The improvement of the river
Liiiey at Dublin, and the River Clyde in Scotland are goood examples. The
improvement of that vast inl.and gulf, the Shannon, is now in the course of
execution, after several years of most detailed and elaborate inquiries, esti-
mates, surveys, and careful examination, the accounts of which may be studied
with great advantage to both the experienced and young engineer. Upwards
of half a million sterling is to be expended on this truly national undertaking.
The learned professor then entered intoa long account of the probable original
ideas for the application of iron to roads, commencing with the wooden rail-
ways used in the collieries on the banks of the Tyne, near Newcastle, above
200 years ago, he then showed that the waste of timber led to the idea of
covering wood with plates of iron, and ultimately to the present point of
perfection — wrought iron rails — the introduction of which into general use
does not extend further back than thirty years.

(To be continued.)

KOYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Jan. 31. — P. Hardwick, Esa. in the Chair.

A paper by Mr. White was read on Fresco Painting, which will be found
in another part of the Journal.

A paper " On the Vaults of the Nonuick Cloisters," by Prof, Willis, of
Cambridge, (hon. member,) was read. The following is an abstract :—

The cloisters of Norwich Cathedral were begun in 1297, and not completed
until 1430. Its four ambulatories represent four successive styles, the con-
trast in the details being rendered more conspicuous by the uniformity of the
general design, which has been so much respected during the progress of the
whole work, that even the isolated shafts, which form the proper muUions of
the windows of the thirteenth century, have been continued throughout,
contrary to the usual practice of the Middle Ages. The vaultings are similar
in the general plan and dimensions on the four sides, but each is distinctly
marked with the mode of treatment employed in the successive periods, anil
it is to the progressive variations in the form of the spandrils, exhibiting a
gradual transition from a square section to a semicircular one, that the paper
chiefly referred. In the oldest portion of the work, the eastern compart-
ments, the horizontal section of the spandril, taken about half way between
the plane of the impost and the crown of the arch, is perfectly square, and
this form is more strongly developed — exaggerated, it may be said — by a
slight setting back of the ribs between the cross springers and the diagonals,
which gives greater prominence and and a more marked expression to the
angle of the spandril. In the south walk, the next in chronological order,
the intermediate ribs, instead of being set back, are brought slightly in
advance of the other ribs. The effect of this arrangement is to give a poly-
gonal character to the spandril, which is, in fact, still square in its general
form. In the west walk, the polygonal character is fully developed, and the
square abandoned, but the angles of the polygon are far from being equal.
In the western walk, the latest portion of the work, four centred arches are
introduced, and the curves of the haunches being all alike, and the middle
section of the spandril circular, the polygon formed by the front edges of the
ribs is equiangular, as in fan vaulting. These effects, continued the Professor,
may be confirmed by the comparison of contemporary examples, but it rarely
happens that they can be found in a series, and in a work of which the uni-
formity of design is for the most part preserved ; so that changes of this kind
are rather to be regarded in the light of embellishment, or as the moderu
improvements of the day added to the original design. Thus it is, that in
this respect the cloister of Norwich is so valuable, by enabling us to discover
many of those improvements which it is more difficult to pick out of examples
complete in the character of their own age. The essay was accompanied by
numerous sections, and a table laying down the exact curvature and arrange-
ment of the vaults: all the curves are found, in conformity with all that has
hitherto been observed on the vaultings of the Middle Ages, to be segments
cf circles, and not ellipses formed by projection, according to modern prac-
tice, which has, therefore, erred widely in the character of Gothic vaulting.

This paper forms a sequel to that on the Vaulting of the Middle Ages in
general, read by Prof. Willis, at the Institute, on the 5th of July, 1841.
(See Journal for Aug. 1841.)

Feb. 14. — Joseph Kay, Esa. V.P. in the Chair.

This evening was one of more than ordinary interest, in consequence of
its having been announced that the long-desired wish of many members of
both the Institute and the Architectural Society for the union of the two
bodies would take place. There was a very full attendance, so much so that
the room was crowded to inconvenience. The preliminary arrangements
having been completed, 32 members and students of the Architectural
Society were admitted, 11 as fellows, 8 as associates, and 13 as students of
the Institute. The Architectural Society will, therefore, be extinct after a
final conitersazioKe, to be held at their rooms in Lincoln's Inn Fields, on the
first instant. This union, we consider, will lead to very beneficial effects,
and will give a firmer basis to the profession ; so that we hope now that
attention wiU he seriously turned towards remedying the evils respecting
" Competition Designs," so long complained of.

ON FRESCO PAINTING.

A Paper read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, by E. T. Pabris,

Esa., on Monday, Mth Feb., 1842.

The application of the higher branches of painting to architectural deco-
ration, is a subject in which the members and gentlemen connected with this
Institute have taken so much interest, that I need only refer you to the
many valuable papers which have been read before these meetings on the art
of polychromy, the works in the Vatican, and others relating to painting, all
tending to prove that such embellishments are considered by the profession
as essential to architecture.

The liberality of the council, by their invitations, show the earnest desire
on their part to promote the permanent union of architecture, sculpture, and
painting, and is, I am sure, fully appreciated by my brother artists, and everj
visitor present, as well as myself.

I have, therefore, endeavoured to collect together a few remarks founded
on my own practice, in the hope they may assist in restoring that confidence
so essential on both sides in carrying out great works.

It will be remembered that in 1821a new ball and cross was placed on the
summit of St. Paul's Cathedral j and as the interior was intended to be
cleaned, the question was much agitated respecting the paintings in the
dome, by Sir James Thornhill. It was stated publicly that the expense of
raising a scaffolding would be so great that faint hopes were entertained of
its being effected ; I immediately turned my attention to the subject, and
contrived an apparatus for the purpose of getting at the paintings. The
model remained by me until 1829, when Mr. R. Cockerell, desirous of
seeing the paintings cleaned and restored, submitted the model, in the
most liberal manner, to the Dean and Chapter, introducing me at the
same time as the inventor ; the apparatus was considered adequate to the
purpose, and my estimate for restoring the whole of the painting, gilding,
&c. above the whispering gallery was JEIOOO, and no charge for scaflblding !
but this sum was too large, and the plaster has been dropping from the wall
ever since — (it had then decayed above five feet all round the dome)^and I
am certain that in a few years the whole of the brick work will be exposed.
What could II. M. the King of Prussia think on entering our metropolitan
cathedral ? It may be readily imagined that the hope of employment on
such a work, excited the liveliest enthusiasm, and I lost no opportunity of
devoting every spare moment to experiments on stuccos and cements, as I
fully expected on touching the plaster the greater portion would come down ;
my intention was, in that case, to propose the restoration and painting to be
done in fresco, it having been originally painted in oil. Perhaps there are
many gentlemen present who visited Rome from 1820 to 1825, and they will
remember that Cornelius, Overbeck, Veith, &c., then were employed by
Chev. Bartholdy to paint his villa in fresco. The attempt to revive this
method of painting was considered an experiment, and the English patrons
and artists looked on, talked about it, but did nothing; one gentleman, an
architect and member of this Institute, in the most laudable manner tried to
engiaft it in this country, and had a large surface covered for that purpose in
the Catholic Chapel in Moorfields.

The result of my experiments at that time, with much practice on large
works since, together with the attention I have recently given to this sub-
ject, emboldens me thus to lay before you the following observations. I
shall first endeavour to explain the diflferent ways of using colours in paint-
ing, and offer my opinion as to the best appropriation of each to its particvUar

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

9»

purpote, and although fully aware that practical men, and experienced archi-
tects arc acquainted with their qualities, yet there are many who, practising
one mode of painting, are ignorant of all the others, particularly as applied to
architectural decoration.

The covering large surfaces, and the representation of subjects and orna-
ments by colour, is performed in either what is called fresco, distemper,
encaustic, or oil (with varnish or without) termed Hatting.

Oil painting consists in using pigments mixed with oils, gums, or other
vehicles, for the transparent colours, and with opaque bodies, such as wliite
lead, and metallic oxides, for the lights ; the extensive range or scale from
Ught to dark, through all the varieties of colour, from the most delicate tint
to the most juicy richness, gives it many advantages for general purposes,
which no other mode possesses ; the ease with which it is worked, the nume-
rous re-touchings, toning, scumbling, glazing, &c., renders it a most fasci-
nating medium to convey the ideas of the artist to the canvas, panel, or wall.
Durability is another of its advantages; and it would appear to possess every
requisite for embellishing the ladies' boudoir, the picture galler)-, or public
edifices of the greatest magnitude, or most severe character. But upon
mature reflection it will be seen, notwithstanding the extensive powers of oil
painting, that it is used to the best advantage when applied to certain sizes
and positions, and when confined within paneUing or framing, and so placed
as to receive the light from a particular angle, as its glossy surface reflects all
objects before it. The ceiUng by Rubens at \A'hitehall will explain this, for
since it was last cleaned, the canvass of the centre oval appears quilted, in
consequence of the cord which suspend it rendering the surface uneven, and
it can only be seen from a very few parts of the chapel without those shining
little spots. The same cause operates npon oil painting, when applied to
staircases, coves, and curved surfaces, and the staircase and saloon at the
Uritish .Museum, the hall at Greenwich Hospital, and other places, ere
examples of its misapplication. It may be stated in answer to this, that
there are many paintings on a large scale which do not shine ; this must be
allowed, but the cause is that they have, from age, &c., become mealy and
dry in their shadows, losing all their transparency and richness, and in many
cases the dark colours are covered with a grey cloud, and the usual cry is —
How much they want varnish.

I am also aware of the various methods used to destroy the gloss of oil
pictures when placed opposite to windows, as starch, rice, while of egg, and
spirits, with several others ; but in every case that I have seen and tried, the
richness of the deep colours and shadows are reduced to the dullness of dis-
temper ; the excessive blackness in the staircase at the liritish Museum, &c.,
is occasioned by the boiled oil used in preparing the grounds to prevent
damps from coming through ; this never occurs in pictures painted with pure
oils. Many attempts have also been made to unite the qualities of fresco,
encaustic, and distemper with oil, by using one over the other.

Paintinf in distemper, or body colour, is so inferior to oil, that few artists
in this country practise it fur pictures, although much used in Italy. Yet it
has some imjiortant qualities which fit it for purposes wherein oil would fall ;
it is a mixture of colours, with whiting anil size, gum, white of egg, or other
glutinous substances, it cannot be softened or blended without great difticulty,
to that in most cases, where finish is required, the several tints arc carried
into each other by hatching with the point of a hair pencil, as in the Cartoons
of RafTaellc at Hampton Court. Its extraordinary power of reflecting light
equally, renders it best adapted for scenery and gay light decoration. Its
chief characteristics are, that it represents air, distant landscape, architectural
objects and sculpture, better than by any other means (when on a very large
scale, and the spectator is kept at a distance), for on approaching it appears
dry and unfinished. Its chief objection for architectural decoration is, that
it sufTers from damp, and is removeabic with a sponge and water. Most
rolours can l)c used in distemper, even some that arc useless in oil, as verditer
and others ; all the bright and rosy tints arc seen to the best advantage
^f.hcn used in distemper.

I'aintiogin tur|ientine,or as it is termed flatting or dead colour, is a modi-
fication of oil painting, no varnishes being used but turpentine alone (except-
ing the oil in which the colours have been ground). Its qualities arc verv
similar to distemper, with the advantages that the colours may be blended
and softened into each other; but dispatch anil rapidity of execution is
necessary, or the painting will shine in those parts where the brusli has
passed frequently over. It represents air and distant land.scapc equal to
distemper, and may be carried to the extreme delicacy of finish ; but on a
\ cry large scale, it loses its force in the sbailowa, reflects considerably less
light, ainl appears weak in comjiarison with distemper , it is as durable as oil
would be without varnish.

As to encaustic painting, I must confess my inability to explain its best
qualities, or do it justice, the few experiments I have made and seen not
being suflicient. Its general principles, however, consist in a mixture of
gum mastic, wax, and gum arable, boUcd in water, and used with powder
colours on dn.- plaster, canvass, or panel, after which a coat of melted wax is
spreail over the whole, and a hot iron applied to drive the wax into the
painting, and to incorporate with tlie colours, by which they are rendered
more transparent and bright. Auotlar way .s to prepare a ground of wax,
paint upon it »ith distemper colours, and when dry apply hot Irons, and it
will be fixed.

In all my experiments, I never have been able to remove a cloudy appear-
ance, or to drive in the wax equally, when on a surface of any size ; but 1
believe the recent discoveries of the I'rench artists have brought it to
maturity. It was much tried a few years ago, and I have seen several pic-
tures which were thought successful, but they never exceeded eighteen
inches square, and bad a semi-transparent appearance (from the wax) like
marble ; they must be very permanent, and resist the dam|is of a moist
cUmate. Durability without gloss is its chief advant.-ige, it can be
retouched aud painted upon at any time, so that careful cartoons, and a
thorough knowledge of drawing arc not so essential as in fresco.

Fresco, a term not generally understood, was greatly talked about 20 years
ago, and at last has become a question of national importance. It was sup-
posed a secret and mysterious operation, whereas of all other modes of
painting it is the most simple ; I am therefore astonished that many writers
upon it, and some of them artists, should bring forward such opposite
opinions, when a single experiment would prove the permanency of the
colours, and explain the whole affair.

From numerous experiments I have made, I believe that all our usual
mortars will answer equally well, as far as the operation of applying the
colours. The durability of the stucco is another consideration ; the practical
plasterer will know what mixtures work the best, and the experienced archi-
tect can inform us of the materials to endure the tests of time and climate.

I think it not likely the Greek artists used exactly the same composition
for their stuccos in their own country, as they did at I'ompeii and llercu-
laneum, or that Masaccio, Michael Angclo, or the Sicilian artists, painted on
a preparation, precisely the same as those now practising at Munich, and I
am convinced that the painter will find walls, and stuccos, ready prepared
to his hands for fresco, as good as he can desire, either in England, Russia,
India, or America.

The process consists in laying and spreading very even, a mortar com-
posed of lime mixed with either sand, pulverized flint, bricks, or glass, and
while it is fresh and moist, to apply colours prepared from earths and
minerals, mixing them with water, the whole will become chemically incor-
porated and fixed when the stucco is dry, and will become so hard by time
OS to bear rubbing with a wet sponge or cloth. It must be remembered
that vegetable colours will not stand. Those to be used in fresco painting
arc few, of a deep sober tone, of great intensity, and are very brilliant when
judiciously contrasted. In this the knowledge of the artist is called forth,
as in every other method of painting, and a very little practice will teach
him the few changes which take place in the drying of his tints. Although
small works of the greatest excellence have been executed, aud by the first
masters, yet the proper field for fresco is in figure subjects on extended sur-
faces, and it is most ert'cctive when in conjunction with sculpture and
architecture.

As a decoration, it surjiasses every other mode of painting ; its grand and
impressive tune of colour, with a boldness and decision of outline rejecting
all meretiicious ornament, and its combiuing with large masses of architec-
ture, give a dignity and majesty commanding silence and admiration.

I must observe that much of the richness and briUiancy of fresco, depends
on the stucco ground reflecting light through the colours, and Imlian red,
when applied on a large surface, appears as heaullful as the richest lake in
oil. The colours never grow darker, nor do they suffer from absence of
light. Their durability is beyond a doubt.

A very general iiuprcssion exists, that any painting done on a wall is
fresco. This is* nilsUke, as uoue of the works by Thomhill. Verrio, aod
others, are in fresco but in oil ; also that the scenery at the theatres is
fresco ; they are not so, but in dittcm|>er. In fact nothing can properly bo
called fresco that Is touched after the fresh mortar is dry and it is moreover
supposed that the lingllsh artists are entirely ignorant of this motic of paint-
ing. This again is not tine ; many have Irii-d and lucreodrd ; and there Is
an interesting aicounl in the " Art I nion," of last year, dcjcriblng a work
by Thomas llarkcr of lialh, thirty feet long, and twelve high, full of ligun s

P 2

100

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

the size of nature, painted in 1822, about the time that the German artists,
commenced fresco painting.

Fresco painting, ancient stained glass, objects in terra cotta, bronzes,
tessallated pavements, with painted and gilt monumental efligies, armour, and
old tapestries, seem to partake of the same quaUties, that of a sober, power-
ful, rich, and if I may so use the expression,' a ponderous character, which
accords not only with' each of these, but with every style of architecture.

In opposition to this painting in distemper, turpentine and oil require to
be modified or humoured to suit the exact tone of the apartment ; the Vene-
tian artists well knew this, and their oil pictures were frequently painted
very rich and dark, to harmonize with coloured marbles, velvets, brocades,
embroidery, and carved ebony, with which they were surrounded, but as
form and outline were absorbed in those powerful eftects the higher style of
art became disregarded.

Enough was done by Rubens to show the value of painting as an architec-
tural decoration ; and although the possession of the cartoons produced no
commissions for our native artists, yet the nobles engaged Verrio, Rizzi, Pele-
grini, Rousseau, Delafosse, and others, to cover the walls and ceilings with
their preposterous deities in silks and satins, powder and perriwigs.

ThornhiU, an Englishman, endeavoured single handed to form a school for
his countrv, which was encouraged while he hved. It is however stated by
his son-in-law Hogarth, " that the upper end of the hall at Greenwich, where
the royal family is painted, was left chiefly to the pencil of M. Andrea, a
foreigner, after the payment originally agreed upon for the work was so
much reduced as made it not worth Sir James' while to finish the whole
with his masterly hand."

It is curious to note the scale of charges for architectural decoration for
the last 200 years. That is from the arrival of Rubens in 1630 to 1730,
when Thornhill was in his zenith ; and from 1730 to its almost total extinc-
tion in 1842.

1630 Rubens, for AVhitehaU ceiling .f 7 10 per yard

1670 De la Fosse, British Museum 7 0 „

1690 VeiTio, exclusive of gilding (with 200/. per annum

when blind) -^ ^2 „

1725 Thornhill for Greenwich 3 " «

1730 Do. pilasters 10 »

1775 Cipriani for cleaning the Rubens ceiUng, £2000.
1777 Barry for the paintings in the rooms of the Society
of arts, after being furnished with colours received
by the exhibition, £503. 2s.
The practice of fresco painting will be found to produce strong sensations
both in the artist and the public, and they will discover hidden beauties at
present scarcely known to exist ; it will draw the attention of the painter to
works of art hitherto glanced at as being out of his style— the Elgin mar-
bles will become properly appreciated, he will disseminate the admiration to
his pupUs, and through them the public wiU have their eyes opened to the
riches they possess in those inestimable treasures of art.

It is objected that fresco painting caunot be removed like oil. I beg to
refer to those painted by Paul Veronese, and brought to this country a few
years since. It may be done on slate. I do not insist that fresco is either better
than oil or encaustic, or that it is more effective, except fo r particular pur-
poses, hut it has advantages over every other style ; it can be done in less
time for less cost, and produce a larger income to the artist ; is certain of
raising the arts as well as the taste of the manufactures, consequently must
increase the revenue of the country.

lu fresco painting, the artist requhes numerous assistants, and some | of
his own creating; they must he his pupils, with them he receives premiums
for instruction ; he has also the benefit of their aid, and is therefore not
obli'i-ed to devote so much of his own manual labour to express his thoughts ;
and when he commences his work upon the wall it is soon dispatched, while
the scatTold is up and the wall damp, without waiting for its drying, and
then four coats of oil, and a flat before he begins.

The al)ility of our artists in drawing is part of the great question; it will
be seen and more fairly decided when the sketches of foreign artists are placed
beside them, if tliey will come forward by the general invitation to artists of
every nation ; if they do not, they are not entitled to be employed. Models
for sculpture should be limited in size, and decided upon after three months
public exhiljition.

After the first selection is made, the artist and architect would be " work-
ing in conjunction and in aid of each other," as desired by the select com-
mittee ; each would appreciate the talents of the other as they became
developed, and the architect would be saved the mortification of having his

edifice encumbered by a mixture of German saints, Greek and Roman heroes,
and paintings of Turkish battles, all perhaps good in tl.emselves, but destruc-
tive to his design from their wrong application.

It would be necessary for the architect to have proper scaffolding, and
other conveniences as the decorations would then really form part of his
undertakings and estimate.

I must now leave this and all other remarks to your consideration, and sin-
cerely trust that what I have stated will be understood as not intended to
draw' forth opinions, but experiments. I have endeavoured to explain the
results of mine, and if I have made erroneous conclusions, I am sure that no
one will more gladly be undeceived when proofs are given to the contrary,
and I trust we shall be able of ourselves, not only to embellish the Houses
of Parliament, but all other public edifices, without foreign aid, both in oil,
encaustic, and fresco.

REVIEWS.

Papers on subjects conmckd mith the Duties of the Corps of Royal
Engineers. London ; John Weale, 1S42.

We have before us the fifth volume of papers by the Royal Engineers,
one of increased size ; and we have not yet seen the third volume of
the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, although
upwards of two years have expired since the second volume appeared.
It was, in fact, in Nov. 1838, when that volume was produced; and as
the fir«t volume of papers bv each body was commenced at the same
time, there must, in our opinion, have been great remissness on the
part of the Institution, in allowing their military brethren to get so
much ahead. Want of papers can be no plea in excuse for this delav,
for there are plenty of them read at the meetings, many of which, well
worthy of publication, are doomed to seclusion in the portfolios ol the
society We shall not, therefore, witness the continuance of this state
of affairs, without feeling it our duty to comment upon it more

strongly. „ , ■ \ a

When it is considered that the interest of the papers is enhanced
by their speedy publication, we cannot but regard this delay as most
injurious both to the progress of science and the interests of the pro-
fession. The civil engineer and the royal engineer will both be judged by
their deeds ; and if the latter succeed in bringing forth three volumes
to one, they will naturally become more familiar to the public, and in the
end perhaps supplant the civil engineers in all government works.an en-
terprise which will but too well meet the encouragement of the ruling
powers. When it is further considered that the royal engineers are
united on this occasion merely by a private compact, and that the
civil engineers form an incorporated body, we think it becomes the
bounden duty of the Institution to be more zealous in their exertions,
and more liberal in their measures. It is their duty to promote science,
and to diffuse information; for the more the public beconies enlight-
ened as to the powers of the engineers, the more will they be disposed
to encourage public works. . ^, , ,

Havino- said thus much, we shall proceed to examine the contents
of the vdume before us, of which the first two papers are purely
military. The third paper is on the removal of a wreck ; and the
next paper on the Madras Lighthouse, and the mode of its illumination.
The fifth paper, by Lieut. Nelson, R.E., treats of the varieties of tim-
ber, and has tables of their degrees of strength. Many of the speci-
mens are of woods upon which hitherto no report has been made.
We regret to observe, as we have on previous occasions of this kind, tliat
the experiments were not made on larger scantlings; nevertheless tlie
paper appears to be got up with care, and to be more copious than
any we have yet seen. The next paper is on the canal navigation ot
the Canadas, by Lt. Col. Philpotts, illustrated with maps and a plan,
sections, and details of one of the locks. The seventh is a description
of a traversing crane of considerable strength, used by the Butterley
company, well adapted for raising great weights, communicated by
Mr. Joseph Glynn. The eighth is an interesting paper by Major
Jones, R.E., on'the method of building in Malta. The next paper, on
drawbridges, is a valuable communication from Lieut. Douglas Ciatton,
R.E., chiefly derived from the French of M. Poncelet. It isiUus-
trated with three plates, containing several varieties of this kind
of bridge. The tenth jiaper illustrates, in much detail, Mr. Napier s
machinery for the manufacture of leaden bullets by compression, by
which 25,000 bullets can be produced in a day. In the next paper
the editor describes the new dock constructed at Woolwich under his

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

101

1842.]

superintendence, in conjunction with Mr. James Walker Mr Miles,
in the twelfth paper, gives an elaborate account of Hud.iart s rope
machinery used in Deptford dock-yard, whose patent has now expired.
It is accompanied with seventeen beautiful engravinRS by Le Keux.
drawn with great accuracy, and exhibiting all the details To persons
who feel an interest in this subject, we recmnmeml this article for
perusal. The next paper is on the theory and practice of sinking Ar-
tesian wells, including one at the model prison. Caledoman Koad, Isling-
ton which is the deepest vet sunk in the chalk of the London basin
and shows the abundance of water to be obtained from that stratum.

It will be seen, from the list of papers which we have given, and
from the extent of illustration, how much the editor has ex.-rted him-
self for the improvement of his work. We hope liercaftcr to make
some extracts from this work, to which we have not now space to do
justice.

Remarks on EnglM Churches, c,i Ihecrixdiaw,, ofrtndani^ Sepiilchral
Memorials subserritnt to piou» and Chri»tian mu. My J. n. M.mik-
LAXD, F.R.S. & S.A. Oxford : Parker, IS IJ.

Mr M\RKI.v\d'= book is rather addressed to the public than to
architects; but it will render essential service, by directing men^s
views to the many considerations connected with ecclesiastical archi-
tecture To preserve the works of our ancestors from decay, and to
protect them from the injuries inflicted by barbarism— to add our share
to the accumulated architectural wealth of ages-are obligations
which cannot be too generally enforced, and which are wU urged by
our author. His work is one of a numerous class which we see issuing
from the Oxford press, betokening the increased interest of the clergy
in ecclesiastical architecture, a feature which we are glad to recog-
nize, as the clergy have mainly assisted in the decline ol that art, and
are the parties who can most efficaciously co-operate in its restoration.

The Year Book of FacU in Science and ^rl. By tlie Editor of " TU
Arcana of Science." London : Tilt and liogue, lS-12.

The numerous facts contained in this yearly volume artbrd a com-
plete index to what has bsen done during the past year in the arts and
sciences ; it is a book full of useful information collected from several
periodicals, and shows the industry of the editor in stringing together
so much valuable matter.

Telegraphic Railmays, or the Single Way recommended by Safely and
Economy. By WiLLiAM FotheugillCooke, EsQ. London: Simpkiu
Marshall, and Co., 1S42.

Mr. Cooke, the co-patentee of Professor Whcatstone in the electric
telegraph, has written this small volume to illustrate its working, and
to show the economical advantage which may be derived from its em-
ployment. The author shows clearly that in the majority of cases, the
application of this apparatus will enable companies to work a single
line with safety, and so to avoid the great and heavy expense of double
ways, so unsuitable for a restricted traffic. This is done with impar-
tial'! ty, although an inventor is speaking of his darling project. Mr.
Cooke has made out a very strong case, which we think highly calls
for the enquiry of the railway proprietor and engineer.

Illiulrations of Ihc jlrchilicturc of Nicholas Coldman. By H. AuSTE.v,
Architect, Liverpool. London: Green, lisll.

Mb. Austen's re-publication of Goldman's work is too expensive
for students, and the illustrations badly executed ; nor is the small
quantity of letter-press carefully edited.

ON INCREASING THE EV.\P<^RAT1VE IKJWER OF

BOILER .S.

Sir— Perceiving in your last Journal a review of mv suggestions
for increasing the evaporative power of boilers, and also for preventing
the nuisance from smoke, in which the writer has indulged more in
wit than argument, I beg, while passing over the former, to reply to
that portion of his review which bears on the above important subject,
and, at the same time, is more in harmony with the scientific nature of
your useful work. The reviewer has indulged in much personal
matter, and even personal abuse ; but as I have not leisure to comment
on such, and am persuaded you would object to have your valuable
columns so occupied, I will conline myself to the scientific and prac-
tical, leaving the figurative and redundant matter to the neglect which
is perhaps its best reward.

After a long quotation from the Mechanic's Magazine, (No. .laU.)
givi"" the substance of a conimuiiicition made by me to a highly
intellectual and practical auditory at the Polytechnic Society of this
town, in which 1 explained a mode of increasing the evaporative
power of boilers, bv the Iraiismissiuu of heat, longitudinally, through
metallic bodies, (and the whole of which quotation I assert to be sub-
stantially correct,) the reviewer observes, "Well: if this be not
carrying' absurdity to an imperial pitch, we do not know what is.
Now- .Sir, I can only say that this "imperial absurdity" has yet to be
pointed out; for as'sure'dly none of my auditory were able to detect it,
during their examination of the experimental boilers then in action
before them, and after an interesting discussion to which it led. I
may also observe, that after 1 had concluded, Mr. Uewrance, the en-
gineer of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, stated to the meet-
ing that he had inserted 105 such conductor pins into one of the
company's stationary engine boilers, and that it was attended with so
decided an effect, that the boiler now produced an abundance of steam,
although previously its supply was very deficient.

Yet what is this "absurdity." of which the reviewer speaks?
Neither more nor less than the practical application of the well-known
theory of " conduction," which mav be found in every work ofj*"-
thorit'y, treating on heat, and its transmission through met.d?. The
application of this heat-conducting power of metals, of which I avail
mvself, is by introducing metallic pins projecting a given length into
the flues of boilers, and by which a greater quantity of heat will be
conducted to the water than would be due to the area which the pins
displaced. On this head, the reviewer quotes the words 1 used, vu.
"The half-inch circular portion of the flue-plate which such pin hM
displaced, is thus made to possess the faculty of transroilling as much
heat as is nceind and abxorbtd by nine half inches superficial" (the
pin being half an inch in diameter and three inches long). Now this
statement, 1 repeat, is strictly true, in defiance of the reviewer's charge
of "absurdity." The reviewer, however, putting his own erroneous
interpretation on these words, raises an imaginary superstructure,
which he attacks with genuine Quixotic ardor, and equally guixotic
effect, for he adds, "by which we understand that the pin hL\s the
effect of transmitting to the water nine times as much heat as the half-
inch disc it displaces." Now this is a mere gratuitous misunderstand-
ing of a very plain position. I did not give any miasiire or quantity
' of heat, so transmitted; 1 merely said, "as much heat as is rectictd
and absorbed;" for on this very distinction depends the whole ques-
tion, inasmuch as it is an ever-varying quantity, and influenced hy
numerous physical and accidental circumstances, such as, the length
and thickness of the pin— the nature of the recipient— the part of the
plate in which it is inserted- the quantity of soot or other non-con-
ducting matter with which the flue may be lined— the strength of thf>
<lraught or current through the flues— and the temperature of such
current. . ,

Nowhere, however, will he find me committing the practical error,
which he puts into my mouth, of measu'ing the quantity of heat trans-
ferred, bv reference to the mere surface area ot the pin, spike, bar,
or plate.' Indeed, had the reviewer cxamino.l impartially nnd quoted
fairly, he would have found in the very report from which he quotes,
(see' Mechanic's Mag., No. 9,. I,) that such is the reverse of wli,.t 1
inferred; for I there stated that three-inch pins were practically the
best, repudiating the idea of increase of surface being commensurate

with increase of heat. ,. , . i. .

Whether the area of the disc of the plate duplacod will transmit
heat in proportion to the surface of the conductor pin, «ill depend
much on lis leiigth and other cirrumst inces. 1 am prepared, however,
to prove that a pin half an inch in diameter and three inches long,
inserted into the side of a flue plate, will absolute y convey more heat
than nine half inches of the plate Kiirfaee, although I do Dot iis»ert the

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

same thinw of otlier lengths. Besirles, there is another consideration
which requires attention, namely, the distance of these pins from each
other ; since, were they too close, they would counteract tlie object
intended, and prevent access of tlie mass of moving heating gases to
their sides or surfaces. Indeed, in certain parts of tlie fines, par-
ticularly of marine boilers, I believe the heat transmitted will consider-
ably exceed the above proportion of nine to one, a point which here-
after will be practically illustrated.

Of the transmitting power of a metallic conductor, if the reviewer
will consult "Brande's Manual of Chemistry," (2nd ed. p. 155,) he
will there find the doctrine explained, and a diagram, representing the
very experiment, as I saw it illustrated by Professor Brande himself,
in liis Lectures at the Royal Institution, and which first suggested to
me the idea that longitudinal conduction by metallic pins was available
for increasing the effective heating suifaces of boilers; and on this
ground, that the receiving or heat-absorbing surfaces were large, and
the discharging or conveying areas were small— a circumstance which
so admirably fell in with the restricted conditions of marine boilers.
To this also, I soon found that in practice the system of luiigitudinal
conduction had another important feature, namely, that it extended
or projected the receiving surfaces, beyond the mere surface of the
plate through which the pin passed, and which too often was covered
by a coat of non-conducting soot ; and further, that the pins presented
themselves to the direct action of the current of heated gases, whereas
the plates themselves lay in the same direction and plane of the cur-
rent, and therefore receive but indirectly, and in a less degree, the
heat of such current.

Practice has since fully established the correctness of Mr. Brande's
illustrations, and the inferences wliich I drew therefrom ; and I can
assure the reviewer, that although there were above 1000 persons
present, none ventured to call the theory an "absurdity," or imagine
that he meant to say that the heat transmitted was in the ratio of
the surface and sectional area of the bar he employed.

The mistake, however, into which the reviewer has fallen, and in
the enjoyment of which he revels, has arisen from his overlooking the
fact, that this conducting power of a given length of bar, though true
to a certain extent, is uevertheless not infinite; and that the mere
amount of surface is not to be taken as the measure of the heat trans-
ferred. This I have sufficiently explained ; the reviewer, however,
led away, no doubt, by the heat of his own imagination, has taken the
length of the bar and the stretch of his own fancy as equal measures
of inferential absurdity.

The reviewer observes, "These spikes will, of course, speedily
attain the temperature of those particular parts of the flue where they
are inserted." This, I take leave to say, is another of the practical
errors into which his fancy (or, perhaps, a foregone conclusion that Mr.
Williams must be proved to be wrong,) has led him. If this doctrine
were true, then we should find the plates also of a boiler attaining the
temperature of the flues adjoining, which would at once negative
any conducting power. So far, however, from these spikes attaining
such high temperature, ))ractice proves, that so long as water is the
recipient of the heat they convey, the temperature is, in fact, so low
as to be touched without inconvenience, the heat passing through
them as fast as it is received, thus preventing such an accumulation
of heat as would injure or effect their structure; such, indeed, is the
well-known cause of the material of all boilers remaining uninjured,
although exposed to very intense heats. 1 here beg to refer to a paper
and diagram in the Mechanic's Magazine, No. 9(57, in which I have
gone more at large into this important subject.

I here pass over the strange train of reasoning which the reviewer
indulges in, and the equally strange hypothesis he broaches, manifestly
from the mistake above noticed ; namely, that "a single spike will be
as efficacious as any given number of spikes, provided it have a com-
mensurate surface," and the ingenious corollary which follows, that
"since a given quantity of spike surface is, by hypothesis, of equal
efficiency to the same quantity of ordinary flue surface, an excellent
boiler may be constructed wtlhout any fine iurface at all.'" How any
one could deduce such extravagancies from the well-known theory of
conduction, is not for me to say. Doubtless under the influence of his
imaginative powers, the reviewer had forgotten this theory ; for, as
Pope observes,

" Where beams of warm imagination play,
The memory's soft image melts away."

As a plain, matter-of-fact man, however, I beg to refer the reviewer
to a diagram (see Mechanic's Magazine, No. 951, containing the very
report from which he has so largely quoted,) describing an experiment
which he may at any time make. He will there see two boilers de-
scribed, having the same extent of flue surface, and Iti every respect
alike, with this exception, that one was furnished with conductor pins,

while the surface of the other was plain. Yet, with the same measure
of heat, (from thirty cubic feet of gas,) passing through the flue, the
former evaporated S lb. 5 oz. of water, and the latter but 4 lb. 14 oz.
Such experiments, which convince ordinary men, however, appear to
have no effect upon this imaginative genius and hypothesis-monger,
for he observes, of the value of practical experiments, that "though
we cannot fail to be convinced by such an argument, we unhappily are
not converted." "Unhappily!" I repeat. But we have good au-
thority for saying,

"A man convinced against his will,
Is of the same opinion still."

On the second part of the reviewer's labours — respecting the
"smoke-preventive plan," fearing to occupy too much of vour valuable
space, I will defer its consideration to my next communication.

I am, Sir,

Yours, &c.
Liverpool, Feb. IG. C. Williams.

[We very much regret that Mr. Williams has not favored us with
the remainder of his comments, as it is our particular desire that all
controversial articles should be brought to a close as soon as possible,
and not be allowed to take a range over the Journal for several months,
we must therefore request that Mr. W. will conclude his communica-
tion in the ensuing journal. We have received two or three other
communications on the same subject, which for want of room we are
obliged to postpone until next month, when we shall offer some remarks
on their contents, as well as on Mr. Williams's communications. — Ed.]

SANDSTONE.

Sir — Will you allow me space in your valuable journal, to ask for infor-
mation concerning sandstone as a building material ?

I live in a neighbourhcod which abounds in red and white sandstone, both
of which are frequently used for building ; but I have heard many complaints
uttered against its use, on account of its great absorption of water, while
others affirm that it is equally dry with brick work, provided it be used in
the form of rubble work, and well flushed with mortar. It is important, in
many places where sandstone abounds, to ascertain its nature with relation to
its absorption, because its cheapness renders it very often desirable to use it.
Some persons also have great objection to brick buildings, preferring the ap-
pearance of the sandstones from the neighbouring quarries, which often
present in rubble work a very pleasing and picturesque appearance of warm
tints of a variety of hues.

I am just about to build a house for myself, and should feel greatly obUged
by any one favouring me with any facts connected with this subject , par-
ticularly as they are of general importance.

I am, Sir, ,

Your most obedient servant.
Sandstone.

[If our correspondents will refer to the second volume of the Journal, he
will find some valuable information on all kinds of stone. — Ed.]

EVAPOR.^TION OF WATER IN MARINE BOILERS.

Sir — Can any of your readers state the results of experiments made under
their own observation on evaporation of water in boilers for land or marine
engines of the usual construction ; the results to be given in the following
form ; — Dimensions of boiler — Water evaporated in lbs. — Coals consumed in
lbs. — Description of coals used — Time occupied in the experiment.

I think such information may be applied to some advantage.

Your obedient servant,

N. H. A.

[We refer our correspondent to Mr. Wicksteed's very elaborate experi-
ments detailed in a work lately pubUshed, and which was noticed in the
Journal of last year. — En.]

ON THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE OBLIQUE ARCH.

Sir — Your correspondent OUver Twist, after describing the Loughborough
and Stamford Road Bridge, on the Midland Counties Railway, makes the
following assertions : — " The above is a unique specimen, being the only one
ever erected, and is the bold invention of Mr. Woodhouse, and was erected
in 1839 — 40." As the preceding is an incorrect statement, I beg you will
insert in your next number this refutation, in order that, to use your corre-
spondent's own words, " the real inventor may have his due meed of praise."

1S42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

103

An oblique bridge of a precisely similar design was erected by Mr. Cibbj,
the engineer, over tbc Croydon Kailway, near the Jolly Sailor station in 1838,
and I am informed that the peculiarities of the design were pointed out by
that gentleman to Mr. Woodbousc during an examination of tbc system of
longitudinal hearings adopted on tbc Croydon Kailway.

Mr. ^Voodbouse wouhl doubtless verify this statement, as I am conviaced
he would be unwilling to profit by your correspondent's inadvertency.

Feb. 23, 1842. Aletiiks.

BLECHINGLY TUNNEL.

Tins work, which is upon the line of the South Eastern and Dover Riil-
way, is now complcteil ; it is nearly three quarters of a mile in Ungth, and
is constructed ibrougb a hill forming part of the Wealden fiirmation uf geolo-
gists, consisiing of a blue clay marl, most remarkably distorted by an up-
fieaving force at some remote penod. which has caused the hill to be full of
faults, and occ.isiono<I considerable difficulty in ihc mining operations. In
the course of ibe work the fossil remains of ihc lijuanoilon and oiher reptiles
have been fonnd. The width of ihe tunnel in the clear is 24 feet, its height
21 feet above the level of the rails, with an invert having a versed line of
three feet : its figure is elliptical. The work was carrie<l on by means of
twelve wcjrking shafts of nine feet diameter, and progiesseil «iih e.\traordi-
nary if not unexampled rapidity, no Uss than 2ti4 yards having been befjan
and ccmpleted in one month. The bricks were all made on the spot, and
upwards of thirteen mil ions were made in the course of last summer, a con-
siderable quantity liaving been previously made and dried in flues during the
preee<ling winter.

The greatest number of men employed at one time was .ibout 1,000. and
only two men lost their lives in tne course of the work, which casualties
arose from their own imprudence when using gunpowder.

lk;iitxing conductors.

SiK— I am about to put up an iron rod to a church tower as a lightning
conductor, and you would oblige me very much by informing me in your
next ('. E. Sf A. Journal, whether the hoMfasts may be iron also, or wheiher
they miisl ntcissarilii be of any other metal. I am not sure that if made of
iron they would not conduct the lightning to the masonry.

Birmingham, Feb. 21, 1842. An Old Scbscbider.

[We are averse to the use of iron for hold fasts, although they are generally
used for the purpose, if iron be used, we should recommend them to be of
caatMon, as being more durable than wrought iron; but we advise that a
supporter or holdfast be made either of glass, which can be cast very thick
for the purpose, or of slate slab, both non-conductors of electricity, and not
so liable to expand, or to be operated upoi by the changes of the weather as
metal— they can be let into the stone-work, and pinned in with cement. It
is very advisable to see that the end of the conducting rod is let into the
earth four or five feet. — Ed.]

STEAM NAVIGATION.

THE STEAM SHIP '• LITTLE WESTERN."

AVf. have taken an opportunity of visiting this vessel, in order that we
might gratify our rcailers with a description of her machinery, which, nn
account of the l>eculiarity of its construction, and the reputed specil of the
vessel. h.as berome an object of considerable interest. The form of the vessel
resembles that of the fastest Gravesend steamers, but sharper at both ends ;
the paddle wheels are of Morgan's construction. The ribs of the vessel are
of T iron ; the exterior or shell is composed of plank about 4 inches thick,
'hie lioilers are of that description known as Splllers. Each boiler consists
of a large internal cb.amber, in which the fire is situated, and above the fire
several rows of brass tubes of about 2 inches in diameter are aiTanged in a
direction diflering by a few degrees from the horizontal line. The water is
contained uathin these tubes uhich communicate with a water space at each
end : the llame .and hot air circulate ouUiite uf the tubes, and the deflection
of thLMr direction from the horizontal line has the effect of maintaining a
constant current through each tube, thereby obviating tbc difficulty which
has Ijeen found u> at tact) to other tubular boilers, in which a pipe, if heate(I
in tbc middle, has been found to generate steam which expelli'ifthc water out
f)f each end, the elasticity of the steam preventing the water from .again
entering.

The engines are by Messrs. Acraman 8c Co., of Bristol, of 80 horse power
each, an I the nature of their general arrangement may perhaps be more
clearly imagined by supposing a pair of eommoii land engines to be turned
upon their ends, that is, placed «llh the cylinder in a horizontal position,
the cylinder being beneath and the connecting ro<ls aljove. Upon tne keel-
sons of the ship the two cylinilers are laid horizontally with the usual space
between them, and from each side of each cylinder a column arises tosop|iort
the paddle shaft. The piston rod ii attached by straps to a beam supported
with rolumns in a vertical position, and from the upper extremity of tbc beam
the connecting rod extends to the crank. The coliinin which supinirls the
one eml ui the l«am centre is connecteil with the column which supports the
one end of the paildle or inlermc^liiite shaft with three strong turniil ninlle-
able iron .stays, by the means of which tbc requisite stability is obtained.
The inner end of each beam centre is prolonged sufficiently to support a short

lever, and each of these two levers works an air pump Tlie two .lir l>ujnp«
therefore stand Ijetween the engines, at a distance Irom the line of the beam
centres equal to the length of the lev.rs.

The piston rod works through both ends of the cylimler ; it is somewhat
larger than piston ro<ls for the same power usually are. is formed of br.-tss,
and is cast hollow. The steam and eduction valves are c iminon double-l>eat
valves of the same description as the expan.'^ion valves in common use. There
are two steam and two eduction valves, as is the usual prac.iie when spindle
valves are employed. These valves are wrought by an eccentric u|on the
intermediate shaft. The spindle of one valve does not pass through the
spindle of the other, but the whole four valves are arranged in a suit.ablo
rliest above the cylinder. 'Hie oi,era!ion of revers ng is arcompiishe<l not
by a loose eccen'ric. but by a double ended lever. The end uf the eccentric
rod, therefore, is made with two notches, and is maintained in the upper
notch when desired, by means of a little sliding guard or sheld.

The air | nmps are of brass, and there is a m-arked peeularity in their con-
struction. Tbc air pump nistons. instead uf being provide<I with valves
through which the water and air ascend preparatory to their being expelled
(luring the asrendinf stroke, are made without valves, by which means the air
and water are to be exne led by the descendiug stroke. In ordii.ary air pumps
the pi.ston is a bucket, in the air pumps of these engines the piston is a plunger.
This species of arrangement Ins been previously tried, though with impertect
success. The air has been found to accumulate under the piunt'er. so that
when the plunger was drawn up. the air. by expanding, filled the intendnl
v,acuous space, thereby preventing an adequate quantity of water Irom enter-
ing the pump ch.amber from the condenser. The conse<juence of this defec-
tive action was an imperfect vacuum in the condenser, and consequently an
inadetpiate performance of the engine.

The evil of the accumulation of air beneath the plunger.might probably be
correcteil by causing the plunger to travel past the port, the lower side of
the plunger being also made to slope downwards from the port. M'e are
informed that in the Little Western there is no provision of th i description,
or of any other for correcting this evil, and we have further been infunnetl
that without any such corrective appliance, the evil is foun 1 to be inopera-
tive or inexistcnt. We confess we are unable to resolve this apparent incon-
sistency.

The advantages of the mode of construction of tlie air-pump pistons uhich
Messrs. Acraman have adopted are eminent and manifold, and that any accu-
mulation of air Iwneath the piston may be prevented by a pru[>er arrange-
ment we are thoroughly convinced. The greater par; of the noise the work-
ing of an engine occasions, arises from the action ol Ihe valves in connection
with the air pump, .and there is much leakage often through tliem, and much
wear and tear. Messrs. Acraman's .arrangement will go far to prevent this,
and the benefits of the system would be materially enhanced, if the action
proper to the foot and delivery yalves were accomplished by Ihe agency of a
simple form of slide valve. There would then be no noise at all. and the
vacuum in the condenser would probably be something better than in ordinary
engines ; for in ordinary engines there must always beaililTerence of pressure
between the iiir pump and condenser sufficient, with the difference of the
level of the water to ojien the foot valve. The best engineers, by placing
their foot valves nearly perpendicular, r nder the difference of pressure
lietween the vapour in the condenser and that in the air-pump barrel, very
inconsiderable, yet there is a difl'erencc in all ordinary engines, and this
dilTerence would be extinguished by discarding the foot and delivery valves
in favour of a slide valve, which would accomplish the work of b ith.

The workmanship of the engines is very superior. There are no nist joints,
but all the surf.aces intended to be filled are planed and made tight by a little
re<l lead ; there is no gasket joint between the cylinder and nfbnder cover,
but both surfaces are made quite true, and then a little red lead renders them
perfectly tiglit. There are many .advantages in this mode of fitting which
we are linppy to find is now ailopled by the most eminent of our engineers.
The pressure of steam in the boiler is 6J lbs. Ilie sjieed of the vessel is
about the same as that of Ihe H>lipse, Railway, and Blackwall.

The Little Western is certainly a favourable example of the skill of Bristol
mech.anici.ans. but that there is anything either in the stnieluro of the hull
or machinery pre-eminently excellent, we utterly deny. In the production
of the vefsel there appears to have been loo great a straining afier novelty
and there are evidences of a disposition to select arrangements, not so much
by the consideration of what is excel enl as of what is unu.sual.

The following are some of Ihe proi«rlions of the ves.sel and engines; she
is 721 tons, measures between |<rpendiculais 200 ft., over all 216 It., krrl
VJ'y ft., breadth of beam 27 ft., ami including pa Idle boxes 47 feel, leng h of
saloon 41 ft. by 24 ll, wide, ladies' cabin 20 lu lung.

The Eail India Company's Steam-frigate Memnon. — On Tuesday, 22nd ult,

Ibis splendid ve.s.sel, uf 1,100 tons burden, mounting two C4-|Kiunders. and
four 32-poiiniIer guns, ami having ibem and .all brr shot on board, with
al>iut 300 tons ol eonls. and a heavy ear^ro sufficient to test her cnpal.ihtles
for a long voyage, left her moorings .at Blackwall, and nroree<led down Ibe
river in excellent style, lor the luirpose of ascertaining the efficiency of b«r
engines and sailing qualities. 'The Memnon w.as built by Mr. Kletcher, and
the engines, of 4()U-lior5c power, were conslnirted by Messrs Msudslay.
Sons, and Kielil, with copiier boilers. The cylinders are double, the a team
can be used expansively, and the consumption of fuel rej.ulaled to suit anjr
circumstance of slow or quick sailing; she has also disconnecting gear to
work one wheel without the other, if found nee ssary. On arriving at Long-
reach Ihe lull power of ihe steam was applied, an-l the engines workad
beautifully, the vibration lieliig scarcely perceptible; the large wherli, 28
feet in diameter, entered the waier with such elfect as In pnq el the veutl.

nth her heavy cargo, at the rateuf 11) miles per hour, affording the greatest
.atisfaction to her commander. Captain Powell, ami all the gentlemen
pnseiit. She proc.'ciled as far as ."^heemess before returniiiu; the mat
and simplicity with which Ibe disconnecting gear (Mr. Field's patent)

manner
re-

104

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

moveil the stupen.lous paddle-wheel and again attached it in an incredible
Thoi t spuce was exhil)ited, it surprised the naval officers, who had never
witnessed anv thin^' of tlic liind before.

Romil Mail Steam Packet Comp,w,,.—Tbe Medrvaij, another of this com-
nanv's vessels, built bv Mr. I'itcher, with engines of 400 horse-pmver. Ijy
Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and Field, made an experimental trip down ihe
Thames at the beyinnin- of last month. She performed the trip to the
admiration of all on board. The interior fittings combine l<cth taste and
convenience, and are in perfect accordance with the magmlicence of the sliip
and engines. Another ve^sel. the Trent, with engines by Messrs_ Miller and
Eavenhill, was to le.ive the Thames for Southampton on the iithult. :He
shall notice this vessel next month.

Plmnouth Feb. 14.— Tlie siiles of steam vessels on which coal boxes are
fitted are ordered to be lined with sheet copper. This is in some measure to
prevent the shin from taking fire, should (as on board the Avon) spont.nncoiis
ignition of the coals occur. Means for lietter insuring the safety of the creu-
and passengers, in the event of lire obliging tliem suddenly to abandon the
vessel, are also now provi.led by the Board of Admiralty, at the recommenda-
tion of the committee of master sbipw rights, ordering boats o two thick-
nesses of phnk. lined between with felt, to be fitted to the padd.e bo.xes of
steam vessels.

Steam Navii.—li is in contemplation to increase the po«er of most of the
steam frigates now in the service, the whole of which, with but one e-'^cP"
tiun, are considered not to have sufficiently powerful engines for all the
curposes for which a steamer may be required ; that although their present
power may answer very well in fair weather and smooth water, yet at the
time their services are most required, in a squall on a lee shore, it wilf
scarcely enable them to hold their own, much less to assist other ships, liie
Devastalion, fi^reu. Gei,ser. Driver, and Styx, are ste.im frigates of about 1,100
tons each. The Devastation is the only one of them that has suthcient power
—her engines being 400 horse jower; the engines of the others being only
285 horse poiver.

MISCELLANEA.

Railways Report.— The Officers of the Railway Department have pre-
sented a Report to the Earl of Ripon. President of the Board ot Trade.
This report, which is presented to Parliament by command of Her
Majesty, is dated the 5th of February, 1842, and contains a voluminous mass
of interesting information relative to railways. From the returns ol accidents
it .appears amongst other things, that during the year 1841 the number of
accidents on various railnays, which arose from causes beyond the control
of passengers, or, in other words, from carelessness, and want of proper pre-
cautions on the part of the r.ailway companies or their servants, amounted to
29. By these accidents 24 persons were killed, and 72 injured. During the
sameyear there were 36 accidents attended with personal injurv to individuals,
owing to their own negligence or misconduct, by wdiich 17 pers ms were
killed, and 20 injured; GO accidents occurred which were attended with per-
sonal injury to servants of the company, under circumstances not involving
danger to the public ; by these accidents' 28 individuals were killed, and 36
injured. Thus there were altogether 62 human beings wdiose lives were
sacrificed by accidents on railways during the year 1841.

River Bourn, or Intermitting Springs of tlie Nortli Downs,— In the Journal
for March 1840. vol. iii., page 103, we gave some particulars of the outburst
of this remarkable spring in the vallev near the Half Moon Inn at C^atterbam
Bottom, on the turnpike road from'London to Lewis. We therein stated
that the outburst at that time was remarkable for its having taken place
at a much shorter interval of four years ; however, in November last, being
an interval of not quite two years, the spring burst again, and has continued
llowing. without intermission, to the present time, and has given forth a
much larger volume of water. We refer our readers to our lormer article for
the particulars of this interesting phenomenon, and invite the attention of
the scientific and the engineer to the subjects. To the latter it is important,
as the occurrence of these springs are not unusual in the chalk formation,
and at the last outbreak of the one in question, the engineers then construct-
ing the works of the Brighton Railway suffered a serious inconvenience in
consequence of it. It is most likely that the inlerv.al of the outbreaks depend
upon the quantity of rain that may have fallen, as last year was remarkable
for being very wet.

LIST OF METV PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 27tI1 JANUARY TO 21ST FEBRUARY, 1842

Sir Months allowed for Enrolment.

John James Baggaly, of Sheffield, seal engraver, for "improvements in
tomlis for the hair, and which are also applicable to combing other Jibrous
mbstances." — Sealed January 29.

Joseph Hughes, of Whitehall Mill, Chapel-le-frith, Derby, paper maker,
for " improvements in tlie method or process of manufacturing paper." —
Jan. 29.

James Hunt, of Whitehall, gent., for " improvements m the manufacture
of bricks." — Jan. 31.

Charles AVye Williams, of Liverpool, gent., for "improvements in the
making and moulding of bricks, artificial fuel, and other substances." —
Jan. 31.

Henry Fowler Broadwood, of Great Pulteney-street, Golden.square,
Esq., for " an improvement in that part of a pianoforte, harpsichord, or
other the like instrument, commonlg culled the name board." — Feb. 2.

William Xewto.v, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improved appa-
ratus) to be adapted to lace-making machinery, for the production of a novel
description of clastic fabric from silk, cotton, woollen, linen, and other fibrous
materials. (.V coinmuiiication.) — Feb. 8.

Adderlev Willco;ks Sleigh, K.T.S. of Manchester, captain in llerM.F.
Majesty's service, for " a certain method, or certain methods of effecting and
forming slieltered floating harbours of safety, by the employment of certain
buoyant sea barriers, applicable thereto, and which said improvements are
also applicable to, (,iid useful for, the formation of breakwaters, floating
bridges, liqht-liouses, and beacons, the protection of pier-heads, embank-
ments, and for other similar purposes." — Feb. 8.

Charles Hancock, of Grosvenor-place, artist, for " improvements in
printing cotton, silk, woollen, and other stuffs."- — Feb. 8.

Benjamin Biram, of Wcntworth, Yorkshire, Colliery viewer, for " im-
provements in the construction and application of rotary engines." — Feb. 8.

Frederick Harlow, of Rothcrliithe, carpenter, for "improvements in
paving or covering roads and other surfaces, and in machinery for cutting
the material to be used for those purposes." — Feb. 9.

Isham Baggs, of King's square, Middlesex, chemist, for " improvementi
in obtaining motive power by means of carbonic acid, and also by a peculiar
apjdication of healed air ." — Feb. 9.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, for " ««-
provements in the manufacture of plaited fabrics." — Feb. 10.

William Brook Addison, of Bradford, in the county of York, manufac-
turer, for " improvements in macldnery for spinning ivorsted and woollen
yarn." — Feb. 10.

George Jarman, of Leeds, flax and cotton spinner, Robert Cook, of
Hathersage, Derby, heckle and needle manufacturer, and Joshua Words-
WORTH, of Leeds "aforesaid, machine-maker, for " improvements in machinery
for spinning flax, hemp, and tow." — Feb. 14.

James Andrew, of Manchester, manufacturer, for " improvements in the
method or process of preparing or dressing yarns or warps for weaving." —

Feb. 15. . ^ .

Charles Thomas Holcombe, of Bankside. Southwark, iron merchant,
for " certain improvements in the manufacture of fuel, and in obtaining pro-
ducts in such manufacture." — Feb. 15.

John Osbai.deston, of Blackburn, Lancaster, metal heald maker, for
" improvements in looms for weaving."- — Feb. 15.

Alexander Rousseau, of the Strand, manufacturer, for " improvements
in fire-arms." (A communication.) — Feb. 15.

George Haden, of Trowbridge, Wilts, engineer, for " improvements iti
apparatus for warming and ventilating buildings." — Feb. 15.

John Lewtiiwaite, of East-street, Manchester-square, engineer, for
" improvements in steam-engines and boilers." — Feb. 15.

Thomas Russell Crampton, of Lisson-grove, engineer, and John Coope
Haddan, of Moorgate-street, civil engineer, for " improvements in steam-
engines and railway carriages." — Feb. 15.

Robert Wornum, of Store-street, Bedford-square, pianoforte maker, for
" improvements in tlie actions of pianofortes." — Feb. 15.

Daniel Greenfield, the elder, of Birmingham, brass-founder, for an
" imjjrovement in the manufacture of hollow metal knobs for the handles of
doors, and other locks." — Feb. 21.

MoSES I'oole, of Lincolu's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements m treat-
ing, refining, and purifying oils and other similar substa/ices." (A communi-
cation.)— Feb. 21.

TO CORRESPONOENTS.

We hare received a letter from ilfosri. Brnithwaite . Milner, and Co., in whicli
then state that the appuralui for diseomiecting the paddle-wheels oj steam vessels
is the invention and patent of Mr. Trewhilt. Tliey have also favoured us by a
corrected drawing, showing 'the eonnertiou of the apparatus with the crank and
the engine, wliieh we shair insert ne.rt month, together with a commmucation on
the same subject from Mr. Grantliam.

The swgested improvement of Amicus Machinarum, on Messrs. Maudslays and
Field's winnlar ci/tindcr engine, by placing the air-pump in the central space will
not do- tlie ren/'oliject for wliich the annular cylinder was contywed, being Jot
the purpose of getting a long connecting rod, is entirely lost m A. M. s arrange-
ment.

A. will be noticed ne.rt month.

The communications on pile-driving are again deferred, as we have not as yet
come to am/ satisfactory conclusion as to the actual force of tlw ram.

B. R. iVe do not consider the apparatus for preventing accidents on railways
would answer the purpose supposed by its inventor.

jfrricoli.-We -will endeavour, in .•:ome future number of the Journal, to give a
fable showing the variation of the .Magnetic Needle yearly.

The Gorgon Engines.— Jl'e have received two communications in ajiswer to
" Vulcan,'' which we regret, on account of their importance, we are obliged
to postpone until next month .

Boohs for Review must be sent earlif in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertisements on or before the Zat It

"'Vols. I, II, HI, iind IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

105

THE INCLINED PLANES OF THE MORRIS CANAL, NEW
JERSEY, UNITED STATES.

(With an Eiigradtig, Plate IV.)

This canal is situate in the county of Morris, through the principal
part of which it passes, and connects the two important rivers the
Delaware and the Hudson. It is chiefly used for the transport of an-
thracite coal, which abounds in the Pennsylvanian mountains, to New
York and other states. It was commenced in the year ls2.J, and
finished in lS3iJ, when it was opened. The construction is a work of
considerable magnitude ; it is in length 101 miles, and passes over an
immense elevation of country, the summit being upwards of OH feet
above the Hudson, and 'liO ft. above the Delaware. To overcome
this great elevation, it would have been necessary to have had at
least 2<K> locks, a number that would have occasioned great delay in
the transit; it was therefore deemed advisable to have recourse to
another mode of conveying the boats on those levels where there was
a considerable acclivity in the section; for this purpose inclined
planes were adopted, having an inclination, on the average, of one in
11, upon which are laid tram-ways for transporting the boats on
trucks from the lower level to the upper level.

To show the magnitude of the work, we will give a few particulars
of its construction. There are IS locks on the Hudson side, having a
total rise of 160 feet, and 7 on the Delaware side, 6'.l ft. rise ; the
locks are cased with stone, and are '8 feet long and 0 feet wide.
Besides, there are 23 inclined planes, 12 on the Hudson side, total rise
r4"5 ft., and 11 on the Delaware side, 001 ft. rise, there are also four
flood gates at its junction with the two rivers, 5 dams, 30 flashes,
20(1 bridges, and 12 aqueducts, one that passes over the " Passaik" is
of stone with an arch SO feet span, and another of wood over the
Pompton, 230 ft. long. The breadth of the canal at top is 32 feet,
at bottom 20 ft. and in depth 4 ft. The works were first com-
menced under the direction of Capt. Beach, and afterward undertaken
by Major Douglass, formerly Professor of the Military Academy at
West-Point, who executed the inclined planes. One of the inclines
^i ft. high, cost 17,000 dollars, which is at the rate of 315 dollars ;«r
fool high.

We will now proceed to describe the inclined planes and the
machinery, the object of our present notice : —

At the top of the inclined plane two chambers or locks are constructed of
itone ifigs. 1, 2. and 3) into which the boats are conveyed for the purpose of
being lowered, or for tUcir reception after they are drawn up ; the upper end
is divided from the canal T, by gates O, (ligs. 7 and 8.) and the lower end by
the gates 0 ; the upper gates are opened and closed by the aid of a small
water wheel S', whose axis is prolonged and passes under the floor of the
chamber to the partition N, and then turns two bevelled cog-wheels, e,f,
each twelve inches diameter 'see fig. II) ; by the aid of a lever these wheels
nuT be made to turn in either direction, they work into another bevelled
wheel at right angles, which transfers the motion to the bevelled gear /, at
the other end of the aiis A, which also turns in cither direction the two
bevelled wheels *, /, upon the axes /' of these two wheels arc small pinion
wheels m, which work into the racks n on the face of the gate, and raise or
lower the gate as may be desired. The gates O', ("figs. 9 and 10,) at the other
end of the chamber open upon a horizontal hinge joint, when open it lies
flat upon the floor, and when shut it rests against the slanting pieces or
stops 0. For the purpose of Ijlhng the lock, the upper gates are lowered,
which allows the water to flow over the floor of the chamber, and lift the
lower gates, and as the water rises, so the gales are closed; when the
lock is emptied, as the water lowers, so the gales O' drop down on the floor.

The emptying of the chambers is cfrcctcd in the following manner: On the
back of the upper gates arc axles *' and i', to which a chain /i is attached,
and fastened at the other end to a moveable board, p, ten inches high, con-
nected to a bar r, attached to a horizontal sluice t, and in the floor of the cham-
her, which covers the outlet, P. If the upper gate O be raised, it prevents the
water of the upper level flowing in, and at the same time the chain p is coded
round the axis /', and consequently the l»oard ij and the sluice » arc drawn
forward, and a communication opened to the chuiDcl below V", through

which the chamber is emptied. When the upper gate o is lowered, the water
rushes over, and by it( force pushes forward the board p, and therewith the
horizonUl sluice », and closes the aperture, at the same time closing the
lower gates.

The machinery for mo%ing the boats is under the floor of the chamber,
and is set in motion by the aid of an overshot wheel (S, tigs. I, L', and 3) 26
feet diameter, and H feet broad, made of wood, with a cast-iron shaft ; upon
this shaft is a cast-iron pinion wheel d. (i»c feet diameter, which works into
a cog-wheel d', 1 feet diameter; upon a prolonged axis of this last wheel are
two bevelled cog-wheels, .•> feet diameter, E E', i shown more at large in fig.C)
by means of the lever arrangements, either of these wheels may be made to
revolve cither way, as may be required to turn the horizontal cog-wheel 6, 7
feet diameter, the axle of which is under the centre wheel that divides the
chambers ; upon the top of this horizontal wheel is fixed the pulley 9 feet
diameter a, round which the chain d passes, for the purpose of raising or
lowering the truck.

Upon the i[ic)ined plane \ X' are laid two pair of raUs z, x', 31 < 1 for the
trucks to travel upon, and in the centre of each truck way is a pair of guide-
pulleys, upon which the chain d runs.

For the purpose of conveying the boats there are two trucks (figs, i and 5
are a plan and elevation of one of them), the framing rests upon four longitu-
dinal bearers w" upon which are laid 15 transverse bearers ; on each side
there are three vertical standards n", fixed above by cross-stays n, and below
by bolts and iron stays. They are supported upon four pairs of wheels, two
pair / are placed close to each other, and have in the centre a moveable
axis, upon which the trucks can turn ; at the end is a horizontal wheel a,
round which the draw-chain d passes. Wien it is required to convey a boat
from one level to another, it is generally done by having one truck at the top
of the incline, in one of the chambers, and another at the fool in the lower
level of the canal, the trucks stand in the water, and the boats are floated
over and secured to them by a chain d' to the side-bar /. The boats are
then drawn up by the aid of a strong chain d, (figs. 1, 2, and '■>,) fastened at one
end at 4, and at the other at a, to a, sills fixed to the floor of the chambers,
from i it passes down one side of the inclined plane X between the rails, then
round the puUey a', attached to the end of the truck, thence up again belweeu
the same rails to the chamber, where it passes through the floor L at A, to
the underside, round the horizontal pulley a, and emerges again at c, it then
passes down the other truckway X' round the ptdley a' of the truck, up
again, and terminates at c', where it is fixed to the sill ; thus when the truck
is descending the chain is lengthening, and at the same time it is shortening
with the ascending truck ; by this arrangement the trucks nearly balance
each other, and ihe only work for the watcr-whcel is to overcome the fric-
tion and the small difference in the weight of the up and down truck. There
is also another help-chain fastened to the side of each truck, and which
passes down the centre of the railway, over guide-pulleys, round a pulley at
the foot of the incline-plane, which is for the purpose of drawing the ascend-
ing trucks up to the end of the chamber ; as by the winding apparatus the
ascending truck is only just brought to the top of the inchne.

Fig. 12 shows the lever and break for regulating the speed of the water-
wheel.

The boats weigh from seven to eight tons, and carry from 20 to 30
tons, the time occupied in passing up the longest incline of 1100 feet in
length and 100 feet rise, is stated to be fifteen minutes, including stoppages.
On account of their shorter length, the boats are not so long in passing over
the other inclines. It is generally reckoned that about six boats can pass
each way per hour. The machinery can be managed by a single person, the
boatman having nothing to do but to fasten the boat on to the truck.

MEASUREMENT OF BRIDGES.

Sir — Will you allow an old friend to ask, through the medium of your very
able Journal, some of your very valuable correspondcnti the best mcthoil of
measuring a stone bridge = taking the ditfcrcnt parts of the works separately,
and yon will much obhge.

Yours very sincerely,

Duilin, March 12, ltJ12. Primus.

106

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXVI.

" I must have liberty
"Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. It would seem that architects neither keep any journals, nor
carry on any correspondence relating to their professional pursuits and
engagements, for nothing of the kind has at any time been communi-
cated to the public, not even as regards such men as Adam, Wyatt,
and many others whose intercourse with the higher ranks of society
must have given some sort of historical interest to their epistolary
correspondence, supposing they ever wrote any letters not strictly
confined to mere matters of business. While Joey Grimaldi the pan-
tomime clown obtains a biographer who bestows upon him a couple of
volumes. Sir Jeffry Wyatville has not been thought worthy of any such
compliment, notwithstanding that he was for some time within the
sphere and atmosphere of a court, and that a life of him would, no
doubt, serve as an excellent peg on which might be hung numerous
anecdotes relating to very distinguished personages, including the
conversations which he must no doubt have held from time to time with
his royal patrons on the subject of architecture. Seme day or other,
perhaps, the world will yet be enlightened, and some fortunate publisher
will be able to announce the "Wyatville Papers and Correspondence."
n. It is excessively provoking to meet so repeatedly with paltry
«' put-off" excuses for reticence of criticism in regard to contem-
porary works of architecture, as though they were not just as much
amenable to opinion and comment as the productions of any other art,
but were entitled to especial forbearance. It is after such fashion
that Gauthier apologizes for not offering any remarks on the design
of the new theatre at Genoa (erected by Carlo Barabino, 1S26-8),
saying he chooses " to abstain alike from commendation or from cen-
sure, leaving it to the public to appreciate its merits" ! Leaving it
to the public, forsooth I— and how is the public to form its judgment
if critical inquiry is to be stifled, and those who are, or who ought to
be, capable of delivering opinion on such matters, abstain from doing
so? Without any great breach of charity, we may, in all such cases,
attribute the apparent candour and forbearance either to the writer's
having no real opinion of his own to express, either one way or the
other, or to a ridiculous excess of cautiousness. Why there should
be aught more invidious or indelicate in criticising the productions of
a living architect, than in exercising the same freedom of judgment on
those of a living painter or poet, it is not easy to perceive. Criticism
may knock a poem on the head at once, and cause it to drop dead
from the press— but criticism cannot knock down stone walls; a
building will remain either to confirm, if correct, or refute, if unjust,
the opinion passed upon it. It must be allowed that architectural
critics are liberal enough in favouring us with established opinions,
which may be come at without other trouble than that of copying
them from other books, and which are most conveniently safe, inas-
much as the critic himself hazards nothing, for if the opinion be ap-
proved, he can take the credit of it, and if taxed as unsound, can throw
the odium of it on the stupidity of those from whom he borrowed it.
" But," exclaim some, " we do not vi'ant criticism— we have gone on very
comfortably without it. Criticism does far more harm than good ; it
teaches the public to pry into what they have no business to fancy
they can understand, whereas all that we require of them is their im-
plicit admiration."

III. Though we have had many modern architectural works relative
to the principal cities of Italy, they have all of them been exclusively
retrospective or nearly so, exhibiting only the monuments of former
periods of the art, and showing scarcely a single recent example.
Admitting that the subjects selected for them are of more intrinsic
value as studies than any buildings of recent date, still some of the

latter would at least possess the interest of novelty. Architecture is
not absolutely defunct in Italy, although it might almost be imagmed
that it bad not produced a single work of any note since the com-
mencement of the present century, so little is the information to be
met with relative to any edifices that have been erected there witbm
the last forty or fifty years. It would seem to be an express rule
adhered to by all our tourists, architects, and artists, who visit that
country, not to take any notice of contemporary buildings— on no
account to describe or to delineate them, but to bore us for the ten-
thousandth time, with their extacies, with the Pantheon, and St.
Peter's, with Palladio and Michel Agnolo. If they can bring home
nothing less stale, they would do well neither to take up their pens
nor open their mouths. Of Cagnola they of course have never heard,
Possagno they have never visited, nor have they ever stumbled upon
the Cafe Pedrocchi at Padua-a palazzo in appearance, and a sufli-
ciently striking specimen of the modern Greco-Italian school-with
much elegance to recommend it, though not free from defects. Al-
thoucrh it mav not be ranked among the public edifices of that city,U is,
as a piece of architecture, quite as conspicuous an object as the Retorm
Club House, which last, perhaps, a tourist through Pall Mall would
not have eves to discover. A work containing examples ot the Italian
architectui'e of the present century, would be a welcome novelty, and
though the buildings themselves may be comparatively few and tar
between, still, ample materials for the purpose are to be coUected
between Milan and Naples, from the structures by Bianchi and Nicco-
lini, in the last mentioned city, to Buonsignore's church, the Madre dl
Iddio, at Turin, and Canova's Doric rifacciamento of the Pantheon, at
Possagno. But ! and that, if not the most satisfactory, is

certainly a most omnipotent reason wherefore nothing of the Kina
either is, or is likely to be undertaken.

IV That theory which would base architectural beauty upon uttlity
and fitness, is so far from being satisfactory as clearly tracing the
source of the former quality to the two latter, that, instead of removing
perplexity, it rather increases it. In direct opposition to such doc
trine, every-day experience convinces us that so very far from consti-
tuting esthetic beauty, mere utility and fitness contribute very little at
all towards it, even in architecture, where, as far as the purpose of
building is concerned, they might seem to be not only indispensable,
but all-sufficient, and afford all the pleasure which the mind can derive
from examining and contemplating edifices of any kind. Yet such is
assuredly not the case; on the contrary, it is only when it aims at
something more thah utility, when it indulges in the superfluous-or,
if you will, the useless-in short, when it steps into the province of
art, and aims at the idle gratification of the eye, that architecture is
entitled to the high distinction claimed for it, and the lofty pretensions
set up in its behalf. Upon .the utility principle of beauty, a turnip
field would be a far more agreeable prospect than any to be met with
in Swiss or Italian scenery; and upon the common-sense fitness and
utility principle, a modern church erected according to the "cheap and
nasty" svstem, and according to Islington or Bethnal Green taste, ought
to delight quite as much as, if not more than, any of those glorious ex-
amples of our ancient ecclesiastical architecture which so wonderfully
impress the mind. Unless the word " utiHty " be exceedingly elastic,
indeed, and its meaning so ductile that it may be drawn out like gold
to a most prodigious exteuf, utility cannot at all be said to recommend
the dome of St. Paul's, it adding nothing whatever to the serviceable-
ness of the building; while on the other hand, the unsightly platforms
or galleries with which our churches are encumbered, ought to be
accounted beautiful, since they certainly have the plea of being useful,
as far as affording sittings goes.

V. What a writer in the Art Union has remarked relative to works
of sculpture exhibited in this country, will apply equally well to archi-
tecture. "Tiie last slight which this noble art sustains remains un-
told; see our daily and weekly papers, nay, our journals of art and
science, see the column after column noticing thp productions of the
pencil, and the infantile paragraph, stating simply that sculpture too
is there." By merely changing a single word, and reading "archi-
tecture," or "architectural drawings," instead of "sculpture," we

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

10

have here described the sort of attention bestowed by the critics of

the periodical press upon exhibited designs. Opinions as to their
merit they do not put forth, since they are unable either to form or to
express any ; but it is considered quite sufficient if tlie " infantile
paragraph " be tacked on to the rest, by way of postoript in some
such terms as " there are several beautiful architectural drawings,
on which our space will not permit to bestow more particular notice."
Or else "particular notice" goes to the extent of copying titles
and names from the catalogue, ticketed, perhaps, by some luminous
epithet, which leaves us just as mu;h in the dark as ever with regard
to the things so mentioned. For this neglect, architects have, in a great
measure, to thank themselves; first, for presenting their designs
before the public at the fag end of an exhibition of pictures, thrust
into a little poking room where not above one third of the drawings
hung up can be seen, much less examined. Secondly, because they
do nothing whatever towards promoting a popular relish for the study
of architecture, and vimlicating the pretensions assumed for it as one
of tiie fine arts. They at least have not much right to complain of
their designs being passed over without notice at exhibitions, when,
by the kind of notice they themselves generally bestow upon them
in their own publications, they convince us that they are unable
to explain their own ideas, or point out the etTect and character
at which they aimed. Ill does it become architects as a body to
regret that there should be so much apathy on the part of the public
towards their art, when they themselves display a degree of apathy
still more unaccountable if not very much more discreditable.

MESSRS. MAUDSLAYS AND FIELD'S MARINE ENGINES.

It must be unnecessary to offer a single observation upon the value
of the annexed table. Its value will, we are confident, be fully appre-
ciated by our readers.

It is proper to remark, that several of the sizes not given directly
io the table are involved in other sizes which are given, and may be
deduced from them by a very simple process. Thus the length of the
stroke of the air pump, as well as of the hot water or feed pump, are
not given directly, but may at once be ascertained as follows :

Given — Length of stroke of cylinder.
" Distance from centre of beam gudgeon to centre of cylinder.
" Distance from centre of beam gudgeon to centre of air pump.
From these data the length of the stroke of the air pump may easily
be obtained ; we have only to work this simple rule of three question;
— Distance from centre of beam gudgeon to centre of cylinder is to
distance from centre of beam gudgeon to centre of air pump, as length
of stroke of cylinder is to length of stroke of air pump: whence we
obtain the answer sought for at once. It is manifest that the answer
may also be obtained by construction. The feed pumps are, in Messrs.
Maudslays' engines, as well as in most other engines, worked off the
air pump cross head ; the length of the stroke of the air pump, there-
fore, determines the length of the stroke of the feed pump.

The sizes given in the table have manifestly reference only to side
lever engines. The size of the steam pipe is not given in the table,
but the »ize of the steam port is, and the steam pipe should be, about
the same area. The quantity of lap or cover proper to be put upon
the valve, is a question determinable altogether by the quantity of
expansion required, and varies in different engines of the same power.
But the upper and under faces of the valve are, in Messrs. Maudslays'
engine, in no case of the same brcadtli : the cause for this inequality
is that if the valve be at half stroke, that is, with both ports closed,
and if the engine be moved round, the travel of the valve from half
stroke to the extremity of the stroke doicnwarda will be found to be
not the same as the travel of the valve from half stroke to the ex-
tremity of the stroke upwardn. In other words, the space described
by the valve whilst the piiton descends, and the space described by
the valve whilst the piston ascends, arc not iijual ; whereby it becomes
necessary to make the superior and inferior faces of the valves of
dilTurcnl depths, to compeosate for tl' is inequality.

The accuracy of the preceding statement every engineer has it in
his power to verify, either by a model, or by a drawing of the valve
and piston in their several relative positions. The cause of the
irregularity may be traced to the oblique action of the coanecting and
eccentric rods. If the piston be placed at half stroke, that is, midway
between the top and the bottom of the cylinder, the crank will not be
level. This is manifest from the ordinary method of ascertaining tb«
length of the connecting rod, which is to level the beams, and take the
vertical distance from the extremity of the beams to the centre of the
crank shaft. When the beams are level the engine is at half stroke,
but if we wish to attach the connecting rod to the crank pin — its
length being ascertained as above — it will be necessary to bring the
crank down a little, to compensate for the depression of the head of
the connecting rod due to the deviation from the vertical line. If,
then, the crank be not level at half stroke, the descent of the piston
from half stroke, and its ascent to half stroke again will accomplish
more than half a revolution of the paddle wheels ; and the ascent of
the piston from half stroke, and its descent to half stroke again, will
accomplish less than half a revolution of the paddle wheels. The ratio
of the disparity will vary with the length of the connecting rod, the
circumstance of there being overhang or no overhang of the beam, the
length of the beam, and other circumstances; but in all ordinary en-
gines, the difference between the upper segment of the circle of the
crank's revolution and the under segment of that circle will interfere
with the valves' motion, and the proportionment of the valve faces
ought to have reference to the extent of that interference.

It is Messrs. Maudslays' practice, in some of their very recent en-
gines, to make the stroke of the valve considerably more than twice
the depth of the port. All the valve levers are equal, and the stroke
of the valves is in all cases equal to the throw of the eccentric It is
also their invariable practice, in all engines of considerable magnitude,
to construct the valve casing with a faucet joint, to permit the ex-
pansion of the casing when heated with steam, without distorting the
cylinder. In some large engines which have been without this pro-
vision, we have known the cylinder ports to be rent asunder by the
expansion of the casing ; and however frequently and however well
the rust joints of the casing might have been made, they invariably
became very soon leaky, from the effect of unequal expansion. The
cylinder when hot will expand as much as the valve casing ; and if the
two were always equally heated, no detriment could ensue from the
absence of an expansion joint. But as the throttle valve is never per-
fectly tight, and iis the slide valve generally is so, the steam before
the engines are started enters the casing and induces its expansion;
whilst being excluded by the slide valve from the cylinder, the cylinder
is not heated, and therefore does not expand. Injury of some sort or
other, if the engine be large, is sure to be the result of these conflict-
ing forces. Our provincial engineers are sadly deficient in their
acquaintance with or their attention to details such as those to which
we have adverted ; yet it is upon an attention to such details that the
superiority of an engine principidly depends.

In the double cylinder engines of the Messrs. Maudslays, cylindrical
slide valves are employed, and have been found to operate extremely
well. The packing of these valves is metalli.:. The packing of the
pistons made by the same firm are invariably nict;Ulic, and generally
consist of a single ring turned eccentric, cut in one place, and the cut
part fitted with a tongue piece to prevent the steam /ron. p issing
through the cut. A piece the same breadth as the ring is httcd over
the back of the cut, ground tight, and then rivetted to one part of the
ring. The elasticity of the ring is in most cases found sulhc.ent to
keep the ring in intimate contact with the interior of the cylinder, an.1
the force with which this contact is maintained may be either aug-
mented or diminished bv a bridle-a truly ingenious contriv.ince, and
one which we regret the limits of this notice prevent us from referrinR
to more specifically.

In a future paper we shall probably enter with considerable minute-
ness into the merits of Messrs. Maudslays' machinery, or rather into
those details which constitute the excellence of the machinery of that
eminent firm.

T i.

]0S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

PROPORTIONS OF MARINE ENGINES.
The following Table of Pioportions is collected from Marine Engines of Messrs. Maudslays' manufacture.

[April,

IlOBSE Power .

10

15

20

25

30

40

50

CO

70

SO

100

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

1
ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

Cylinder, diam. inside

20

24

27

294

32

3G

40

43

464

474

53

Air-pump, diam. inside

lU

14

16

17

18

21.V

24

24

28

28

31

Slides, diam.

9

lOJ

m

12f

13i

15

172

174

21

21

22J

Hot water pump, diam.

2|

2i

3

3i

34

4

44 1

44

54

54

64

Injection cock, diam.

If-

2

•7 1

24 1

24

3

3

3

Feed pipe, diam.

U

24 '

24

24

24

Hand pump, diam.

4

4

4

5

5

c

g' '•

6

G

6

G

Crank shaft, diam.

4i

G

64

7

7i

8

9

10

104

104

12

Piston rod, diam.

2

2"

2}

3

3i

34

4

il

44

41

51

Air pump rod, diam.

1^

l|

2

2i

2i

2-i

3

3

34

34

3J

Cylinder side rod, diam.

7*iV

IJ

2

2i

24

2-J

3

3J

34

3i

Air-pump side rod, diam. .

1

If

n

14

14

IJ

If

li

24

24

24

Slide rod, diam.

I-tV

i^

J.

s

1

14

H

H

14

15

n

1|

Beam gudgeon, diam.

4i

6

G

7

n

8

9

9

104

10-1

12

Beam ends, diam. pins

2

21

21

3

3i

34

4

41

44

44

5i

Air pump pins in beam, diam.

11

15

H

n

2

2^

24

24

2f

2i

34

Lengtb of stroke of cylinder

0

2 3

2 6

2 9

3 0

3 G

4 0

4 0

4 6

4 G

5 0

Beam at centres, diam.

i 2i

1 G

1 7

1 9

1 11

2 1

2 4

2 4

2 9

2 9

3 0

Beam near centre, depth .

m

lU

12i

1 2

1 3i

1 4

1 6f

1 7

1 9f

1 9f

2 0

Beam at ends, depth

5

6S

6*

74

8

8J

10

101

12

12

1 2

Beam at ends, diam.

6

7i

8

9

9 A

101

12

1 1

1 2

1 2

1 4

Boss of beam, centre length

5

6

G

6

64

7i

8

8

104

104

12

Air-pump boss of beam. diam.

OS

3i

3i

H

4

44

5

5

6|

Gi

7

Air-pump boss of beam, length.

H

2J-

24

n

3

y.

34

35

4-1

41

41

Centre boss of beam, diam.

8*

11

11-4

1 1

1 2

1 3

1 5

1 5

1 1

1 8

1 10

Beam, thickness of

1

Is

lyk

1?

14

IJ

1|

2

01

2i

2tlT

Centre of beam to centre of parallel

motion

81

n

10^

lit

Vlh

1 2|

1 5

1 4J

1 Ci

1 Gi

1 H

Cylinder cross head, depth of boss

G

7i

8

9

94

104

12

1 1

1 2'

1 2"

1 31

Cylinder cross head, depth of middle

4|

H

6i

7

74

8i

H

lOi

lU

lU

1 1'

Cylinder cross head, thickness

n

IS

12

2iV

2i

24

n

3

3|

3i

33

Cylinder cross head, diam. of boss

4

4*

3

51

6

Gi

u

8

81

9

10

Air-pump cross head, depth of boss .

4*

5

H

64

6i

8

9-

10

lOi

lOi

114

Air-pump cross head, depth of middle

H

4

u

5

5i

6i

7

8

8

8

9

Air-pump cross head, thickness

1

U

1t%

lA

14

11

2

2

2i

2i

24

Air-pump, centre to centre, side rods

transversely .

2 5A

2 lOJ

3 n

3 34

3 Gi

3 114

4 5

4 71

5 OJ

5 Oa

5 84

Air-pump cross head, diam. of boss .

2f^

31

34

4

4

4S

54

5i

5J

H

64

Steam port, length

H

n

10

11

lU

13

15

184

18i

18i

20

Steam port, breadth

n

1*

2

n

2|

n

3

3

4

4

4J:

Slide, motion of

H

5

51

6

64

H

s;

8i

11

11

124

Crank centre, height

4 8

C 0

G 6

6 6

7 7

8 9

10 0

10 0

11 2|

11 2}

12 4

Beam centre, heiglit

"i

73

8

9

10

14

IG

16

18

18

20

Centre of beam gudgeon to centre of

crank

2 10

3 3

3 7i

3 10^

4 3

4 11

5 8

5 83

6 54

G 5i

7 2|

Centre of beam gudgeon to centre

of cylinder

2 9

3 n

3 6i

3 9

4 IJ

4 9

5 G

5 61

G 3

G 3

7 0

Centre of beam to centre of air-pump

1 4A

1 7

1 9

1 lOi

2 0^

2 4i

2 9

2 91

3 14

3 U

3 6

Height of parallel motion centre from

sleepers

3 lOi

4 2^

4 7i

5 Oi

5 43

6 IJ

6 llf

6 111

7 9|

7 95

8 6

Centre of slide rod from sUde face

2

2i

n

2l

2|

3i

31 iV

3^-iV

44

44

5

Centre to centre of beams trans-

versely

2 9

3 3

3 6A

3 9

4 0

4 6

5 0

5 3

5 9

5 9

G 6

Centre to centre of frames trans-

versely

1 7

1 11

2 H

2 3

2 10

2 10

3 4

3 4

3 8

Centre to centre of engines trans-

versely

5 6

G 0

G 4

G 8

7 0

7 4

8 0

8 4

9 0

0 0

10 G

Height of condenser from sleepers

1 2

1 5

1 G

1 114

1 114

2 24

2 2^

2 3

Centre of beam gudgeon to front of

condenser

lOJ

113

1 1

1 G

1 6J

1 84

1 84

1 11

Centre of beam gudgeon to back of

condenser

4:1

7]

8

1 0

1 0

1 U

1 14

1 3

Condenser, widtli

2 8i

3 2i

3 5

4 3A

4 Gi

4 10'

4 10

5 5i

Eduction pipe, deptli

lOJ

\\

1 1

1 4

I 4'

1 5i

1 5i

1 73

Condenser, thickness

i

3

3

4

I

1

1

li

U

u

Foot valve passage, depth

2

2

2

4

4

5

5

6"

Foot valve passage, width

1 2

1 5

1 G

2 0

2 0

2 4

2 4

2 7

Columns, diam. of top

4

H

S^

5J-

6

7

8

8

94

94

10

Columns, diam. of bottom

4i

•"i

e.I

61

6i

8

9

9

lOi

104

111

Frames, thickness

iT%

s

i-r^

I

1

a

1

1

1^

l,fV

l|

Centre to centre of colunms in side

frames

1 6

1 8i

1 11

1 lU

2 2

2 7

3 0

3 0

3 3

3 3

3 74

Height of baud gear from sleepers

2 5i

2 9

2 Gi

2 lOj

3 1

3 13

3 5

3 5

3 94

3 91

4 2

Small columns, diam.

U

2i

25

■U. &3

2U

2? 3i

3i 3|

31 31

3| 44

3344

4i 4i

Centre of crank to centre of parallel

"

'

motion shaft .

3 10

4 4J

4 10

5 2A

5 8i

6 74

7 81

T 8i

8 7i

8 7i

9 6J

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

109

DOUBLE CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE.

Deacriplion of a Double Cylinder Rolalivt Steam Engine, erected by
Messrs. G. and J. Rennie, at Mr. Thomas Ciibilt's Factory, near
f^'aiixhall Bridge.

This engine is entitled to the attention of all who are interested in
the economical production of steam power. For a rotatory engine its
consumption of fuel is believed to be unpreeedentedly small ; and we
are convinced we shall render an acceptable service to our readers by
informing them of the peculiarities of its structure, and the nature of
its performance.

The arrangement of the parts of the engine is identical with that of
the beam rotative engines in common use, with the exception that the
motion is derived from two cylinders instead of from one. The em-
plorment of two cylinders, the pistons of which are worked by the
same steam, was first practised by Hornblower, and extemled and
improved upon bv Woolfe ; but the plan has never come into general
use. In this engine the smaller cylinder is one-fifth of the capacity of
the larger cylinder, and the expansion takes place in the larger cylin-
der exclusively. The steam enters the smaller cylinder direct from
the boiler during the whole of the stroke; and having pressed down
the piston, escapes, not into the atmosphere or into the condenser, but
into the larger cylinder, where it becomes instrumental in forcing the
piston of the larger cylinder upwards. The same steam, therefore, is
rendered available in the production of power in both of the cylinders,
and it is only after having accomplished this end that it escapes into
the condenser.

The piston rods proceeding from the cylinders are attached to the
same end of the beam, the rod of the larger cylinder at the extremity
of the beam, and the rod of the smaller cylinder at a point nearer the
main axis. The pistons, therefore, act in concert ; and by a proper
arrangement of the valves, a communication is maintained between the
space beneath the piston of the smaller cylinder and the space above
the piston of the larger cylinder, so that the pistons descend simul-
taneously.

The engine is supplied with steam by one boiler, which is cylin-
drical, and is, in its details, of the most approved Cornish construction.
The exterior diameter of the boiler is 6 ft. 3 in., the extreme length
34 ft., and the pressure of the steam 28 lb. upon the square inch.
The fire grate is situated in an internal flue tube, 3 ft. S in. in diameter,
which extends through the boiler, from end to end. The length of the
fire-place isl ft. (j in., its breadth 3 ft. S in., and its mean height Is in.
The coal burned is Graigola, an excellent and economical species
of Welsh coal, which produces no smoke. The depth of coals upon
the fire bars is never permitted to exceed 3 inches, so that there is
little or no carbonic oxide generated. The combustion is slow, a con-
dition favourable to its perfection, and as the intensity of the fire
scarcely exceeds that of a common household grate, there is no clinker
formed. The fire bridge is composed of brick, and instead of being
flat upon the upper surface, as is the case in many boilers, is formed
to a circle nearly concentric with the circle of the flue tube, and
leaving only a few inches of opening between the convex surface of
the bridge and the concave surface of the flue tube. By this expedient
the flame and hot air proceeding from the fire are spread in a thin
sheet over the interior surface of the flue, by which means their heat
is more rapidly and perfectly communicated to the water in the
boiler.

Between the fire bridge and the farther extremity of the boiler a
tube extends longitudinally through the flue. This tube contains
water; it is alout 25 inches in diameter, ami communicates in two
places with the water in the boiler. f)ne of these communications is
through a vertical pipe, exlemling from the under side of the flue tube
to the under side of the horizontal pipe containing water, and situated
immediately behind the bri'lge. The other communication is through
a copper pipe at the after extremity of the boiler. This pipe is 31 in.
in diameter; it springs from the upper side of the horizontal pipe,

and, passing to the outside of the boiler, ascends until it reaches the
level of the boiler top, when, bending over, it penetrates the shell of
the boiler, and descends internally until it reaches to the depth of a
few inches below the water level. Through this arrangement of pipe*
a continual current of steam and water is maintained.

The hot air, upon leaving the furnace, travels through the internal
flue, communicating iU heat both to the water io the boiler and to the
water contained in the horizontal pipe situated in the flue which we
have just described. Upon arriving at the extremity of the internal
flue, the current of hot air is separated into two streams, on<" of which
traverses the one side of the boiler, and the other the other side of the
boiler. These streams, upon arriving at the front of the boiler, again
unite; they then descend, and pass longitudinally beneath the bottom
of the boiler, after which they enter the chimney. In the passage
which unites the flue beneath the bottom of the boiler witli the chim-
ney, a long pipe is placed about lo inches in diameter, and into this
pipe the water em;iloyed for feeding the Ixjiler is first introduced. By
this arrangement the air proceeding to the chimney is robbed of its
superfluous heat, and escapes into the atmosphere at a comparatively
low temperature.

The pressure of the steam in the boiler is indicated by a syphon
mercurial gauge, graduated to feet, inches, and quarters of an inch.
The level of the water in the boiler is regulated by a feed cock,
adjusted from time to time by the engineer. The usual ajiparatiis for
feeding by a head of water, with a valve operated upon by a float,
would require to be of inconvenient dimensions if applied to this
boiler, on account of the superior pressure of the steam to that of
ordinary land boilers. There is a glass gauge tube and the usual
gauge cocks for the indication of the water level.

The boiler is furnished with two steelyard safety valves, and one
safety valve situated within the boiler and inaccessible to the engineer.
Four brick walls enclose the boiler, and a 9-inch brick arch extends
over its top. Between this arch and the external surface of the
boiler a space of an inch or two is left, to leave room for the expansiou
of the boiler. Above the brickwork there is a layer of charcoal
about a foot in depth, for the purpose of preventing the escape of heat
from the boiler; and the precautions adopted have the etTect of ren-
dering the escape of heal so trifling that it is nearly imperceptible.

The interior diameter of the Jteam pipe is only 3 in. Upon stopping
the engine, the eccentric rod is not thrown out of gear, as is the usual
practice, but a cock in the steam pipe is shut, whereby the admissioa
of steam to the engine is totally prevented, and the quiescence of the
engine is the result. The cock by which this is accomplished is a
four-way cock, one of the channels through it being for the purpose of
maintaining the communication between the boiler and the slide valve,
and the other for accomplishing the operation of bloretng through.
The slide valves are of the common three-ported description, and are
situated at the upper extremities of the cylinders. The covers of
both cylinders are upon the same level, but the larger cylinder being
the longer projects downward further than the smaller one. This
peculiarity, however, is not observable to a spectator: the symmetry
of the work has been carefully and successfully preserved. The valve*
move simultaneously, and are put in motion by arms extending from
stout iron rods, which ascend through the floor of the engine-room,
and areguiiled in sockets attached to the respective cylinders to which
the valves belong. These rods derive their motion from i cross heaJ
which forms the upper side of a square frame, in which a heart-shaped
cam revolves, by which means the frame is moved alternately upwards
and downwards, the sides of the frame being so far apart that the cam
passes them in its revolution, without communicating any laler.J
motion. This arrangement has been long known under the name of
the hc'irt motion, but its extended eiuploymcnt has \\een prevented by
the impression that it produced a jarring and irregular motion, un-
favourable to the smooth working of machinery. This impression is,
in the present case, proved to be unfounded : the valves are movcil
without noise, tremor, or harshness of any kind. The advantage to
be derived from the use of the heart motion is a rapid opening and
closing of the port; but we believe the eccentric to accomplish this

no

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

operation with sufficient rapidity, if the ports be made of proper
dimensions.

Th'' cam is made of steel, and the upper and under surfaces of the
square frame against which the cam presses are covered with plates
of steel, about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. The cam is
bolted upon a cast iron chuck, keyed upon the end of a horizontal
shaft, about 3j in. in diameter, which derives its motion from the main
shaft of the engine, at the same point where the governor derives its
motion. The square frame presses against this cast iron chuck, and
is steadied by it.

The beam, parallel motion, connecting rod, crank, fly wheel, &c. are
of the usual description, and therefore require no particular notice.
The slide valves are, as we have already mentioned, of the description
known as three-ported. There is a loss of steam from the use of this
kind of valve. We consider a double two-ported valve to be in every
respect preferable. The governor is supported by a frame placed
immediately over the crank shaft, and the connection between it and
the throttle valve is maintained by a rod which runs beneath the floor
of the engine house. The diameter of the cold water pump is 10 in. ;
the length of its stroke 2 ft. 54 in. The diameter of the air pump is
20 in. ; the length of its stroke 3 ft. The delivery valve is situated
in the mouth of the air pump ; it is of the pot-lid construction, but
by a partial application of the principle of equilibrium, the noise and
force with which common pot-lid valves shut are greatly abated. A
valve so constructed as to be in perfect equilibrium would manifestly
not work in an air pump, as no upward pressure would open such a
valve ; but by the combination of the principle of the equilibrium
valve with that of the ordinary pot-lid or spindle valve, a point of
adjustment may be arrived at where the valve will open with suflS-
cient facility, without being closed with an injurious force.

This will be better understood by the annexed section and plan of
the delivery valve. For this sketch, as well as for the indicator
diagrams which accompany this article, we are indebted to the Messrs.
Rennie.

Fig. 1.— Section of Valve.

be the force requisite to open it ; and if the faces were brought into
the same line, no force that the greatest pressure beneath the valve
could produce would ever open the valve.

Eg. 2.— Plan of Valve.

a a a a a a Fig. 1., is one half of the valve proper, or that part
which rises to permit the escape of the air and water lifted from the
condenser by the air pump ; 6 6 6 6 6 is one half of the valve seat, or
that part which remains stationary, and against which the valve
strikes. The valve seat is bolted by six bolts to the mouth of the
pump, by bolts which pass through the holes x x x x, Fig. 2. The
amount of force with which the valve is closed is that due to the
pressure upon the horizontal surface A, Fig. 1, on the ring A A A A,
Fig. 2, whilst the real area through which the air and water escape
is that represented by B, Fig. 1. Whatever pressure exists upon the
side of the valve C, is balanced by the equal and opposite pressure
upon the other side C. It is manifest that the more nearly the faces
f andy are brought into the same vertical line, the less force will the
pressure above the valve exercise in shutting it, and the greater will

The species of valve applied to the air pump of this engine is cer-
tainly superior to that employed in engines in general ; but we believe
that the application of the slide valve to air pumps would be preferable
still. One slide valve would perform the united functions of the foot
valve, the bucket valve, and the delivery valve. The air pump piston
might then be made without any opening through it, the water being
expelled from the air pump by expression ; and if the piston were
made to travel a short distance beyond the port, no accumulation of
air could take place in the pump chamber. We cannot enlarge upon
this topic further than to say, that by using a slide valve worked \>j
the engine, a better vacuum might be attained in the condenser than
by any species of valve which is opened by the difference of pressure
upon its two sides.

A certain quantity of the power which an engine exerts is exerted
in overcoming its own friction, lifting the water which has accom-
plished the condensation of the steam out of a vacuum, &c. The term.
horse power is used to denote the available quantity of power which
an engine is capable of furnishing for any useful purpose, aud is, there-
fore, the excess of the power produced over the power consumed by
the engine itself. Any estimate of the power of an engine, based
upon the assumption that the whole power exerted by the piston is
the true measure of the engine's beneficial exertion, is, therefore,
fallacious. An allowance of one-eighth of the power as being con-
sumed by the engine itself, is a usual and moderate allowance.

The amount of economy to be obtained from steam working expan-
sively is precisely the same, whether the expansion takes place in one
or in two cylinders. The use of two cylinders serves to equalize the
action and to diminish the strain thrown upon the moving parts ; but
it is questionable whether the greater fluctuation of pressure when
only one cylinder is used might not be rendered equally instrumental
in the production of a regular motion, simply by using a larger fly-
wheel, or driving the fly-wheel at a greater velocity, and whether it
is not quite as simple to increase the strength of the moving parts a
little, as to add an additional cylinder and piston, to prevent them ftOM
being subjected to so great a strain.

18420

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Ill

Fig. 3.— Indicator di»gr»m of Sm»ll Cylinder.

i
1

i
«

i
1

— \ —

; ; .^
\ . 1
■ : 1

; : 1
; '' >
: ! <>

\ \ : 1

: ; : •;•

'r-r-rY

•

• : ■': '

Fig. 4. — Indicator diagram of Large Cylinder.

i ! ! - : . :

J • ■ 1 ! ^ * '

V i ''-

v> '; ;
<n ; :

^ i : •

'' : ! ! • ' I 1
■ — ; • • ■ ; ; «3

! ■ '■ • : i ! 1 ''
; ; : j ; ; ! ', _>

• £ i ; * > 1

J :

Performance of Esuine.

The engine makes 19 double strokes
per uiinu^e.

The consumption of fuel is 132'3 lb.
of unscreened Graigola coals per hour.

The area of the smaller cylinder, le»B
i the rod, is 1H6-24 square inches.

The area of the larger cylinder, lesi
i the rod. is 74y-i;y square inches.

The iiumU-r of feet per minute travel-
led by the jniallrr piston is 171.

The nvmiber of feet per minute travel-
led byllip larger piston is 2'2b.

The mean pressure in the smaller
cylinder urging the piston, as shown by
tiie indicator, is 2.>'I>o lb. upon the square
inch.

The mean pressure in the larger cylin-
der urging the piston, as shown by the
indicator, ist)-9 lb. per'quirre inch.

We subjoin indicator diagrams, taken
from both cyiinders.in the oidinary work-
ing condition of the engine.

VVe are informed by Mr. G. Rcnnie
that the nominal power of the engine is
40 horse power, but that the actual
work performed, or power exerted is —
By the smaller cylinder . . . 24-6
By the larger cylinder .... 3j*U

Real number of horses power of en-
gine fitJ'2

It is right, however, that we should
investigate this point for ourselves.

The area of a surface included within
the lines of an indicator diagram is a cor-
rect representation of the power really
exerted by an engine, but the mode of
finding a nuineriral expression for that
area by means of ordinates is not per-
fectly correct : although if there be a
sufficient number of ordinates, it may be
rendered sufficiently correct for practical
purposes. \Ve shall, therefore, take the
mean pressure in the smaihr cylinder at
2Sv"i(i pounds, and the mean pressure in
the larger cylinder as (j-i> pounds, as de-
termined bv Mr. Rennie.

18G-24 X 25-5ti X I'l =
814H 10-3424 — 3oOtX) = 24-G

749-2yX G- 9 X 228 =
11787S2-G28 -;- 33000 =

35-7
GO-3

Deduct for friction, pumping
water out of condenser, &c.,
one-eighth

Real number of horses power

A L, Atmospheric Line.

It is easy to determine analytically the amount of advantage that is
to be derived by using steam expansively. Let the full pressure of
■team upon the piston be represented by unity, and let x represent
the capacity of the larger cylinder, or the space through which the
piston has been moved, whilst urged by the expanding steam. The

density will then be --— and assuming that the densities and elas-
tic
ticities are proportionate, — — will be the differential of the eflSciency,

and the efficiency itself will be the integral of this, or, in other words,
the Napierian logarithm of the denominator. Wherefore the efficiency
of the whole stroke, whether the expansion is accomplished in one or
in two cylinders, will be l-f- Nap. log. 1+r.
Taking the pressure of the atmosphere at 15 lb., and the pressure

upon the piston at the commencement of the stroke at 25 lb. above the
pressure of the atmosphere, then 15-|-2.5=40 lb. If the steam be cut
off at one-fifth of the stroke, or if, as in the present case, the smaller
cylinder be one-fifth of the capacity of the larger cylinder, the ste.im
will be expanded into 5 times iU original volume. Its pressure, there-
fore, at the termination of the stroke, will be ♦,"=8 lb., or 7 lb. below
the pressure of the atmosphere ; but as the average vacuum in the
cylinder of an engine rarely much exceeds 24 in. of mercury, or 12 lb.
pressure, the unbalanced force of the steam, or the force of steam
urging the piston at the end of the stroke will be 12-8=4 lb. When
the steam is cut off at onc-fiflh .r-^4. The efficiency, therefore, is
1-1- Nap. log. (1-1-4) = 1+ Nap. log. 5.

The Napierian logarithm of S is 1-G00i373, therefore the toLil effi-
ciency of the steam is 2G09137?, instead of 1. lu oth.r words, the

]12

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

efficiency of the steam is rendered one and a half times greater by
Being so used as to be expanded into 5 times its original volume.
This result is perfectly independent of the pressure of the steam em-
ployed ; but if steam of a considerable pressure be not employed, the
evlinders will require to be of inconvenient dimensions. The idea
entertained bv some persons, that the cause of the economy in the
Cornish and other engines which use high pressure steam expansively,
lies in the inconsiderable dift'erence in temperature between steam of
the pressure of one atmosphere and steam of the pressure of several
atmospheres, is perfectly fallacious. Temperature is not in all cases
a measure of the comparative quantities of beat resident in bodies.
Two cubic feet of steam of the pressure of one atmosphere will, if
impressed sufficiently, become about one cubic foot of steam of the
pressure of two atmospheres ; and whatever may be the temperature
of the steam in the two states, the quantity of heat existent in it will
be in each case the same.

In common rotative engines, which operate without expansion, the
ordinarv consumption of coal is 10 lb. per horse power per hour. But
the hoise power is usually found to be about 52,U0U lb. raised one
foot high in the minute, which is equivalent to 2i5-208 millions raised
one foot high by a bushel or 84 lb. of coal. Some good engines, how-
ever, operate with an effective pressure upon the piston of 13i lb. per
square inch=.GO,000 raised one foot high for a horse power ; and a few
3scend as high as 6G,000 per horse powei, without employing high
pressure steam. The engines consume about 8 lb. of coal per nominal
horse power, or 4 lb of coal per horse power of Watt. The consump-

132-3 „ , ,,
lion of coal in this engine is 132-3 lb. per hour -^^^ — 2-5 lb. per

horse power per hour.

We recommend this engine to the notice of all who are interested
hi steam machinery. By the use of the Graigola coal, smoke is alto-
gether avoided, and this species of coal is moreover extremely lasting
and economical. The engine is elegantly finished ; its parts are skil-
fully and tastefully arranged, and the details of its construction
manifest the supervision of the skilful mechanic. In the economy
with which it performs its work this engine stands in the first rank ;
and it certainly works with a smoothness, efficiency, and equability, it
would be difficult to surpass. As a specimen of workmanship, as well
as an achievement of engineering skill, it is destined to confer much
honour upon the Messrs. Rennie.

METROPOLITAN IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY.

Whoever has, in any degree, reflected ou the architectural movemect,
■which was such a prominent feature in the Georgian era, and is equally so at
the present day, must have felt strongly the necessity of some general plan,
and of a central controlling body. Whether we look at what has been
effected, or what is left undone — whether we regard the useful or the orna-
mental, tlie imperfection of t!ie present measures has been evident, and the
Rowing disposition towards remedying this defect. Who thinks of the old
city, and looks at the new one which has now risen, witliout regretting that
so many spots where improvement is urgently called for, should have been
left untouched ? The men of the present day have thrown off the dulness
and puerility which infested England in the time of the second and third
Georges, and it is plain that we have taken steps to redeem our metropolis
from their neglect. Such a period of repose was perhaps wanted after the
■violence of the civil wars, and the dissoluteness which prevailed under the
second Charles. It might he in the social body, as in the human system,
that irregular excitement must be succeeded by as great a collapse ; and never
perhaps was the depth of the bathos so extremely felt in this country as
■when equally in arms, in literature, and in art, with few, and those not first-
Tate, exceptions, we had nothing but mediocrity. Nor was the passive en-
durance of dulness the sole evil there was — a power of warfare active
against whatever of beautiful and great our ancestors had left, music was made
not only an exile but an alien, painting defunct here was exercised only at
the hands of foreigners, and the whitewash brush, which so mercilessly at-
tacked the arts of design in our buildings, was wieldedJnot,less energetically

in the world of letters. The age of pigtails and milk .and water was not con-
tented with self-disfiguration, the same artist who had spoiled his own liead,
clapped periwigs on the heads of the Romans ; and both the country and the
theatre witnessed caricatures not only of the proprieties of particular ages,
but of human nature itself. The puritans destroyed, the cavaliers disguised,
and the Hanoverian dulness finished whatever the presumption of the restora-
tion had left untouched. The dawning of the present movement, the
glimpses of better days, which were seen even in the worst, and the processes
by which even evil features were made to work good, would take too long a
history to sketch now — we must be contented with the result. We have a
metropolis which, both in historical remembrances and existing monuments,
has all the elements of grandeur and beauty which the most magnificent
could desire ; our only caic must be what to restore, what to destroy, what
to build anew. A uniform process is all that is required to unite the dis-
persed materials ; the expense is no part of tlie question, for in these days the
want has but to be felt to be suppUed. People are aware that though money
m.ay be trifled ■with, health may not, and expediency sinks in the consi-
deration.

When, therefore, the question of metropolitan improvement has reached
that state when men's minds are prepared for its consideration, the formation
of a society for its furtherance cannot fail to be a successful means of accom-
plisliing the object. The difficulties which might have arisen from such a
plan, emanating from selfish purposes, are well met in the prospectus of the
present society, which declares that the society is not formed to originate
plans, or to advocate particular views, but to discuss their merits and to draw
the attention of the legislature to the subject. Supported as the Metropo-
litan Improvement Society akeady is, by many of those who have individually
laboured with honour for the same purposes, it must have a moral weight
which will powerfully contribute towards its success. The main objects
which are to be kept in view are, first, the means of checking the mortality
now reigning in over-crowded and ill-drained neighbourhoods ; second,
affording facilities for commercial intercourse; third, the suggestion of
proper sites for churches, schools, and other public institutions, and for parks
and public walks ; and fourth, decoration or architectural embellishment.
The means of consuming smoke is also noticed as a subject for inquiry, and
generally all plans and suggestions which have a tendency to forward the
general objects of the society. The consideration how the funds for this
purpose can be best provided is of coMse a necessary part of the plan, but
little difficulty is to be anticipated on that score, as tax of two-pence or
three-pence in the povnid will amply provide for all wants, and can meet with
but few opponents. To our readers this society cannot be too strongly re-
commended, for independently of the smallness of the subscription, the self-
interest they have in promoting its objects must be a sufficient stimulus for
securing their adhesion ; as, too, the society proposes to discuss any building
or drainage bills, or others affecting the metropolis, it will become a powerful
centre of attraction to all earnest for their own welfare and that of their
profession.

To the originators of this society a great debt of gratitude is due, for its
beneficial influence must be felt not only here, but in every great city in the
English empire and the world.

Improved Papier Mache'.— The endless variety of architectural orna-
ments to which this material is now adopted, is well deserring the notice of
the architect and every man of taste. Upon a recent visit to Mr. Bielefeld's
manufactory in Wellington Street, Strand, we were much surprised to find
the numerous and beautiful forms into which this material is now moulded ;
foliage, either Gothic, Grecian, Roman, Elizabethan, or Renaissance, is here
developed in an endless variety of ornaments for mouldings, cornices, panels,
ceilings picture frames, &c., from the most minute mouldings to the largest
size, from patera; of an inch diameter to the centre flower of C6 inches
diameter. Capitals of the Ionic order, and Corinthian, from the examples of
Jupiter Stator, monument of Lysicrates, the Tivoli and Temple of the Winds,
besides numerous capitals of the Gothic, Elizabethan, and other styles. The
frames for pictures and chimney glasses are of the most elaborate workman-
ship ; one that we saw in the Show Room, C feet by 4 feet, was adorned
with foliage of the most beautiful description, with Cupids in alto-relievo,
copied from a fine specimen of old oak carving. M'e might continue on de-
taiUng the numerous works coUected in this store-house of ornament, and
fill our Journal ; we therefore must recommend the architect to visit the
show-rooms and judge for himself.

1«42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

113

PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN POITIERS AND

ANGOULEME: WITH SOME REMARKS ON EARLY

ARCHITECTURE.

By George Godwin Jun., F.R.S., &c.

( Conlinued from page 7\.)

ChapUr 2.

Fig. 4.

The western front of Notre Dame la Grande of Poitiers, represented
by the above engraving, (Fig. 4,) is a most interesting example of a
class of bn.ld.Dgs peculiar to this part of France. Tbe possession of
Stone easy to work, the greater inflaence of Byzantine taste, as well as
other circumstances, have produced a marked difference in the archi-
tecture of various provinces, although proceeding froni the same type :
thus while we find in Normandy buildings of simple severity, adorned
exteriorly with little more than .ig-zags and rudely-sculptured cor-
bels, we have here facades elaborately sculptured from tiie ground to
the summit, presenting not merely highlyenriched and often very
elegant capitals, borders, and scrolls, but multitudinous figures in all
.maginahle positions, and in very high relief. The absence of the
western towers, too, in the structures we are now speaking of, constitutes
another marked difference from the Norman buildings.

The date of the erection of Notre Dime is probably at the end of
the 11th or beginning of the 12th century , but the entrance front is
unquestionably more recent. This part of the building, which is
bounded by clusters of columns supporting two small circular turrets
with conical stone roofs, is divided into three distinct stages by en-
riched cornice,, and terminates in a broken pediment or gable, (so to
speak.; which is also divided horizontally into two compartments.
1 he entrance doorway, which is recessed, is semicircular in the upper
part, a^ are the arcades above containing figures; but the blank open-
ing on either side of it has a pointed head with two small semicircular
arches beneath .t The .pandrils beneath the first cornice and corbels

TZ^^n\ °' "'Vf'"''' '-■•^"^"""g on the left-hand side of
the spectator Adam and Eve, Nebuchadnezzar, some of the prophets
and an angel announcing to Mary the dignity of her coming child; aud
on the o her side the meeting of the Virgin an.l Elizabeth, and the
biHh of the Saviour Over the doorway is a circular-headed windotv,
w^h a canopied niche on either side, which is an interpolation of later

Zl ^^,^.Y'" '" ""=/'"''" "=P'"«"t tl'e apostles and two
bishops. The lower part of the gable i, inlaid with a series of small
circular discs, and the upper part of it with squares placed diagonallr-

in the centre of the two parU is sculptured a large veiciea pi»ci«,
containing a figure of Christ and symbols of the four evangelists,
namely ttie bull, the angel, the eagle and the lion.

The veneration in which the form called txtcica piscis appears to
have been held, and iU constant occurrence in ancient buildings, have
afforded matter for much disquisition. The early Christians symbol-
ized our Saviour by the form of a fish, because, as has been supposed,
the initial letters of Christ's name and titles form the Greek I.XeT3
(fish) : moreover, according to Tertullian, who wrote in the second
century, they called themselves Puckuli, considering that the Chris-
tian life commenced in the waters of baptism.* The fish itself was
accordingly sculptured for decoration, but seems to have been after-
wards superseded by the fish-shaped compartment formed by the
intersection of two equal circles, in some cases rounded at one end.
In England this is found in a variety of positions and of various
dimensions, both in stone and on painted glass : it is to be seen over
many doorways, enclosing the figure of Christ,— as for example, in the
south porch at Malmsbury Abbey Church, (represented in the annexed
sketch, Fig. 5,) at BarfrestoD, and at Rochester Cathedral, MedallioDs

Fii?.5.

of this shape, containing sculptured figures, occur frequently round
the doorways of Anglo-Norman buildings, as at Malmsbury ; and win-
dows of this outline are found at Romsey Church, Hampshire, Beverley
Minster, Yorkshire, Salisbury Cathedral, and elsewhere. In York
Cathedral a boss in the groining presents the nscica pi$cit enclosing
a figure of the Virgin. The rose window at the south end of the
south transept of Lincoln Cathedral is formed by the tracery into a
doiille rescica; while (stepping from England into Gerraanv.) over the
west door of the Church of St. Cunibert, Cologne, a ial/ veiciea occurs,
enclosing the lamb. The seals of most religious bodies, as well as
of individuals, were of this shape, and continue in many cases to be
so ; it was likewise delineated constantly on ancient tiles, as may be seen
in many of our old churches: some antiquaries have even attributed the
whole origin of the pointed style of architecture to the use of this form.
Some writers have applied the term nscicapiscis to two circles inter-
secting each other in the centre, and not to the form produced at their
intersection, and have asserted the influence of this symbol over the
plans of early edifices. In many instances, certainly, the prevalence of

Nos^ pisciculi siTiiiuhim Ixfluf nostrum Jcsum Clirislum. in aquft
nascimur." T.rlul. </<■ napL.cnp. I. Oplatus. who wrote in the fourlh century,
throMssome Irglii on this passaRC thus :— "Cujus |)iscis nomen sfcundum «p-
IHllatiiincm Gr.Tcam in uno nomine per singiilas lltcnis liirlam sanctorum
niiminum continct IxBut, ijuod est Lntinum Jesus Christus, Dei Filius,
Salvator/' He refers also in a mvslic.il m.inner to thi- tlsh rocorded in the
book of Tobit. An ann tntorup.111 Oiitalus refers to Cli-inens Alrianilrinus
for confirmalinn of his use uf Jx^us ; tut on ex;iminnlion of the conlrxt. U
does not srcm that (Semens at all intended to allude to it. A n f.rrrrp how-
ever, to St. Augustine is more satibfnctory. In his «ork /). < ^4
18, rap. 23. he Hrite.s, " llorum aiilem (ira^;orum iiuiiiijuc vcj mt

Itjiouj Xpirrot.&iou wot, 2»t>|«, luod est Ivitiiii\ Jesus Chn.;.. Ijus

Salvalor, si primas literas jungas erit Ixflut, iil est, pucrs, in cjuo nomlm
mysticO intelhgjiur Christus, eo .juo'J in hujus mortalitatis nhyuo. velut in
a |u.nrum profun.htate vivus, hoe est. sine |*ccato nsc notuorit.- The oriinn
or this species ol .■icroslic, nccor.linK to him, is in lh<. .Sil.vlLne venrv ,omc
ol Bh-ch seem re.illy to have lieen prophetic of .. My

grounded uiH.n the Jewish propheriea. which ha ",n.

tivily lounJlheir way .iiiiong the heathens), whi . , ter-

iwlated by the early airi.itian». who seem, even ii> iho,e dnys to have Riven
way occasionally to the Icmptaticn presented ly a piouj fraud.

R

114

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

this form is strikinglv apparent; but whether this may not result frorn
the dependence of the early architects on geometrical proportion and
fixed principles, (equally in the middle ages as in classic times,) I will
not inquire. The symbolism of ancient architecture is an enticing
but a dangerous subject to enter upon.*

In the towns under notice, the vescica piscis occurs prominently in
the gables of the churches, as it does also at times in the painted
adornments.t In one instance, I found it sculptured on the capital of
a column, namely, at the entrance doorway in the tower of St. Por-
cbaire, Poitiers ; and of this," the annexed sketch, Fig. 6, gives a slight

Fip

representation.! The French writers, with some few exceptions, do
not recognise this form in their descriptions as anything more tluui a
sort of oval," or " a glory." M. Didron, in an erudite and interesting
paper on the nimbus, printed in the " Revue Ghihale de I Architec-
ture,"§ says the term vescica piscis should be repudiated by allior its
grossness. M. Didron continues, " it was invented by the English
antiquaries, who use and abuse it abundantly. Moreover this denomi-
nation is false, for very often the glory has not the form which the
term suggests. This glory has been also called the sacred oval, and
the mystic almond; but the word mystic suggests a symbolic inten ion
which may very reasonably be doubted: besides, frequently it is
neither of an oval nor an almond shape ; it is simply [he g'^ry »* <•'«
whole body, as the nimbus is the glory of the head.ll The head is
round, the nimbus is round; the upright body forms a lengthened
oval, and the glory generally assumes a similar form. But v\'ben the
body is seated, the oval is contracted to a circle. Sometimes it becomes
a quatre-foil, so that the four prominent portions of the body, tbe
head, the legs, and the two arms, have each their particular lobe or
section of the nimbus."

* As an early example, though, of the practice of symbolic architecture, if it
,naytsot:?2rapaLakeinthel8thchi;pterofthelstbookof&
me •— " And Elijah took twelve stones, according to the number ot tne triDes
of the sons of Jacob, and with the stones he built an altar m the name of the
Lord " This was about a thousand years before our era. „,,„„;„

t Dallaway says of the vescica pisch, " In the earliest era of the mason c
estabirsln ent, a geometrical figure or canon was adopted in al sacred binld-
'nss wh ch had an import hid From the vulgar. As it had a decided reference
oTlie Chr stian religion, it might have been invented by the Church -btU
lias likewise an equal analogy with other mysteries professed by the first
innieies-' of masons " * "It may be traced from the church of St John
Semn and oM St. Peter's at Rome: to the chtjrch of Bath, one of the latest
fiothic buildings of any consequence in England. j <• .i,„

° The tower of the dutrch of St. Porchaire, apparently of the end of the
nth centuy is in character what we should term Norman A very wide
doo w!v occ. pies nearly the whole width of the tower between the buttresses
Above are three stories separated by ranges of sculi-tured corbels (mostly
17= icl ,n,l rnntainina arched openings and columns. The recesses being
deeply'sunt thfSnslar;^, 'and pirts bold, the effect of this tower is

'IV'Frencir^eriodlcah'cSnducted very ably. by M. C^sar Daly, which
deserves to be better known in England than it 's-

Tilr Hope thinks differently, even of the nimbus. He says, " The Pagan
fashion of protecting the heads of deities, often, even in temples exposed to
the ouerai?, from the insults of birds, each by a metal discus had by degrees
so as ociated with that head-piece an idea of digmty, that the Christians
adonted the for, in order to mark, even in painting, the character of saint-
Shi? thence the nimbus introduced over saints in the more ancient paintings
an<f raosaTcs so far frotn being.intended to represent a -re aureole or gory
of imangible rays, emanating from the wearer hiinselt, is only the represent-
ation of a solid platter of silver or gold, often adomeJ with scrolls loUage,
gems, Sec. fitting the skull."— //is^. '/ ArdtU. p. Ui.

With the greatest respect for the opinion of M. Didron, I am unable
at once to assent to this apparently clear and straightforward explana-
tion. The constant recurrence of this particular form, any departure
from it being apparently but the exception from a rule ; the fact that
in very many cases the vescica piscis encloses a sitting figure, and in
others no figure at all; that the quatre-foils spoken of may actually be
formed by one vescica crossing another ; and its use for episcopal seals
and for windows, as before alluded to, are all points that might be
urged in objection. Touching the inventio7i of the term vescica piscis,
Mr. Kerrich states that it is spoken of by Albert Durer, in a work
published in Paris at the commencement of the 16th century, as one
perfectly well understood at that time.*

To return, however, from this digression, to Notre Dame of Poitiers.
What has been said, aided by the engraving, will be sufficient to show
that the entrance front of this building is a very extraordinary and
striking work. There is hardly a square foot of surface that is not
elaborately, and, in some cases, beautifully sculptured in very bold
relief, the effect of which, when heightened by colours and gilding, (as
it appears from traces was formerly the case,) must have been very
extraordinary.t The south side of the building, which is partly ex-
posed, presents simply a range of blank openings, formerly win-
dows: these, with the exception of two immediately adjoining the
west front, have semicircular heads; the two exceptions are slightly
pointed. There is a central tower in three stories, (the two lower
square, and the upper story circular,) covered with a conical roof, the
stones whereof are formed into scales, as likewise are the stones com-
posing the roof of the turrets in the entrance front before me.ntioned.

Thi interior consists of a nave and side aisles, (the latter being very
narrow), choir, with semicircular termination, and attached chapels.
The vaulting of the nave is wagon-headed, with plain horizontal
bands passing from column to column ; that of the aisles is groined.
The arches which separate the nave and aisles are lofty, and go up to
the springing of the vault, there being no clerestory or triforium : the
whole is of massive yet elegant proportions. Some of the capitals,
although for the most part plain, are sculptured with interlaced
ornaments.^

At the south-western extremity of the town is a church dedicated
to St Hilarius, one of the most eminent of the bishops of Poitiers, who
lived in the fourth century, and was distinguished by his active oppo-
sition to the Arians.!? Clovis in the sixth century rebuilt a ruined
chapel which had been erected over his tomb : this, in its turn, was
destroyed by the Normans about the year 863, and the present church
was built at the commencement of the llth century, and consecrated
in 104^ Originally it was much larger than it is now, and was divided
by six ranges of columns into a nave, with three aisles on each side,
covered by six cupolas. During the revolution the building fell
greatly into decay; so much so, that when its repair was desired, a
commission appointed for that purpose foolishly determined on de-
stroying a great part of the original structure, instead of restoring it.

The building as now seen is accordingly much confused in arrange-
ment, but presents, nevertheless, a striking interior. It is semicircular
throughout, with a plain wagon-headed roof in part, the arches sup-
porting which go up to the springing of it, without the interposition
of triforium or clerestory. At the back of the high altar is a semi-
circular range of columns, with plain cushion-capitals, of lofty and
elegant proportions. Some of the other columns in the church have
capitals sculptured into representations of men and ammals. Ihe
head of one arched opening outside the tower is cut on the face and
the intrados, in imitation of an arch formed of three layers of billets
of wood, a caprice on the part of the architect or the masons not
common.

187 feet, and its « idlh 44 feet.
Si He was the author of the Te Deum still used.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Among the eminent individuals of whom Poitiers was in old time
the residence, the memory of none is more respected than that of
Ste. Radtgonde, wife of Clotaire I, who, abandoning the pleasures
of the world and her high position, established herself in Poitiers, and
founded there, about the middle of the sixth century, an abbey, which
took the name of St. Croix, from a relic of the true cross given to
Radogonde by the emperor Justinian. Near the monastery, but beyond
the walls of the city, she built a church for the burial of the sister-
hood. This is supposed to have been destroyed by the Normans in
108-1, and rebuilt at the expiration of the same century.

The church, as it now remains, is noticeable for the large span of
the vaulting over the nave, which has no aisles. The structure is
chie6y of semicircular work, and has a lofty arcade against the side
walls of the nave, similar to that already mentioned in the cathedral.
The choir has an aisle on either side of it, with a semicircular absis
and two small chapels. Beneath the high altar is a chapel, containing

the remains of Radi'gonde, in a black mcrble tomb of evident antiquity.
Externally the church has a square tower at the western end, the
upper story of which is octagon. Against the north side of the tower
is a circular turret with a conical roof, which renders the general effect
of the tower picturesque. The walls of this building, both inside and
out, are literally covered with masons' marks, in some cases precisely
similar to those about the cathedral.

The only other church in Poitiers is that of Montiemeuf, which was
commenced in lO'li, by Guillaume Guy Geoffroy, Count of Poitiers,
but was not completed till twenty years after«-ards : the choir was
afterwards rebuilt. An attempt has been made to render the whole
of the interior classical, by sculpturing an egg and tongue around the
capitals of the columns, and other unwise contrivances. On the roof
outside are two turreU, with conical roofs and arched openings, similar
to those at Notre Dume la Grande, but smaller and more rude.

ROBERT B. DOCKRAY'S SELF-ACTING RAILWAY SIGNAL.
Fig. 1. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

UfM

Fig. 2.

The intention of this signal is to notify to an approaching engine-
driver, that a preceding train has passed any given point upon a rail-
way at a certain interval of time before him. It is proposed to fix it
at the entrances to tunnels, in deep cuttings, where the curvature of
the road olMtructs the sight, or in any other position where it may be
thought desirable to warn the engine-drivers, without the expence of
having policemen in constant attendance to give the necessary signals.

Description of the Dhawtngs.

Fig. 1, is a section through the signal, ond one line of railway.

Fig. 2, is a section and elevation taken through the connecting rod,
and parallel with the line.

Fig. 3, is an elevation of the disc and lamp head, showing the face
of the clock, figured 5, Kl, and l.'i minutes.

Figs, -i and S arc sections of the lamp head.

116

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

In all cases the same letters refer to the same parts : —a, in section
at Fig. 1, and in elevation at Fig. 2, is an inclined plane, over which
a friction roller, fixed to the engine, is intended to pass, and in so
doing, depress it to the level of the rail ; it is attached to the con-
necting rod c by means of the bell-crank 6 ; d\sa. rack fixed to the
rod c, giving a quarter turn to the disc i, through the pinion /, the
crank g, and the vertical shaft h\ ^ is a double crank fixed to the end
of the rod c, one arm of this crank carries the balance weight /, the
other arm lifts the piston r in the cylinders; by means of the con-
necting rod n, the lever m, and the vertical piston rod p, the upper
part of this rod communicates motion to the clock, shown to a larger
scale at Figs. 4 and 5, where ^ is the piston rod having a rack work-
ing into the teeth of the wheel q, upon the axis of which the fingers
of the clock are carried ; the cylinder s is open at the top, and has a
valve t opening inwards to admit air under the piston during its ascent,
and a stopcock u regulating the egress of the air from under the
piston, which, descending by its weight, drives the air out before it,
with a velocity proportioned to the area of the aperture, and thus by
opening or closing the stopcock, the time for the revolution of the
hands of the clock can be increased or diminished at pleasure ; the
piston, on descending to the bottom of the cylinder, lifts the catch e
out of the notch provided for it in the rod e, and releases the balance
weight I.

Fdr the night signals, the clock, having a transparent white face, is
illuminated by the lamp and reflector z, Fig. 5 ; the vertical shaft h,

which carries the day signal i, also carries a disc of red glass, y, fixed
within the lamp, and between the clock face and the light, and also in
the same vertical plane as the day disc; consequently, when the
quarter turn is given to the shaft h, the red glass is turned before the
light, and the clock face is illuminated red, and thus calls the attention
of the engine driver to the clock face.

Mode of Action. — The inclined plane a, in descending, draws the
rod c forward, and lifts the weight^; the catch e descends into its
notch, and retains them in this position ; in the mean time the red
disc i has been turned by the rack d so as to be visible from the line,
the piston r has been lifted to the top of the cylinder, and descending
by its weight, communicates motion to the clock; on reaching the
bottom of the cylinder, it lifts up the catch e, which, rising out of the
notch in the rod c, releases the balance weight /, which, by its gravity,
brings the different parts of the apparatus into their first position, and
the signal is ready for the passage of another train.

By these means the engine-driver, on passing the signal, and look-
ing at the clock, can tell by night or by day how many minutes have
elapsed since the passing of the previous train, and either stop until
the time for the revolution of the hand has expired, or regulate his
speed, according to his instructions.

The only attention the signal requires is the cleaning and lighting
of the lamp, which might be done by one of the plate-layers, who are
always upon the road.

TREWHITT'S PATENT FOR DISCONNECTING THE PADDLE-WHEELS OF STEAM VESSELS.

gjjj Observing a notice in your Journal for February on "Trewhitt's patent method of disconnecting the Paddle-wheels of Steam Vessels,"

in which there are several inaccuracies, we beg the favour of your inserting the enclosed, which is a correct representation and description of
the apparatus applied by us to H.M. steamer Kite.

Engine Manufactory, New Road,
Feb. 11, 1S42.

We are. Sir,

Your obedient Servants,

BRAITHWAITE, MlLNER & Co.

Front view and section of crank.

Side view.

Explanation of the Drawing.

A. The Paddle Shaft. B. A east iron Disc keyed thereon. C. A wrought iron Strap surrounding the DUc,Jined with brass
Cushion. E. A tightening key for producing friction, by bringing the Cushion in contact with the Disc,
iron Strap, excepting that portion occupied by the Cushion. ///. Screws by which the brass lining is held to the Strap.

A few blows of a hammer on the key E will connect or disconnect the Paddle-shaft, even when the engines are at full speed

D.- A brass
F. The brass lining the wrought

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

117

REVIEWS.

Th Present Slale 0/ Ecdesiaslical jirchileclure in England. Dublin
Review: No. XXIII.

The satisfaction we feel at meeting with an architectural paper of
such very unusual extent— for its length exceeds a hun'lred pages,
with numerous foot notes in small type, and illustrated, besides, with
17 plates— our satisfaction, we say, is greatly abated, at tinding so
verv large a portion of it devoted to non-architectural matters, and, in
fact, the subject itself made a stalking-horse to ecclesiastical contro-
versy to lamentations for "the desecrated state of England's churches

after the great schism of the sixteenth century," intermixed with such
orcasiona? specimens of holy hatred and pious execration as that
where the writer denounces " the blasting infiutnct of Protestantism
and Paffanism combined !" From this last somewhat startling ex-
pression°the tone and spirit of the article may easily be inferred ; and
though there is occasionally a show of candour, in complimenting those
who uave evinced a desire to restore, to a certain extent, some of the
forms that have fallen into disuse, into our church-service, we cannot
help looking upon it as no better than cajolery. The interest pre-
tended to be felt can hardly be sincere, otherwise than as it proceeds
perhaps from the latent hope that the return to some ancient usages
will proceed, step by step, till ail shall have been restored ; and, with
those external customs and usages, creeds and points of doctrine like-
wise. Sincere, however, or not, it certainly does appear to us, that
the concern here expressed in regard to our protestant churches and
their architecture, is somewhat inconsistent — not to call it officious —
somewhat too ravich akin to the concern we may suppose the Bishop
of London to give himself in regard to the synagogues and (Quakers'
meeting-hous>!s, and the forms and regulations adopted in the various
sectarian places of worship in his diocese. But we are now falling
into the error we have just animadverted upon as pervading the article
in the Dublin Review, and therefore quit such remarks as those just
made, for others of more immediate interest to our readers.

We are so very far from being opposed to reform in our present
system of church architecture, tnat we consider it loudly called for,
since, with compar.»tively few exceptions, the numerous churches
erected in this country of late years are the very reverse of satisfac-
tory, being stamped not only by the meanness occasioned by injudicious
parsimony and mistaken economy, but by downright vulgarity and
pertness of character. We are aware that architects will say the
fault does not at all rest witli them, since they do as much as the funds
afforded them will allow. We must, however, plainly tell them that,
as often as not, they do not accomplish au much as they might do,
merely because they aim at so vtrij much mca thin can possibly be
accomplished under the respective circumstances. If a design answers,
ns far as name goes, to some particular style, by the forms adopted
for windows, and a few other features of that kind, no attention is paid
to the genius of the style itself, or to such treatment of it as is requisite
to keep up its proper character. Seldom, too, is any regard paid to the
exigencies of the particular case, for many new churches look as if the
designs for them had been merely copied, w ith some trivial alteration,
from those pattern-books of them published for the benefit of country
architects, and brought down to the taste of parish committees. Or,
does a design happen to be objected to, as loo expensive, or as other-
wise requiring some curtailment, a very easy remedy is resorted to,
namely, that of paring it down, or lopping off from it, hy which process
it must of course become simj/lifi'id; and a most simple-looking affair it
generally turns out, looking very much like a cock thai has been
stripped of all its feathers.

Now the fact is, nearly all our old village churches rise up in judg-
ment against modem church architects — at least the majority of them.
Such structures may be homely, but they are not vulgar ; they may be
uncouth, thev may be even mean, may be rude enough both in con-
struction ami material, but they are never vulgar, except, indeed,
where they have undergone the process of " beautifyicg" to such
extent, that their original and proper character has been destroyed.
It is unquestionably true that, for the impression they m.ike both upon
the eye and the mind, buildings of the class alluded to are more or less
indebted to the effects of time. Equally true is it, that it is beyond the
power of the aichitect to create antiquity, and confer on his, buildings, in
addition to the venerable appearance, the accumulated associaliunA
derived from it. Still, apart from that element of their character,
there are others which recommend the class of churches alluded to, if
not exactly as models, as stiidii.^ at the present day, which, if properly
turned to account would go far towards correcting that insipid triviality,
and that vulgarity, which, together with a certain uncomfurtable look

of starvation and tiauntingness combined, are the besetting sins of most
of our modern soi-ttisanl Ciothic churches, and not least of all those
which, because they are stuck full of naked lancet-holes, assume to them-
selves the title of the early English style, whereas they have in fact
nothing whatever of the character of that style ; nothing of the feeling
belonging to it, r.or aught of that which gives it value. One exceed-
ingly great fault in the church architecture of the present day arises
from the meagreness and formality produced by a number of uniform
apertures, stuck so closely together as not only to destroy all repose,
but produce a very disagreeable appearance of want of substance ami
solidity. It is true, in the later perpendicular style the proportion of
the apertures to the solids is very much greater — so much so, that many
structures in it may be compared to lanterns, being in fact nearly all
window ; but then the character is of a very peculiar kind, the whole
forming a consistent design of elaborate screen-work, as it were, which
would almost admit of being perforated throughout. Instead of being
mere gaps, the windows themselves are filled with screen-work, with
numerous mullions, transoms, and tracery, so as to combine the appear-
ance of strength with that of richness. Where, on the contrary, the
windows are so far from contributing at all to decoration that they are
little more than so many blank surfaces of glass, with scarcely any
external moulding or finish to the apertures — as is the case with not a
few of our modern-antiques, or pseudo-early-English — they ought to
be as few, in otlier words as wide apart, as possible.

If very few architects seem to understand simplicity, there are as
few who seem to he able to appreciate the value of sobriety in design;
or we might suppose that sobriety is so exceedingly expensive a
quality that they cannot afford to make use of it, except on very rare
occasions. Be that as it may, it is certain that much of what is more
or less unsatisfactory, if not decidedly reprehensible, in our recent
church architecture, arises from a want of attention to sobriety in com-
position. Hence nioderate-si^ed churches are made to look like
miniature editions of large ones ; owing to which preposterous am-
bition, instead of gaining in importance, they become more insignificant
in appearance than smaller ones with the proper character belonging
to them as such. While it does not absolutely exclude a higher degree
of decoration than usual, sobriety requires that the decoration itself
should be applied somewhat sparingly ; that the features of the com-
position should be few, but carefully studied, and individually satis-
factory and capable of bearing the test of examination. Richness
there may be, but sobriety and trumpery are totally irreconcilable with
each other.

For railing attention to this point we may very well be excused,
since it is one that is oftener tliin not completely overlooked ; though
were it attended to, we should behold fewer of the miserable minikin
abortions and spawnings of church architecture that now meet our
eyes. Intimately connected with the disregard ot sobriety, there is
another very prevalent f lult in designs of the class alluded to, namely,
excessive meagreness and monotony of composition, quite the reverse
of what is observable in buildings that are or ought to be looked to as
examples, or at least, as studies. Assuredly it is not a little incon-
sistent, that while so much stress is laid upon style, and so much
importance attached to precedent, the character of the one and the
authority of the other should be utterly disregarded — ifnottiuiversally,
far too frequently — in general design or composition. Our modern
Gothic churches have for the most part an exceedingly offensive box-like
appearance, without anytliing to break the outline, cither horizontally
or on the plan; without anything to take off from the flitness and
insipidity of the elevations, to produce effect of light and shade, and
contrast of lines in perspective. Consequently, unless the design be
of very superior quality as to beauty of detail and execution, the whole
structure is apt to look deplorably naked and bald.

As we write not to compliment or flatter, but if possible, to instruct
and improve, we must speak out plainly, anil tell the profession that,
if we may judge from their essays in it, they have yet very much to
learn in regard to the proper tnalinml of Gothic architecture, and, we
might perhaps add, of Grecian also. It may be that they are fre-
quently thwarted by the obstinacy and ignorance of other persons — b^
that collective stupidity which calls itself a committee, and which
insists upon a design being accommodated to its own notions and
whims. ( >n which side the fault rests, or whether it is to be shared
between both, we jiretenil not to say; but we will say that if the
character of Gothic architecture, or of any of the styles belonging to
it, cannot be better kept up than it usually is when such style is applied
to modern churches, it becomes a question whether it would not b^
better to repudiate it altogt-tlier, or at any rite to employ it only
where circumstances allow of its being properly kept up in every
respect.

For the interiors of churches as at present required to be laid out,
the greatest possible extent of accommodation .as to sitting room being

118

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[ApriLj

made the sine qua iion to which all otliPr considerations must yield,
the Gothic is not particularly -nell calculated, bec.iuse it must be vio-
lated more or less, except when galleries can be dispensed with
altogether, and open seats and stalls be substituted for pews. We
do not blame architects for not accomplishing impossibilities; for if
similarly blocked up and built up, the beauty of the finest Gothic
interior would inevitably be greatly impaired," if not destroyed: but
we regret that such style should be so applied, or rather misapplied,
since even a tolerable semblance of it can hardly be kept up. For
this last reason, perhaps, it is that generally no attempt whatever is
made to keep it uj)atall; and we have seen churches in that style
which, though tolerable enoi gh on the outside, have been most intole-
rably bad within — without the slightest pretensions to siyle, without
any sort of architectural beauty, and without any solemnity of cha-
racter, unless dismalness and pauper-liUe meanness can be considered
equivalent to solemnity. If, in addition to the rest, aisles also are to
be blocked up by pews, they had better be omitted, since they certainly
contribute nothing to architectural effect, and as little to commodious"-
ness, those there seated not being in the very best situation for hearing
distinctly.

It seems to us, that by employing the Gothic style — at least, as it is
now employed — we inevitably force comparisons iiot very flattering to
Protestantism in its relationship to art. It admits of no dispute that
Catholicism is infinitely more favourable to architecture and the other
arts. Its very character — its taste for religious parade, and panto-
mime, and pageantry, and processions, and for all the paraphernalia
and pomp of devotion, render it pre-eminently picturesque and scenic
— the religion for the artist, guoad artist ; which unconditional ad-
mission on our part must satisfy both the Dublin Review and jSIr. Pugin ;
for were we to exjiress our sentiments of Catholicism as a religious
system, and to be as free in our remarks as the writer in the
Kevievv is upon Protestantism, we should not satisfy them at all.

In regard to the symbolical character of church architecture, to
■which so much importance is attached bv the Reviewer, we shall
merely observe that it appears to us very' fanciful — historically inte-
resting, perhaps, as showing the religious spirit of farmer ages, but
not at all likely to be revived now, it being, in fact, totally disregarded
in Catholic countries. Indeed, though they do not care even to hint
as much, many recent specimens of ecclesiastical architecture, both in
France and Italy, must scandalize Messrs. Pugin & Co. not a little. Not
to mention others. La Madeleine at Paris, and Canova's church at Pos-
sagno, must appear to them awfuUy heterodox — manifestations of the
"blasting influence of Paganism," mlhoitt Protestantism. The Re-
viewer, however, does speak of "the Pagan courts of the Medici;"
and while he was casting reflections upon the questionable taste which
attaches such high value to the Elgin marbles, he might have added a
few upon that which has converted the sovereign abode of St. Peter's
successor into a Pantheon of Pagan divinities, and a storehouse of
heathen mythology : but those scandals were of course in the wallet
behind his back.

Dismissing the rest of the article without further comment — for if
not so already, the Review itself will doubtless be in the hands of most
of our readers, ere long — we now turn to the plates, which, with one
exception, are representations of buildings erected by Mr. Pugin. And
hardly can he be accused of having flattered them, or attempting to do
so, since they are drawn and etched in a most aS'ectedly rude manner;
and some of the subjects are rendered still moie uncouth by being
shown in bird's-eye perspective — a most unnatural and unpictorial
mode of representation. It is, perhaps, chiefly owing to these circum-
stances combined, that the illustrations are" so little prepossessing,
except to those who may admire them because they studiously imitate
all the defects of old engravings at a time when architectural delinea-
tion was in its infancy. .Spirit and freedom are very desirable, but
accuracy of loiin is an indispensable requisite in drawings whose
value depends upon their truth as graphic descriptions, and that such
accuracy is not incompatible with artist-like feehng the publications
of the elder Pugin sufficiently convince us; in this respect, therefore,
the son appears to have degenerated from the sire. Granting, how-
ever, that as etchings they may be called spirited, soraeof the designs
themselves appear to us not a little insipid, and to be very deficient in
that s|)irit which the style derives from well expressed detail. Such
character there may be in the buildings themselves, yet so far from
being shown, it is not even indicated here. Un the contrary, in some
of the subjects, for instance St. John's Hospital, Alton, and tlie bishop's
residence, Birmingham, it appears to lie wanting altogether; there
being a good deal in them that looks scarcely of better quality than
those spurious " Gothicisings" which Mr. Pugin himself has so loudly
reprobated. This is particularly the case with regard to the bishop's
house, which, besides being remarkably cjiiur ana uncouth, has the
appearance of being an old structure 'altered and pa'tched up and

huddled up, from time to time, without the slightest attention to con-
sistency of design. So far, indeed, it may pass for being picturesque;
yet Mr. Pugin must surely be aware that though such kind of pictu-
resqueness is agreeable enough in itself, where it has reallv been the
growth of time and successive changes, and where beautvis out of the
question, it becomes little better than an offensive piece of aflectatiou
when perpetrated for the nonce, and to the extent in which he has
indulged in it. Difficult as it may be to eifect, in design we look for
picturesque quality combined with architectural unity of expression,
if not always with perfect regularity. In his horror of the frigid for-
mality and smirking pertness of the carpenters' Gothic school of
design, Mr. Pugin has run quite into the contrary extreme ; while the
former, therefore, are clearly in the wrong, he himself is far from
being yet quite in the right. He is too apt to give us architectural
farragos, instead of designs : he succeeds in individual features and
parts, but he is by no means happy in composition. His reverence for
precedent causes the antiquary to prevail in him over the artist to
such a degree, that he may be compared to the precedent-loving
Chinese tailor, who, being employed to make a new coat, copied every
patch upon the old one sent him as a pattern.

Memoir on the Practicability of slortening the duration of Voyages by
the adaptation of Auxiliary Steam Potter to Sailing Vessels. By
Samuel Seaward, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E. From the Transactions of
the Institution of dvil Engineers. Part V, Vol. 3, 1S4I.

The fearful expense which has been found to attend the extens'ion
of steam navigation to voyages of extraordinary length appears to
constitute an insuperable obstacle in the present state of the steam
engine to the beneficial establishment of lines of uninterrupted steam
intercourse between distant continents. The imjierfect success which
has attended the development of the several enterprises which had
for their object the maintenance of a steam communication between
Great Britain and New York, is a proof of the difficulties which wait
upon the performance of long steam voyages, and furnishes a lesson
which will not be readily forgotten by future speculators. The suc-
cessive disappearance of the Sirius, Royal William, Liverpool, United
States, British Queen, &c., from the Atlantic station, proclaims with
a voice as authoritative as that of a messenger from heaven, that the
Atlantic enterprise has been a failure, and that a perseverance in its
prosecution, nnder the same circumstances which drove those vessels
from the field, can only add energy to ruin and flagrancy to guilt.

For several years past the project has been in contemplation to
adapt steam power to sailing vessels, in such a manner that it may be
used or discontinued at pleasure, and it is the object of the author of
the work betbre us, to recommend the extended adoption of steam
power in sailing ships, as being productive of the most prominent of
the benefits which steam navigation confers, without entailing any
serious expense for the maintenance of its operation. A good ship,
when impelled by a favourable wind, will realize a velocity which few
steam vessels are able to surpass, and it is only in calms, or when the
wind is adverse, that the peculiar powers of a steam vessel are pro-
ductive of benefit. It becomes a question, then, whether it would not
be advantageous to so adapt steam power to sailing ships as to be
on!v used in calms, or in adverse circumstances of wind and water.

in order to form any comparative estimate of the benefits of this
proposed application of steam power, it is necessary to refer to the
circumstances which attend the voyages of sailing ships and of regular
steameis upon the open sea. In some of the lines of intercommuni-
cation between distant countries, vessels are exposed to strong peri-
odical winds or protracted calms, whilst other lines are distinguished
by winds which sweep across the ocean in one direction for nearly the
whole vear. In calms such as those that prevail about the line, and
by which vessels on the route to India are often for a long period
detained, a small proportion of steam power might be most beneficially
employed in transporting the vessel from the region swept by the cur-
rent of wind which flows from the pole towards the equator, into the
locality of those laud and sea breezes which enable the vessel to con-
tinue her voyage ; but the same pro]iortion of steam power would be
perfectly unserviceable in propelling a properly rigged ship against a
strong adverse wind. For such a service a proportion of power to
tonnage similar to that observed in our fastest steamers is indis-
pensable, and it is only therefore in voyages v^'here calms are likely to
be met with that the adaptation of auxiliary steam power to sailing
ships can be productive of benefit. Upon the superior economy of
vessels supplied with auxiliary steam power, Mr. Seaward makes
several verv sensible observations:^

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

119

hi

ii "A most materi.il circumstance aftecting the utility and economy of

H steam vessels of great power, is the space necessarily occupied by the
P engines and the supply of coals, which are found to require three-
fourths of the whole area below deck, leaving only one quiirter for the
stowage of cargo : and that, owing to the great weight of the former,
must principally consist of measurement goods. Thus the " President"
and the "British Queen," although of 2000 tons register, have never
been able to carry more than 500 tons of measurement goods asi'reiglit.
" From a due consideration of these features of the question, with
respect to the expediency of employing large steam vessels (and it is
believed that few practical men will dispute the facts by which they
are developed ), it is evident that the attempt to perform voyages of
lengthened duration by the power of steam alone must, in the present
state of engineering science, be attended with an expense wholly
disproportionate to the profits."

"The present state, therefore, of steam navigation is evidently
altogether inadequate to meet the large and daily increasing demands
of commerce ; and in this respect, as far as maritime navigation (as
contra-distinguished from river and coast navigation,) is concerned,
steam must be considered to be in its infancy, ifor the communication
by this means with our own or with foreign distant colonies — India,
via the Cape of Good Hope — the West Indies — the Paciiic Ocean —
Australia — the Brazils, and other highly productive countries, is at
present impracticable to any extent, as the facts hereafter stated will
more distinctly show."

"Before entering upon the details of this scheme, either as regards
its past success in the partial and limited application which it has
hitherto received, or as to its future adaptation, it may be desirable to
describe the class of sailing; vessels to which auxiliary steam may be
regarded as an applicable power, and where its employment may be
expected to be attended with success; and here it must be observed,
that commercial and not scientific success is the result looked to, for
nothing can be considered successful in a commercial point of view,
to which a fair profit upon the capital employed does not attach."

The definition of the term "success" here given might be looked
upon as unnecessary, had we not before us the remembrance of the
strange perversion of the plainest language, during the discussion of
the Atlantic steam enterprise. In that case success was regarded as
synonymous vi;ith practicability.

Mr. Seaward informs us that auxiliary steam power is beneficially
applicable to all vessels, from 400 tons upwards, and that the propor-
tion of one horse power to 25 tons will propel a vessel in a calm at the
rate of 5 knots per hour. He then institutes a comparison between
the time occupied by the ship "Vernon," fitted with auxiliary steam
power, on her voyage from London to Calcutta, and that of the steam
ship "India," which performed the same voyage about the same
period. The expenses attendant upon the employment of auxiliary
steam power in the "Vernon" during this voyage are stated to have
been£G00; whilst the expenses attendant upon the "India" for the
same period are estimated at £4293, showing an excess of expen-
diture over that of the " Vernon" of £3(393. The comparative rate
of the vessels in point of speed, as stated by Mr. Seaward, appears by
DO means favourable to the " India ;" but, as we know the " India" to
have been detained for a considerable period at the Cape by stress of
weather, and as we conceive there are evidences of some slight pre-
judice against the "India," in consequence, we presume, of her being
a Clyde-built vessel, we attach but little value to this part of the
statement.

Mr. Seaward's memoir contains much important information, and
manifests a familiar acquaintance with the subject of which he under-
takes to speak, and the possession of a liberal share of good common
sense. It is also well written, though we should have been better
pleased with it had there been less straining after rhetorical decora-
tion ; a serious fault in any pai)er which professes to treat of practical
and scientific subjects, especially when addressed, not to the herd of
mechanical amateurs, or scientific cyphers, but to an association of
able and practical men. Another fault which pervades the work, is
the frequency of reference to, and of involved commendation of, the
Messrs. Seawards' engineering performances. We hear a great deal
too much of the excellencies of tlie "Gem" and the "Ruby," and we
find those vessels and the " Brunswick," the latter a work also of
Messrs. Seaward's and a comparative failure, associated with and
obtaining the precedency over the "Eclipse," the "Black wall," and
the "Railway," vessels by which, in point of speed, they are entirely
outstripped. Such preferences as these inanifest an unbecoming
partiality, as ill-judged as it is impotent; and are equally unworthy
of those' by whom such communications are accredited as of those by
whom they are rendered.

In conclusion, Jir. Seaward observes that he has avoided all recon-
dite calculations, with a view of meeting more effectually the objects

of practical men. He further informs us, that theoretical calculations
upon such a subject as that he has undertaken to handle, however
suited to the jihilosopher's study, are of little value to the practical
engineer or ship builder ; and he quotes the language of the late Pre-
sident of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to the effect that, what is
wanted for that society is the development of that knowledge
which is founded upon practical experience. From this intimation
we might infer that, in the opinion of this gentleman, science is
incapable of rendermg any aid to the practical mechanist, but that
he vsiould be prepared to go into the most recondite computa-
tions, were such a couise desirable. In reference to the first allegation,
it is only necessary to observe that, in the development of that know-
ledge which is founded upon practical experience, science is the most
efficient instrument ; in proof of which fact, we might refer to the
extraordinary development the arts have experienced since their
progress has been aided by the light of science, as compared with
their stationary condition when they were merely empirical. As
regards the second implied allegation, namely, th.it Mr. Seaward would
be prepared to enter into extremely recondite calculations respecting
the subject of his memoir, oxceptfor the weightv reason he hasgiven,
we can only admire the discretion which dictated so much forbearance.
If it be Mr. Seaward's desire to maintain his reputation for profundity,
he will best accomplish his object by avoiding all attempted manifes-
tation of it. The only attempt of this description in the memoir before
us is in the 4th page, where we are told that " the employment of a
quadruple amount of steam power would not double the speed, al-
though in theory this is assumed to be the fact." By whose theory is
this assumption made ? We presume that it must be of Mr. Seaward's
own fabrication, and his exclusive property, it being the theory of
other engineers that the resistance increases as the square of the
velocity, and the power necessary to overcome that resistance, as the
cube of the velocity. And the reason is obvious. If the power be
doubled, the resistance is quadrupled ; the force of the engine, there-
fore, to overcome this resistance, must be quadrupled also, and must
act with a double speed. In other words, when the speed is doubled,
the power requisite to maintain that speed has to be increased eight
times instead of four times, as by the Ihorij of Mr. Seaward.

A Treatise on the Application of Marine Surveying and Hydrometty
to the practice of Civil Engineering. Bv DA'ao Stevenson, Civil
Engineer. Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, 1S42.

The author here treats on a branch of surveying which has always
been very imperfectly handled in works professing to convey infor-
mation on this subject. The quaint and pithy directions of old writers,
when they come to show the manner of surveying the coasts of har-
bours and rivers, will seldom fail to elicit a smile from the professional
surveyor, at the idea that such directions would ever enable any one
to perform what they are intended to teach ; and scarcely less will
he be moved by a mingled feeling of pity and ridicule for any unfor-
tunate would-be surveyor, who, deeply read in the mystic lore of some
ancient authority, should sally forth, in all confidence, to the task of
performing a difficult river or harbour survey. Were it not that the
practice and the knowledge of surveying are confined to a compara-
tively small number of persons, and that, consequently, errors which
are made in surveys, and bungling, roundabout ways of proceeding
are not often observed, we should undoubtedly have evidence enough
to prove the necessity of practical information on a subject of such
importance. If we could lay bare the secret trembling anxieties, the
harassing emotions, the suppressed fears and doubts on the ultimate
success and accuracy of his work, which torture the young surveyor
in his hours of arduous application, whether in the field, poring
over his theodolite and the hieroglyphics of his field-book, or in the
house, straining over the net-work of his survey, as by slow degrees
he develops it on the paper, we should even feel that a boon is con-
ferred on humanity by a [iroduction which reduces to order and
simplicity the details of a task calculated to puzzle, in no small degree,
the ardent hasty brain of a youthful student. We therefore hail the
book before us, judging froiu its title alone, and supposing it to have
any merit at all, as a welcome accession to the engineer's library ; our
expectations also, on a first glance, were not diminished when we
recognized its author to be the same Mr. Stevenson who favoured the
profession not long since with an instructive work on the Civil Engi-
neering of North America. Mr. Stevenson also boasts of a name not
less celebrated in Scotland than that of his namesake in England, the

S 2

120

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

fallier of Mr. David Stovciison being universally known as the engineer
of tlie Bell Rock Light Honse, and many other important works.

On' attentivelv examining this book, we find that our expectations
have been amplv realized-we tind it to be the production oi one who
thoroughly understanding the subject on which he writes, falters not,
hesitates not, shrinks not from writing freely for fear of exposing his
io-norance, resorts to no paltrv expedients for filling up Ins book with
mere words enveloping ideas like needles in hay, but who, in a clear,
lucid, easv, and familiar style describes the maimer of conducting the sur-
vey of a r'iver or harbour, "from beginning to end. The tirst two chapters
are devoted to triangulation, and to the choice and measurement ot a
base line. It seerns from these that the author adopts the method of
connecting the two banks of the river by a series of angles taken from
each station. The stations are at short distances from each otiier,
and the construction lines of the survey change their direction at
every station. Thus no line along the banks of the river is longer
than the distance between two of the principal stations ; and thus,
when the construction lines are laid down, they form a series ot Ui-

angles erected on each base from station to station, and having their
vertices in opposite stations on the other side of the river.

It is wel
known to most of our readers, that there are various methods of

arrano-ing the construction lines m surveying; and the one which is
most strictly correct in a Geometrical sense is undoubtedly that in
■which the whole woik is enclosed by some large triangle, or at least
entirely intersected by one or more straight lines, on which triangles
are constructed as large as the extent of the work may require. 1 he
beautiful accuracy with which all the parts of a survey executed in
this manner fit into each other ; the strict tying of the work together;
the admirable system of proofs and checks alfbrded : and the distri-
bution of minute error arising from imperfect chaining, while any error
of consequence is at once discovered at the precise spot where it
occasions distortion;— all point out the method of surveying within
loni' construction lines as the verv best that can be adopted tor ail
ordtnarv surveys of land. But in the case of rivers and coasts tnere
are maiiy practical objections to this method, arising from the diftculty
of measuring long straight lines on the shore or margin sufficiently near
the water to furnish the necessary offsets, and from the impracticability
of measuring the numerous lines which would be required across the
river, or which would be required to extend out to sea, supposing the
system followed in the survey of a single line of coast. Hence in
marine surveys the necessity of employing the theodolite or some
other instrum'ent for measuring angles is universally admitted ; and
this point being settled, the next consideration is that of determining
the form and position of the series of triangles which, depending on
each other and constructed in the manner of a continuous net or frame-
work, constitute the basis for finding the main points and hlling up the
■whole detail of the survey. The two first chapters afford some useful
practical information, -as to the best method of observing the angles
and constructing these important lines.

The third chapter is devoted to tide observations, the author
strongly insisting on the importance of these being correctly made at
many different points, in consequence of the irregular level assumed
by tiie tide wave at dift'erent parts of its course up the river. Some
very curious and important details are given in this and the following
chapter on soundings, relative to the inclined surface presented by the
water in tidal rivers at different times of the tide. Thus in the nver
Lune, the current of which runs from Lancaster to Glasson, the level
of low water during a spring tide was found to be 11 ft. lower at the
latter place than at Lancaster. Also -at the same instant of time, when
it was low water at Lancaster, the level of water at Glasson was 4 ft.
4 in. above low water mark at Lancaster. On the river Dee the level
of low water mark at Flint was 7s ft. below the low water mark of the
.same tide at Connah's Quay, only 21 miles higher up the river. And
at the moment of low water at Connah's Quay, the water at Flint was
5A ft. above low water mark at Connah's Quay. These are only a few
examples of the irregularity of level presented by the surface of water
in tide rivers : in the course of the book there are many such examples,
extending through both spring and neap tides. They prove in the
most decided manner— 1st. that it is an egregious error to assume the
low water mark at different points on the same river to be on the
same level ; and, 2nd. that it is almost equally erroneous to suppose
that at any given instant of time the level of water in a river is the
same at two distant points. A difference of level, also, prevails in the
high water mark of the rivers Dee, Lune, and Forth, from all of which
actual observations are detailed; but this difference is not to such an
extent as that in the level of the low water marks, although in other
livers it is possible that the line drawn through the high water marks
of the same tide may be as much inclined as the line drawn through
the low water marks." We have not unfrequently seen cases of disputed
levelling, only in consequence of erroneous ideas as to the contem-

poraneous level of tide water, and as to the level of high and low water
mark at different points of a river ; and douhts have often been thrown,
in consequence, upon the accuracy of a section taken across a district
of country, from one point of a river to another, or even from one river
to some "other river in another part of tl.e country. The faith of
engineers, however, in the ancient errors with regard to the tides
wliich we have mentioned, has been already somewhat shaken, and
the practical information contained in the book before us will, we
trust, explode them entirely, even if it should fail to establish any
sound theory on the niins of the old hypotheses.

In the Stli and Glh chapters Mr. !Stevenson resumes the subject of
the actual survey of the river, treating first of the low water survey,
which embraces the sand banks, shoals, and other parts of the bed,
which are dry at low water, and then of the high water margin, the
method of proceeding to the best advantage bei:-g pointed out as to
both these parts of the survey. We regret that our space wil not
admit of an extract sufficient in length to do justice to the author s
views and explanations in this part of the work ; we must, therefore,
refer our readers for further information to the book itself.

The next chapter, on cross sections and borings, is interesting and
useful, as exhibiting the most direct manner of proceeding to make
sections across the'river, at places where they are necessary to show
the inequalities and structure of the bottom, and to point out the parts
to be excavated in order to obtain sufficient depth of water in the
channel. Mr. Stevenson justly observes that " much time may be lost
in makino- the section? and borings, and erroneous data ma_y be ob-
tained if'the operation be not gone about in a proper manner."

Chapter 8 relates to hvdrometric.d observations, principally on the
velocity of currents at th"e surface, and the bed of their course. For
the purpose of determining the mean velocity from the observed sur-
face velocity, Mr. Stevenson gives the following formula, founded on
a rule of De Buat :

a + ( Vo— 1)
y = 4

where a = the observed surface velocity, and 7 = the mean velocity-
sought. . r 1 ,■

The concluding chapter, relating to the protraction of the lines in
the survey, and of the soundings, completes the subject, and although
this part 'is equally valuable, and in its mode of treatment equally
practical with the rest of the book, it would convey little or no infor-
mation to make isolated extracts from it. The whole, however, is
well worthy the attention of every engineer and surveyor engaged in
the prosecution of marine surveying, to all of whom it may be said,
without derogation of their skill", that however practised or proficient
thev may be in this part of the profession, this book is calculated to
add to their knowledge of the subject. The work contains numerous
plans and sections of rivers, showing the mode of surveying and ot
representing the cross sections and borings, also examples of the man-
ner of keeping the field books in the different stages of the survey.

BOOK MAKING.

Sir— I beg leave tt) trouble you with a few remarks respecting a recent
publication, with the view of calling your attention to a highly reprehensible
practice, which is now becoming common in this class of works. The prac-
tice I allude to is the copying and inserting, in several different publications,
the same cuts and impressions. In a small work lately published, entitled
" Anglican Church Architecture, &c." naturally supposing that the wood cuts
and illustrations (with which the volume is rather copiously furnished) were
examples not before published, but had been collected by the author to illus-
trate and support the opinions put forth in his work, I w.-is induced to become
a purchaser; but on looking over the book, I was much surprised to tiud
that almost without exception the cuts, &c. were fac-similies of those pub-
lished in a recent work entitled " The Glossary of Architecture." and as both
proceed from the same publisher, I have no doubt the same blocks did duty
a second time. It may be said that the work I now refer to is small in
price, hut the principle is equally bad, whatever may be the cost of the pub-
lication ; and I hope that you will, by making instances of this sort of book-
making public, prevent a practice so vicious in principle and so hurtful m its
effects from becoming general. If persevered in, it cannot fail to destroy
that confidence which should always subsist between the author and the
purchaser of his work.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

121

ON SPIRES.

We have already borrowed largely from the Penny Cyclopaedia, on
the subject of staircases, and now similarly avail ourselves of the article
"Spire," which is certainly the most complete and most original we
have ever yet met with. In fnct, scarcely anything at all relative to
spires is to be found in preceding publications, — not even in those
which profess to be strictly architectural. They give us little more
than an explanation of the term, and some not even that ; at least, such
is the case with Nicholson's Architectural Dictionarv, where, unac-
countable as it may seem, the word "Spire" is altogether omitted!
Besides calling attention to a variety of interesting particulars that
seem to have entirely escaped the observation of others, the writer of
the article in the Penny Cylopsdia has suggested several new and
expressive terms that, in our opinion, are wpU worthy of being generally
adopted. We are aware that some persons object" to any innovations
of tliR kind, yet if they are found to be really useful, and to enrich the
terminology of the art, there can be no impropriety in adopting them;
neither is there any greater difficulty attending' tlie introduction of
them than arises from the attempt to revive terms which have become
so entirely obsolete, that their original meanings can now only be
vaguely guessed at, so that there is danger of the terms so rescued
from oblivion being applied very differently from what they were
while they were in use.

"Spire (in German Spitze, or Thmn-Spitze; in French, F/<'cZ'(?, from
its resemblance to the pointed tip of an arrow ; but the Latin spira
signifies a coil, or spiral line, and not an upright cone or pyramid).
The term belongs to Gothic architecture, and is used to designate the
tapering pyramidal mass erected on a tower by way of finish and orna-
ment. That so little relative to spires is said in works on Gothic
architecture is the more remarkable, because, in proportion to the
number of examples, they exhibit more variety than almost any other
separate feature in edifices in that style. Though the spire is'a very
striking feature in a building, it has nothing to recommend it on the
score of direct utility. It is a mere external appendage to an edifice,
since it does not, like the dome, contribute to anv kind of effect what-
ever internally, a circumstance that seems to have been overlooked bv
Mr. A. W. Pugin, for else he would hardly have made it a reproach
against the architect of St. Paul's, that the exterior dome of that fabric
is merely for effect. Though the same objection might be made to
the spire, we are far from urging it: mere utility is a low test of merit
in architecture, and although this merit cannot be claimed for this
feature in Gothic architecture, we hold the spire to be one of para-
mount value in it, inasmuch as that pyramidal figure concentrates all
its principles and characteristics, rendering it most eminentlv the
Pointed style. So considered, the spire may be said to be the' key-
stone of the whole idea of such style ; — that 'which visibly completes
if. It serves, moreover, to impart an air of graceful lightness to the
whole of a building, and to correct — if we may so express it— what
might else be excess of length as compared with the general height of
a structure, by giving a corresponding degree of loftiness to one
portion of it.

" The origin of the spire, like that of the pointed arch, is merely
Matter of conjecture. The probability is that it arose out of the peaked
roof usually given to campaniles and towers of a preceding period,
which form was afterwards gradually improved upon and refined, till
it eventually grew up into the slender tapering spire. According to
such supposition, we would rpfer to the tower of Than church in
Normandy, as an example exhibiting the rudiments of the spire, it
being no more than a steep peaked roof or low pyramid, whose height
does not exceed three-fourths of its bsse. A peak of this kind differs
also from the spire, both in being the same in plan as the tower on
which it is placed, and in being mimediately set upon it, whereas the
spire is almost invariably an octagon or other polygon, and is surrounded
at Its base with a parapet. In Italy, where campaniles are usually
detached square towers of very slender or lofty proportions, the spire
IS almost unknown, for such towers liave seldom more than a mere
pyramidal roof or peak, which, though it may be considered as the
germ from which the Gothic spire was afterwards developed, is in
Itself of quite different character ; vet, at the same time, that of each
IS best adapted to the respective st'yle. There are some few instances
of square spires ; among them a very singular one at Egeln in Ger-
many, where two such spires are set immediately together upon the
same tower. But however slender in their proportions such spires
may otherwise be, they liave a certain heavy massiveness of form.
When therefore, greater loftiness and lightness were aimed at in this

feature, the adoption of a polygonal plan for it became almost matte
of course, for although in a geometrical drawing the oeneral outline
and proportions of a spire are the same whether it be square or
octangular in plan, the perspective or actual appearance is widely
different; because in the latter case the diagonal breadth of the square
tower below is cut off", and each side or plane of which the spire is
composed becomes a much more pointed triangle. Besides which
the polygonal spire produces a degree of contrast and variety bifhly
favourable to general effect in the pointed style." ' ^

* * * ■ *

" There are so many peculiarities in spires, that it is hio'hly
desirable to have descriptive terms for them. First, as regards' its
base, a spire may be said to be Cliisler-based, when surrounded below
with pinnacles connected with it, and from among which it seems to
spring up ; of which kind St. Mary's Oxford, is a celebrated example.
The H6tel-(le-V'ille, at Ypres, has a spire clustered with four exceed-
ingly tall pinnacles or lesser spires. Where there are windows placed
against a spire, risisg vpright like the dormers or lucarnes on a foro,
the term Lncarned would express that character; we have therefore
not scrupled to make use of it in the annexed table of spires, where it
is applied, among others, to those of Lichfield catliedral, which have
several tiers of such windows, and are described accordingly. Crock-
etted and Banded are terms requiring no explanation; but in regard to
the first it may be remarked, that spires, otherwise quite pla?n, are
sometimes ornamented with crocket<s along their edo-es ; and with
respect to hands, they are sometimes little more than string mouldings,
but in other cases broad and enriched surfaces. Many of the spires
in Normandy are ornamented with such a number of bands, that they
form alternating courses with the plain spaces between them. Fini-
alled is a term which does not apply to anv of our English spires;
but that of St. Stephen's, Vienna, and some other contiiiental spires,
have an exceedingly large and rich finial, which ornament gives them
a particular boldness of expression. The Taheniacie-spire also is one
of which there is no example in this country, but of which the one just
mentioned, and those of Strassburg, Ulm (as designed), Thann in
Alsace, and many others, are specimens, the tower and spire being
carried up from the ground in a succession of diminishing stages, all
profusely adorned with pannelling, niches, canopies, pinnacles, and
other tabernacle-work, in such a manner that it is barely possible to
distinguish where the upright portion or tower terminates, and the
spire itself begins, tlie latter seeming little more than the uppermost
stage in continuation of the rest. Neither have we any instances of
Open-imrk spires, or of such as, if not actually perforated, are yet
entirely covered with tracery. That at Freyburg,'and those at Burgos
and Batalha, are all exceeiHiiCTly rich specimens of the kind. The
chapter-house of Burgos also has a series of very large pinnacles or
small spires of tabernacle character. Cambrai aiid Esslingen on the
Neckar afford other examples of open-work spires.

" There are various other circumstances which, though they do not
affect the spire itself, produce greater or less difference in regard to
the character of the structure of w hich it is a component feature. Very
much, for instance, depends upon its situation in the general plan: at
Salisbury, Norwich, and Chichester, the spire is raised upon a tower
at the intersection of the cross, or in the centre of the plan ; whereas
in most continental cathedrals and large churches there are two spires
on the towers of the west front, though in some instances (StrasburCT,
Antwerp) only one has been erected. Several, however, have a sinufe
tower and spire in the centre of the west front (Ulm, Freyburgli,
Thann in Alsace), in which case the tower itself begins to diminish
almost from the ground, and the whole becomes what we have de-
scribed as of the tabernacle character. In most of our English churches
(not cathedrals,) the spire is placed upon a tower at the west end, as
at Grantham, Louth, Bloxham, &c. If we except Peterborough, where
they are very diminutive, the only English cathedral which has two
western spires is Lichfield, which is further remarkable as having a
central tower and spire also. Besides the richness and variety thus
produced, the larger central spire serves to balance the whole coraao-
sition, whereas else the body of the structure is apt to look low' io
comparison with the west end. At St. Stephen's, Vienna, the tower
and spire are singularly placed on the south side of the edifi:?, it
having been intended to balance them by a corresponding tower on
the north side. At Gehihausen, on the contrary, there is a group of
spires, as already noticed, at the east end."

Haying extracted so largely from this article, we must refer our
readers to the Penny CyclopsJia itself for the remainder, transferring
to our own pages tlie annexed Table : —

122

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

Table of Spises, Emglish and Foreign-.

To^i Pr.

- . Total

Remarks.

Old St. Paul's

S.ilisbury

Norwich

Liclifiekl

Dc. iwo western

Chichester .

Oxford Cathedral

Oxford, St. Mary's

Loutll
Grantham (about)

Newark

BItxham

St. Michael's, Coventry

St. Mary's, Stamford .

Welford, Gloucester .

St. Chad's, Birmingham

Cologne (as designed)

Slrasbuig

St. Stephens, Vienna .

Ulm ('as designed)

Freybvirg

Marburg

Niirnberg, St. Laurence

Niirnberg, St. Sebaldus

Thann in Alsace .

Antwerp

Chartres
Bayeux

Caen, St. Stephen's
Caen, St. Peter's ■

Batalha

Burgos Cathedral

Cilasgow

Treves on the Moselle .

St. Marie Hilf, Miinich

260
■207
140
114

89

94
80

148
140

101
136

88
330
3G4
285
320
221
184
180
170

142

155
134

113

115
111
220

274
197
163
138
103

52

94

140

94

164

62

200

110

180

171

159

88

90

90

104

107
110

105

128

60

534

404
303
252
192
270
146
180

2S8
250

195

300

150
530
474
465
491
380
272
270
260

366

246

262
244

170

220
239
280

Six diameters high. , ^ ,.

Date about 1350. Three enriched bands. Nearly five diameters.

Plain, rather more than five diameters high.

Lucarned, 5 tiers of windov^s. Nearly 5 diameters high.

Lucarned, 4 tiers; 44 diameters high. ,.,,,, ■. , •

Pinnacled and lucarned below ; banded with one broad rich band; else quite plain.

Date about 1220. , . , , , . j

Spire itself quite plain, lucarned with a canopied window below, on four sides.

Embased by verv rich canopied niches and pinnacles.
Embased with lofty pinnacles and flying buttresses. Crocketted. b diameters.
Lucarned, crocketted, large crocketted pinnacles at base. Base of spire less than

tower. , ■ ■

Short spire, spreading out at its base. Lucarned, with 4 tiers of windows.

A very beautiful example. Spire 5 diameters high. Date about 1350.

This tower and spire a verv fine example.

Date about 1260. Base without parapet or pinnacles. Lucarned, 4 tiers. Spire

22 diameters. ■, ^ -^ , -xu i r.

An example of a spire on a low circular tower. Lucarned at its base with lofty
gabled windows. Spire 3 diameters. , ^ ,, ,„,„,

Tvvo west towers, onlv N.W. spire vet erected. (Comp. to Almanac, 1842.)

Two west spires enriched with tracery, and crowned by large finials.

Two west towers, only N.W. spire. ,

On south side of church. Example of a tabernacle tower and spire.

Tabernacle example. Tower and spire in centre of west front.

Rich open-work spire. Tower and spire in centre of west front.

Two west towers and spires. Base of spire gabled. Spire 4i diameters.
Do. do. do.

Do. do. do.

A tabernacle example, with rich tracerywork on spire. Spire about one-fourth
of entire height.

Two west towers, only N.W. spire. . , , „ ,, ,,

Two west spires, the N.W. one loftier and more enriched than the other.

Two west spires. The N.W. spire has 6 broad bands ; the other plain. Diame-
ter at base 27 feet.

Lucarned at base and banded. , c ■^ i

Base of spire 24 feet. Spire has 9 bands, with small hesafoil, quatre-toil, and
trefoil apertures between them. Crocketted.

Very rich open-work spire. Diameter at base 19 feet.

Two short or stump but very rich open-work spires, at west end. Date of spires

1442.

Lucarned, banded, lower band richly moulded and quatre-foiled, and surmounted

bv fleurons. Diameter at base 27 feet.
A new church, finished 1S31. Lassaulx, architect. Spire, a hroach, splayed off at

base. Diameter, above splay, 16 feet; height about 8 diameters.
Church erected by OhlmuUer; completed 1839. Spire an open-work helm or

broach.

ON W.\KM1NG AND VENTILATING THE REFORM CLUB.

Iinr,rl on Ike Apparatus erected in the Reform Club House, for Warming and
r,iitilali:ii! its several Apartments. £i/ Aniikew Lhe, M.JJ., i.K.S., i"ro-
fi-ssor if Cliemistry.

There are two general plans in use for at once diffusing heat, and
renewing the air in extensive buildings, which plans differ essentially in their
prmciples, modes of action, and effects. The oldest, and what may be called
the n,lj:ar method, consists in planting stoves in the passages or rooms, to
yive warmth in cold weather, and in constructing large and lofty chimney-
sta;ks to draw air in hot weather out of the house, by suction, so to speak,
whereby fresh air Hows in to maintain, though imperfectly, an eijudibrium
of pressure. In apartments thus warmed and ventilated, the atmosphere is
necessarily rarer than it is out of doors, while, in cold weather, the e.Memal
air rushes in at every opening and crevice, of door, window, or chimney— the
fruitful source of indisposition to the inmates.

The evils resulting from the stove-heating and air-raiefying system, were, a

few years ago, investigated by me, in a paper read before the Royal Society,*
and afterwards published in several scientific and technological journals. It
is there said, that the observations of Saussure, and other scientific travellers
in mountainous regions, demonstrate how difficult and painful it is to make
muscular or mental exertions in rarefied air. Even the slight rarefaction of
the atmosphere, corresponding to a low state of the barometer at the level of
the sea, is sufficient to occasion languor, lassitude, and uneasiness, in persons
of delicate nerves; while the opposite condition of increased pressure, as
indicated by a high state of the barometer, has a bracing effect upon both
body and mind. Thus, we see how ventilation, by the powerful draught of a
high chimney-stalk, as it operates by pumping out, exhausting, and atten-
uating the air, may prove detrimental to vivacity and health ; and how
ventilation, by forcing air in with a fan or a pump, is greatly to be preferred,
not only for the reason above assigned, but because it prevents all regur-
gitation of foul air down the cliimneys, an accident sure to happen in the

" I had been proiessionallv employed by a Committee of the Officers of the
Custom House, to examine the nature of the malaria which prevailed there,
but 1 liad no concern in erecting the stoves which caused it.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

123

foi-mer metliod. Genial air thrown in by a fan. in the basement story of a
building, also prevents the stagnation of vavours from damp and miasmata,
which lurk about the fjundations of buildings and in sewers, and which are
sucked in by the rarefying plan. Many a lordly mansion is rendered hardly
tenautable from such a cause, during certain vicissitudes of wind and weather.

The condensing plan, as executed by the engineers, Messrs. Easton and
Amos, at the Reform Club House, consists of a large fan, revolving rapidly
in a cylindrical case, and is capable of throwing eleven thousand cubic feet of
air per minute, into a spacious subterranean tunnel under the basement story.
The fan is driven by an elegant steam engine, working on the expansion
principle, of five horses' power. It is placed in a vault, under the flag pive-
raent, in front of the building; and as it moves very smoothly, and bums
merely cinders from the house fires, along with some anthracite, it occasions
no nuisance of any kind. The steam of condensation of the engine supplies
three cast iron chests with the requisite heat for warming the whole of the
building. Each of these chests is a cube of three feet externally, and is
distributed internally into seven parallel cast iron cases (somewhat like
empty portfolios), each about three inches wide, which are separated by
parallel alternate spaces, of the same width, for the passage of the air trans-
versely, as it is impelled by the fan. This arrangement is most judicious,
economizing fuel to the utmost degree; because the steam of condensation
which, in a Watt's engine, would be absorbed and carried off by the air-
pump, is here turned to good account, in ivarming the air of ventilation
during the winter months. Two hundred weight of fuel suffices for working
this steam engine during twelve hours. It pumps water for household pur-
poses, raises the coals to the several apartments on the upper floors, and
drives the fan ventilator. The air, in flowing rapidly through the series of
cells placed alternately between the steam cases, cannot be scorched, as it is
infallibly with air stoves ; but it is heated only to the genial temperature of
from 75' to 8.5' Fahr., and it thence enters a common chamber of brickwork
iu the basement story, from which it is let otT into a series of distinct flues,
governed by dialled valves or registers, whereby it is conducted in regulated
quantities to the several apartments of the building. I am of opinion, that
it would not be easy to devise a better plan for the purpose of warming and
ventilaiing a large house ; and I am only sorry to observe, that the plan pro-
jected by the engineers has been ivjudiciously counteracted in two particulars.

The first of these is, that the external air, which supplies the fan, is made
to traverse a great heap of coke before it can enter that apparatus, whereby
it suffers such friction as materially to obstruct the ventilation of the house.
The following experiments, which I made recently upon this point, will place
the evil iu a proper hght. Having fitted up Dr. Wollaston's differential
barometer, as an anemometer, with oil, of specific gravity 0'900 in one leg of
its syphon, and water of 1000 in the other, covered with the said oil in the
two cisterns at top, I found that the stream of air produced by the fan. in a
certain part of the flue, had a velocity only as the number 8, while the air
was drawn through the coke, but that it had a velocity in the same place, as
the number 11, whenever the air was freely admitted to the fan by opening
a side door. Thus, three-elevenths, both of the ventilating and warming
efi'ects of the fan, are lost. I cannot divine any good reason for making the
Members of the Reform Club breathe an atmosphere, certainly not improved,
bat most probably vitiated, by being passed in a moist'state through a porous
sulphureous carbon, whereby it will tend to generate the two deleterious
gases, carbonic oxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, in a greater or less degree.
It is vain to allege that these gases may not be discoverable by chemical
analysis — can the gaseous matters which generate cholera, yellow-fever, or
ague, be detected by chemical re-agent.s? No. truly; yet everyone admits
the reality of their specific virus. I should propose that the air be trans-
mitted through a large sheet of wire-cloth before it reaches the fan, whereby
it would be freed from the grosser particles of soot that pollute the atmosphere
of London. The wire-cloth should be brushed every morning. The second
particular, which counteracts in some measure the good effects of the fan in
steam ventilation— is the huge stove placed in the top story of the building.
This potent furnace, consuming, when in action, 3 cwt, of coals per day,
tends to draw down foul air for its own supply from the chimneys of the
adjoining rooms, and thus to impede the upward current created by the fan.
I have measured by Dr. Wollaston's (hfTerential barometer the ventilating
influence of the'said furnace stove, and find it to be perfectly insignificant— /

nay. most absurdly so— when compared with the fan, as to the quantity ot
tuel which each requires per day. The rarefaction of air in the stove
chamber, in reference to the external air, was indicated by a quarter of an
inch dlfl'erence of level in the legs of the oil and water syphon, and this when
the door of the stove-room was shut, as it usually is ; the tube of the diitj;r-
ential barometer being inserted in a hole in the door. The fan intlic Ues a
ventilating force equal to two inches of the water syphon, which is twenty
inches of the above oil and water syphon, and therefore eighty times greater
than that of the stove furnace : so that, taking into view the smaller quantity
of fuel which the fan requires, the advantage in ventilation in favour of the
fan is the enormous ratio of 120 to 1, at the lowest estimate. The said stove
in the attic seems to me to be not only futile, but dangerous. \t is a huge
rectangular cast iron chest, having a large hopper in front kept full of coali.
and it is contracted above into a round pipe, which discharges the burnt air
and sniuke into a series of horizontal pipes of cast iron, about four inches
diameter, which traverse the room under the cieling. and terminate in a b.rick
chimney. In consequence of this obstruction, the draught through the
furnace is so feeble that no rush of air can be perceived in its ash pit, even
when this is contracted to an area of six inches square ; nay, when the asli
pit was momentarily luted with bricks and clay, and the tube of the differ-
ential barometer was introduced a little way under the grate, the level of the
oil and water syphon in that instrument was displaced by no more than one-
tenth of an inch, which is only one-hundredth of an inch of water — a most
impotent efl'ect under a daily co.nsumption of 3 cwt. of coals. In fact, this
stove may be fitly styled an incaidlanj coat devourer, as it has already set fire
to the house ; and though now laid upon a new floor of iron rafters and stone
flags, it still offers so much danger from its outlet iron pipes, should ihey
become ignited from the combustion of charcoal deposited in them, that i
think no premium of insurance adequate to cover the imminent risk of fire
The stove being, therefore, a superfluous and dangerous nuisance, should b»
turned out of doors as speedily as possible. Its total cost, with that of iti
fellow in the basement story, cannot be much less than the cost of the steam
engine, with all its truly effectual warming and ventilating appurtenances.

I take leave to observe, that the system of heating and ventilating appa-
ratus constructed by Messrs. Easton and Amos in the Reform Club House,
offers one striking and peculiar advantage. It may be modified at little
expense, so as to become the ready means of intro lucing, during the sultriest
dog-days, refreshing currents of air at a temperature of 10, 20, 30, or even
40 degrees under that of the atmosphere. An apparatus of this nature
attached to the Houses of Parliament and Courts of Law would prove an
inestimable blessing to our legislators, lawyers, judges, and juries. Of such
cool air a very gentle stream would suffice to make the most crowded apart-
ments comfortable, without endangering the health of their inmates with
gusts of wind through the doors, windows, and floors.

It is lamentable to reflect how little has been done for the well-being of the
sentient and breathing functions of man in the public buildings of the me-
tropolis, notwithstanding our boasted march of intellect and diff"usion of
useful knowledge. Almost all our churches are filled on Sundays with stove-
roasied air ; and even the House of Commons has its atmosphere exiiausled
by the suction of a huge chimney stalk, with a furnace equal, it is said, to
that of a 40-horse steam boiler. To gentlemen plunged in air so attenuated,
condensation of thought, and terseness of expressiou, can hardly be the order
of the day.

Nearly seven years Lave elapsed since I endeavuured to point public
attention to this important subject iu the following terms ■ — '" Our legislators,
when bewailing, not long ago, the fate of their fellow-creatures doomed to
breathe the polluted air of a factory, were little aware hjw superior the
system of ventilation adopted in many cotton mills was to that employed for
their own comfort in either House of Parliament. The engineers of Man-
chester do not, like those of the metropolis, trust for a sufficient supply of
fresh air into any crowded hall, to currents physically created in the at-
mosphere by the difference of temperature excited by chimney draughts
because they kno.^ them to be ineffectual to renijve, with requijile r.tpidtty,
the dense carbouic acid gas generated by many hundred po«erfui lungs,"*

' Philosophy of Manufactures, p, 3S0, published by Chailes Knight.
London, 1835.

124

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

April

At page 382 of the woik just quoie'l there is an exact draw ng and description
af the tactory ventilating fan.

On the 6th of June, 1836, I took occasion again, in a jiaper read before the
Royal Society, upon the subject of the malaria which then prevailed in the
Custom House, to investigate the principles oi ventilation by the fan, and to
demonstrate, by a numerous train of experiments, the great preference due to
h, as to effect, economy, and comfort, over chimney-draught ventilation.
Yet at tliis very time, the latter most objectionable plan was in progress of
construction, upon a colossal scale, for the House of Commons. About the
s.ime period, however, the late ingenious Mr. Oldham, engineer of the Bank
of England, mounted a mechanical ventilator, and steam chest heater, for
supplying a copious current of warm air to the rooms of the engraving and
printing departments of that establishment. Instead of a fan, Mr. Oldham
employed a large pump to force the air through the alternate cells of his
steam chest. He had introduced a similar system into the Bank of Ireland
about ten years before, which is now in full action.

About two years ago, Messrs. Easton and Amos were employed to ventilate
the letter carriers' and inland office departments of the General Post Office,
of which the atmosphere was rendered not only uncomfortable, but insa.
lubrious, by the numerous gas lights required there in the evenings, This
task has been executed to the entire satisfaction of their employers, by means
of fans driven by steam engine power. The said engineers made, about the
same time, a set of machinery similar to that erected at the Bank of England
for warming and ventilating the Bank of Vienna. They are justly entitled
to the credit of having been the .Irst to execute, in all its bearings, the system
of heating and ventilating buildings, having special respect to the health of
tlieir inmates, wliich I urged upon the public mind many years ago.

As fans of sufficient size, driven by steam power with sufficient velocity to
warm in winter, and ventilate at all times, the most extensive buildings, may
be erected upon the principles above described, without causing any nuisance
from smoke, it is to be hoped that the Chapel cf Henry VII. will not be dese-
crated by having a factory Vesuvius reared in its cLissical precincts, and that
the noble pile of architecture of the new Houses of Parliament will not be
disfigured witli such a foul phenomenon.

* The following engravings, which we borrow from the London Journal,
show the construction of the iron cases.

iSgi

■Fii2

r A

': i

Fig. 1 is a transverse vertical section of the steam chest, for heating the
air ; fig. 2 is a plan of the same ; and fig. 3 is a perspective view, showing the
outside casing, also the pipe a, for admitting the steam, and the stop-ccck b,
for allowing the condensed water to escape.

ON IRON AS A MATERIAL FOR SHIP-BUILDING.

At the last general monthly meeting of the Liverpool Polytechnic Society,
the president, Joho Grantham, Esq., C. £., read a paper On Iron as a material
for Ship-building.

Mr. Grantham commenced by stating that it was not without some hesi-
tation he ventured to occupy the time of the meeting with an inquiry into
the advantages of using iron as a material for ship-building — an inquiry
which was of deep and growing interest, and of great importance to the port
of Liverpool. He had sought for practical information from others on the
subject, but, having scarcely received any of a practical nature, he deter-
mined to take an independent course, and trust to his own observations
rather than waste his efforts on a fruitless search. In this he had been
materially assisted by the knowledge be possessed of the qualities of iron;
and, as a proof of the sincerity of his views, he observed that he had come

to the determination, in conjunction with other gentlemen, of engaging
seriously in the business of building iron vessels.

It was a mistake to suppose that vessels had only been recently constructed
of iron. He was in a position to prove that the construction of iron vessels
was not an invention of recent date — that the value of iron in this respect
had long been known, and that it had been making a slow but a sure pro-
gress towards its present improved state. Iron vessels had been built for
the English canals so far back as forty years since, and some of thern, he had
reason to believe, were still in existence. The first iron vessel that put to
sea was built by the Horseley Iron Company, and was called the Aaron
Mauby, after the name of the projector. She was constructed in the year
1820, and had been at work ever since, without requiring any material re-
pairs. The next iron steain vessel with which he was acquainted was built
by the Horseley company under his father's superintendence. She was put
together in Liverpool, in the year 1S22, and proceeded to her destination,
Lough Derg, on the river Shannon. She had been constantly at work ever
since, and was at present in good condition. She was now the property o£
the Shannon company, who had six iron steam vessels at work, all in excel-
lent condition. Several iron vessels had been built in England. The first
built in Liverpool was by Messrs. Fawcett & Co., at their boiler yard in Oil
Street. One of the vessels built by this company was called the Alhurka,
and went on Lander's unfortunate expedition to Africa. Several other iron
vessels had since been built, of which some of those sailing from Liverpool
(o Glasgow were most conspicuous. Iron steam vessels had been employed
in fighting our battles in the east, among which the Nemesis acted in the
Chinese war. The Ironside steamer had been built in Liverpool, and was
the first vessel of the kind, of any magnitude, that ever went to sea.

Mr. Grantham then proceeded to describe the ordinary method of con-
structing iron vessels, which he illustrated by diagrams and models. Iron
vessels, he said, were constructed of plates fastened by angle iron ribs placed
in different directions. He then described the construction of the keel, the
bow, the floorings, the ribs, the platings, and the plan of double and single
rivetting. He said that experience alone could decide the question as to the
best disposition of the plates. He expressed himself in favour of the lap
joint, and said it was groundless to suppose that the rivets could easily be
driven out of their places, for, although the head might be removed, the
remainder of the rivet was almost immovable. After showing that there
existed great facility in applying stringers in iron vessels, he proceeded to
make some remarks on the peculiarities possessed by iron vessels, and to
institute a comparison between them and timber ones. In the eonstniction
of a vessel a builder should study strength, great stowage, safety, speed,
durability, lightness of repairs, cheapness, and draft of water. He said he
was in a condition to prove that iron vessels possessed all those qualifications
in an eminent degree, and that they were superior in those several respects
to timber vessels. In the first place they possessed great strength. It had
been asserted that iron might answer verj' well as a material for the con-
struction of small vessels and not very large ones. This, however, was not
the case. The country was deprived of some of its finest oaks in order that
timber vessels might be constructed, while there was no particular form into
which iron could not he moulded by the smiths of England. In the latter
case they had no sap to encounter, no knots, no cutting across the grain ;
and everj- inch of material was, moreover, of value. It was a well known
fact that timber, after having been in use for some time, became brittle and
could not be bent ; but good iron did not become brittle. The facihty for
obtaining iron beams in one piece removed many difficulties.

The lecturer next instituted a comparison between the modes of fastening
iron and timber vessels, and instanced the case of a copper-fastened timber
ship, ami the dreadful creaking of timber vessels at sea. He then alluded to
the shock which had been some time since received by the Nemesis, and said
that if a similar shock had been received by a timber ship the flooring of the
latter might have been broken. The damage done to the Nemesis, however,
had only amounted to about 30/. He said he could relate many other in-
stances of the strength of iron vessels in comparison with timber ships, if
time permitted. He next alluded to the qualification of stowage. He said
the shell of a timber vessel was greater than that of an iron one, and that
while a timber vessel could carry 200 tous, an iron one of similar size could
carry 250. In the case of steamers, the comparison was much more in
favour of iron as a material for ship building. The qualification of safety
was in a great measure identical with strength. In addition to the extra-
ordinary strength of an iron vessel, it would be almost impossible for a fire
to take place in the hold if proper precautions were used, and the atmos-
pheric air excluded. After showing the superiority of iron vessels over tim-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

135

ber in point of speed, he referred to the qualification of durability, which, he
said, involved a chemical question. Upon this subject he had been favoured
by Mr. R. Mallett, of Dublin, who had been employed in making experiments
for the British Association on the coirosion of cast and wrought iron, with a
short paper on the corrosion or fouling of iron ships, which was of great
interest, and would be published with the report of the lecture. He then
referred to the quaUtication of durability, and said, that in removing the
timber work of the ship John Garrow the dry rot was found. All the tim-
ber not exposed to the air had been affected by it, while that exposed to the
air was perfectly free from corrosion. The lecturer here exhibited an iron
bolt which had been taken out of the John Garrow. The part of it which
had been in oak was very much corroded, while the remaining part of it
vfhich bad been in iron was very little decayed. He was of opinion that
oxidation took place no faster on the surface of thick plates than on tliin
ones, and he did not believe that the thickness of wood had any effect on
its durability, so far as decay was concerned. The wear and tear of iron
vessels were trifling, while the expense of their repairs was hght. In a tim-
ber vessel, the expense of repairs would, in the course of ten years, equal the
first cost. In the case of an iron vessel no repairs would, in all probability,
be required within the first ten years. The expense of keeping the copper
of a timber ship in repair would amount to a sum equal to that of making the
whole of the repairs required by an iron vessel.

The first cost was the next point for consideration. He wished ship-
owners to recollect that if they wanted good work they should give a propor-
tionate price, and he hoped in future that they would obtain good work, and
not be looking after a saving of expense. He had arrived at the following
conclusions, in order to convey some idea on the subject : — that good service-
able iron sailing vessels, of 300 tons, would be equal to timber ships of larger
tonnage ; that iron vessels had many advantages over timber ones ; that for
Tery large vessels iron would be less expensive than timber ; and that iron
vessels for rivers might be built at a less expense. He laid less stress on the
last qualification — that of light draught of water — than on others, but, at the
same time, a hght draught of water might be obtained in iron vessels. It
wonld be asked, therefore, why not have iron vessels more generally built, if
their superiority was so apparent ? He would not evade this inquiry, neither
would he forbear from alluding to the narrow poUcy of those who had
opposed the system. He admitted that there were some real objections which
had to be removed. Those objections had now, however, been set at rest.
The difficulty about the compass was one, and it was natural that the derange-
ment of the compass on board of iron vessels would have been a great obstacle ;
but this question had been entirely set at rest to all reasonable minds. Ship-
wrights and various other parties had also risen up against iron as a material
for ship-building ; everything was magnified, and it had been attempted to
put it down once and for ever. It was broadly stated tliat iron vessels would
never succeed ; and when an iron vessel arrived in the port on one occasion,
many went to look at her, and every possible fault was found with her. These
objections were now becoming weaker. He thought some blame was attri-
butable to the builders of iron vessels, and he called on builders not to place
the principle of iron vessels in jeopardy by constructing vessels which their
judgment might tell them would not be serviceable. Underwriters had not
been the last to find objection, for shipowners had been told that the pre-
miums would be very high on iron vessels, and that the subject had not been
sufficiently tested. The shells which adhered to the bottoms of iron vessels
had caused another objection to be raised. There would, however, be no
difficulty in removing the shells when first they adhered to the bottoms, if a
scraper were used, and this might be done by the sailors when they were at
liberty during the voyage. After explaining the manner in which the scraper
was to be used, he said that if the vessel were kept clean before she left the
port, and the scraper was used at sea, the shells would he removed, and an
iron vessel would be kept as clean as a timber one.

The lecturer here expressed a hope that he had satisfied many doubts, and
awakened an interest in the breasts of some who never reflected on the
subject before. He instanced the fact that chain cables, steam navigation,
and many other inventions, had been met with opposition in the first instance
although in general use at present, and he prophesied tliat such would be the
case with reference to iron as a material for ship-building. He said he liad
a description before him of the " Great Britain" steam ship, but that the
lateness of the hour prevented him from entering into details. He then
referred to the facility which existed for altering iron ships, and said that
while the iron could be used again, the fact was otherwise in many cases with
respect to timber. He thought there could not be a belter period than the
present for considering a question of the present kind as a means for allevia-

ting the general distress. If taken up as a national question it would be
attended with beneficial results. No one would deny that it was of impor-
tance that our ships should be constructed in our own ports, by men of our
own population, and with materials of our own soil, which materials were
obtainable in the deep recesses of the earth. The iron could be got at the
usual market price ; there would be an increased demand for labour ; and
few foreign timber ships could compete with Enghsh vessels, as all countries
yielded the palm to England in the use of iron. There appeared to him to
be only one obstacle to be removed— he alluded to national prejudice. The
Enghsh public were unwilling to give up their "old wooden walls." It
seemed as if they thought their glory wonld depart if they were to surrender
on this point ; but it should be remembered that the noblest specimens of
naval architecture possessed the seeds of decay, and that the royal heart of
oak would remain in the laud, if u-on were brought into general use. There
was one other result which the lecturer noticed, namely, that a 400-ton ship
would not produce £200 when condemned and broken up, while an iron
vessel, under similar circumstances, at is. per cwt., would produce 21. per
registered ton, or four times as much as a timber ship.

He then concluded by saying that the present was the first time the subject
had been fairly before the public, and by hoping that he had advanced it
somewhat in the estimation of the meeting, and that in their progress, rise,
and end, wooden ships might yield to iron. The reading of the paper, which
occupied upwards of two hours, was received throughout with demonstra-
tions of applause and satisfaction.

FROCEEQINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Jan. II. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of a portion of the Works of the Ulster Canal." By Thomas
Casehourne, M. Inst. C. E.

The Ulster Canal, which is described in this communication, was designed
for the purpose of facilitating the intercourse between the west and the
north of Ireland. It commences at the southern extremity of Lough Erne,
in the county of Fermanagh, whence it extends for a length of 46 miles, and
enters the river Blackwater, near the village of Charleraont, in the county of
Armagh, from which there is an outlet through Lough Neagh to the ports of
Newry and Belfast. The total cost of this work will amount to about
210,000?., or -ifidil. per mile. Allusion is made to a proposed junction
canal between the rivers Boyle and Shannon, which may be considered as an
extension of the Ulster Canal westward, effecting a junction between all the
navigations of Ireland. By its means the produce of the to%Tn of Boyle, and
the agricultural district around it, would be conveyed directly by steam to
Belfast and Newr)-. At the time of this communication, the Ulster Canal
was rapidly advancing towards completion ; it was navigable up to Clones, a
distance of 40 miles from its commencement, and would be opened to Lough
Erne during the summer of 1841. A description is given of the most diffi-
cult and expensive portion of the canal, which is situated at about six miles
along the line from Charlemont. The length of this part is about three-
fourths of a mile, and it comprises seven locks. The expense of construction,
exclusive of the value of land, was 17,053/. 4s. 9d. ; in order to diminish the
expense as much as possible, the canal was contracted in width in two points,
where the local impediments were considerable. The transverse dimensions
of the canal are, 19 ft. G in. at the bottom, 36 ft. at the surface of the water,
and 42 ft. at the top bank — giving a slope of 3 to 2 at the sides of the chan-
nel. The depth of water is 5 ft. 6 in. in all the reaches, except the summit
level, which is capable of containing 7 feet of water. The course of this
portion of the line lay along the bottom of a steep ravine in a Umestone rock,
parallel with the channel of a mill-race adjacent to the river Blackwater.
The mill-race was, therefore, diverted into the river between the first and
fifth locks of the canal. Between the third and fifth locks the bed of the
canal was formed by benching in the rock on one side, and embanking on
the other with the materials so obtained. Beyond this it was cut for a dis-
tance of nearly 350 yards through the limestone ; in one place to a depth of
41 feet. The sides and bed were there lined with puddle, and protected by
a facing of rubble wall. Thence, to the seventh lock, the channel was again
formed by benching and embanking through a clay soil, where much caution
was necessarily exercised in preventing sUps at the foot of the embankment,
which was sidiject to inundations from the Blackwater. The masonry was
all constructed of limestone from an adjacent quarry. Two appendices are
subjoined to this paper. The first of these gives in detail the items of ex-
penditure for the portion of the canal described ; the second contains a par-
ticular description of the locks and lock-gates, the bridges, and the earth-
work. The locks are 73 ft. long, 12 ft. wide, and vary in rise from 6 to 11
feet. They are all constructed in ashlar masonry, — The paper is accom-

a*

126

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

panicd by three drawings, descriptive of the general plan and the details of
these works, which were criginaUy designed liy Mr. Telford, and are now
under the direction of Mr. Cubitt. Tliey have been executed almost entirely
under the superintendence of the author.

'* An account of the Pennanent U'ay of the Birmingham and Gloucester
Sailway." By G.' B. W. Jackson, Grad.'lnst. C. E.

The object of this railway is to afford a direct communication between the
western and tlie midland counties of England. The communication describes
the course of the line until it reaches Cheltenham, where it joins that which
was formerly called the Great Mestcjn and Cheltenham Railway, which ter-
minates at Gloucester. Its length is .'it miles. The prcvaUing inclination is
1 in 300 ; but on the " Lickey " incline, near Bromsgrove, the rise is 1 in 37
for a distance of 2 ^ miles, in aseendinu: which the trains are worked by Ame-
rican locomotives, in addition to the usual train engines. The northern por-
tion of the railway appears to lie on the new red sandstone ; then passes to
the oolitic formation, on which it terminates. In the former, the principal
cuttings are through marl, some of which is exceedingly indurated, and
troublesome to work. The principal strata of the latter system are bhie and
yellow clays. Xear Cheltenham, the shifting sand frequently necessitated
the use of sheet-piling in passing through it. The w.iters of Droitwich and
Cheltenham were found to possess a saline quality, wliich rendered them
unlit for the use of the engines. That from the surface sand near Cheltenham,
however, is exceedingly good.

The building materials employed on this line were — the sandstones of the
Lickey and Forest of Dean, the lias of Norton and M'adborough, and the
oolites of Cheltenham and Bredon, together with brick, for whicli earth was
readily produced throughout. The cuttings and embankments, with the
dctaUs of the permanent way, are severally described. The surface width is
30 feet. In the formation of embankments and cuttings, the usual methods
appear to have been adopted. In the former, the ratios of the slopes vary
hetween 3 and 2J to 1 ; in the latter, between 2 and H to 1. In cuttings,
there is a system of drainage bencith the ballast, consisting of lo]igitudinal
drains on either side of the line, connected by cross spits, all of which are
filled up with broken stones. The rails are supported by chairs and inter-
mediate saddles, which rest on longitudinal balks ; and these are bolted to
transverse tics. On embankments whose height exceeds live feet, the cross
spits, longitudinal balks, and saddles, are all dispensed with. Tlie length of
the bearings, tiie weight, dimensions, &c., of the iron and wood work, with
the manner of jnitting together the whole, are then noticed. The timber
employed was, American pine, and English beech, or larch. The various
prices are enumerated of the materials and labour for the permanent way, of
■which the average cobt per mile amouuted to 5,430/. The present condition
of the line is stated to be good, and its general working to have been perfectly
satisfactory, since its opening in June, 1S40.

Subjoined is a description of an artificial ballast obtained by burning clay,
which was employed wlien the country did not afford natural ballast. Its
expense slightly exceeds that of tlie ordinary ballast; blue clay burnt in
kilns was found to answer the purpose best, but it does not appear to form a
successful substitute for gravel. The results of experiment show it to form
a very imperfect drain. The author states that he has always observed the
quality of this ballast to suffer in proportion with the quantity of lime con-
tained in it composition.- — The paper is accompanied by four drawings, illus-
trating the construction of the permanent way.

*' Description of a Water-pressure Engine at lllsang in Bavaria.'' By
William Lewis Baker, Grad. Inst. C. E.

The machine described in this paper is the most perfect among nine
engines constructed by M. de Reichenbacli, for the saltworks at lllsang, in
Bavaria. Tliese important works are situated in the most southern part of
the kingdom ; they are supplied from a mine in the valley of Berchtesgaeten,
and the salt springs at Ueichenhalle. The salt was procured from the
former in two slates, — that of rock salt, which was extracted by blasting,
and that of brine. The rock salt was conveyed to Ueiclienhall, and there
underwent the purifying process. But both these methods were attended
with disadvantages from the scarcity of fuel ; the old method was therefore
abolished, and a line of pipes of seven inches diameter was substituted ; it
was laid between the two places, and extends about CO miles in length. A
series of water-pressure engines, each working a forcing pump, and being
themselves worked by a head of water, were placed in convenient situations
upon the line. The mine is now worked by forming cavities in tlie beds of
salt, and filling them with water, which soon becomes strongly saturated
brine ; it is then pumped up, and forced through the pipes to Iteichenhalle,
■where a portion of it is retained, and the rest is sent on to Franenstein, which
is at the extremity of the line. At these places, the process of evaporation
is carried on, and the salt is manufactured in the usual manner. — The paper
is illustrated by a drawing of the engine, showing the details of construction
alluded to in the communication.

INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Feb. 2«.— H. E. Kknd.1l, Esq. in the Chair.

TuE principal business of the evening was to decide on the merits of the
drawings and es3.ay4 submitted to the Institute for their annual prizes.

The Soane Medallion was awarded to Mr. John W. Papworth, associate,
for a restoration of Crosby Place, Bishopsgate, as it may be supposed to have
existed in the lOth century. To the medalliou, a premium of ten guineas
has, on this occasion, been annexed, by the liberality of Miss Ilackett, the
lady to whose antiquarian taste and zeal the public are mainly indebted for
the preservation of the Hall, and other remains of this beautiful monument
of the domestic architecture of the middle ages.

The medal of the Institute was awarded to an essay* — On the effects which
stiould result to Architectural Taste, from the general use of Iron i7i the Con^
struction of Buildings." In this essay, (whicli was read to the meeting,)
tlie writer argued, that a new style of architecture ought to arise from the
introduction of a new material, to the extent to which the practical appli-
cation of cast iron may be, and indeed has already been, carried; and that it
is a blot upon the inventive faculties of the age, that art has done little or
nothing with a material which has proved of such vast importance in the
hands of science. It was further argued, that nothing, probably, but preju-
dice stands in the way of the development of as mueli beauty, in a style
adapted to the extensive employment of cast iron, as in styles adapted to
marble, or any other material. To strike out new combinations and charac-
teristics, the writer did not profess ; but that they might be struck out in
strict accordance with the principles which govern beauty and taste, he in-
ferred, from the practice of the ancients, who liave left us works of art in the
most opposite extremes of proportion, and yet equally admitted to be beau-
tiful; the proportions and principles of beauty being governed by the materials
in which they are executed, in support of which proposition he cited the
candelabra, tripods, chairs, and other works of antiquity in marble and
bronze, contrasting the characters of these objects, destined for the same
purposes, and exhibiting the same general designs ; and that this principle
may be carried icito architecture, we have also the authority of the ancients,
wlio not only conceived, but systematized a style of architecture of extreme
lightness and delicacy, although we do not know that it was ever carried into
execution, except witii the brush — alluding to the .architectural frame-work
of the ancient fresco paintings. Instead of working upon such lessons as
these, the modern architect has, hitherto, used one of his most important
powers in construction only in disguise — misled by pre-eonceived ideas on
taste. In considering the characteristics of Gothic architecture, which formed
a second division of this essay, this practice was shown to be still more absurd,
since cast iron lends itself with the utmost facility to this style, especially in
its earlier periods, when it appears to have been a principle to reduce the
supports, not only apparently, but really, to a minimum, of which the Lady
Chapel, of Salisbury, offers proof. In this portion of his subject, therefore,
the writer sought to reconcile the use of cast iron with existing principles of
taste, and pointed out the peculiar modes which the architects of the middle
ages adopted in tracery when executed in metal, as evidenced by the screens
of Edward IV. and Henry VH's tondis, contrasting them with modern cast
iron window frames modelled upon precedents in stone. The conclusion
drawn was, that whenever ])rejudiee shall give way, and iron be recognized as
a legitimate resource in art, new architectonic combinations v\ill be produced;
and that in Gothic architecture especially, we shall have at our command
effects, of which our predecessors could only dream, although they made bold
efforts to realize them.

The Honorary Secretary reported, that an answer to the address of the
Institute to Prince .\lbert had been received through the hands of the Presi-
dent, Earl De Grey, and that H.R.H. had been graciously pleased to become
the Patron of the Institute.

ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

A CLOSING conversazione of the Architectural Society was held at their
apartments, in Lincoln's-inn-tields, on Tuesday evening, March 1st, on the
occasion of the juncture of that society with the Institute of British .\rtists.
The rooms were crowded with the leading architects, engineers, and artists
of London. The chair was taken by the late president of the Architectural
Society, William Tite, Esq. F.R.S., &c.

The chairman prefaced his address by a rapid glance at the state of archi-
tecture in England uji to the close of the late war, when the opening of the
continent furnished the artists with models, and gave a stimulus to their ex-
ertions of the most useful nature. The spread of information and of educa-
tion led to the demand for means of co-operation and combination which the
Royal Academy did not furnish, and in consequence, about twelve years ago,
the two societies, in connection with architecture, arose. The Architectural
Society was first in point of time, but the Institute obtained a charter, and
thereby the means of conferring the honorary distinctions of fellow and asso-
ciate. The plan of the two societies was at first very different, but they
had gradually assimilated : and in consequence of a general fcehng that a
junction was desirable, Mr. Tite was (with the sanction of his Royal Highness
the Duke of Sussex, the patron of the Architectural Society) authorised to
communicate with Earl de Grey, the president of the Institute on the sub-
ject. His Excellency forwarded tlie suggestion by every means in his
power, and after the necessary meetings of the two bodies, the junction was
effected early in the last month, the members of the two societies being then

* The essay is anonymous, and no claimant has come forward to receive
the medal.

J842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

127

■united, and the library, casts, and prints will be immediately removed to the
rooms of the Institute in Grosvenor-strect. Mr. Tite concluded this part of
his address by a -n-ell-deserved compliment to his Rojal Highness the Duke
of Sussex for his kind and effective patronage of the society.

The official part of the president's address having been concluded, he pro-
ceeded, in completion of a series of four papers upon the antiquities of
Egypt, three of -nhich he had read at previous conversaziones, to give an ac-
count of the labours of Colonel Vyse and Mr. Perring in opening and examin-
ing all the pyramids of Middle Egypt, thirty-nine in number, from Abon
Roach, just north of Cairo, to Illalion, about fifty miles south of that
city. All the pyramids of Gizeh Sakkara, and the other interesting sites
were explained and elucidated in a most able manner, witli the assistance of
an exhibition of a large series of the prints and drawings themselves ; and
every point of interest to the engineer, the architect, and the arcbffiologist
was traced out in its turn. The original dimensions of the great pyramid
near Gizeh are so vast as to be almost incredible. This pyramid was stated to
have been originally 764 square feet at the base, and 480 feet of perpendicular
height, covering 13 acres, 1 rood, 22 perches of ground ; it consumed
89,028,000 cubic feet of stone, and Mr. Tite stated that it could not now be
built for less than 30 millions sterling. The joints of the large casing blocks
of granite were so fine as to be scarcely perceptible, not thicker than paper,
and the mortar was so adhesive that the stones in some cases broke tlirougli
their substance rather than give way at the jointing. AH the pyramids, with
one'exception, are due north and soutl], and are all entered on the north.
They are intended as mere mausolia, and generally contained only one sarco-
phagus each, and rarely more than two. The hieroglyphical discoveries
brought to light by these labours, as explained l)y Mr. Birch, of the British
Museum, distinctly showed that the construction of the three great pi.Tamid3
must be ascribed to a period 2,000 years before Christ, and that they were
built by the three kings, Cheops, Cepbrones, and Mycerenus, to whom their
erection was attributed by Herodotus and the Greeks. The sarcophagus
which contained the body of the latter king in the third pyramid, which was
richly ornamented, and composed of one block of beautiful basalt, weighing
three tons, was removed from the pyramid, and safely placed on board a ship
at Alexiindria for the British Museum, but she was unfortunately lost near
Carthagena, on her way to England, and scarcely a fragment of the ship was
seen afterwards, and not a soul was saved to tell the calamity. We have
before had occasion to notice the learned and skilful papers of Mr. Tite, and
this, like all the preceding ones, was a model of taste and judgment in its
arrangement, and skill in its delivery.

After the lecture Mr. GroUier, the late secretary, addressed the meeting.
He stated that this evening being the last time of his appearing before them
in his official capacity of secretary to the late Architectural Society, he trusted
that he might be favoured with their kind attention, while he discharged the
pleasing task he had been deputed to perform from tlie body of gentlemen
forming the late Architectural Society — to acknowledge and express to their
President, Mr. Tite, the high sense of gratitude entertained towards him, for
the kind, able, and eflicient manner in which he had discharged, for a period
of four years, the duties required of him as President of the late .\rchitectural
Society, and as chairman of its several meetings. And as many of the gen-
tlemen present had witnessed his valuable services, and the urbanity he had
evinced when presiding at the visitors' meetings, the gentlemen constituting
the late Architectural Society had selected the present occasion as being the
most appropriate and fitting opportunity of testifying their warmest thanks to
Mr. Tite. for his constant and unwearied attention to the duties of his oflice,
which, whether on pubUc or private occasions, he has so zealously and faith-
fully discharged.

Mr. Grellier then read the following vote of thanks, that has been drawn

up: —

Architectural Society. London,

Instituted /I. D. 1831.
His Royal Highness the Duke of Sussex, E.G., &c., Patron.

The Architertitral So'^/ety of London, having been recently mcorporated with
the Royal Institute of British Architects, a meeting of the members of the Society
was held at the apartments, No.Zo, Lincoln's Inn Fields, on the 2\st. February,
1842, for the purpose of expressing the high sense entertained by them of the
services of William Tite, Esq., F.R.S., ^c- tbeir late President, when the fallow-
ing resolution was passed : —

•' That the members of the late Architerlitral Sacicti/, on behalf of that Society,
for themselves individually, and particularly on behalf of the students' class — do
express to IVilliam Tite. Esq. their acknou'ledgments and thanks for his valuable
and client services as President of the Society, and as chairman at their several
meetings, during a period of four years,

" Aho their opinion of the benefits rendered to the profession generally, by his
constant e.Tirtions to promote the knowledge of Architecture as a fine art, and of
those branches of science, which are essential to its practical application."
Signed, by order of the Meeting,

35, Lincoln's Inn Fields, William Grellier.

21s( February, 1842. tlon. Sec. to the late Architectural Society.

The secretarv-, turning to Mr. Tite, then said, " In the name of the Archi-
tectural Society, I have great pleasure in presenting you with this scroll,
stating, as you have licard read, the reason why it was presented, and I can
assure you that this form has not been selected mthout due consideration,
believing it to be the most agreeable and acceptable to you. In conclusion,
I have only to express a hope that in after years, when you may look upon
the inscription herein recorded, that while you call to mind the time that you

have spent and the labours you have bestowed on behalf of the late Architec-
tural Society, you may also remember that the gentlemen on whom you
conferred those favours were neither unmindful of or ungrateful for them."

Mr. Tite .acknowledged the compliment in a very feeling manner, and the
business of the evening closed.

There were exhibited in the rooms some beautiful drawings and paintings
by Messrs. Nixon. B. Moore, and other artists; also a very large drawing of the
stained glass now being executed for the north transept of Westminster Abbey,
by Messrs. Ward and Nixon. On tlie table of the second room was a model
of the great building now being erected at Liverpool by the corporation,
combinine under one roof the great St. George's Hall, the assize courts, a
large music hall, and various rooms and apartments for corporate purposes.
This building is in a rich style of Corinthian architecture ; it will be 500 feet
long by about 90 feet in width. The architect is Mr. Elmes, jun.

"Thus terminated the Architectural Societv.

"THE SLIP" ON THE CROYDON RAILWAY.

Sib — I observe that your Journal contains reports of ,Mr. Vignoles' lec-
tures at the London Uuiversity College; and as the learned gentleman in some
of these lectures indulges rather freely in observations upon the works of
his brother engineers, I presume that he will neither be offended nor sur-
prised to find that opinions different from his own are entertained by some,
at least, of the numerous class of readers, who, by means of their publication
in your Journal, are made acquainted with these lectures of his. To cavil
upon minute points of professional practice, would be unworthy any man
who considers tlie circumstances under which a lecturer on engineering
comes before the public. I will, therefore, pass over many expressions and
many accounts of expedients, some prospective and others retrospective, being
already executed, which appear uo doubt puerile enough to men who have
themselves dealt with the elements, and studied engineering in the capacious
school of nature, and come at once to the insinuations of the professor of and
concerning " the slip " at New Cross on the Croydon Railway.

I find that tlie learned gentleman and his class, assuming the peripatetic
style, have made expeditions in a body to the site of several works of engi-
neering in the environs of London ; and that one of these visits was paid to
the scene of this celebrated slip, and on that occasion certain remarks were
indulged in which I think in uo way added to the dignity nor to the accu-
racy of the lecture. I now quote from your report of the lecture. " The
professor then pointed out what he considered to have been the occasion of all
the mischief. Nearly all along tlie slip, the eartli had given way at the side
of a top drain, parallel with the railway, and in some places it was so appa-
rent, that the declivity looked as if made purposely ; this had invariably
occurred where there were cross drains from the neighbouring ground (which
is considerably elevated), leading into the main drain along the top of the
cutting, and which, not being puddled or made water-tight, had allowed the
water gradually, and during many months, to insinuate itself into the veins
in the clay, and had at length forced the mass out as it appeared."

Now, what is here meant ? I am at a loss to understand, from the con-
fused way in which the opinion is expressed, whether Mr. Vignoles asserted
that the longitudinal drain along the verge of the slope was not puddled, or
that this precaution was omitted in the transverse drains leading into it. If
the former of these suppositions expresses what the learned lecturer meant,
I beg to assure him, from the evidence of my own eyes, that he is decidedly
in error, because every inch of this drain was well and completely puddled ;
but if he meant that the transverse drains also ought to have been puddled,
I would merely ohserve that he is imposing an unnecessary and entirely use-
less expense upon the company. Let it be noticed, however, that I would
not for a moment think of combatting this or any other opinion of the
learned gentleman, did it not involve, in some sort, the professional reputa-
tion of the engineer who executed this work, because if it be apparent that
puddling ought here to have been resorted to, the engineer is of course to
blame for omitting it.

Now to test this opinion, let us observe what difference of effect would
the puddling of these drains have occasioned — simply that of preventing the
water from penetrating through the bottoms of the drains. But would it
have prevented water from penetrating the mass of the hill .> Would it have
cut oflf the supply of water from the porous strata where they crop out on
the higher lands above ? Clearly not. It is obvious that the surface of
vegetable mould which covers the hill must be at least as permeable to water
as the mass of clay on which the mould rests ; yet the whole surface of the

128

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Aprii,,

hill is to be left unpuddled, and the whole attention of the engineer is to be
directed to the object of making the base of the drains water-tight, not-
withstanding these drains are all cut into the solid clay.

Mr. Editor, is not this pure nonsense ? And what right has a lecturer,
advancing such childish notions himself, to convey to his pupils an impression
alike unworthy and unjust towards the engineer who executed this work.
When the cutting was originally made, everything was done that was necessary;
and as for the puddling of these drains, they miglit have been puddled for
miles in length on each side of the railway, without contributing one single
atom of benefit towards the prevention of the slips. Further on, the pro-
fessor disapproves of what is being done by way of precaution, and recom-
mends that " apertures should be driven in horizonially, and brushwood
drains introduced, or a kind of hurdle or fascines, which would act as a drain,
jind be extremely efficacious. I do sincerely hope and trust tliat the Croydon
Railway Company will never act upon this advice, because if these apertures
»re driven any distance into the hill, they will tap a much larger body of
■water than that which finds its way at present to the face of the slopes, and
as soon as the drains become at all choked up, down comes a slip much more
extensive than any that has yet happened ; while on the other hand, if the
apertures be not driven more than a few feet into the slope they will not
catch the water which occasions the mischief, and thus for all the good they
will do, might just as well have been driven so many feet into one of the
moantaius in the moon.

I am. Sir,

Your Tery obedient servant,

Justus.

REMARKS ON DR. FULTON'S LECTURE.

SrR — Having perused Dr. Fulton's lecture on the " State and Study ol
Civil Architecture," as inserted in your March number, and considering some
of the observations made by him to be incorrect, I venture to offer a few
remarks on the same, hoping that if you have any superfluous room, you will
favour thera with a place in your next number.

And, first, with regard to the origin of pointed architecture, the lecturer
asserts that it (together with the Saracenic,) was derived from the Roman,
bringing forward as evidence the fact, that at Spalatro are found slender
columns supporting circular arches with distorted human faces, introduced as
ornaments ; but at the same time he admits that the pointed arch is not found
there. Now I would observe that the pointed arch is the elementary ingre-
dient of the pointed style, and that without its presence a building cannot be
regarded as of that style, so that to detect i/s origin is, in fact, to detect the
origin of the style to which it belongs: I shall, therefore, endeavour briefly
to show that Rome was not the originator of it. It is a well-known fact
that the pointed arch made its appearance in the different countries of
Europe at very nearly one and the same time, viz. just after the termination
of the first Crusade ; and this fact manifestly points to some one locality
from whence all the nations of Europe among whom it sprung up must have
derived the idea of it. Moreover, this must have happened at the same time,
for if it had not, oi- if they had borrowed the one from the other, there would
necessarily have been specimens in our, or at all events in some, of these
countries, before the others had time to borrow it.

But if the Europeans all derived the idea of the pointed arch at one par-
ticular time, and from one particular place, it follows that thai place must
have been one of general rendezvous ; and since the time in which it appeared
was just after they had returned from the first Crusade, it is in a high degree
proliable that they obtained this idea from the East, or else from some of the
countries through which they passed on their way thither. Now there are
specimens found in the East of the pointed arch of a date anterior to the first
Crusade, so that this circumstance appears to give a degree of assurance to
the notion that the Europeans derived it from the Saracens ; but admitting
that they did not, still there is no evidence in favour of their having obtained
it from the Itomans, for I am not aware that the first Crusaders passed through
Italy at all. Moreover, if they had, seeing that there was no actual specimen
of the pointed arch to be found in those parts, they must have seen some-
thing in Roman arcliitecture which indirectly conveyed to them the idea of
it ; and in this case it is extremely difficult to conceive that they should all
happen to hit on the same train of reasoning, and thus, each for themselves,
light upon the pointed arch.

In the second place, Dr. Fulton states that the Greeks did not leave even
their Doric columns without bases, but that the steps on which they rested

formed an ample basement. I grant, indeed, that these steps did form an
ample basement to the edifice, considered as a whole, serving both to beautify
and strengthen it, but certainly not as a base to each individual column. His
reasoning, too, is fallacious, for he says, " What would the finest statue that
ever was made appear to be, with its feet sunk in the ground or cut
off?" According to this, then, we must admit that the columns represented
statues, and the stylobate their feet ; and if so, what is the result ? Why
simply this ; that the Ionic columns in the temple of Minerva Polias (for
example), which not only individually have bases, but are collectively superim-
posed upon a stylobate, represent statues having a double set of feet, one
over the other, which, to my mind, would be quite as devoid of beauty as
statues with no feet at all.

Tlie third and last point to which I shall take occasion to advert is the
lecturer's olijections against " gable-topped windows and doors," by which I
suppose windows and doors crowned with pediments. Ills words are, "Of
all the strange devices of which I have given a list, this is the most strange."
And yet I cannot find out that he has assigned any reason why they are
strange, unless indeed it is because he is " unable to discover the use of these
window tops ;" but if people ask the use of many things in architecture, we
shall only have to answer, " Its use is to adorn the building ;" and so here,
the use of these gable tops is to adorn windows and doors, and to show that
they do so in many cases, I need only refer to the lower range of windows ia
the Strand front of Somerset House, and to the one-pair windows of the
Reform Club. Besides, if these gable tops be absurd in Palladian architecture,
shall we not be obliged to condemn quite as much the beautiful pedimented
canopies over the windows and doors of many of our pointed structures, as,
for example, York cathedral; and who will say that they do not form wt
important element of beauty in those edifices ?

With the remainder of Dr. Fulton's remarks I cordially assent ; and hoping
that I have not trespassed too long on your attention or that of your readers,
I beg to subscribe myself, Sir,
Yours respectfully,

G. W. R.

MORE ON FRESCO PAINTING.

While the subject of fresco painting is in every one's mouth, and we hare
papers on the subject at the Institute, and lectures at the Royal Institution,
it may be worth while to consider the best method for commencing operations.

At a late visit to Hampton Court, on entering the staircase to the gallery
of the chapel, I was struck with the excellent opportunity there presented for
an essay in this new style of art, by which additional interest might be given
to a part of the building now but little visited, at a moderate expense, and
with great advantage to our artists. The staircase is of oak, of the time of
Queen Anne ; the plan is a square of about 25 ft., and wainscotted about 8 ft,
above the upper landing, leaving on their sides perhaps a dozen feet more of
bare plaster up to the cieling, and lighted by windows on the foOTth. Oa
these spaces, which are well calculated for this kind of decoration, the artists
likely to be engaged with the new Houses of Parliament might be employed
to try their hands. The situation is not one of such vast importance as to
render the probable slight imperfections of a first attempt very alarming ; and
by beginning in this moderate way, the danger would be avoided of a failure
in a more conspicuous siuation, which might give an excuse to the timorous
to call in the aid of the Germans, and for the enemies of innovation to aban-
don the thing altogether ; and we may certainly hope that the earliest efforts
of our artists, inexperienced as they are, would be superior to plain white-
wash. Neither would they be induced to make their essays in situations
where the paintings could not be permanent, and by that means, as far as
everything but mere practice was concerned, throw away their time and
materials to no purpose.

This locality is only mentioned as a specimen, of which hundreds might be
found elsewhere, and many in the same building ; all of which, besides per-
fecting the painters, would tend to make the style more generally known,
and thus interest the public in it from its very commencement.

In the progress of this high style of art, much will depend on the archi-
tects ; for if they oppose it, or do not recommend its introduction in their
buUdiuga, it can never be generally adopted.

J.L.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

129

I

ON INCREASING THE EVAPORATIVE EFFECT OF BOILERS.

Sir — In my communication inserted in the last Journal, I assure you I liad
no desire unnecessarily to occupy your useful columns, by " taking a range of
several months," in rcpljing to the very severe remarks of the reviewer of
my " projects." I trust, however, to your candour, in affording nie an oppor-
tunity of setting myself and my " projects" right with your readers, not as
1o the personal matter, but to the scientific and practical details of the
subject. Having disposed of the comments on my suggestions for increasing
the evaporative boilers, by means of longitudinal conductor plus, I now come
to that of the " smoke preventive plan."

The reviewer observes — " Our philosopher says that combustion" (of the
gaseous matter from the coals) " does not take place (in the furnace), inas-
much as he has doors to his ash pit, which he shuts immediately that the
furnace has received a fresh charge, and which he keeps shut until the gas is
all expelled." To this I have only to say, it is entirely a gratuitous assump-
tion. I am guilty of no such absurdity. That I recommend doors to ash.
pits, as others have done before me, is true; not, however, for the sake of
excluding the air, or producing an '• hermetically sealed boiler furnace," but
of regulating its admission, as far as is practicable, to the ash pit and bars, the
doors being furnished with suitable slides or registers ; thus, in some measure
apportioning the quantity supplied to the demand, and where, in ordinary
furnaces, no attempt at any regulating means is made. The reviewer then
goes into a lengthened refutation of this manifest absurdity, which happens
to be exclusively the work of his own fertile invention ; and which I need not
further notice.

He then observes — " -\11 smoke-burning projects operate upon the principle
cf admitting an excess of air into the furnace and flue, and this principle is
attended with two insuperable objections. First, the refrigeratory effect of
the great excess of air which it is necessary to admit to a mixture of the
gases, to accomplish the indispensable condition of combustion — proximity
of the atoms to be combined ; and second, the impracticability of apportion-
ing the admission of air to the ever-changing quantity of smoke evolved."
Now here are two important and clearly enuriciated terms ; and my reply
is, that it is expressly to correct these two evils that my plan applies, viz. the
preventing this refrigeratory effect, by rendering an " excess" of air unnecessary ;
and second, the aiding the operations of nature, by removing that very ob-
struction to the process of diffusing this " excess" of air. And here I would
just hint at a chemical error under which the reviewer labours ; inasmuch as
the "great excess of air" he speaks of, as being necessary to a " mixture of
the combustible and incombustible gases, in accomplishing the indispensable
condition of combustion — the proximity of the atoms to be combined," is a
very serious impediment, rather than a necessary aid, to that very condition.
For this well-established chemcial fact, fas my opinions are too " insane" to
merit attention,) I beg to direct the reviewer to Davy's "Researches on Flame."
And may I not here be allowed to remark, in a spirit of good humour,
that if I be that " ponderous gentleman" whose " attendants should insanify
with a few grains of common sense," other persons may possibly consider my
would-be guide as that imponderous and light-headed reviewer, whom it
would be well to ballast with a few grains of chemical knowledge, to qualify
him for steering his own bark, before he imdertakes to correct the reckon-
ings of others. But, badinage apart, this very " excess of air," which is here
laid down as " necessary," is as great an enemy to proper diffusion and per-
fect combustion, as a deficiency would be ; hut on this, it is unnecessary here
to dwell. To correct this impracticability of apportioning the admission of
air to the " ever-changing quantity of smoke evolved from an ordinary
furnace," I separate the air into two supplies, thus rendering them more
manageable, and, what is more important, less liable to interfere with and
mar each other's objects; a system, also, which has this practical value — the
causing them to he, to a great extent, mutual correctors of each other's defects.
The one supply is sent to the ash pit and bars, for the combustion of the
solid carbonaceous portion of the fuel; the other to the gaseous matter
evolved from it.

Cut I ask, why shall this want of a more correct means of regulating the
supply of air to the demand, be so peculiat'iy chargeable on my mode of
admission ; while the ordinary plan of furnaces is so lamentably and wholly
deficient on this head — nay, even absolutely prohibitive of any attempt at
regulation ? My mode, to a great extent, practically corrects the evil (as I
am now showing in my papers on this subject in the Mechanic's Magazine),
while, by the' ordinary method, the supply of air is most restricted by the
body of fresh fuel on the bars, at the very time when an increased quantity

is most required, by reason of the increased quantity of gas evolved. The
absence, then, of the means for " adjusting the quantity of influent air to the
variable condition of the fire," bears with intinitely greater force against the
old plan, so pertinaciously adhered to, and which rejects any effort towards
adjustment. Again; although this variable supply of air required has reference
to the gaseous matter evolved above the fuel, rather than to the solid matter
on the bars, yet these sticklers for a regulating valve would absolutely compel
the supply of air which is intended for such gaseous matter to pass through
such bars and body of incandescent fuel, where it necessarily loses much of
its oxygen, if not the whole; thus virtually sending the smallest quantity of
oxygen to the gases when they were most redundant. Let those, then, who
cavil for a regulating valve, first apply the argument to their own old favourite
system before they object to mine, which practically and to a great extent
meets the difficulty.

The reviewer next observes — " But the. parturient mountain lias again
brought forth a mouse. This learned philosopher, after vapouring about atoms
and gases, presents us with — what ? a veritable antique smoke-burning fur-
nace." If this be true, then we must be prepared to call the .\rgand burner
a veritable smoke-burning lamp. This sneer at " vapouring about atoms and
gases" I must say is, at least, inappropriate from that pen which had just
before truly and scientifically urged the " indispensable condition of combus-
tion— the proximity of the atoms to be combined" — the veiy point on which
the whole atomic theory, as regards the union of gases, rests its value.
Again ; I am told " the sole peculiarity" of my plan is that " the air enters
by a greater number of holes than usual." Will the reviewer inform your
readers whether this peculiarity be not the very one which characterizes the
Argand burner ? Again ; " whether, of two smoke-burning projects, the least
objectionable is that which admits the air at one hole, or that which admits
the air at many holes, it would here be irrelevant to inquire." Now, Sir, that
is the real point worth inquiring into ; and this blinking the main question at
issue will not go down with your scientific readers, unless he can first per-
suade them that there is no difference between the briUiant smokeless burners
in our shops in Regent-street, and those flaring smoking flames which the
butchers' stalls exhibit ; the sole difference being that which is here said to
be irrelevant — namely, the difference between the one large bole and the
many small holes. For, chemically, the eft'ect is the same, whether the air
be admitted in jets to the gas, or the gas in jets to the air — my mode of ad-
mission being, in the words of Professor Brande, " an experiment upon the
large and practical scale which I have often made on a small and theoretical
scale, in illustration of the inaccuracy of the common terms • condsustible,'
and ' supporter of combustion,' as ordinarily applied."

"We are informed, "says the reviewer, "that Mr. Bourne has a patent for
the same thiiig of the date 1838." I beg to say the reviewer is misinformed.
Mr. Bourne's patent is for the generation of gas from retorts placed in a fur-
nace over the incandescent fuel on the bars, and, when the gases are expelled
from these retorts, drawing the solid coke from them on to the bars below,
to keep up the body of incandescent matter. It must, therefore, be to this
invention that Dr. Lardner and Mr. Farcy's reports apply. But it matters
not; for if this identical "same thing" be so good under Mr. Bourne's name,
it cannot be so very insane under mine. On the merits of the actual invention
of Mr. Bourne, I forbear to speak ; of the actual plan of a furnace which he
afterwards adopted in the steamers on the Thames, after having rejected his
own, I have already said enough in my treatise, where I have given it in proof
of one of the erroneous modes of eft'ecting the combustion of the gaseous
products of coal : neither will I say anytliing of Mr. Bourne's anonymous
essay, now before me, out of respect to Mr. Bourne himself.

But perhaps the gravamen of the charges against my presumption in ques-
tioning the practice of our " operative engineers," may be discovered by the
concluding observation, that " engineers and boiler-makers know their business
much too well to lack information from a pack of effervescent chemists and
druggists" — meaning the first chemical authorities of the day. Professor
Brande, Dr. Ure, Dr. Kane, Professor DanicU, <ic. I beg leave to assure the
reviewer that many of the first engineers and boiler-makers have, in a manner
worthy this inquiring age, expressed tliemselves in a very different manner,
urging me to pursue the inquiry, and follow up those experiments on the
large scale which have so opened tlicir eyes to the defective system and
empirical rules, on which they have hitherto relied.

I am. Sir,

Yours, &e.

Liverpool, March 1 j. C. Vi'. Willums.

130

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

MK. WILLIAMS' BOILER PROJECTS.

Sir — The appearance in your Journal for February of a paper purporting
to be an analysis of Mr. WUiams' boiler projects, seems to call for some
explanation ou tlie part of tliosc wliose investigations on the subject may
have leail them to other conclusions than those arrived at by the ingenious
author of that essay. Just adverting to the critical acumen displayed in
deriving the authorship of a communicalioa to tlie London Mechanics'
Magazine, to which the author's name happens to be prefi.xed, or the peculiar
character of the internal evidence vvbich led the learned analyst to the unex-
pected conclusion that Mr. AV. was the writer of the paper which Mr. \Y.
read before tlie Polytechnic Society, I may perhaps be permitted to make
one or two observations before proceeding to reply to the details of the
critique.

That the first of a series of papers devoted to the development of a de-
partment of physical science, hitherto almost untrodden or giving only the
most discordant results, and uniting the deepest interest with the greatest
abstruseness, should be selected as a peg whereto to append a string of most
ludicrous corollaries, evidences the e.\istence of a spirit of such jocose and
sprightly pliilosophy, that one is a little at a loss in what strain to reply.
Perhaps the best answer would be, afl'ectionately to admonish the writer to
read a little farther, and acquire a little more thorough acquaintance with
the subject tb.an the perusal of a prefatory chapter can convey. At the
same time, I am well aware that to criticise a subject it is not necessary to
be intimately acquainted with it — nay, the very negation of acquaintance
will sometimes be found marvellously to facilitate the operation, and the
more skilful the reviewer, the less need will there be for the preliminary
drudgery of first studying the subject, so that a very able writer indeed will
Lave no difUculty in writing a very good article on a subject he knows
nothing aliout at all.

To enter minutely into the possible modes of action of the conduction
pins, whether as facilitating combustion by assisting the interchange of elec-
tricities essential to cheir.ical action, or as aiding the generation of steam, on
the sanse principle that internal asperities in an evaporating vessel facilitate
the process of vaporization, would be to write a treatise instead of (which is
our present object) to reply to an objection. Let us, then, for the present,
confine our attention to the conducting power alone of the pins whose action
has been attended by such striking effects.

We know, by the experiments of M. Delarive, that the conducting power
of some substances of a fibrous texture, suh as wood, varies exceedingly
according as conduction takes place in a direction transverse or parallel to
the fibres. We are thus prepared to expect similar results in the case of
those metallic bodies in which the fibrous arrangement is strongly marked.
It is true we do not possess accounts of experiments made to determine the
relative amount of lateral and longitudinal conducting pow er in such bodies ;
but there arc jihenomena connected with the transmission of heat through
solid bodies, which would lead to the conclusion that it follows different
laws in ditl'ei&iit though similar substances, and that general theories, founded
on the supposiiion of uniformity of action among the consecutive elements
of different bodies are not to be depended upon.

For instance, it has been found that in some cases, increasing the dimen-
sions of the conducting substance in the direction of the conduction, pro-
duces very slight retardation in the passage of the heat, a fact sufficient to
destroy all confidence in reasonings founded upon the ordinary hypothesis
of a r.-ipidily of transmission proportional to the difference of temperature
of the contiguous elementary laminic of which we may conceive the body to
be composed. We are thus prejiared — I do not say to adopt the conclusion
— but to listen to the arguments which may lead to the conclusion, that the
■power of transmitting heat depends ou something more than mere inequahty
of temperature in the consecutive elements. lu the case of an ordinary
steam boiler, we do not know the temperature of either the interior or ex-
terior surface of the plates ; all we know is, that the one cannot be hotter
than the flame, nor the other colder than the water contained, but between
these limits we know nothing; and we are slill further removed from a
knowledge of th.e laws which regulate the communication of the heat, and
the approximative equalisation of the temperature.

AVith these observations let us now consider the action of the pins, on the
supposition (certainly not a correct one) that the stratum of air in contact
with the boiler surface and the whole length of the pins, is of uniform tem-
perature. M'c in this case naturally expect that the lower extremities of the
fcssing considerable economy of fuel, should make the removal of tliese

pins will attain a higher temperature than the exterior surface of the boiler,
and we may conceive that that section of the pins which lies in the plane of
the outer surface of the boiler, may differ more or less in temperature from
that of the outer surface itself; but the rapidity of the transmission of heat
may proceed according to very different laws, and the greater difference of
temperature between the extremities of the pins, combined with the greater
facihty afforded by increase of surface, for the reception and giving out of
heat, may occasion such an increased intensity of transmissive action as to
cause a greatly increased flow of heat into the boiler, and that the evaporative
power is increased in a much higher ratio than the consideration of the ac-
tual increase of heating surface would lead us to expect, appears from expe-
riments that have been made on a large scale. So great, in fact, has been
this disproportion, that we are compelled to investigate the action of the
conduction pins, on another and more likely supposition, which, however, is
so much in accordance with the laws of nature, that it ought rather to be
adduced as an explanation than adopted as an hypothesis. Instead, there-
fore, of considering the boiler surface and the whole length of the pins to be
enveloped in an atmosphere of uniform temperature — which is almost an
extravagant supposition — we shall take into account the cooling agency of
the boiler surface on the stratum of air in contact with it. Now at the high
temperature of common furnaces, from 1000' to 2000' F., a given depression
of temperature will occasion a diminution of volume of only from i to i of
what would take place at ordinary temperatures, and a correspondingly
diminished ascensional force in the lower contiguous stratum. But this
ascending stratum will be cooled to a certain extent by crossing the other,
and the resulting temperature of the succeeding film that comes in contact
with the boiler will be lower than that of the stratum removed a little
farther from the cooling surface. Thus a refrigerating action is carried on,
and the longer the operation continues, the greater will be the uniformity of
the temperature attained throughout the mass. But when we consider the
rapidity of the current through the flues, ascertained by Dr. Ure to be not
less than 3G ft. per second, we are lead to the conclusion, that the process
of refrigeration cannot liave penetrated to a great depth before the heat-
giving atmosphere has quitted the ilues entirely, and that the lower extremi-
ties of the pins must be enveloped in an atmosphere of Iiigher temperature
than that from which the bottom of the boiler derives its heat; while in the
anterior part of the boiler, this will be still more marked, almost the whole
projecting length of the pins being exposed to a rapid current at a very high
temperature, while the partially refrigerated gases will glide along the surface
of the plates.

When we consider the temperature of the air in the smoke-box of a loco-
motive in full action, known to equal that of red hot iron, after submitting
to the operation of a refrigerating mechanism so much more complete than
that to which the products of an ordinary furnace are subjected, we can no
longer view with incredulity, or even with surprise, the results of the experi-
mental investigation that demonstrates the efficacy of the conduction pins.

We have hitherto confined our attention to the action of tlie pins in a
horizontal or nearly horizontal surface ; in the case of an inclined or vertical
surface, the preceding train of argument is still more applicable. In this
case the descending current of air, instead of tending to quit the surface to
which it has given out its heat, will glide down the sides still preserving its
contact, and giving out a diminished quantity of heat as it descends, while
the outer extremities of the pins will be exposed to the action, at a high
temperature, of a rapid current that would otherwise have been hurried along
to the chimney, without giving out any heat to the boiler at all.

With regard to what has been denominated the second part of Mr. Wil-
hams' boiler projects, perhaps I might presume to tender similar advice to
that which I gave before entering on tlie discussion of the conduction pins —
not so much that the critic should peruse Mr. Williams' treatise on com-
bustion, but that he should study the instructive and beautiful commentary
on that work which the operation of the argand furnace presents, a com-
mentary which possesses the advantage of being proof against misinterpre-
tation, being an infallible mean of convincing those who are less accustomed
to be guided by the deductions of their understanding than the impressions of
their senses. As the gist of the argument of the reviewer of the " Projects "
hinges on the definition of smoke given in a pamphlet entitled " Thoughts
on Steam Locomotion," I may be permitted to transcribe a few sentences :
" The great waste resulting from smoke, the product of imperfect combustion,
which must be estimated not merely in the proportion of the uncousumed
carbon, but also in regard to llie heat which becomes latent in its formation,
and is dissipated in the almospliere, and the many inconveniences consequent
on its formation — arc such as to render it expedient that all schemes pro-

184 1.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

131

defects llieir starting point. Smoke may therefore be regarded as a mixture
of combustible and incombustible gases, in such proportions as to prevent
the combustion of the mixture with practical economy."

Smoke is here defined (o be the product of imperfect combustion ; but
what are we to understand by the term " imperfect combustion; " there is
no such thing in nature. 'Who ever heard of imperfectly formed carbonic
acid, or of steam without a saturating equivalent of oxygen. In fact, the
term " imperfect combustion " refers to a period in the history of science
when the doctrine of chemical equivalents and the atomic constitution of
bodies was still undeveloped, and though justified by common usage, yet
language so unprecise is unsuited to philosophical definition, where precision
is the great requisite.

The product of imperfect combustion must, therefore, be understood to
mean, the products of perfect combustion, mixed up with what is not the
product of combustion at all, or, in other words, a mLxture of combustible
and incombustible gases; but how this should ever come to be regarded as
a definition of smoke — nay, as being /jar excellence, "the very definition"
by which must be tested the merits of all smoke-burning and smoke-pre-
venting schemes whatever, is likely to remain a mystery till it please the
author of " Thoughts on Steam Locomotion," to elucidate the subject in a
second edition.

That a mixture of carbonic acid gas and olefiant gas, or of coal gas with
nitrogen should produce smoke, even though " when taken they be well
shaken," is a discovery, which I apprehend may look for its establishment to
a period in the prospective history of science, nearly as remote as that to
which we are referred in the retrospective, by the terra imperfect com-
bustion. And such it seems are the opinions on the constitution of smoke,
to which it is alleged Mr. Williams was indebted for the views he has deve-
loped in his treatise on the combustion of coal. Let us now attend to the
process of its formation, as explained in that treatise. We shall find it to be
carbon precipitated from the state of gaseous combination or solution in
which it had been held by hydrogen or other gases, forming, it may be,
cyanogen or carbonic oxide, but principally the ordinary hydrocarbons. The
decomposition of either of the former, or the partial combustion of the latter,
may occasion smoke.

We shall, for the present, confine our attention to the hydrocarbons ; and
in the first place, smoke may be produced, if to the gas at a high temperature
be presented a certain quantity of oxygen, but not sufficient to saturate both
the elements composing the hydrocarbon. In this case the hydrogen, in
virtue of its superior afBuity, will combine with its equivalent of oxygen
while the carbon will be precipitated, and when cooled below the teuipera-
ture of ignition, will assume the form of smoke. Secondly, the reduction of
the temperature below that which is required for chemical action, after com-
bustion has commenced, is the other principal cause of the formation of
smoke. In this case the decomposition of the hydrocarbon will go on, if
there be any uncombined oxygen present, steam will be formed, while the
carbon being cooled down below the temperature required for combustion,
wrill speedily assume the form of smoke.

The cooling effect of a body of cokl air suddenly admitted into a furnace,
must be famihar to all who have studied the phenomena of combustion ;
smoke is produced immediately in consequence of the condensation and
deposition of the aerial carbon previously held in solution by the hydrogen.

Let us now consider the arguments by which it is intended to be proved
that Mr. Williams' furnace is in reality a smoke-burning and not a smoke-
preventing. The substance of the argument is this ; in Mr. Williams' fur-
nace carbonic acid is first of all formed, and comes over mingled with the
carburetted hydrogen produced by the destructive distillation of the coal.
Here, then, is the product of imperfect combustion, a true mixture of com-
bustible and incombustible gases, but this is smoke according to the very
definition. When, therefore, we effect the combustion of the hydrocarbon
in this impure state (or rather in this disreputable company), it seems that
we do not burn gas but smoke. In short, the unlucky hydrocarljon is dis-
franchised at least, if not decomposed, by its unfortunate proximity to the
product of combustion, with which it is more or less contaminated, becomes
no longer entitled to the privilege of a combustible gas, but must prolong or
terminate its existence as it may, under the ignominious character of smoke.
A moment's attention to the actual constitution of smoke as explained above,
is snffioient to show the absolute fallacy of the above conclusion. And when
we consider that neither of the circumstances which concur iu the formation
of smoke have place in tlie argand furnace, viz. either deficiency of oxygen or
an injurious reduction of temperature, we shall have no hesitation in according
to Mr. Williams the merit of having produced a smoke-preventing furnace.

To enter further into an elucidation of the principles on which is founded
the peculiarly happy and successful practice of Mr. M'illiams, would at this
time of day be quite superfluous ; the public are already in possession of full
information upon the subject, and anrthing that could be stated here would
be only a repetition of what has been better said elsewhere.

Sir, I am,

Your's, &c.
A. S.

" MR. CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, AND HIS BOILER PROJECTS."

JIr. Editor — The perusal of the article under this head in your last
number, has induced me to trouble you with a few remarks upon the subject
of combustion.

It has frequently been a matter of surprise to me, that so much has been
written upon this important subject, with so little practical result. It is true
we continually hear of experiments, by which some new smoke-consuming
theory has been established beyond all question; but unfortunately, no
sooner is this new light brought to the test of every-day experience in the
stoke-hole, but it is found that, for want of the required degice of combi-
nation of either the oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, or carbon, that Iji-carburetted
hydrogen is generated, and from the absence of sufficient radiation of heat
from the brick-work of the furnace, this dense olefiant gas is not decomposed,
ergo is not consumed, and consequently it escapes up the chimney, to publish
to the world the failure of the experiment. It is vain to attempt any expla
nation of the cause which has produced this effect, to the astonished stoker ;
all you get from him is a look expressive of unutterable things.

I can speak feelingly upon this subject, having some little time since had
an excellent opportunity of testing the jiractical value of some of the most
plausible propositions for economising fuel, .\bout three years since, I was
engaged by a Patent Salt Company to give designs for, and to superintend
the construction of several of their furnaces, with a view to greater economy
in the fuel department, the vital importance of which will be better under-
stood, when I inform you that their annual consumption of coals averages
25,000 tons. It will not be necessary to go into a detailed account of the
efTect of my alterations of the furnaces in question, but simply to confine the
following remarks to the general result of the various experiments. I was
naturally anxious to avail myself of the assistance of every modern panacea,
which had a sufHcient degree of plausibility attached to it ; and consequently
jets of steam discharged upon the burning fuel ; cold air admitted in various
quantities, in different directions, through apertures of all sorts and figures ;
single fire doors, double fire doors, and no fire doors at all ; register doors to
the ash pit ; bridges of divers heights and arrangement ; throats of all capa-
cities ; dampers in various positions, &c. (but I did not sjjiie my boilers,)
were severally and fairly tried under my own superintendence, for months ;
and the result of all these experiments was my settled conviction, that how-
ever well adapted these modes of combining some gases and decomposing
others may be to the lecture-room or laboratory, that in every-day practice
they are to a great extent useless, and that the chief desideratum has been
lost sight of. This I take to be a regular and constant sujiply of fuel, thinly
scattered over the surface of the fire, without the necessity of the frequent
opening of the fire door.

Several attempts have been made to effect this desirable object, but none
that I know of are as efficient as I think they may be made. I am at
present too much engaged in another department to devote my time to this
subject, but 1 think it would repay some of your readers to do so.

I am, Sir,
Si. John's, Worcester, Yours obediently,

Feb. 9, 1842. E. Leader Williams.

[The observations we purpose to ofter in answer to the preceding com-
munications we shall reserve for our next number. A portion of the letter
of Mr. E. Leader Williams, as being irrelevant, we have omitted. AVe have
also been obliged to omit a communication from Mr. Smith of Manchester,
in support of Mr. Williams' views, but as the points urged by Mr. Siuitli are
still more fully developed in the communication of A.S., Mr. Williams' cause
can suffer nothing from this omission. .\s journalists we may sometimes be
compelled to be severe, but wc trust to be always impartial. — Editor.]

132

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

April,

ON THE GORGON EXGIN'E.

Sir — I bad expected to find in your Febnian number some answer to tbe
observations of " Vulcan" inserted in the preceding one ; but, as none has
appeared, I am induced to trouble you with a few remarks, in reference to
the misrepresentations and fallacies contained in the letter alluded to.

The writer professes to found his criticisms upon statements contained,
as he pretends, in a certain " pamphlet published by Messrs. Seaward and
Co." Had this pamphlet been really published and publicly circulated, it
would only have been necessary to refer your readers to it, in order to enable
them, if they exercised common candour and common sense, to detect at
once the errors (to use the mildest form of expression,) which " Vulcan" has
thought proper to propagate ; but unfortunately this pamphlet was printed
only for private circidation, and I do not think a copy of it can be found at
the British Museum or in any of the public collections, except that of the
Institute of Civil Engineers.* " Vulcan" appears to have taken advantage
of this circumstance to circulate and to attribute to the authors of the pam-
phlet statements which he must know, if he has read the work at all, it does
not contain ; and it is principally on this account that some expose of his
misrepresentations becomes the more necessary. I will endeavour to supply
this, taking his different statements seriatim for the purpose.

He tirst attempts to show that no merit is due to Messrs. Seaward for the
introduction of the engine of the description erected in the Gorgon ; and in
order to give colour to the detraction, it is pretended that the manufacturers
have laid claim to the direct application of the power as a new arrangement
of their own. This is, indeed, not expressly stated, but it is obviously meant
to be inferred, or why enumerate engines " identical with the Gorgon so far
as the direct application of the power ffoes ^ On referring, however, to the
pamphlet itself, we find the following passages — " These engines are con-
structed on the principle of w/iat is called the direct action ;" and again, " It
should be observed, that many engines have been constnicted, prerious to
the Gorgon engines, upon the principle of the direct action, bnt the arrange-
ments of all those engines have been widely different." These expressly
repudiate the claim to the introduction of the " direct action," per se, as an
invention of the manufacturers ; but it is well known that tbe arrangements
of the minutifc of an inveution often contribute as much towards its success
as the principle on which it is founded ; Messrs. Seaward, therefore, may be
very well content to confine their claim to the merit of having, by new
arrangements, rendered a principle efficient and applicable, which was never
before so complete on a large scale.

For, what are the facts - Marine engines have undoubtedly been con-
structed vnth direct action, prior to the date of the Gorgon's, but with what
success ? The " Tourist" engines (with the arrangements of the fijred
cylinders, " very Hie" Mr. Penn's oscillatiny ones,) never worked well, were
removed from the vessel upwards of seven years ago, and common beam
engines substituted ; while those of the " United Kingdom," notwithstanding
their " considerable improvements," and the assurance the WTiter feels of
their " advantage over the Gorgon's," were, according to the best information
I can obtain, in actual work only about four years, and are now taken out,
the '• splendid ship" itself being converted into a coal deput. At the time of
the erection of the Gorgon engine there were no direct action engines of any
importance In use : all the makers were constructing tliem upon the beam
principle : but since that event what has been the result .- I am informed
that Messrs. Seaward alone have fitted eleven large vessels with these li-
belled engines, amounting together to about 3000 horses power, with the
most perfect success ; and many other firms, among whom may be men-
tioned Maudslays and Field, Boulton and M"att,t Miller and Kavenhill,
Robert Napier, and Fairbairn & Co., are at the present time constructing en-
gines with direct action. All, therefore, that "Vulcan's" instances provei
is, that Jlessrs. Seaward are the first who have succeeded in doing what
Messrs. Gutzmer, Napier, and all who went before them, were unable to
aecomjiHsli, namely, to make the direct action principle successful in prac-
tice, and to show that it is capable of realizing the advantages which have
indeed heretofore been sought from it, but sought in vain.

Before noticing the remarks upon the intrinsic merits of the Gorgon
engine, I will take the liberty of quoting the passage from Mr. Seaward's

'^ Nearly the «hii!e of the pamphlet was published in tbe Jonmal for Nov.
1840, p. Sf.j, Vol. Ill, and for Feb. 1841, p. 59. Vol. IV.-Kditor.
t See engraving of the Virago engines ia the Tebruary No. of the Journal

pamphlet, in which the advantages are enumerated that this form has. as it
is considered, over the beam engine. It runs as follows : —

" The advantages of the present system arc verj- considerable, and consist
of:—

" 1st. A great saving of space. — .\ pair of Gorgon engines do not occupy
much more than one-half the space required for a pair of beam engines of the
usual construction.

" 2nd. A great saving of weight. — The weight of a pair of Gorgon engines
is 25 per cent, less than that of a pair of beam engines.

" 3rd. Greater exemption from accident. — The simplicity of the arrange-
ments, and the reduced number of moving parts, necessarily lessen the chance
of accident, as also the wear and tear.

" 4th. Greater security for the engine-men who work the engine. — There
being no side levers or beams in movement, the men can move round the
engines in every part with perfect safety ; but they cannot do so with beam
engines, without much danger.

" 5th. The tremor and vibration usually experienced in ateam tesseh are
almost entirely prevented. — The chief cause of the tremor and vibration
observable in steam vessels, is the pumping action of the beams or side levers,
which causes a great strain and effort throughout the whole vessel; but there
is nothing of this in the Gorgon engines.

" 6th. A more efficient and economical application of the motive powpr, —
resulting from the absence of a large mass of moving matter, and of many
joints and bearings, the latter of which especially, is in ordinary engines the
cause of much loss of power.''

I will leave your readers to compare this with " Vulcan's" paragraph,
beginning " In a pamphlet," Sec, and they will see how t'ue writer has
adhered to the text in his pretended quotations. It will be desirable to
correct such of his statements as may have a tendency to mislead those who
have not an opportunity of inquiring for themselves.

First, then, " Vulcan" denies that the Gorgon engines take up less space
than the common ones, and has given your engraver the trouble of copying
a " sketch" of the framing of some hypothetical and imaginary beam engine
of his own, under the drawing of the Gorgon, for the purpose of substan-
tiating his charge. I cannot deny to " Vulcan" the right of " sketching"
beam engines in any manner and with any proportions or •' architecture " he
may think fit ; but I will beg such of your readers as may take an interest
in such matters to refer for comparison, 7tof to " Vulcan's" " sketch," but
to authenticated drawings of beam engines in actual existence, or to the en-
gines themselves.

The following table exhibits a comparison of the length occupied by three
of the engines upon the direct principle, with three others upon tlie old con-
struction, the saving in length being in that part of the ship which is most
valuable for stowage of cargo.

Name of
Vessel.

Description
I of Engine.

Makers of Engines.

Horse
Power.

Length of
Eneine room.

Gorgon

direct

Seaward

1 320

62

Driver

„

280

52

Hvdra

beam

Boulton & Watt

220

62

Medea

„

Maudslavs & Field

220

60

Vivid

i»

Seaward

, 220

58

Devastation

direct

Slaudslays & Field

400

54

The saving in iridth is so self-evident as scarcely to need remark, from tbe
entire absence of all machinery outside the cylinder. It is this saving which
enables vessels fitted with direct action engines to stow such large quantities
of fuel on each side of the engine room.

Then as to the saving in weight, we have " Vulcan's" dictum that 005 tons
per horse power is an " ample allowance for beam engines of tbe size of the
Gorgon." This is very easy to assert, but not quite so easy to prove ; I would
ask him to particularize some engines which are of tliis weight, giving the
makers" names, the diameter of the cylinders, Sec, by which we may see that
the comparison is fair, and that the horse power is calculated by the same
rule as the Gorgon's. It is strongly to be suspected that '• Vulcan" must
make use of a higher estimate of the mean pressure upon the piston than the
Thames engineers, as tbe Scotch frequently do in calculating the power of
their engines ; and if this be so. it is easy to perceive that he may call a cer-
tain engine 350 horse power, which in our nomenclature would be only 300,

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

1.3.3

and his 0-93 ton per horse power would then amount pretty nearly to what
is known to be the actual weight of beam engines afloat, namely, about 1
ton.

As a inoof that this weight is not over-rated, I cannot do better than
again tabulate some known engines of the best makers, giving their weights
as compared with the Gorgon.

Name of
Vessel.

Gorgou

Hecia

Stromboli

Monarch

Medea

Makers of Engines.

Seaward
Scott & Sinclair
R. Napier & Co.
Boulton & Watt
Maudslav

Horse

i Total

Tons per

Power.

Weight.

Horse Power.

Tons.

320

230

o-ss

280

1 340

1-22

280

340

1-22

220

2ro

1-24

220

: 210

11

These weights include water in the boilers, spare gear, and coal boxes
complete.

A word perhaps may be added upon another of Vulcan's " astounding
facts," which he parades with mucli pomp and circumstance, namely, the
incorrectness of the weight given by Messrs. Seaward to the .\drairalty.*
The estimated weight of the Gorgon engine (for the engine i/self is all we
have at present to do with, no alteration being proposed in the other portions
of the whole weight,) was 121 tons : the aciua/ weight, when manufactured,
was found to be, adopting "Vulcan's" own statement, 123 tons, 3 cwt. 1
That is, the ac/ual weight was 2 tons, 3 cwt. greater than the estimate ; an
estimate, be it remembered, formed entirely by calculation, before a single
part of the engine was put in hand, and while no other engine of the kind
was in existence from whicli to obtain data. And this is the flagrant error,
or something worse, with which Jlessrs. Seaward are charged, from which
" your readers are desired to form their own conclusions," &c., and which
" calls so loudly for explanation '."

The following facts, with which I have been furnished by a friend on whom
I can rely, are I think, pretty conclusive as to the saving both of weight and
space.

The Gorgon steam frigate of 1050 tons was built in 1837, and was origi-
nally intended to receive beam engines of 220 horse power, the bulk heads
being placed 62 feet apart, the ordinarj- distance allowed for engines of that
size. The estimated weight of these engines was given as 2 70 tons, including
the coal boxes and the water in the boilers ; and space was proposed to be
allotted for 300 tons of coal.

This same vessel is now, without any alteration of her engine-room, fitted
with engines upon the direct action principle, of 320 horse power, weighing
less than 300 tons, and has provision for 420 tons of coal in store. Why the
change was made, I do not know ; but I believe the beam engines originally
intended for the Gorgon are now in the Hydra, a smaller vessel but an
excellent sailer.

Again, I may instance two vessels in the navy, now afloat. The Stromboli,
with beam engines of 280 horse power, has an engine-room of oS feet in
length, and carries only seven days' supply of fuel in the engine-room, draw-
ing, with her stores on board, 14 feet of water. The Driver, a sister vessel,
built from the same lines, has clirecl engines, also of 280 horse power, in an
engine-room of only 52 feet long, in which she carries 14 days' fuel, and the
same quantity of stores, at the same draught of water.

The second division of your correspondent's critique is upon th ! fric/ion
of the engine. Your readers mil observe, however, that there is no mention
of any material advantage from lessened friction, in the quotation I have
introduced from the Gorgon pamphlet, and I can add that m such pretemion
is made throughout the whole of the work ; the object for which this subject
is introduced there, being only to defend the engine from the char-es brought
agamst it by those who asserted that the loss bv friction was\-»«/eW(./'y
inc-eased by the use of the shortened connecting rod. "Vulcan" misht,
therefore, have spared himself pen and ink on this head, and had he con-
tented himself with merely insisting that no very- material gain arose from

As a proof that errors m computing the weights of engines may easily

u^r!',„ f**" o'"?,"''V °V •'''"," ,"' ^V^ engines, of 280 horse po«er eacli.

ere made m Scotland «iih,n the ast throe years, for the Governmen! ; each

pa r He shed about 60 tons more than the ttdght given by the makers to Ihe

this cause, his remarks might have passed unnoticed ; hut he has not been
satisfied with simply chasing away the phantom he himself had conjured up ;
he has gone further, and, presuming I suppose upon his newly-acquired valour,
he has levelled a heavy charge against the Gorgon engine, viz. that " the
enormous friction caused by the short connecting rod is so great as to equal
J of the power of the engine passing through them." This renders a few
words to him necessary.

He has thought proper to pay us, the readers of your valuable periodical,
a ver>- had compliment, by telling us that we cannot understand an investiga-
tion of the subject, wherefore he " avoids all scientific observation as to the
laws of friction," &c. ; but I am sure that you, Mr. Editor, will join with me
in removing the screen behind which he would thus shield himself from the
liability of being caUed upon to prove his daring assertions. He must, or
ought to know, that the majority of your readers are not " casual" but "pro-
fessional" readers, who are perhaps as well skilled in investigation as "Vulcan"
himself, and who are not accustomed to take statements for granted, because
the person making them " fears his inability to make himself fuUv understood
by casual readers." The case is simply stated ; we have the force transferred
from the piston rod to the crank pin by two different arrangements of ma-
chinerj-, tlie transfer in each case being attended with some loss, from the
friction caused isy the strain or pressure upon the gudgeons. The question
is, then, what proportion does this loss bear, celcrh paribus, in the case of
the Gorgon to that in the other or beam engine ? This is perfectly ascer-
tainable by mathematical analysis, and, in fact, in no other way, from' the all
but impossibility of having in practice other things alike in the two cases,
which they must be, or extraneous causes will so affect the results as to render
them perfectly inconclusive for the object in question. I will, therefore,
with your permission, Mr. Editor, call upon " Vulcan" to show what ground
he has for bis assertion, by giving an investigation of this friction case; or if
his " inability to make himself understood" arises from his ignorance of
mathematics, he must get those by whom " he was assured" of the truth of
his fact to help him out of his difficulty. If " Vulcan" does not furnish you
with this statement, I will.

The third matter animadverted upon by " Vulcan" is wljat he calls Messrs.
Seaward's slatemeni, "that the consumption of fuel does not exceed GJlb.
per nominal horse power per hour." Now this statement is an entire and
gratuitous fabrication. " Vulcan" must surely have been thinking of his
ancient occupation in " Etna's fiery glow," and must have forged it for the
occasion ; for there is not a syllable about the Gorgon's consumption of fuel
in the whole pamphlet, nor is the subject even alluded to throughout the
work, except in one passage, page 24, where the saving of fuel is mentioned
as one of the " great and paramount objects to be aimed at in the construc-
tion of steam engines for navigation." It is, indeed, added that "this system
of engines is far superior in all the quahties above enumerated," biit the
saving of fuel named in the first paragraph seems to have been included in
the other more by accident than design, for it is not even hinted at in aav
other portion of the work. Indeed, to have claimed for the direct system
any material advantage over the common one on this score, would have been
a downright absurdity ; for what connection can a different arrangement of
the rods and levers have with the consumption of fuel, except as regards the
insignificant amount in which the difference of friction would affect it ? and
who, in their senses, would pretend that such was the fact ? That the Gor-
gon engines do work with a much smaller proportionate consumption of fuel
than many others, I can very readily believe ; but whatever gain there is in this
respect must be, of course, owing to improvements in the construction, which
are independent of the direct action principle, and which Messrs. Seaward
could just as well apply to beam engines as to the Gorgon's.

The introduction of the fuel question is, therefore, irrelevant, and only
shows that "Vulcan" either can never have seen the pamphlet be pretends
to re\iew, or must be fixed in a much more discreditable alternative, which
your readers will easily supply.

The remainder of " Vulcan's" paper consists of a series of statements
which only show the limited information he bad obtained upon the subjects
he professed to treat of, and which will be sufficiently answered by noting
down the following facts.

The speed of the Gorgon's engines, with 420 tons of coal on board and
provisions for six months, is 19 strokes per minute; with 200 tons of coal,
21 strokes.

When the " Styx" was tried in the river, " with my lords and a large parly
on hoard," she had 260 Ions of coal in the boxes, and 30 tons of water in
the tanks, and the speed of her engines was 20 strokes per minute. " Vnlcaa"
should, therefore, have placed less " confidence" in the information which led

134

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

him to assert that she had only " coal enough for the trip, and no stores,
and made 1 7 strokes per minute."*

It happens also, unfortunately for " Vulcan's" veracity, that the engines on
the Gorgon principle liave an arrangement to equalize their action, and
balance the effect of the weight of the piston and its appendages ; and that
this moreover is not done by the means of weights upon the paddle -wheels.

Those parts of the letter which treat of the " miserable inefficiency" of the
" Government folks," who are stated to be so " far behind private knowledge
and enterprise," and much of the same description, are worthy of a virulent
scribe in an opposition newspaper : but as I should be very sorn- to see your
magazine made an arena for political discussion, " Vulcan" is very welcome,
for me, to continue his tirade against the Government at his pleasure. He
cannot deny that the .\dmiralty have given a decided preference to the direct
form of engine, or he would doubtless be glad enough to do so ; if he chooses
to go upon another tack, and ascribe this line of conduct to their ignorance
or their unjust partiality, it is of course with " my lords" that he has cause
of quarrel, and not with the Gorgon engine.f

The " prophecy" with which the paper concludes will be upon record, and
to it " Vulcan" may refer, in proof of his own sagacity and foresight, when
he finds the Gorgon engines removed for inefficiency ; but at present, while
some of the vessels thus fitted are amongst the fastest sailers of their class,
and while their superior adaptation for war purposes is proved by their
services in actual engagement, (to which "Vulcan" bears such reluctant
testimony,) we may safely conclude that the day of "Vulcan's" glorification
as a true prophet will be yet far, far distant.

I am, Sir,

Bloomsbury, Yours obediently,

Fei., 1842. AVilliam Pole.

MR. JOSIAH PARKES AND THE COUNT DE P.4MB0UR.

SiK — In a letter inserted in your number for last October, Mr. Josiah
P arkes has brought forward two grave charges against M. de Parabour : first, of
" gross and lamentable ignorance of practical matters," founded upon a
passage from this author's "New Theory of the Steam Engine;" secondly,
of having misrepresented and falsified certain of Mr. Parkes's opinions and
writings. The latter of these charges the Count has already sufiiciently
defended himself from, but the former he has left unnoticed, doubtless under
the supposition that its groundlessness and absurdity must be so self-evident,
as to render a formal refutation unnecessary. This may perhaps be the case,
as far as those are concerned who are well acquainted with the subject on
which the charge is founded ; but it is probable there are many who, for want
of information, may be inclined to construe the silence of Count de Pambour
into an inability to deny the truth of the allegation, and I think it but com-
mon fairness that such should be shown the true state of the case. I should
blush for Enghsh engineers, if there could not be found among us some
liberal enough to defend from such ungenerous attacks as these, a dis-
tinguished foreigner who has, on connecting himself more immediately with
our country, laudably devoted his time and talents to the advancement of
our scientific knowledge.

M. de Pambour's passage is as follows: — "Under this circumstance (the
use of the cataract,) the engine does not evaporate the full quantity of water
that its boiler would otherwise be capable of evaporating per minute." Mr.
Parkes cites this to show the " gross ignorance" it displays, adding that
" neither the Cornish, nor any other engineers ever, probably, imagined the
cataract to exercise an influence over the production of steam in the boilers
of their engines.

' Now the following facts cannot, I am sure, be denied by any one at all
acquainted with the working of Cornish engines.

Isf. The use of the cataract determines the number of strokes to be made
by the engine in any given time.

2nd. No steam being ever allowed, in Cornwall, to blow away at the
safety valve, the quantity produced is necessarily only what is used.

3rd. The quantity used depends (ceteris paribusj upon the number of
strokes made by the engine in a given time.

'■ See Journal for June ast, p. 210, Vol. IV.

r Since writing the above, il has come to my knowledge that an order for
eight pairs of engines, upon the direrf action principle, of 400 (o 500 horse
power each, has been decided upon by the " Government folks," and this
with ■' Vulcan's" paper before their eyes!

4th. From which it must follow, if there be any meaning in words, that
" the use of the cataract" does " exercise an influence over" the quantity of
steam used, and consequently over "the production of steam in the boilers."

And of course when the cataract is so arranged as to cause the engine to
make less than its maximum number of strokes per minute, (which is
generally the actual state of things,) it must be evident that " under this
circumstance the engine does not evaporate the full quantity of water that
its boiler would otherwise be capable of evaporating per minute."

Mr. Parkes either knew these facts, or he did not. If he did, he lies under
the imputation of having brought a charge against M. de Pambour which his
reasoning powers must have told him, had he exercised them at all, he could
not substantiate. If he did not, on which side does the " gross ignorance"
lie .' I can tell Mr. Parkes, that many persor.s of, perhaps, equal knowledge
and skill with himself, are ready to plead guilty to an association with M. de
Pambour in his " ignorance," if such it be.

But is Mr. Parkes liimself perfectly immaculate, touching this cat.iract ?
He says, " The cataract is used for the purpose of opening the steam indue
tion valve, and its value is appreciated as a means of effecting the influx of
steam into the cylinder in the most instantaneous manner." Again, in his
second paper on the percussive action of steam, published in the 3rd volume
of the Trans. Inst. C. E., (Note E, p. 430,) we find, " No apparatus for open-
ing steam valves with rapidity, and, therefore, for letting loose the steam
upon the piston of an engine, with the full velocity due to the difference of
the elasticities existing in the boiler and in the cylinder, has yet been applied
so effective as the cataract."

Now, as it happens, the cataract does not open the steam valve at all,
except on the " House-that-Jack-built" principle. It only removes a catch,
which lets fall a weight, which opens the valve, and effects, &c. The removal
of the catch, which is all the cataract does, might be done just as well by
the plug rod, or by band, or by a thousand other contrivances, as by the
cataract. It is the fall of the teeiglit which effects the instantaneous open-
ing ; and therefore what merit can belong to the cataract on this score, it is
not easy to see. It might as well be said to be valuable as a means of pump-
ing the water from the mine, for it is quite as much instrumental to one as
to the other.

It would have been well had Mr. Parkes removed this " beam from his
own eye," before he began to find fault with the " mote" in M. de Pambour's.

I remain, Sir,

London, Yours, with respect,

Feb. 1842. Vindicator.

ON THE FORCE OF FALLING BODIES, AND PILE-DrvIVING.

SiK— In the Journal for last month, after the description of the " American
Steam Pile-driving Machine" with which you favoured your readers, there
are some judicious remarks on " the force of the blow given by the ram

of a pile engine," and a table calculated from the formula 32^ Ay' j^^

for finding the velocity of a body falling from the height s, for the force in
tons ; the weight of the falling body being one ton. Now it appears to me,
from want of defining an unit of force, and the force in tons therein given,
this table may be mistaken for a mere weight acting by pressure without any
velocity, by persons not acquainted with the principles from which it is
derived. Would it not, therefore, be well to define the unit of force, as you
have taken it, to be the weight of the ram moving with a velocity of one foot
per second .' In page 255, Vol. II., July, 1839, concluding some remarks on
this subject, I gave an example founded on the above principles, that is,
taking the force used in driving the piles as the weight multiplied by the
velocity, and comparing this with the weight of the superstructure, supposed
also to be for the comparison a moving force.

In the Mechanics' Magazine for December 30, 1836, No. 175, a cor-
respondent, in answer to a question on pile-driving, says the force of a ram
falling from a height of 1} inches is double its weight, and a correspondent,
B, in your Journal for August, 1839, states from some experiments on a spring
balance, that one-half the weight, falling with a velocity of f foot per second,
is equal to the weight in effect j which is to say, that the whole weight
moving with a velocity of § foot per second, produces an effect equal to twice
the weight of the body. A body falling from the height 1} inches acquires,
after descending that height, a velocity of 2-6 feet per second. This would.

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

1.35

therefore give i the less effect than B's experiment ; or a velocity of 1-3 foot
per second for a force equal to the weight, B's being a velocity of 4 inches,
■when the force equals the weight. The unit of force adopted by you lies
between these. However, the truth is, little dcpendance can be placed in
any comparison of this kind from want of analogy. Cut it appears to me the
Telocity § foot per second given by B, produces an effect equal to the weight,
and not its double, in his experiments.

Much good would result from persons registering and publishing the
following d.ita, when engaged in pile drivingi Tfie piles — tunber, or other
material, of which they are composed) weight and length ; top and bottom
sections ; surface, whether rough or otherwise ; weiglit and shape of shoeing ;
head, whether furzy or strapped. Ground — the different strata passed through,
and their depths ; the depth driven at each stroke, with the weight of the
ram, and tlie height it fell from. These data would be of great benefit to
the practical man, and would furnish materials to the theorist, who, in ex-
aminations of this nature, fails most often from not taking in all the circum-
stances, or from defective data.

Sundalk, Feb. 7, 1842. Jonx Neville.

Sir — It appears that a difference of opinion exists as to the amount of
force with which a moving body strikes one at rest, as applied in the case of
pile-driving. This difference of opinion probably arises from considering the
force of imjiact as momentary ; but a force of this description is quite
imaginary, and cannot be assigned, unless we can comprehend infinity. Now
if one man can raise one ton one foot high in one second, he can raise it two
feet in two, cic. And whatever amount of force is expended in raising it
will be measured by the free descent of the same weight through the same
space, for if it were greater or less, the perpetual motion would be possible ;
therefore, on mechanical principles it must he equal. Hence a body raised to
any given height may be considered as an accumulation of force equal to
that which has been expended in raising it to that height ; and the amount
of this accumulation evidently includes two considerations — the amoimt of
force employed, and the time of its employment. Now this accumulation
being a certain definite amount of force, its expenditure will be regulated by
the same laws as that which produced it. If, then, a certain amount of force
be expended to raise a body one foot high, and this body fall through the
same space, its momentum will be equal to the force which has been expended
in raising it. Let it, after falling through this space, strike a body at rest,
and by the force of impact carry it through an equal space, the whole amount
of accumulated force being destroyed to effect this, the increments of the
generating and destroying powers may be conceived as nearly equal, but not
absolutely, for the descending body is supposed to descend through a greater
space than it had been raised through, on account of its forcing the resisting
body through some space, but as this is small and passed through slowly, it
is of no practical moment. If, then, a body fall through 10, 20, or 30 feet,
and earn- a resisting body through -j-^ of a foot, the force being destroyed to
effect this, the force of impact will be proportional ; that is, as often as -y—
of a foot is contained in 10, 20, or 30 feet, so will the weight of the descend-
ing body be to the force of impact.

That such is the law of impact is plain, for if a falling body could strike
one having a velocity equal to its own in the same direction, the force of
impact would be nothing j it would be simple contact. If the velocity of the
body struck were less than its own, the force of impact would vary in pro-
portion, and its limit is absolute fixedness without elasticity : in the first case
it is nothing, and in the last it is infinite. Tlie elasticity of all bodies is
similar to that susceptibility of matter to be moved from place to place : it
is a property of matter opposing resistance to force ; and, as it relates to this
question, it is nothing more.

Applying, then, these almost axiomatic truths to the case of pile-driving.
Let a be the space the ram descends through, b the weight of the ram, s the
space the pile is driven by a blow, and y the force of impact ; then we have
cb

Now what practical deductions can be made from the preceding remarks ."
— the limit to pile-driving is the elasticity of the material driven. AiVhen
the matter to be driven through is of such a nature as to resist the penetra-
tion of the pile with a greater force than is measured by the elasticity of the

material of the pile, further driving would be impossible. For instance, if
the elasticity of the pile be ji^. of a foot, the force of impact being GOO tons,
further driving would be impossible.

It is stated in your Journal for December last, that the force of impact
GOO tons is the greatest blow that can be given by the pile engine imported
from America. The weight of the ram is 16 cwt., the descent 30 feet.

Modifying the preceding formula, we have — =s, and calculating from the

y

30x16
above data, „,.„ =^ of a foot.

Now if the limit of a pile engine's power be to strike a blow of 600 tons,
it is because the effect is lost in the material struck. In the succeding
number of the Journal it is stated that the abiUty of this pile engine to strike
with a force of GOO tons is an exaggeration ; but if the above principles be
correct, that assertion is a mistake.

It is a question of some practical importance to assign the weight of super-
structure a pile will bear. The determination of y in the above equation is
the answer. For instance ; if the weight of the ram be one ton, the descent
20 feet, the distance the pile is driven by the blow half a foot, then
20 X 1

. . =40 tons, the weight that would be required to sink it; a less

0*0

amount would not. If the distance which the pile sinks at each blow be
small, the elasticity must be taken into account ; its effect is to diminish the
result of eacli blow, that is, to make the divisor less than truth ; the quotients
would, therefore, be too large.

Objections miplit be made to what is here stated. In relation to elasticity,
it might be said that the whole amount of force being communicated to the
pile, it could not be lost ; but its effect is to distribute the blow over a longer
space of time. It might be also said of two rams of different weights, say
one half that of the other, falling from the same height, that if the heavier
was required to sink the pile, the other would not. If effects be proportional
to their causes, the less would sink the pile half the distance of the other,
and the quotient would then be the same.

I am. Sir,

Truly yours,

London, Feb. 10, 1842. ' ' V>'. G.

Sir — I read with considerable interest, in your Januaiy No., a description
of the -American Steam Pile-driving Machine, and, having seen it myself, can
bear testimony to its accuracy ; but the table with which that description
concludes is so manifestly erroneous, that attention shoidd be called to it.
The table assumes that a body of one ton weight, falling through one foot,
would strike a pile or other object with a force equal to 8 tons, and the same
weight falling through 16 feet would strike with a force equal to 32-1 tons ;
so that, although the weight had been raised through 16 times more space
in the latter than in the former instance, and, of course IG times the power
expended to raise it, yet (according to the table,) the effect produced by
striking a pile is only quadrupled : what then has become of the remaining
12 parts of the power exerted in raising the weight, seeing only 4 out of the
16 have been spent in striking the blow ? Had the column headed " Force in
tons for a ram weighing one ton" been "Acquired velocity in feet per
second," it would have been about correct. Now the force exerted by a body
in motion, when striking an object, as a pile, is as its weight and the square
of its velocity, which has been long since demonstrated by Smeaton and other
writers, .\ssuming, then, with the author of the table before-mentioned,
that a ram of a ton weight, falling through a foot, would strike a pile with a
force of 8 tons, and as it would have acquired a velocity of 8 feet per second,
the same ram, falling through 16 feet, would have acquired a velocity of 32-1
feet per second, or 4 times the velocity in the former case; now 4= = 16, and
16 X 8 tons = 128 tons, instead of 32-1 tons, as in the table.

There is, however, no authority for proving that a ram, falling through one
foot, would strike a pile or other body with a force exactly equal to 8 times
its own weight. I am inclined to consider its ppwer much greater than this,
though the precise amount it would exert as compared to a quiescent weight,
I am not prepared to answer ; indeed, it is a question undemoustrated by
any writer I am acquainted with.

The laws relatiiij to the comparative forces exerted l)y bodies in motiou

136

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

of different weights and different velocities are well known, but the alsoMe
force everted ly am, body in mo/ion striking another lody, as a pile, com-
■pared with a weight in a quiescent state, is well worthy of investigation ;
though it mav lie doubted if the one can ever become the standard of
mea'^urement for the other. Any of your readers having time and oppor-
tunity to investigate this subject, would confer a benefit of great practical

^'^'"^" I remain, Mr. Editor,

Yours very truly,
Jan. 19,1842. S. C. II.

[We reserve our remarks on the above communications until next month.
— Editor.]

MR. VIGNOLES' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE

LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

( Concluded from page 98.^

L\ the ensuing lectures he should endeavour to illiislrate the following
points-lst. The principles on which railways should he laid out under
various circumstances of traffic, and topographical feature. 2nd. The com-
parison of different systems of inclinations or gradients. 3rd. The analysis
of the advantages of various breadths or gauges. 4lh. The illustration of
the difhirent modes of forming the raihvay proper, or upper works. 5th. The
investigation and explanation of the great works of construction, as pecu-
liarly found e-Npedient in forming railways. 6th. The practice of framing
estimates, and the necessary details connected therewith. 7th. The consider-
ation of the various modes of working railways by animal and by mechanical
power, locomotive and stationary. 8lh. The inquiry into the working e.\-
penses and annual charge on railways ; and, concluding with a summary
lecture, in which the general features of the course will be given, and drawing
such prominent inferences as might be most useful and interesting. The
other branches of internal communication, as well as the various and
numerous subjects connected with the theory and practice of a civil engineer,
must be taken up on other occasions. Reserving, then, the elucidation of the
details under the several preceding heads for the class room, he would pro-
ceed to make a few general remarks. Of these, the most prominent and most
important, in his judgment, and most to be impressed upon the mind of those
about to enter the profession of a civil engineer, was that connected with the
great excess of actual expenditure in the construction of railways over esti-
mates, for not only has that unfortunate, and almost invariable occurrence
brought discredit on e;:ch concern so alTected, but it has paralysed, and will

long" continue to paralyse, the most honest and well-grounded schemes for

long LUlUWll^*'^ t^ J'tli n._J ov,, ...^ ... - tj

further internal communication in general, and of all improvements, the cost
of which is dependent on the engineer ; and though each case ought to be
tried and judged on its own merits, the public confidence appears gone, and
the capitalist observes with a sneer, •• You engineers are all alike ; we can
trust none of you." Now, without .shrinking from his own individual share
of the odium thus cast upon the profession, as far as it may truly be deserved,
the Professor denied the general and sweeping imputation, and he called on
the directors of public companies, injustice to themselves, to their subscribers,
to their onn engineers, and to the public in general, to publish such details
as would exonerate his profession, and leave it charged with no more than
what was attributable to it. He called upon his brother engineers to
follow this out, by furnishing their quota of information. Let the public in
general know tliese details as matters of railway statistics of the highest
interest — let the profession know them as matters of precedent of the most
valuable kind— and let the capitalist be undeceived as to his present impres-
sions i-f mistioist. Quite independent of any financial difficulties— quite
independent of any standing orders or regulations of Parliament — a man
might as well cry "mad dog" as talk of a new railway speculation, or a
water-work, or, indeed, any public undertaking, where the function of profits
is a certain known quantity, but dependent on estimates which are considered
visionary, because " all engineers are alike in this respect." Let, then, the
young engineer mark well the bitter lesson the olaest engineers arc now learn.

ing let them cause [the must assiduous inquiry into the details — the most

unremitting toil in gathering information— storing their minds, exercising
their memories, practising their hand, and working out their calculations-
jit them remember that by working drawings, by models, and by every
(1 priori means of unceasing investigation, they must " first and truly calcu-
late the cost" of what in future life they may be called upon to undertake.
If the matter be ever so trifling, they must not shrink from the truth, or
attempt to disguise it from themselves, still less from their employers. Let
them never have it said of them that they had whispered amongst themselves.
•• Oh ! it will never do to tell the directors what the work will cost, or it will
never be entered upon"— a remark uhich he had heard fall from an eminent

engineer ; nor let them indulge in the vain hope of future fame, by taking as
their text the observation atiributed to another engineer of the very highest,
and well-deserved, reputation-" A century hence there wdl be no one who
will ask what this work cost, they will only inquire who did it.

He be-'cd to repeat, then, what he stated at his first introductory lecture,
that theTonstant ma.xim the young, as well as the old. engineer should keep
before him is-" That the success of an engineer in this country ot private
enterprises and individual exertions, depends not upon the beauty or the cost
of his constructions, or as mere works of art, but on their success as profit-
able and mercantile speculatioitB." They must not suppose this to be an
ignoble maxim; it must be followed out to its true results, and tlien they
would find that prudence, caution, economy, judgment, and the highest intel-
lectual gratification follow closely in its train ; for, to apply the words ot
Mr Booth, the intelligent secretary of the Liverpool and Mancdiester Rail-
wav. and one ot the fathers of the modern railway system-'' The contem-
plation of what is passing in England (alluding to the first cost of railways,)
must not be without its lesson, for, in all countries, and under all circum-
stances, it is an object worthy of a statesman, to prevent the reckless waste
of the national means, and to give a right direction to the public expendi-
ture ■' And shall it be said that it is not equally worthy of an engineer .
What are the aggregate subscriptions of associated and incorporated bodies
of individuals but great portions of the " national means, ' which should not
be wasted bv the statesman or by the engineer? What are the monies
invested in railways but a part, and, in the United Kingdom, a most impor-
tant part, of the " public expenditure ?" And is it not at once the duty, as
it ought to be the pride, of an engineer, to give that expenditure a "right
direction '-■" Let the maxim he had laid down be duly followed out, and that
duty would be accomplished. The learned Professor continued, by stating
that, even at the risk of having motives attributed which he should be
unworthy of public or private estimation if he entertained for a moment, he
would call the attention of the student to an instance of great expenditure
on railways. The perfect completion in the manner contemplated of the
internal communication bv railway from London to the Sussex coast, a dis-
tance of httle more than fifty miles, will amount, in the aggregate, to nearly
four millions sterling. Is not that a reckless waste of the national means?
Is that a right direction of public expenditure ? Will not the public, in some
way or other, pay for ihat?-the subscriber or the traveller, or both;' io
quote the words of an intelligent and exp.rienced raihvay man-" W ith such
results before us, Mould it not be almost criminal not to endeavour to secure
the advantages of a better sv.stem?" The average cost of the railw.ays in
England has been very nearly £30,000 per mile. The cost ol future lines
must not be more than one-half of that sum, or it may be considered that
there is an end to the extension of the railway system. The Professor stated
that it wou'd be his attempt to explain, in the course of his lectures, his ideas,
that such a reduction in the expense might easily be made, and he would show
that they were founded upon practical experience. Tlie profession would be
•rreatly aided, and the public vastly benefitted, if the railway companies and
Uieir engineers would publish the detailed accounts he had asked for, to serve
as a beacon, for which all would be very grateful; and it was his deliberate
opinion and recommendation, that if they would not do so, Parliament
ought to give the railway department of the Koard of Trade powers to
enforce such returns.

The total amount of capital invested in the railway speculations ot Ibis
country is probably little short of £.50,000,000, and the total extent of lines
about 1700 miles— most of which are now completed. This m.ay be said to
be the creation of the last fifteen years. The total length of navigable canals
in Great Britain is nearly 2500 miles ; they were chiefly formed in the last
40 years of the preceding century. The capital invested in this branch was
about £20,000,000. with an annual expense of about 50/. per mile. In addition
to canals, there are about 1500 miles of navigable rivers. Tbe turnpike-
roads of England and Wales are stated, in official returns, to be nearly
20.000 miles in extent, executed at an expen.se of at least £20,000,000, and
maintained at an expense of about £1.750,000 per annum, and all formed
within little more than a century, exclusive of other highways, in length
about 100,000 miles, with an annual expense of 12/. or 13/. per mile, or 75/.
per mile for maintenance. The extent of executed railways in the United
States of America appears to be about 4000 miles, executed within the last
fifteen years, at a cost of about £8,000,000, or about £5000 per mile ; most of
them are single lines, and it is stated that the average net income has been
about 5 per cent, per annum. Tlie extent of railways in Belgium is now
about 200 miles, executed at a cost of rather more than £1,500,000, or about
£8000 per mile ; most of these are single lines, and have all been executed
within the last ten years.

The average annual expense of maintaining the railways of England
(exclusive, of course, of moving power, c irrying and managing establish-
ments, &c.) appears to be from £200 to £300 per mile per double way ; but
on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, where the system of longitudina
timbers for the upper works has been completely carried out, the same heads
of cipense are now reduced to less than 50/. per mile per.annura, « ith a loco-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

1.37

motive traffic over that railway as great, if not grentcr, than over any one in
Great Britain. The average expense of the canal maintenance in this country
seems to 50^ per mile per annum.

The Professor concluded by stating, that he would close his somewhat
desultory discourse by calling attention to the fact, that the first elements of
the amelioration of internal improvements, he would not say internal com-
munication, which arose in this country, date from the period of the intro-
duction of the Poor Laws into Kngland, the effect of which has been to compel
the rich to (ind employment for the poor, or to support them, and thus has
been carried out the great principle of self-dependence, in separate districts,
to work out their own improvements. Certain it is. that, from the passing of
the ,,^ct of Elizabeth, which instituted a legal maintenance for the destitute,
and, by making mendicity a crime, swept the hordes of beggars, idlers, and
sorners, from the face of the land, this country took a start, and, overtaking
in im|irovement the other states of Europe, then far in advance of her, has
since pursued that successful and continued march of amendment of her
internal communication, which forms so remarkable a feature of England,
proving her wisdom and proclaiming her prosper! ly. He begged that, with
his previous cautions, the students would remember that the agent for the
carrying out of such improvements, past and to come, has been, and he
trusted long would continue to be. the civil engineer.

ON ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM, &e.
To Mr. East, with a word to H. S.

I SHALL be glad to be allowed to correct an error into which Mr. East has
been led by the mystical signature of another correspondeut, since he attri-
butes to roe a certain harsh voice which emanated from " Ditto." At the
same time, I must acknowledge myself unable to comprehend the meaning
of many of the hints, which is to be attributed to their not being written in
a simple style, suited to the difficulty of the subject. That much of their
obscurity arises from the manner of writing, I am led to infer from my total
ignorance, after five careful perusals, of the meaning of the first paragraph
addressed by mistake to me.

This will be, perhaps, the best opportunity for saying, that the whole of
II. S.'s last communication might he readily inferred from the first ; but they
neither of them afford the explanation required, viz. liow to account for the
extension of precedent worship from Grecian to Gothic, and that a time when
the classics have more than begun to find their proper level in every liberal
education— when this age has the character for carrying utilitarianism and
the study of science, if possible, to excess, and when general literary and
scientific institutions are springing up in every direction.

If the cause stated by H. S. is correct, we are now only suffering from the
effects of a past evil, and may be sure of a speedy reformation. As a proof
of this, we need only refer to the programme of the University of London for
the B.A. examination, where the classics form less than one-twentieth part of
the course of study required. That there is a considerable movement in the
architectural world in this direction, I may mention that the doctrine pro-
mulgated in the essay to which the medal of the Institute was awarded on
the 28th of February last, was in unison with that of H. S., Ditto, and
myself; and that it appeared to be received with general satisfaction.

J. L.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Jan. 24.— M. Pelouze read a report on a memoir communicated some
weeks since to the Academy of Sciences at BerUn, by M. Magnus, on the ex-
penments by M. Gay-Lussac and M. Rudberg to ascertain the dilatation of
gas. AL Gay-Lussac had arrived at the conclusion, that what is called " the
arithmetical co-efficient " of the number expressing the rate of dilatation
should be expressed by the decimal number -00375. This was the supposi-
tion that the volume of gas was measured under a constant pressure ; but M.
Rudberg had fixed the same co-elficient at -003(546, by measuring the gas under
a variable pressure. M. Magnus had repeated these experiments, and had
arnved at results much nearer those of M. Rudberg than those of M Gay-
Lussac. This he attributed to a defect in mercury, as being unfit for exactly
closing the apertures and joints of the vessels receiving the gas, notwithstand-
ing that the use of mercury for these experiments was recommended by M
Biot in his Traitede Physir/ue. M. Magnus had experimented on different
gases and gaseous fluids, and had found the following co-efficients of dilata-
bihty : viz., air .003005, hydrogen .003050, carbonic acid .00369, and sul-
phuric acid .003850. It would appear doubtful whether the dilatability of

gas remains always constant, and whether it mav not varv under various
pressures.

Feb. 1. — M. Ebelmcn read a memoir on the nature of the various rajmurs
developed m smellinri furnaces, as observed at different altitudes -within the
furnaces. The object of such researches was to determine the degree of heat
at various points, and to devise means for the improved regulations of the fires.
He has arrived at the following results. — 1 . The gaseous vapours, on coming out
of a furnace heated by charcoal or wood, contain watery vapour, carbonic acid,
and oxides of hydrogen and azote, but no carbonated hydrogen. At 6 or 8 feet
below the mouth of tlie furnace the watery vapour is not found, .and the propor-
tion of oxide of carbon increases, while those of hvdrogen and carbonic acid di-
minish, according as the observations are made lower and lower down in the
furnace.— 2. When coal is used jointly with wood for heating the furnace, the
carbonization of the vapours takes place in an internal zone, and the water is
expelled from the metal at a very low altitude. He found that the propor-
tion of gas which traverses a certain zone of the furnace per minute, is
greater according as it is further from the bottom of the furnace.

The Minister of Commerce communicated to the Academv some observa-
tions from the Industrial Society of Mulhausen, on the importance of adopt-
ing an unit of measure for the force of machines, considered not only in
the power exerted, but in the time required. The Society observed, that the
usual estimation of horse-power was not uniform, and proposed that the unit
for France should be the force required to raise one kilogramme to the height
of a metre in a second. To this unit they proposed that the name of dyne,
from the Greek root, signifying " moving force," should be applied, and then
that it should be compounded with Greek and Latin words, in the same way
as the metre, the gramme, &e. Thus the iilodyne would signify a thousand
times this unit, and the miUidyne would signify the thousandeth part of the
same unit.

M. Aiago read a communication from M. Rusiger, a German geologist, on
certain geometrical ohscrv.itioiis, made in order to ascertain the relative alti-
tudes of the Dead Sea, in Palestine and the Mediterranean. It appeared not
only that the surface of the Dead Sea was 219 toises, or about 1,314 feet
lower than that of the Mediterranean, but also, from the geological pheno-
mena observed on its shores, that the formation of the basin in which it hes
was antecedent to all historic epochs. Hence the supposition that the sea
was formed by the sinking of the plain on which the cities of the PentapoUs
(Sodom, Gomorrah, &c.) were situate, is incorrect. M, Arago added, that
the observations of M. Bertou, a French engineer, made the depression of the
Dead Sea below the Mediterranean 419 metres, or 1,374 English feet.

Feb. 7. — M. .\rago gave an occount of two memoirs by Mr. Dove, " Oii,
the Phenomena of Chemical Induction.'" An electrical current causes, in a
mass of iron placed near it, two kinds of plieiiomena — one corresponding to
magnetism, the other to dynamical electricity. The author of these memoirs
announced that he had succeeded in separating the two classes of action, by
giving them different degrees of relative intensity ; and he had shown the
magnetic action to exist in substances where its presence had not been
suspected.

M. Valle, colour-dealer, submitted to the notice of the members some
specimens of canvas for oil-painting, covered with a substance intended to
preserve the colours laid on it from all ert'ects of moisture.

Feb. 14. — A communication was read from M. Combes, on a supposed
cause of the contortions of the metallic tube in the bore of the well of
Grenelle.

Extract of a memoir, by XL Bessell, on a phenomenon of atmospheric
light, which appeared to be the reflection of a fire on the earth from the sur-
faces of clouds, which were probably frozen.

A note was read from M. Mallet, of St. Quentin, upon some furtlicr im-
provements in the purification of gas. He had succeeded in depriving gas,
uot only of its ammonia and its sulpli-hydric acid, but also of its empyreu-
matic products and of its naphthahne. The gas, thus purified, was found to
retain only a very slight empyreumatic smell, very different from the fetid
odour which it commonly possessed.

M. Nothomb informed the Academy that he had found considerable ad-
vantage, in photographic operations, resulting from the use of protochloride
of mercury, instead of pure mercury, as originally used by M. Daguerrc.

Feb. 21. — Some curious experiments were mentioned as having been lately
made by Capt. Bailly, of the engineers, on an artesian well at Lille, which
had exhibited some remarkable phenomena of intermission in tlie discharge
of the water. M. Bailly had proved that these intermissions corresponded
with the tides at Dunkirk.

M. Arago read a communication from Mr. Nasmyth, an English engineer,
stating that it had been observed, on several lines of railroads in England,
that the rails never rusted when they were traversed by wagons going al-
ways in the same direction ; but that when they served for wagons going in
opposite directions, as in the case of a single line of rails, they became rusted
very soon.

Feb. 28.- — M. Arago gave an account of tlie proceedings of the commission
on the question of inventing either an indelible ink, or else a " paper of
safety," in order to prevent forgeries. It appeared that the invention of an
indelible ink was given up, as insufficient for the purpose, and that the efforts
of competitors for the ]ireniiuni of 30,000 fr. offered by Government in 1836,
were now directed to the making of the safety paper. It had been proposed
to cover the paper with a kind of vignette, or tool-work, in an ink that
should he in part liable to be effaced ; so that if any attempts shoulil be
made to alter the writing or printing on such paper, the vignette work would

U

138

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

VEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

At one of the evening meetings of the Professors of University CoUege,
Mr TDc Morgan discussed the recent report of the commission on the ne»
stand'ird weights and measures. The imperial standard yard and bushel,
constructed in pursuance of the statute of 1826, were destroyed by the con-
flagration of the Houses of Parliament, and a committee of men of sciencf
va^ appointed to ^consider the best mode of restoration. The statute had
directed their restoration by what is called a natural method-the measure o.
the kn"th of a pendulum s« inging seconds in the latitude of London, under
rertain°condilions, but the progress of experiment has induced the commis-
sion to repudiate that method and to recommend the adoption of the od plan
of having standards constructed. It is to be observed that the experiments
of Kater, Kaily, Bessel, and others, have of late years shown, that as regards
the pendulum, the amount of correction due for the pressure of the atmo-
sphere level of the sea, terrestrial disturbance, and other causes, is far from
being ascertained. Professor De Morgan, indeed, intimated strong grounds for
the non-e.'iistence of anv such thing as a natural standard. Fortunately, it
has happened that the Royal Astronomical Society possesses a copy of the
standard yard, and from this the Commissioners propose that the new stan-
dards should be restored. Speaking of standards, Mr. Baily reported to the
Astronomical Society that the old standard yard, made in the time ot Queen
Elizabeth, and preserved at the Exchequer, w as in e.^.istence four years ago.
when he saw it. It is described as a most disgraceful specimen of workman-
ship, being little better than a common kitchen poker, filed at each end. while
at some distant period it had been broken in the middle, and the pmnt dove-
tailed and left loose, so as to tend like a pair of tongs. Of this implement
copies used to be furnished bv the officers of the Exchequer to foreign men ot
science, accompanied with a parchment certificate, on which the stamp duties
were four guineas, besides official fees-a circumstance truly designated as
productive of national disgrace. Several copies of the new standard measures
are recommended by the Commissioners to be preserved for use in diflerent
parts of the country, and four sets to be imbedded for preservation in a
stone in the foundations of the new Houses of Parliament, and only to be
removed by the authority of the legislature. The other recommendations are
—the abolition of the troy pound ; the establishment of a new long measure ;
and the introduction of a decimal coinage. The Commissioners propose that
a measure of one thousand yards should be authorized to be used, and should
be adopted by Government in the mensuration of public works, &c. This is
rot proposed, for the present, to supersede the mile, but to work concur-
rently with it : and they suggest that the new me; sure should be called a
milvard, a name rightly designated by the Professor as a barbarous mi.Kture
of Latin and English. He observed that the old English mode of combination
is exemplified in ihe word furlong, which signifies the forty long, that is,
forty poles long; so he would call the new measure a thousand long, which
would, like other words, ultimately be abridged by the public. He remarked
that we have already a decimal system, which has been introduced without
the authority of Magna Charta by the example of one man, and which has
now become engrafted on the whole system of our landed property-he
alluded to the surveyor's chain of one hundred hnks, the extension of which
as the standard measure of length he much wished to advocate. The Professor
did not say how he would apply this, but as it is a subject in which our pro-
fessional readers should interest themselves, we shall make some remarks
upon it. We have already the chain, and furlong of ten chains ; the next
step in ascent is a new mile of ten furlongs, being one old mile and a quarter
This new mile wou'd be nearly equal to two French kilometres, or as 22UU
yards to 2187-22. or a difference of only 1277 yards, or little more than one
lialf per cent.* Descending from the chain, we should have a fathom of ten
links, (6-6 ft.) being nearly the same as the new French toise, or as 2 01 16436
to 2i' and only six inches more than the common fathom. The tenth of the
new'fathom, or toise, is the link of '66 of a foot, or nearly two-thirds of the
present foot, and the tenth of this link or foot will give a new inch of about
four-lfths of the present inch. Were our professional readers to take this
subject in hand, and give it their support, we have little doubt tlwt, either
with or without Government aid, they woud be able to carry out the chain
standard. At the same time, we must call their attention to the serious evil
which will accrue to them from the adoption of the milyard or thousand-long,
which will not work well with the chain, and will create the greatest diffi-
culty in all land measurements, and much confusion as to landed property_
The first step would be the adoption by the naval service and by engineers,
architects, and surveyors, of the fathom of ten links, which will prepare the
way for its general adoption. The close resemblance between the chain
measure and the French metre system is a farther recommendation.

"The first step" .says Professor de Morgan, "to decimal weights and
measures is a decimal coinage, a system which the Commissioners have re-
commended generally, without la;ing down any particular plan. Mr. De

' This new mile would be .'j.5fi to the degree, instead of (JSl, and would be
to the Irish mile as 2200 to 2240,

Morgan's proposition is for a gradual introduction of the plan. He would,
in the first instance, without any Act of Parliament, introduce a two-
shilling piece, and withdraw the half-crown. To this two-shilling piece, it
would be advantageous to assimilate to the East India Company's rupee, so as
to make that important branch of our currency unifor.ni with that of the seat
of empire. He would then coin a piece of twopence-halfi'enny, five of which
w ould make a shilling and a halfpenny, and ten a two-shilling piece and a
penny. The working of this would be, he considers, to produce practically
the fifth of a shilling; lor the public would, inmost dealings, make the
tradesman give them the advantage of the halfpenny or penny, and so m the
end decimalize the two-shilling piece. He would then, by Act of Parliament,
reduce the nominal value! of the copper coinage four per cent., by which the
farthing would become the thousandth part of a pound, and the decimal
system be established.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The West India Mail Steam Packet Company's Steam Ship"Trevtr—We have
been much gratified by our visit to this vessel, which left the Thames on
the 27th of February. The machinery is by Messrs. Miller. RavcnhiU Sc Co.,
and in every particular of its structure, proportionment, and disposition,
manifests the most eminent engmeering ability. There is not a detail in the
whole of the machinery which is nut calculated to excite the conviction that
its specific character is the result of the study of an able mechanician, and
that its adoption has been the consequence of mature reflection, not ot an
incunsiderate reference to existing modes of construction. 'The power of these
engines is 430 horses ; the diameter ot the cylinder 74 inches ; the length ot
the stroke 7 feet. The condenser, the cylinder bottom, tlie air-pump bot-
tom and the support for the main centre, are cast upon the foundation plate.
The condenser is lieneath the foundation plate, so that the main centre does
not pass through it as it does in many engines. The framing has been con-
structed with reference only to the strains to which it will be subjected, and
without any attempt at what is termed architectural decoration; with one
exception, where it could not be eflected. all the principul joints are meta lie
that is the metallic surfaces of the joints are planed, and so accurate y fitted
as to be perfectly tight without the aid of rust, or without any substance
interposed except a little red lead. With a view to increased durability brass
and copper have been introduced with an unsparing hand, many of the parts
which are made of iron in ordinary engines being of brass or copper m these.

The performance of the engines attests the skill and care concerned in their
nroduction. They work with great smoothness and efficiency, and «itii a.
?on umpti^in of only 16 cwt. of coals per hour. \1 ith a pressure in the
boiler of only 3-78 lbs. per square inch, the mean pressure on the piston is
1417 lbs per square inch. The dilTerence between the vacuum in the con-
denser and the vacuum is only .28 lbs. of pressure per square inch.

We are unable to enter into further details respecting this machinery at
present, but we purpose next month to give a description ot the machinery
of the his. which started on Tuesday, 29th ult., also by Messrs. Miller, when
we shall enter more fully into the merits of Messrs. Miller s arrangements,
and hope to adduce good reason for our commendation.

miSCSLIiANEA.

Inl.vid Orvajjen-t.^l Tilf-s.— Last month we noticed a work that had
iust beeu published, containing numerous examples of encaustic or inlaid
tiles selected from various ecclesiastical buildings in England: we are now
enabled to announce that Messrs. Wyatt, Parker, and Co. have commenced
the manufacture of these tiles. From the specimens sent us, we can judge
that thev will be found to be verv durable, and far less porous than the
ancient t'iles, and will form an admirable addition to the architecture of our
churches bv using them instead of stone or deal floors, m the side and centre
aisles and such parts as are not covered with seats ; they may also, with
equal taste, be used for Uning the walls. The specimens now before us are
made from Staffordshire clay of a dark red colour, and inlaid with yellow.
Messrs Wvatt have also sent us some specimens of pottery of an hexagonal
shape 'of 'various colours, for paving halls, dairies, ic, or for huing the
latter- likemse small squares, from half an inch to an inch square for mosaic
pavement. A variety of specimens of paving may be seen at Messrs. AV yatt &
works.

Continent,,! .W.r;,i»e™.-We perceive in the the Eco Mia Bo,sa ofkhUn,
that exlPiisive mills have been erected in Lombardy for spinning ot cotton
and siik! and that there is now bemg added another on a very extensive sea e,
?or spinning and weaving of flax Jnd hemp. It is undertaken by a public
ecmimny at the head of°which is S. Battaglia the banker. It is situate near
M Ian, 01 the Adda. We observe that the entire direction of projecting and
e'ecut ng this neu- concern was confided in 1840 to Mr. Albano. C. K, of
LmXn it is ststed to be the most complete mill in all its details that has
ever been erected. Tlie powerful water wheel, and the mill gear for driving
llie spinning machinery, are of a superior description and were made in this
coun ry, bv the celebrated firm of W. Fairbairn and Co., of Manchester In
CO sequence of the prohibitory character of our export laws, the sunnmg
S Uiery is to be matle in Belgium, although the C™^1«">; "f„"^'^,^'/";"^
i that it should be made in England. Here is another example of the ruinous

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

139

•fFects beinf; produced upon the country, through the absurd prohibitory
laws. We thus see that an order of several thousand pounds is taken out of
onr hands. How long this is to last it is impossible to say.

A Public Park at Lii:erpool.— The Liverpool p.ipers state, that Mr. R. Y.
Tates has purchased from the Earl of Sefton forty-thre? acres in To.'jteth
Park, tno-thirds of which are to belaid out for a park for the use of the
public, and the remaining third is to be appropriated to sites for villas. The
noble lord receives £1100 per acre, so that the purchase money for the
■whole will e.weed £47,000. The land is beautifully situate, commanding' fine
views in every direction.

Steam Engines in Belgium. — It is estimated that there are now at work in
Belgium 1300 steam. engines, with a total power of 33,100 horses. — Galignani.
Atmospheric Raihoay. — The report on this subject of Sir F. .Smith, R.E. and
Prof. Barlow, has tieen presented to Parliament. The summary of their
opinions is thus given : — " 1. That we consider the principle of atmospheric
propulsion to be established, and that the economy oi working increases with
the length and diameter of ihe tube. 2. That the expense of the formation
of the line in cuttings, embankments, bridges, tunnels, and rails, will be very
little less than for equal lengths of a railway to be worked by locomotive
engines, but that the total cost of the works will much greater, owing to the
e-xpense of providing and laying the atmospheric tube, and erecting the
stationary engines. 3. That the expense of working a line on this principle,
on which trains are frequently passing, will be less than working by loco-
motive engines, and that the saving ihus effected will, in some cases, more
than compensate for the additional outlay ; but it will be the reverse on lines
of unfrequent trains. However, there are m^ny items of expense of which we
Lave no knowledge and can form no opinion, such as the wear and tear of
pistons, valves. &c. ; on these further experience \s needed, i. That with
proper means of disengaging the train from the piston in cases of emergency,
we consider this principle as regards safely equal to that appertaining to rope
machinery. There appear, however, some practical difficulties in regard to
junctions, crossings, sidings, and stoppages at road stations, which may make
this system of less general application."

Brick-making, Stc— A discovery has been made by Mr. R. Prosser of Bir-
mingham, which bids fair to be attended with important results to the
interests of architecture. The novelty of Mr. Prosser's process consists in the
clay being dried, ground to powder, and submitted to pressure in metallic
moulds, until the particles cohere together. As there is no water in combi-
nation with the clay, no drying process is necessary ; consequently the
articles made by this method are ready to be fired or burned as soon
as they leave the machine. Owing to the great pressure required to
cause the particles of clay to cohere togetlier, the articles made by this press
have greater density ih-^in those made in the ordinary way : they are also
less porous, and not subject to decay in v.et or frost. In addition to these
advantages, any architectural device may be impressed upon the clay, which,
when burnt, will retain all the sliarpness of the original, however elaborately
finished. By this process bricks may be made in all weathers, and with
greater economy than by any other plan known at present. The brick-press
is worked by hydraulic pumps, giving about 300 tons pressure, thus producing
the adhesion and cohesion. The machine delivers the brick (four at a time in
the present machine) ready at that instant for the kiln, requiring no exposure
to the atmosphere to dry. The whole operation, from the time of putting
the powderea clay into the machine to tlie delivery of the brick, occupies
about half a miiiute. Machinery might readily be constructed to produce
bricks fifty a minute.— Oaj/jr paper.

Architectural honours. — "W'e are happy to announce that Mr. Cockerill has
been elected a foreign member of the Aeademie des Beaux Arts, in the room
of the late M. Antolini of Milan, and that Mr. Barry has been elected a mem-
ber of the Royal Academy, in the room of the late Sir David Wilkie, an
appointment that will give the greatest satisfaction to every architect : we
have now three architects in the Academy.

M. Antolini. — The following notice of this eminent architect, who lately
died in Italy, appeared in the Art Union: — "Cavalier Gio Antonio Antolini
■was born in IVSl. of a respectable family at Caslel Bolognese : he studied at
Bologna, and there took a degree as an architect and engineer. He was
called to Rome for the works on the Pontine Marshes, and at Rome he studied
deeply the remains of antiquity, and published " Illustrations of the Temple
of Hercules at Cori." He then went to Milan, where he designed the plan of
the Forum Bonaparte. He was afterwards named to two chairs, those of
Architecture in the Academy, and of Geognosy in the University of Bologna;
and he was subsequently elected a member of many learned bodies, including
the Institute of France. He held many honourable public appointments, and
executed many works for the Italian government as well as for individuals ;
tie was also employed in foreign labours, latterly for the Viceroy of Egypt.
He has left, it is said, in his son Ph.lip Antolini, the heir of his talents as
well as of his name. He has pubhshed the following works, besides the above-
mentioned :—'• The Ruins of Velleja in the Piacentino ;" "The Temple of
Minerva in Assisi," confronted •.■. ith the plates of Andrea Palladio ; "Ele-
mentary Ideas of Civil Architecture;' " Notes to the Treatise of Architecture
by Milizia."

Thames Tunnel.— ^Ve are happy to hear thatthis work is r,o\v past all danger,
and that within a few months it will be open to the public as a thoroughfare.
The entire brick structure of the Tunnel, uniting the two opposite shores, is
now wholly completed.

Paris.— To the already numerous buildings which have been recently erected
for the embellishment of the French metropolis, a new palace is to be added,
for the Archbishop, on the Quai Napoleon, facing the Hotel de Ville : it is to
be in unison with the Cathedral sf Notre Dime. The beautiful turret and
other fragments of ihe Hotel de la Tremouilte, whose demolition excited so
much interest, are to be appropriated to the sacred edifice. — The colossal
statue of " Immortality" by M. Corlot is about to be cast, .and placed on the
dome of the Pantheon.

Monument of Napoleon — The French newspapers announce that the Govern-
ment have ordered that the monument to Napoleon shall be executed accordin"
to the plan recommended by the t'ommission .appointed to examine the com-
petition dr.awmgs and models, who reported that none of the models were
entirely satisfactory, and recommend to be erected a sarcophagus of granite
or porphyry, of a severe and noble form, placed on apedestalof an imle.structi-
ble material, which appears to the Commission to be the most suitable monument
which can be raised to contain the ashes of Napoleon. It should convey the
idea of eternity, and that the remains of the great m.-.n are safe from the
vicissitudes and accidents of time. It ought to be constructed in such a
manner as to survive the destruction of the church which contains it. and
the fall of the dome, and it should be impervio'.;s to fire. As to the objection
to thephn of a crypt, that it is exposed to damp ami to inundations, it is not
true ; the foundation of the Invalides is manv metres above the highest
waters, and its vaults are remarkably dry. The excavation ot the crypt
besides, renders any other appropriation o'' the dome impiissil>le ; it niust
remain for ever sacred to the .ashes of Napo'eon. Tlie Commission further
expresses the opinion that within the inclosure of the Invalides. but without
the church, and quite apart from the tomb, an equestrian statue of the Em-
peror should be erected. It further expresses the wish th.At this statue should
be represented in the Imperial costume, to mark that Napoleon is honoured
not Jess as a statesman and legislator, than as a warrior. The tomb within
the church— nothing, in the presence of God ; «i;hju — the statue— glory, in
the s;ght of men. It limits itself to recommending this programme— an open
crypt within the Church of the Invalides. an equestrian statue of the Emperor
with mf. The French Government have appointed Messrs. 'Visconli and
Marochetti to carry out the design ; the first for the architectural and the
second for the sculptural.

Hamhurgh.—Tbe New Exchange, which has been building during the last
five years unrler the direction of the architect W'immel, is now finished. The
noble simplicity of this edifice renders it one of the greatest ornaments of the
city.

Munich. — Swankhaler has been selected by the King of Bavaria to execute
a great work, to be called the " Pantheon of Bavaria." It is to De erected on
the hill of Sl Theresa, near Munich. On the summit is to be placed a bronze
statue of Bavaria, fifty-nine feet in height, resting on a lion twenty-five feet
high. Around, under open colonnades, are to be placed statues of the illus-
trious men of Bavaria.

Russia. — A monument of cast iron in the Byzantine style has been erected
at Smolensk, by imperial commaml, in memory of the battles of 1812. It is
pl.aced on the Parade Plaz, opposite the King's bastion, which was the point
where the battle raged most furiously on the 5th ot August, 1812. The inau-
guration took place on the 5th of November last.

Warsaw. — A monument of cast iron has been erected on the Saxon Plaz, by
command of the Emperor of Russia, to the memory of the seven Poles who
fell in defence of the Russian power on the 29th of November, 1830. The
plan is that of the architect Corazzi, chos' n from among te.i competitors.
The octagonal base is of native marble: eight bpmze lions support an iron
pedestal, above wdiich are four eagles of gilt bronze, their wings outspread ;
a shield is on the breast of each, on which is inscribed amap of Poland , h.^m
the pedestal springs an obelisk of cast iron. The octagonal marule base is
SOjclls in diameter; the pedestal 81 ells in heiglit by 10 in diameter ; the
obelisk 25 ells in height, bin diameter at the base, and 4 at the top. The
iron and bronze were both cast in Warsaw.

LIST or NEW PATENTS.

GHANTEO IN ENGLAND FROM 25tH FEBRUARY, TO 23rD MaRCH, 1842.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment.

William Newton, of the Office for Patents. 66, Chancery-lane, in the
county of Middlesex, civil engineer, for " improvemenis in regulating t/ieflow
of air and gaseous fluids." A communication. — Sealed February 25.

Osborne Reynolds, of Belfast, Ireland, clerk, for " improvements in
covering streets, roads, and other ways, with wood ; and also in the means of
enabling horses and other animals to pass over such roads and other slipperg
surfaces, with greater safety than heretofore." — Pel). 25.

John Birkbv, of Upper Rawfold, card manufacturer, for " improvements
in the mamtfacture of wire cards." — Feb. 25.

William Saunders, of Brighton, Sussex, gent., for " improvements in
apparatu-s employed in roasting and baking animal Jood." — Feb. 25.

Samuel Morand, of Manchester, merchant, for " improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus for stretching fabrics." — Feb. 26.

Benjamin Gillot, of Great Saffron Hill, cutler, for " improvements in
heating and ventilating." — Feb. 2G.

Marc La Riviere, of London Fields, Hackney, gent., for " improvements
in the macliinery for figure weavitig in silk and other fabrics." — March 1 .

Tbomas Smith, of Northampton, plumber, for " an improvement or im-
provements in water closets." — Marcii \.

George Carter Haseler, of Birmingham, jeweller and toy-maker, for
" improvements in the tops of scent bottles." — March 3.

Edward Slaughter, of Bristol, eugiiieer, for " improvements in the con-
struction of iron wheels for railway and other carriages." — March 4.

James Clements, of Liverpool, manufacturer of toys, for " improvements
in composition for ornamenting glass and picture frames, and articles for

140

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

inlerior and oilier decDTalions : also for the mann/acture of toijs and other
fancy ar<<c/fs."— March 4.

William Palmer, of Sutton-street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for " mi-
provemenls in the construclion of hinges." — March A.

Henry Barron Rodway, of Birmingham, wine merchant, for "improve-
ments in the manufacture of horse-shoes." — March 7.

Thomas Henry Russell, of Wednesbury, Staffordshire, iron tube manu-
facturer, and Cornelius Whitehouse, of the same place, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of welded iron tuhing." — March 7.

William Newton, of the Office for Patents, 66, Chancery Lane, Middle-
sex, civil engineer, for " an improved machine or apparatus for weighing
various kinds of articles or goods." A communication. — March 7.

Thomas Hedley, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gent., and Cuthbert Rod-
bam, of Gateshead, Durham, millwright, for "on improved apparatus for
purifying the smoke, gases, and other noxious vapours, arising from certain
jires, stoves, and furnaces." — March 8.

William Catford, of Chard, Somersetshire, mechanic, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus, for making or manufacturing lace or other
netted fabrics." — March H.

Henry Smith, of Liverpool, engineer, for " improvements in the con-
struct ion of wheels and breaks for carriages." — March 10.

Richard Beard, of Earl-street. Blackfriars, gent., for " improvements in
Ute means of obtaining likenesses and represeutations of nature and of other
objects." — March 10.

William Edward Newton, of the Office for Patents. 66, Chancery-lane,
Middlesex, civil engineer, for " improvements in boilers, furnaces, and steam-
engines." A communication. — March 10.

Charles William Firchild, of Woley Park, Northfield, Worcestershire,
farmer, for " an improved propelling apparatus, for marine aiui other pur-
poses."— March 14.

Reuben Partridge, of Cowper-street, Finsbury, engineer, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for splitting and shaping wood into splints,
for t/ie manufacture of matches and other similar forms." — March 14.

Alfred Green, of Sheffield, surgical instrument -maker, for •' improve-
ments in trusses or surgical bandages." — March 15.

Edwin Ward Trent, of Old Ford, Bow, rope maker, for '■ an improved
mode of preparing oakum and other fibrous substances, for caulking ships and
other vessels." — March 21.

Sydney Jessop, of Sheffield, merchant, for " an improved mode of pre-
paring wrought iron, intended for wheel tires, rails, and certain oilier
articles." — March 21.

Zachariah Parkes, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for ■' an improved
mode of preparing wrought iron, intended for loheel tires, raits, and certain
other artichs." — March 21.

John Clay, of Cottingham, near Hull, Yorkshire, and Frederick Rosen-
borg, of Sculcoates, Yorkshire, gent., for " improvements in arranging and
setting up types for printing." — March 21.

William Hancock, the Younger, of Amwell-street, gent, for " improve-
ments in combs and brushes." — March 21.

Edward John Dent, of No. 82, Strand, chronometer maker, for " im-
provements in chronometers and other time-keepers." — March 21.

William Brockedon, of Queen-square, Middlesex, gent., for " improve-
ments in manufacturing fibrous materials, for the cores of stoppers, to be
coated with india-rubber, and used for stopping bottles ond other vessels."—
March 21.

John Haughton, of Liverpool, clerk, for " improvements m the method
of affixing certain labels." — March 21.

William Palmer, of Sutton-street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for '• im-
provements in the manufacture and preparation of pills, and some other
articles of a medicinal or remedial nature." — March 21.

Mark Freeman, of Sutton Common, gent., for " improvements in the
construction of inkstands."- — March 21.

Robert Hazard, of Clifton, Somerset, confectioner, for " improvements
in apparatus for heating public and private buildings." — March 21.

Moses Sperry Beach, of Norfolk-street, Strand, printer, for " improve-
ments in machinery used for printing with type, and in the construction of
type for printing." A communication. — March 23.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Seijton.—The plan for reversing engines is ingenious, hut the drawing is
badly executed, and the description contains several errors. The allegation
that lap is inapplicable to a slide valve worked by a fast eccentric (i. e. an
eccentric last on ihe shaft), is erroneous. What is meant by " the expansion
valves are constructed to cut ofl' the steam till the end ot the stroke? If
Seyton forwards us a proper drawing of his contrivance, such as a mechanic
might eircute the work from, «e will consider of the propriety of inserting it
in the next month's number. We are always desirous to encourage the efforts
of young mechanics, and in the contrivance of .Seyton we can discern much
ingenuity and considerable promise.

Amicus Machinarum.—The project advocated by this correspondent of
placing the air pump of a steam engine in the middle of the cylinder, is one

of the wildest we have met with for many a day. Tlie annular cylinder of
Messrs. Maudslay is objectionable enough as it stands, even in the skilful
hands of that eminent firm ; but with our correspondent's improvement, this
description of engine would have the merit of being the very worst at present
existent.

The central cylinder in Messrs. Maudslay 's arrangement is used for the
purpose of obtaining a hjug connecting rod. This object our correspondent
seems to appreciate very lightly, for he employs a short connectina; rod of
the Gorgon species, and into the vacant hole in the middle of the cylinder he
places his air pump ; the pump having the same length of stroke as the
cylinder. It is the aim of engineers in general to keep the cylinder hot, but
this gentleman has so far surmounted the prejudices of existing systems, that
he has introduced a pump into the middle of the cylinder, for the purpose of
keeping the cylinder cool. We are at a loss to imagine in what idea this
crotchet could have originated ; but we recommend our correspondent to
forego all attempt at improvement until he has learned sometl'.ing of engines
of the unimproved construction.

It is disadvantageous to make the stroke of the air pump equal to that ot
the cylinder. The valves are sure to strike very hard and wear themselves
out very soon, when the bucket mi;ves with a great speed.

Our correspondent's drawing is very neatly and. we may add. shilfully
executed. We should be glad to find this peculiarity more common than it
now is.

-1 Constant Reader, Greenock, asks us whether we approve of an improve-
ment he has devised in the glass gauge tubes of marine boilers. AVe reply,
decidedly not, unless it be our correspondent's object to render a very simpJB
and excellent arrangement inefficacious. " In the boilers of marine engines,'
cur correspondent observes, " a great agitation of the water often takes place
from the ebullition, and at such times it isdiffieult, on account ot the agitation
of the water in the glass tube, to ascertain the real level of the water in the
boiler." Our correspondent, therefore, proposes to lead small copper pipes
from each extremity of the glass tube, where it communicates with the interior
of the boiler, to a point considerably beneath the ordinary water level. Let
us suppose this done ; what will be the effect ? When the water is first intro-
duced into the boiler, it will rise in the two pipes connected to the opposise
extremities of the glass tube, until its further ascent is resisted by the elas-
ticity of the air shut within the pipes and glass tube. If this air be allowed
to remain, no water will enter the glass tube at all; but the air may be
allowed to escape by unscrewing the top of the socket which holds the tube.
The water will then assume the same level m the tube that it possesses within
the boiler. .Suppose now that steam is got up, and the lower cock attached to
the glass tube opened, so as to let some of the water escape, as is the usual
practice, to make sure that there is no stoppage in the pipes. Upon shutting
the cock, the glass tube will fill with water, not steam; nor is there any
possible mode by which steam could obtain access to the upper part of the
tube. Even if steam were, by any supernatural method, introduced, it would
soon be condensed, by Ihe escape of heat from the glass tube and brass socket,
and the glass tube wonld refill with w.iter. A glass gauge tube, therefore, if
constructed after our correspondent's improvements, would he altogether
inoperative as an indicator of the water level. The agitation in the tube our
correspondent complains of may be stopped by nearly closing the cocks which
sentinel the communicaiions between the top and bottom ol the glass tube
and the boiler. It is beneficial also to lead a small copper pipe within the
boiler, from the upper glass tube communication lo a point some feet abiwe
the average water level, and another from the under passage communicating
with the glass tube to a point some feet beneath the average water level. The
sketches which accompany our correspondent's paper are of the rudest de-
scription, and his description of the construction and operation of the glass
gauge tubes in common use is erroneous in several particulars. He shows no
cock in the upper or steam communication between the glass tube and the
boiler, so that if the glass tube be accidentally broken— and thai, in steam
vessels, is not an unfrequent occurrrerce— ihe steam cannot be shut ofl, but
escapes full bore into the engine-house. He says also that by opening the
lower cock, and allowing the water to rush out, any little obstruction in the
tube is c'eared away. But if the water be allowed to rush from the lower
cock from the boiler, it will not inter the glass tube at all, and, therefore, can-
not be instrumental in cleaning it. It is by no means uncommon for glass
gauge tubes to become so dirty, especially if the water be muddy, that it is
diffiiult to see the height of the water in them. They are cleaned by being
blown through witii the steam, not by the water.

" .i Workman" on the Skew ^Yn/i.— This is a paper investigating the method
of finding by calculation what Mr. Buck terms the focus of a skew bridge and
the eccentricity of its face. The problem has been previously solved by Buck
in his Treatise, by W. H. Barlow, C. E. ff A. Journal. No. 48, and. we think,
by P. Nicholson, in his " Railway Masonry." The first part of the paper we
cannot clearly understand, owing to the loose way in which it is expressed.
He certainly, however, brings out no result from it. In the second part,
relating to the eccentricity, he neglects, in consequence of its practical unim-
portance, the sine of a very small angle, and by that means brings out a
formula which is certainly simpler than Buck's. Looking, however, to what
others have written on the same subject, and considering the manner in which
the paper is written, we cannot insert it in its present form ; but as the writer
evidently understands the subject, we shall be happy to insert it it he will
make it more elementary, and more precise and accurate in its expression.

We have received several other communications, which we are obliged to
postpone, together with reports of Lectures at King's College and London
University.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20lh (if with drawings, earlier), and adrertisiments on or before the 25th
instant.

Vols. I, n, III, and IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

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1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

141

PROTESTANTISM AND ART.

1. De Protestanlismo jlrtibus haud Infeito. Scripsil Carolus Gr.u-
MEiSEN. Slultgartice tt Tubingte, 1839, 4lo.

2. Ber Protaiantische Goitesdienst, und die Kanst, 1840.

Nothing, we conceive, but an over-scrupulous horror of the
abominations of the church of Rome has induced the reformed church
to repudiate, together with the creed and ritual of Rome, the services
of those arts which, when legitimately employed to such end, enhance
the decorum and solemnity of religious worship, rendering it more
impressive. A very laudable indignation at the abuse of art in the
theatric pageantry employed by Popery, and the grovelling super-
stitions to which it has been made to minister, has led us to run into
the contrary extreme, and to reject it altogether, with somewhat more
of narrow sectarian zeal than either prudence or real consistency.

Whether usjustly or not, the Reformation is generally charged,
even by those who adhere to its doctrines, with having operated most
unfavourably upon the tine arts, both architecture and painting. In
consequence of Protestantism having withdrawn the patronage of the
church from them, those arts, it is asserted, the latter more especially,
have not only lost much of their influence and authority, but have
actually deteriorated — have sunk down to a lower sphere, where they
can no longer put forth their energies, and exhibit themselves in their
majesty and splendour to all classes of the community without dis-
tinction. Painting may now be said to employ itself merely for the
opulent, and for such of the other classes as have opportunities of
visiting exhibitions, which are, unfortunately, so constituted as to
minister quite as much, if not more, to frivolous curiosity — to lounging
gossipping about art— than to art for its own sake, and in its better
spirit. By far the greater mass of the population of this country have
not the means of forming acquaintance with it in any shape, excepting
it be that where we behold it sunk down to disgrace and deformity,
without a trace left of its intellectual character, but grovelling down to
the level of Jack-Sheppardism and Co. in literature. To the lower
orders of English, painting is as unknown, its powers and capacities as
undreamt of by them, as by the negroes in our sugar plantations, or the
colonist in the back settlements of America. Neither is this the onlv
consequence — whether an ill or merely inditFerent one in itself — result-
ing from the exclusion of painting from churches and other places of
social worship : since thus debarred from exercising their powers on
an adequate scale, both the art and its professors are compelled to
abate their enthusiasm, to lower their tone and their pretensions, and,
instead of abandoning themselves to nobler impulses, thereby seeking
to raise others to a calmer and loftier sphere, above the vulgar region
of ordinary sympathies and affections, their high calling is more or less
lost sight of, the ambition that would lead to great aspirings quite
benumbed. Hence that branch of the art which is somewhat incor-
rectly termed historical painting, it being in fact that wherein its
inventive and poetical faculties are chiefly exerted, declines, and sinks
in public esteem ; while those branches which confine themselves to
matter-of-iact reality, and demand no loftier talent than manual
dexterity of execution, usurp the place of the other, till materialism
comes to be almost our established creed in art.

Pursuing the above train of remark, we might go on to show that
when shut out from religious edifices, the species of painting here
alluded to finds no other congenial abode— scarcely a place of refuge.
Withdrawn from the gaze of the multitude, they learn to dispense with
it, or rather have now to learn that the art admits of being applied
more worthily than it at present is. On this account is it that while
it is rejected by the church, it equally fails to obtain patronage from
other public bodies. Our civic companies and other societies afford it
no admittance within their halls, except in the humble quality of
portraiture, or what is not a step higher removed from it.* Under

* We have heard that Cornelius the celebrated (jerm:m artist is to be
invited over to this country, for the purpose of paintmg in fresco some of the
No. 56.— Vol. V.— May, 1812.

such circumstances, little is to be expected from individual and priv.ate
patronage, more especially for works of that high class on which the
glory of the great Italian schools chiefly rests ; because those who can
afford to indulge their taste for such productions naturally prefer
specimens of those schools— works of already established reputation.
Besides all which, although our Protestant feelings are not shocked—
whether they ought to be so, is another question— at meeting with
many pictures in the galleries of our opulent collectors that are
stamped most strongly and undisguisedly by the Romish creed and
cultiis, it does not follow that objections would not be entertained
against religious subjects more consonant with our own belief. On
the contrary, it is precisely because we have no reverential sym-
pathy with them, that we do not feel at all scandalized at beholding
subjects borrowed from the mythology and legends of modern as well
as ancient Rome placed upon much the same footing, as mere
objects of virtu ; whereas it might seem to partake as much of pro-
faneness as the reverse, were an artist commissioned to decorate a
luxurious modern drawing-room with Scriptural pieces. Let them be
what they might, hardly could they fail, if noticed at all, to strike as
most incongruous subjects where the tone of everything else is so
diametrically opposed to them, and where the frivolous gossip or the
fashionable scandal of the day is retailed as conversation. The feel-
ings— or if such be deemed the more suitable term — the prejudices
that restrain us from employing painting to embellish the house of
prayer and devotion with scenes drawn from holy writ, ought likewise
to withhold us from making such subjects the ornaments of our dwell-
ings, thereby depriving them of their solemnity, and rendering them
familiar objects which, if not utterly indifferent, must frequently be
felt to be most inopportime. So far, therefore, we are at least some-
what consistent in affording no encouragement, either public or private,
to that branch of the art which the Romish church has especially
patronized. Which being the case, it is not at all surprising if the
talent that should be exerted upon it is turned aside into other chan-
nels ; far more wonderful would it be, if artists were to devote
themselves out of sheer enthusiasm to that cultivation and exercise of
their energies, which would lead them to poverty, if not to absolute
starvation.

Do what we may, so long as painting shall continue to be dissociated
from the intercourse of public life — from both the civil and the religious
institutions of the community, it is idle to expect it should ever be
again re-instated in the imposing majesty it possessed when the art
was intimately allied with religious creeds and popular sympathies.
It may continue to appeal to the iasle of the few, but cannot be made
to engage the feelings of the many, although it may catch their tran-
sient attention. The consciousness of this depresses the artist, and
deadens all those loftier impulses which should animate him ; for he
knows that were he to succeed in subjects of the class alluded to, they
would be regarded as little better than happy counterfeits and sem-
blances of bygone traditions of art — things to be criticised by rrle,
instead of being contemplated with the same spirit as that in whicn
they were conceived.

After all, however, it may be asked on the other side, is there not
little — or, more than a little, a prodigious deal — of cant about the
efficacy and value of art as a means of moral instruction?* Now, to
speak honestly, we confess that such appears to be, to us, the case a
there is a great deal of cant, of well-meant exaggeration, of over-
halls anil public rooms in the New Houses of Parliament. Yet such report
may be inerelj- an oii-t/it ; at all events, several years must elapse before the
huikling is so far advanced towards completion as to admit oi anytliinjj of
the kind being cummenced.

Of the moral anil intellectual influence of the fine arts, we once received
a practical leison that has not been thrown away upon us. It was at a public
dinner of artists and amateurs, where in due C(jur>e "ere served up sundry
fair spoken speeches relative to the iinpurtanee ::iid moral value of paintin;;
and the fine arts generally, wliieh. thoiigli lliey nii^ht seem germane tii the
occasion, we could nut help thinl^ing were somewhat superfluous and imper-
tinent, it being likelier than not that the company jiresent hardly retiuiied to
be told that •■ there's nutliing like Icatlier." liut now comes tlie real moral
of our aneclote :— no sooner had the chairman vacateil his seat to his " Hrv,"
tlian one of the company being called uitou to oblige the rest by the exercise
of his vocal i>oueis and gilt of " harmony divine," roared forth a bawdy
song, no less intolerably stupid than disgusing!

142

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

strained affection, of blind partiality shutting its eyes to all sober,
disagreeable trutbs. The example of ancient Greece is almost sure
lo be quoted on every occasion of the kind : yet what did art effect
there? it merely softened and refined manners, without purifying
morals, being in itself sensual, and often grossly so — to such a degree,
in fact, that it might be supposed to have been intended to coun-
tenance human vice by examples of deified profligacy — to sanction
depravity, and invest the most shocking turpitude with alluring
elegance conferred upon it by a master hand. If we turn to art during
its palmy state in more modern times, our scepticism as to the efficacy
claimed for it is not greatly diminished, when we observe the not
particularly laudable versatility of talent with which subjects the very
antipodes of each other in sentiment have been treated with equal
guslo by some of the first masters — those who have obtained credit
for having been almost inspired in many of their sacred compositions.
Their sympathies seem to have been so truly Catholic, that nothing
came amiss to their pencils. A Venus or a Virgin, a Magdalen or a
Messalina, the seven sacraments or a lewd bacchanalian revel, have
been treated by them with apparently the very same relish and
sincerity of feeling. He who worked one day for the church and
the devout, attempting themes celestial, glorified saints, and the
supernal paradise itself with its angelic hosts, could, the next, work,
nothing loth, for the carnal-minded and profane, and depict, with far
more of nature than decorum, the libidinous amours of the heathen
Olympians. The fact itself is indisputable ; but then have we not
acted unadvisedly, in calling attention to what seems fatal to our own
side of the argument— that is, supposing our real intention be to advo-
cate the introduction of [minting into our own churches ?

Most certainly we should have kept such awkward and disagreeable
events, by urging only what w-ould show it to be of paramount and
all truth out of sight, did we either only seek to recommend painting at
unimpeachable excellence, or else imagine what we have thus frankly
stated to be in itself a fatal and insurmountable objection. Now, we
do not hold, as many others appear to do, that there is any abstract
unconditional merit either in painting, poetry, or any other of the fine
arts, let the talent— or, if it pleases better, the genius— exerted upon
them be how excellent soever in itself. It is not the power actually
manifested, but the aim to which they are directed, that renders litera-
ture and art a blessing or a curse and pestilence to society, accordingly
as they bring with them " airs from heaven, or blasts from hell." We
neither claim nor recognise for them any prerogative divine ; so very
far from it, that we abhor the cant which endeavours to do both. We
do not see, therefore, how the laudable use of art can be made to jus-
tify the abuse of it, or how its perversion can fairly be employed as
an argument against the application of it to a meritorious purpose.
Neither are we of opinion that Protestantism is so utterly irreconci-
lable with painting, as to be unable to avail itself of it without in some
degree compromising its principles and character. On the contrary,
it appears to us that it would in one respect be more favourable to art
than even Roman Catholicism, inasmuch as it would confine it to its
legitimate sphere — that of illustrating events recorded in Scripture ;
and would prohibit all those offensive extravagances which, in Catholic
countries, the pencil has been allowed to indulge in, such as represent-
ations of the Deity himself, and spiritual and invisible existences on
the one hand, and insipid groups of the Virgin and favourite patron
saints, together with traditionary legends and similar fancies, on the
tother. Nothing can be more shockingly irreverent, yet absurdly
puerile withal, than the anthropomorphism which presumes to image
forth the First Person of the Trinity under a figure and countenance
bearing more than an accidental resemblance to the personification of
the supreme Jove, the father of the gods, by the ancient sculptors.
The Protestant church, again, recognizes no female divinities, nor any
of those other divine personages to whom the polytheism of modern
Rome has erected altars ; its artists would, therefore, be in no danger
whatever of following too closely in the footsteps of Catholic painters.
Whether or not they would, in consequence, be prohibited from ap-
proaching subjects which, partaking as they do of the fancies and
fictions of a semi-paganism, afford a freer scope for the imagination

and for the pencil than the mere records of Holy Writ, so that it would
be disadvantageously fettered down to literal truths, is what we leave
others to decide ; only remarking, that if fiction be essential to the
poetry of art, the Romish church possesses that element of poetry and
artistical inspiration more abundantly than its followers will care to
aUow.

Let the pencil be strictly confined to such subjects as are supplied
by the historic records of the sacred writings, nor presume to reveal
to mortal eye the visions of a world to come — mysteries beyond the
faculties of finite beings to conceive— even to adumbrate in the most
inspired flights of poetry, much less to shape and budy forth tangibly
to the sense of vision. We strongly protest against such awful im-
pieties of art as are some "Last Judgments," even though as works of
the pencil they may seem almost superhuman achievements. Con-
sidered calmlvyet seriou-ily, what are the most miraculous productions
of the kind, other than splendid absurdities, gorgeous incongruities,
sublime jiuerilities ; in a vcord, the extravagance and the impotence
of art? Let their asthetic worth be ever so great, representations of
that kind must in themselves be mere conceits, because that is attempted
to be visibly embodied which in itself utterly surpasses conception;
accordingly, except as performances of art, they are not superior to
the vulgar, rude, bugbear pictures of purgatory so common in Roman
Catholic countries. But if the reader cares to be further edified on
this topic, let him peruse George Forster's criticism on Rubens' cele-
brated Last Judgment at Dusseldorff.

There is no danger of our adopting such solemn extravagancies of
the pencil; but there most unquestionably is not only a strong prejudice
against countenancing painting in our churches, but it seems to be as-
sumed that, even were we disposed to do so, the spirit of Protestantism
itself is so uncongenial to that warmth of rapturous fancy, without which
the artist can neither worthily conceive nor finish up his conceptions of
subjects which ought to awaken corresponding emotions of reverence
in the spectator, that all patronage and encouragement would prove
totally unavailing — would be attended with no other effect than that
of furnishing employment to painters and colour-manufacturers. It is
far more easy to make similar assertions than to disprove them, for
the simple reason that no opportunity has been aftbrded of putting
them to the test, by any practical effort to demonstrate their futility
by proving the contrary. Fac periculum would, therefore, be our
advice. Yet when Reynolds and many of the Academicians of that
day offered to the Dean and Chapter to decorate St. Paul's with
paintings gratuitously, the scheme was frustrated by the opposition of
the then Bishop of London, who refused his consent on the grounds
that it would be introducing Popery into the metropolitan cathedral,
or rather, we presume, out of the apprehension of its being so con-
strued by others. It is not every Protestant clergyman, however, who
entertains the same scruples, for among Dr. Vicesimus Knox's Essays
there is one which warmly recommends the adornment of churches
with paintings, as being at all events harmless and unobjectionable,
and likely to be sometimes efficaciously impressive. If, indeed, it can
be shown that, so far from tending to promote devotional feeling in
any degree, pictures in churches would be calculated to produce a
contrary effect, the repugnance to them would be rational and laudable.
But to reject merely because the Romish church adopts them, seems
to us to savour quite as much of indiscretion as of sound policy j since
by laying too great stress upon what is utterly matter of indifference
as far as concerns the principles of the two churches, we elevate it
into a sort of virtual distinction, if which were repealed, there would
be danger of Protestantism and Popery being confounded together.
Surely the irreconcilability of their respective doctrines and tenets
might suffice to remove all apprehensions of such nature ; moreover
an argument on the other side might with equal propriety be founded
in favour of painting, inasiuuch as the introduction of it would serve
as an additional distinction between the Established church and all the
sects who dissent from it. Almost might it be imagined that painting
was the very badge and livery of Rome— the mark of the Beast— from
whom it behoves us to keep aloof; whereas intruthitis neither essen-
tial to Popery, nor at variance with Protestantism. Were St. Pau I's

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adorned with Scriptural subjects filling up those compartments which its
great architect contemplated as being one day so occupied, it would
not on that account partake one whit more of Romanism than its dome
actually does at present, or than its Corinthian columns do of Pagan
mythology and the religion of the Greeks. Nay, both those architec-
tural features of the edifice and the style generally might, on such
grounds, be considered equally exceptionable, as reminding us too
forcibly of the Roman Catholic temples of Italy; while it at the same
time becomes doubtful whether there be not some impropriety— some
abatement of the wholesome horror of Popery — in permitting ourselves
to revert — to relapse into our ancient ecclesiastical style, which
flourished here when this country submitted to the spiritual juris-
diction of the Vatican. Mr. Welby Pugin — no mean authority,
perhaps, on such a point — considers Gothic architecture and Roman
Catholicism to be so intimately connected together, that the former
cannot possibly thrive — indeed, hardly maintain itself at all — apart
from the protection and influence of the other; yet, so far from enter-
taining any disquieting scruples against it, we have of late professed
ourselves practical admirers of our own indigenous Roman Catholic
style of building for new churches and chapels, endeavouring to copy
its models as closely as circumstances would permit. Were any aiiti-
Gothk critic or dilettante so disposed, he might make use of this
last-mentioned fact, and earnestly deprecate such return to the "bar-
barous monkish style" of our ancestors, not merely as a backsliding in
taste alone, but as betraying a dangerous leaning towards the church
whose erroneous doctrines we have repudiated ; a tendency which it
behoves us particularly to guard against just now, when Popery we
are assured is gaining ground in this country, and certainly does seem
to be putting forth its strength — its attractions and seductions, in the
costly edifices it is erecting in various districts of England. For our-
selves, we look upon its efforts of this kind without apprehension,
considering the alarm attempted to be excited against them to be a
mere bugbear, little better than the watchword of a party.

No ; vre certainly do not wish to approach at all towards Romanism,
neither do we consider that throwing open our churches for the ad-
mission of paintings by Protestant artists would be an approach to it,
any more than walking from Westminster to Highgate can be called
approximating to the North Pole. Still, it does not follow that, inde-
pendently of a seeming tendency to Popery, there may not be objections
against paintings, on other grounds — as beneath the dignity of a
spiritual worship ; as withdrawing attention from the word to visible
objects; as adventitious aids which true devotion does not require.
Certain, however, it is that, exclusively spiritual as may be the religion
thev profess, the mass of mankind are unable to abstract themselves
entirely from external impressions, but feel an increased degree of
awe and devoutness in proportion as religion is allowed to display
external majesty and solemnity; whereas the bareness which cha-
racterizes most of our churches, does not look altogether so much like
simplicity as like penuriousness, begrudging to the house of God that
degree of becoming adornment which we bestow upon our own homes.*
Besides, if objected to upon principle, all decoration of the kind
ought to be consistently excluded ; which certainly is not the case,
because painting is frequently admitted for altar-pieces — nay, there
are instances of the works of Catholic painters being so introduced,
without any exception being taken to them as opening the door to
Popery. Nor have we only pictures of that kind, but painted win-
dows, exhibiting the livery of Popery in figures of legendary saints, or
else displaying heraldic emblazonments — the pride of the creature, in
temples raised to the Creator. Nay, we will not be quite sure that, if
paintings of Scriptural subjects are to be prohibited, we ought not to
be scandalized at beholding Westminster Abbey and St. Paul's each

* Nay, while the average cost of our recently built churches does not
smount to more than 3 or £4000, no less a sum than seventy thousand has
been exiiencled on stables at Windsor Castle, besides we know not how much
more on other stables fur royalty at the Ascot race-course ; f^r which last
there certainly cannot be the plea of necessity — so far from it, that we think
a female sovereign and her court might very well be excused from counte-
nancing horse-racing in any shape whatever ; downright gambling, and
nothing else, being at tlie bottom of it.

converted into a sort of lay Pantheon, and filled with monuments to
men illustrious not as exemplars of Christian virtue and piety — as
faithful servants and champions of the church — but for secular services
performed to the state and the community. Dramatists, actors, artists,
poets, musicians, lioc genus omiie, together with a host of naval and
military characters, sufficient to form a United Service Club, — such are
the personages who are admitted to posthumotis honours in our re-
ligious edifices, after undergoing a sort of Protestant canonization from
the public. While both the author of the Beggars' Opera and the
author of the steam engine have obtained such distinction within
Westminster Abbey, without its being considered any profanation to
the sanctity of the place, in vain do we look there for any testimonial
of national respect to talent and piety, in the persons of such indi-
viduals as Milton, Cowper, and Hannah More.

As regards the possibility, however, of enlisting the arts in the
service of religious worship, we are of opinion that were the inclina-
tion to do so to be manifested on the part of the church itself, many
private individuals would contribute towards such purpose, and as the
taste so fostered spread itself, others would be stimulated to emulate
their example ; whereas at present all feeling of the kind is totally"
discouraged among Protestants, and although a man may erect a church
or chapel at his own cost, he cannot contribute towards the embellish-
ment of one by a painting or other decoration, so that by various
similar donations and acts of munificence, a religious edifice might
eventually be completed in all its embellishments. In fact, we seem
to have now no idea of gradually perfecting a structure of the kind in
all its parts, but what cannot be accomplished at first out of the original
funds is never afterwards attempted to be eftected at all ; one serious ill
consequence of which is that the designs for our modern churches are
never made with reference to any after-growth of ornament, or any sub-
sequent finishing up of what has been in the first instance only provisorily
schemed. Hence the designs are cramped and stunted in their very
conception, and are impressed with a littleness and meanness which,
even were it applied, no after study or polishing up can obliterate.
Such was not the system by which those glorious fabrics of Catholic
times were achieved. Unlike the vulgarly spruce mushrootn churches
and chapels of the present day, they were generally the matured
growth of generations, if not of centuries; and embellishment con-
tinued to be added as the means for doing so were afforded, until
they became what we now behold them. But, as we have already
hinted, almost any building that will afford sufficient accommodation
for a congregation is considered good enough for a church :* nothing
farther is expected to be supplied, after it is once erected — no farther
thought and attention, beyond that of keeping it in necessary repair,
bestowed upon it.

Almost would it seem that Protestantistn made a merit of dis-
couraging architecture, as well as not encouraging painting: for unde-
niable it is that by far the greater proportion of the numerous churches
erected of late years are anything but satisfactory in design, in many
cases totally the reverse, and that not entirely because the funds have
been insufficient, but on account of the excessive littleness and paltri-
ness that stamp every part of the buildings. The primary consider-
ation seems to have been to provide at aU events one or two routine
features, whether any other part can be made to accord with them or
not. If the style is to come under the denomination of Grecian or
Roman, a common-place erection of four or more columns, concocted
according to the usual recipe for making a portico,t and which the

* Now anil then, indeed, an e.<ce|ition occurs ; and as an instance, v.e may
mention the new churcli at Lee, near Blacklieath, which, besides liaving all
the windows filletl with stained glass, is consistently finished up throughout,
and the interior has the singular advantage of being unencumbered hy side
galleries. The church now erecting at Stn-atham by Mr. U d;l luomises also
to be one of superior architectural merit, and of very unusual design, the
stvle partaking of the Italian J'orgotliiscli or Lomhaidic, with some inter-
mixture of polychrumic embellishment. A good deal of coloured decoration
will likewise, as we have been inlormed, be introduced in the interior, and.
among the rest, that of ornamental terracotta tdes both for the pavement
and tor parts of the walls.

T Our modern porticos are at the best seldom more than momprosiyles, tor
the explanation of which and several similar terms, and als.i ior a variety of
interesting remarks on the subject generally, we reler the reader to tlie aiiielc
Portico in the Penny Cyclopeilia, and in the Journal, vol. iii, p. 3Si).

\ 2

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junior clerk in his office can draw out as well, perhaps better, than the
architect himself, is stuck up in front ; no matter whether the rest
can be maJe to correspond in any degree with the style attempted, or
indeed whether it can be afforded to let the entablature be of a piece
with the columns. Or if Gothic be preferred, we are generally treated
with naked and muUionless pointed windows, in what professes to be
the earliest mode of that sty I e, but which in fact is rendered utterly
dissimilar in character — as pert as it is paltry. Even where some parts
are really good in themselves, there are almost invariably some glaring
blemishes to neutralize their efiect, and to render the ensemble pre-
posterous and offensive. Vain is it to look for attention to unity of
character, and consistency of expression throughout, where there has
evidently been no feeling brought to the task, and where the architect
himself has not brought forward a single idea followed out con amore ;
but appears to have been utterly indifferent to aught beyond the mere
business and trading part of his occupation, as if his title were to be
taken in its literal import, and "Architect" meant no more than chief
or master builder contracting for the job.

Were plainness and simplicity identical qualities, or did the absence
of decoration constitute soberness, or were chilling frigidity the same
as solemnity, then might our present church architecture fairly chal-
lenge that of any other age or nation for its excellence in regard to
those merits. Unfortunately for it, such is not the case : in vain do
we look for either simplicity or soberness : while as for solem-
nity or aught approaching it, that is entirely out of the question,
although it would seem to be the quality of paramount and indispen-
sable importance. " Among all the new churches I have seen," says
Candidus, fasciculus 13 of the second series of his " Note-book," " I
have certainly not beheld one possessing internally anything like
solemnity in its general effect ; on the contrary, differ how much they
may as to all other circumstances, they agree as far as the absence of
that quality goes. Some are dismal and mean enough ; others, if not
particularly tasteful, smart enough, just the very places for a fashion-
able congregation, whom the architect generally takes care to arrange
so that they shall make as goodly a show as the audience of a theatre,
and be able to reconnoitre each other without obstruction. In fact
there is very much more of the playhouse than of the house of prayer
in such buildings — nothing calculated to inspire feelings of reverence.
Neither does it make much difference what style be employed, since
the interior of our modem Gothic churches have no greater air of
impressive solemnity than have those in any other style."

Were we ever so much disposed to contradict such opinion, we cannot
attempt it, for among all the newly-erected churches we have visited,
we do not recollect one that can be quoted as an exception ; on the
contrary, we have been disagreeably struck by several that strongly
corroborate the observations we have copied. Much of the want of
solemnity above complained of arises from the cold and raw appear-
ance of the interior generally, owing both to the quantity of light
which is insisted upon as indispensable, and the almost total absence

' A recent article on new churches in the British Critic contains some
exceedingly judicious architectural observations relative to that spurious early
Gothic, with lancet windows, or rather mere holes in the wall, which is now
so greatly in voffue with the cheap church-builders of the day. In a previous
paper on the same subject in that periodical, there occurs likew ise a suggestion
which, should it ever be acted upon, would tend materially to improve the
architectural character of our Protestant churches, namely, that there should
be not a mere shallow and confined lobby, ,-\s at present, but a spacious ves-
tibule or pronaos between the entrance from the street and the body of the
church itself. "There should be something to create the idea of retirement,
and distance from the public thoroughfare, like the ante-chapels of our col-
leges." The circular part of the Temple church is mentioned as furnishing a
hint for the purpose ; and a very recent application of such sort of pronaos may
be found in the elegant chapel of St. Mark's, North Audley -street, which, if
merely on account of that circumstance in its plan, deserves especial notice
among contemporary structures of the same class in the metropolis. A vesti-
bule of this kind, it is further observed, " might be alw ays open during the day,
as Guildhall is, without inconvenience ; and it might be the place for sepulchral
monuments, and for other memorials and inscriptions of a not I'ntircly secular
character." Wc will add, it might be the place too for paintings of Scriptural
subjects ; but then, unfortunately, we have no notion in this country of mon-
uments and pictures being exposed to the view of those who cannot aflord to
pay for seeing them as sights -, but they must be as rigorously excluded from
the gaze o( the profane and vulgar, as if there was danger of the taste of
the lower classes being degraded and their morals corrupted by contemplating
such works of art.

of colour, except it be occasionally in columns and a few other parts,
in which, so far from tending to produce richness, it chiefly occasions
spottiness, and a disagreeable littleness of character. Now whatever
objection may exist to painting in the form of pictures, hardly can
there be any to it as mere colouring, for the purpose both of giving
somewhat of richness and finish to the building, and of sobering and
toning down that offensive glare which now prevails unmitigated
throughout.* It further appears to us, that beautiful and expressive
features as are the windows of our ancient Gothic ediBces, filled with
bold mullions, rich tracery, reticulated panes, and perhaps coloured
glass, shedding a "dim religious light," a mellowing hue, and flicker-
ing gleams and shadows around, windows of similar outline lose all
their beauty when reduced to mere vacant apertures, as is the case in
most of our modern Gothic church specimens, and where such aper-
tures are besides no further apart from each other than they would be
if the light were partially obstructed and subdued by mullions and
tracery. In the other or Grecian style, windows are not a whit better,
in fact operate as a drawback upon the style itself, both internally and
externally ; which defect is ah the less excusable, because, not being
characteristic and congenial features belonging to the style itself,
nothing would be easier than to get rid of side windows altogether,
there being so many various modes of admitting light through the roof
and cieling, any one of which might be adopted, according as it would
best suit the particular design : and if light is, as has been quaintly
observed, " God's eldest daughter," there surely can be no impropriety
in allowing it to flow down into a place of religious worship imme-
diately from above. The new church of La Madeleine at Paris is
lighted entirely after this manner ; and although we cannot refer to a
single structure of the same kind in this country, where that mode of
lighting it has been adopted, we have several and very well known
instances in other buildings of its practical application and success.
The hall of the Elgin marbles at the British Museum, most of the offi-
ces at the Bank of England, the picture-rooms at the National Gallery,
the Pantheon Bazaar, the great room at the Polytechnic Institute, and,
indeed, most large apartments intended for public meetings, are now
so constructed and lighted, although so very differently that hardly any
two examples will be found precisely alike. Putting Gothic archi-
tecture out of the question — for there, except by perforating the
tracery of a vaulted roof, the nearest approach to this mode of lighting
from above would be by clerestory windows forming a lantern over the
body of the church — putting, we say, that out of the question, there is
nothing which is so favourable to architectural display and picturesque
effect in the interior of a building as the streaming in of light from
above diffusing itself beautifully in a single volume, instead of forming
as many distinct spots as there are windows. It is precisely in the
magical effect thus produced that the charm of the Pantheon at Rome,
as an architectural picture, consists ; and yet strange to say, with all
their professed admiration of that building, none of our architects
have adopted for any of our churches the idea it so plainly holds out.
In fact, it is only by getting rid of side windows, that adequate spaces
for paintings on the walls could be obtained in our English churches,
should the time ever arrive when, relieved from our bugbear appre-
hensions of Popery, we should deem it rather a mark of respect than
a profanation to array our temples with storied representations of

* Be the objections made against pictures in churches, as partaking too
much of Popery, well or ill founded, they certainly need not prevent
our adopting a nobler, or rather a less mean and impoverished style for the
edifices themselves, very few of which, among those lately erected, .are at all
decently adorned, even as Protestant places of worship; because there is
certainl;, no danger whatever of their being made to resemble those adapted
to the liomish service. At present almost anything like architectural effect
is entirely out of the question : and the galleries are frequently suffered to
occasion if not e.\actly a theatrical, a very playhouse-like look. For the
management of those someuhat unmanageable and refractory parts, and also
for the general disposition and mode of fitting upthe interior, we would refer
to a structure which, if not Protestant, is inconteslibly not a Catholic one,
namely, the new synagogue in Great 6t. Helen's. Bishopgate-street ; which,
without being at all over-decorated, in some respects rather less so than we
couhl wish, is a handsome and elegant piece of internal architecture, and
might be studied with some advantage by our modern church-builders, unless
indeed, our delicate scruples should reject anything from such a source, as
being likely to lead us to Judaism.

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145

Scriptural subjects — innocent as embellishments — possibly more or
less efficacious as impressive lessons, and aids to devotional feeling.
At present there is hardly a church, except St. Paul's, calculated for
the reception of vpalUpaintings, yet of such decoration even that, we
find, has been deprived, through the over-scrupulousness of one who
could enforce his velo against it ; and perhaps, were it not that they
are utterly lost in obscurity, the same worthy prelate would have con-
demned Sir James Thornhill's paintings in the cupola to be expunged
by whitewash. The exterior itself of the cathedral might at the
present day be objected to by some, as presenting in its noble dome,
its statues, and other ornaments, more of a Papistical physiognomy
than is becoming in a Protestant church of any kind.

There is, we suspect, no small degree of superstition, or else regard
to the superstitious fancies of others, in that excessive and over-
zealous avoidance of things perfectly indifterent in themselves, merely
because they have been used — perhaps greatly abused — by the followers
of a different creed. But is not this apparent virtue a fault, and that
bv no means a light one, partaking as it does of that haughty and
uncharitable spleen, which our Lord himself omitted no opportunity
of reproving in the Pharisees, against whom, as has been remarked by
a certain writer, all meek and humble as he was, he was continually
directing the severest sarcasms and the most pointed irony.

That we may allay the fears and scruples of those who in their just
aversion to Popery look upon painting and sculpture in churches as
part and parcel of it — as among its enticements and defilements— we
will now listen to Dr. Griineisen, whom, to say the truth, we have
kept in the background so long, that our readers may have begun to
suppose we did not intend to admit him further than the threshold of
our article. Now, as is evident from the title he has given it, the
scope of the Doctor's dissertation — which, we may observe, appeared
on the occasion of the Reformation festival at Leipzig, 1&39 — is to
show that the principles of the Reformation do not demand the renun-
ciation of the fine arts, or their expulsion from the service of the
church ; and that it is a mere vulgar prejudice to imagine that the
reformers themselves either desired or contemplated any such result,
but merely sought to abolish those idolatrous pictures and statues to
which the Romanists ascribed supernatural eiTicacy or particular
sacredness, together with relics — always doubtful, and for the greater
part, merely fictitious. The indiscriminate Bilderstiirmerci and spo-
liation of works of art in churches and religious houses proceeded
entirely from the lawless fanaticism of the people, who, in all sudden
changes, whether political or religious, think they cannot better dis-
play their sincerity in favour of one cause, than by blindly attacking
and wreaking their vengeance upon whatever is considered by them
identified with that of their opponents. So far, however, were the
heads of the Reformation from sanctioning or any way countenancing
this zealot Vandalism — albeit some Protestants of the present day would
perhaps show themselves less scrupulous and less moderate — that they
exerted their authority and influence to arrest the mischievous havoc,
as far as was then possible, even at the risk of offending their own
intemperate partisans. To look upon them, therefore, as the insti-
gators and abettors is a calumnious error : with far more truth and
reason may the Romish church be charged with directly sanctioning
those idolatrous superstitions and practices among its followers which
it affects to disown for itself ; inasmuch as it has tacitly connived at
and profited by them, without lifting up its voice against such
enormities.

Zuiiiglius expressly says, " statuas, imagines, et simulacr^i, nemo
tam ilolidus est, qui putet abolendas esse, ubi nuUus eis cultus ex-
hibetur" ; and although he remonstrates against the papistical use or
abuse of such representations, "alioquin," he adds, "nemo magis
miratur picturas, statuas, et imagines quam nos." Very few will
attribute much laxity, or indeed any want of rigour to Calvin, and yet
we find this stern reformer speaking with a liberality in favour of art
that is little less than startling : " neque tamen e/i supersitiiione tenear,
ut nullas prorsus imagines ferendas censeam. Sed quia sculptura et
pictura dvna aunt Dei, purum et legitimum utriusque usum require,
Be quae Dominus in suam gloriam et bonum nostrum nobis contulit, ea

non tantum poUuanlur praepostero abusu, sed in nostram quoque per-
niciem convertantur." Here he openly vindicates the employment of
both painting and sculpture in the service of the church, and for the
adornment of its temples, calling them gifts from God, and making
use of the very strong and remarkable expression, " neque ea super-
stitione tenear," which may be interpreted "I have not such a blind
and superstitious horror of the superstitions of popery as to imagine
that all pictures ought to be interdicted." Indeed, he elsewhere re-
commends the introduction of historical subjects from scripture as
silent admonitions, and incentives to godliness. In short, we believe
that the Royal Academicians would have succeeded far better with
John Calvin than they did with the Bishop of London, who, when they
applied to him, certainly evinced some of that siiperslitioii which the
celebrated reformer disowned. Yet, as we are not Calvinists, and
therefore his authority may have comparatively little weight, let us
turn to Luther, whose opinion ought certainly to stand for something ;
and, undoubtedly to the surprise of many, we find him taunting the
Bildenliirmers or iconoclasts, and destroyers of church pictures and
images, with tolerating similar representations in the wood-cuts of
their German bibles. "I humbly crave, therefore," he adds, "that
they would allow the same license to us, and permit us to adorn our
walls in like manner as they do their books, with images forcibly
calling to mind, or else serving to explain, what is recorded in Holy
Writ; because I see not how they can be more hurtful when deline-
ated upon a wall, than on the page of a hook. Would to God I might
persuade our great and wealthy ones to have the entire bible painted
both outside and withinside their houses; that would be truly a
Christian work." Without exactly assenting to this last opinion,
which appears to us of very questionable propriety, we may be satis-
fied with the direct and explicit testimony given in favour of painting
and sculpture as suitable adornments for churches, by those who, as
Anti-romanists, are generally supposed to have viewed them with
abhorrence, and to have laboured to suppress them.

The other fallacy or error here combated is the prevalent idea that,
independently of the change in religious worship, the Reformation
has proved of evil influence upon art generally, there being, in the
very constitution of Protestantism, what checks and prevents art from
coming to full maturity, although it may not actually blight it in the
bud. We grant that no second Raphael or Michel Agnolo has arisen
as a luminary of Protestant art, that painting has upon the whole
declined since the period immediately preceding the Reformation;
and had such declension been confined to those countries which era-
braced the reformed faith, the argument sought so to be established
might be received as a valid one ; whereas the case stands altogether
differently, since it is precisely in Catholic and papal Italy itself that
the fine arts, and painting more especially, sunk almost to degrada-
tion— to mere mechanical and tasteless routine — to insipidity and
almost to imbecility, during a considerable portion of the two last
centuries, although it would seem that if Catholicism and Protestant-
ism had any share in the matter, it ought to have received a fresh
impetus in Italy, from the roused spirit of rivalry, and the desire of
opposing the majestic array of Catholic worship in all its splendour,
to the tasteless and cheerless poverty of that of the reformed church.
Allowing, therefore, that it was their religious faith and the aesthetic
influence of their creed which, animating the great Catholic artists of
other days, and enabled them to achieve works that seem almost to have
been inspired, we must conclude that the prompting, devotional spirit
of their creed has long since passed away, and that Romanism itself
is now little more than nominal, compared with what it formerly
was. Either the cause alleged was not the real one — or at best, but
one concurring with many others, or it has now ceased, since it most
evidently is no longer in operation. On the other hand, Romanism
favours a good deal that is most anti-aesthetic, and attaches a high
value to many things that art would repudiate, either as absolute de-
formities, or as vain baubles and gewgaws. What shall we say of
that pious taste for bijouterie which the Romanists practically attribute
to their saints? — of diamond necklaces and other trinkets, childishly
dedicated to the Madonna? "The pomp exhibited in architecture

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and painting," says the author of 'Records of a Route, &c.' " is intelli-
gible enough ; not so that which consists in treasures hoarded up in
cases, which do not contribute even to make any show in the way of
the furniture of a church, as is the case with magnificent candelabra
and other utensils. Treasures of that kind are fitter for a goldsmith's
or jeweller's shop, or for the toilette of a fine lady, than as offerings to
a saint." In regard to relics — but no ! there is no occasion for our
making any comment upon them, they being of themselves calculated
to do eminent disservice now to the cause of Romanism, by exciting
contempt and ridicule against it.

The second work whose title is prefixed to our article is by a minis-
ter of the reformed church in Switzerland, but who nevertheless advo-
cates some relaxation of that austerity which has hitherto characterised
the religious community to which he belongs, and given a repulsive
coldness to social worship, the reverse of alluring. The ascetic
renunciation, he observes, of all that partakes of aesthetic feeling — of all
that ministers to refined, intellectualized enjoyment — demands a degree
of spiritual perfection that falls to the lot of (ew ; while to the many,
it only renders what ought to be devotion a frigid and formal penance.
And indeed the exaggerated rant of the conventicle seems to be almost
necessarily resorted to, by way of equivalent, for producing that ex-
citement which the religious pageants of the Romish church supply.
Both extremes have one aim in common, and both partake of acting
for the sake of effect, though the means resorted to for producing it
appear so contradictory.

Contenting himself with cautioning against abuses, the anonymous
writer last referred to expressly recommends that the church should
be allowed to enlist the fine arts in its service. Neither is he by any
means singular in his views, for both the Lutheran and the Calvinistic
churches in Germany have of late begun to relax their former strict-
ness in that respect ; and that reaction seems now to be taking place
for which the public were prepared by the official announcement of
the Prussian minister Von Schuckmann, in 1814, wherein it was sig-
nified that it behoved the church " to give greater solemnity to the
form of religious worship, inasmuch as that at present adhered to does
not at all address itself to the feelings, nor is sufficiently impressive."

How far the same remark applies to the service of the church of
England, we pretend not to judge; yet certain it is that a great
majority of our churches, including those of some of the wealthiest
parishes, are barely decent, and no more, in their fitting up — not
squalid, indeed, but stamped by such begrudging penuriousness, as to
betoken anything but excess of zeal. Nor can we attribute tliis either
to the rigid ascetic notions of the age, or the poverty of the country ;
for the age is liberally indulgent enough, and of wealth there is also
enough, but the spirit of the age is selfishness — cold, calculating self-
ishness. At the same time, it must be allowed that the church itself
has rather repelled than invited private munificence to contribute
towards the adornment of its temples and its service. However, we
will not quarrel with such a state of things, even for the sake of
upholding the cause of art, towards which our affections yearn. Yet,
while we make such concession, we expect some also in return, and,
tlierefore, claim that Protestantism should not be made to bear the
odium of condemning us to shut thedoorsof our churches against works
of art. If we either cannot afford, or do not think it worth while to
obtaia them, we are perfectly satisfied with either of those honest and
very intelligible reasons: it is our pockets, not our Protestantism, that
suggest our sensitive scruples. As to scruples of any other sort, they
are all make-believe. Tliere is not the slightest danger whatever of
pictures tempting us to relapse into Popery, or gaining us over to its
monkish charlatanry, its polytheism, and its miracle-mongers. We
are just as likely to become converts to a belief in witchcraft, as to
Romish idokitry. The taste of the age in osteology is for bones of
megatheriums, not for those of Saints. Why then so much affected
alarm ? Betw een the doctrines of Romanism and those of Protes-
tantism the gulf is so wide that art can never bridge it over; and, of
the two, Romanism is infinitely more in danger than Protestantism,
for the simple reason that is stated by the Italians themselves, in a pro-
verb that cuts their own creed most keenly — "Con l'evaKGElio si

diventi eretico !" Yes, the Gospel is, after all, the great and never-
failing source of heresy — of that most awful heresy which alienates
men from the craftily-devised chimeras, and the simulated Christianity
of Rome.

ON GRECIA.N ARCHITECTURE— ITS BEAUTIES, AND THE

DANGER ATTENDING THE IMITATION OF THE

STYLE IN MODERN TIMES.

To point out in what consist the qualities of beauty, and to make
one kind of definition universally applicable, is an all but impossible
matter in any case, and is especially difficult in all that relates to
architecture. By Mr. Alison it has been ably argued " that in
every subject that form, whether angular or curvilinear, which is most
expressive of these qualities (viz. fineness, delicacy, or ease,) is the
most beautiful form." We find little to oppose in that part of his
essay which treats of colours and sounds; but on the source of the
emotion in forms, and more especially in architecture, he fails. His
fundamental principle is that "matter is not beautiful in itself, but
derives its beauty from the expression of mind," (Essay on the Nature
and Principles of Taste) and he instances the triumphal arch, and the
temple in its primitive state, as beautiful objects, so considered, only
from the perceptions of grandeur and solemnity, which they are cal-
culated to awaken. But surely he too hastily assumes them to be
beautiful, for few modern architects can see in the triumphal arch
great beauty of form ; and we might adduce many examples of temples,
by which the emotion would not be excited, solely from their wanting
those decorative features essential to its production. Mr. Alison
proves, which it was scarcely required to do, that certain feelings are
excited by the sight of the triumphal arch, of the undecorated temple,
of the hearse, and of the engines of war ; but we cannot but hold, that
he errs in considering those to be emotions of beauty, for we most
carefully discriminate between the beautiful, and what is merely the
sumptuous, the reverential, the solemn, or the terrible, each of which
may powerfully influence the mind, without at the same time being
any proof that beauty exists, or can be perceived, in the object. An
edifice may possess no one feature which an artist would call beautiful,
and yet produce the very feelings of which Mr. Alison speaks. The
uneducated, in standing before a large and costly edifice, maybe heard
to express extravagant admiration, but it is alike with them whether
the design be excellent or not; they lavish the terms "grand" "im-
pi/sing" upon structures possessing no one merit, because they excite
in them wonder, mistaken for an emotion of beauty. — Another current
opinion, which is at war with true principles of taste, is, that awy
building of stone is better than one of brick, whatever the design.
If it be true^ that the ordinary forms of the vegetable world possess
as great beanty as the costly exotics of the conservatory ; — if it was
from the oak leaf, from the parsley, and the cabbage, that Gothic
architects most loved to mould the graceful foliage of their capitals
and bosses ; — we ought from them to learn the true value of what
happens to be common, and easy of attainment. Of what may be
done in brick and stone, whether in the Gothic or the Italian style, the
earlier and later portions of Hampton Court palace bear sufficient
witness. The evidence of durability is as high in favour of brick as
of stone. — But, whether we entirely concur in the opinions of Mr.
Alison, or not, it must be granted, that much of onr admiration of
Grecian architecture must be ascribed to associations connected with
the days of Phidias and Pericles, of the splendour which shone round
all the arts, where, "on the Ega:an shore," stood the temples of Mi-
nerva and Theseus, and where poetry, philosophy, and the arts,
combined to render " the violet queen" the centre of an ever -spreading
halo, undimmed through all succeeding time. Who, that loves art,
poetry, philosophy, liberty, does not feel his soul expanded and ele-
vated at the name of Athens? what artist, at the sight of Grecian
architecture, does not think of the mind that conceived, and the people

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that appreciated ? These are associations even more potent than
any— as Mr. Alison might say — of lines and angles with strength and
utility, and of curves and enrichments with elegance and grace.

In the moving and breathing figures of the procession in the Par-
thenon, and in the rich adornnients of the Choragic monument, we are
reminded of the " earth-born" people, who hurled back the invaders
from the fields of Marathon and Platses, and who hailed the works of
.ffischykis and Sophocles victorious in the theatre. Not that the
intrinsic beauties of Grecian architecture are non-existent or unworthy
of notice, but rather, that great as they are, they are subdued by the
larger influence of intellectual association. The native beauty is
beheld, in the perfect adaptation to the two ends of elegance and
strength, so that the proportion, which exhibits the greatest degree of
elegance, is precisely that which also resulted from the arrangementraost
conducive to the stability of the work. By placing the columns at
short intervals, an intricate and shadowy effect was produced, at the
same time that the stones of the architrave were just sufficient to
support the weight of the frieze and cornice above. Further to lessen
the bearing of these stones, the upper part of the column was ex-
tended, and became the capital. To improve the outline of the mass,
and to throw off the water, the sides of the roof were inclined from
the centre, and were formed in parallel lines down to the projecting
cornice.

The theory to which we have adverted was first broached by
Lebrun (Theorie de V Architecture Grccqm et Romaine), and has
been proved by Mr. Gvvilt to be by no means fanciful. In five examples
of celebrated edifices, "the superficies of the columns, cut through
their axes vertically by a plane parallel to the front of the building,
are compared with the area of the entablature and pediment of each
respectively. The weights of each being as the cubes of the square
roofs of the areas, these areas will equally represent the supports and
■weights in either of the terms.

In the Parthenon, the supports are to
the weights as ld4G : 1843 or 1 : M9

But if the steps be reckoned, the ratio
will be as 2183 : 1843 or 1 : 0-84

In the Doric Portico, the supports are
to the weights as 4070 : 3990 or 1 : 0-9S

Inthe Pseudo-dipteral templeat Poes-
tum, the supports are to the weights as 1090 : 1103 or 1 : I'Ol

In the temple of Erectheus, as . . 2G40 : 2800 or 1 : 1-07

In the Pantheon at Rome, as . . 156G : 1723 or 1 : 1-10. "
(GwUCh Chambers' Civil Architecture, note, page 160.^

Thus we see the impropriety of our monumental columns, which,
designed for a proportionate weight of entablature, sustain nothing
but a vase or a statue in most sweet communion with larks and crows ;
which have not even a decorated shaft, to render less striking in each,
its resemblance in form, and its contradiction in end, to a column from
a Roman portico. The Roman triumphal columns were not fac-
similes from one temple or from another ; they were not even of any
particular order, and their shafts were made the means of exhibiting
to posterity a history of the events they were erected to commemorate.
Amid the beautiful decorations of the Trajan and Antonine pillars, we
forget the impropriety of an isolated column, and look upon them as
relics, handing down to us, through the stream of time, the most vivid
picture of Roman greatness.

Deeply impressed as we are with the love of Athenian architecture,
for its intrinsic beauties, and for the charms with which it is sur-
rounded by association ; removed from aland where sunset gilds "with
one unclouded blaze of living light," "Egina's rock and Idra's isle;"
rather using a portico to shelter from the elements, than to retire from
tlie heat of the sun; it is impossible, that our attenuated copies of the
fronts of Grecian temples, can strike us with other feelings than those
of disappointment and regret. We have no peristyles hung with gar-
lands and crowded with admiring votaries; our imitation is all but
limited to an entrance portico, attached to the middle of a building,
wholly different in character, and with which it ought to have no

connexion whatever. Our buildings stand in crowded streets, and are
splashed with their mud, instead of crovi-ning the "marbled steep" of
a promontory, or the summit of an Acropolis. Stories of sashed
windows riddle the frout, and pots and pipes of every imaginable
contortion rise from the roof. No sculpture decorates the metopes
or the pediment ; no colours glitter in the sun. The wall at the back
of the columns seldom recedes, as in the temple of Theseus, and in
that on the Ilyssus, neither are there internal columns to produce
depth or intricacy. The National Gallery is one of the few buildings
of modern times in which these points are attended to, and it does
not, therefore, deserve all the censure it has received. In the Royal
Institution at Manchester, Mr. Barry has not omitted these all-impor-
tant features. The greatest fault of the National Gallery is in not
placing its portico upon a bold fhglit of steps, but, instead, upon a
podium, a thing never done by the Greeks, and never by the Romans in
the main front. We see Grecian buildings — the main lines of which
are horizontal — piled one above another to form steeples, whose lines
oucht to be perpendicular. The Gothic is the only style, capable of
modern application, in which the diminishing steeple can with perfect
propriety be employed; for however beautiful an outline at a distance
may be, a near inspection of details, formed by many horizontal lines,
seldom fails to displease. It must, however, be granted, that some of
the steeples of Wren are so extremely beautiful in their outline, that
we are compelled to pass over their other faults. The least beautiful
examples of Athenian buildings are copied with even more fidelity
than the temples, the Propylaea, and the monument of Lysicrates;
while the victor's wreaths from the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus
are employed on the fronts of buildings with which they have no
character in common.

But whilst we are making all these objections to the modern imita-
tion of Grecian architecture, it may well be asked— Ought the sublime
structures of Greece, and the labours of Revett and Stuart, to have no
influence on our style ? Undoubtedly they ought. But whilst we have
at our disposal the funds of individuals instead of states, and whilst
our modern wants require conveniences, which would at once, if intro-
duced, destroy the character and synchronism of a Grecian building,
let us not attempt that, which the first step will show is at war with
the soundest principle of architectural taste, viz. that all decoration
should have its origin in, or show the semblance of, utility. While
the Grecian style is quite unfitted, the Italian style is well fitted, to
the wants of our climate and manners. It is capable of every varia-
tion; it may be used without orders, or may be combined with, and
influenced by, the Grecian, without any violent anachronism being
apparent. In the style of the Italian palaces, where the orders do not
form an important feature in the front, we possess fine examples in
the Reform Club House, and in the Manchester Athenaum, both by
Mr. Barry. So much has this beautiful style given place to the bad
imitation of another unsuited to our wants, that we might suppose our
modern architects deemed the presence of a gigantic order, essential
to the existence of beauty in a building. Who must not confess, that
the most beautiful buildings of Sanmicbele, of Vignola, of Palladio,
and, in our own country of Chambers, of Burlington, of Talman,* owe
an effect to their boldly projecting cornices, to their decorated doors
and windows, quite equal to that of the orders, which form so subdued
a feature in their fronts ? And are not these gazed on with equal
delight with the beautiful works of Wren, of Vanbrugh, of Gibbs, and
of Hawksmoor, all of whom employed the orders on a large scale, but
who used them with more judgment than we have in later times, with
all our knowledge of Grecian buildings. But, if the orders are essen-
tial, why not, with the classic feeling of the Germans, engraft upon
the Grecian a style, which shall be suited to our wants, and yet shall
be Greek in feeling and in character— in which we shall recognize no
indifferent copies of orders and porticos, showing by contrast the
presence of parts necessitated by our climate— in which the spirit of
a Grecian architect shall appear to pervade the whole, rather than
that the orders should appear the work of an artist, and the doors and

The talented architect of Chatsworth House, Derbyshire

14S

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[May,

■windows of a mason and a carpenter. And thus we may find the true
value of Grecian architecture ; learning between it and modern adap-
tations to choose a style which shall neither offend by its anachro-
nisms, nor subject us to any diminution of our necessary comforts,
designing as Greeks would have designed, had their wants been like
ours. Our buildings must be Grecian in essence rather than in form.

E. H.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXVII.

" I must have liberly
Withal, as large a charter as the winds.
To blow on whom 1 please.''

I. There is one circumstance attending architecture at the present
day, which has not had the attention and consideration given to it, it
deserves ; for while so much has been said in regard to the merits
and the history of different styles, it has scarcely been noticed that
we possess no real style of our own. We may adopt, we may borrow,
we may revive, those belonging to other countries, or other times;
yet that amounts to no more than the transplantation of them, and,
unluckily, the process itself seldom turns out to be any better than
that of transplanting dtad Irut. However successful particular build-
ings maybe as imitations, the styles themselves do not take root;
they exhibit no symptoms of vitality; they do not grom; they put
forth no fresh branches : on the contrary, the chances are that some
of the old ones are lopped off. By this time it might be supposed
Grecian architecture would, if capable of striking root at all, have
begun to manifest some vigour, yet it thrives no better than a mere
sapless trunk. We began by copying it, we continue to copy it, and
are not likely to get any further than copying if. We have got our
lessons in it by heart, and repeat them by rote ; as to getting them by
liead — that is a different matter, and one of which the idea seems to
have occurred to no one. We proceed with it just as far as the
extant examples of it will carry us, and not a single inch further.
Nearly half a century ago we had Doric porticos after the Parthenon —
attglicized, indeed, by sculpture being omitted in the metopes, and if
we now want a portico in the Doric style, we still go to the Parthenon,
or at least to some other established authority, whose columns are as
scrupulously copied as if the modern building were intended to be a
perfect fac-simile of the ancient one, though it may be impossible to
trace the slightest similarity between them except that attending the
columns alone. More frequently, too, than not, these last, so far from
contributing to style, only serve to show the mutual incongruity be-
tween themselves and all the rest, the portico being as little in har-
mony with the building as the building is with the portico. This
system of servile copying — in any other art it would be reprobated
as downright plagiarism and piracy — has absolutely stifled the germs
of invention, and checked all originality and artistical feeling, which,
instead of being encouraged, are actually deprecated as leading to
innovation. What a bugbear word is that same "innovation"!
Surely, if authority and precedent be of any value, there is abundance
of both to sanction innovation, for what is the history of architecture
itself, but that of a series of innovations. Without innovation the
Greeks would never have advanced beyond their Doric style, and our
own ancestors would have stuck fast at their Norman one: or if intro-
duced at all, never would the pointed style have attained that growth,
or spread out into that rich luxuriance it ultimately attained, after
passing through various stages of — innovation.

II. Well, now that we have again turned to the lancet or first stage of
the pointed style, there is no danger whatever of its shooting out afresh.
As lately adopted, it is not an infant style of our own : of the promise

of early childhood it possesses nothing, of the hopeless imbecility of
second childhood and childishness, much. Are we then to conclude
that the inventive powers of architecture are now utterly paralyzed —
that as an art it is extinct, and reduced to what is little better than a
mechanical profession. The plodders in it are many, those who as-
piie to be more than plodders, who apply themselves to architecture
with the feelings of real artists, are — I will not say how few ; but
leave it to every one to judge if he himself is among those few in
whose favour I throw in that saving clause, lest I myself should be
claiced and clapperclawed by the whole of them. No one will now
cry out; not even Professor Brown, since he will, doubtless, think be
must be upon the list of my exceptions.

III. It has been remarked, in regard to despotism, that bad as it
may generally be in practice, it is theoretically better than freedom;
which doctrine, strange as it may be tliought by Englishmen, seems to
be that of architects, for they preach in favour of the despotism of
authority and of slavish submission to precedents. One of their
oriental maxims is that what has hitherto served and satisfied those who
have gone before us, may very well satisfy us. Of innovation they
entertain a most oriental horror. Enamoured of slavery, they depre-
cate artistical freedom, and hug their fetters the more closely when
any one proposes to knock them off. Like Russian serfs, they do not
care to be emancipated ; for they have so long been accustomed to
slavery, that to be now released from it would be exceedingly uncom"
fortable to them. They prefer remaining always in leading strings ;
since it is far easier to suffer themselves to be so guided, than it would
be for them to attempt to guide themselves. Most assuredly it is
very far easier to follow rides so plain and straightforward that they
cannot be missed by any one who is capable of following his own nose,
than it is to hunt after and put oneself under the guidance oi principles
— little better than so many will-o'-the-wisp phantoms. Rules, on
the contrary, are exceedingly safe, and admirably convenient; they
spare a great dealiioth of time and thought: should yoii happen to
go wrong, the fault lies with them, not with yourself ; or rather, as
they cannot be otherwise than right, you cannot possibly be wrong.
In defiance of every blunder or sin against good taste, you can quote
Palladio or some other great authority. There is no architectural
vice or absurdity for which some " venerable " and respectable prece-
dent may not be adduced, and if your doings in the Grecian style are
reproached for being mawkishly insipid, frigid, common-place, and
dull, you can shelter yourself under the very respectable authority of
that very classical architect — Smirke.

IV. The more it is examined into, the more untenable will that
doctrine be found which refers the origin of the Grecian orders to a
timber construction and to the primeval wooden hut. Such notion is
absolutely preposterous; not only is it rebutted by the character of
the style itself, but is utterly at variance with all historical analogy.
The farther we go back into our researches, the more direct evidence
do we obtain that the very earliest architectural monuments of all
were entirely of massive atone, and that so far from resembling even the
the trunks of trees, the columns were merely upright monolithic blocks,
nearly square throughout, with at first very little indication of circular
shaft, except in the upper part, beneath the capital, to which it served
as stem. Such is the ancient architecture of India, the earliest of all
— ponderous, rude, gigantic, and sublime. Borrowed, though not
copied by the Egyptians, this style underwent a transformation ; it was
considerably refined ; the columns or supporting blocks were made
circular throughout, if not invariably cylindrical. Borrowed in its
turn, but not copied by the Greeks, the Egyptian style underwent a
similar process of transformation, and was moulded into the Doric,
the cylindrical form of the columns being changed into a conical or
tapering one. Such origin plainly accounts for the proportions — so
much prated of, and apparently so little understood — of Grecian archi-
tecture ; whereas they are not at all to be reconciled with the idea of
an original timber construction, originating in the brains of "venerable "
old women who have written upon architecture, and received as mat-
ter of faith by those who find it much easier to believe any nonsense
than to examine and inquire. Would even the most massive timber

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construction have led to any tiling like the proportions that charac-
terise the early Doric order? Certainly not; it would have led to
quite a different system, both for the columns and the entire structure.
That of the intercohiinniation would have been just the reverse of
what it now is, for the columns would have been three or four times
as wide apart. If a timber construction was the type, the character of
that type would have been preserved — at least tolerably kept up — at
any rate not entirely obliterated. What analogy is there between a tim-
ber construction and the ponderous Doric entablature and the square-
Hfss which prevails in all its members? Oh! hut a timber construc-
tion, it will be urged, accounts so very "nicely" for the triglyphs.
So, then, in order to account for what is something altogether subor-
dinate, and perhaps almost entirely arbitrary, we are to give up what
accounts for and explains the style itself, considered as a whole.
After all, too, they are accounted for one way just as well as the other.
If intended to represent the horizontal beams laid on the architrave,
and forming the ceiling between that and the external roof, it does not
follow that those beams were of necessity timber ones at first, since
we meet with precisely the same arrangement and forms in the ceil-
ings of the most ancient stone constructions. Being ourselves in-
variably imitators, we seem to be also of opinion that men must have
had ab initio some express model or type, and that those who contrive
and invent must have some pattern to go by.

V. "An engivcer 's the noblest work of God " ! — staggering as it is,
such is the doctrine Itterally put forth in a certain quarter, where it is
maintained to be the highest honour of our race to be engineering
animals. Sages, poets, artists — how do you relish it? — you who have so
long arrogated to yourselves the topmost pinnacles of human glory?
But the world has been mistaken all along, and henceforth mechanics
must take precedence of mind, and machinery of art. Having ad-
vanced so far in such ultra-utilitarian doctrine, should we not take
another step, and be convinced that man himself is but a mere machine
— a piece of clever engineering work. Let us hear no more cant
about Grecian or Gothic art— let us have no more extacies on the
subject of the Parthenon or York Minster — of the Cartoons or the
Elgin marbles — the triumphs of Christian or of Pagan art. Henceforth
the bridge-builder is to be looked upon as the Ponlifex maximns of
society; and Homers and Phidiases, Handels and Raphaels, &c., as a
verv useless race — quite valueless according to the new ultra-utili-
tarian principles. We need not, however, inveigh against those
principles, because there is no danger of their being at all contagious,
for their exquisite absurdity renders them perfectly harmless.

PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN POITIERS AND

ANGOULEME: WITH SOME REMARKS ON EARLY

ARCHITECTURE.

By George Godwin Jon., F.R.S., &c.

( Continued from page 71.j

Chapter 3.

If a tea-cup be reversed in a saucer, it will convey a very clear
idea of the regularly formed mountain, on the truncated top of which
stands Angouleme, one of the most ancient of French cities. A low
wall encloses a public promenade (once the ramparts) around the
whole of the flat summit occupied by the houses, and affords some
beautiful views of the continuous valley, studded with cottages and
sparkling with streams, at the foot of it, as well as of the adjacent
|)icturesque rocks and hills. In consequence of this peculiar and
almost inaccessible position, Angouleme was ever regarded as a safe
refuge in troubled times ; thus, at that period when the Normans, or
North men, ravaged France, burning down churclies, and destroying
all before them, we find the inhabitants of the neighbouring districts
constantly flying to this city, and there defending themselves, although

not always successfully. The approach to Angouleme from Poitiers,
from which town it is distant about 78 miles, is very pretty: the
peculiarity of its position, and the smoothly flowing Charente which
passes it, lending it additional attractions. In the city itself, the
chief object of regard is the Cathedral, dedicated to St. Peter, — a
structure so extraordinary in its character, that it should be visited by
all who view with interest the various shapes taken by architectural
skill in the middle ages, the various modifying circumstances which
led to this variety in different localities, or who are seeking to learn
the immediate source of the style of cisalpine edifices.

Fig. 7.

The above view ot the west front, although sketched on the spot,''
and correct in the generalities, gives but a very feeble and inadequate
idea of this extraordinary facade. The boldness of tlie sculptures,
the size of the five main arches and columns into which it is divided,
and the universal decoration prevailing throughout, produce an effect
picturesque and striking in the extreme.

In character it resembles Notre Dame de Poitiers (see Fig. -1), and
is of that transition period when the semi-circular arcb was about to
give place universally to the pointed. In width it is about GC feet.
The entrance doorway in the centre was spoiled by injudicious repairs
in the last century; formerly it seems there was a porch before it
composed of three arches.t In the arcade on either side of the door,
the heads of which take a slightly pointed form, as at Notre Dame
de Poitiers, and are elaborately sculptured, are the twelve apostles;
underneath one of the groups are sculptured knights tilting in chain
armour. Above the door is the only window in the fayade, now
closed, having around it sculptured figures in arcades. Over it, in
the centre, is a figure of the Almighty in a rcscica piscis, supported
on a very elegant honeysuckle scroll, and flanked by the symbols of
the four evangelists. The intrados of the arch above it, is sculptured

* In October. 18-11.

f This was ilcniulisbed bclvvcen 1808 ami 1810.
cloisters utlaclKil to llio ImiUling were destroyed.

About the same time.

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to represent eight angels. Tlie upper arcade contains a number of
circular medallions, witli heads upon them. The cornice which ter-
minates the front, and the small turrets at the angles, seem to have
been addied at the commencement of the IGth century.

There is a small octagon tower at the junction of the nave and
transepts, but the bell tower is situated at the extremity of the north
transept, and is a very remarkable and beautiful specimen. It rises
independently to a great height, and is divided into six stories above
the transept, adorned with columns and semi-circular arcades, and
terminated with a short pyramidal roof. It may be seen many miles
round, rising from the conical hill on which the city is placed, like a
high mast, and has a very curious effect. With regard to the details
of it, the capitals of the columns are leafed, and indented squares,
scrolls, &c., are amongst the chief ornaments of the mouldings. In
the top story but one, the arcade would seem to be an alteration or
addition, other arches appearing behind those on the face. The
uppermost story has large circular pillars at the angles. Withinside
the church, the nave, which has no columns, is covered by three large
cupolas with plain horizontal bands between each, passing from wall
to wall. The bands form a pointed arch, as they do also on all four
sides under the centre tower, which is pierced with openings, and
serves as a lantein to light the space between the nave and the choir.
The choir, which has an aisle on either side of it, terminates with a
emi-circular absis, the whole much modernized and injured. The
transepts originally presenteu similar cupolas to those now in the
nave. These cnpolas are very singular, and are to be seen only in
very few instances in France. M. de Caumont, who examined this
cathedral in 1S34, considers that originally they formed the external
covering, but that, finding it difficult to prevent the infiltration of
rain water, a wooden roof was aftervcards placed over them. In the
church of >S/. Front, at Perigueux, the same arrangement has been
made ; but in the church at Loches, where there are two similar cu-
polas in the nave, thev are still exposed externally and form two
cones.*

Touching the foundation of the cathedral, and the age of the present
building, it is stated that Clovis rebuilt a church here, and dedicated
it to at. Peter. Having been much injured by invading barbarians, it
was restored and consecrated in 1017 ; but ultimately, namely in 1 120,
was taken down and rebuilt " a primo lapidc." Several of the French
writers wish to insist that the western front was not pulled down at
this time, but that it is a remnant of the structure built by Clovis I
This opinion, however, is quite untenable, as the front is evidently
not earlier than the 12th century. The church was greatly injured
by the Calvinists in the 16th century, as it was also during the revo-
lution of 1793, of which latter time a record yet remains in these
words, sculptured over the entrance door, " Temple de la Raison."

As another example (in fact, perhaps, constituting with Notre Dame
de Poitiers, the three chief examples in France) of a class of buildings
little known to us, I annex a view (Fig. 8,) of the extraordinary western
front of the church of St. Nicholas, at Civray, situated betu een Poitiers
and Angouleme, and is attributed to the 12th century. It was not
drawn on the spot, but is reduced from a very correct engraving of it,
published by M. ThioUet, and will serve to give a clear notion of its
arrangement. In the upper of the two stories into which this facade
is divided, three arches occujiy the whole extent, and display some
extraordinary bas reliefs ; on the left hand side two figures occupy
the place of columns, and support the arches. The doorwav in tlie
centre of the lower story is very richly decorated with sculptured
figures, as are the arches adjoining the space beneath, each of which
is subdivided by two pointed arches, also elaborately adorned. The
signs of the zodiac occur more than once on this very remarkable
front.

The history of that style of architecture which grew up in Byzan-
tium, after the removal of the seat of empire from Rome by Constan-
line, is yet to be written. The extent to which it influenced the

" The interr.al length of the buiUling is 241 fc«t.

FiS- S.

architecture of Germany, France, and England, was, until lately, very
imperfectly estimated, and even now is not sufficiently so. The
materials for such a work, which is unquestionably a dcsideraliim, are
neither few nor slight. Eusebius describes minutely many of the
buildings erected by Constantine and his mother,* as does Procopius
even more fully those built by Justinian.t Spon and other old tra-
vellers give descriptions of many of these edifices, which now no
longer remain; and Hope,$ Mr. Gaily Kniglit,!i' M. Albert Lenoir, and
M. Mallay,|| have each proceeded a considerable way in elucidating
the subject. M. Lenoir, especially, in his architectural course, de-
livered at the BibliotJii'que Royale, Paris, in 1838, and since published
in the " Revue Generale de 1' Architecture," has ably sketched out the
work required.**

It seems quite clear that Constantinople was the great metropolis of
the middle ages, and that at a period when Italy was deeply abased,
skilful artists and artisans of all descriptions were to be found in the
new city.tt They were accordingly sent for to all parts of the empire,
and served to diffuse and make general the style of art there in use.
Works in mosaic, if not originated by the Constantinopolitans,JX were
made so entirely their own as to become invariably termed opus Grce-
cum, and Btjsanteum arlifoium; and stained glass, fresco- painting,
and other decorations, were brought by them to great perfection. The
buildings erected bv Constantine were coated with marble, and the
cupolas by which they were covered were plated with gold.^^ Tlie

* De Vita beatissimi Imperatotis Constavtvii. Liber tertius.

T De JEdificiis Domini Justiniani.

\ Hist. Archit.. chap. x.

^ Normans in Sicily, chap. xxii.

II Essai snrh's Eglises Romano-Bijzantines du dcpartcvieut dn Put/ -de -Dome.

"* Mr. Willis, in his work on the " Architecture of the Middle Ages,'' has
made some valuable observations bearing on the subject. Dr. Moller's book,
•• Memorials of German Gothic Architecture," translated by Mr. Leeds,
sho'-ild also be referred to.

tf Gibbon gives a lively description of the magnificence of Constantinople.
He says, " Some estimate may be formed of the expense bestowed with im-
perial liberalit\' on the foundation of Constanlinople, t>y the allowance of
about £2.500.000 for the construction of the walls, the porticos, and the
aqueJucls. Codinus Antiquit. Const, p. \\. The forests that oversbadoHe,!
the shores of the Kuxine, and the celebrated quarries of wbite marble in Ibe
little island of Proconnesus, supplied an almost inexhaustible stock of mate-
rials, ready to be convej'ed by the convenience of a short \vater-carri.ij^e lu
the harbour of Byzantium." Elsewhere he continues, " A particular de;>criii-
tion. composed about a century after the foundation of the city, enumeiaie,'?
a capitol or school of learning, a cirous, 2 theatres, 8 public and 153 private
baths, 52 porticos. 5 granaries, Saque-lucts or reservoirs of water, 4 S|jacioii.',
h.alls for the m^'Ctings of the senate or courts of jusiiee, 14 churches 14
palaces, and 4-38S hous s which, for their size or beauty, deserved lo be dis-
tinguished from the muliitnde of plebeian habitations," Too much haste,
however, led to to" early decay.

Jt An esrly instance of the use of inlaid work seems pointed out in the
description of the palace of Ahasuerus (Book of Esther, ch.i. v. 6, ascribed to
the year 521 belore Christ), where a pavement is mendoned " of red, ami
blue, and white, and black marble."

^^ " Cumqee icmplum omne in immensam altitudinem exiulisset, vnrio
lapulum genere splendiilum reililidit, a solo ad cameram usque marmoreis
crustis illud openens. Porro cameram lacunaribus rainutissime opens olxlu-
cens, totam auro imlir.icteavit." Eusebius ut supra, *' De coustruciiuiie
martyrii aposlolorum Constantinopoli,"

IS42.]

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151

I

earliest buildings were circular, octagonal, or polygouic. Afterwards
thrt exterior became a square, although the internal plan remained a
circle or octagon. In Sta. Sophia, built by Justinian, in the erection of
which ten thousami men were employed, tlie internal plan became a
cross of four equal sides, known as the Greek cros*, and this building
was for a long time the model on which other structures were founded.*
Elongated cupolas, superimposed tiers of small arcades, columns in
recesses, larger arches, or circular-headed openings containing within
them two or more smaller arches, and plain square or basket-worked
capitals to the columns, are some of the details that were then
introduced. "In this new shape," says a French writer, (M. Vitet,)
" which in truth causes the exclusive admirers of antique purity to
shudder, but nevertheless is entitled to the more indulgent praise of
the true lovers of the beautiful, the genius of the old Greek architects
awakened; less correct, less severe than before, but brilliant willi
vouth and life — more daring, more marvellous. For the second time
the Greeks seized dominion over the grand and beautiful art of archi-
tecture: it was from them the Arabs received the secret of it; it was
bv them that its first lessons were imparted to all Europe."

It is somewhat curious to find that Theodoric, King of the Goths,
was educated at Constantinople, and ever retained a love of the arts
lie had there seen practised.'!' Ravenna, which was the seat of the
Gothic court, vied in magnificence with Rome ; and here we find many
admirable structures erected both then and in after times. To ascribe
this style of architecture and all that it led to, to the Goths, as some
Italian and other writers have done, seems absurd, and has long ago
been combatted ; we must go back to Byzantium for its origin.

In the vear 553 the Goths were conquered, and Italy was once more
united with the Greek empire. Soon afterwards great part of Italy
was seized by the Lombards, who made Pavia the seat of royalty, and
raised many structures. To ascribe to them, however, the origin of
the style of architecture which prevailed in the mis-called dark ages,
seems to be equally erroneous ; they but copied and further modified
the architecture of Byzantium.

Charlemagne raised many edifices in imitation of Byzantine struc-
tures, surmounted with cupolas, in Mayence, Aix-la-Chapelle, and in
various other parts of Germany and France, by means of which archi-
tecture, which had fallen into abeyance, revived, and received a fresh
impulse. The church of St. Front at Perigueux, restored on the
original model probably about the 11th century, is one of these. Like
the church of Sta. Sophia, the plan is a cross of four equal arms, sur-
mounted by five cupolas on tambours, but which are now hidden
externally by a wooden roof. The windows are in threes, connected
by a label : each front of the edifice originally terminated with a gable
or pediment, but this was in later times filled in, so as to form a straight
line round the building, and to receive the wooden roof before
spoken of.

Churches on a circular plan, in imitation perhaps of that built by
Helena over the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, are not uncommon in
France. The church of Charron in the department of Vicnne, of
which some fine ruins remain, is a good example. The greater part
of the structure, as now seen, is of the 11th or l'2th century : at the
west end are two turrets with conical stone roofs in scales, similar to
those at Notre Dame de Poitiers.

To recall the connection with Byzantine architecture apparent in
the buildings more specially spoken of in this and the foregoing chap-
ters is, perliaps, unnecessary : the series of small arcades and sculpture
in the principal front, the mosaics, the use of external painting, and
the occurrence of cupolas, are all fresh in the mind of the reader. In
Germany, where perhaps more than in any other countrv Gothic
architecture, as we now see it, was earliest developed, all the older
buildings are decidedly Byzantine. In Cologne, especially, the deri-
vation is so strikingly apparent, that none who visit that most inte-
resting city can fail to observe it. In Saxon England, it seems certain
that Byzantine architecture was the model chiefly followed. The abbey

' St. Mark at Venice, built by a Greek aichitect. was one of its ufi'spring,
u was llie Rasilica at Visa, also by a Greek archilccl.
T Runsett's 2-iist, of Modern Europe, vol. i.

church at Hexham, built in the seventh century by Wilfrid, was sur-
mounted in the centre of the transept by a cupola ; there were galleries
for the women ; the arch of the sanctuary and other parts were deco-
rated with histories and images ; and the stone work was painted
with a variety of colours. The fact that the term more Romano was
constantly applied to the buildings of this period, does not seem to
contradict the position. Constantinople was regarded 'as a second
Rome, its citizens were termed Romans ; moreover, we know this
description is repeatedly applied by early writers to this very building
at Hexham.

We reach truth slowly, and by painfuUv small degrees : some few-
detect a fact, otliers corroborate it in part, information bearing on the
point is collected, inferences become apparent ; and ultimately a mind
arises to lay hold of all that has been said previously, to get rid of the
difficulties, and digest the whole into a system. A very few years
ago the greatest obscurity prevailed with respect to the semi-circular
style, and it was universally called Saxon in works specially devoted
to the subject, to distinguish it from the pointed, which was then
termed Norman. Writers afterwards, in an equally erroneous man-
ner, as I humbly conceive, termed every building wherein the serai-
circular arch was used Norman, without any regard to the country
where it was found, or the period which produced it. And even at
this time, when so much is being done for the elucidation of archi-
tectural history, many still remain with very confused ideas upon the
subject, and vacillate between the terms Romanesque, Lombardic,
Norman, and Byzantine, often applied indifferently to the same edifices.
Let us seek for the truth.

THE NEW PALACE OF MOORSHEDABAD, IN BENGAL.

Erected for His Highness the Nuwaub Nazim,

By Major-Gekeral M'Leod.

(With an Engraving, Plate f.J

At one of the evening meetings at the commencement of the pre-
sent session of the Institution of Civil Engineers, our attention was
attracted to the exhibition of two very splendid water-colour drawings
by Mr. John Edward Jones, being perspective views of a palace built
in India for one of the subsidiary princes. Upon inquiry we ascer-
tained that this palace had been recently erected, entirely from the
designs and under the immediate superintendence of Major-General
M'Leod, who, in consequence of an application from us, very hand-
somely directed Mr. Jones to favour us with whatever drawings we
were desirous of having for the service of the Journal. For this
purpose we selected the plan of the principal floor, and the elevation
of one of the principal fronts. We have also subjoined the report of
the Committee appointed by the Indian Government to inspect the
new palace ; it fully describes the nature of the building, and to what
purpose the several rooms are appropriated. Without entering into
a minute criticism of the architectural character of the building, it
must be admitted by all to be one of unusually princely magnificence,
and one that will be a lasting honour to the talented General to whom
the erection was entrusted.

Report of the Special Comimtlee of Inspection,
dated Calcutta, Wlh Nov. 183S.

We have the honour to submit, for the information of his hononr
the Deputy Governor of Bengal, the result of our proceedings conse-
quent upon the receipt of your letters of the l'2th, lOth ult., and with-
out date, received at Moor.-hed.ibad, from the Governor General's
agent, in regard to the Nizamut buildings at Moorshedabad.

The new Palace is in length l'^.) feet, by 200 feet in breadth; and
of one order of architecture throughout the whole of its exterior, with-

153

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

out any intermixture of the same on a reduced scale, or of any other
order. It stands on a slight elevation, produced by raising the foun-
dation walls three feet above the general level of the ground, and fill-
ing up with earth to that height, in a gradual slope, to the extent per-
mitted by the surrounding buildings, and the termination of the
premises towards tlie river, on the banks of which the palace stands
— a conspicuous and imposing feature in the landscape from a great
distance. The effect anticipated by raising the structure, as just
described, has been fully accomplished.

The order employed is the Grecian Doric. It is forty-six feet nine
inches in height, having fluted columns thirty-six feet high ; five feet
six inches in diameter at the base, and four feet one and a half inches
at the neck, with corresponding antae, and an entablature of ten feet
nine inches ; the whole surmounting a basement of eighteen feet six
inches, of which three feet six inches forms the plinth of the building.
Over the entablature are parapet walls, varying in height according
to circumstances, and ornamented with panels, plinths, and cornices.
The projections of the cornice of the order are of stone, having the
guttsE and lilies in the angles cut out of the solid. Nothing could be
more satisfactory than the execution of the whole detail of what this
involves. The Doric order is notoriously of difficult management,
when applied to edifices of complicated design, from the necessity of
observing the rules prescribed for the introduction of tlie triglyphs in
the frieze of the entablature. In the present instance, with many
projections and recesses, tending to create difficulties, there was not
discoverable the slightest deviation from what these rules demand;
the cornices and mouldings were noticed as being cleanly and sharply
cut and defined, and all lines and surfaces, whether of stone or plaster,
exhibited the most successful result of much labour and minute
attention.

On the south front is a portico of eight columns, ninety-seven feet
nine inches in length, surmounted by a pediment twelve feet high,
and having a strong trussed roof of timber secured transversely by iron
tie-rods. To the north is the entrance portico of six columns, mea-
suring 70 ft. 9 in. in length, with a corresponding trussed roof to the
pediment, which rises 10 ft.; in the tympanum of either pediment
are the arms of the Nuwaub Nazim, perfectly executed in relievo, and
forming a very appropriate and eiTective finish to the whole.

Leading to the northern portico, is a noble flight of stone steps,
commencing in its breadth above from the centre of the end columns,
and having a platform stretching out in the same parallel to a width
of 24 ft. 9 in., from which, descending, it curves outwards on either j
side till it ends at its base, in a line extending to the length of 129 ft. (
There are two intermediate platforms, one of 10, and one of 5 ft. in !
width; in a line with which last, at the extremities, are well proper- }
tioned pedestals with stone slabs, bearing inscriptions (the letters
cleanly cut in relief) in English and Persian, exhibiting particulars
connected with the erection of the edifice (enclosure No. 1), and
in front of these pedestals, on blocks carried out from their bases,
corresponding iu height and breadth with the last flight of steps, and
10 ft. G in. in length, are placed two sphinxes, admirably executed,
both as regards the design and workmanship. They are of solid teak,
but painted and sanded so as exactly to resemble stone, and form
highly ornamental appendages to the entrance in the position they
occupy. Iron railing, of a graceful pattern, corresponding with, that
of the colonnades (rising from which are five lamp-posts on either
side, with three on either pedestal below,) surmounts the flight at
either extremity. Underneath is a capacious carriage way; and there
are three vaulted ranges, two of them open, and one (the lowest) closed
in, and forming dbdarkhiinesh and other useful offices.

To the north front are two smaller porticos (to the wings) of four
columns each, and intermediately between the centre and wings on
cither front, receding colonnades ; which also form leading features of
the end fronts of the building.

To all the above colonnades, including the porticos, are continuous
balconies to the third floor, ii ft. wide, of light appearance but of
great strength, being constructed of iron beams or cantilevers from 19
to 21 inches apart, inserted in the walls between stones to a depth of

14 ft., and supported on brackets at intervals, the rest of the material
of the floor being of flat bar iron. The floor is composed of tiles,
terras, and marble, confined by a plate or band of iron. The railing
is partly of iron and partly of teak ; the main supports and some of
the rails being of the former, upheld by brackets branching from the
cantilevers.

The spaces over the doors and windows within the colonnades, as
well as those of the treble windows in the exterior walls, are relieved
by panels, in which are inserted ornaments of various descriptions,
in relief, of good design, and extremely well executed.

There are two open courts in the interior of the building, 72 by
52 ft., finished in every respect in the same style as the exterior,
having substantial drains all round, communicating with large covered
ones externally, which are carried to a considerab'e distance, and
empty themselves into the river.

Round the exterior of the building there is a platform of the finest
masonry, bricken-edge, 7 ft. wide, from which spring small flights of
stone steps to the height of the plinth, leading to tlie entrances in the
several compartments of the edifice; outside of which is a roadway
or walk, of corresponding breadth, composed of koah, 9 in. in depth.
The plinth of the building has oval flue openings of 22 by IS in.,
furnished with strong iron gratings;— where flights of steps interfere,
three of the step-facings in each have gratings, of IS in. in length,
fixed into them.

The inlcrior comprises a basement floor, from 13 ft. to 13 ft. 3 in. in
height to the beams; a principal floor, from 21 ft. 9 in. to 22 ft. in
height, to the ceilings ; and a third floor of the same height as the
latter.

Principal floor. The principal entrance is from the north portico
into a vestibule 36 ft. by 27 ft., having a geometrical stone staircase
at either side, 7 ft. 6 in. in width, with iron railing and mahogany
liand-rail, each staircase receiving light from four painted glared win-
dows. Within this range is a corridor or passage, 12 ft. wide, leading
to the wings of the edifice, divided into compartments, and so con-
trived, that by shutting two doors the communication with the wings
is cut olK without any interruption to that between the other portions
of the building. From the centre of the corridor a large door opens
into a circular room 50 ft. in diameter; to the right and left of which
(on entering) is a room 52 ft., by 25 ft.; the three comprising one
suite of apartments, separated from the wings by the open courts,
(noticed above). The circular room is of the Corinthian order,
taken from the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome. The order is in
height 30 ft. 6 in., with pedestals of 4 ft. 6 in. From the entablature,
on a line with the frieze, springs a cupola of masonry, with sunk
panels, ending in a painted glazed skylight 20 ft. in diameter, the
height from the floor to the openisg of the skylight being 56 ft., and
to \is apex 62 ft. The room is decorated in its circumference by
four large covered recesses, over which are long panels, eight pilasters,
and four large doors ; over which last are oval openings occupied with
pierced screens of arabesque, cut iu single slabs of stone. All the
mouldings and compartments are richly carved and ornamented, in
conformity with the rules of the order of which the apartment is
composed ; and, whether as regards the effi.-ct of the whole, or the
exquisite finish of the details throughout, it is impossible to speak
too highly of what has been accomplished. There is nothing to add,
and nothing to alter : the architect and builder have done their work
perfectly. To the south of the above suite is a grand colonnaded
saloon, measuring 187 ft. Gin. in length, susceptible of division at
pleasure into three apartments, by means of sliding doors 18 ft. 2 in.
wide, the leaves sliding into cases, faced on both sides, from the
bottom to the top, with mirrors. The general width of this saloon is
55 ft., the centre space within the bases of the columns being 29 ft.
Beyond either extremitv of the saloon is a geometrical stone staircase,
5 ft. 3 in. wide, with railing, as before described, communicating with
the apartments of the wings.

The wings do not correspond internally with each other : both are
divided into apartments of various suitable dimensions, each having a
spiral stone staircase at either corner, with baths, dressing rooms, &c.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

153

With the exception of the circular room, the interior of the whole of
the principal floor is of the Roman Doric order.

Ore tJie third foor the dimensions of the several apartments neces-
sarily correspond with those immediately below, just described,
excluding the circular room, which comprehends both floors. In this
third floor also is the same arrangement of the saloon as that described
for the principal floor, but the order throughout is the antique Ionic,
19 ft. high, with fluted columns, pilasters, &c., surmounted by a coved
ceiling rising 2 ft. 9 in.

The whole of the apartments in both these floors are ceiled with
canvas, or teak wood frames, through which are fitted into the beams
strong brass hinge-hooks for punkahs, and brass for lamps or lustres,
to an extent ample for every purpose of use or ornament. In both
floors the doors are painted in imitation of different woods (satin
wood, mahogany, oak, maple, &c.) and highly varnished ; and, with a
few exceptions (in the minor apartments of the wings) they are fitted
with plated locks, bolts, and hinges, and hand-guards ; also on the
principal floor. All the apartments in the wings of both floors are
coloured in distemper, in light tints of various colours ; and the walls,
as high as the surbase of the vestibule, and four staircases, are painted
in imitation of marble; all with very good effect. There are twelve
fire-places, with carved mantel-pieces of teak, also painted and var-
nished in successful imitation of rare marbles. The floors of the
whole of the public apartments of the principal story, including the
vestibule and landing places of the great staircases, are paved with
polished marble; and those of the corresponding apartments in the
third story, with the landing places of all the four staircases, are laid
with teak boarding. The whole of the public rooms in both floors,
and the columns in the wings, are finished with polished stucco, in
imitation of the Madras chunam ; and it may here be observed, that
the flutings and finishings of all the columns, exterior and interior, are
remarkably well defined, and evenly and sharply wrought ; a comple-
tion very rare, where brick and plaster are the materials, in houses
even of the highest pretensions in this country.

Tfie hasemtnt floor is finished in a plain style, having a simple
moulded band under the beams and no ceilings. The doors and win-
dows are of appropriate substantial construction, fitted with brass
locks, bolts, and hinges, and painted plainly. Under the circular room
(of paragraph 15) are four strong lock-up closets for treasure, plate,
jewels, or other articles of value, with a large open space for a guard.
In the arches of the treble windows of this floor, fifteen in number, are
coloured fan-lights. In the west wing is a steam-bath, complete in
all respects, executed subsequently to the erection of the building,
as we were informed by Colonel M'Leod, at the particular desire of
the Nuwaub Nazim. All the exterior colonnades and porticos in the
basement and principal floor, as well as the vestibule and staircases of
the basement, are paved with stone.

Pleasure Grounds. — Koah roads, twenty feet wide, have been con-
structed, and well rolled, in all that portion of the ground about the
Palace which has yet been cleared of old buildings ; the banks of the
river have been sloped off and sodded throughout the whole extent (with
the exception of a very small portion, for which it seems earth was
not procurable) and stone posts have been inserted along the top, as
fastenings for boats. The whole of the ground (cleared) has been
smoothed and grassed, and completely drained. At a short distance,
in front of the Palace, is a handsome sun-dial, five feet in diameter,
a surplus stone so converted by Lieut. Cunningham ; it rests on a
pillar based on stone steps, and forms a useful and appropriate ap-
pendage to the premises. A substantial stone ghat, fifteen feet wide,
has been constructed near the Palace for the convenience of the Nu-
waub, and at about 800 yards to the south of the Palace a large Nou-
bulkahnth gateway has been erected, as an entrance to the grounds in
that direction. As it was not immediately in view, there did not
appear to be any objection to its being built in a style of architecture
adapted to its purpose, and the Asiatic or Turkish has been adopted.
In concluding this head of our report, it seems proper to advert to
the fact of this edifice, in all its departments, having been constructed
and completed by natives of the country ; the only exceptions to which

remark are in regard to the painting and glazing, which portions of
the work were executed by professional Europeans. The expressions
of approval which will have been found interspersed with the pre-
ceding details, were elicited by particular features of the building
under review, inviting a more peculiar attention from their impor-
tance, or the effect produced by them on the eye of the observer ; but
they are equally applicable to every part of the structure, which,
whether considered as a work of art to be admired for its exceeding
beauty, or as an example of skilful labour applied to the practical
combination of excellent materials, reflects the highest credit on the
architect, and all subordinate to him, concerned in its erection. The
late rainy season was one of uncommon violence, and had just closed
when our survey was made, and the soil far and wide was either inun-
dated or saturated with moisture. Nothing could have more search-
ingly tested the strength and solidity of a newly erected edifice ; but
not a crack or symptom of yielding was to be seen, externally or within,
throughout the whole extent of this fabric ; and we conclude our re-
marks upon it with the expression of a grateful anticipation, that a
lengthened durability awaits what we have represented as so pre-
eminently worthy of a lasting preservation.

In conclusion, we would here recapitulate, in a few words, the
opinion to which our inquiries have led regarding the three points to
which reference is made in the second paragraph of our report. As
to the execution of the vrorks, our verdict, after a careful examination
of all that presented itself to our view, is one of unqualified approval
and commendation.

REID'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.

Floating Breakwaters are at the present moment occupying much
of the public attention, which has induced me to turn my mind to the
subject : the result of my labours I submit to your notice. The objec-
tion of a gallant officer in the House of Commons to floating break-
waters, because chain cables would last only a few years, is but a
trifling objection. If the success only depends upon the cost of cables,
the ships and property, not to speak of lives saved, would fully com-
pensate the country for occasionally laying down new moorings.

Depth
Wave

Frame 12 ft
Sloi'e 15 ft. i

Explanation of Engraving.

A is an arched frame of timber in thicknesses, 6 ft. higli in the
centre ; B frame of timber bolted together, 2 ft. square, and 20 ft. long
on the chord line; C sloping frame of timber, 1 ft. square, secured
with iron straps, bolts, and stays, and protected at the point by iron
shoes ; D inclined plane on shutter 24 ft. 6 in. long, laid to an angle of
35°, with planking laid diagonally and bolted to a framework of tim-
ber, the planking need not be laid close, there maybe a space of 3 or 4
in. between; E iron cable ; F bridle, and G chain for lifting shutter ;
H bit or head to which the cables are secured.

If the depth of the wave be 9 ft. below the chord bar of the arch,
there will be 6 ft. (perpendicular) of the shutter below that, the
inclined plane will underrun the wave, and the arched frame work above
will offer a gentle resistance for the wave to fall upon, and distribute
itself harmless. There will be no strain upon the hinges, the cables

Z

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Mat,

being secured to bits in the centre of tlie raft. When the sea strikes
the front of the inclined plane, the framework will yield, and the
hinges will prevent that sudden check which the cable tiglitening
would give to the work. Were they not there, the frame would
almost instantly resume its place ; the buoyancy of the shutters takes
all weight from the hinges. The principal use of the hinges to the
shutters is for the more easy recovery of the moorings. A small chain
attached to the shutters will enable them to be weighed at pleasure ;
when at the surface they are easily hung to lighters. The iron
plates on the shutters under the moorings are to prevent the wood
being chafed away by the friction. Each shutter is proposed to be
30 ft. long; the raft can be increased to any height, though GO ft.
broad would be suBicient for the heaviest sea that ever ran. Unlike
a beach, tliere would be no back run of water; and a raft of such
breadth would have the effect, from its own hold in the water, of ren-
dering the whole front stationary, at least this, I imagine, would be so.
I should think 20 ft. perpendicular depth would also be deep enough
for any weather. One of moderate dimensions, tried in a moderate
sea, would prove its efficacy. It is an idea formed after considerable
reflection, upon seeing plans of others, and hearing objections urged.
If it should prove successful, 'twill be a double pleasure ; and the
lives it may be the means of saving will not be the least portion of
such gratification.
March, 1842.

ON THE ECONOMY OF FUEL IN MARINE ENGINES, AS

PRODUCED BY EXPANSION.

By J. G. Laurie.

In prosecuting the investigation of expansion, I now come to
consider it with reference to economy of fuel, as applied in marine
engines. In former numbers of this Journal I have investigated its
effect in locomotives; but important as economy of fuel is in them,
it is of vastly greater importance in marine engines, the result in the
one case being only a diminished expenditure, and in the other the
accomplishment of passages otherwise quite unattainable, [n sea-
going steam vessels, subjected to varying weather and tempestuous
voyages, the application of expansion is as beautiful in theory as
beneficial in practice. By its means the power of the engine both
statical and dynamical is most beautifully adapted to the necessities
of the vessel, for by extending or contracting the degree of expansion
in favourable or adverse weather, the mean statical force of the
engine and the resistance of the vessel are, within extended limits,
exactly proportional ; and in each case the dynamical power is greatly
increased over what it otherwise could be, and that too in the way (in
the one case being by increased statical force, and in the other by
speed,) in which it is most available.

In marine engines there are two means in use for effecting expan-
sion; the one being by the D valve, and the other by a separate or
expansion valve, which in some engines are used singly, and in others
jointly.

The slide valve, as wrought by an eccentric, and constructed with
only sufficient cover to keep it tight, seems admirably fitted to the
purpose for which it was introduced, but does not seem so capable of
carrying out the principle of expansion, for, in the first place, it does
not afford the means of varying the extent of expansion, and, in the
next place, when expansion is to be carried to any considerable extent,
it opens and shuts the ports in a manner that has the effect of virtually
diminishing the size of the engine. In proof of

this, by referring to my communication in No. •* P

47 of this Journal, it will be found proved that,
if A B C D be a steam cylinder, A D the stroke
of the piston^2rf; the radius of the eccentric
=a ; the cover of the valve on the steam side
=c; distance from commencement of stroke to
commencement of expansion^rra' ; distance from
commencement of stroke to termination of eX'
panaion=i ;

, 2i(a-c«) --y., „, , ,, a'd+d\/ai-a^c-
0= — ^-5 -^=2aX(l— c^) when a=l h— ■ :

o- ■ a

d-\-d^/ i^f.2 or for a particular and perhaps an extreme case, take

3 7 3'3

c=- and then o'=2iXT7; and !»^2dx-r which proves that when
4a 16 4

there is cover on the steam side only of the valve, and when that cover

is sufficient to expand the steam from 1 to 1"9, the whole available

volume of the cylinder for receiving the steam from the boiler, and

3'3

for expanding that steam, does not exceed — of the cylinder, nor does

it come to be quite so much as that, for at the same moment that ex»
pansion terminates on the one side of the piston, compression of the
enclosed vapour commences on the other, which can be viewed either
in the light of detracting from the power already developed by the
piston, or of diminishing (which it does in reality) the available part
(a') for receiving fresh steam from the boiler. If less cover be given
to the valve, the evil here pointed out is also less ; and when the cover
is small, it seems to be quite overbalanced by a property which shall
be hereafter explained. But if, on the other hand, greater cover be
given them, it is more than proportionally increased, and comes to be
of serious amount; to avoid which the valve is frequently constructed
so that it shall have cover on the eduction side as well as on the steam
side. If these covers be equal, then at the same time that the steam
is cut off from the side of the piston, the eduction is cut off from the
other, in consequence of which, although the available part (6) is
increased by giving cover to both sides of the valve, the available
part (a') is decreased, and, in addition, the period of time for which
the eductingside of the piston is in communication with the condenser
is greatly shortened ; if, however, the cover on the eduction side be
less than the cover on the steam side, this effect of compression of the
enclosed vapour will be diminished, and the period of time for con-
densation lengthened, but so will also the available part (5) of the
cylinder be diminished. Hence betwixt the advantage of increasing
the part (6) of the cylinder, and the disadvantage of diminishing (o')
and shortening the period of time for condensation, there is some
extent of cover of the eduction side of the valve, which shall in the
greatest possible degree secure the one and avoid the other. The
exact magnitude of this might (but with great difliculty, from the
nature of the analysis, which is lying before me,) be ascertained ana-
lytically ; but though it were ascertained with all conceivable precision,
still the plan of expanding by the slide valve has the effect of dimin-
ishing the available size of the cylinder, and, therefore, to employ
the steam produced by a given boiler, that steam being expanded to
a given extent, will require a cylinder, and, consequently, an engine,
larger wlien that engine expands by the D valve than when it expands
by a valve which does not diminish the available volume of the cylin-
der, which, even though there were no other reason, would, in engines
of considerable magnitude, in which alone expansion is much used
and is most serviceable, prevent the adoption of expanding by the
slide valve, and give a decided preference to a separate one being
employed for the purpose.

To expand by a separate or expansive valve there have been almost
numberless schemes, the principal of which are throttle, slide, and
conical valves, of various constructions and variously situated, each of
which has in its turn had some claim to superiority over every other.
The great aim of the various plans seems to have been to cut off the
steam close to the cylinder ports, for the attainment of which, in many
cases, means are resorted to that are both difficult of execution and
troublesome to keep in order. The evil produced by placing the ex-
pansion valve at some distance from the cylinder port is two-fold. In
the first place, such an arrangement fixes a limit to the extent of
expansion depending on the ratio of the volume of the cylinder to
the volume of the steam betwixt the cylinder port and the expansion
valve ; and the next place, the effective power of the steam through-
out the stroke (or in other words, the area of the indicator diagram,)
is diminished, the amount of which diminution may be thus estimated.
Let volume of steam cylinder;=o; volume of steam betwixt cylinder
port and expanBion_^valve:=:6_; pressure _of steam at commencement

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

155

of expan6ion=^/i ; pressure of steam at termination of expansion=rs.
Then, efficiency of whole stroke of piston=« (0+6) log.--(-l)—6f

or put a^l p—l

1

and then efficiency of the whole stroke =s(l+6) (log. — f-l) — 6

To find from this what would be the efficiency were the expansion
valve close to the cylinder port, put 6=0 ; and hence —

Efficiency when valve is close to cylinder port=s (log. — 1-1)

Do.when valve is at a distance (6) from do.=:s (1+6) (log. — 1-1)— 6

which formulae assign the amount of injury entailed upon an engine
by any given position of expansion valve, and, therefore, the amount
of preference due from this cause to one valve over another. But by
substituting for (b) its value, in practical cases we find that the amount
of the injury is by no means of sufficient importance to warrant the
exclusion of all expansion valves that do not cut oft' close to the port ;
and by making a comparison of the three, namely, the slide inserted
betwixt the D valve and the face of the cylinder, the slide valve in
the inside of the cylinder steam jacket, and the double-beat conical
valve (the three which seem to be at the present time of the greatest
importance). Taking into consideration simplicity of arrangement,
simplicity of execution, facility to keep in repair, and efficiency of
action, including facility of altering the degree of expansion, we are
led to believe that the double-heat expansion valve is the one which,
in the aggregate, is the best. This valve (6) in well constructed
engines does not exceed one-thirtieth ; but as an average case, take
one-fifteenth of the volume of the cylinder, and by substituting this
value of (6) we find the loss of effect of the steam from having one-
fifteenth of the whole volume of the cylinder betwixt the cylinder

0-06- — sxO-06' (log. i+1)

1-06-s (log. +l)_0-OG-

or -when s:=l to nearly 4i per cent, of the whole power developed
by the engine, which points out the propriety of putting the valve as
close to the D valve casing as possible.

Adopting then the double beat conical valve, the economy of fuel
as produced by expansion may be thus estimated. Let the volume of
steam cylinder when there is no expansion^a ; volume of steam
betwixt cylinder port and expansion valve = 6; pressure of steam at
commencement of expansion=/) ; pressure of steam at termination of
expansions*. Then s ; p : : a ' volume of cylinder when expan-
sion is carried to extent (s) .' . increased volume of cylinders— but (6)

must be taken proportional to the volume of the cylinder .'.a : —
: : 6 ; increased volume betwixt cylinder ports and expansion valve

port and the expansion valve to be-

ditto

= — and by substituting these values of

(a and 6) in the formula s (a + b) log. P + 1) — bj>, we find that with

the expansion (8)the efficiency ofa given quantity of steam is (ap+bp)

p bp^

(log. - + 1)—-^ . Put in this a =1 p = 1 i) = ^x volume of
s s

steam cylinder, which, in well constructed engines, it will not

exceed, and efficiency = 1-04 X (log. - + i)_0'04X-

s s

Let s=l which is the case of no expansion, and efficiency = 1

K s= 5 which is the case of the steam

being cut off, when stroke J finished & efficiency= 1'285

" s=| " " I " =1'4

» 8=4 " « i " =1-68

" g=i " « i " =2-06

« «=i « " i " =2-32

" s=i " « J « =2-88

And hence the following conclusions : —

If the work done by a ton of coal when the steam is used without
expansion be represented by unity, the work done by the same fuel
when the steam is used expansively to the extent of reducing its
pressure to I of its original pressure, is represented by 1.285.
And when to the extent of reducing

its pressure to . . . . § the work is represented by 1-4
" " " * « " 1-G8

" " " ^ " « 2-06

" " " i " " 2-32

" " " I " « 2-88

In a former part of this paper it was mentioned that it is advan-
tageous to construct the D valve with a small extent of cover,
notwithstanding its efiect of diminishing the available volume of the
cylinder, and for the following reasons : — when the piston of the steam
cylinder is near either end of its stroke, the effective leverage of the
crank to turn the paddle shaft is small ; and although the amount of
power developed by a given quantity of steam is at every part of the
stroke precisely the same, yet, in consequence of the varying leverage
of the crank, that portion of the power applied to overcome resistance
at the extremity of the paddle wheel arm is by no means the same,
being diminished at no two parts of the stroke by the same quantity,
to overcome friction ; for as the leverage of the crank decreases, that
of the friction on some of the journals, in reference to the power,
increases. And beyond a certain point, it is very questionable if (the
engine being deprived of all momentum,) any amount of power that
could be applied to the crank pin would bring the crank to the per-
pendicular position, and therefore for a certain portion of the stroke
at each end, the steam not only does not increase the efficiency of the
engine, but detracts from it, by the amount of power necessary to
overcome the friction produced by its application ; and hence the
propriety of the plan adopted by some makers, of constructing the D
valve with so much cover as causes the eduction to commence before
the termination of the stroke, and the average vacuum effected before
the return stroke has advanced to that point when the steam begins
to be effective. The extent of cover necessary to effect this object is
quite beyond the power of analysis to assign, and perhaps no two
engineers have from their observation arrived at exactly the same
conclusion ; but I should say that constructing the D valve with only
sufficient cover on the eduction side to keep it tight, and with from
0-25 to 0'3 of the breadth of the port on the steam side, would
probably with the average of cases be not far from the truth, with
which construction the cylinder would be in communication with the
condenser from -jir to -n; of the whole time, for eduction before the
termination of the stroke.

Greenock Foundry, 15/4 ^pril, 1842.

ON THE SKEW ARCH.

An analytical investigation of the principal properties o/ihe Skem
Arch. By a ]Vorkman,

Let A B C D, a 6 c rf, be the plan of the semicylindrical arch, the ele-
vation on the skew of which is represented by A G B 6 F a ; draw a K
perpendicular to the axis H E R, and G E perpendicular to A B, and
N n n' parallel o a K ; let the spirals, which commence from n n',
intersect the skew elevation in the points S s, join S and s, and produce
this line to meet the axis G E produced if necessary in O, the line
E O is stated by Mr. Buck to be a constant quantity, the investigation
of which will form the subject of this paper.

The subject of inquiry seems to demand the complete solution of
the two propositions.

First. To determine the intersections s and S of the spirals com-
mencing at II n', with the skew elevation a F 6 and A G B.

Second. To determine the point where the line joining S and
produced meets the axis G E.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

ig.l.

Fig. 2.

ii m

Let L S I and M s ni be two square sections at right angles to the
axis, and passing through the points S and s respectively.

b K=6 which is called the obliquity of the bridge.

a= axil length (see Buck on oblique arches).

*■ R=^E F, E G radii of the semicylinder respectively.

w=H N, H=3-14, &c.

V « V m=X and V S V Z=X'.

Let X, y, z, be the rectangular co-ordinates of the point s, origin at
H, Z measured vertically, and x on the line H K.

First for this point s we have the following equations :

a: = rco3. X, y = n-\-°'-^, Z=r Sin. X (V)
11 ^ ^

These equations are too obvious to need any further explanation.

Next, to find the equation of the elliptical face a F 6, let x' y' z' be

the rectangular co-ordinates of any point iu this face, referred to the

same axis and origin as before, Y the angle made by a section passing

through this point parallel to the section L S I

(1 + COS. Y) 6

. y' = rcos. X,* y' = ■

, z' = r sin, X

(2)

* This equation is obtained m the following manner :—
S'' = tan. z E 0 H X (,• + r los. Y) but tan. .d E o H = .,t

y =

_(l+cos. V)&

as stated above.

At the point of intersection of these two lines, namely, the spiral
and the ellipse, which is formed in the skew elevation, we must have
the following obvious conditions: —

x = x', y=y', z=^z' .•.X = Y

,, ., a X (1 + cos. Y) h
Consequently w+ — =

By reduction we have x—- — cos. X = (6— 2w) — (3)

2 o 2 a

the equation for the intrado.

The equation to the exfrado is a similar one to that of the intrado,

viz. —

X'-^ COS. X' = (6'-2?b') — (4)
2 a ^ 2a

where 6' = 6 + 2 K K' and 7v' = w + ¥.'K

.•.6'-2j»' = 6-2j!; + 2K K'-2 KK' = 6-2 w

by similar triangles 2r : (R-r) : : 6 : K K'

R6-br ,. 6R

.2KK'

6'="

r r

Substituting these values in equation (4) we shall have for the
equation of the extrado —

X

, - COS. X' = (5-2 7») — (5)
r ^ 2 o

Now it is easily seen from equations (3) and (5> that the following
relation subsists : —

(X'-X)-

n b

^R COS. X' — r cos. X

(6)

If we assume X any arbitrary quantity along the intrado of the
skew elevation, the solution of equation (6) will give us X' the
corresponding extrado.

But it is easily seen that this equation cannot, by the present state
of analytical science, be generally solved. The best mode of eftecting
an approximate solution is by the aid of Lagrange's theorem, as given
by Lacroix (see his calculus differential and integral); but this will be
rendered unnecessary by the aid of the following proposition: —

To determine the point O, where the line joining the points S s,
intersects the vertical radius, draw s /, S T, perpendicular to G E
respectively, and call \/a b K^9

i s = r cos. X X cosec. S and T S= R cos. X' X cosec. 6

by similar triangles TS:/s::TO:;0

that is <o = < E + E 0=?-i^^=^X(T Ex E O)

by substitution and transposition we have as follows : —

r- ^ T, /Sin. X' .COS. X— Sin. X . cos.X'\

E O =R xrl jr — 1

\ R COS. X'— r COS. X /

= RrX;

R COS. X'—T COS. X
Sin. (X'-X)

(7)

■R COS. X' — r COS. X
bv substituting the value of (6) in (7) we have —
■X)

_ „ nbn Sin. (X'
EO=-^ X

(8)

2 a '^ X — X

It will readily be seen from equations (3) and (5) that X' is always

greater than X between the limits X =0 and X = ; but (X' — X)con-

stantly diminishes from X=0, then a maximum to X= where

(X' — X) =0. From this it appears that E O is not theoretically a
constant quantity; but in the construction of bridges (X' — X) when at its
maximum is so small,* that we may safely infer Sin. (X' — X) = X — X,

.-.--'-^ <»

a constant quantity : this is the greatest value that E O can possibly-
attain.

* All the lines which are made use of in (he foregoing inveslijation will,
I think, be perfectly understood by those wlio have read the first chapter in.
Mr. Buck's Treatise on tlieSkew Arch.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

157

ON BEAM AND DIRECT ACTION ENGINES.
" Non omnia possumus omnes."

Sir — Perceiving in your excellent journal a controversy of conside-
rable importance, relative to the Beam and tlie Gorgon engine, I am
induced to offer a few remarks thereon, placing thera at your per-
fect disposal ; and at the same time allow me, in mere good humour,
to beg that we conduct our arguments in gentlemanly style, and avoid
as much as possible cause for irritation, especially all harsh expressions
not necessary to the elucidation of the subject. I allude to the open-
ing paper of Vulcan, and reply of Mr. Pole, whose terras " misrepre-
sentation and fallacy," I object to, especially in his first paragraph;
he should allow your readers to draw their conclusions on these points
and not prejudge the question.

As a dispassionate member of the profession, one not more wedded
to the beam engine than other constructions, when such can be shown
advantageous in their application, I pen the following remarks without
prejudice, and will endeavour to carry out the principles recommended
in my first observations, and to argue upon nothing but facts which
have been published upon good authority, and which, I believe, cannot
be disputed with fairness. After a careful perusal of both papers, and
full consideration of their contents, I have come to the conclusion that
Mr. Pole has not materially affected the position of Vulcan, or denied
his chief points; wliy, it shall (with your permission; be my object
to show. Vulcan's position appears to me to be this: —

1st. That the Gorgon engine is not new, as it regards the direct
application of the power, and further that the credit due to the Messrs.
Seaward is not equal to their claim, considering the chronology of its
introduction.

2nd. That a saving of nearly one-half in space is not correct.

3rd. That a saving of 25 per cent, on the beam engine in weight
is not founded on fact, and also that the weight given to the Govern-
ment has been considerably exceeded.

4th. That the guaranteed consumption of fuel at GJ lb. per horse
per hour, is far from fact exhibited in practice.

With regard to the first point, Mr. Pole (am I right in supposing
he writes " by authority"?) grants that the application of the "direct
action" is not new, having been applied in the Tourist and United
Kingdom, and the only question remaining is the comparative im-
provement of the Gorgon's on these, I may say at that time the only
generally known (in this country) constructions of direct engines.
Now, in my humble judgment, in considering this we should take into
account the period at wliich they were brought forward, and make
allowances for the infant state of marine engineering when Gutzmer
designed his 5U-horse engines subsequently placed in the Tourist, and
that we should not omit to consider the great experience and practice
we have all obtained from that period up to the year 1S37, when the
great light of the Gorgou engine burst in upon us.

Apart from the early period in which Gutzmer brought forward his
direct engine, it should be recollected that the Tourist was a very
small vessel — I say nas, for she has been considerably lengthened —
very shallow in her hold, quite flat in the bottom, and small draft of
•water, circumstances the very opposite of the Gorgon and Cyclops.
The engines, in plan, were like Mr. Penn's osciUating engines, having
one air pump and one condenser, the former wrought by a cranked
shaft; so far Vulcan is right, for I feel assured Mr. Pole does not
suppose the similarity was assumed, in workmanship or proportion.
The stroke was 3 feet, and cylinder 40 inches, and the connecting rods
were 2 feet 'J inches long, — less than twice the crank. I apprehend
little ditference of opinion will exist as to the cause of their imperfect
action. It may be asked, why was this ? I answer, Gutzmer had no
alternative, other than making his wheel much too large for the
stroke, and had he even put aside this objection, he must have brought
his shaft on deck, which, in those times, would have raised a host
of prejudices, and somewhat risked the insurance of the vessel.
He had to contend with imperfect machinery, bad lathes and tools,
and men unacquainted with their work, and many other things too
numerous to mention, but too well known to projectors of olden time.
It is not too much to say that the principal of these difficulties have
been overcome for some years. Thanks to the late Mr. Maudslay, to
Nasmyth, to Whitworth and others, we have arrived at a vvondrous
perfection in the executive department. 1 am almost tempted to say,
the difficulty now lies not in the execution, but in the invention. How-
many schemers can tell a contrary tale I

Possessing these views, in conjunction with Vulcan, I cannot give
to the revivifiers of a dormant scheme any credit of "conception or
invention" ; but that some merit is undoubtedly theirs, let us see how
far it goes.

The Tourist was a small vessel of 300 tons, 23 feet beam, and 14
feet depth in hold ; draft (loaded for the voyage), about 8 feet (> inches,
or 9 feet. Compare this with the Gorgon, a ship of 1050 tons — 37
feet beam, IZfut depth in hold, draft about 15 feet. Let us transpose
the cases, and suppose Gutzmer to have flourished now and Seaward
then: is it not reasonable to suppose that the acute Scotchman, pos-
sessing all the knowledge of modern improvements, would have carried
out his principle in a very different manner? It should be recollected
that large "men-of-war" steamers were not then thought of, and also
that the "direct principle" is not, and never can be applied to vessels
with a small draught of water, with any useful effect : so far, we are
where Gutzmer left us. Powerful steamers are emanations of modem
ingenuity, and it does not follow but that Gutzmer would have made
his principle as " efficient and applicable on a large scale" as the
Messrs. Seaward, had the circumstances of the times been in his
favour.

There is another point in which I wish this question to be viewed.
Any claim as to the " direct principle" having been conceded, it only
remains to show how far there is originality in the arrangement or
mechanical adaptation of the Gorgon engine, and I think I shall be
enabled to show that this belongs, equally with the " direct principle,"
to a time antecedent to the Seawardian age.

Those of your readers who possess a copy of Gregory's Mechanics
are referred to plate 23, fig. 10, and to the letter-press, vol. ii, p. 85,
"Parallel Motion." In the former they will see an exact delineation
of the Gorgou engine, and in the latter the worthy Professor informs
us, after a full exposition of the principle, " that this motion, as well
as fig. 8 (the common bridle motion) were devised by Mr. William
Dryden, a mechanic, whose ingenuity needs not our encomium."
p. 2S(5, art. 3. Now, I am not prepared to say when Dryden invented
it, but this is certain, that it was antecedent to Gutzmer, for he copied
the motion No. S (the bridle motion) in the Tourist's engines, and by
a curious coincidence his other invention was adopted in the Gorgon
engine. The merit due to the Messrs. Seaward is that of " adapters" ;
to that they are justly entitled; they have shown great tact and
judgment therein.

In criticising Vulcan's remarks upon the dimensions of the
Gorgon engine, I scarcely think Mr. Pole is fair in putting forth a
small table of the lengths of engine-rooms, as a criterion of space
occupied, although his statement is perfectly correct. It is well
known in the profession, that the engineer is not always consulted as
to the distance between his bulkheads. It is often increased to make
room for stores, duplicates, accommodation for engineers, &c. Some-
times the distance is increased by the shipwright, by caprice of the
engineer, who does not wish to be " cramped" in manipulating his
engine. M''e may also say, in large men-of-war it is not advisable to
concentrate such great weights, but to spread them as much as is con-
sistent with the accommodation of the crew, and the purposes of war.
To my personal knowledge, this feeling has lengthened many engine-
rooms several feet. In private trading vessels, I grant, the machinery
should be as compact as possible, passenger accommodation and hold
being of first-rate importance.

Now, in Mr. Pole's table, the vessels having beam engines are Hydra,
Medea, and Vivid, the engine-rooms of Hydra and Gorgon being of
equal length, viz. 62 feet, that of the Medea 60 feet; and it should
be recollected that these vessels were fitted without the smallest idea
of competition in this respect. Had it been so, I have no hesitation
in saying that that of Hydra could have been reduced four feet without
the slightest inconvenience; and Medea in the same proportion. Those
of your readers who know the vessels are aware this is not mere
assertion. But I will endeavour to show that the engines of the
Hydra might be increased to 160 horses each (now 1 10), without any
increase of space ; and more, that a beam engine of the Gorgon's pro-
portions may be constructed to occupy space as shown in Vulcan's
diagram, and to weigh (with water in boiler) not more than 300 tons.

Having, therefore, I hope, explained why we should not take length
of engine-rooms as conclusive evidence of excellence, we must recur
to Vulcan's original position, and take the bare space occupied by the
engine, especially as Mr. Pole has thrown aside all other portions of
the machinery : on that very ground I am prepared to meet him.

First, I will show that the engines of the Medea and Hydra may be
extended to 160 horses, without longitudinal increase of space in the
latter, and a slight lateral increase in the former. The Hydra's engines
are 110 horses each; cylinders 55^ in. diameter, and 5 feet stroke ;
length between centres of cylinder and shaft 15 feet, or 3 times the
stroke. I believe this to be Boultonand Watt's usual practice, exceed-
ing in this particular most other makers, (Maudslays, for instance,)
and may here observe Mr. Pole appears to have overlooked Vulcan's
statement, that he took Mr. Watt's data to prevent cavil, and see his
computation of Gorgon power, namely, an assumed pressure of "seven

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[Mat,

pounds," and 33,0001b. lifted oue foot. My calculations are made on the
same basis. Referring to Weale's Tredgold, vol. ii, plates 33 and 34,
engines of tlie Kile, (being exactly similar to the Hydra's,) plate 34
on the plan, shows the distance between the inds o/t/ie main levers to be
a feet 4 inches, consequently there is room for a cylinder of that dimen-
sion over the flanges. Taking Mr. Watt's data, a 5-feet stroke should
make 2Ustrokesper minute,or215 feet. This at 33,000 lb. is equal to
a 67-inch cylinder to produce 160 horses, and if we allow 4 inches each
side for the joints and flanges, we have G7-(-8;=7a=;6 ft. 3, or an ample
clearance of half an inch on each side. Plate 33 is a longitudinal
section of the engine, and its extreme length from steam pipe flanch
to fore end of engine frame is 23 feet 6 inches, its extreme width
over the main gudgeons being 8 feet 3 inches only ; and be it observed,
this length includes an extended head stock framing, which (with all
respect be it spoken,) I cannot conceive necessary, at least to so great
an extent ; but there it is, and as I wish to adhere to facts, what
have we ? — The Hydra's beam engine of 160 horses, requiring 23 feet
6 inches in length, and 8 feet 3 inches in breadth; the Gorgon engine
of 160 horses, requiring 20 feet 6 inches in length, and 7 feet 10 inches
in breadth — a saving of 3 feet on 23 feet 6 inches, or about one-eighth !
I must call on Mr. Pole to show how this agrees with the first item of
the Gorgon advantage, as quoted by himself from the pamphlet, viz.
that the saving in space is very nearly one-half.

It may be said such an engine has not been made, and is merely
hypothetical. I apprehend one thing only is necessary to produce it
•^un order.* And here I beg to maintain, the question is between
the beam and Gorgon engine, and we have not only to prove what has
been done, but what can be done, on the principle of the former. Let
us take the Medea, by Maudslay. I refer your readers to Tredgold,
plates 37 and 38. The former is a plan of the engines of the Phoenix
(same as the Medea) ; the distance between the main levers is 5 feet
10 inches. Here we require a lateral extension to 6 feet 4 inches, as
in the Hydra, to make room for a cylinder of 67 inches. This done,
the Medea's engine is 1 feet 9 inchts over all athwart, or one inch less
than the Gorgon ! Plate 38 is a longitudinal view of the same ; the
length of the engine is, as it regards space occupied, only 19 feet, but
as in the Hydra, I'll take in the additional piece of frame, and call it
21 feet 6 inches, and what have we? — ^Medea beam engine, requiring
21 feet G inches in length, and 7 feet 9 inches in breadth ; tlie Gorgon
engine, requiring 20 feet 6 inches in length, and 7 feet 10 inches in
breath — a saving by the latter of -^ part in length, and an increase in
breadth of one inch. Sir, let your readers examine and judge for
themselves.

Having, I hope, shovfn that what may be called engines of some
standing can be increased to 320 horses without additional space, I
now fulfil my promise, to explain that engines having the same stroke
as the Gorgon, viz. 5 feet 6 inches, may be made under these restric-
tions. In fact, I shall do no more than prove the correctness of Vulcan's
" sketch." And here. Sir, I have recourse to the useful table published
in your April number, viz. the proportions used by Maudslay, Son, and
Field. You state their 100 horse 5-feet stroke is 14 feet 2| inches from
centre of cylinder to centre of crank (see table, the 42nd and 43rd line) .
Having 6 inches more stroke, say 5 feet 6 inches, we will take this
proportion, and find the same distance to be 15 feet 6 inches as near
as may be. By Mr. Watt's formula a stroke of 5 feet 6 inches
should make 20-130 strokes, or say 22 li feet per minute, to produce
a power of 160 horses. At this speed we recjuire a cylinder of 66
inches, the same as in the Gorgon : then for a beam engine on these
proportions, we have — ft. in.

Distance from crank to centre of cylinder . . . 15 6
Half diam. of cylinder, plus flanges, joints, &c.=33-|-9= 3 6
Half projection of headstock : in this we take Messrs.
Seawards' own practice, as in the Mcegara, taking propor-
tion as length of crank, the true guide. The Sloegara's
stroke is 4 feet 3 inches ; width of headstock 4 feet 3 inches.
(See Tredgold, plate 49.) In this case the stroke is 5 feet
6 inches: take 5 feet 6 inches-;- 2=: . . . .29

For the whole length of the engine

21 9

The nidlh of such an engine would be as that of the Hydra, viz.
8 feet 3 inches. Thus, what have we here? — A beam engine, as the
Gorgon, 21 feet 9 inches in length and 8 feet 3 inches in breadth;
Gorgon engine 20 feet 6 inches in length, and 7 feet 10 inches in
breadth — a saving of 15 inches upon 21 feet 9 inches, or just one-
seventeenth part, and in breadth a saving of 5 inches upon 8 feet 3
inches, or about one-nineteenth part. Does not this call for explana-

* Since writing this, 1 have been crediljly informed that a pair of beam
tHjjines of this power, or nearly so, are constructing by Boultoa and Watt.

tion ? I have not done yet, but fear being prolix, although I hope you
will bear with me, as it is of great importance to the profession that
this matter should be set straight.

Let your readers consult Tredgold, plate 49, being a longitudinal
section of the Mcegara's engines. "They are stated to be seventy horses,
having a 44-inch cylinder, and 4 feet 3 inches stroke ; according to
Mr. Watt, this should travel 206 feet per minute, giving a power of
06 horses. Now this engine occupies 17 feet 6 inches in length for
this small power; and if the Gorgon engine is compared with such
beam engines, perhaps a better case might be made ; but that, I humbly
submit, is not the point in dispute.

Having given your readers comparisons of Boulton and Watt's
and Maudslays' practice, let us go north, and show what our Scotch
friends can do. Let them look at Tredgold, p. 41 — a section of the
Don Juan's engines, by Claud, Girdwood and Co. (I am now speaking
of space only). This is an engine of 6 feet stroke, and 68-inch cylin-
der, at 7 1b. equal to a power of 176 horses x '-=352 horses, or 32
more than Gorgon ; and what have we here ? — ft. in.

A Clyde beam engine, over all . . . . . 23 3

Gorgon engine 20 G

— A s;iving of 2 feet 9 inches upon 23 feet 3 inches, or about one-
eighth. No plan of this engine is given, so I cannot compare as
it regards lateral space, be it observed this scheme is like Vul-
can's sketch, particularly in the way the longitudinal pressure of
the shaft is resisted by large deck beams; and is there any reason
why this should not answer in a beam as well as in a Gorgon engine?
Should it not even be better from the greater length of the connecting
rod?

In concluding the subject of space, I will draw attention to the facts
that I have shown : —

1. That the Hydra's and Medea's engines maybe increased to 320
horses, without material additional space.

2. 'That a beam engine of the Gorgon's proportions may be con-
structed as sketched by Vulcan.

3. That the Don Juan's engines are 32 horses larger than the
Gorgon's, and only 23 feet 3 inches long.

4. That the saving in No. 1 is about one-twelfth, in No. 2 one-
seventeenth, and in No. 3 about one-eighth, this latter beirg of larger
power.

Mr. Pole assumes an argument in favour of the Gorgon engine, upon
the number made by the Messrs. Seaward. Let me repeat Vulcan's
assertion, that with two foreign exceptions, the "British Government
is the only patron of the Gorgon engine." No commercial man
connected with steam navigation will look at them.

I do not think Vulcan political in reflecting on the judgment of
navy engineers : they are notoriously behind, and have great lee way
to gain. Mr. Pole will recollect that, not long ago, we had a highly
favourable report on Hall's condensers; that thousands were expended
on Morgan's wheels ; still the first invention did not extend beyond
the Mcegara, the latter is now exploded ; may we not suppose a
similar fate awaits the Gorgon engine ? I think Vulcan's prophecy
most reasonable and probable. It may be said, the Government are
the persons to make experiments. True; but should they not be
guided by discrimination and judgment in the selection of subjects?

But other firms are making "direct engines." Government say "We
will have no other: what are they to do? They must comply, or lose
royal favour, shut up their shops, or find work for their people. Is
the course diflicult to decide ? 'Tis what is vulgarly called » Hobson's
choice." But if we are to have " direct engines," let us have them
in a shape that offers compensation for their acknowledged disadvan-
tage. If credit is to be given to the Messrs. Seaward for a reduction
of one-eighth, or one-twelfth, or one-seventeenth, what amount of
admiration is due to Maudslay, to Boulton and Watt, who, in the
Devastation and Virago, have annihilated space to one-half that of
the Gorgon engine I Could those gentlemen have stooped to such
species of advertisement, with what propriety could they have pub-
lished a pamphlet, and with all the "pomp and circumstance" of
success, have said — 1st. "A great saving (nearly one-half) of the
space usually occupied by the engine in the vessel."

I now advert to the important subject of the weight of marine
engines. Vulcan states " the assumed weight of the Gorgon's ma-
chinery was 257 tons, and that it really weighed 298J tons." This
has not been contradicted, and I presume it to be correct, as great
care was taken ; Government appointed a special officer to see each
portion weighed. Now I am fully aware of the difliculty in assuming
weights of machinery, especially that of a new design, and do not
think much of the Surveyor of the Navy's annoyance at finding some
40 tons more on board than he had displacement for ; but that is not
the point of difference. It is, what proportion does this 2981 tons
bear to the weight of a pair of beam engines of 320 horse power ?

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

159

Much has been lately said concerning the preat weight, bad propor-
tions, and large consumption of coal, of the Clyde engines ; with what
truth, it is not now my intention to inquire, but their makers can bear
it well, whfn they recollect, before they became of sufficient impor-
tance to be considered as rivals, that the same charge was brought
against Boulton and Watt. Mr. Pole, supposing Vulcan to be of
" Bromielaw" origin, gives them a very sly hit. He says " Four pairs
of 2bO horse power, nude in Scotland, exceeded the assumed weight
by 60 tons each pair." If so, it only proves that they (the Scotch)
sinned in a greater degree than the Canal Iron Works, in the exact
proportion of 2S0 to GO, as 320 is to 40, nothing more. Are we to
qualify our own errors, bv exaggerating those of others? No, no, the
Gorgon engine is a Thames production : let us try it by its compeers.
Here I must accuse Mr. Pole of a quibble. He throws aside all the
machinery but the engine, as I observed before; as it regarded space,
this is a perfectly fair comparison, but not so as it regards the weight.
He has shown the engiie alone to have exceeded its estimate by two
tons onlv. True; but engines are scarcely complete without paddle-
wheels. To avoid any misunderstanding as to the shafts and other
portions being put to debit or credit, let us take them both together,
and we have — weight given, 145 tons ; real weight 1G3; a difference
of 18 tons. Here lies the quibble: it must be evident, even to the
unprofessional reader, that a saving in one portion of a ship's ma-
chinery, if counteracted by increased vreight in another, is of small
use in result, and that in comparisons of this sort, it is proper only to
take the total weight complete. This I do! Vulcan states the Gorgon's
weight to be 298| tons, and he has not been directly contradicted. In
the table, p. 133, Mr. Pole puts it at 280 tons. Had we not better call
upon Vulcan to produce his promised '■official" report upon this sub-
ject? Apropos of tiiis very admission, that the Gorgon engine is
0'88 of a nominal horse per ton, and that beam engines are about l-O'J
ton per horse per hour; the difference here is just 0'12, or less th^n
one-eighth, and the pamphlet, see art. 2, promises a saving of 25 per
cent., or one-fourth. May not the Messrs. Seaward say, "Save us
from our friends V

This last statement of Mr. Pole is in accordance with my own
practice. I have now before me a list of 52 pairs of beam engines,
made by an eminent firm, averaging from 300 down to 40 horses col-
lectively. The smaller power, say to 2, 60 horse, certainly are not
more than "9 of a ton per horse, not being encumbered with coal boxes,
a rather formidable affair in very large vessels. The larger powers
generally having this additional weight average one ton per horse : in
one or two cases this was exceeded, in others not reached, depending
on the depth of the vessel, and other data not necessary to be enume-
rated. And these weights include engines, paddle-wheels, boiler and
apparatus, coal boxes, water, duplicates, and tools, &c. — in fact,
complete for service.

M. Pole states the weight of the Monarch's engines (the Nile's
were exactly similar,) at 270 tons. I take this for granted, as I am
not able to obtain anv corroboration. Now I have already shown, by
reference to Tredgold, that these engines may be increased to 320
horses, without increase in space, and by the substitution of a single
cylinder G7 inches in diameter for a double or jacketed one 551 inches
in diameter, without any material increase in weight. Taking a beam
engine at one ton per horse, we have, 320 tons— 270=50 tons surplus,
to be expended in strengthening the working parts if necessary, and
in increasing the boiler to the required power. I have shown the
Medea may be increased to 320 in like manner. Her weight is 240
tons, and 320 — 240;=80 tons surplus for purposes above stated. I
have no hesitation in saying it is very ample, and that an engine
5 ft. 6 in. stroke, as sketched by V^ulcan, could be constructed to
weigh no more than 300 tons.*

The last item is the consumption of fuel. I admire Mr. Pole's wit
more than his judgment, in bringing a heavy charge against Vulcan —
that of "gratuitous fabrication." He should have been careful of his
facts here, as it vitiates a somewhat well-written paper. Vulcan not
only speaks of the pamphlet, but also "some of the published state-
ments and assumed facts ;" see his second paragraph, certainly a very
temperate one. If it can be shown that the Messrs. Seaward have
published the fact, thai their engines require 6J lb. only per horse per
hour, I apprehend Vulcan's error in having quoted it/;om the pamplet
instead of from other papers, will be considered venial. This I
will do.

I have now before me, (and they are sent for your inspection) five
publications, hand-bills, call them what you will, the three first extoll-
ing "Mr. Samuel Seaward's patent expansion slide valves and salt
detector," the fourth a lithograph copy of letters from the commander

* Would Mr. Alexander Gordon favour us with the weigbt of the Don
Juan's engines ?,

and engineer of the Gorgon, detailing her wonderful and unequalled
performances on the north coast of Spain, and the last is a sort of
compendium of the foregoing, as well as a species of "olla padrida"
of the productions of the Canal Iron Works. It is an extensive afFiir,
epistolary in its form, and therefore certainly not intended for private
circulation, so that I commit no breach of good manners in bringing it
before you.

In this last production it is worthy of note, that the claim of "saving
in weight" is reduced from one-fourth to one-fifth — an improvement
in the right direction, most surely. And the 4th article says "a great
saving in the consumption of fuel" ; and, further on, (I copy the whole
paragraph,) " we guarantee that the consumption of fuel in our marine
engines, constructed upon our improved system (that is, the Gorgon
engines, for nothing else is hinted at,) shall be under six pounds of
good coal per horse per hour, tlie engines working at their full efficient
force, with the steam passage open at least four-fifth of the entire
stroke of the piston."

Mr. Pole takes a coraraon-sense view of the question, when ob-
serving there is nothing in the "direct system" alone which could
produce a saving in coals. But the claim of under st.v pounds is stag-
gering in any kind of engine, and being placed alongside other matter
of an apocrvphal nature, demands notice. If the saving is not in the
engine, it may be in the boiler, or probably in the felt or jacketing.
Let us give credit where it is due.

If there is any irrelevancy in the introduction of this "fuel question,"
it cannot be asi-ribed to Vulcan, but to the proprietors of the Canal Iron
Works, wdio, in vending their Gorgon engine, have claimed for it
properties which it does not possess. Is the saving in the boiler?
Has it, from its scientific proportions and construction, greater evapo-
rating powers than those of other manufacturers? To this I answer,
no, so far as my experience and practice will al'iow me to discover. I
do not sav thev are copied therefrom, but they have the same arrange-
ment of flue as those made by Maudslay some years previously or
the Dee, Messenger, Phoenix, Salamander, &c., and I should say were
capable of evaporating at atmospheric pressure about 15 cubic feet
of water with a cwt. of good coal, that is. about SI lb. of water with
a pound of coal. The grate surface is small, being HiS-,) square feet,
a little more than half a foot per horse, say 0-52, and I make the total
surface (not taking the bottoms of flues) to be about 33SS square feet,
or 10-G per horse.

Vour professional readers will see nothing very new in all this;
and if the facts are disputed, I am prepared to spnd you authenticated
drawings, not only of the boilers of the Gorgon, but those of the Dee
and Messenger, that they and you may draw their own inferences.
The clothing onlv remains. I do not know of any experimental know-
ledge on this head on which we can rely, to show the ratio of saving
by its adoption, but hope at a future time to lay such before you.
' The Messrs. Seaward, in the aforesaid " olla podrida," say "The
great saving we are enabled to make in the consumption of fuel we
accomplish in part by our new mode of clothing or jacketing the
boilers, cylinders, &c." " Our new mode" 1 What is it, and in what
does it ditfer from that which has been adopted by other engineers for
years before the Seawardian era? Surely all credit on this head is due
to "Watt," who was, of all others, the most forward in recommendirg
this plan. True, he used sawdust, and found it to answer excellently
as a non-conductor. I am old enough to remember that, so far back
as 1817, felting the boiler was adopted. Some of your readers
probably recollect seeing in the autumn of that year a small vessel
called the "Caledonia," which was purchased by the prestnt Mr.
Watt, and in which he placed a pair of 14 horse engines, and sub-
sequently ascended the Rhine as far ar Coblenz, to show the natives
what steam could do. The boiler of this vessel was felted, aye, and
carried out to a great extent. The front of it was covered with
block tin. I cannot tell the amount of saving in coal, but the comfort
of the officers and crew was materially increased. It is unnecessary
to follow this subject further, to show the antiquity of the practice of
"clothing." I therefore humbly submit that the words "our new-
mode" should be expunged from this advertisement, or that the
Messrs. Seaward explain unto us on what grounds they put it forth.

I cannot omit to notice that which follows the foregiiiiig quotation.
Speaking of the reduced consumption, they say we are enabled "more
particularly to accomplish this bv a most valuable improvement, for
which we have letters patent," tliat is, "causing the spent steam from
the cylinder, before it enters the condenser, to pass through and give
out its heat to the feed water." This I conceive to be as scientific an
improvement as could well be devised, and give the Messrs. Seaward
great credit for the same.

But taking all the claimed novelties and improvements detailed in
the five publications, together with those in the pamphlet, 1 cannot
see any reason to conclude that they would produce so low a cou-

160

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Mat,

sumption as under six pounds. The onus lies with the Messrs. Sea-
ward, to prove this upon scientific and practical data ; and until they
do so, I must conclude, with Vulcan, that they have been carried away
by enthusiasm.

The following data and dimensions on which the Gorgon was con-
structed, may be relied on : —

Dimensions. ft. in.

Length between perpendiculars . . . 178 0

Keel for tonnage 152 3

Moulded breadth 36 4

Extreme ditto 37 6

Depth in hold 23 0

Tonnage ] 108.

Data.

25 tons.
. 50 "

Weight of masts and rigging
Anchors and chain

1000 men

Engines and water

Coals

Hull

Provisions and stores

Total .

133

270

300

630

78

1486

Displacement at load line . . , 1412 tons.
Load line 12 tons to an inch immersion.
I give you this, that I may put a few questions to Mr. Pole. He
says "the speed of the Gorgon's engines, with 400 tons of coal, is 19
strokes per minute ; with 200 tons, 21 strokes per minute." One or
the other appears incorrect; thus 420— 200=220 tons difference.
The Gorgon at her load line is 12 tons per inch ; we have -^"=18i
inches decreased draught, with the 200 tons on board. It w'ould be
more than this, for at 18 inches below her load line, she is probably
not more than lOi or 11 tons per inch. But say 18 inches ; does Mr.
Pole assert that the paddle wheel (26 feet 10 inches working diameter
by 7 feet 2 inches long,) relieved of IS inches dip, would only make
a difference of tno strokes in the engines ? Again, with reference to
the Styx, he says "she had 260 tons of coal on board, and went 21
strokes." Where did she get them ? I allude to experiment, Gth
May, 1S41 (see, as referred by you, p. 210, vol. iv.), on which occasion
she started horn the Canal Iron Works; and I believe the Government
are not in the habit of sending coals to their ships away from the
dockyards, especially so large a quantity as 260 tons. With regard
to the speed of the engines, you. Sir, setttle that— it was 17 strokes;
so we must have these questions answered before we finally convict
Vulcan of falsehood.

By the bye, allow me to lecture yourself for two very important
errors in the paragraph p. 210, vol. iv. First, you sav the Styx's en-
gines are 560 horse power, cylinder 62 inches, 5 feet' 3 inches stroke.
According to iMr. Watt, this gives 1-10 horses each engine, or 280 only
for both. Secondly, you say the Styx is fitted with Mr. Seaward's
patent engines. This controversy has already shown there is nothing
of the sort. There are other points which I would wish to go into,
especially relating to the evaporative power of the boilers, and their
incapability of producing steam equal to the supply of cylinders of
66-inch diameter, 5 feet 6 inches stroke, and 20 strokes per minute,
at a cojitumptwn of " under six pounds" .- but fear I have already
transgressed too much on your space ; I therefore reserve this for a
future communication.

I refer to the statement of Vulcan that one-third of the power is
absorbed by the friction of the piston rod, merely to say that I do not
understand it. Verily it appears in its present shape to be nonsense,
and IS either a misprint, or error in expression. Let Vulcan explain ;
and perhaps iu the mean time Mr. Pole will give us his version of the
subject.

1 have heard, and I have read, not only in the Journat, but in a
talented Glasgow contemporary, "dark and mysterious hints" of
collusion between public officers and private establishments. How far
this is correct I am not prepared to say, but hope, for the honour of
the profession, that it is not true. However, it behoves the principals
of all our large establishments to come forward, and remove this
aspersion upon their honour. " Competition" is a glorious thing for
the advancement of both theoretical and practical science; let us have
it to repletion, but let that competition be fair and honest. Possessing,
I am proud to say, a somewhat extensive acquaintance among the
members of the profession, I am sure there is not one but would em-
phatically agree with me in this sentiment; but I am sure they will
eqnally "grieve " with me at the following:— The Mechanic's Mag.,
(No. 974J, has a continuation of the olla podrida species of advertise-
ment. It states " the Admiralty have given instructions to build a

large frigate, the Penelope, of 650 horse-power — that it is the propo-
sition of Mr. John Edye, and that the commission for building the en-
gines has been given to the inventors of the Gorgon plan, the Messrs.
Seaward and Co."

Those who know Mr. Edye are well aware that his talents and ac-
complishments are great and various, and that the natural modesty of
his disposition, added to the dignity of his official situation, would
not allow him willingly to have his name thus brought forward for
others' uses. But has the executive of the Admiralty acted with
their usual fairness in this case ? They have given unto the Messrs.
Seaward this large order to the amount of perhaps £25,000, lotthout
consulting any otiier establishment — is this fair or honest? Is it a
proper compliment to the profession generally, when it is known that
others have improved upon what is termed the Gorgon engine even
to a moiety, as it regards space. To what are we to ascribe this par-
tiality ? is a question I decline to answer.

I am. Sir,

Your's very truly,
London, 12th jipril, 1842. " Perseus.

Sir — I should not again have troubled your readers with any further
remarks on " Direct and Beam Action Engines," had not an article
appeared in your April number under the signature of Wm. Pole, in
which an investigation of the relative amounts of friction in the two
descriptions of engines is imperiously and confidently demanded.

I am glad of the opportunity thus afforded me of correcting an am-
biguity in one of the sentences upon that subject, which unfortunately
escaped my notice until it appeared in print in your January number.
It might, indeed, seem that I had wished to convey the impression
that the friction on the parallel motion of the Gorgon engine equalled
one-third of the power exerted — but far was it from my intention to
express so palpable an absurdity : when comparing the amount of
friction upon the parallel motion in the beam and direct engine, 1
might well call it relatively enormous in the latter case, " upon those
parts the strain on nhich, caused by the short connecting rod, is so
great as to equal one-third of the power of the engine passing through
them to compel the piston rod to move in a vertical line " ; the un-
certainty as to my meaning arising from the accidental omission of
the words "the strain on which," 1 much regret, as it has caused me
thus in explanation to trespass on your valuable space, and gave your
correspondent an opportunity which, in his desperation, he seized
upon with avidity, of proclaiming a transient triumph.

That the lateral strain does amount to one-third of the power
exerted is simply shown :

Let a be the angle which the connecting rod makes with the ver-
tical, and let P represent the effective force on the piston ; then,
P secant a =: strain along the connecting rod,

P tangent a = the horizontal thrust; and when the connecting rod
is three times the length of the crank, the greatest value of a =
19" 28', in which case the lateral thrust equals P 3534; this pressure
has to be sustained by the parallel motion or guides whichever may
be adopted, and in practice causes great wear and tear on those parts,
nor has any combination been found effectually to resist the strain for
a length of time.

Having already far exceeded the limits between which I had hoped
to have confined my remarks, I shall defer, for the present, making
any allusion to the subtleties and the assumed knowledge of facts
with which Wm. Pole has filled his communication, but shall not fail
to do so on an early occasion, unless, indeed, some of your readers,
with a readier pen and more time at their disposal than I have, should
be roused by indignation to expose the fallacies with which that paper
abounds.

Sir, I am,
London, 19M April. Yours, obediently,

Vulcan.

Inlaid Marbles. — A beautiful mode of ornamenting marbles has recently
been brought into use in Paris. It consists in etching, by acids, deeply into
the marble, various designs upon a properly prepared bituminous ground.
When the corrosion has gone sufficiently deep, the cavities are filled up with
hard coloured wax, prepared so as to take a polish equal to that of the marble
when cleaned off. Drawings thus made on black marble, and filled in with
scarlet wax, after the manner of Etruscan, and certain Egyptian designs, are
said to have a very noble effect, and are applied to tables, panelling, stoves.
&c. — Repertory of Patent Inventions.

i842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

161

ON FRESCO PAINTING.

BY JOSEPH SEVERN, OF ROME.

(Read iefore the Itoyal Institute of British Architects, on Monday,
March 14, 1842.*

I CONFESS myself almost an enthusiast on the subject of fresco painting
having had the singular happiness to pass half my life in Italy in the midst
of the finest fresco worl<s, and having enjoyed the friendship of all those
modern German artists who have revived and perfected this manly and use-
ful style of art, and created a classical city in Germany. I am tlierefore san-
guine as to the great probability of success attending the proposed intro-
duction of this architectural style of painting, although new and strange to
the English artist, as well as the people ; believing that, if successful, it will
be the means of introducing and establishing in England the grand style of
historical art hitherto unknown here. If this beautiful style of painting be
successfully introduced here, it will be more indebted to the helping hand of
British architects than of British painters, for it can only be uuderstood and
felt by those who have seen with their own eyes the magic of its power in
its great Italian examples. Now architects, more than painters, have visited
the places where those wonders of fresco art still live triumphant, after the
lapse of three and four centuries, defying the ravages of time, and almost of
man (the greater destroyer of the two) ; and in studying the principles of
architecture in those classic regions, the English architects have involuntarily
taken fresco paiuting as a branch of their own noble pursuit.

I began by calling Fresco " Architectural Painting," because it is on this
ground that its advantages are most evident, and it is on this ground we
have to consider it — indeed, strictly speaking, fresco is purely architectural.
I will not enter into any details about the material, which has been so much
discussed, and is now so well known ; but I will endeavour to explain and
contrast the theory of the fresco art in its principles and object, as compared
with oil-painting — the great difference betwixt the one and the other — and
the different ways of acquiring the former.

Oil painting is more applicable to the other purposes of art, particularly
moveable art. Its excellence is seen in cabinet pictures of domestic scenes,
portraits, and the like. It has force and deUcacy in history and landscape,
and its finest specimens have deservedly won the admiration of all times ;
but it is in reference to architecture that we are now to judge it, and I say
that fresco paiuting alone is adapted to this purpose. The shining surface is
an insuperable objection to oil, as it requires particular and concealed lights
to get the general effect, or rather the whole efteet of the picture from every
part of the room. Now this, as regards large works, such as national history
demands, is impossible, since no construction of building, not intended as a
picture gallery, can possibly admit of it. And even in picture galleries, how-
difficult, how rare it is (although they may be actually built for the puqjose)
to see the pictures well and entire. I need only mention the National Gal-
lery, where the finest work of Italian art in England, the Sebastiano del
Piombo, cannot be seen entire from any part of the room at any hour of the
day ; and I am sure I need not point out how necessary it is to the trug
effect and understanding of a large historical work that it should be seen
entire at the first glance ; and how completely the dodging about to find a
spot whence the picture can be well seen, frustrates the aim of the painter.
This does not apply to small pictures, which can be well seen anywhere ; I
am speaking only of large works, such as national works are and must always
be. At Venice, three of Titian's most celebrated works are comparatively
invisible, for these reasons. My remark applies generally to oil pictures in
churches : so much so that in Italy they are beginning to remove the principal
works to public galleries, constructed for the sole purpose of exhibiting pic-
tures ; thus, as you will at once perceive, destroying the local object of the
paintings, either as to their moral or rehgious purpose, and even the archi-
tect\iral decorations for which those paintings were formed. This is the case
■with the "Transfiguration," which no doubt would interest us more in the
actual place for which it was painted, if it could be seen there ; and the same
may be said of most of the celebrated altar-pieces. The oil-painted staircase
of the British Museum you have all seen, or rather noiorfy has seen, as it
never could have been seen, owing to its dazzling glare, even by the painter
himself when he did it : — but you know enough of these examples for my
purpose, which is, to show the immediate connexion of architecture and
fresco painting.

* This paper we intended to have published in the last month's Journal,
but through want of room we were obliged to postpone it to the present
month ; it has in the mean lime appeared in the " AtneDseum,"

As regards light, fresco is seen entire in any situation and by any light ;
even candle-light, which, I think, perhaps shows it best. I remember seeing
the Carracci frescos, at Home, durhia; a ball, when I was struck by their
increased beauty and power, owing to the warm light ; even a dim or di-
minished Ught does not destroy their effect, for fresco pictures are always
well seen, with any kind of window, or even without any positive light. It
must have been for this reason that Raffaello adopted fresco in the Vatican,
after he had made experiments in oil ; for the rooms are so ill lighted that
oil pictures could never have been seen at all, and it is surprising to find such
fine works in such a place. Three sides of the rooms are illuminated merely
by the reflected light from the great wall of the Sistine Chapel, yet this
beautiful and himiuous materal of fresco is so brilhant in itself that the pic-
tures are well seen. Nine of them were painted without a ray of real Hght,
and have always been seen in the same way. I think this a very important
consideration, for, as we have but a diminished light at auy time, it is most
necessary to adopt a manner of painting suited to it, which can be seen at
all times. Such is the power of fresco, and such, as regards light, makes it
preferable to oil for all our purposes.

The fact of Venetian painting, as regards the decorations of architecture,
being in oil, I consider to have arisen entirely from the singular locality of
that beautiful city. It was soon discovered (as Vasari mentions in the Life
of Giorgione), that fresco was but a perishable thing exposed to the sirocco
and the sea air, for the frescos of Giorgione in a few years were destroyed.
This, I have no doubt, led to the adoption of oil-painting there for architec-
tural decoration, as it was found to he more durable. But this argument
applies only to Venice, for the other great Italian cities are adorned with
fresco ; nor can it be urged in favour of oil being employed here, as the
localities of London and Venice are wholly different. There are frescos by
Titian at Padua well preserved ; yet at so short a distance as Venice you find
nothing of the kind, save the skeletons of Giorgione's works on the fronts of
houses. This may be a reason for not employing fresco in the open air in
England, for, as it does not stand well in Italy, it may be presumed that here
it will not stand at all.

But the great objection to the employment of fresco in this country is on
the ground of colour and effect, for it is generally confounded with scene-
painting ; that the Cartoons of Raffaello are the same as his frescos ; and
that the colour and effect of one and the other would never do for English
eyes. Now this mistake is extraordinary and unpardonable, for, as fresco is
doue on the wet plaster, imbibing and incorporating transparent colours, as
well as opaque, (something similar to water-colour paiutiug when body
colour is used ou the lights,) producing a richness of tone, surface, and touch,
always equal, and sometimes superior, to oil-colours ; so it bears little or no
comparison or relation to distemper-painting, which is done on a di7- ground,
and does not admit of any richness of colour. This will be clearly under-
stood by those who have had the good fortune to see Raffaello's and Guido's
frescos at Rome, which, for colour, are exquisitely beautiful, and even power-
ful in all the fascinations of this part of the art, presenting to us still greater
varieties than oil painting can pretend to ; excelling in all the deUcate effects
of atmosphere, from the gorgeous daylight, the air of which you seem to
breathe in a fresco picture, down to the silvery flitting charm of twilight. In
these particulars it reminds us of English water-colour effects. Then I should
mention the magnificence of fresco landscape, and of landscape backgrounds,
particularly by Domenichino, in which not only the characters, but the move-
ments of trees are always rendered in a way which I have rarely seen in oil
colours. And when we consider the ease with which the effects of atmosphere
are produced in fresco, and the difficulty and inmiense labour of producing
the like in oil — when I tell you of the advantages even of the dark grey wet
ground in fresco, drying out light, and producing so many beauties of aerial
perspective in that actual drying, so much variety and transparency of colour,
so much lightness and vivacity, so much of what the Italians call " light
within"- — the superiority of fresco cannot be doubted on the ground of
colouring, as appMed to architecture. Who does not remember the splendid
colouring of Guido's " Aurora," at Rome .' — colour so inimitable that, of
hundreds of copies in oils, I have never seen one that gave an idea of the
original. What of Titian's or Paul Veronese's is there to equal RaliacUo'a
fresco of the Bolsena miracle, in truth of colours .' — or the Heliodorus, was
it ever surpassed .'

If I have to speak of chiar-oscuro and its wonders, I should refer you to
the frescos of Guercino, particularly at I'iacenza, where arc his finest speci-
mens. The portions of his oil paintings which are black and monotonous,
(the effect of time on his dark grounds,) in his frescos are transparent and
lucid in the highest degree, with a power of shade which I consider superior

2 A

162

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Mat,

to Rembrandt, inasmuch as it gives an extended light instead of a spot, whUe
the masses of shade form the effects of the pictures. It must be considered
that time has not changed the frescos, and that it is only in them we can
understand Guercino as the Magician of Painting, which he is called by his
contemporaries. Till I saw these Piacenza Frescos, I used to consider him as a
" vile shade-hunter." Another great painter in chiar-oscuro, never understood
in oils from his blackness, is Spagnuoletto, whose works in the church of St.
Martino at Naples are amongst tlie most striking things in art. The same
may be said of Raffaello's strong effects. In his oil pictures we see midnight
shadows in noon-dav, as in the " Transfiguration ;" but in his frescos it is all
truth and beautv, with power. The " Peter delivered from Prison," and the
" FUght of Heliodorus," have the charms of Corregio and Rembrandt. Then
I must remind you of the grandeur of colour and effect in Michael Angelo's
frescos on the ceiUng of the Sistine Chapel. What oil could ever have
approached such things ? %Vhen he said " that oU painting was only fit for
women and children," he meant on account of the labour and ditficulties of
the material, compared with fresco. We are assured he performed this
gigantic labour in twenty months, without the usual assistance of colour-
grinders or plasterers, but alone with his own hand. There are on this
ceiUng fourteen figures, of at least forty feet in stature, and nearly five
hundred figures, the least of which are double the size of life. AMiile we
regard this as the most extraordinary example of individual human power,
we must consider that it was only in the simplicity and ease of the fresco
material that Michael Angelo coiUd have accomplished such a stupendous
work. The preparation of oil colours, varnishes, &c. would alone have occu-
pied the twenty months.

All these works I have cited to prove that the powers of fresco in colour
and effect are wholly architectural, and when I remind you of their gigantic
proportions, forming and assisting the grandeur of the architecture, I am
sure the superioritv of fresco must be apparent, as applied to buildings. Od
painting, applied in the same way, even with the advantage of good air and
Ught, is always subject to change to a sickly yellow, like a person smking
into bad health, and losing all his natural colour : but fresco never loses its
health and freshness ; and if it is to decay at last, like all mortal things, it
goes down with its own proper tints-it has a vigorous old age. Another
thing I ought to mention is, that so many great artists who have now immortal
names, condescended to inferior styles in the Vatican decorations: thus
Giovanni da Udine painted the fruit and the flowers, animals, musical instru-
ments, and so on, in a wonderful way ; Polidoro did the beautiful chiar-
oscuros ; and Lucca della Robia executed the coloured tiles for the floors.
AU those great artists raised the things they undertook under RaffaeUo,
whilst he himself seemed to raise the art when he worked in fresco ; for if
we consider oil painting up to the period of the Vatican frescos, that art
seemed in its infancy. The space, the architecture inspired Raffello -.-m
what but fresco could his beautiful mind have expanded ?— in what else
could he have given us such a range of art, from the most subUme history
down to ornaments of fruit, flowers, animals, and even pavements ? Has he
not given us a world of art in the Vatican ? Have not those grand frescos
given laws to the art r What is there like the " School of Athens," or the
" HeUodorus," the " Parnassus," or the " Burning of Rome "? Such dra-
matic art had never been seen before, such compositions of figures and
backgrounds, such colour and effect. And when it is considered that even
the minor details on the ceUings and walls all belong to one grand epic
invention on the subject of church empire, I think it must be seen that
nothing we have in oil colours has so expanded the limits of painting, and
made it the worthy sister of poetry. Can there be a doubt we owe all this

to fresco ? • j ,

I will now consider the great advantage of painting being united to
architecture in this country through the medium of fresco ; and I trust to
show also why oil painting could never do the same, and that we can now only
have the long-looked-for era of historical art— art, patronized not only by
the State, but by the people at large.

It is impossible to look on the historical fresco painting of Italy, recording,
as it does so powerfully, the valour and genius of the Italians, without think-
ing on England ; and reflecting that, with a history more heroic, and with
genius more useful, we have nothing of the kind in painting— no public works
to remind us of our illustrious ancestors. The ItaUans adorned their public
buildings in fresco, not onlv with the great events recorded in their national
history, but cverv man recalled and recorded the illustrious deeds of his an-
cestors, whether" public or private, which could confer honour on his name
and family. This noble emulation continued from generation to generation ;
and we see, in the monuments which remain, worthy memorials of the

triumphs of mind in civil arts as well as the triumphs of war. These now,
in the fallen state of Italy, are all that remain to her of past glory, and it is
this which interests the traveller at every step. Who does not remember the
Colonna Palace at Rome f-the famUy now a name and nothing more, yet
its former deeds are written there; the principal of which was the great
battle of Lepanto. Hundreds of similar examples might be cited ; and the
influence of this system of beautiful decoration has extended even down to
the cottage, however humble, where you always find some little elegances to
remind vou that you are in Italy. It is but reasonable to hope, that when
fresco painting shaU have been introduced here, under the patronage of the
State, it will extend itself in a like manner to the adornment of the houses
of the nobility ; not only in tracing there the great actions of their ancestors,
which may bear comparison with those of any age or country, but in record-
ing the great events of our own times, events which are moving and modi-
fying the world. These are the true decorations of buildings, these are
things to be proud of, and these we shaU accomplish by the introduction of
fresco painting. The oil portraits of our ancestors are all that remain to us,
but fresco will pourtray their actions. When we reflect on the illustrious
names, and the illustrious deeds connected with them, there seems no bounds
to the field of fresco-painting.

This never could have been accomplished, or even projected, through the
medium of oil painting, which, independent of the great cost, required such
architectural sacrifices to exhibit it. On the other hand, distemper was too
perishable and mean. Fresco will remedy all these evils, for its durability is
great, and its expense but small. Then the facility with which it may be
cleaned, and the ease with which it may be seen, even at night are advan-
tages which, I think, must insure its success. The grand ItaUan haU, decorated
with fresco, is unknown here, save in the impossible attempts to imitate it
in oil. For myself, I cannot but think that the want of fresco here, when
we consider all the advantages of durability, light, cleanliness, and cheapness,
must have been the cause why historic art has not risen and kept pace with
those magnificent things for which England is celebrated all over the world.
The English are a highlv imaginative people, in their Uterature particulariy ;
writers and readers go hand in hand, indulging for ever in the pleasures of
the imagination ; this extends to every thing, save painting. This limitation
must arise from the want of power in the medium, and the consequent want
of encouragement ; for oil-painting has been too costly for its historical pur-
poses, and, from its rareness, could never rise to suthcient rank to make it
worth the whUe of State or people to assist the education of her artists m
that most difficult branch of the art.

The ease and facility of fresco will obviate all this ; the education of the
painters must and will be improved by it. The necessity for grand compo-
sition and manly design, even on a simple cartoon, will, I fully expect, not
only improve and raise the English painter till his natural capabiht.es are
fuUy developed, but will fascinate him on to new and imaginative regions of
art. Tliis healthy power in his hands, what will he not do ? what are the
Umits to a stvle of art, which has all the beauty, clearness, and lightness of
water-colour,' with the richness of oil, great dimensions and architectural
powers ? Were it alone for the advantages of design, it would be worth our
while, as a school, to introduce it, that we might outface all the railings of
the learned and the ignorant, as regards the English school having no fixed
principles of design. Indeed, in fresco we shall be able to answer every
objection. Who knows but. in the midst of our fresco labours, the pubhc
may take us up on this ground of design, and see us through our difficult
task of establishing historical art. The active capabilities of the Enghshman
are universallv known ; and it is enough that he has the warm support of his
countrvmen io accomplish anything, however great or difficult. INow, m
historical painting he has never yet had this advantage, for the English pub-
lic has been ever cold and discouraging on almost all occasions of English
painters having the misfortune to produce historical works. I am obliged
to say misfortune, because I understand large historical pictures are never
bought, and never looked at but with feelings of pity. This will be at an
end in fresco, for the patronage of the State (we have seen it in all ages, and
even now in the various continental states which excel in lugh art,) is the
only means bv which a school of history-painting can be formed. The ad-
mirable wav ihe State now proposes to do it through the medium of fresco,
is the first real chance the English painter has had in his own country, whaU
ever his success mav have been elsewhere.

I may take notice here of the great encouragement always given by the
English government to sculpture, to the total discouragement and disparage-
ment of painting, which is singular, as in other countries painting has pre-
dominated in national art, for it has greater means in its closer imitation of

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL,

163

nature to represent all national acts of war or peace. It has the power of
representing men as they are, with their own proper actions and dresses ; it
has the power of representing everything about them, the air they breathe,
and the element in which they distinguish themselves, be it on the earth, or
in the water, or the air, or even in the fire; for Englishmen, in that wild,
romantic spirit, which distinguishes them from other people, revel and live
in all these elements, and, I should say, require the universal power of paint-
ing to record their actions, rather than the limited range of sculpture, which
always rejects the actual dress, and has no power over the aforesaid elements.
The only thing we have in this way, is the little Naval Gallery at Greenwich
Hospital ; and it is impossible not to be struck with the admirable use and
power of this accidental collection, for I believe not any one of those inte-
resting battle pictures was done for the purpose. The old sailors show you
round, and describe the subjects in which they themselves were engaged, and
at the time you, yourself, become a sailor, for I confess I never knew so much
before of our great naval victories as I learned in my visits to this humble
gallery. Now what in sculpture will compare with this ? what is there that
can so come home to us .' Will Nelson, at tlie top of that expensive column^
compare with it ? certainly not : and yet that meritorious gallery of naval
pictures, did not cost so much as the base alone of that proud column. This
Greenwich Gallery I take as a golden augurj- of the success of the proposed
national history painting in fresco ; for this Sailor Gallery is quite enougli to
show what tine things Englishmen will do in national painting, when they
are working under the patronage of the State and the people, neither of
which had they in the pictures I allude to. I do not mean in these remarks
to find fault with Enghsh sculpture, or grumble at its success ; I would not
say that it had been encouraged too much, but rather that painting has not
been encouraged enough ; that other nations make painting and sculpture go
hand in hand in the commemoration of national greatness. In France, paint-
ing has predominated, in Germany the same, and in Italy always. Here we
have had nothing but sculpture, which is singular, as the English are con-
sidered to excel more in painting. It may be that the want of fresco has
been the cause.

The revival of our Gothic architecture in the new Houses of Parliament
must be looked upon as a singularly fortunate circumstance, as regards the
formation of a style of fresco painting which shall be our own, both as to
subject and the manner of treating it. I mean that this noble style of archi-
tecture, replete with beauty and grandeur as it is, and more applicable to all
our uses than any other, is entirely our own, as it grew up amongst us in the
early times, was carried to perfection by us, and, singularly enough, we have
still the finest specimens in the world. It belongs to ns as Englishmen, and
associates with the grandest periods of our history ; and we are fortunate in
having a British architect, whose genius has caught up the spirit and power,
' and revived it, as though he had lived in the "olden time." Now this ele-
vated English style, rising into splendour again in the new Parliament Houses,
will be the fortunate occasion (and perhaps no occasion could have been so
fortunate) of our calling up a style of historical painting in unison with it,
that shall be our own, as is the architecture — that shall be bold, manly, and
English in all its characteristics, and have beauty and power like the building.
Nor do I see such great ditliculties in the English school attaining this excel-
lence, as many suppose ; for it must be considered, that the British public
and the British artists will go hand in hand, mutually assisting each other,
both inspired by the English style of architecture, and nerved to revive all
the other English arts so closely connected with our national feelings. M'e
shall have fresco painting, wood carving, and stained glass; and we have a
wonderful collection of British illuminated MSS , which will form a fine field
wherein to hunt for national art, all of which we take up again from the
early times of England, when Westminster Hall was built, than which
nothing grander, more majestic, or so well suited to fresco painting, exists
from one end of Italy to the other. Our former experiments have mostly
been in the classic, either Greek or Roman, but always foreign to us, and we
never entered deeply into them. We are not a classic people ; our tendency
nationally is to the romantic histories and customs of the middle ages. We
are essentially English in this, our literature tends to it, and is first-rate
withal ; our finest architecture the same, and still first-rate : then why, if we
are now to form a style of national painting, should it not be the same, and
with the same bright hopes ? Who can visit that magnificent hall of West-
minster without thinking on the illustrious deeds of Englishmen ? and who
that forms these pictures in his mind forms them classically ? — I mean with
the semblances of ApoUos, Adonises, and the like, after the fashion of our
neighbours the French. No, in this place we only think of Men — of a hardy
race of warriors, legislators, philosophers, all working-day men, who never

even dreamed of such things as modern art produces. The tame creations
of French academies, or the fashionable ones formed from English theatres,
are things to shut our eyes at, that we may open them to behold a race of
m«j who sturdily gave England the groundwork of her greatness, before
academies or theatricals were thought of. Fashion may possibly lend a grace
to many things, but certainly never to historical painting.

The greatest charm of historical painting is, to transport ns to the time
and place it attempts to represent ; our architecture does this, and our paint-
ing must do it, or the English people will never be satisfied. In other coun-
tries art was made great in this way, for Raffaello, although called classical,
is essentially Christian, and associates in his frescos with the period of our
architecture. Roman soldiers he puts in the Gothic armour of the Swiss
guards, and the same feeling of bis time is apparent throughout his works ;
even his Madonnas are Gothic ; yet he took everything he could find to his
purpose in the antique, though he never ceased to produce what we may
really call Christian art, which was his own feeling. Here is an example for
us. But perhaps a better one may be found in our own times in Germany,
where, in the revival of the fresco art, the artists have boldly dared to create
a style independent of the antique ; and, in treating subjects of the middle
ages, have produced a style of design, not so classically correct as the Italian,
but so adapted to the subjects of those times, so mauly and vigorous, with
their Gothic heroes so completely called up, that I doubt whether anything
more original in art has ever been done. Now it is in this, and not in the
mere fresco material, that we should do well to study them. We could
borrow some of their magnificent cartoons, which, though done in simple
charcoal, are wonderful productions of art, and woidd astonish us here ; for
the means are almost nothing, yet the result everything. A studied German
cartoon is replete with invention, composition, design, and character, and all
this in charcoal alone. It is impossible to innagine the result of such excel-
lent preparations for a picture, or the pleasure to the painter of adding colour
and efl'ect — and sui-h colour and such effect as an Englishman can add to
such preparations. Perhaps I should explain here, that the paper used for
this purpose is prepared by a simple wash of very thin glue, which glue, when
the charcoal drawing is done, undergoes a steaming from a two or three
spouted tea-kettle, with a spirit lamp to keep the water boiling; this easily
incorporates the charcoal in the melted glue, and the result is, a solid surface,
like a picture. I remember two immense cartoons, which Cornelius executed
at Rome in this way, and when done, he cut them into convenient sizes to
roll and carry to Germany for the fresco painting. No doubt, the sight of
some of these would greatly assist and gratify us; and these we could easily
have, for the German artists are as liberal as they are accomplished. As for
the fresco material, it is so easy, so simple, and so sure, that I cannot but
think we should learn it better by ourselves, rather than pick up the vices of
others ; for although it may be feared that the first specimens of fresco may
appear crude and inharmonious to the English eye, accustomed to the bland,
glazing method of oil painting, yet it must be considered, that we are an
acknowledged school of colourists, and in so high a degree that it might be
cited as the only genuine remnant of fine art in the world in these deploring
times ; and this alone ought to give singular advantages to En^ish fresco
painting. Here inay also be considered the height to which the English
purification of colours is carried, in their chemical nature as well as their
principles in art. This alone, I anticipate, will revive some of the splendours
of Italian fresco colouring, in which the Germans have not yet succeeded,
and no doubt for this reason. These advantages, joined to well-studied
English cartoons, and subjects from our noble history, seem to me a Paradise
of Art — a thing to enchant the whole race of English artists, whether in
regard to animals, figures, landscapes, flowers, sea-pieces, or even ornamental
painting. The facility with which they will exercise their new art, compared
with the laboiu- of oil painting, I am sure must win them to think more
kindly of fresco when they understand it.

In one point I am confident that they will be brilliantly successful, I mean
in the varied effects of aerial perspective ; for as this is a part so laborious
and difficult in oil, and in which the continental artists never succeed, except
when they paint fresco ; so I am certain the English artists in this point will
surpass themselves, for in the process of the fresco drying, in the change
from the wet plaster to the dry, so many beautiful eftects come out, that I
look forward to the English carrying it further than they have carried water-
colour painting, which is acknowledged to be most perfect, and is entirely of
English origin.

As regards the combining of fresco painting with architecture, so as to
enable them to unite, and ha\ e the same object, no doubt there must be great
uniformity and simplicity in the style of composition adopted in the pictures

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for as the architecture is made up of uniformity, so must tliere be iu the
paiuting something which exists in common. It is for this reason we find
such simplicity in the composition of Raffaello's " School of Athens," and,
indeed, in all liis frescos. This may also account for the simplicity of early
painting generally, which was invariably adapted to the purposes of archi-
tecture. The artist, indeed, in forming a composition in fresco for architecture,
must be guided by all the architectural forms around him ; he is reduced to
and forced into the simple style of art, if he wishes to be effective. Tlie finest
altar-pieces have all something architectural in their composition which is
necessary to harmonize with the columns and the arch which surround the
picture. I mention this particularly, as I fear it is a style little known and
!ess practised by painters in this country; yet, I dare say, well enough under-
stood by architects, who, no doubt, remember tlie nature of tlie composition
in the Italian fresco pictures to which I now allude. This style may be the
most difficult part of fresco for us to acquire, for certainly it is that wherein
Englishmen are inferior to foreigners. In our compositions generally, judging
from our Exhibitions, there is little of breadth or simplicity, except in water-
colour drawings, which, singular enough, as I found to resemble fresco in
colour and effect, so I think they have some of its simplicity of composition,
both in landscapes and figures. In oil, on the contrary, composition is lost
in a multitude of parts — in fact, Art is studied rather than Nature.

The Theatre has a greater influence on painting than we are aware of
■which influence must be baneful in every way, for nothing can be more
opposed to the purposes we are speaking of than a theatrical taste. In this
sense, it is unfortunate to have a theatre so perfect as ours, for the influence
extends to both the artists and the pubhc. This taste, carried into fresco
■would be hideous, but I am sure aicliitecture alone will correct it. A strong
proof of the theatrical taste existing here in painting, is, that the English
prefer Retzch's designs from Faust, to those of Cornelius, or, indeed, any
other German works. Now, the slightest glance of an eye practised in his-
torical works, woidd find that Retzch's designs are entiiely made up in the
tlieatrical taste, and it is on this account they have been preferred by the
English, and published here in numerous editions, whilst in Germany they are
thought worthless. The grand designs of Cornelius, from the Faust, are not
known here at all. So here is a difficulty we really have to get over. There
•will be much to unlearn on the part of the public, and much to forego on the
part of the artists.

In the introduction of historical painting in fresco, the difficulty I hear
everybody speaking of, is " How are the artists to learn ?" Now it seems, in
my opinion, the difficulty is, how are they to uxlearn ; for the going for-
■ward in historical fresco mxist be by going back — and back to the fine old
and powerful styles, as we have done in architecture, and in getting sure
possession, once more, of the strongholds of Art, which we have lost in the
search after novelty. In the desire to be new, we have merely taken what
other men have left. We must return back to the fine solid Art, as Reynolds
did, and add to his labours correct aiid manly design. Nothing complete or
individual (I hate the abused word original) can be attained, if the artist be
not well and thoroughly acquainted witli all that has been done in his art ;
if be has not seen with his own eyes — aye, and open, too — the whole range
of that art which he professes, as Reynolds did ; otherwise he blindly and
ignorantly stumbles on some common-place, which has been done better by
a hundred others, and which he might have avoided had he allowed himself
to know it. I say allowed himself, for the prejudices of painters are prover-
bial, and are easy to be seen in an Exhibition, where so many aim at a
chimney-corner kind of art, if I may so express it ; for it is local and limited,
and made up of servile imitation, without imagination ; and paiuting without
imagination is not Art. Of course I allude solely to historical painting. This
can never do in fresco painting, but will, in the artist's new life, hang like a
millstone about bis neck.

Rafl'aello, when he began his frescos in the Vatican, looked about him, and
embraced and made his own everything that could help him ; we see in his
works figures and groups from the Roman antiquities, from Giotto and Mas-
saccio, and he even sent young men to Athens to draw the marbles of Phidias,
for his object was, to advance the art, rather than himself.

These remarks apply to the introduction of fresco-painting in this countrj-;
for it is so different in all its objects, in all its means, that few can imagine it
existing on that slender thread of life which painting now finds here. AVTiat
are the combined powers of a modern exhibition to the purpose ? what, but
each artist trying the powers of others, instead of his own ; diverging annually
from his own proper feeUng in that rage for novelty and fashion which cha-
racterizes the age ? and what is the result of these annual thousands of
exhibition works, but a positive dram-drinhng at the eye? Such must never

be the groundwork of fresco, or its failure is certain ; and such, I am sure, it
will not be, for every artist will be gratified to have his work remain in the
place he painted it for, with the same light and the same object, — things he
can never have, or even think of, in an exliibition.

The immoveability of fresco may, I think, be considered as an advantage.
In Italy, certainly, where it exists as part of the building, it defied the French
rapacity, for, by Napoleon's orders, every oil picture was removed to satisfy
Parisian vanity. It was in vain that many Italian cities endeavoured to ran.
som the immortal works of their countrymen : the French took the ransom,
and then the pictures. But the frescos remain to uphold Itahan greatness ;
they could not be removed without utter destruction, so that the greatest
works of M. Angelo, of Raffaello, of Domenichino, Guercino, of Guido, and
the Caiacci, stood, and still stand untouched, whilst the oil pictures which
went to Paris were mostly injured by the French artists pretending to restore
them. The " Transfiguration" of Raftaello alone will prove this fact : it has
that glaring French colour, chrome, on many of the lights ; and, indeed, when
the present state of the picture is compared with old copies, particularly the
mosaic in St. Peter's, it seems to have lost, in French hands, all harmony of
colour, all union of light and shade. Now a fresco has no fear of picture
cleaning, for the dirt may be easily removed with simple water. Very lately,
the Vatican frescos were admirably cleaned with crumb of bread.

As regards the durability of fresco in this climate, I slioidd certainly be in
its favour ; for I have observed that fresco is more destroyed by a dampness
arising from the foundation of the building, and in tlie soil, than from any
effect of the atmosphere. Indeed, I cannot think the serious decay of the
frescos of M. Angelo, Raffaello, and others, at Rome, is satisfactorily accounted
for at present. We are told the smoke of the candles, in the Sistine Chapel,
has destroyed the " Last Judgment," and that the sack of Rome by the Con-
stable Bourbon, was the cause of the early destruction of Rafiaello's frescos
in the Vatican, because the German troops made fires in the rooms. Now
these assertions fall to the ground, when it is considered that recently the
Pauline Chapel (in whicli was performed the ceremony of watching the Host
with some thousands of candles,) was cleaned, and M. Angelo's frescos
(before invisible from soot) came out quite as well as those in the Sistine
Chapel, where the candles are comparatively but few. This is a proof that
the smoke is not the cause of the decay. As regards Raffaello's frescos, I
have a proof that fire itself does not destroy the fresco material ; so that, in
this dilemma, I venture to trace the cause of this singular dilapidation of the
finest Roman frescos to the dampness of the soil of Rome, which is beyond
what I have observed in other places. As I passed sixteen summers there, I
can judge of its pernicious effects, and have no doubt that it attacks the
foundations of the buildings, and must in this way cause the decay. The
Vatican is unhealthy on this account in the summer, and one cannot sleep
there with impunity. This dampness is found not only in the plains, but the
hills of Rome, though not equally ; and even at St. Gregorio, on the Celian
Hill, the more recent frescos of Guido and Domenichino are decaying. In
explaining and accounting for this painful fact, I beg to remark, further, in
confirmation of my opinion, that the decay seems more particularly striking
in the inner walls, where there is little or no ventilation, whilst the outer
walls are comparatively well preserved, as are also the ceilings. This decay
in fresco pictures seems confined to Rome, for at Sienna they are admirably
preserved. The same at Florence, where, even in the open air, Andrea del
Sarto's frescos are in good preservation. Sienna and Florence are dry in
their soils, and hence the fact. The modem frescos at Munich also stand
well, although the climate is worse than ours ; but the soil is gravel, and so
they are hkely to be well preserved, even in the open air. The soil of Lon-
don is well adapted to fresco, both as to its nature, as well as the excellent
drainage, for our buildings have the singular advantage of dry foundations.
We have liaiitable rooms under ground always dry, a thing not to be found
in any part of Italy, where even the ground floor, which answers to our
parlours, is scarcely habitable. The floors under ground are always cellars,
and have to be entered with great caution, on account of the damp. No doubt
the ancient Romans must have had a system of drainage similar to ours, to
have made their city so different from the present, as regards health. I
believe most of the old specimens of our early frescos are in good preserva-
tion, considering the way they have been treated — first with disdain, and
then with whitewash.

As applicable to England, I would also say, that the durability of fresco
against fire is not one of its least advantages. This was proved at Florence,
where, after the church of the Carmine was burnt down, and they commenced
clearing away the ruins, Massaccio's frescos were found to be entire, and they
exist on the same walls to this day ; whereas, at Venice,5;the^ greatestworks

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of Titian — his battles of the Republic, painted in oil colours — were al'
destroyed in the burning of the Senate House.

I have now enumerated many of the advantages which will result from the
introduction of fresco painting into England. I have considered, and, I trust,
to some extent proved, its claim, as the only style of painting adapted to our
architecture, from its light being suited to all times and places — its powers in
colour and effect being equal to the powers of water colour and oil painting
combined together — its durability, suited to the nature of our soil and climate,
and even our customs, including the accidents of fire ; and in conclusion I
will observe, that the cheapness with which it may he executed — certainly,
I should say, one-half the price of oil painting — will confirm and ensure all
these singular advantages. I have no doubt, therefore, we shall have English
painting extend from one end of the kingdom to the other, as a universal
language. In looking on the greatness of fresco, and its positive relation to
architecture, I would say that fresco painting is the true sister of architecture,
and oil painting only the sister-in-law.

MR. VIGNOLES' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.*

SECOND COPHSE — LECTURE I. — KAILWATS.

Mr. Vignoles commenced by saying, that, in pursuance of the order slated
in his intreductory lecture, he would proceed to investigate the principles
upon which railways should be laid out under varying circumstances. In
calculating the power (of whatever description it may be) necessary to over-
come the resistance of a load to be moved on any railway or ro.'jd, it may be
dividedjinto two parts — viz. that necessary to overcome gravity, and that
required to meet friction. The former is. of course, common to, and equal
on, all descriptions of roads deviating from the horizontal line, and is in pro-
portion to the sine of the angle of inclination ; the latter is regulated by the
degree of perfection of the road, and of the vehicles moved upon it, and in-
cludes the resistance of all obstacles to the rolling surface, or periphery of thu-
wheel, in addition to the axle friction due to the load or weight placed upon
the carriage. It has been assumed, from experiments and observation, that
the average friction upon a railway is 9 lb. per ton, and that this continues
the same at all velocities ; but there is reason to believe that the latter part of
the assumption must be much qualified. The gravity due to the inclination
of the plane being added to, or subtracted from, the friction, as the plane
rises or falls, the sum, or difference, will give the total amount of power
necessai-y to overcome the resistance of the load. The power necessary to
overcome the gravity being expressed by the proportion which the rise of
the plane bears to the weight to be raised (say, for example, a ton), is found
by dividing 2240, the number of pounds in a ton, by the denominator of the
fraction which expresses the inclination of the plane ; thus, on a plane rising
one foot vertically in a horizontal distance of lOOOfeet, the fractional expres-
sion is Yiruo' ^^^ "'^ power (retarding or aiding the load), w ill be the thou-
sandth part of a ton, or 2i lb. It is evident that, as we arrive at steeper
inclinations, this power will at length become equal to that required to over-
come the friction ; thus, on an inclination of ^^, it will be 2^" = 9 lb. per
ton, and this being subtracted from the friction, on a railway which is com-
monly taken at that same amount of 9 lb. per ton, it results that no power
is required to move a load down such an inclination, or wherever the gravity
and friction are equal, and balance each other. The angle that such an in-
cHnation makes is called the angle of repose, but will, of course, vary with
the friction due to various descriptions of roads and vehicles. On steeper
inclines than such, not only is no power wanted, but there is a gravitating
power due to the descent of the plane, and so strongly does this act in steep
inclinations, that it is neces,sary to put on the break, to retard the velocity
which it occasions. It is found, however, when a train is allowed to descend
a steep plane without retardation, that, owing to the resistance of the air, it
will, after acquiring a certain velocity, cease to be further accelerated ; many
theoretical writers have fallen into error, by supposing it dangerous to allow
trains to descend inclinations steeper than the angle of repose without apply-
ing the break. On railways where there are inclined planes of -^, for
several miles together, the trains often commence the descent at the 'ra"te of
upwards of forty miles an hour, and the speed, instea 1 of being accelerated ,
has been quickly reduced to little more than the thirty miles an hour, or to
such uniform velocity that a railway train will acquire on that inclination,
varying a little with the weight of carriages, or the length of the train ; such
being the case, it is evident that lines of railway for locomotive power, can
be safely laid ont with inclinations of 1 in 100, and even steeper.

It is of the utmost importance, in laying out a line, to consider the power
which is proposed to be employed, and the mode of obtaining it ; thus, if it be

• We are indebted for these reports to our cotemporary the " Mining

intended to lay out a horse railway, to carry coal from a colliery to a shipping
place, the line should be made always to descend, and so regulated, that the
number of full wagons that may be sent down be that number which may
be taken back empty. But horse-power being extremely limited, recourse
is had to steam, and the locomotive steam-engine has been applied to railway
travelling, as being better suited to the purpose than animal power. The
power of the locomotive engine may be defined, not so much by horse power,
or cylinder power, as by boiler power, or capability of rapidly supplying steam
to the cylinders, and sti'l more by adhesive power, or the weight insistent on
the driving v heels, so as to have purchase, as it were, to drag the load after
it, for the wheels will slide, more or less, and, under some circumstances,
will merply turn round on the rails, without progressing. Many lines appear
to have been laid out under the impression that the locomotive engines would
always have to carry a ma.iimum load, and. in accordance with tliis principle
and to enable them to do so. it was some short time since laid down as an
axiom, that no inclinations should exceed ^^, and that gradients should be
constantly uniform through the whole lengih of a line. Experience has
shown, however, that the practical cost of conveyance of ordinary trains
over lines greatly varying in their gradients, does nut materially differ, the
wear, and tear, and fuel, seldom being increr.sed so much as 10 per cent., and
the other expences and ci ntingences being the same, whatever the gradient
of the railway, the difference on the whole expence of working and mainte-
nance becomes very small indeed. In laying out a line, then, the traflic most
be considered quite as much in the distribution of it as in the totality ; for it
is evident that, to accommodate the public, the trains ought to go often, and
will, therefore, generally be light; and when we consider the great economy
in construction, and the little additional expense incurred in the after work-
ing, we may conclude that railways may be advantageously laid out with
much steeper inclinations than they have in general hitherto been, particu-
larly in the remoter districts, where the railway system has not yet been
extended. A powerful engine will draw an immense load on a level, whereas
it often has not more than twenty tons to draw — consequently, gravity ceases
to become an object ; and even should the traflic increase in course of time,
it will be better to send frequent and light trains than, in the original con-
struction, to incur heavy cost to graduate the road for heavy trains, w hich
are seldom to be carried. This principle must, of course, be confined within
certain limits ; thus, lines may be laid out with better gradients, where the
traffic is very great, an<l will justify the expense and inconvenience which
might result from an engine having always to go up a steep ascent. Rail-
ways in England have cost, on the average, £30,000 per mile, and the first
cost of locomotive power does not amount to oue-fifteeenth of that sum. The
interest on the capital is, therefore, very great, while that on the power is
small, as is also, comparatively speaking, the daily cost of transit due to the
power only. If these proportions were different, the latter being increased,
while the larger amount (the interest on the cost of the works) were dimi-
nished, the capital sunk in railways might have been reduced fully one-half,
with equal satisfaction and benefit to the public, for whose use they were
designed, and with greater profit to the shareholders.

LECl'CRE n. R.A.1LW.1IS — LOCOMOTIVE POWER.

Ln the last lecture it had been stated that the adhesive power of the loco-
motive engine depended upon the weight borne upon the driving-w heels. Tlie
greatest amount of adhesion of iron upon iron, according to the experiments
of the eminent engineer, Mr. George Rennie, as published in the Philosophical
Transactions, appears to be about one-sixth or one-seventh of the weight of
the insistent load. In the locomotive engine, where the bearing of the wheels
is upon smooth surfaces, the adhesion will, of course, be less ; and in weather
when rime or mist congeals upon the rails, it is very small indeed, sometimes
none at all. But in ordinary states of the rails, and of the atmosphere, one-
fifteenth may be taken as an average. The vicissitudes to which this power
is subject, will often account for the varying rates of railway travelling, and
it is only when the resistance of the load is less than the smallest amount of
adhesive power which the state of the weather or the rails will admit, that
the time of transit of a train over any given distance can be insured. Now,
the usual weight bearing upon the driving-wheels of an ordinary locomotive,
for passenger traffir, is about seven tons, or 15.680 lb.; one-fifteenth of this
will be 1042 lb., or, in round numbers, say 1000 lb , for the average available
adhesive power of such an engine for moving a load, and on the amount of
this alone will depend the weight which the locomotive engine can draw after
it. The other principal element which must be taken into account in the
locomotive engine — viz. the speed — will depend mainly upon the power of the
boiler to generate steam with sufficient rapiility. A boiler may have quite
sufficient power to muve (at avelocity of three miles an hour) a load of which
1000 lb. shall be the representative, but it must be of a far superior descrip-
tion, and far higher powers, to move the same load at a velocity of thirty
miles an hour ; and this subject does not appear to have been sufl^iciently
considered, though it is of such paramount importance thoroughly to under-
stand the nature of the moving power to be used, before going into the
subject of the gradients, or the principles of laying out the line. The amount

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of the load, then, which the engine can draw, will depend chiefly on the
adhesion, and the velocity will depend on the boiler where the stream is
generated, the cylinders being proportioned to each of these two other
regulating powers. And not only must the steam be generated to a given
pressure to produce that power, but with sufficient rapidity to continue it ;
and in keeping up a high velocity, it must be, as it were, rammed into the
cylinders, so as to produce the greatest possible effect in the least possible
time, and this is the reason why high velocities are so very expensive, as the
same effect might be produced by one-fourth the quantity of steam, if suffi-
cient time were given to expand it. But there is yet another circumstance
that modifies the amoimt of adhesion — viz. the inclination of the roiid. It is
manifest that, if the road were vertical, the engine could have no adhesion
upon the rails; and, therefore, between the perpendicular and horizontal
lines, the power must undergo many degrees of variation, quite independent
of the atmospheric causes already mentioned. AVe have no experiments to
determine the ratio of that variation, but, reasoning from analogy, it may
be assumed to be as the sine of the angle of inclination, or in the same pro-
portion as the resistance arising from gravity, so that practically the
diminished amount of adhesion, on any inclined plane, might be found by
deducting the resistance of gravity on that plane from the constant of 1000
given above ; thus, on an inclination of 1 in 100. the gravity of the engine
per ton (or 2240 lb.) will be -.jSjif = 22'4 lb., and that for seven tons will be
22-4x7== 157 lb., which, subtracted from 1000, will give 843 lb. ^ the
diminished amount of adhesion, which will be the limit of the power of the
engine on that incline, as regards the load, no matter how great the boiler or
cylinder power may be. And to find the load which this power will draw,
we must take the sum of the resistances arising from gravity and friction for
one ton, and the adliesive power divided by this sum will be the amount
sought in tons; on an inclined plane of I in 100, the calculation will be found
thus: — Friction 9 1b. per ton, plus gravity as before, 224 =3r41b., and
adhesive power 843, divided by 31'4 = 267 tons, which is only one-fourth of
what might be drawn on a horizontal line. Hence the advantage of heavier
engines, which are daily coming into use, as also the propriety of coupling
the wheels of engines for drawing heavier loads up steep inclines, and I^y this
means the whole insistent weight of the engine is rendered etfective by ad-
hesion, and the load the engine can draw after it proportionally increased.
In calculating the amount of resistance of a load upon a railway, the friction
had been assumed to be 9 lb. per ton, rather in deference to general opinion
than otherwise; it w.as probably much higher. It is considered that the
friction of the engine and engine gear is 16 lb. to the ton, but that of the
lighter carriages less ; however, if this number (9 lb.) should be proved in-
correct by future experiments, the principle of the calcidation will not be
altered, and it will only be necessary to substitute the true number instead
of 9. The same may be said with regard to the adhesion ; it will only be
necessary to substitute for 1000 whatever number shall be found on closer
investigation to be nearer the truth.

The power generated in the boiler, and applied in the cylinders, now re-
mains to be brought under consideration. This may be stated to be the ca-
pability of the boiler to supply steam of high pressure, to enable the piston
to perform a given number of stroke.=! per minute, which accordingly will be
one of the essential elements in computing the power cf the engine ; and
therefore it is that we are always unwilling to define it by any number of
horses' power, since it is clear that the engine which, moving at the rate of
15 miles an hour, would be called a 20-horse engine, would be styled a 40-
horse engine when moving at the rate of 30 miles an hour, all other circum-
stances remaining the same. But it does not follow that, because the num-
ber of strokes per minute be increased, that the power available for locomotion
be increased also, and in this consists the essential difl'erence between loco-
motive and stationary engines, for in the former there are circumstances, as
before shown, which circumscribe that power, over which the boiler has no
control ; and, as regards the locomotive engine, a third point must be taken
into consideration. It is a well-known theory, that, if a metallic substance
be in contact on one side with water, and that heat be applied to the other,
that once the body becomes thoroughly warmed, the caloric will be taken up
by the water with as much rapidity as it can be supplied to the metal. Now,
in the locomotive engine, there is an immense area of heating surface in con-
tact with the water in the boiler, in consequence of the numerous tubes which
pass through it from the fire-box to the chimney, and it is on this principle
that what is called the steam draft has been introduced, by which means the
caloric is rapidly drawn from the fire through these tubes, and as rapidly
absorbed by the water with which they are in contact, for the production of
steam. It is evident that, in proportion to the rapidity with which the piston
moves, and with which the waste steam is injected into the chimney, will the
heat be absorbed by the water from the tubes and steam generated, the efiect
of which is, that the faster the engine goes, the quicker it generates the
steam ; and this forms another great beauty and peculiarity in the loco-
motive engine. The principles of calculating the moving power being thus
explained, the way has been sufficiently cleared for entering on the subject
of the laying out of railways.

Lecture III.— After recapitulating a few of the leading points which were
stated in the last lecture, the Professor called particular attention to the
formula whereon he had based the calculations into which he had then en-
tered, and he now exhibited tables and diagrams in further illustration.
Tlie adhesive power of 1000 lbs. was assumed as the average of what a loco-
motive engine will have in all states of the weather, and of the rails ; but if
the wheels be coupled, or the insistent weight otherwise increased or di-
minished, the adhesive power ("on which depends the load) will be altered in
the same proportion, subject also to variation from the state of the weather
and the road, and undergoing the stated diminutions from the eHi>cts of
gravity on all planes which depart from a horizontal line, the velocity of
the train depending on the evaporating power of the boiler. But m the
stationary system the engine winds (upon a roller, or over a sheave or wheel)
a rojie supported by puUies, placed at regular distances along the road, and
to which rope the train is attached. Mr. Vignoles stated that the student
may refer with confidence for every information on this subject, to Mr.
Wood's Treatise on Railways, and commented on the extracts he made from
that work.

Atmospheric Railway. — There is also another mode of applying the station-
ary engine to the purposes of locomotion, by producing through an air pump
a partial vacuum in a pipe, thus making atmospheric pressure the moving
power ; and it may be interesting to state, that the scientific men who were
appointed by the railway department of the Board of Trade to inquire into
the .system of the Atmospheric Railway, had fully recognised that principle,
and concurred in considering that the experiment contemplated upon the
Dublin and Kingstow n Railway extension, and recommended by the directors
to the proprietors, as applicable for illustrating the principle on a large scale.
On the atmospheric railway the diameter of the pipe or tube regulates the
load, but the velocity depends almost entirely upon the diameter of the air
pump that exhausts the pipe, the rule being that the area of the air pump
must be made as many times greater than the area of the pipe, as the velocity
of the train is to exceed that of the piston of the air pump. Thus, if the
piston of the air pump be supposed to move at a rate of three miles an hour,
and it be required to move a train at a velocity of thirty miles an hour, the
area of the air pump must be made ten times the area of the pipe ; the
diameter will, of course, be deduced from that area. Now, it appears that
the most economical pressure in the pipe (which is what engineers must
chiefly look to.) is about 7 lb. to the square inch, or rather less than half a
vacuum ; therefore, this may be taken as the constant of the atmospheric
pressure ; and if we multiply this constant by the area of the travelling piston
in inches, we shall obtain the efl'ective pressure upon that piston, which, as
it regulates the load, may be said to correspond to the adhesive power in the
locomotive engine, but which, unlike that power in the locomotive, will be
undiminished on inclined planes. Again, if we divide this power by the
friction (which was before taken at 9 lb. to the ton), we shall obtain the
number of tons which the piston, acted on by the atmospheric pressure, is
capable of propelling. Thus, supposing we have a pipe of 14 inches diameter,
if we multiply the area of this pipe by 7 lb., we shall find the effective pres-
sure equal to 1078 lb., which, divided by the friction, 91b., will give about 120
tons — the weight which can be propelled by means of a pipe of that diameter ;
and if the piston of the air pump move at the rate of three miles an hour,
and Its area equal to seven times that of the pipe, the load will be moved
with a velocity of twenty-one miles an hour, and it may be demonstrated
that, on ascending anil descending planes, the speed, although increased or
diminished at first, will soon become uniform. Of course, upon the diameter
of the air pump will depend the power of the engine which is to work it. The
calculations in this case will be similar to those for an engine required to
work ropes — in the one case it being required to find what is wanted lo over-
come the resistance and friction from ropes, pullies, &c., and in the l.^tter to
find the power to work the air pump, and exhaust the air from the tube at
any required velocity.

Inclined Planes, — The Professor then recurred to the eftect of trains descend-
ing inchned planes. Mr. Navier (in his work, translated by Mr. M'Neill,
which he mentioned as a text book on the comparison of different lines of rail-
way) differed somewhat from the propositions he had laid down: it was therein
stated, and Professor Barlow concurred in the statement, that an engine and
train did not gain any advantage in descending planes steeper than a certain
inclination which they have put as the angle of repose. Now, in practice,
Mr. Vignoles did not find it so, but, on the contrary, daily experience proved
that, as far as inclinations of sixty feet in a mile, the trains may, under
almost all circumstances, have the full benefit of gravity in the descent.
Professor Barlow has laid down, in several important works, which from
their high standing, will have a material influence upon the public mind, that
though additional power be required to surmount steep inclinations, yet, so
far from gaining a corresponding advantage in the descent, there will result
rather an injurious efiect from the necessity of applying the break. Now,
it has been already mentioned, and experiments have been repeatedly made
by Mr. Wood, Dr. Lardner, and others, showing that, when engines descend
long inclined planes, such as those on the Croydon Railway, the application

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of ihe break is seUom necessary, tlie speed that would be due to the accele-
rating force of gravity, being" reduced by the resistance of the atmosphere,
until it settles down to a uniform and safe velocity. It is evident, therefore,
that there is a great deal yet to learn on this subject, «hen we find authority
and practice difl'ering so materially. Mr. Vignoles observed, in conclusion,
that, as the laying out of the lines of railway ought to be strictly regulated
by the power to be used for locomotion, as well .as of the load of each train,
and the nature of the traflic, it becomes interesting to consider these principles
in respect of the extension of the railway system in this and in other coun-
tries ; for, looking at the enormous outlay hitherto incurred, lines through
remote districts would not be undertaken, unless the first cost of railways,
and the annual expense of working and maintaining them, were reduced to
a minimum.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Feb. 1. — The President in the Chair.

" A memoir of Captain Huddari." By William Cotton, F.R.S., &c.

This memoir is intended by the author chiefly to supply some additional
facts which are omitted in the account which was published by his son soon
after the decease of this distinguished man, whose " great powers of mind,
indefatigable industry, and high principles, raised him to a most honourable
position in the rank of men of science." Joseph Huddart was born at
Allonby, in Cumberland, the 11th January, 1740. llis father was a shoe-
maker and farmer, and had also a small interest in a herring fishery. Young
Huddart was placed under the tuition of Mr. Wilson, the clergjman of the
village, and from his son, who had been at Glasgow, he acquired some know-
ledge of mathematics and astronomy. He early displayed much ingenuity
in the construction of models of vessels and of machinery ; and while herd-
ing his father's cattle, he was occupied in mathematical reading, drawing,
and calculations. His determination to adopt a seafaring life was opposed
by his friends ; and it was not until he was called upon to take his share of
the duties on board the herring-fishing boats, that his father was reconciled
to his becoming a sailor. At this period, during the hours of rest after his
labours, he was engaged in making nautical observations, and laid the foun-
dation for the chart of St. George's Channel, which was laid down by him,
and published by his friend, Mr. Laurie, and still is the best chart of that
locality. On the death of his father, in 1762, he took the command of a
sloop which was employed in carrying salt herrings to Ireland. He then
constructed a brig according to a model of his own, every timber being
moulded by his own hands. In this vessel he traded for some years to Ame-
rica; until, in 1771, he was induced by Sir Richard Hotham (who had dis-
covered and appreciated his judgment and knowledge) to leave the brig and
engage in the East India mercantile marine. " In this extensive field of use-
fulness, Huddart evinced the superiority of his talents and his inflexible in-
tegrity ; " and his example as a commander was generally followed. While
in the Indian service his attention was drawn to the defects in the usual
manufacture of cordage, and led to the improvements which he afterwards
so successfully accomplished. He subsequently took a prominent part in the
direction of affairs at the Trinity House, the Ramsgate Harbour Trust, and
the London and East India Docks, where the valuable advice given by him
was properly appreciated, as it was also by the civil engineer, with whom he
■was called upon so frequently to co-operate. The memoir then relates many
interesting anecdotes of his private life, illustrative of his general scientific
acquirements, and of his amiable disposition. It then details, at considerable
length, his experiments for the determination of the lines for ships, which,
consistent with stabihty, and what might be required for stowage of cargo,
would give the greatest velocity through the water. The author enters fully
into the account of lluddart's inventions and improvements in rojie ma-
chinery, which he raised to such a pitch of perfection. This machinery,
which is now transferred to the Royal Dock Yards, has already been before
brought under the notice of the Institution by Mr. Cotton and by Messrs.
Dempsey and Birch, in communications for which prizes were awarded.
The general introduction of chain cables rendered this machinery less useful,
but could not take from its original merit ; and, in its present position, it
will long remain a monument of Captain Huddart's perseverance, mechanical
skill, and scientific knowledge.

Remarks. — Sir James South thought that Captain Huddart's scientific
attainments as an astronomer had not received their due meed of praise in
the memoir ; but more especially, that the equatorial instrument, which he
was now fortunate enough to have in his possession, should have been
alluded to more particularly. That instrument was constructed by Messrs.
Luke Howard &: Co., of Old-street, from the designs and under the daily
superintendence of Huddart. The greatest part of the instrument was put
together with his own hands, and the result of this combination of skill and
attention was, that, up to the present tirr.e, the instrument had been une-
qualled ; in fact, he must be permitted to say, that he considered it perfect.
It had been used for all kinds of observations — transit, declination, and equa-
torial ; and, in all, with equal satisfaction to the astronomer. With it Mr.

Herschel had made many of his obser%'ations, and always expressed himself
in the highest terms of it. It had been examined by most of the eminent
constructors of instruments, as well as many civil engineers, who all enter-
tained the same opinion of its perfection ; and, after a minute inspection,
one constructor observed, " Here is the best system of edge-bars and bracing
I ever saw, and my opinion of the instrument is, that it is perfect in every
part." Sir James then related several anecdotes of Huddart's habits of ob-
servation. On one occasion, being ordered to sail from Madras at a certain
time, he delayed his departure, because he observed a sudden fall of nearly
three-quarters of an inch in the mercury of the barometer. The residt of
this disobedience of orders (for which he incurred momentarj' censure,) was,
that his vessel alone of all the convoy escaped destiuction.

The President believed that Captain Huddart was the first to mark out the
direct course to China, which was so generally followed at present. He was
also the first observer who took a transit instrument out there with him, to
determine the rate of the chronometer. It was particularly worthy of notice,
that the equatorial instrument and the rope machinery, both which had been
designed by and executed under the directions of a self-educated man, desti-
tute of the means of acquiring instruction either in astronomy or mechanics,
had both been, up to the present time, unequalled either in conception or in
the perfection of their execution. Huddart was the constant coadjutor of
civil engineers ; he assisted the late Mr. Rennie in many of his surveys of
harbours, and on those occasions had always the command of the vessel, even
if he participated in the actual operations of the survey. Whether Huddart
was viewed as a sailor, boldly striking out for himself a new track to his des-
tination ; as a ship-builder constructing a vessel in order to avoid the defects
which he observed in the ordinary class of ships ; as a hydrographer, dis-
plajing in his chart of the St. George's Channel those powers of observation
and of reasoning which made him an astronomer ; as a constructor of the
equatorial instrument, which had been so justly commended ; or as a me-
chanic, designing and constnicting one of the most beautiful pieces of ma-
chinery on record — he appeared equally great. The Institution was much
indebted to Mr. Cotton for this Memoir of Captain Huddart, whose name
would be always venerated by every member of the profession of civil en-
gineering.

Mr. Thornthwaite must in justice correct a misapprehension relative to the
laying machine for the cable ; the idea of that machine originated with the
Rev. Edmund Cartwright, who had projected more improvements in cotton
machinery than any person, except Arkwright. The machine was materially
modified by Captain Huddart, and to him must be given all the credit for
the perfection of its proportions, and its careful construction, which had
enabled a machine weighing 20 tons, and revolving rapidly upon one vertical
spindle, to work for a number of years without costing 5/. for repairs. The
register, which preceded the laying machine several years, was entirely Hud-
dart's invention, and was the origin of his improvements in rope machines.

Feb. 8. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of the Port of London, and of the Works at the London
Docks." By Robert Richardson, Grad. Inst. C.E.

In this communication the author examines the state of the Port of Lon-
don, when the accommodation for landing and bonding foreign produce, was
almost entirely limited to a single spot, called the " Legal Quay," which was
only about 1,400 feet in length, extending downwards from London Bridge,
afl'ording no greater facilities for commerce in the beginning of the nineteenth
century than in the year ICGO, when this quay was appointed. This state
of things continued until the year 1773, when Mr. J. Sharp suggested the
formation of floating docks. In the year 1800, the West India Docks were
commenced ; in the year following the London Docks were projected, and in
the year 1805 the East India docks were commenced. For all these under-
takings, Mr. Ralph Walker was appointed engineer, having Mr. Wilham Jes-
sop associated with him for the West India Docks. The paper enters fully
into the bad state of the navigation of tlie river, owing to defective manage-
ment and other causes ; gives a table showing the progressive increase of
tonnage and number of ships from the beginning to the close of the last
century ; mentions the various plans of Dodd, Spence, Reveley, and others,
for diverting the channel of the river for the formation of more extensive
docks, near the Isle of Dogs ; and then proceeds to detail minutely the origin
and progress of the London Docks, giving the dimensions and mode of con-
struction of the principal works connecting the Eastern Docks with the
Thames, which were constructed under the superintendence of Mr. H. R.
Palmer, to whom the author has been indebted for much of the information
contained in the paper.

The communication is accompanied by fifteen drawings, showing the
details of construction of the locks and gates, bridges, quays, embankments,
&c.

" Description of the Ponte delta Maddelina, over the River Serchio, near
Lucca." By Richard Townshend, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The bridge described in this communiration, is situated about half-way
between the town and the baths of Lucca, in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany ;
It was built by Castracani, in the year 1317, on the site of one which had
been constructed by order of the Countess Matihla, eariy in the twelfth cen-
tury, and subsequently destroyed ; it is believed that a Roman bridge for-
merly existed on the same spot. The present bridge is of grey limestone of
the country. The large arch of 120 ft. 6 in. span, is of a semicircular form,

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[Mat,

and springs directly from the rocky bed of the river, without any prepared
foundation. The smaller arches are of various spans, 46 ft. 10 in., 33 ft.,
28 ft., and 7 ft. 6 in. The style of construction is somewhat similar to that
of the Pont-y-prydd, over the Taff, in South Wales. An engraving of the
bridge accompanied the paper.

" Description of the Mill, Forge, and Furnaces of a Welsh Iron Jl'orlt."
By Thomas Girdwood Ilardie, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The author commences by describing the general plan of an iron work,
consisting of six blast furnaces, four double-fire refineries, and a forge and
mill, capable of converting into bar irjn the produce of the sLt blast fur- ,
naces. lie then enters very fully into certain alterations of the interior
shape of the blast furnaces introduced by him at the Blaenavon works, from
which have resulted au economy of fuel, regularity of work, and an improved
quality of iron. The principal alterations appear to be, making the interior
diameter greater above that at the boches, and establishing a proper ratio
between the diameter of the boches and that of tlie charging place, and pro-
portioning both to the height of the furnace. The opinions are supported
by calculations of the quantity of blast used in smelting given quantities of
ore, and the eflfect which the form of t!ie fnrnaces must have in directing the
current of the blast through the materials, by which also the point of fusion
would be necessarily atFected, and the chemical combinations varied. The
particulars are then given of the construction of the furnaces at Blaenavon,
and the details of the blowing engines, blast mains, regulators, valves, &c.,
with calculations of the quantity of blast used in the various processes of the
manufacture. The construction of the casting houses, with the mode of
ventilating by the iron roof, is detailed. The general arrangements of the
balance pits, coke yards, mine kilns, and bridge houses, are shown, and the
author proceeds to describe the forge and mill, which have 35 puddling fur-
naces, with hammers, shears, rolls, and heating furnaces in proportion. He
then condemns the usual practice of leaving the coupling boxes loose upon
the spindles, as hable to break the rolls, shafts, or machinery, and gives the
theoretical and practical reasonings for preferring fixed couplings. The com-
munication is illustrated by three drawings, showing all the details of con-
struction of the iron works.

Remarks. — Mr. Lowe believed that there was an incorrectness in the
statement of the iron, after being freed from its oxygen by the heat of the
furnace, taking up a dose of carbon from the coke, thus becoming a carbtu'et
of iron, which is a fusible compound, and as such fell melted into the hearth.
On the contrary, he thought that the iron was combined with carbon in the
ore, and that there was not any necessity for the medium of the fuel to charge
it with carbon.

Dr. Faraday, in reply to " \Vhy the ore required, or why the iron carried
away, any of the carbon of the fuel ?" stated, that the ore being essentially a
carbonate of iron, the first action of heat, either in the mine kilns or in the
fiirnace, was to draw off the carbonic acid and leave an oxide of iron, and
then the further action of the fuel (besides sustaining a high temperature,)
was to abstract the oxygen of the oxide, and so to reduce the iron to the me-
tallic state, after which a still farther portion of the carbon of the fuel com-
bined with the iron, bringing it into the state of easily fusible or pig-iron.
As carbon may be communicated to the iron in two ways, distinct in their
nature, either by contact with solid carbon, as in the process of cementation
(that by which steel is commonly converted), or from the carbonated gases,
either carburetted hydrogen, or carbonic acid, which occupy nearly every
part of the air-way of the furnace, it would be desirable to distinguish, as
far as may be in any furnace having a particular form or action, what pro-
portion of the whole effect is due to the one mode of carbonization or the
other.

Mr. Wallace stated that the ore was a carbonate of iron, or a protoxide of
iron and carbonic acid united, and not a carburet of iron (or iron and carbon
simply), as was generally believed. In smelting, the carbonic acid was driven
off, the simple oxide remaining ; the oxygen of which, being carried off by
the heat, left the pure iron, which, combining with the carbon of the coke,
formed a fusible carburet of iron, or the pig-iron of commerce.

Mr. John Taylor observed that his brother, Mr. Philip Taylor, being sen-
sible of the advantages to be expected from the use of anthracite in smelting
iron, made a series of experiments several years ago, from which he derived
the opinion that the carbon absorbed by the metal, and which is necessary to
produce it in the shape of pig iron, must be presented in a gaseous state to
the mass in fusion ; and as anthracite did not afford a sufhcient supply of
coal gas during combustion to produce the proper effect, he proposed to
adopt a very ingenious method, by which this gas would have been thrown
into the furnace in such proportions as might be found necessary, mixed
with the common air employed as the blast. Circumstances interrupted the
course of these experiments, or it is possible that the use of anthracite for
this important application might have taken place at a much earlier period
than it has happened to do.

Fell. 15. — The President in the Chair.

" Veicription of Chelson Meadow Sluice."
Inst. C. E.

By Theodore Budd, Grad.

The sluice which is described in this communication was erected from the
designs of Mr. Rendel, for the Chelson Marshes in Devonshire, which, being
very low, had previously suffered much from floods, but now are entirely
relieved. The novelty in the construction consists in hanging each of the
doors respectively by two hinged flat bars of iro.,, of 18 ft. 6 in., and 15 ft.

3 in. in length, and thus, by placing the centre of motion so high above the
centre of gravity of the doors, give greater freedom of action than bv the
modes usually adopted in similar works. The dimensions of all the parts,
and the method of construction, are given in great detail, and arc illustrated
by a drawing.

Remarks. — Mr. Rendel explained that the sluice doors which had been
superseded by those described by Mr. Budd, were of the ordinary description,
placed side by side. They were frequently hinge-bound and clogged up ;
which caused the land to be flooded sometimes for three months during the
year ; the hinges were attached in the usual manner to the frames, close at
the head of the doors, and they required a pressure of at least 6 inches of
water to act upon them either way. He considered the principal advantages
of these doors to consist in the freedom of action given by the length of the
bar hinges by which they were suspended, their giving the full extent of
opening, and the pressure of one inch head of water sufficing either to open
or close them.

Mr. Prior inquired whether there was any similarity between these sluice-
doors and that erected by the President near Blackfriars Bridge, at the
bottom of Fleet Ditch, That door was so well hung as to be even acted
upon by the wind ; and the slightest pressure of water sufficed to open or to
close it.

The President explained that the principle was not the same ; at the Fleet
Ditch sluice double hinges were used, or rather hinges with a link betweea
the part attached to the frame, and that which was screwed to the door ; —
that form of hinge always acted freely, and allowed the doors to open witli
a slight pressure.

" On the mode practised in India for obtaining solid Foundations for
Bridges, &;c., in sandy soils, by means of Wells." By Captain Goodwyn,
B. E., Assoc. Inst. C. E.

Piling for the foundation of buildings appears to be entirely unknown ia
Hindostan ; the ordinary mode for securing a foundation, where the super-
stratum is tenacious and rests upon loose sand, is to dig a well until water is
reached ; a curb of timber is then placed, and upon if a cylinder of brick, 7 J
feet exterior, and 3^ feet interior diameter, is built to the height of 3 or 4
feet above the ground. As soon as the masonry has hardened sufficiently, the
well-sinker fixes a plumb-line to the top of the cylinder as a guide, and de-
scends withinside, carrying an instrument called a " Phaora, or Mamooti,"
somewhat similar in shape to a hoe ; with this he excavates the earth until
the water is too deep ; he then commences the use of the " Jham," which
resembles the " Phaora" in shape, but is about 36 inches long and 27 inches
wide, and is suspended to a cord passing over a pulley above the cylinder.
Upon this instrument the well-sinker descends, and diving into the water ex-
cavates with the " Jham" the soft earth under the sides of the curb, and is
at intervals drawn up with the instrument. The cylinder descends gradually
from 6 inches to 2^ feet per day, as the earth is withdrawn- from beneath it,
and relays of workmen keep it constantly going, lest the sand should settle
around it, and cause it to hang up. The natives are very expert in this oper-
ation, and not unfrequently remain under water more than a minute at a
time. The cylinders have been sunk as deep as 40 feet; but with extreme
labour.

A series of these wells being sunk at intervals of 1 foot between them,
they are filled with a grouting of lime and rubble-stone, and separately arched
over ; arches are then thrown transversely from the centre of each parallel
pair, and another set of arches turned over the adjacent wells longitudinally;
the whole is then covered with masonry, and the pier or other building
raised upon it : such foundations are found to answer perfectly in situations
where almost any other kind would be washed away.

The communication was accompanied by a drawing of the process, and of
the tools used, showing also the modification of the system proposed by
Colonel Colvin, of the Bengal engineers, for obtaining foundations for a cur-
tain, or line of viall, by sinking square masses of brickwork, with two or more
wells in each, through which the workmen could excavate the soil.

In answer to questions from the President, Captain Goodwyn observed
that the greatest peculiarity of this system was that the sinker worked under
water ; such had been their custom for ages. Upon this kind of foundation,
many of the large fortresses in India were constructed, and they stood re-
markably well ; whereas, if timber piles had been used, the white ant would
have destroyed tliem in a short time.

Lieutenant Sale observed that another main reason for not using piles was,
that timber was scarce and dear, whereas labour was plentiful and cheap.
Hence the general use of the brick cylinders.

Mr. Parkes conceived the most ingenious parts of the proceeding to be,
the sinking through the water, and thus avoiding the risk of bringing up
large quantities of sand, and the combination of arches, for distributing the
weight of the superstructure equally among the brick shafts. Such shafts
had been used by the Chinese, and sunk in the same manner from time im-
memorial.

In answer to a question from the President, Mr. Simpson described the
process now so much practised for sinking wells through bad strata liy means
of cast-iron cylinders ; excavating the earth from within the cylinder by au
instrument called a " miser," which is a conical iron shell with a valve open-
ing inwards j it is suspended by iron rods 1^ inch square, and worked from
the level of the ground without pumping up the water : it is not uncommon
to excavate to a depth exceeding 100 feet in that manner. The " miser" can
bring up a cubic yard of earth each time it is raised. Cast iron cylinders are

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169

preferable to brick shafts, which frequently bang up, and in that case give
much trouble, whereas if the iron cylinders do not descend freely, they will
bear the application of considerable force to drive tliem down. They are
frequently forced tlirough the indurated ferruginous gravel. Light planking
is also sometimes used, particularly iu such cases as in the well he is now
sinking at Chelsea, which is 20 feet square, lined throughout with 3-inch
planking. It has reached the quick sand at a depth of 32 feet, and will be
stopped there.

Mr. Davisou had just completed a well at Messrs. Truman and Hanbury's
brewery, with cast iron cylinders, 8 feet diameter, and 193 feet deep, an
account of which be promised to present to the Institution.

The President was now sinking a set of cast iron cylinders through sand
which was liable to be washed away ; they were to be fiUeil with concrete
and used as the foundation for a lighthouse at tlie Point of .Vir. An account
of the construction was, he believed, preparing for the Institution.

" All Hislorical Account of Capper Sheathing for Vessels." By J. J.
AVilkinson.

The two former papers by the same author,* treated of Wood and Lead
Sheathing for Ships : the present communication gives in the introduction a
general account of Copper as a metal ; the localities supplying it ; the uses
to which it has been applied, from the earliest period to the present time;
and the relative estimation in which copper of various countries is held on
account of its degree of purity, its ductility, or its better preparation, in
■which latter particular British copper is stated to be pre-eminent. — An
epitome is then given of a return to the House of Commons ; whence it
appears that in 1832, into Swansea alone, there was imported 4350 cwts. of
unwrought metal, and 410,604 cwts. of ore, and that there was exported
during the same year, of British metal, 153,742 cwts., and foreign metal
112,830 cwts. Copper from Sweden is considered more malleable than that
from Hungarj' ; but the former is not so good as British metal, as it contains
a portion of iron.

Copious extracts are made from " Knowles's Naval Architecture," whence
is quoted the first recorded use of copper sheathing upon the " Alarm"
frigate, in 1761; at that period it was believed that sea water had little
action upon pure copper, and the rapid decav of the partial sheathing of cer-
tain ships was attributed to the impurity of the metal. Experience showed,
however, that pure copper, like that employed on the " Tartar," could be
destroyed in the short space of four years, while the sheathing of the " Bata-
via," an old Dutch man-of-war, and of the " Plymouth" yaclit, was perfect
after 24 and 27 years' service; in both tlie latter there was an alloy of
ji^th part of zinc.

Much information is given on the rolling of copper sheets ; the dimensions ;
the weight per square foot of different gauges, and the uses to which the
various kinds are applied : as also on the quantities of metal used for sheath-
ing. The " Xeptune," of 120 guns, was cased with 4738 sheets, weighing
altogether 17 tons 19 cwts.

The use of copper sheathing is to protect the wood from destruction by
the worm, and to prevent the adhesion of weeds, barnacles, &c. which
impede the sailing of the vessel. On the first introduction of copper, it was
used in conjunction with iron bolts and other fastenings ; these soon oxidated,
and serious accidents occurred. It was advised in consequence that all the
bolts should be of copper or mixed metal. The attention of the Government
was directed to the subject, and Sir Humphrey Davy was appointed to ex-
periment upon specimens of metal of different qualities. He soon discovered
that when two dissimilar metals are in contact and immersed in sea-water, a
voltaic effect is produced which occasions a rapid corrosion of the more oxi-
dable metal, while the other remains uninjured. In 1S24 Sir Humphrey Davy
communicated to the Government that he had discovered a means of pre-
venting the corrosion of the copper by rendering it electro-negative. This
he proposed to effect by protectors of zinc, iron, or any other easdy oxidable
metal : after a variety of experiments he determined that the protectors
should consist of six bars of cast iron, whose united surface should be Tji^rth
part of the area of the copper exposed to the action of the sea water : two
of them were placed midsliips on the keel of the ship, two on the bows, and
two on the stern about three feet under water. As far as the philosophical
fact was concerned, the result was conclusive, as the copper suffered no waste.
Inconveniences, however, arose which had not been foreseen : as tlie copper
did not oxidate, its whole surface was speedily covered with barnacles and
sea weeds, which collected in such quantities as to impede the sailing of the
vessels, and adhered so fast that in removing them the copper was frequently
torn away : the protectors were therefore abandoned, in 1826, for all vessels
on service, but were still used for the ships lying up in harbour ; the bottoms
of these became, however, so foul, that in 1828 the system was entirely
abandoned. After the protectors had been for some months on the ships'
bottoms, it was found that on the outer surface a red oxide was formed, and
beneath it, for some depth, a sul)stance resembling plumbago ; this substance,
having sulphate of iron for one of its constituents, when laid upon any
inflammable body, caused spontaneous combustion : a similar result was
obtained by Mr. F. Daniel in 1817, while experimenting upon cast iron, by
solution in dilute muriatic acid. Protectors of various kinds have been tried
in the French navy, and in the United States ; but generally with doubtful
success.

* Minutes of Proceedings, vol. 4, for 1841, pp. 318 and 35

A list of all the patents for copper and other sheathing, as well as means
of preventing corrosion, &c., is then given at great length : the gradual
progress of the application of copper sheathing, first to ships of the Royal
Navy, then to Indiaracn, to Transports, and finally to Merchant Ships, is then
traced. It appears that of the vessels which enter the Thames, one-fifth are
sheathed with copper aud its alloys ; of vessels at Liverpool, eight-tenths are
coppered. The precautions for preserving uncoppered vessels from the
" Teredo navalis" are then described : and coal-tar pitch is mentioned as the
most effective substitute for sheathing.

Copper sheathing appears to be entirely neglected for vessels in the coal
trade, although it is singular tliat the " Teredo" is found in every port to
which coals are carried, south of the Tees ; in the Thames, as high up as
Gravesend, and northward as far as Whitby ; traces of the ravages of the
" Teredo navalis," and of the " Limnoria terebrans," have at various periods
been found, from the north of Scotland and Ireland, on almost every coast
to the Cape of Good Hope and Van Diemen's Land, in the Eastern hemis-
phere : and in the Western hemisphere, from the river St. Lawrence to Staten
Island near the Terra del Fuego, almost in the Polar Sea ; so that although
this maritime scourge is rifest in warm climates, yet cold latitudes are not
exempt from it.

Remarks. — Mr. Lowe was pleased to find th.it the use of coal-tar pitch for
shipping was advantageously mentioned : he was convinced tliat it would be
found very superior to vegetable pitch : he had seen comparative experiments
tried on board an India ship, and the result was, that the timber which had
becu coated with the former was preserved both from the worm and from
decay, while that which was covered with the latter had sufi'ered from both.
He attributed the preservative quality of the coal-tar pitch to the quantity of
sulpho-cyanic, or sulpho-prussic acid, which it contained.

Mr. Home had used coal-tar extensively on wood, but found that it pro-
duced decay, which he attributed to the ammonia contained iu it.

Lieutenant Oldfield alluded to Renwick's patent, for saturating timber with
coal-oil : he had seen specimens of piles at New York, which, when prepared
by Renwick's process, perfectly resisted the attacks of the '■ Teredo navalis,"
in the same situations where " kyanized piles" had been entirely destroyed.

Mr. Bethell confirmed Lieutenant Oldfield's statement. Coal-oil was a
powerful preservative when properly prepared and applied : he objected to
the use of ammonia in any shape, as it rotted timber very fast. In experi-
ments he had made, previously to taking out his patent for preparing timber
with coal-oil, he observed that wood coated with common coal-tar soon
turned brown, and decay ensued : ammonia produced the same appearance
and effect. If any vegetable fibrous substance, such as peat, was sprinkled
with ammonia, it speedily rotted, and became a rich black earth. In the
Jlediterranean, the native ship owners used nothing hut coal-tar pitch for
their vessels ; they were cleaned and well tarred twice a year, and the worm
seldom made any ravages, although unprepared timber in those latitudes was
destroyed in a very short time. The refined coal-tar, as manufactured in
London, is purified from ammonia by distillation, and found an excellent
coating for wood. The oil of tar, used in Mr. Bethell's process, is likewise
purified from ammonia.

Mr. Parkes conceived that diluted ammonia must be meant as recommended
for agricultural purposes, and not the ammouiacal liquor as it came from the
gas-works ; the former, when used with discretion, properly diluted, and to
certain soils, was an active stimulant in cultivation, but the latter contained
matter which was very prejudicial.

.Mr. Bethell observed that ammoniacal liquor, when diluted with three
parts of water, had been found to succeed perfectly with peaty soils. Nearly
all the sal ammoniac of commerce is now made from the ammoniacal liquor
from gas-works.

Mr. Hawkins remarked, that it could he readily understood that the pro-
portion of ammonia used would regulate the effect to be produced ; as in the
case of gypsum, of which two bushels per acre was a good manure; but in
some places fifteen or twenty bushels per acre had been tried, and of course
a complete failure had ensued.

Mr. Parkes replied, tliat gypsum was commonly used in Yorkshire, and
habit had dictated the proportions so well that it seemed to be the best
manure the farmers possessed there.

-Mr. Taylor recalled the conversation to the subject of the Paper on Copper
Sheathing ; from which many curious facts might be drawn. The ancient
specimens of copper sheets had endured longer than the modern : the former
contained an alloy of irio*'' P^'''' °^ ''""^' The " Muntz" metal, which is
now being extensively used, contains alloy of the same material, but in a
larger proportion. The inequality of manufactured copper ha<l perplexed the
chemist and the manufacturer for full forty years ; aud after all their re-
searches and experiments, it would appear that the chemistry of the manu-
facture of copper and of iron was not understood. Mr. Taylor had been
consulted by Sir John llenslowe on tlie subject, and he had recommended
assaying the sheets instead of receiving them by the appearance of their
surfaces, as was the usual mode. Dr. Faraday and Mr. Ricliard Phillips had
made an extensive series of experiments for Mr. Vivian, aud Mr. Farquharhad
carefully analysed various specimens; but all these eminent men faileil in dis-
covering any chemical difierence between the copper which had endured well
aud that which had been rapidly destroyed. Sheets of copper rolled the same
day, under apparently similar circumstances, differed materially iu quaUty. In
the process of " polling," which is carried on by stirring about the copper
while in a fluid state with poles of green wood, producing ebullition, whetUer

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[May,

the operation is continued too long or too short a time, the metal beeo'mes
brittle, and the quality cannot he recovered. Less copper is now exported
from Russia, licoause the attention of the miners is directed to the gold
mines. Mr. Taylor attributed the superiority of the quality of the foreign
copper to the ore being smelted with charcoal ; whereas English copper is
smelted with bituminous coal, frequently containing sulphur.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

April IB. — This meeting was attended by the President, Earl de Grey,
who, having left his vice-royalty to attend to his parhamentary labours, took
the opportunity of being present. The attendance was most numerous.

A paper was read by Mr. Ilosking upon '• The Composition and Construc-
iion of Bridr/es," the conclusion of which was obliged to be reserved for
another meeting, on account of the other business of the evening, .\fter
the lecture his Lordship addressed the meeting, alluding to the happy union
of the two societies, which had always been an object of his earnest wishes.
The articles of union were, he said, satisfactorj' and advantageous to both
societies, and the Institute had received an accession to its collection of a
large number of valuable plans, drawings, casts and books. He also adverted
to the accession of H. R. H. Prince Albert as Patron of the Institution, and
then stated that he had a pleasing duty to perform in presenting the Soanean
medal to Mr. J. W. Papworth, Associate, for his design of the restoration of
Crosby Hall. It afforded him, he said, additional pleasure to present this
medal to that young architect in the presence of his father, who was one of
the oldest members of the Institute ; and had the good fortune to see his
honourable career followed up by his son. In addition to the medal there
■was a sum of 10 guineas presented bv Miss Hackett, the owner of Crosbv
Hall.

After the conclusion of the business of the meeting there were some beau-
tiful specimens of Keene's cement exhibited, consisting of inlaid paving in
various colours, capitals of columns, and other applications of the material
for architectural purposes ; they were presented by Messrs. White & Son.
A specimen of Caen stone was laid on the table ; the price stated at which
it could be delivered on the Thames was Is. lOrf. per cubic foot.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Feb. 28. — M. Dufresnoy read a report on some researches by M. Pailletteupon
the metalliferous district.^ of Calabria, and the north of Sicily. It appeared
that the mines now worked in those districts were not opened previous to
1720, and that before this period the mineral riches of the countries in ques-
tion had been very imperfectly known to, or at least little used by, the in-
habitants, and even the Romans. It was about 1720 that some German
miners were employed by Charles VI. to look for metallic veins ; their ope-
rations assumed a certain degree of importance about 1753; but thirty years
later they were almost entirely abandoned. Most of the metalliferous for-
mations of southern Italy consist of small veins, resembling those of Auvergne
and the Limousin. Tables of the quantity of metal produced by the various
mines now worked accompanied these researches.

A memoir was read by M. Combes, on the sulphureovs hot springs of
Hamman-Escovkin, near Bona, in Africa. They burst forth on a small pla-
teau, which is covered by a white crust of the mineral matter deposited by
their water, and they form round each orifice small cones, from the summits
of which the water flows. Their average heat is from 78 to 80 degrees of
Reaumur, or from 207J to 212 Fahrenheit — boiling point. It is only 200 or
300 paces from the spot where the waters of these springs join a mountain
stream of cold water, that their heat becomes reduced enough to allow of
people bathing in them. They are highly sulphureous, and send up immense
clouds of steam. The numbers of people who resort to them for all kinds of
complaints are considerable.

March 7. — M. Arago informed the Academy of the result of some obser-
vations, lately made with great care, for ascertaining the exact height of the
summit of the lantern of the Pantheon above the lowest point, or zero, of the
water scale at the Pont de la Tournelle, and also the exact height of the
latter point above the level of the sea in the Channel. It appeared that
these heights were 117 metres 60 centimetres, and 25 metres 76 centimetres
(or 385 ft. 10 in. and 84 ft. 6 in.) respectively. M. Arago stated, the object
of this was to serve for the settlement of the exact levels of all points of the
capital, with a view to a more accurate system of drainage ; and further, that
the Municipal Council had decided on having the altitude of the soil, above
the zero of the scale at the Pont de la Tournelle, marked at a very great
number of points in the capital, and engraved on plates, which would be
affixed to public buildings or houses of a certain solidity of construction, at
the points where the altitudes would be taken.

M. Beautemps-Bcaupre laid on the table the 5th part of the great hydro-
graphical survey of the French coast, on which he has been occupied several
years. Captain Berard presented the Academy with the general table of ob-
servations made on board the Vranvs, during the late voyage to and from
the Island of Bourbon. They related principally to the temperature of the
ocean.

M. Chazaillon communicated some researches on tides, and the level of the

ocean. He had found that the analytical expression, used by Laplace, (or
calculating the height of the tide was incomplete.

M. Francceur read a paper on a new instrument, constructed by himself,
for measuring the strength of distilled liquors.

A model was exhibited to the members by M. Sorel, for fixing zinc on iron
by a new application of the voltaic pile.

March 21. — k communication was read from M. Amedee-Durand, " Ona
New Mode of Constructing JVindmills." The invention of M. Durand con-
sists chiefly in imparting to the sails of the mill their impelling force in a
way resembling that which is experienced in the mode of sailing a vessel.
The action of the wind striking from behind bears upon a point beyond the
centre of the pivot, and tends to keep the shaft in a parallel direction with
the current of air, the sails being constantly maintained at a right angle with
the wind. By this new system the sails, which are six in number, are not,
like those of the common mills in use, supported upon framework, but are
attached and spread in the same manner as those of a vessel. They are so
disposed that their whole surfaces may be acted upon so long as the wind,
augmented in effect by their total surface, is inferior to the weight of a
counterpoise, which tends constantly to keep it in its normal position. When
the wind exceeds this limit, the counterpoise comes into action, and so
changes the quantity of surface exposed, that the machinery may continue to
perform its fuuctions without any acceleration of motion lieyond what is
requisite. M. Durand states that his invention has been submitted to the
test of experience, several mills so constructed having for years past been in
operation, and effectually resisted the most violent storms.

March 28. — A report, by M. Chevreuil, was read, on a paper, by M.
Ebelhelrn, respecting the manufacture of iron, M. Ebelhelm's paper was
principally on the construction of blast-furnaces, iStc. M. Ebelhelrn states
that he is satisfied, from a series of experiments, that the present mode of
constructing furnaces is as near to perfection as possible, but that nearly
two-thirds of the combustibles employed pass off in gas, and that there
would be great economy and advantage in a contrivance for preserving this
gas, and making use of it in the process of smelting. The paper, however,
leaves the question of the precise and best mode of obtaining this result
still doubtful.

A paper, by M. Gaudin, on photographic drawing, was read. This gentle-
man announces, that he has succeeded in obtaining perfect impressions, and
more rapidly, without the use of the iodine-box, by exposing the plate to
the action of a single compound of iodine, of his own preparation, much
richer than what is now used in the uncertain photographic apparatus of the
iodine-box.

M. Viau communicated to the Academy a new mode of raising vessels
sunk in deep water. His apparatus consists of a covered, but light and air-
tight frame work, which he calls the hydrostat. The process is commenced
by allowing the water to rush in and fill the hydrostat, which of course sinks
until it readies the object it is intended to raise. The valves are now closed,
and the apparatus fixed by means of chains or ropes to the vessel. A stop-
cock, connected with a pipe, is opened, and this pipe communicates with two
recipients on a stage, or platform, erected on a boat, or vessel, near the spot.
One of these recipients contains an acid, and the other carbonate of lime,
and a communication between them is established, so as to keep up a sufficient
supply of carbonic acid gas, which passes through the pipe into the hydrostat,
and displaces the water. The hydrostat, now filled with a light gas, will
naturally rise to the surface, if its volume be large enough to drag with it
the body to which it is attached.

[The following words were, by accident, omitted at the conclusion of our
last month's Report, p. 137 : — " he effaced also, and the forgery detected."]

Art-Union Societv. — The annual meeting for the distribution of prizes
was held at Drury Lane Theatre, on Tuesday. 26th ult., when a most inte-
resting report was read, we believe from the pen of Mr. Godwin, and from
which we learn that there arc 11,119 subscribers and the amount of sub-
scriptions is i"12,905. The house was crowded to excess, and many hundreds
were forced to go away for want of room. In consequence of the absence
of the Duke of Cambridge, the chair was taken by Mr. Benjamin Bond
Cabhell. The prizes distributed were 240 in number, varyiug from 10/. to
400/. We regretted to observe that there seemed a disposition to stifle
inquiry, for when one or two members rose to ask some very necessary ques-
tions, they were immediately checked ; as, however, only one meeting is held
in the year, we think that some faciUty should be given to subscribers to ask
for public information ; it is the only way to prevent abuse creeping into the
proceedings of so useful an association.

Tlic Anli John Scott Russell, — We have witnessed the surprising perfor-
mance of this small vessel, titled with Bealt's patent rotary engine. The
speed of the boat averages upwards of 10 miles per hour, althuugh the engine
is little larger than 18 In. diameter, and 12 in. broad. We had intended to
have given the drawings of the engine and boiler, together with some par-
ticulars of its construction, and the q':antity of fuel consume I ; but we have
deferred doing so until we have had another opportunity of witnessing the
performance of the engine. To all who feel an interest in the rotary engine
we recommend their attention to that of Mr. Beale : it is extremely simple,
and cannot easily get out of order.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

171

RZVIS^VS.

A Treatise on Fresco, Encaustic, and Tempera Paintinr;. By Eugenic
Latula, Mem. Soc. Brit. Art. London : 1842.

In the artistic movement which has been communicated to architecture,
the discussion as to the best mode of decorating the New Houses of Pf.rlia-
ment has been one of the main features. Here we find two parties formed —
the architects having declared themselves for the introduction of mural deco-
ration, and the artists opposing it, or admitting only of oil painting as the
proper medium. The architects look upon this subject as not only likely to
give a more artistical tendency to their art, hut as promising to elevate art
itself. To this are opposed the large body of the artists, who, devoted to
portrait, landscape, or conversation subjects, having but a limited view of
their own art, and being incapable of estimating that of others, and being
above all things ignorant of fresco, reject in the strongest terms either the
applicability of this medium, or the utdity — nay, even possibility — of the
existence of high art. They know that the intimate acquaintance with the
human form, the breadth and grandeur of outline, and the firmness of touch,
required for fresco, are qualifications which their previous studies have denied
to them; accustomed also to compose on a small scale, they fear the gigantic
efforts of historical art. To such an extent does this ignoiance, do these
prejudices prevail, that we firmly believe, that did the fate of the decoration
of the Houses of Parhament depend on the fiat of the Royal Academy, that
by a large majority all idea of it would be rejected. This feeling is to be re-
gretted, as it will tend but too strongly to fortify the inclination for German
artists, already manifested by some members of the Royal Commission ; for
if English artists declare that they cannot execute fresco, the Commissioners
will naturally turn to the Bavarians, who are hut too ready to assert their
proficiency. Under such circumstances it is to be expected that the most
exaggerated and unfounded statements with regard to fresco liave been given
out, which are so ably met by Mr. Severn in another part of the Journal,
that we do not think it necessary ourselves to refute them. If they think
that with so many examples before their eyes in the public buildings of Lon-
don, that the Commissioners will ever trust to oil as the vehicle for decora-
tion, the artists are most grievously mistaken. Its blackness its varnished,
surface, its partial efl'ect, and its perishability, would alone suffice to ensure
its rejection, and throw us upon the mercy of the whitewasher, or of the
carver and gilder. Fortunately, however, the question does not depend for
determination upon the artist : the architect has his vote. Tlie artist on this
occasion is only the subordinate ; and mural decoration is a question which
has come witliin the attributions of the architect from the earliest period. The
architect will, upon turning to Vitrnvius, find the instructions and mechanical
details which, the same in principle and practice, prevailed in the classic
period and in modern days ; he will find that until the artist commences
his work on the wet plaster, the whole matter is exclusively in his hands ;
and that even then it is his duty to direct and supervise, to see that the
harmony of tlie design is maintained, and that the several parts are corres-
pondent to the whole. Fortunately also, the architect is well quahfied to
judge between the respective media. He will look to their general effect,
to their durability, to their capability of harmonizing with his own labours ;
and it becomes no question as to preference between the marmoratum with
which fresco is incorporated, or a scaly covering of decomposing oil. If the
Houses of Parliament are to be decorated at all, it is evident it must be by
fresco or encaustic, or not at all ; and we beg our readers not to be diverted
from the right course by any clamour or misrepresentations of the artists,
hut to judge for themselves.

When this question was first agitated, it was the general impression that
we must either fall back on the Germans, or commence from the rudiments
a new school of our own. The result, however, has been to show that we
have many artists already practically versed in fresco ; and many others have
since made themselves acquainted with it. .\mong those wlio have practised
this art, two are to be distinguished. The first is Mr. Parris, who has long
dcTOted himself to it, and whose views on the subject have been communi-
cated to the Institute, and pubUshed in our Journal ; and the second is Mr.
Latilla, late President of the Society of British Artists, also an old prac-
titioner in this country, and student in Italy, and author of the work before
us. Among other artists who have publicly given their countenance to fresco,
are Mr. Haydon, who has availed himself of the instruction of Mr. Latilla;
Mr. Severn of Rome, the friend of Keats the poet, and author of the
valuable discourse on mural decoration which we insert in our present

number ; Mr. Baker, of Bath ; Mr. Bell, of Manchester ; and Mr. Lane ; the
latter of whom are all practically acquainted with it. We learn also on Mr.
Haydon's authority, that the late Sir David Wilkie was an advocate for
fresco, having twenty years ago recommended the former artist to apply
himself to it. Those who wish to see some account of the labours of these
artists, will, in some of our recent volumes, find descriptions of works both
by Mr. Latilla and ilr. Parris.

The work to which we now wish to direct the attention of our readers,
we must warn them beforehand is to be studied llebrewwise — from the end
— for Mr. Latilla has unfortunately tacked to it some preliminary chapters,
which, not being copious enough to enter into the whole history of the art,
come on the ear with all the weariness of common-places. The reader must
therefore plunge in meiliis, and he will there find a good description of the
practical part of mural decoration, which, although meagre, is sound in its
teachings. Mural decoration is of four kinds— fresco, encaustic, tempera,
and kalsamine ; to the last of which, although certainly of little importance,
we see no allusion in Mr. LatiUa's work. The first consideration in all cases
is to be directed to the stuccos, of which there are three layers requisite
for fresco. The first process Vitrnvius calls TniUisatio, or rough plaster, and
was performed by the Romans with a plaster of 1 part lime, 2 parts rough
river sand, and 1 part pounded brick and tile. The second process is named
Arenatum, or sand mortar, the Roman composition of which was 1 part
lime and 2 parts river sand, of which they used three successive coats, each
laid on while the preceding one was damp. Much depends on the .^.renatum
being well prepared : if only one layer be used, the plaster will be liable to
crack and decay. For the Arenatum, the Itahan fresco workers of the fifteenth
century sometimes used pozzolano mixed with Trevertine lime, in the pro-
portion of 2 of lime to 1 of pozzolano ; and Mr. Latilla says that he has
used with great success good Roman cement and stone lime, which he has
found to give a firm basis to work upon, and greater brilliancy to the colours.
The third process was called Marmoratum, or marble mortar, being composed
of 1 part lime and 2 parts marble dust, of which three thin coats are laid on
in different degrees of fineness, the coarsest first. It must be so tempered as
in working not to adhere to the trowel, but to leave it clean and free from
mortar. There is a difference between this and the Arenatum, for each layer
of the Marmoratum should be allowed to dry before the succeeding one is
applied. If the layer of Marmoratum should be single only, the plaster will
be apt to crack and scale off, and the design will be deficient in brilliancy.
The thickness of the several layers of plaster in the Baths of Titus is about
au inch and a quarter, but the Italians diminished this thickness in their
works, to the serious prejudice of their durabihty ; neither did they pay such
attention as the Greeks and Romans to the proper working of the mortars.

Having for the present dismissed the architect, we have to consider the
duties of the artist, to whom Mr. Latilla, as it seems, paradoxically recom-
mends to paint in all the ornament first ; but he appears, on reflection, to be
in the right, assigning as his reason for this recommendation, that it is easier
to harmonize subject to ornament than ornament to subject, the subjects
also being intrusted sometimes to different artists, so that the arabesques form
an excellent key for the tone and colour of the historical painter. For every
part cartoons must be prepared of one or two layers of thick paper, on which
the design is sketched with charcoal, and then painted in tempera with
colours. This outline is transferred on the walls, usually by tracing the car-
toon with an etching point ; but this always leaves furrows on the stucco,
and Mr. Latilla recommends in preference pricking out the outline with aa
etching needle, and then pouncing it with charcoal powder on the fresco. A
portion of the outline being traced or pounced on the wet stucco, the painting
begins, which must be executed in sections, as a head or a limb at a time,
and each part rapidly, so that the colours may incorporate with the lime : no
retouching can be allowed, with due regard to efl'ect. The arabesques having
been painted in, Mr. Latilla prescribes that the blank cartoons should be
fixed in their respective situations, and then the general design to be sketclied
in, as a better judgment can be formed of it when up. Again, when all the
cartoons have been drawn, he recommends that they shoidd be affixed in their
positions, so that the full effect of the whole may be seen ; a measure which is
necessary when several artists are employed, and which shows what alterations
and iraprnvements are required to harmonize the whole. The whole work,
we say, and the general superintendence of it, should be committed to the
architect, who is the party responsible for the entire effect, and who is best
aware of what agrees with his design.

Encaustic, one of the most ancient methods practised by the Greeks, is a
particular favourite with Mr. Latilla. Of the ancient practice but little is
known, and, we are sorry to say, that of its modern applicability as little.

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[M^

Mj. Latilla, with much apparent reason, seems to think that it was executed
with a mixture of wax and oil ; and lie has applied this mixture with success
in the banqucttiug-room of the Duke of iieaufort's mansion, in which he
has happily united the freshness, brilliancy, and freedom from glare of
fresco, with the richness and facility of oil. Mr. Latilla's process is a good
one, and one deserving of greater extension ; but we do not think that it is
the ancient encaustic, if, indeed, the discovery of the true encaustic be not a
chimera which, if found, would not be worth the finding. From all we have
seen, we fear it would be so.

Tempera was practised by the Egyptians and the Greeks, and also in the
English cathedrals ; and, according to ^'asari, was executed with yolk of egg
mixed up with the milky juice of the tig-tree, and then used with colours ground
up in water. Mr. Latilla says that the fig-tree juice is not essential, but
that we have a substitute for it in the spurge or wartwort, which yields a
milky juice applicable for the purpose. Kalsamine is tempera with a con-
servative surface ; but neither of them are so durable under the operation of
the atmosphere as fresco and encaustic.

Mr. Latilla mentions a curious circumstance with regard to fresco, that in
the course of drying it frequently exhibits an alarming appearance, the colour
looking patchy and faint, and a white mould rising to the surface. In the
course of two or three months, various changes succeed each other till the
picture almost entirely disappears ; but as the plaster dries, it shows itself
with more tha;i pristine beauty. Michael Angelo was so troubled with this
phenomenon while painting the Sistine Chapel, that he was about in disgust
to throw up the work, until he was assured by Julian da San Gallo of the
temporary nature of this operation, and the causes of it.

A great many experiments are now being made as to the best materials for
cement ; and we understand that Mr. Alfred Francis, in the course of a long
investigation on this subject, has even succeeded in getting mural painting to
withstand the operation of the atmosphere. The subject is important, and
we hope the residts of these experiments will be communicated to the public.

A Manual of the Steam Engine. Cy RiCH.\Ea D. Hoblvx, A.M., Oxon.
Loudon : Webster and Gear>', 1812.

We should be glad to know for what class of readers Mr. Hohlyn's book
is designed. The professional engineer can hardly be supposed to be edified
by an omnium ijatJienmi of the most trite and superficial remarks on steam of
the last half century, and the general reader has nothing further to desire
after the admirable popular treatise on the steam engine by Dr. Lardner.
There is no redeeming quality about Mr. Hoblyn's book. He does not treat
of any new branch of inquiry connected with the steam engine, nor of any
new application of steam power. He has adduced no new facts, suppMed no
new investigations ; he has neither shortened nor simplified any pre-existing
analysis, nor stated more felicitously the nature of any particular movement,
agency, or combination. The only thing he has succeeded in showing is,
that a man may set up for an instructor without any tolerable acquaintance
with the subject he professes to teach. A popular treatise upon the steam
engine is a complete superfluity, unless its merits be transcendant. Medio-
crity is unpardonable where great excellence has already been attained ; and
Dr. Lardner's treatise is a standard which it is fatal to come short of, and
hardly possible to surpass.

An Account of Patent and other Methods of Preventing or Conmming
Smoke, lyc. By William West, Professional Chemist, Leeds.

This pamphlet is a collection of various schemes for consuming or pre-
venting smoke, as promulgated by the several projectors at a pubhc meeting
held at Leeds in January last. It is difticult from such a heterogenous mass
of materials to analyse them without entering into the merits or demerits of
each, which would occupy the whole of our Journal for the next three
nioatlis, we therefore refer our readers to Mr. West's pamphlet, and let them
judge for tliemselves; however, we cannot allow this notice to pass without
observing that too much praise caunot be awarded to Mr. Eddison, the
spirited individual who called the meeting together, and who has devoted so
much of his valuable time and labour to an investigation of the subject. It
does not appear that the committee who met to consider of the several plans
submitted, or Mr. West, the compiler of the pamphlet before us, have come
to any determination as to which of the various plans is the best, and have,
like ourselves left it to the public to form their own opinion.

Ilriphl „J Paris ahme the Level of the Ocean.— U appears, from geodetical
operations and direct levelling, that the zero of the hydromelic scale at the
Punt de Tournelle is 26-25 metres above the mean level of the ocean.

THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

Sir — I am of opinion that the annexed passages, taken from the report to
the Committee of Privy Council on Atmospheric Railnays, by Col. Sir Frede-
rick Smith, R.E.,and Professor Barlow ought to be placed together to enable
the public to appreciate the value of one of the conclusions given at page 6
line I of their report.

" Secondly, the cxpence of the formation of the line in cuttings, embank-
ments, bridges, tunnels and rails, will be very little less than for equal
lengths of railway to be worked by locomotive engines ; but the total cost of
the works will be much greater, owing to the expence of providing and
laying the atmospheric tube and erecting stationary engines."

The latter part of the conclusion refers to Sanuida's estimate of £4000
for single and £7000 for a double line for the atmospheric apparatus for
impelling the trains ; but the question whether a less expensive line might
not be formed by means of steejier gradients, worked by a proportional
vacuum, appears to be dependent on tlie working force of different vacuums,
and it ought to he decided by the ratio of the increased cost of higher vacu-
ums in comparison with the increased resistance of higher gradients,

and this subject is adverted to at pape 4 line 11 of the report.

" In the pamphlets circulated by the patentees," credit is taken " for two

important items, which we cannot altogether admit. " Another

questionable item is the reduced expence of cuttings and embankments, it
being assumed by the patentees that not having to take the locomotive up a
plane, much steeper gradients may be introduced than in present lines ; that
a great part of the power of a heavy locomotive is expended in overcoming
its own gravity and resistance in ascending steep planes is certainly true ;
and it is equally true that on the atmospheric principle the whole additional
force is exerted on the load itself. This is unquestionably an advantage, but.
stiU v.e think its importance has been greatly overrated."

At the bottom of page J the commissioners remark, " Having stated our
own views, and having given in the appendix the experimental results and
investigations on which they are founded." On referring to the appendix I
find they state at page 11, line I, " We were desu-ous, if possible, to ascer-
tain the working force which different vacuums possessed of urging a train'
forward, but we failed of obtaining on this part of our inquiry any useful
results, the engine not having sufficient power to preserve the vacuums
constant."

The details of four experiments are then inserted, and it is added, " No
conclusions can be drawn from these four experiments except that by the
falling of the mercury, it is clear that with all the force thrown upon the
engine, it was inadequate to the duty it had to perform."

I apprehend the case made out by the Report respecting a reduction of
expence in the formation of the line itself, for an atmospheric railway, stands
thus : — 1st, the commissioners think the patentees have overrated the advan-
tage that may be derived from the introduction of steeper gradients or por-
tions of the line to be worked by a higher than average vacuum otherwise
employed, and in the consequent reduction of the cost of the line. 2nd,
that they admit the additional force of such increased vacuum is expended
on the load itself. 3rd, that in consequence of the inability of the engine
to presen'e a constant vacuum, they were unable to obtain data for the
determination of the limits within which the steeper gradients suggested by
the patentees could be rendered available with the higher vacuums, or under
what conditions the larger tube also suggested by the patentees for a low
vacuum would be required on steeper gradients. 4th, that their conclusion,
that a very small reduction of the expence of the formation of the line itself
can be effected, is not founded on any evidence as yet submitted to the pub-
lic, but rests on their own opinions. Time and trial must decide on the
respective values of the assertions of the patentees and the thoughts of the
commissioners. A jury, by the usage of this country, is directed to give the
prisoner the benefit of a doubt. Commissioners, acting on different princi-
ples, report against an inventor.

REGUL.\TION OF CHIMNEYS.

Sir — On reading over the Act for the future regulation of Chimnies, with
a view clearly to understand its intention, but which is not very easy, my
attention was arrested by the observation "or of greater length than four
feet OUT OF the ivall ; " and I have in vain tried to decide in my own mind
what our legislators mean by it, as the flue must of necessity (as far as I can
understand) be in the wall ; and why a less length than four feet should be
exempt from the rule as to the size of the flue. Perhajis you, Sir, or some
of your readers, will be good enough to remark on this in your next.

I have not heard whether the Architect's Institute have yet acted on your
suggestion of September last.

I am. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

March 24. A Subscriber.

[It appears to us that why the length of 4 ft. out of the wall is exempted,
is to give an opportunity of introducing chimney shafts and pots with a con-
traded opening. — Editor.]

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

173

THE NEW TARIFF ON TIMBER, DEALS, &e.

The important change that is liliely to he eiftcted in the duties on the
abore articles has induced us to give the following information relative to
the present and the proposed new duties ; liliewise a talile which shows more
immediately the differences between the old and new duties on foreign deals.
We did not consider that it was necessary to extend the table to deals from
British possessions, as the proposed new duties are so very trifling, and can
be easily calculated from the cubical contents we have given of the various
lengths of planks, deals, and battens in the table.

Present Duties on Timber and Deals imported into Great Britain
FROM Foreign Countries and British Possessions.

Battens, not exceeding 7 inches wide and 2f in.
in i/iici-ness per 120

„ Ends, under 6 feet long

„ 6 ft. in length and not exceeding 16 ft.

„ exceeding 16 ft. and not exceeding 21 ft.

21ft. „ 45 ft.

Deals, above 7 inches wide and not -exceeding

3} in. in thicliness per 120

" Ends, under G ft. long

„ 6 ft. in length and not exceeding 16 ft.
„ exceeding 16 ft. and uot exceeding 21 ft.
21ft. „ 45 ft.

„ exceeding 45 ft. or above 3^ in. thick,
(not being timber 8 in. square and upwards)
per load of 50 cubic feet
and farther per 120

Timber, 8 in. square & upwards, per load of 50 c. ft.
Wainscot logs ditto

Oak ditto

Teak ditto

Mahogany per ton

Ditto from Honduras ditto

Balks, Ufers, and Fir Quarters, under 5 in. square,
and under 24 ft. long per 120

Ditto 24 ft. long and upwards „

Lathwood, in pieces under 5 ft. in length, per fathom
„ 6 ft. wide and 6 ft. high
„ 5 ft. and under 6 ft.
8 ft. „ 12 ft.
„ 12 ft. and upv\ards
Firewood per fathom

3 0 0

10 0 0

11 10 0
20 0 0

6 0 0

19 0 0

22 0 0

44 0 0

Foreign. British.

£ s. d.

2 10
6 0
2 15
2 15
2 15

0

1

6

1

0

0

1

3

0

2

0

0

0

15

0

2

0

0

2

10

0

i

0

0

0 10
0 12
0 10

0 10
4 0

1 10

18

2

7

27

0

0

4

5

0

0

16

0

10

4

0

13

12

0

0

19

0

3 5 0

4 17 6

0 15 0
1 5 0
0 0 10

Proposed New Duties.

Foreign.

British.

Timber or Wood — not Ijeiug deals, battens,
boards, staves, handspikes, oars, lathwood,
ufers, or other timber or wood, sawed, spht,
or otherwise dressed, except hewed, and not
being timber or wood otherwise charged with
duty, the load of 50 cnl)ic feet

deals, battens, boards, staves, ufers, or

other timber or wood, sawed or split, and not

otherwise charged with duty the load of

50 cubic feet

Firewood the fathom of 216 cubic feet
Lathwood ditto
Oars the 120
Teak the load of 50 cubic feet

Mahogany
Wainscot

£ s. d.
^1 10 0

From and

after the'

■ 10th of

Oct.1843.
Ll 5 0
'1 18 0

From and

. after Oct'

10,1843.

1 12 0

0 10 0 1

2 0 0'
7 10 0
0 10 0

£ s. d.
■0 1 0

• 0 2 0

Free.
0 10
0 3 9
0 10

Table showing the Comp.vrison of the Present Duty and the
intended New Duties on Planks, Deals and Battens from
Foreign Countries.

Contents.

Present duty

Duty, from
Oct. 1842,

Duty, from
Oct. 1843,

120 Planks, 3x11

Cubic feet.

per 120.

38s.perload.

32s.perload.

£ s.

£ s. d.

£ s. d.

21ft.

5771

22

21 18 11

18 9 S

20 ft.

550

22

20 18 0

17 12 0

18 ft.

495

22

19 14 11

13 16 10

16 ft.

440

19

16 14 5

14 1 7

14 ft.

385

19

14 14 10

12 6 5

12 ft.

330

19

12 14 11

10 11 3

Oft.

163

6

5 19 8

5 5 7

120 Deals, 3x9

21 ft.

4-2;

22

17 19 1

15 2 10

20 ft.

450

22

17 2 0

14 8 0

18 ft.

405

22

15 7 10

12 19 3

16 ft.

360

19

13 13 7

11 10 4

14 ft.

315

19

11 19 5

10 1 7

12 ft.

270

19

10 5 2

8 12 10

6 ft.

135

6

5 2 7

4 6 5

120 Battens, 2^ x 7

21 ft.

306 3 in.

11 10

11 17 9

9 16 0

20 ft.

2918

11 10

11 1 7

9 6 8

18 ft.

262 3

11 10

9 19 5

8 8 0

16 ft.

233 4

10

8 17 3

7 9 4

14 ft.

204 2

10

7 15 2

6 10 8

12 ft.

175

10

6 13 0

5 12 0

6 ft.

87-6

3

3 6 6

2 16 0

All the above

per load of

50 feet

1 18 0

1 12 0

Timber

"

2 15

1 10 0

1 5 0

The change in the timber duties will come into operation on the 10th of
October, 1842.

EXPLOSIONS OF STEAM BOILERS.

The calamitous accident which occurred lately in the Clyde has recalled
public attention to this subject, and there can hardly be a doubt that unless
means can be devised of rendering explosions less frequent, there will be some
legislative enactment upon the subject. We shoiUd desire much to see the
causes of explosions investigated at the instance and under the direction of
the Steam Association, with the view of inducing the voluntary adoption of
measures calculated to avert such disasters. The influence of example and
the force of opinion would be productive of far greater amelioration than
any legislative interference without giving rise to any of the confusion, irri-
tation, and injury which such an interference would create. From a variety
of circumstances which have come to our knowledge, we are thoroughly per-
suaded that the most prolifio source of explosions is a deficiency of water in
the boiler. There can hardly be a doubt that this was the cause of the late
explosion of the Telegraph, in the Clyde, as v^■ell as of the Victoria in the
Thames, and the Union in the Humber. Explosions generally take place
just after the engines have been set to work after having been stopped for
some time. In consequence of the inaction of tlie feed-pump wliilst the en-
gine is at rest, no water enters the boiler, and the quantity of water left in
the boiler is rapidly diminislied by evaporation until the water level falls
below the top of the flues. The upper part of the flues consequently becomes
red hot, and the rapid generation of steam or the decomposition of the water,
immediately that the renewed action of the feed-pump sends a quantity of
water upon the red hot plates, induces so great and so sudden a pressure,
that explosion immediately ensues. The obvious remedy for this state of
things is to furnish every boiler with a contrivance to maintain the level of
the water by self-acting means, so that whetlier the engines are at work 01
whether they are stationary, the surface of tlie water in the boiler is pre-
served at a uniform height without the necessity of any alteration on tlie
part of the engineer. It is perfectly possible to accomplish this by a suitable
mechanism, and no vessel ought, we conceive, to be without some species of
apparatus to attain this end. We have seen one contrivance which is not
merely perfectly efficacious, hut extremely simple, and wliicli we would re-
commend to tlie notice of tliosc interested in steam navigation. This con-
trivance is, we understand, tlie work of Mr. Robert Sinclair, of Gould Square.
Tliere may be other mechanisms that we know not of, equally efficacious, and
the merits of all should be investigated and the best chosen. But whether
viewed as a measure of safety in preventing explosions or fire from an over-
heating of the flues, or as a measure of economy in obviating the fearful
expense so often arising from boilers being burnt, as is the technical phrase ;
we are strongly of opinion that some automatic feeding contrivance ought to
be resorted to, and we can speak with much confidence of the merits of that
particular contrivance we have alluded to.

174

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

PATENT VALVE CLOSETS.

Sm-I bee to solicit your attention to an improvement in the ^Ive (oi
Bramah's) Water Closet; patented by W. Beetson. Its decided advantage
will be clearly seen from the following engravings.

A

The Valve Closet is allovfed by all scientific men to be the best m use : but
from the fact of the valve of the common (or Bramah s closet) l>i"g »»"-
.onTally, unless the handle is puUed up all the distance, it only ope"^ ^ aktlv
and when opened the whole distance, the valve and axle are exposed to the
pajer&e. catching upon it. By this invention the faults of the present

^'Thl^^SarS^Tement consists in the valve at the bottom of the
haJin bei^g placed in a sloping position, which position allows the valve to
open quite out of the way, and prevents paper, &c. catching upon it. ^

A Shows Beetson's Closet in section, with the

valve closed.
B Shows how far the improved valve opens

when the handle is raised.
C Shows the common (or Bramah's) valve

open.

The improved
valve.

Bramah's
valve.

The dotted line shows the valve partly open, which is its position when the

'fh;i;^fo'fThe^"m'proved closet cannot be opened as shown by the
dotted ine of figure C. as the slightest movement of the handle opens it
J^rrendicular, o' as far as theKornmon closet, n-hen as Handle ,s pulled

"^tZer improvement consists of a valve being placed in the waste arm
(or overflow pipe) ; the use of this valve ,s »» P'^«^/»' "/" f™"" "'''"S'
should the part trapped be dried up, which is often the case.

I am,
Yours obediently,

.« c. J F- Roe.

70, Strand.

ON ARCHITECTURAL CRITICISM.
Addressed to J. L.
An apologv is certainly dne from me to J. L., inasmuch as 1 addressed
J L when Ditto, it seems, was the mystical person to whom, a reply being
necessav, I should have replied. My hope of pardon from J. L rests upon
UgenUeman's perceiving that the word Ditto, com ng '-mediately after
his initials, was the cause of my being led into the mistake alluded to bpon
the general manner of my writing, which J. L. condemns for « ant of sim-
pliciW, I feel compeUcd to be silent-readers being generally better able than
writer^ are to determine such a question-though of course it cannot be
supposed that I could, in reason, by bowing to the opinion of J. L., a name-
ess writer, confess to a fault by no means small For althougli 1 would
allow it to be very possible, that the revelation of my ideas upon c itic sm,
may not have be™ sufticiently clear to every reader yet ;voud submit to
the intellectual critic, whether the necessity of fitting though s, often re-
qu ring a wide field fo^ their display, into the columns of a periodical, would
So account for occasional obscurity. It would be unreasonable for a person
Uke mvself, freely animadverting on others, to hope to escape a;™advcrsion
imself, but if there are, amongst the intelligent correspondents of this
Journal any who have tried their skill on similar themes in a periodi al,
fe dc rtain of their indulgence. Leaving this matter to the d.scernment of
ust people, it only becomes me to notice the paragraph complained of, with
the view of proving that the paragraph is not obscure and unmeaning, d-
houTj. L.^may not perceive its force. I would remark that, "ncoiicerned
asJ L was in the remark which led to that paragraph, and innocent as he
was ne^e^sarly of the feeling, or affectation of the f;eeling of contempt for
me whTch feeling, or its aflfectation. Ditto displayed in his remark, I was
^roCk d to iiotic;, he could not feel the edge of a reply which cut on y as
itTmmuated what it was I despised. This manner of answering, ,f obscure,
has be 1 a favourite method of'reply amongst orators and poets of every age,
and fo his simple reason, that it allows a speaker or writer to represent hi
own feelings, at the same time as he ridicules or expresses contempt for

those of others.

, , iBio Frederick East.

April, 1S4.J.

MR. S. SEAWARD'S MEMOIR ON AUXILIARY STEAM POWER.

SiR-In your review of Mr. Seaward's memoir on Auxiliary Steam Power,
you quote affrom the 5th Part of Vol. III. of the Transactions of the In ti-
ution of Civil Engineers, the foUowing passage, "the employment of a
uadruple amount of steam power would not double the speed, although m
theon this rassumed to be the fact." I have read the article over very
cSuv and cannot find such a passage; the only one resembling it is at
Taee 386 "The immediate consequence of this disproportionate increase
of weiEhtisagreater immersed section of the vessel, and a necessary in-
crelse of resittlnce offered to her motion, so that the force required to pro-
neirerhroulh the water must always increase with the power employed
Tnd not evenaibing the steam power --.">-J.P™''--'-", ^•^'°«"='-
It would be onlv just to make this correction in your nex. number.

M. Inst. C. t.

fThe only answer we have to give to the above communication is to re-
cmest anv of our readers who may be desirous to examine for themselves, to
' n at our ffice and inspect the copy of the Transactions -o»r possession
and there they will find the passage as quoted by us, word for word , at the
same time we^are bound to say that we have seen another copy of the So-
ctu's Transactions, since the appearance of our review and in that copy the
paragraph i^transmogrified into the one last quoted by our correspondent
above. — Editor.]

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF STONE BRIDGES.

SiR-In your last number a correspondent asks the best way of finding
the contents of a stone bridge. No general formula can be found but he
following remarks-equally applicable to brick-wiU. I think, be found

^' Blgifby'tbe piers, abutments, &c. It is best to keep the footings separate
The following formula; are useful for the contents of the arch :—

For a semicircle, W. D. (R. ■"■)

180

For a segment, W. D. (R. t.) —

where W = width of arch; D = the thickness i'-^^^-'i'l^^.^Z-kr oi
radius)- R = internal radius + half the thickness: t==3141j, «-"o. oi
Wrees'in arc. The backing and walls resting on arch have a curved out-
trZ thU a straight line'may be -''f ''"''«'. ''''''"5-- to equal.e the
portions left out with those added; or they -^av be suppo ed to be carr'ed
down to the springing line, and from the contents t\7,, """'I'/'^Jj^Jl^t
irrluvav fcalculated as above) must be deducted. Man>, and particularly
rl Iwav bridgerare svmmetrical about 2 axes ; it is i^a this case the easiest
w y t takelu; the cubic contents in one 1»arter, and niu tip y by 4 r the

r 7^:. r::^4i::^'^t ^Aiir=iS-swid "^

ena'ra^e and the title pu?on the side, as it facilitates revision ; and besides,
r^anfparts being repeated, saves the trouble of repeating the calculations.
■^ ' I am. Sir,

Yours, &c.
Jpril l\,\U2. A. H. P.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

THE WEST INDIA MAIL STEAM PACKET COMPANY.
It pains us much to be unable to say anything calculated to repress the
growing conviction that this is a most perilous enterprise-not that ti,e>e
anything inherent in the nature of the scheme to render it necessarily disas-
trous, but that the management is so supremely inj.i.liemus as «ould b at
to any project, even the most promising. It is true, that this evil ad ut
a simple and obvious remedy, but the constitution of the hun an n nd ,s
such, Ihat men prefer to attribute calamities to any cause '^'^^P' 'l'^'^ ^^
ignorance or indiscretion; and a fault once committed, ,s "f enei def nded
than acknowledged. On this account, although the ™-- o' -"^'^ ; ';;
are attainable, our hopes of spontaneous amendinent "^l^"' ^;^'^,,' ^"'^-^ ^e
tain it is, that the accomphshment of such a thorough reformation as the

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

175

exigency of the case demancis, requires much fortitude upon the part of the
directors, as it involves the admission of past errors and the dismissal of
every cherished prejudice and prepossession. It is right, however, that the op-
portunity of reformation should be afforded, and we arc willing to render our
best advice and assistance towards so happy a consummation. It would
grieve us much, that any calamity should fall upon this most spirited and
arduous enterprise. .Such an event would operate most perniciously upon the
whole interest embarked in steam navigation, and paralyze the spirit of Com-
mercial adventure in the same channel. Should no improvement have been
carried into effect before next month, it is our intention to enter into a tho-
rough analysis of the character and management of tliis enterprise ; and we
are only prevented from djing so at once by the apprehension that our expo-
sitions might occasion such inconveniences as the obduracy of wrong-headed-
ness alone deserves.

We entreat the respectable directors of this undertaking to give their im-
mediate attention to this subject. Let them look to the dangers of their
present position — tlangers from «hich neither magisterial pomp nor inexpe-
rienced precipitancy can possibly save them. M'as it ever before heard of. that
the utmost skill and experience should be deemed unessential to the success
of an enterprise of extraordinary magnitude and difficulty, though found in-
dispensable to the prosperity of more limited and less adventurous schemes ?
and can the directors confidently say, that in the whole compass of their im-
mense establishment, there is a single man to be found experienced in the
conduct of commercial steam navigation upon the large scale ? Is such an
enterprise as this to be expected to succeed in the hands of inexperienced pep-
sons, even although those persons may unite much general ability with much
plausible pretension? What are the fruits of such administration? There
is scarcely a newspaper w hich does not teem with accounts of mails late — ves-
sels wrecked, or missing — quarrels abroad — passengers almost starved — and
vessels following one another by mistake — and at an interval of a few hours
across the Atlantic? whilst, at other times, the greatest inconvenience and
distress are occasioned by merchants being left without their remittances for
months together, and correspondents without their letters. Do the directors
imagine that such things will be long endured, or is it to their interest or
credit that such things should exist? But all this is as nothing when com-
pared with the loss which must arise from the working of the vessels under
existing conditions. One vessel comes in with twelve or fourteen [passen-
gers— another, with five or six, bringing an income of a few hundred pounds,
perhaps, when the expense of a voyage must be several thousands. There is
the mail money, 'tis true ; but how far will the mail money go towards pay-
ing for coal, insurance, and wear and tear? But we are departing from our
intimated intention. We think the enterprise beneficially accomplishable,
hut not under existing circumstances ; and unless those circumstances are so
changed as to give the un<lertaking a fair chance of success, we shall, in our
tie.1t number, draw the attention of the proprietary and the public to the
.subject.

" THE PRECURSOR."

Trns is really an extraordinary steam vessel. We were prepared to expect
a handsome and an efficient vessel, from Mr. Rabert Napier, but we could
hardly hive anticipated that a vessel built for the ordinary purposes of com-
mercial transport, should have been capable of making her way from the
Clyde to the Thames in so short a time as 70 hours. A rate of progress, by
the unaided agency of steam, such as the performance of this voyage in-
volves, is in the case of large sea-going vessels, not only unprecedented, but
almost incredible, and demands the most unequivocal testimony for its
authentication. Under the influence of this sentiment, we have examined the
"Precursor's" log: we have also derived collateral information (rom un-
biassed and authentic sources -, and we have much confidence in the exacti-
tude of the information we now purpose to lay before our readers.

The " Precursor" started from Roseneath, a place on the Clyde, imme-
diately opposite to Greenock, on the 8th of April, at 35 minutes after 1, and
arrived at Blackwall at .5 minutes after 1. on the Uth. The total time occu-
pied between the clock light, a little below Greenock, and Blackwall, was
including stoppages. 5ic. 71 hours ; and if we make a deduction of one hour
for the several stoppages, inclusive of 50 minutes, during w hich the vessel
was going quite slow, waiting for the pilot, the actual time occupied between
the clock and Blackwall will be only 70 hours. The distance between those
two points we have heard severally estimated at 773 and 800 geographical
miles. Our o«n measurements, upon a good chart, induce us to believe the
latter estimate the more correct, and 800 divided by 70 is equal to lU geo-
graphical miles per hour nearly. This is an extremelv high average', par-
ticularly as the voyage was accomplished without any aid from sails, and the
progress of the vessel, during a considerable part of it,, was r.tarded by a
head-wind of such intensity as to have reduced the speed of the engines
from 15 to 13 revolutions per minute. We are informed, that her speed.
when unimpeded by^ an adverse wind, was 15 geographical miles per hour.

The" Precursor" is the first of a line of large steam vessels about lo be esta-
blished between Calcutta and Suez, in continuation of the Peninsular and Orien-
tal Company's line of steam communication between Southampton and Alex-
andria. The engines are of the common side-lever couotruction. by Mr.

Robert Napier, of Glasgow, who, we understand, contracted for the entire
vessel. They are of the collective power of 500 horses : the burthen of the
vessel is equal to 17.51 tons, N.M.

We shall, next month, more fully describe the dimensions and construction
of the engines and vessel.

I! Peloro. — lliis is a compact steam vessel, built by Mr. Pitcher for the
Neapolitan government, for conveying the mails. Her dimensions are
130 ft. in length between perpendiculars, 19 ft. tii in. moulded breadth, and
20ft. 2Jin. extreme breadth; depth in engine room 11 ft. 2S in.; burden
2-52 tons, B.M. She is fitted with a pair of 50 horse engines", by Messrs.
Boulton, Watt, and Co. ; cylinders 3 ft. 3i in. diameter, and stroke 3i ft. ;
paddle-wheels 15 ft. Gin. diameter: length of boards 8 ft., and 16 in. wide.
She performed, at an experimental trip on the Thames, on Thursday. 21st.
ult., an average velocity of lOJ miles, consuming a very small proportion of
fuel. The indicator figures showed a vacuum of 12 to 13 lb., with a pressure
of 3J lb. of steam.

NE'W CHURCHSS, Sec.

Stockport. — The opening of the New Unitarian Church, a unique and very
elegant edifice, took place on 23rd. March last. The site is in St. Peter's
Square. The body of the chapel is a parallelogram, externally 63 by H ft.
with a projection at the south end about 30 ft. wide by 14 ft., in which is
placed the principal entrance, and the staircases to the boys' and girls'
schools, and to the organ gallery. At the northerly end there is also a pro-
jection about £4 ft. wide, by 6 ft., in which is jdaced the pulpit and the
communion. The interior of the chapel will accommodate 400 persons : there
are no galleries except for the organ and choir, in the recess at the south
end. The exterior projection at the south end is flanked by double bold
buttresses, having circular shafts at their external angles, with bases and
capitals to the same, the whole being surmounted with triangular headed
canopies, out of which proceed octagonal turrets, surmounted by pinnacles,
ending in carved finials, about 50 feet above the level of the street, and
having an enriched corbel table round the foot of each pinnacle. Betwixt
the buttresses to the south front there is a splayed recess, surmounted with a
pointed arched head, wilh hood mould thereto, terminating upon carved
heads. In the lower part of this recess is placed the principal entrance to
the chapel; it has splayed jambs, and a pointed arched head, surmounted by
a moulded triangular headed canopy, terminating with a carved finial. Over
the door are three lancet windows, united together by their hood moulds,
which terminate upon foliaged bosses, the centre window being higher than
the side ones, and the upper end of the canopy of the door stands out quite
clear of the lower part of the centre window. The gable in the south front
has a moulded canopy terminating with a carved finial on the apex. The
ends of the chapel, extending beyond the projections to the same, are finished
with a moulded coping, terminating in moulded canopies at their lower ends.
■The sides of the chapel are divided into six compartments, by broad flat
buttresses, with one set oft, and terminating at the upper ends with the over-
hanging parapet, which is supported by moulded stone corbels betwixt them,
with cast iron moulded gutters thereon, and in each compartment is placed a
lancet window. The upper base moulding is carried along the sides of the
building, ;ind in the space under it, betwixt the buttresses, are placed the
windows to give light to the schools. The whole of the exterior of the
building is faced with stone, hammer-dressed, except the ashlar dressings
and moulded work, which is tooled; the stone for the former is from the
Kerridge delphs ; and for the latter, from the Yorkshire delphs ; and it is
worth while noticing the greatly improved efl'ect which the narrow courses
from the Kerridge delphs give to the building from the usually wider
courses which are obtained from other delphs. The entire cost of the build-
ing, including the additional expense incurred by the peculiar nature of the
foundations, will not exceed £3000. The chapel has been designed by, and
built under the superintendence of Mr. Richard Tattersall, Architect, of
Manchester.

Ireland. — A Roman Caiholic Chapel at Dundalk was opened on the anni-
versary of the Apostle of Ireland. It is constructed of hewn granite stone,
from the neighbouring quarries, and is of the pointed style, which prevaileil
during the latter part of the thirteenth century. It consists of a nave and
side aisles, divided by two rows nf clustered pillars, having moulded capitals;
from which spring lofty pointed arches, supporting a clerestory pierced with
windows, which give light to the body ot the church. The nave, or centre
division, projects both in the front and rear several feet lieyond the ends of
the side ai.sles, having two loftv bell-towers, octagonal in form, composed of
five stages, or compartments, with enriched cornices, panels, and mouldings.
The upper divisions of these towers are extremely light and ornamental,
having panels of pierced tracery, and slender, graduateil, angular buttresses,
which rise very boldly above the perforated parapet of the roof, and are
crowned with embrasured parapet, pinnacles, and linials. T!ie principal
entrance to the church is in the north front, having three spacious doorways
of great beauty. The grand entrance is betHeen the octagon turrets, and is
deeply recessecl : the imposts are ornamented by well relieved mouldings and
tinall pillars; from the capitals rise rich mouldings and tracery, which
surrounds and intersects the pointed arch with a very pleasing ellect. On
either side of this entrance are placed ornamental niches, having angulajr
buttresses and canopies, intended for the reception cf lull length statues.
Immediately above the great doorway rises a magnificent window, 17 ft. wide
by 30 ft. in height, having moulded imposts boldly recessed. The arch is
surmounted by a hood-moulding, sustained at the springing by sculptured
heads. 'The open part has six divisions, .subdivided by an ornamental tran-

176

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

som, which separates the window into twelve lights. The head is filled with
delicate and varied tracery of very beau-iiful design. In the centre of the
pointed gable is an ornamental opening, moulded and surrounded by a drip-
stone, which is filled with louvres, for the purpose of admitting air to the
roof. Above is a large enriched raking-cornice. supporting a parapet of open
panelled \vork, from whose acutely-pointed ape.K rises an ornamental cross.
The lateral doorways arc recessed with drip-stoneo resting on corbels. The
spandrils are filled with carved shields and cinquet'oil tracery. The flanl;s
of the building are sustained by an equal number of graduated buttresses of
three stages, which rise above the embrasured parapet, and terminate in
pinnacles and finials. Between the several divisions ot these buttresses the
wall is pierced with large 0]i;'nings, having pointed arches and hood-mould-
ings ; each opening is divided by moulded stone muUious ami a transom into
six lights, and the heads filled with tracery work. The south end of the
church is in a plainer style than the principal, or north front. The body
projects here very boldly, and is to be the Sacristy : it is flanked by octagonal
towers. The great window which lighis the Sanctuary is 36 ft. high, by 15
wide, divided and subdivided into fifteen openings or lights : the head is filled
with very rich ornamental ramilying tracery. The clerestory which rises
above the roof of the side aisles, is equally divided in the sides by buttresses
and lofty pinnacles ; between each buttress is a pointed window, filled in with
mullions and tracery of cut stone. The dimensions of the building taken
over the walls are 178 ft. from no.ith to south, by 78 ft. in breadth ; the
height to the upper pinnacles of the nave 75 ft. ; the elevation of the front
towers is upwards ol 86 ft. The rear towers are not yet finished ; but the
finish is intended to correspond, in every respect, with that of the front.
When the edifice is completed, it will, without doubt, rank among the best of
our modern ecclesiastical structures, both for magnitude and beauty of
design. We have often greatly admired buildings planned and superintended
by our distinguished and excellent townsman. But. regard to truth, as well
as justice to professional merit, requires us to state that, for so far, Dundalk
chapel is decidedly the clief-d'ceuvre of Thomas J. Duff, Esq.— A'cuti/ Paper.

LIST or HEM!/ PATENTS.

GB.\NTED IN ENGLAND FROM 31ST MaRCH TO 28tH ApRIL, 1842.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment.

Joseph Clisild Daniell, of Tiverton Mills, near Bath, for " improve-
ments in malting and preparing food for cattle." — Sealed March 31.

Julius Seybel, of Golden-square, Middlesex, chemist, for " improvements
in the manufacture of sulphate of soda and chlorine." — March 31.

William Liversidge Trippett, of Charlton-upon-Medlock, Lancaster,
agent, for " improvements in looms for weaving by hand or by power." —
March 31.

John Sevan, of Whitehead's-grove, Chelsea, gent., for " an improved
mode of expelling the air from certain cases or vessels used for the preser-
vation of various articles of food." — April 6.

James Smith, of Deanstoue Works, Kilmadock, Perth, cotton spinner,
and James Buchanan, of the city of Glasgow, merchant, for " improve-
ments applicable to the preparing and spinning of cotton, wool, flax, hemp,
and other fibrous substances." — April 6.

John Read, of Regent's Circus, mechanist, Henry Putland, of Hurst
Green, Sussex, farmer, and Charles Woods, of Fore-street, Cripplegate,
commercial traveller, for " itnprovements in the construction and make of
driving reins, harness, bridles, and reins, and in bridles and reins for riding."
— April 6.

Jean George Sire Clarke, of Euston-grove, engineer, for " improve-
ments in supplying and regulating air to the furnaces of locomotive engines."
A communication. — .\pril 6.

Thomas Clive, of Birmingham, iron-founder, for "certain improvements
in the construction ff candlesticks." — April 7.

John Anthony Tielens, of Fenchurcli-street, merchant, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatm for knitting." A communication. —
April 7.

Marc Carlotti, of Little Argyle-street, Regent-street, Gent., for " cer-
loin improvements in the construction and mamfacture of boots, half -boots,
shoes, clogs, and galoshes." A communication. — May 8.

William F.a.lconer, of Clapham Common, Gent., for " improvements in
apparatus for attaching buttons and fasteners to gloves and parts of gar-
ments."— April 13.

JOHN BvRON Dawes, of Trafalgar-square, Charing-cross, Middlesex,
Gent., for " a certain inyrroved chemical composition or compositiotis, to be
employed in the preparation of glass or other media of light." — April 15.

John Lamb, or Kidderminster, machinist, for " improvements in engines
to be wori.ed by steam, air, gas, or vapours, which improvetnents are also
applicable to pumps for raising or forcing water, air, or other fluids." —
April 15.

Thomas Richards, of Liverpool, bookbinder, for "certain improve-
ments in the art of bookbinding, and also in machinery orapjtaratus to he em-
ployed therein." — April 15.

Alfred Jefferv, of Lloyd's-street, Pentonville, Gent,, for " a new
method of preparing masts, spars, and other wood, for ship-building and other
purposes." — .\pril 15.

Charles Farina, of Leicester-square, chemist, for " a new method of
manufacturing soap, candles, and sealing-wax." — April 15.

Kent Kingdon, of Exeter, cabinet-maker, for " certain improvements in
impressing atid embossing patterns on silk, cotton, and other woven or felted
fabrics. — April 21.

William Noel, of Jermyn-street, St. James', boot and shoe-maker, "for
certain improvements in the manufacture of boots and shoes." — .\pril 21.

Alphonse de Troisbrioux, of Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, Gent.,
for " improvements in lithographic and other printing-presses." Acommu-
nication. — April 21.

Otto Rotton, of Gracechnrch-street, Doctor of Medicine, for " certain,
improvements in machinery or apparatus for spinning cotton, wool, sill, and
other fibrous substances. A communication. — April 26.

William Wood, of Wilton, manufacturer, for " a netv mode of weaving
carpetting and other figured fabrics. — April 2(5.

Sbptimus Cocking, of I5irmingham, draftsman, for " certain improve-
ments in the production of light, by the burning of oil, tallow, and wax, and
in the apparatus for regulating and extinguishing the same." Partly a com-
munication.— April 26.

Raoul Armand Joseph Jean Comte de la Chatre, of Leicester-
square, Richard Tappin Claridge, of Wcymouth-street, Gent., and
Richard Hodgson, of Salisbury-street, Strand, Gent., for " improvements
i7i preparing surfaces of fabrics, to be tised in covering roofs, floors, and other
surfaces." A communication. — April 26.

Henry Robinson Palmer, of Great George-street, Westminster, civil
engineer, for " an improvement or improvements in the construction of roofs,
and other parts vf buildings ; and also for the application of corrugated plates
or sheets of metal to certain purposes, for which such sheets or plates have
not heretofore been used.- — April 26.

Joseph Mege, of Keppel-street, Russell-square, merchant, for " improee-
ments in the making or constructing of trousers." A communication. —
April 26.

John Henry Pape, of Grosvenor-street, Bond-street, piano-forte-maker,
for " improvements in carriages, and in the construction of wheels. — .\prU 28.

Joh^ Varley, of Colne, Lancashire, and Edmonson Varley, of the
same place, cotton manufacturer, for •' certain improvements in steam engines."
—April 28.

William Losh, of Neweastle-on-Tyne, Esq., for " improvements in the
construction of wheels for carriages and locomotive oigines intended to be em-
ployed on railways, — April 28.

The following Patents were accidentally omitted in the list of last month.

John Green, Jun., of Newtown, Worcester, farmer, for '• improvements in
machinery or apparatus for cutting or reducing turnips, mangel ivurzel, car-
rots, and other roots, for food for horned cattle, horses, and other animals"
— March 7.

John George Boomer, of Manchester, engineer, for " bvtprovemenfs in
machinery or apparatus for cleaning, carding, roving, and spinning cotton
and other fibrous substances." — March 7.

James Readman, of Islington, gent., for " an improvement or improve-
ments in the barometer." — March 7.

John Duncan, of Great George-street, Westminster, gent, for " improve-
ments in machinery for excavating soil." A communication. — March 7.

John Warrick, of Lawrence Pountney Lane, Cannon-street, merchant,
for " an apparatus called a gasoscope, and intended to show the presence of
bi-carburetted hydrogen gas (the gas used for lighting) in mines, wells, houses,
buildings, rooms, and vaults ; and consei/uently to prevent the explosions and
accidents liable to be produced by the said gas." — March 7.

Francis Kane, of Cumberland-street, Middlesex Hospital, mechanic, for
" improvements in the construction of fastenings for the parts of bedsteads
and other frames." — March 7.

Sir Francis Desanges, of Upper Seymour-street, Port man-square.
Knight, and Anguish Honour Augustus Durant, of Long Castle, Shrop-
shire, Esq., for improvements in apparatus for sweeping and cleansing chim-
nies or flues, and extinguishing fires therein, which they intend to call ' ra-
moneur,' " — March 7.

Robert Frampton, of Cleveland-street, Fitzroy-square, coach maker, for
" improvements in the construction of hinges." — March 7.

TO CORK£SPONBBKTS.

O. T. Both his communications have been received ; one, or both, if possible,
tvill appear next niontlt. IVe hope that, notwithstanding our delay in insertin/f
his papers, he will continue to forward us the result of his laborrs,

Mr, MoxhanCs experivwnts on the strength and defie<xion of wood and iron wit i
appear nixt month.

There are several papers which we have been obliged to postpone ; likewise our
remarks upon Air. Wiltiaius' boiler projects, and other subjects. IVe will endeavour
to clear ojf all arrears in the next Johrnal.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier]), and advertisements on or before the 'loth
instant.

Vols. I, II, III, and IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £i each Volume.

jji JMiuw >•««* '"

1842. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

177

MARINE ENGINES BY MESSRS. MILLER, RAVENHILL & Co.

Patented by Joseph Miller.

(With an Engraving, Plate VI.)

The object of this arrangement of machinery is to economise room,
and this object is certainly very completely attained-, a power of
upwards of 300 horses occupying only S feet in the length of the ves-
sel and 18 feet in the breadth. There are, it is true, certain counter-
vailing disadvantages — for example, the connecting rods, as well as
the eccentric rods, are short, occasioning not merely an increased
friction in the working of those parts, but disturbing the movement
proper to the slide valves, and there is the want of that equilibrium
of weight so nicely preserved by the side lever principle. These
defects attach either wholly or partially to all engines of the direct
action description ; so that the gain in space and lightness is not a
gain without any deduction. In these engines they are mitigated as
much as possible by placing the cranks at such an angle as to preserve
the balance as nearly as may be, myX by such a configuration of the
upper and under slide-vaive faces as will neutralize the effect of the
distorted movement, consequent upon the shortness of the connecting
and eccentric rods.

The nature of Messrs. Miller & Co.'s arrangement is rendered so
obvious by the accompanying drawing, that any detailed explanation
of it would be a mere waste of words. The connecting rods are
attached to the tops of the piston rods, the latter being maintained
in the perpendicular position by means of guides G G, Fig. 3, in which
cross heads work, one of which is shown at H, Fig. 1. There are two
air-pumps, and the vessel in which condensation is accomplished, and
which fills the whole space between the cylinders, is divided by a
diaphragm so as to make it, in fact, two condensers, each with its own
air-pump immersed in it, so that no sole plate is requisite ; great
strength is attained with a moderate weight of material, and a large
power is compressible (so to speak) into a very narrow compass. The
air-pumps are of brass, and the buckets are wrought by the cranks
C C on the intermediate shaft, and the tops of the air-pump rods are
kept in the upright position by the guides g g. M M are the man-
hole doors of the condensers : BB are strong flanges or brackets,
through which the bolts pass for securing the engines to the vessel's
bottom.

We understand Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill are now constructing
a pair of these engines for the British government, the cylinders of
which are 155 inches in diameter, and the length of the stroke 5 feet=
308 H.P. ; also a pair for the French government, the cylinders of
which are G8 inches in diameter, and the length of the stroke 5 ft. G in.
= 340 H.P. One pair of these engines is nearly completed.

The general character of Messrs. Miller & Co.'s machinery may, we
conceive, be summed up in a few words. With a destitution of em-
bellishment which, in some cases, we are disposed to regard as the
result of too severe a philosophy, there is an excellence of materials
and workmanship, and a superiority of proportion and arrangement,
united with an efficiency and an economy of performance which we
do not believe have ever been surpassed. In the minutest details of
the work, as well as in its leading features, there are evidences of a
profound acquaintance with the subject, both in its practical and phi-
losophical relations. Where such anxiety exists to render the quality
of work unexceptionable, and is united with so much ability and so
much experience, it is impossible that its quality should be any other
than of the very first description ; and it is therefore far from sur-
prizing that Messrs. Miller's machinery should be esteemed so highly.
The best test of excellence which all can understand is Time ; for
that machinery must be admitted to be the best which continues to
do the greatest quantity of work at the least expense. But the ad-
judication of this high authority is only to be obtained in the lapse of
years — it is with difficulty to be obtained at all — and even then it is
likely to be the resultant of a variety of circumstances of which the
quality of the machinery is only one. Nevertheless, any information
57 — V):. . v.— June, 1842.

we may be able to gather respecting the actual performance of the
machinery of any maker must, with all its liabilities to error, be ad-
mitted to be a valuable aid towards enabling us to arrive at a right
conclusion respecting the probable qualities of any machinery of a
similar kind he may propose to furnish.

RIVER THAMES EMBANKMENT.

Taile of Distances on the Thames from Fulham Bridge to Blackwall, also
the present width and the proposed contraction of the riser as recommended
lij Mr. James Walker in his report to the City Corporation.

Contraction

Contraction

DISTANCES.

Present

on the

on the

Proposed

Width.

Middlesex

Surrey

Width.

or north side

or south side

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

.Miles below Fulham Bridge.

790

45

45

700

i ditto

820

nil.

90

730

1

800

18

100

682

14

at Sir George

Womljwell's. .

800

16

54

730

2

at Battersea church

900

56

78

760

24

at Battersea Bridge

745

36

13

696

3

at Old Swan,

Chelsea

930

72

115

743

3i

at Ked House, Bat-
tersea, and Grosvenor

•

canal

1000

250

20

730

4

near Johnson's dock

870

45

110

705

44

at Vauxhall Bridge

900

64

36

800

4f

opposite the Peni-

enlargement

tentiary

COO

nil.

add 33

633

54

1

from the wall of the
old houses of ParUa-
ment

1030

now contracted by

nil.

contraction
93

831

the new Parliament

wall to

924

6

at Hungerford mar-

ket

1450

380

125

945

6i

at Somerset House

1243

138

Ui

at Blackfriars Bridge

995

124

145

960

; n

at Southwark Bridge

720

33

110

761

74

at Old Swan.. ..

780

nil.

26

661

n

at the lower end of

43

737

the Custom-house. .

840

nil.

20

820

8

at tlie lower end of

the Tower . . . .

900

20

10

870

84

at East lane. .

1070

15

9

at Rotherhithe

55

1000

church

870

nil.

nU.

870

94

at Bell wharf . .

970

18

10

at Limehouse-bridge

nil.

952

dock

770

nil.

nil.

770

104

and below the Lime-

house entrance to the

40

1085

southernmost West

India dock . .

1130

5

11

at King's Arms,

Limehouse reach..

1160

18

20

1122

114

at Fergusson's mast-

house

1110

60

18

1032

12

at lower side of Dept-

ford creek . .

1160

15

70

1075

124

at lower side of Col-

enlargement

lege wharf . .

1000

add 19

20

1001

13

at lower end of En-

contraction

derby's rope-walk. .

1260

nil.

60

1200

13 J

at Folly house . .

1170

36

50

1084

14

at Plough tavern,

enlargement

Blackwall . . . .

1130

60

add 110

1180

144

at Orchard house. .

1350

60

add 80

1370

2 C

178

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

JUNB,

EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER AND IRON.
We have been favoured with the following interesting experiments
on the strength of wood and iron, by Mr. Moxham, of Neath ; they
were made in the presence of a party of gentlemen for the purpose of
illustrating the laws of increased strength, &c., in relation to increased
dimensions ; they are important for the purpose of testing the formulae
of Tredgold, and likewise the Tables given in the fourth volume of
the Journal, pages 79 to 82.

American Yellow Pine Tiubib.

Experiments on bars of American yellow pine, straight-grained, dry, and

free from knots.

Suspended Deflection,

weiuht.

Experiment 1.— Bar I in. square, and 5 ft.
between bearings, on which it rested loosely, the
weight being suspended from the middle.

ri6 lb.
24
32
34
36
38
40

1-5 in.

2.25

300

3-31

3.81

4-44

4-75

In about 5 minutes this increased to 6-25 in., after which the piece broke
with the same weight : the first symptoms of fracture were shown by cracks
indicating a compression, from the top edge down to about the middle.

r32 lb. -S/S in,

Exp. 2. — Yellow pine, as above, 5 ft. long,
Ij in. deep, and J wide.

48

64

96

128

136

•53
•75

1-12

1-5

1-69

144 [increased to 2'

■'..'',

152 [ditto

160 2-62

[and incr. to 2-87

! 166 3-75

3J in. was the greatest measured deflection, and with this weight the bar
broke, the first signs of giving way being near the top. When broken, the
fracture was comparatively smooth at the top and about § of the way down,
from compression ; while about i at the bottom was ragged from the fibres
being violently torn apart.

0-5 in.

1-06

r rx , ri2Blb.

Exp. 3.— Yellow pme, as before, 5 ft. long, I 255

2} in. deep, and J wide. 1 320 broke it.

The depth which appeared to have been compressed and that which was
extended were nearly the same as in the last experiment.

Exp. 4.— Yellow pine, 5 ft. long, triangular 32
bar, the edge or vertex being down, IJ in. wide J 64
on the base of the angle, and li in. deep in the | 96
centre. v

16 lb.

I 104
^112

0-19 in.

0-43

1-03

1-75

2-

2 broke it.

,16 lb.

' 32
Exp. 5.— Yellow pine, 5 ft. long, same section I g^
as last experiment, the edge or vertex of the-j gg
angle placed upwards. A [increased to 2-62

LlOO & broke it 3-

0-31 in.

0.57

110

2-37

Exp. 6.— Yellow pine, 5 ft. long, IJ in. wide,
and J deep.

^16 lb.
32
64
72
80

[and incr. to
82

•75 in.
1-5
30
3-94
5-31
60
7-25

'- finer, to 7-81,4 broke.
Cast Iron.
The iron in this and the four following experiments was the same, being
tlie best Welsh cold-blast iron, melted in an air furnace. Half the weight
of the bar to be added to the weight suspended from the middle.

Exp. 7.— Cast iron bar, 5 ft. long between ril2 lb.
bearings, weight suspended from the middle, and I 168
ends loose as before ; bar J in. and ^ square, or 1 224
•78 in. ; weight of bar between bearings 9 lb. \ji'jl

ril2 1b.

Exp. 8.— Same length as above, and exact
section -40 in. wide and 1-55 in. deep; weight
9Jlo.

224
336
448
604
532
^560

1-375 in.
1-81
2-69
[3-22,&brokeit.
0-125 in.
0-31
0-64
0-94
1-125
119
Broke it in

the weight was suspended being screwed tight, instead of left loose : it
broke 2 in. from the middle.

Exp. 9. — 5 ft. between bear-
ings of this section, cast as it
was placed in the experiment;
weight 101b.
. AB = ii. B C = ^, BD = li,l
6 and F E=-i% of an inch.

^112 lb.

224

336

448

504

560

616
'-636 broke it.

016 in.

-37

•69

•94
M2
1-82
1-5

•rii

'22

S I 00

2 1b.
24

Exp. 10. — Bar cast from same pattern as above,
but cast, and placed in the experiment with the
thin part down, the reverse of experiment 9. This j ^jg
bar weighed 5 lb. hghter than the above, though | j^j
there was no perceptible diifeienoe in the section,
and it was equally sound.

^112 lb
224
Exp. 11. — Bar 5 ft. between bearings, -^

0-42 in.
0.67
1-00
The bar bore this for
a few seconds only.

(•437) in. thick, 2^ (203) in. deep in the mid-
dle, and -91 at the bearings, the under side having
the same curvature as a parabola, which makes
the average depth 1-66 in.; weight of bar be-
tween bearings 11 lb.

0-16 in.

0-31

0-43

0-60

0-75

0-92

1-00

1-07 "1

1-19 y

336

448

560

672

728

784

840
"-868 broke it. J

* 3 in. from the middle on one side, and 16 in. from the middle on the
opposite side ; showing that there was more than a proportionate strength
at the ends of the bar.

In Exp. 13 the bar was straight at top and hollowed out on the under side,
having a section at the middle of H i"- deep, and ^ in. thick, and at the
ends of 2^ in. and the same thickness. It was placed with the straight edge
on the top, the ends being loose; and with a weight of 224 lb. + h\ (half weight
of bar ) the deflection was 09 in. It was then taken up, and replaced with the
curved edge up, the ends still loose; and with 224 lb. + 5i (half weight of
bar,) the deflection was 0-94 in. It broke with less than 252 lb., but the
quality of iron in this was not quite equal to that in the preceding experi-
ments : making allowance for this, we should find its strength not greater, if
so great, as that of a bar the same length and thickness, and of a uniform
depth of 1-i ill. The weight between bearings was lO.V lb.

^224 lb. 0-31 in.

Exp. 14.— Cast iron bar, a part of tlie one 336, 0-47

broken in experiment 7th, placed 2 ft. 6 in. be- J 448 0-62

tween bearings; ends loose, &c., as before ;j 504
weight of bar 4 lb. between bearuigs. I 560

Broke in putting on an additional 14 lb.

0-72
0-86
0-93

half a minute. This was probably strengthened by the fastening from which

MISTAKES AND MISREPRESENTATIONS.

In speaking of our number for April, 1841, the Bauzeitung has fallen into
a conglomeration of blunders, jumbling different articles and subjects together
in the oddest manner possible. " Episodes of Plan on Roman Architecture,"
it savs, " must be passed over by us on account of its length, and because it
does' not admit of compression ; and for the same reason so must also Can-
didus Noti:en Buck! Fasic. XXV, which paper consists of fragmentary
criticisms, and chiefly upon Professor Hosking's lectures." This is a tolerably
pretty specimen of the art of blundering by wholesale ! " The Episodes of
Plan" and " Roman Architecture " (the latter from the Penny Cyclopedia,)
are two distinct articles, several pages apart from each other. As to the
" Note-book," again, that Fasciculus is so very far from being chiefly upon
Professor Hosking's lectures, that it only incidentally mentions his name m
one of the shortest paragraphs, without saying anything of his lectures at
all But there does happen to be in the same number an article signed S. L.,
and headed " Candidus' remarks on the lectures of the Professor of Archi-
tecture," meaning not remarks by C. himself, but comiter-remarks in reply
to others he had previously made ; nor were those remarks upon the lectures
of Professor Hosking, but on the lectures of the Professor of Architecture
at the Royal Academv. It will be a mercy if the Bauzeitung should not now
go and mistake Professor Brown for Professor CockereU, or jumble all the
three Professors together, and compound them into one individual !

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

179

VELOcrry of water through pipes.

(From Report of Lecture by Dr. iteUon in the Midland Counties Herald.)

The calculations for the head of water necessary to keep up a given
velocity for every 100 ft. run of pipe, have been so ably deduced, from
experiment, by Mr. Rofe, of the Birmingham Watenvorks, that the lecturer
could not forego the pleasure of pointing them out a little more in detail,
and of giving the tables by which the necessary calculations were effected.
The tables were two, and were both deduced from absolute experiment —
not from experimenti conducted by means of tin tubes of small diameter, fit
only for laboratory uses, as there was too much reason to fear many of the
tables previously published had been constructed, but from the absolute cast
iron tubings themselves, as laid down in Birmingham and its vicinity. The
tables were two : in the first, V represents the table of velocities in feet per
minute, and T the constant numbers for those velocities :—

T
8-62

V

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

11'40

14-58

17-95

21-56

25-35

29-70

34-

38-90

44-

49-50

55-66

6213

In the latter D represents the diameter of the pipes in inches, and t the
constant numbers for those diameters : —

D '

3

4
5
6

7

-028
-053
•078
-104
-134

As an application of these tables, the following problem was proposed ; it
having been premised that the formula for their use was

T

= H

D X t

where H represents the height, or head of water. It is required, then, to
determine what head of water will be necessary to send water by an engine
through 1,500 ft. of six-inch pipes to an elevation of 80 ft. at a velocity of
180 ft. per minute. Now, by the table we see that the constant number for
180 ft. velocity is 62-13, and the constant number to be added to 6 inches

is -078,

and 62-13

6-078

= 10-22 inches.

which is the head of water required to keep up the velocity of 180 ft. per
minute for every 100 ft. run; which being multiplied by 15 (the number of
hundred yards through which it has to pass), gives 153 in., or 12 ft. 9 in.
This, added to 80 ft,, will give 92 ft. 9 in. as the column of water which the
pump must lift.

Table for Segmental Arches and Semi-elUput.

180

/o'+6'

c

R

ta

V

2*V 2

2

1

0

180

0

3-14159

3-14

3

1-62

134

46

2- 344

3-99

4

2-50

106

H

1. 848

4-98

5

3-62

87

10

1- 516

5-96

6

5-00

73

44

1- 282

7-01

7

6-G2

63

46

1- 139

7-80

s

8-50

56

8

• 976

8-87

9

10-62

CO

8

• 883

10-46

10

13-00

45

14

• 787

11.09

n

15'(i2

41

14

• 717

12-19

12

18-50

37

50

• 658

13-31

The column headed c contains the ratios of the span of the arch to
the rise, taken as unity ; the corresponding numbers in R are the
respective radii. In column w are the degrees and minutes in the arc.

The column ir — multiplied by W D R will give the cubic contents

u

of the arch. The last column shows the length of semi-ellipses, of
which the half-minor axes are unity, and the major axes the figures in
column c. This multiplied by the width into the thickness, into the
rise, will give the cubic contents of the arch in question.

The best formula for the cubic contents of a tube or cylindrical ring
isLir(R--rJ where L=length; R=external radius; r=:internal
ditto; Tr=3-14159. Since the external radiusr=the internal-^-the
thickness of tube, we have L tt (R=-r=)=L tt ( (r+i)=— r-)=:L
(2 d r+d'') where rf=the thickness. Now, supposing that in an iron
pipe d should=half an inch, rf- will=Tfu of a foot. Neglecting this,
as may be safely done for short lengths, the formula becomes
L T (2 d r)

MEASUREMENT OF BRIDGES.

The formula given last month for the contents of a segmental arch
was misprinted : it should have been

where W=width ; D=thickness of arch ; R=internal radius+4 D ;
7r=3- 14159; a=number of degrees in arc. The following table will
facilitate computation.

ANOTHER COMPETITION AFFAIR.

Sir— I am requested by Mr. East to lay before you the following state-
ment of the disgraceful manner in which he, as a competitor in designs for
the new church at Kidderminster, has been treated by the Committee, and
their actuary Mr. Boycot. On the 10th of December last an advertisement,
of which the following is a copy, appeared in the " Times" Newspaper :—

It is proposed to build a church in the parish of Kidderminster to contain
1250 sittings, of which 850 are to be free. Architects wishing to furnisli
plans for the same are requested to apply for farther particulars to WilUam
Boycot, juu. Esq., solicitor, honorary secretary ; and all plans are required
to be sent to him on or before Wednesday, the 22nd day of December next.

Kidderminster, Nov. 26, 1841.

You will observe it was published for the first time 14 days after date,
thereby affording 12 days for the preparation of designs. As it happened
we had at that time more leisure than usual, and made appUcation to the
said Mr. Boycot (who, by the way, loses no opportunity of advertising his
calUng,) for" particulars of the advertisement, whereupon we received the
following reply ; —

Sir— The undermentioned are the particulars relating to the new churcli
to be erected at Kidderminster.

I am, Sir, your obedien servant,

Kidderminster, Dec. 13, 1841. W. Boycot, jun., Sol., Hon. Sec.

1. That the church will be built, subject to the rules and conditions of
the incorporated society.

2. That the expense must not exceed £3000.

3. That it be built of stone.

4. That there be a tower.

5. That the architecture be Gothic.

6. That there be a commodious vestry.

7. That there be no chancel.

8. That the news be deal painted and grained oak colour.

9. That the whole of the galleries be free, and sucli other portions of the
church as may be requured to make up the number to 850 free sittings.

2 C 2

180

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

P.S. The above are the conditions the Committee resolved upon, but
since tlicii tlicy have determined to receive plans of churches including a
chancel."

Accordingly we set about making the drawings, but it subsequently oc-
curred to us that something ought to be specified as to the terms of compe-
tition ; whether or not the successful competitor was to superintend the work,
or if any premium was to be received for the best design, and we immediately
applied' for information, in answer to which application the following letter
was forwarded us : —

Sir— In answer to yours of yesterday's date. I beg to state that no pre-
mium will be given for designs ; and whether the successful competitor will
be allowed to superintend or not I cannot say, but most likely he will.

I am. Sir, (for Mr. Boycot)
Your obedient servant, Geo. Boddixgton.

Now, had we not proceeded so far with the drawings as to render them
useless for anything else, we should, of course, have declined having anything
to do in a matter so strangely conducted ; but we hoped they would improve
upon acquaintance, and attributed this behaviour to want of good breeding
as well as experience. Our designs were accordingly forwarded on the 21st
of December, and not having received any communication, we wrote on the
1st of April to inquire whether the Committee had made selection of a de-
sign. Two days after this we received the drawings, unaccompanied by any
note or acknowledgment, in a most shamefully mutilated state, and bearing
evident marks of having been used on the ground. Three days afterwards
the following letter came to hand : —

Sir— Your plans were forwarded by coach on Saturday, the Committee
having only decided on the 1st instant, and they desire me to thank you
for having sent in designs.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

Kidderminster, April 5, 1842. W. Boycot, Jan.

As the description of our designs was not returned with the drawings, and
not having then leceived the above letter, I wrote to Mr. Boycot as follows :

SiR_I beg to acknowledge the receipt of our designs for the proposed
church at Kidderminster, but the description thereof is not returned, and I
shall feel obliged by your forwarding it at yonr earnest convenience. ^Ve feel
somewhat surprised at the uncourteous treatment received at the hands of
the Committee, no note having accompanied the drawings, stating whether
they were approved of or not, and I think that after having detained them
for nearly fifteen weeks, a letter of thanks is at the least due to the architect.
I should feel obliged by your informing me who is the successful competitor.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

WiL. W. Wardell.

To this letter we received one in reply from Mr. Boycot, expressing surprise
at the contents of the above, but not mentioning one word about the success-
ful candidate. The matter then remained silent until Monday, the 11th of
April, when, to our great astonishment, we perceived the following adver-
tisement in the " Times" ; —

To Builders.— Builders desirous of contracting for the erection of the new
church at Kidderminster may inspect the plans and specifications, by appli-
cation to \Yilliam Boycot, Esq., Solicitor, Kidderminster ; and sealed tenders
must, with the names of the sureties, be left at his office, addressed to the
Committee for building the new church, on or before the 18th of April
instant.

In the letter above quoted you will observe that the Committee only de-
cided on the 1st of April. Now is it likely that in nine days an architect
could prepaie contract drawings, specifications, &c. ready for advertising for
tenders ? and not only so, but there was no architect's name mentioned in
the advertisement. These circumstances aroused our suspicion that the
whole affair was one of those disgraceful pieces of chicanery so frequently
exposed in your valuable Journal, and determined us to pursue the inquiry
of who was the successful competitor ; and we accordingly wrote to inquire
on the 14th of April, and on the 20th received the following reply :—

Re Kidderminster New Church.
Sir — I duly received your letter, but could not answer it till this day, the
Committee having only decided yesterday. The successful architect is Mr.
G. Alexander, of London.

I remain Sir, your obedient servant,
Kidderminster, April 20, 1842. W. Bovcot, Jun.

Now what are we to understand ? for this letter completely contradicts
that received on the 6th of April. It -was therein stated that the Committee
decided on the 1st, and in the last letter he informs us it was on the 19th.
Mr. Boycot will surely see the truth of the old adage, " " *

* * " Probably when Mr. Boycot wrote to us on the 20th he had for-
gotten the contents of his letter of the 5th. ^Ye can hardly imagine that so
respectable a member of the profession as Mr. Alexander could have lent
himself to anything so unjust and contemptible, but it does appear to us
that the advertisement for designs was a mere matter of conformity to the
regulations of the Church Commissioners, and that it never was intended to
be an open competition or an impartial selection.

1 shall leave the matter in your hands, yet I trust. Sir, for the benefit of
that profession whose cause you so ably advocate, you will not fail to expose
this instance of the manner in which these robberies of professional time are
carried on. ^Ye do not wish it to be understood that we consider our design
had the least claim to preference, or possessed the slightest degree of merit,
vet I must confess these extraordinary circumstances, together with the con-
tradictory statements of Mr. Boycot, confirm the opinion that his conduct in
the first instance suggested.

I am. Sir,

Your very obedient servant,
WiL. W. Wardell.

REGULATIONS ON RAILWAY.^ IN FRANCE.

Tm; Minister of Public Works, in conformity with the opinion of the
committee on steam-ungines, has provisionally issued the following orders ■—

1. The employment of locomotives on four wheels is forbidden with
passengers' trains.

2. Neither tender nor any other carriage on four wheels to be placed at the
head of the trains before the locomotives.

3. The locomotives to be placed at the head of the train, and never behind.

Tliis regulation never to be violated, except in case of changing the di-
rection of the trains at the stations, or in case of a tr.iin being stopped by
accident, and that it should be necessary to send assistance from behind the
train; but in such case the speed of the train not to exceed 22 kikmetres
the hour (13.7 miles).

It is moreover absolutely forbidden to enclose a train between two loco-
motives, one before and the other behind.

4. Until abetter mode shall have been discovered to diminish the ellect of
shocks and collisions, there shall be placed one wagon without passengers at
the head of each train composed of five carriages at most, and of two wagons,
when the number of carriages in the train shall exceed five.

5. The passengers' carriages never to be locked.

6. Every railroad company to keep books, in which shall be entered the
state and length of service of every axle-tree, whether straight or curved.

7. The Prefect will publish an ordinance, stating the interval at which two
trains are to succeed each other.

8. The speed of the trains in their descent from Yersailles to Paris on
either line not to exceed 39 kilometres per hour. (21 miles.)

Independently of the above measures, the Minister of Public Works has
requested the committee on steam engines to examine—

1. Whether m the descent from Versailles to Paris, and in fact in all rapid
descents, it would be advisable to prohibit the use of more than one locomo-
tive, and. if not, under what regulations they should be tolerated.

2. To discover the best mode of preventing inflammable matter from being
communicated by the locomotives.

The Minister is moreover about to appoint a special commission to make
experiments—

1. Upon the degree of perfection to which the axletrees of locomotives
may be brought, and the length of time they ought to remain in use.

2. Upon the different means to be employed in order to diminish the eflects
and danger of collisions on railroads.

gTlRAl^'BlEIRIRY MULl/ .

iEAirS miTEi^TJS^g.

ISSAlLIE'SjfJJTlMT.

J R .Witnj . i . /Vi/-m*: i

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

181

THE "ANTI JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL" STEAM BOAT.
( IFith an Engraving, Plate J^Il.j
In our last number we slightly alliulpd to the performance of this
Tessel, and then stated that we deferred gis'ing the drawings of the
engine and the boiler patented by Mr. Beale until we had an oppor-
tunity of making a second trial. Since then we have had another
trial, when her performance was equally as good as in the tirst trip-
The boat is a small iron vessel, .53 ft. long by ti ft. beam, and 3 ft. 3 in.
deep, and draws 17 in. at stern, and 13 in. fore, or 15 in. mean. The
paddle-wheels are 6 ft. 5 in. diameter, out and out, with 10 float boards
on each wheel, 2 ft. 9 in. by 74 in. She is propelled by one rotary
steam engine patented by Mr. Beale, and which is delineated in the
annexed engraving Plate VII, Fig. 1, drawn to a scale of li in. to a
foot. The cylinder is 14 in. diameter, and 9i in. long (measured
transversely) in the clear of the casing. The drum is 12 in. diameter,
Laving 3 indents for the reception of 3 rollers 4i in. diameter, and
'-•a in. long: these perform the office of the piston. At the top is the
steam pipe : when the aperture is opened, as shown in the figure, the
steam passes down the pipe, and acts against the back of the roller,
and presses it forward until it reaches the aperture on the opposite
side, where the steam is allowed to escape into the eduction pipei
and thence into the condenser, as indicated by the arrows. It will be
observed that the apertures are always open, one for the reception of
the steam, and the other for its exhaustion. The admission is regu-
lated by a throttle valve in the steam pipe, before it enters the casing
of the engine. The reversing of the engine is extremelv simple : it
is done by turning the screw, or by a lever which pushes forward
the D slide valve, when it reverses the flow of the steam, which passes
through the cylinder in the contrary direction of the arrows. The
engine generally makes from 250 to 300 revolutions per minute, and
by this rapid motion the centrifugal force causes the rollers to press
against the outer casing, and allows the steam to act upon the
back of them, as before explained. To the engine of the above boa'
there are 2 air pumps 8 in. diameter, and 11 in. stroke. The condense''
forms a pedestal in the bottom of the boat, upon which the engine
and pumps are placed.

The boiler, it will be perceived, is as compact as the engine. The
drawing, Fig. 2 in the Plate, is drawn to a scale of f of an inch to the
foot. It is cylindrical, 2 ft. G in. diameter, and 7 ft. high over all, and
contains numerous small tubes about one inch diameter, and an inch
apart, through which the heat and smoke pass from the furnace to the
chimney immediately over. The area of the grate is about 4 square
feet, or half a foot per horse ; the water occupies onlv a verv small
height of the boiler, the other portion forms a receptacle for the steam.
We should think it would be better if the water was kept up to the
second cock, otherwise great heating surface is lost. The steam is
generally generated to a pressure of 40 to 50 lb. in the boiler. The
consumption of coke is stated to be about GO lb. per hour, depending
upon the speed. The air for the supply of the furnace is driven in
by the aid of a fan.

For communicating motion to the paddle-wheel there is a pinion
wheel on the outside of the shaft or axis of the engine, which drives
a larger wheel upon the shaft of the paddle-wheels, in the proportion of
1 to 4^, so that when the engine makes 270 revolutions per minute,
the paddle-wheels make 60 revolutions. The total weight of the
engine, condenser, air pumps, paddle-wheels, boiler, and water, is
2i tons.

Having thus described the engine, we shall next proceed to give
the particulars of her performance. The first trip we made was from
Westminster Bridge to the Old Swan at Chelsea, when she performed
the distance (2i miles) in 20 minutes, against the tide when slack, and
back again in IS minutes, the tide being both ways just upon the turn
at low-water. We then went down the river imilx the tide, and per-
formed the distance from Westminster Bridge to London Bridge
(2 miles) in 19 minutes ; from London Bridge through the Pool to
Greenwich Hospital (5 miles) in 39i minutes. We then tried a
measured mile (where the river was clear, from the 4iS to 5A miles
mark), which was done in 6 minutes with the tide.

At the second trial, she performed the distance from Westminster
Bridge to Greenwich Hospital (7 miles) in 37 minutes, with the tide.

During the above trips the paddle-wheels varied from 45 to 58
revolutions per minute.

We will now analyse the power of the engine.

The radius of centre of pressure is apparently about 6-75 in., say
diameter 13-5 in., and circumference = 42-39 in. bv 225 turns per

9537-75 ,
minute = — jj— = ' 94-8 feet, say 795 feet per minute.

Area of piston! or exposed part of roller appears to be 2 in. x 9^
= 19 in. area, although it is doubtful if the steam does not enter the
space he/iind the roller, and exert its force on that part of the machine.
Su])pose we take it at 19 in. area, we have for power, at 7 lb. per inch
nominal,

19 X 795 X 7

33,000 ■ = '^■^ ''""^^ P°"«''-

But this rule is not applicable, as the steam used is as high as 50 lb.
or 40 lb., say mean 45 lb. in boiler, perhaps 40 lb. in cylinder or drum.
With this pressure the vacuum is probably not more than 20 inches, if
so much, but that is matter of experiment only, as it depends on cir-
cumstances not before us ; suppose it be 20 inches, it will then be
equal to 10 lb. We have, Steam pressure = 401b. )

Vacuum

and

19 X 795 X 50

= 10 lb.)

=50lb.eifective

=: 23 horses, which may be considered as actual

33,000

power, and if this engine is expected to exert double its nominal
power, as the common reciprocating marine engine does, we have

23

— = lU horses power. Mr. Beale, however, calls it only & horse

power; but this difference doubtless arises from our not having hit
upon the proper pressure and vacuum, and which experiment only
can determine, that is by a steam and vacuum gauge, for we apprehend
the common indicator is inapplicable to this engine. The consump-
tion of coke is stated to be about 130 lb. per hour, this for nominal
power is equal to a-2 lb. per horse per hour, and for actual power =
2-6 lb. per horse per hour, which is a very small consumption.

The paddle-wheel is 6 ft. 5 in. diameter, boards 7A incites deep,
inner diameter of wheel = 5-2 feet; taking the mean diameter at 50
turns per minute, the velocity will be lOJ miles per hour.

The amount of tear and wear is a question of practice, but the good
workmanship which is now common, would obviate many difficulties
formerly experienced. The engine is certainly very simple compared
with previous patents of the same kind, and is also very powerful in
working, and must be very economic in its construction, particularly
when used as a non-condensing engine.

Besides the engine on board tlie "Anti John Scott Russell," Mr.
Beale has one of a similar size and description at his manufactory at
East Greenwich, worked at the low pressure of 4 to 6 lb.; it stands
on the ground, and is hardly perceivable among the numerous ma-
chinery in the shop, although it drives the blast fan of a foundry, and
sets in motion numerous lathes, planing machinery, drills, &c.

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Roval.

Mean Magnetic.

Variation.

1841. June '• 23 IG 16

July 23 15 34

August ' 23 19 1

September 23 24 17

October \ 23 12 18

November ' 23 17 7

December ' 23 11 5

1842. January ' 23 11 54

February 23 15 23

Dip
at 9 A.M.

Dip
at 3 P.M.

69
69
69
68
68
G8
58
68
68

12
9
7
43
43
25
22
46
38

69 IJ

69 14
69 2

68 38

68 35

68 37

68 27

68 42

68 44

1S2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

June,

STRAWBERRY HILL.

CTVtth an Engraving, Plate FIJ.)

After being forgotten, except as recalled to recollection by the
reproachfully proverbial term of " Strawberry Hill Gothic," the resi-
dence of Horace Walpole has been the lion of the day for the two
last months ; and anecdotes of him, his writings, his correspondence,
his collection — the last fallen into the hands of that eminent anti-
collector, alias disperaer, George Robins — have been retailed day after
day. Such being the case, it may be imagined that there can now be
very little indeed left for us to say upon the subject ; but, strange
as it is, it has actually happened that of the house itself and of the
taste displayed in it, nothing whatever has been said, beyond a few
meagre, vague, and fumbling remarks, and those chiefly borrowed
ones.

The original house — which forms but a small portion of the present
one — had nothing but its situation to recommend it, being little better
than — indeed, hardly so good as — some modern " cottages," and con-
taining only a few small and low rooms. To these Walpole first added
two larger and loftier ones — the dining-room and library over it, -on
the north side — in 1753; and in 1760-1 extended the whole very
considerably by the gallery and round tower, and tribune or cabinet,
with the farther addition of the great or north bedchamber in 1770,
six years after which he erected the small Beauclerk tower.

Horace may, therefore, be said to have " collected" his house as
well as the curiosities and articles of virtu with which he stocked it;
but though this piecemeal mode of buildiug has been, perhaps, so far
advantageous, that it may have prevented perfect uniformity of insi-
pidity in the exterior, it has not prevented insipidity itself, nor has it
produced any sort of character that can be termed picturesque. As to
stvle, we meet with nothing at all better tlian either Batty-Langley-
Gothic, or Guildhall-front Gothic — nothing whatever beyond the
vulgar idea that mere pointed holes in a wall, and battlements on the
top of it, are sufl[icient to constitute a Gothic edifice. We are ready
to make allowance for the difficulties then attending any attempts in
that style: at that period there were no publications in which it could
be studied by means of accurately delineated forms and details ; but
if no such information was to be derived from books and engravings,
most assuredly it was to be obtained from actual buildings, many of
them at that time in a far more perfect state than at present, or even
when drawings were first made of them. If he really possessed any
feeling vihatever for the art, it might be supposed that a man like
Walpole must have derived some insight into the principles and
genius of the pointed style, domestic as well asecclesiastic, during his
residence atCambridge where he was thefellow-student of Gray — from
whose taste he might have acquired something — and where he had
constantly before his eyes examples which, if he had not sufficiently
studied beforehand, he might at least have bethought himself of when
he did set about building in a style not at all understood by professional
men and their assistants.

Scott tells us that "the villa at Stravv'berry Hill gradually swelled
into a feudal caslle".' that Walpole " realized his own visions"; and
that "in his model of a modern Gothic mansion, he had studiously
endeavoured to fit to the purposes of modern convenience or luxury,
the rich, varied, and complicated tracery and carving of the ancient
cathedral"!! Perhaps, recollecting the architectural sinnings of the
author of Abbotsford, Sir Walter thought that any reflections in a less
indulgent tone upon those of the author of Otranto and Strawberry
Hill, would come with a very bad grace from himself.* When, again.
Sir Walter speaks very liberally and in pluralist phraseology of '' tur-
rets, towers, galleries, and corridors, with fretted roofs, carved panels
and illuminated windows, &c.," "garnished with all the panoply of

* The house at Abbotsford is so contemptible as an architectural produc-
tion, that all the prestige atieniling the associaiions connected with its name
vanish on beholding it. Must persons have tjeen wofully disappointed in
Ihcir expectations of it— some have even expressed their regret that tliey have
seen itat all.

chivalry ;" wherein he certainly indulges not a little in the privilege of
a romance writer, and somewhat trespasses upon that oi iX^e flourishing
George Robins. To talk of the galleries and corridors of Strawberry
Hill inevitably calls to mind the old story of the boy and thousand
cats — with this difference, indeed, that the boy at last admitted there
really were tno cats, whereas it is impossible to make out more than
one gallery at Strawberry Hill, and nothing whatever deserving the
name of corridor, as the plan of the building — and there is no arguing
against such evidence — plainly shows. As to Gothic tracery and
carving, there is scarcely any, and most certainly no tracery to be
traced in the vi'indows, which are externally no better than so many
gaps, without even any sort of mouldings or other finishing. Now,
whatever errors there might have been as to combination and general
character, it might have been thought that a man whose taste was so
essentially microecopic as was Horace Walpole's would, at any rate, have
been tolerably exact as to minutiEe and detail. Yet, so far is this from
being the case, that even those parts of the interior fittings-up which
are said to be expressly in imitation of original models, retain very
little of them except the mere general pattern, without aught of the
original character; as it is, the bookcases are only "bird-cage" Gothic —
most meagre and wiry. It is singular that one vfho could note all the
most trifling details of workmanship, in minor articles of virtii — in
carvings, enamels, ivories, bronzes, &e. — should be incapable of dis-
tinguishing the prodigious difference between his own soi-disant
Gothicizings and the things they professed, however distantly, to
imitate ; or that if at all aware of such difference in what regards
character and feeling, he should not at once have detected the cause
of it, and adopted a more satisfactory system.

We do not, like many, make it a sneering reproach against Straw-
berry Hill, that it is little better than " a lath and plaster" fabric,
patched together at different times. Neither of those circumstances
at all affects the question now under consideration ; for however light
or even flimsy in regard to construction the house itself, it might have
been made to display, as an architectural idea, many finished graces
of design, well-selected and well-studied forms, well-understood pro-
files, careful and well-executed detail : there might, in short have been
something like g«s/o manifested in the treatnientof the subject, though
the materials employed were ever so slight and homely. The employ-
ment of fictitious materials — of wood instead of stone — of ornaments
and mouldings cast in composition or papier miiche, instead of being
carved by hand, does not necessarily produce a trumperiness of appear-
ance ; on the contrary, whether the result be trumpery-looking or not
depends less upon the worth of the materials and the mode in which
the appearance aimed at is produced, than upon the taste which the
architect or artist expresses in his ideas. Instead of beauty of design
being destroyed by the ordinariness of the materials employed, it
confers an cesthetic value upon these last which makes ample amends
for their want of costliness ; and if there is to be any disproportion
at all between the worth of the one and the other, it is a lesser fault
to have an artist-like design executed in " trumpery" materials, than
a trumpery and tasteless design, however excellent the materials
employed for it.*

Of both trumpery and bad taste, and of gross architectural solecisms
— many of them downright vulgar in themselves, and almost inex-
plicable, as sanctioned by one who has the credit of having been a
"minute antiquary" — Strawberry Hill affords so many instances, that
wherever any sort of illusion is produced it is only for a moment,
being dispelled at the next glance, or the next step. We grant that
Walpole himself speaks very disparagingly of his own architectural
doings, but it is with that sort of affected compliment-begging
humility, which seeks nothing so much as to be contradicted ; and

• Of course this is to be taken cum gravo salis ; we must not be understood
as holding it to be matter of pcrlect indifference whether a building be solidly
constructed or not, provided ii does but satisfy the eye, because, in proportion
as it is beautiful, is ilie pleasure it affords increased by knowing that it is
durable also, and calculated to last indefinitely. What we chieliy mean to
say is, that where any sort of character is aimed at at all. ihe slightness of
the materials, or their being fictitious ones, is no excuse at all for the design
itself being incorrect, slovenly, and tasteless.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I S3

though he is pleasant on the subject of his flimsy battlements, of which
he says he had outlived three generations, he seems unconscious of
the vulgar and cockney t.iste displayed in stici;ing up such paltry
things at all. In point of taste, indeed, the exterior looks just such
another sheepishly-fierce and frowning piece of "femlal castle" archi-
tecture as that boK of battlements which has imposed upon no less
learned an antiquary than John Britton himself, who — not having, per-
haps, a promjiter at his elbow at the moment — has pronounced it, in
his publication on Edinburgh, to be — btauti/ul .'

We will now proceed to examine the Strawberry Hill mansion more
methodically and minutely. There is, indeed, one thing in its favour,
namelv, that neither externally nor internally does the entrance make
any fallacious promise. So very far, indeed, is it from exciting expec-
tations to be afterwards succeeded by disappointment, that it rather
damps them altogether. You reach the entrance door through a little
narrow alley, on oue side of which are three paltry arches in the star-
vation-Gothic style, forming what is by courtesy termed a cloister, in
which is — perhaps we siiould now say was^<ieposited a queer-looking
piece of old crockery ware, which, you are told, was the identical
china vase on which the " pensive Selina reclined," the feline female
whose memory is embalmed in the stanzas of Gray. We almost
wonder, therefore, that this cloister was not called the Cu.'-acomb, a
title that might have been bestowed upon it with as much or more
propriety than it is upon some of the passages and corners of the
Soanean Museum. The mention of the last is, perhaps, somewhat
unlucky, since it irresistibly leads us to remark that Soane and Walpole
resembled each other in the architectural taste they displayed in their
own houses, both of which seem as if put together from fragments
picked up at different times at some curiosity shop, and whose several
parts, even to mere passages and closets, are dignified with fine names.
If in the Soanean one we have the Monk's Parlour, the Monk's
Garden, the Shakspeare Recess, the Catacombs, &c., in the other we
have the Refectory, Armoury (a landing of the staircase), the Shrine
the Cloister, the Abbot's Garden, and so forth; an admirable system
for even a blue band box might thus be converted into a Bluebeard'
Blue Closet. Let us, however, boldly make our escape from th
temptation to say more upon that head. Let us, if we possibly can
restrain our pen, and compel it to be less frisky. Just now we talked
of being methodical ; alas for promises! There is more madness in
our method, we fear it will be thought, than method in our madness.

As cloister there was to be, it would have been better to have
planned it so as to be of some real service, which it would have been,
had it been extended and continued (from e in the plan, which indicates
the situation of the entrance-door to the house in the ground plan
below,) as far as the entrance from the road, nearer than which a
carriage cannot come up to the house ; for in that case a comfortable
sheltered approach would liave been formed the whole way, oue also
that would have contributed — at least, might easily have been made
to contribute — very materially to architectural effect as well as con-
venience. Or, putting both positive effect -^nd convenience out of the
question, the present skulking appearance of the entrance, which hides
itself, as it were, in a comer, would have been got rid of. Having
passed the threshold, we see little to announce architectural character
and style of any sort, until advancing a few paces and turning to the
left, we perceive the staircase, and there behold Gothic run mad, and
ugly quatre-foil holes for windows, than which nothing can be more
unlike anything to be met with in the pointed style, except perhaps
here and there in some very rude and uncouth examples. Such things
are no better than caricaturing the style pretended to be adopted :
ugly in themselves, they have not even the humble merit of being
passable copies — well-intentioned, but bunglingly executed. The
same may be said of the rest, and the whole is no better than a mere
patching together of incoherent bits of design, the only consistency
observable being that all is nearly alike paltry, insignificant, and mean
in taste ; and how the possessor of Cellini's bell could tolerate such
vapid architectural stuff — such mockery of Gothic art — is to ourselves
incomprehensible. Passing up a flight higher than the first landing,
or that level with the other rooms shown in the plan, we reach a I

broader one, extended by what is called the Armoury (A), but which
may be said to form part of it, it being only a sort of lobby, divided from
it merely by three open arches. Of the armour we speak not, but in
regard to the Armoury itself, it dues not call up visions of the days of
feudalism .ind chivalry, but is likelier to put to flight any dreams about
Olranto. The transition from warlike to literary stores is here sudden
enough, for, taking leave of helmets and suits of mail, we find ourselves
the next moment among books. The library (B) may be termed "a
fayre and goodly chambre" as to size, )-et unguodly or bad enough in
all reason as to the taste shown in its fittiugs-up. The design of the
bookcases is said to be taken from that of the stalls of old St. Paul's,
and sure enough, they do look as if the pattern of them had been
taken from some ill-drawn old engravings, so meagre and wirv is it in
all its lines, so hard and harsh in all its forms. The chimney-piece is
borrowed from a tomb in Westminster Abbey ; and the window is
borrowed from nothing, but rather looks as if it were itself the original
model or type of veritable cockney or carpenter's Gothic. Of such
superfluities and encumbrances as mullions and tracerv — which only
serve to keep out daylight, and were, therefore, quite in character
j during the dark ages — it is perfectly innocent. Still it is in the pointed
style, because it forms a great pointed opening in the wall. Besides
j this window, there are two little quatre-foil ones over the bookcases
at that end of the room, vhich at first sight have very much the
appearance of being holes or gaps made by cannon shot. The ceiling
is flat, and being painted all over with heraldic devices and compart-
ments, looks very much as if it were covered with a Turkey carpet
nailed to it. Surely our English Horace might have learnt both from
his Roman namesake and from his brother peer Chesterfield, that
paltry inconsistency is inexcusable in such matters ; for if it is worth
while to do them at all, it is worth while to do them well. Yet
Walpole seems to have bad no or little idea of architecture, beyond
that of bringing in bits here and there piecemeal, just as if it was not
at all necessary to observe any sort of keeping in the design of a
room, but doors, windows, chimney-pieces, &c., might look as if they
had been picked up at auctions, and afterwards patched up against the
walls in the best manner they could. To say the truth, the old-
curiosity-shop taste seems to have taken such strong hold of Walpole,
that it predominated even in his notions of architecture; and we even
sospect that his friend Bentley must have sneered aside occasionally,
when he found into what strange sort of architectural companionship
his chimney-piece compositions from tombs and Holbein gateways
were brought.

This library, together with the "Refectory" or dining room beneath
it on the ground floor, and of the same dimensions, were among the
first made by Walpole to the old house ; but although two of the
largest among what may be called the sitting-rooms, they are both so
detached from the others on the same floor, that thev cannot at any
time be made part of the general suite thrown open for company. We
must, therefore, descend again, and passing through the small ante-
room, C, called the Star-Chamber, from the [lattern on its walls, reach
the Holbein chamber, D, so named from its chimney-piece, one of
Bentley's compositions above alluded to. In other respects there is
nothing particularly Holbeinish in this room, or that confers upon it
distinct character of any kind. Lady Morgan, indeed, says of it that
it looks like a pet-room of Catherine of Arragon ; but to us it looked
rather like one exceedingly petty in taste, in which no attempt has
been made to keep up with tolerable consistency any one style. Di-
viding off the alcove in which the bed is placed, is a screen of three
pointed arches, the centre one left o;)en, the others filled with per-
forated foliage — the whole altogether different in design from the
chimney-piece and every thing else; and withal of rather too gim-
crack and toyish appearance in itself. As to the "royal -looking bed "
which Lady Morgan was so fortunate as to behold here, that must
have since disappeared, for the one we lately saw struck us as being
particularly mean, small, and shabby. Among the "sights" in this
room was the Cardinal's hat, a most interesting relic no doubt, and
perhaps quite as authentic as some of the highly prized and carefully
treasured-up rags of the Virgin Mary's gown ; in short one of those

184

THE CIA'IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

curiosities which it is curious that any man of sense should think of
giving house-room to, except in a lumber garret. Returning into the
little passage, p, we advance to the right and turn into the gallery,
which certainly comes upon us quite unexpectedly, and is all the more
striking by contrast with what has just been passed through. So far
this is exceedingly well contrived, though the credit of it ought
rather, perhaps, to be attributed to accident and necessity : here we
have not the anticlimax of a spacious gallery, presenting itself to view
before any of the other rooTis, and thereby causing them to disappoint
us, as not keeping the premise made by the approach to them. Here
the fault lies rather on the quite contrary side, there being no tole-
rably decent approach to the gallery itself, which cannot be reached
at all, except through a very confined and poking passage, that has a
sort of suspicious look about it, for it looks as if it led to some very
private closet to be visited only on occasions of necessity. We should
therefore like to be allovped to poke about and pull about here a
iittle — to widen it by taking about three feet out of the adjoining
chamber, and extend it by taking in the space marked r in the plan,
aad converting that addition into a shrine-like recess, viewed through
an open arch or screen where the window now is, and lighted above
through a concealed window of merely coloured or Claude-tinted
glass, so as to diffuse a rich mellowing glow over the whole recess,
which would thus become a miniature cabinet, wherein many articles
of r'irlii might not only be deposited but displaved to very great
etfect. What is now a very awkward and paltry passage, considering
where it leads to, might thus easily be rendered a very striking
passage — an attractive episode in the general architectural composition
and plan — a highly pictorial bit, because at all events there would be
a powerful effect of concentrated light opposed to the dim obscurity of
the rest. On entering such architectural corridor, we should behold a
picture before us, inviting onwards, and distinctly enough announcing
that we might expect something of more or less importance beyond it.
Neither would such corridor or lesser gallery at all interfere with or
diminish the impression made on first entering the larger gallery. On
the contrary, there would still be quite enough of contrast, without
any of that harsh and offensive discord that now rather disturbs our
impressions, the plan being now completely dislocated, as it were, and
its parts scattered from each other, without any proper connecting
links, uniting them into one series. Were our pen a magician's wandi
we should here work many transformations with it.

The Gallery, sometimes called, we know not why, the Great Gallery,
there being no other, and its dimensions being only 56 by 15 ft., and
19 high, does certainly take us by surprise, and may be called spa-
cious, in comparison with those parts of the house which precede it.
It certainly manifests considerable improvement in Walpole's interior
architecture. ]ts groined ceiling, in imitation of that of the side-
aisles of Henry's VIl's chapel, and of which the mouldings are gilt,
gives a certain air of richness to the whole apartment; but most
unfortunately, and perversely also, it is greatly marred by the five
* pendant and projecting canopies to the compartments and recesses on
the side facing the windows, while there are no corresponding ones on
the other, though they might there have had window draperies
attached to them. Thus, instead of that degree of symmetry being
attempted to be kept up between the opposite sides which is looked
for almost as a matter of course in a gallery, it is here altogether
destroyed, a defect that most assuredly is not at all helped by the
extreme shallowness of the windows, which, instead of forming em-
brasures, are merely let into the wall a few inches deep, and conse-
quently contrast very offensively with the recesses on the opposite wall.
Therefore, taking our wand, we should take the liberty of transforming
these into semi-hexagonal bays, of the same size as the larger recesses,
or if not all five, at least the three middle ones. This would certainly be
an improvement internally, and externally the throwing out such bays
could not be an alteration for the worse, the outside of the building
being already so detestably bad, that making it worse is almost next
to an impossibility. We would also conjure up a door, or rather the
vision of one, at the east end of the gallery ; that is, a sham door with
panels filled with looking-glass, so as to give an appearance of greater

extent, and form a feature at that end of the room corresponding with
the door at the other, but would have both in better design and taste
than the present one. In fact, nearly all the present fittings-up
requires correction, and to be brought into harmony, for want of which
there is now too much of the "scrap-book" character.

Lady Morgan speaks of the " Round Room which leads to the
sanctum sanctomm of the edifice, the Tribune," but, as the plan very
plainly shows, there is no such room between the Tribune (G) and the
Gallery ; and the Round Drawing-room (F) leads nowhere. This last
is to us by far the most pleasing and unexceptionable room in the
whole house : it has an air of simple elegance, comfort, and cheerful-
ness, with a quiet effect of light and shade. Yet even here there is
one very sad fault — capable, however, of being easily corrected —
namely, the pointed-arch door. Not only is such form inconvenient
for room doors, but here more especially, because upon a curved sur-
face ; and so far from such acute form being required in order to accord
with the rest of the design, it is positively at variance with it, the bay
window not being arched at all, and the ceiling being jlat; and as if
with the intention of adding inconsistency to inconsistency, this door
is painted white, with trumpery gilt mouldings. A white door is, as
Goethe says, at the best a solecism in taste ; but in Gothic, or any
style of old English architecture, quite intolerable, and one would as
soon think of painting a fine timber open roof of that colour. In con-
sequence of its being so painted, the door here produces a glaring
spot, and the ugliness of its design is rendered all the more conspicuous.

As we do not pretend to speak of the contents of any of the rooms,
of the Tribune we shall say very little. It is far better in its plan and
general form as to section, than in its details and the style of its fittings-
up. As to the north or great Bedchamber (H), there is notliing in it
that calls for architectural remark at all. One thing, however, to
which we would call attention, as a happy point or accident in the
plan, is the vista obtained from the same spot at the upper end of the
gallery — northwards into the Tribune, and in the other direction into
the Drawing-room and its bay. Thus that room, the Tribune, and
the Gallery itself, form a charming and pleasingly diversifieil archi-
tectural group ; one so fraught with scenic effect, that, however much
there may be to condemn elsewhere, there here is something worth
studying at Strawberry. Therefore, ere we cool upon this compliment,
we will dismiss our pen at once — as, in fact, it is time to do; merely
adding, by way of epilogue or moral, that there is a far greater
curiosity than any in the whole collection, or than the whole collection
itself, namely, the highly curious circumstance, that after being assem-
bled by one W, it should be scattered by another W ; and that it should
have passed from the witty, n>/«-loving Walpole to the witless and
vulgar-minded Waldegrave.

References to Plan.

A, Armoury. I, Beauclerk closet.

B, Library, over Dining-room. K, Breakfast room.

C, Star room. L, Blue closet.

D, Holbein chamber. M, Bedchamber.

E, Gallery, over Great Cloister. N, Ditto.

F, Round Drawing-room, -2 ft. e, Entrance, pn the ground floor

diameter. plan.

G, Tribune. p, Passage.
H, Great or north Bedchamber.

ARTESiA>f Well in London.- -The sinking of the Artesian well in Picca-
dilly has, we believe, been attended with the most perfect success, and there
is now every probability of an inexhaustible supply of the purest water.
After boring to a depth of 240 feet water was arrived at, which immediately
rose to within 80 feet from the surface. Over the well a handsome iron
pump is in progress of erection, and the inhabitants may now reckon
upon a certain and plentiful supply of line spring water. The expense of this
useful work is estimated at COO/. Such has been the success of the under-
taking, and so many the advantages, that it is said to be in contemplation to
carry out the plan in St. George's parish, by causing Artesian wells to be
sunk in different localities, best calculated to contribute to the convenience
of the parishioners.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

185

THE ANTIQUITIES OF NEW SPAIN.

Much has been said and written, from the age of Herodotus to the
present time, on the magnificent edifices of the ancient Egyptians ;
there is an undying interest felt about that people and their works, an
interest we all feel, and one that will endure for ages; but in gifing so
much of our attention to this subject, interesting as it undoubtedly is,
may we not neglect others which, if not equally, may be well worthy
our attention and research. Such a subject, we think, may be found
for us in the architectural remains of the ancient inhabitants of the
Spanish Mexican settlements; but in pursuing it, it is not our present
purpose to enter into the question, what race of men were the real
executors of these remains : such a question would lead us far beyond
the limits of our article, and as such great names differ in opinion on
the subject, it will appear like presumption in us to decide the point.
Of the early inhabitants of New Spain the Toltecans are the most
ancient nation of whom we know anything ; they came from the north-
ward, being expelled from their own country (supposed to be Tollan)-
about the year 472. In rather more than 100 years after this they
reached Mexico, where they settled ; but some time after almost the
whole nation was destroyed by famine and pestilence, occasioned by
extreme drought, and the remnant of the Toltecans was incorporated
with the Chichemicas, a succeeding nation under Zoloth, one of their
princes. There is considerable uncertainty as to the origin of the
present Mexican race ; according to Bolunni they left their own
country (Aztlan, supposed to be an Asiatic province) about the year
1160, but did not reach Mexico until nearly GO years after; there they
were first subject to, and afterwards conquerors of, the ancient Tolte-
can nation. For the sake of brevity, then, let us adopt the name of
Toltecan for the architectural works we speak of, although the present
natives attribute the erection of the buildings to "a race of giants,"
(a name given by many ancient nations to the Pelasgi), and proceed
at once, as far as lies in our power, to the description of the works
themselves, as it is plain that to whatever nation they owed their
origin, they (the nation) must have had considerable general know-
ledge, especially of the mechanical, geometrical, and astronomical
sciences.

The general form of the Toltecan religious edifices, and indeed the
guiding principle in all their works, seems to have been the pyramidal,
but unlike the pyramids of Egypt, they were not merely sepulchral
monuments, but temples in themselves. Instead of their being gra-
duated in regular courses, they formed stages or towers, each tower
being a truncated pyramid, rising one above the other to the height of
several stages, the upper surface of each tower (being flat) forming a
base for and terrace surrounding the tower immediately above it.
These buildings were square in plan, and the sides faced the cardinal
points. The sanctuary was situated on the topmost tower, and it is
a very singular coincidence that this kind of temple, the one at Cho-
lula especially, answers almost exactly to the description given by
Herodotus (Clio) of the temple of Jupiter Belus. He says " It is a
square building. In the midst a tower rises, upon which, resting as
a base, seven other towers are built in regular succession. The ascent
is on the outside, which, winding from the ground, is continued to the
highest tower. In the last tower is the holy place (uaos). As it is
generally supposed, from various circumstances, that the Toltecan
temples were dedicated to some solar divinity, the coincidence is the
more remarkable, as the sun was worshipped under the name of Baal
or Belus by the various nations of antiquity. The ascent to the place
of sacrifice or sanctum sanctorum was by means of a broad and well
finished flight of steps, usually situated on the western face of the
temple. Sometimes this staircase, instead of ascending in a direct
line, as in the flower temple of Xjjchicalco and others, traversed each
tower in a diagonal or zig-zag course from the lower to the upper
angle, as in the temple of Cholula before mentioned, and occasionally
there were four flights, one on each face of the building ; the temple
of Tehuantepee may be quoted as an example of this last, but in it
the principal staircase faced the west. It may be as well to mention

that at Cholula, Dupaix discovered a very fine stone head, having on
a kind of crown ; from various circumstances he considered it to be
either the capital of a column or part of a caryatic figure. The sides
of their pyramids were sometimes ornamented with stone heads, but
they were of quite a different description, more resembling the human
skull. This was perhaps in allusion to their religious services, as it
is well known they sacrificed human victims upon their altars. At
Xochicalco (House of Fttiwers), the great temple has its sides adorned
with immense flowers cut after erection ; Nebel has restored this
building in his work. To give some idea of the magnificent scale
upon which the Toltecans executed their architectural works, it will
be only necessary for us to give the dimensions of the great pyramid
of Cholula. As nearly as can be ascertained (for the angles of it are
much worn) its base is upwards of 1400 feet square, or rather more
than twice the size of the pyramid of Gizeh, although in height (from
the width of its terraces) it does not exceed 180 feet.

There has been much discussion among the moderns as to what
style was adopted by the architects of Solomon's temple ; some have
supposed it to have been the Grecian Doric, others (ourselves among
the number) have considered it the Egyptian, but Lord Kingsborough
has brought a more novel theory into the field. He considers the
Toltecan remains were executed by a portion of the Jewish nation
settled in Mexico, and the Toltecan temple of Palenque to be mo-
delled by them after that of Solomon. The general plan of this build-
ing is square ; it is raised on a low truncated pyramid as a basement,
and the ascent to the level of the floor is by a broad staircase situated
on the eastern side of the temple. A kind of double gallery runs
round and partly across the building, and divides it into three areas
or open courts. The galleries, as well as the other chambers, have
roofs rising high like the Gothic; the ceilings of the interior are
similar, with the exception of their section being a truncated triangle.
Out of one of the courts rises a square tower of very good proportion,
diminishing gradually, of several stories in height, and having on the
inside a staircase running up to the top. This tower was probably-
used by the Toltecans for an observatory, as we know they studied
astronomy, not only from their manner of placing their temples, &c.,
but from there being some of their zodiacal carvings still extant.

At Mitlan are ruins of four buildings called " the Palaces," (Dupaix
thinks they are sepulchral monuments and not the abode of their
kings) the design of which seems to indicate the existence of a purer
and more refined taste in their architect than is exhibited in most of
the other Toltecan works. It is difficult to convey an idea of the plan
of all these erections by description only, but we will take the prin«
cipal one as the best suited to our purpose. Four buildings surround
a square or court, three of them are rectangular parallelograms in plan,
each containing one saloon ; the fourth is similar to the other three,
but has, in addition to the saloon, some chambers behind it, forming
altogether a plan much resembling the Egyptian Tau. The greater
part of the exterior is covered with elaborate and exceedingly beau-
tiful designs in Mosaic, some of them vary much in the style of the
Greek meander or fret ornament ; the same mosaics are used on the
architrave of the interior. In the saloon of the principal building are
six granite columns without base or capital, supporting the ceiling
beams ; these are almost the only columnar examples we find, as the
Toltecans generally made use of piers or substantial antae in lieu of
them. The walls were constructed of well tempered mud, lime and
sand, the large stone facings being pressed into them to a certain
depth while in a soft state, and the interior of the work was finished
with a fine hard stucco bearing an excellent polish, and painted with
ochre and vermilion. It is a circumstance worthy of notice that al-
though chisels and other instruments of copper have been found among
the Mexican ruins, no iron ones have ever been discovered. How
then did the masons square their stones for building ? (it is evident
copper tools would not have been sufficiently hard for the purpose).
Dupaix thinks they squared them by means of friction, and his opinion
may receive some confirmation from the fact of their surface being
exceedingly smooth. Under the saloon of the palace is a cruciform
sepulchral chamber, entered by a flight of steps from the court above.

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[June,

The ceiling of it is formed by beams of stone laid transversely; but
at the intersection of the cross is a cylindrical column supporting a
square slab of stone or abacus, forming the ceiling of the chamber at
that part. The interior is richly ornamented with different kinds of
mosaic fret, and is painted with vermilion. If we may judge from
the ruins of their sepulchres which still exist, the Toltecan nation
must have paid the greatest respect to the memory of their dead.
Occasionally we fiud them deposited in ca*-erns wrought by hand,
similar to the one we have just spoken of; there is likewise one of
the same cruciform shape at Chilan, and another, containing three
chambers, near Xochicalco ; but most commonly they constructed a
large conical heap or tumulus, and faced it with stone or brick ; through
this was made an arched passage usually running north and south. A
tumulus of this kind at Mount Alvan has one side of this passage
lined with oblong slabs of granite carved with human figures. There
is a very remarkable sepulchral monument situated likewise at Mount
Alvan; it is constructed in a conical hill like those before mentioned,
but there is also an arched passage running east and west, intersecting
that running from north to south. At this intersection is a large and
well constructed rotunda, the dome of which is somewhat in the shape
cf a parabolic conoid ; the sides and interior are lined with good ma-
sonry, and at the top is a kind of funnel or chimney going right
through to the exterior summit of the tumulus ; this was probably used
for purposes of ventilation.

The Toltecans generally made the arches of their bridges square
headed, by means of a stone lintel laid across from pier to pier, but
not unfrequently they placed long beams of stone leaning towards one
another at an angle of about 55 degrees, and meeting at top, forming
a kind of triangular straight-sided arch. In the province of Thascala
are the ruins of two bridges of this latter description, and the angles
of the roadway are ornamented with four piers or obelisks, of about
50 ft. in height, having an imposing effect. There still exists at Chil-
Luittan a bridge very peculiarly constructed by means of large blocks
of stone, the upper surfaces of them being cut convex and the lower con-
cave, springing from their piers and meeting together at the crown of
the archway. The arch thus formed bears a great resemblance to
our Gothic " Lancet."

Perhaps it may be as well to say something of the roofs, doors, and
■windows of the edifices we have been describing. Of the first the
interior frame was in most instances triangular, the angle at the apex
being rather acute ; but there are examples in the form of an inverted
cyma, somewhat like the roofs of the Chinese buildings. Internally
the sections of the ceilings were sometimes plain-sided triangles
(occasionally truncated), at others they were graduated in overhanging
courses, forming a kind of arch. The doorways were of a square or
oblong form, having merely a plain stone lintel resting on its piers.
Very many of the windows and niches are of the same description,
but we find in them a much greater variety of form. They are some
cf them arched at top, some triangular, some in the shape of the
Egyptian Tau, while others resemble the trefoil-headed Gothic arch.

PROTECTION OF LAND AGAINST THE SEA.

The expedient about to be described was put into practice at a part
of the Moray Firth, near the town of Inverness, North Britain.

There was great reason for supposing that the Firth had encroached
enormously at this place ; and so certain and rapid seemed its progress
towards the destruction of a portion of the carse land known by the
name of the "Longman," lying between it and the rich town lands
immediately contiguous to Inverness, that the inhabitants, foreseeing
the certain destruction which awaited the town lands, and perhaps
ultimately Xhe town itself, if the carse land, which had by this time
been reduced to an average breadth of about 100 yards, were not
protected, determined upon erecting a very substantial wall, (A) as
represented in the annexed sketch, and it was hoped that the evil

would be thereby effectually cured ; but after resisting the action of
the water for some years by the aid of almost constant repairs, it was at
length so much damaged that proposals and estimates were submitted for
the purpose of erecting another waU of much stronger dimensions,
and the inhabitants were preparing for another serious demand upon
their purses, when they were agreeably surprized by receiving a pro-
posal from Mr. William Hughes, then a contractor upon the Caledonian
Canal, to protect the town lands effectually, and that at no cost what-
ever to the town, as he required no farther remuneration than the
possession of the stones of which the wall had been formed. This
agreement was eagerly entered into on both sides, and both parties
were perfectly satisfied with the result.

Suture qf Citrac^lajiS'

- — — as —

The contractor's mode of operation was extremely simple, as may
be seen by the sketch : the beach ascended from low to high water-
mark at an inclination of about 1 in 9, and then rose abruptly about
3 ft. to the level of the carse lands. Having removed the old wall,
the contractor considered that nothing more was wanting than the for«
mation of a beach of sufficient solidity to resist the action of the
water, and having at the same time such a section as to allow the
waves to exhaust themselves without meeting %vith any substance
which might be injured by them. These objects were attained by
removing sufficient stuff to admit of the beach being carried up and
terminated by a gentle curve tangent to the original beach, whilst the
surface of this newly-formed beach, and also down towards low water-
mark, was rendered solid by excavating a foot in depth, and depositing
therein boulders found on the beach. This formation is represented
by B in the sketch ; and we have only further to add that nothing
could have proved more creditable to the contractor, or more service-
able to those interested in its success, since, from the time of its com-
pletion till the present time, a period of not less than 26 years, the
town has not lost one foot of land, nor been put to any expense for
repairs.

H.

NOTES ON EARTH WORK, EXCAVATION, CUTTING, AND FORMING
EMBANKMENT UPON RAILWAYS.

Article II. — Plant, Haulage, and Contingencies.

" Modern practice has reduced it to a price per cubic yard."

Professor Vignoles^ Lecture, Dec. 1841.

The rails, wagons, sleepers, &c. used by contractors, are called the
" Plant," and are of a lighter description than those used for permanent
works. The rails range generally from 26^ to 30 lb. per yard, and the joint
pedestals or chairs 20 lb., and intermediate chairs 12j lb. each. The follow-
ing were the prices paid in 1837: — rails 13/. per ton ; chairs 9/. 10s. per
ton; keys 24i. per cwt. ; sleepers Is. to Is. 3rf. each. The plant required for
the conveyance of 213,000 cubic yards of earth with embankment consisted
of 157 tons of rails, 67 tons of chairs, 28 cwt. of wedges and nails, and 42
wagons, estimated to contain or carry \\ cubic yards each, costing 18/. 10».
each,* and 96 to contain 2\ cubic yards each, costing 23/. each. The cost

* Wagons to contain H cubic yards of earth, of which 42 were used —
cost £777.

1 set of wrought iron work pedestals, bolts, and hoops,390 lb. £.. s. d.

at 4rf. . . ... . . 6 10 0

1 set of 24-in. wheels and axles . . . . 7 15 0

19cubicft. of elm.at 3s. 2 17 0

Labour of making each . . . . .18 0

18 10 0

Wagons to contain 21 cubic yards, of which 96 were used, each 23/.—
cost £2208.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

187

of repairs for each wagon was from Is. 3(/. to Ij. 6d. per week, no less than
97 out of 103 wagons requiring extensive repairs in one month. In addition
to the repair, the lubrication or greasing of the wagon is a considerable item
of expense. Supposing the plant sold after the completion of the work, it
would perhaps produce— raUs S/. per ton ; chairs in proportion ; large wagons
13/. ; small wagons lU. ; and sleepers 9rf. each.

From all I can leain, and judging from my own experience, I calculate
that the cost on each work for rails is about lid. per cubic yard, and for
■wagons Irf.t

Before I proceed to consider the cost of haulage or horsing, I will give
what Mr. Day says on the subject, in his Treatise on Railways, although not
in his exact words :— " Taking resistance at 150th part of insistent weight
for tempoiary roads, and horse power at 150 lb., to travel 12 mUes loaded
and 12 with empty carriages, at the rate of 2i miles per hour, and allowing
a fourth for weight of wagons, a horse wiU convey 64^ cubic yards one mile
per day, which, at 7s. per day, including attendance, is equal to IJrf. per
cubic yard ; and that the effect of ascending a gradient of 35 ft. per mile
will double the cost, 74 ft. treble, and 105 ft. quadruple it."— The cost is not
in the ratio of the relative distance, as the haulage to and from the tip and
guUet apply as well to short as to long distances. For the first mile I do not think
that 2id. per yard is too much for haulage, which is nearly double Mr. Day's
estimate.* I consider that horse power is preferable to either fixed or loco-
motive engines, when the lead is vmder 2.V miles, but. up to 4 miles a loco-
motive is to be preferred ; and when the lead exceeds that distance, it will
be cheaper to purchase land for side cutting, and run the surplus to spoil at
the commencement of the cutting, or run the top Uft into the adjoining
fields. The average lead for most of the railways abeady made seldom
exceeds one mile, which has been taken as the standard measure of cost, for
which the price is generally about Is. per cubic yard for the first mile, and
3d. per mUe additional, or lid. per half mne, beyond the first mile.

The following are the prices at which many contracts have been executed

+ On account of the capital required for plant being so great, it is some-
times the custom for the companies to find rails and wagons, the permanent
rails being allowed to he used for temporary purposes. The value of a plant
for a contract 5* miles in length, to convey 213,000 cubic yards, is nearly
one-third of the amount of contract, taking 12rf. per cubic yard as the price,
viz. for— Rails, chairs, keys, &C. . • • • *3300

Sleepers 30"

Wagons .■••-• "°^

Total 6.585

About seven miles of rails were used, besides two miles of wooden rails
plated with iron for a back road, on which only the empty wagons passed.
The facility afforded in tipping fully warranted this quantity ot plant. Ihe
usual calculation for the quantity of rails required is the length, of contract
undertaken, if the works are lo be carried on with vigour.

» Hursts' keep calculated at the above :—

1 load of hay, 36 trusses of 56 lb. each, at lOSs. to 110s. per load.

1 load of corn, beans, or oats, 5 qvs. and 8 bushels 1 qr. at 30s. per qr., and
wei<'hin<' 37 to 43 lb. ner bushel net, allowing S lb. for the weight of the
sack ; beans, whole 2"cwt. 1 qr. 12 lb. per sack, split 1 cwt. 2 qr. 3 lb. ; oats
1 cwt. 1 qr. per sack, at 24s. per qr.

Keep of horses at the above price, exclusive of driving.

per week each. ^ Xfi.^^y, l^'^'^' ^

1361 lb. ot hay ) 9| lb. of hay ■»

94 of oats yiis. ISi ot oats V2s. orf.

23 of beans ) H of beans )

30 horses in 12 weeks consumed
740 bushels of oats,

180 ditto of beans,

181 trusses of hay.

42 horses in one week consumed

69 bushels of oat»,\ (9i busheJs of oats,
51 ditto of beans, F „,. J 48 ditto of beans,
32 trusses of hay, f "^' ] 26 trusses of hay,

3 sacks of bran. ) lot sacks of bran.

35 horses in one week consumed

70 bushels of oats.) (60 bushels of oats, or 70,
42 ditto of beans, J- or, ^31 ditto cf beans,

24 trusses of hay. ) l26 trusses of hay.

20 burses consumed in one week
35 bushels of o.its.i (38 bushels of oats,

21 ditto of beans, V or, -J 21 ditto of beans,
2 sacks of bran. ) I 1 sack of bran.

The cost of harness is 2s. per week each.
Repairs of ditto and shoeing 6d.
Farriery dnd medicine td. per week each.
The value of the dung pavs for the straw.

35 horses took 2250 cubic yards 67i chairs at 3J<i.
55 „ 2868 „ 72 „ ^

55 „ 3600 „ 82 ., ^

55 „ 2900 „ 102 „ ii

on some of the ?reat lines : — Midland Counties 12d. and od. per additional
mile; Derby and Birmingham 12irf. all through average of lead; Great
Western I2d. and Zd., and for ballast Is. b^d., and 6rf. per additional mile,
(on account of the difference in weight, say 19 cvd. to 28 cwt., between soil
and wet gravel). On the Newcastle and North Shields Railway the price was
13if., which I have divided as follows — excavations and repairs of wagons
Srf. ; rails and wagons 2d. ; horsing 3d. From tte above prices I think I
may say that the price per cubic yard may be set at I2d., which may be
divided into the following items ; —

Getting and filling ...... 4^rf.

Ganger's superintendence . . . . • i

Repairs of temporary road . . . . . i

Tipping .......}

Plant, v.'agons, and rails . . . • 2i

Horsing . . . . . • - 24

Contingencies and profit . . . . . IJ-

12

In addition to the price of 4Jrf. for getting and filling, id. extra must be
added, if it should be necessary to resort to guV.etiiuj for the greater facility o£
execution. It frequently happens that the earth to form approaches to bridges
is taken from the small severances of land in the immediate vicinity of the
bridge, and the earth moved nearly vertically, by the employment of what
are called " horse runs," the excavator, with his loaded barrow, being drawn
up a slope of planks laid often at an angle of more than 45°. The price for
getting the earth in this ease is generally estimated at Id. per man in the
hole, only one man being employed as runner, the distance from the foot of
the slope requiring more or less men, as the case may be. In the preceding
observations I have considered the prices of earthwork, barrow work, rua
work, and wagon work. The parts I have not touched upon are horse work,
meaning cartage, and tram work, and when tubs are used put or pushed by
men — this information probably some of your correspondents, who may have
the data, will supply.

When it is considered in what a hurried manner contracts are let, the con-
tractor in tlie space of a few days having to satisfy himself of the nature of
the strata and the correctness of the levels, also the quantity, which has
perhaps occupied the engineer and his staff months to ascertain ; also the
arbitrary manner in which the conditions are framed, his materials liable to
be taken from him, and his work entered upon by the company at the mere
dictum of an engineer, it is surprising that men are to be found of energy-
sufficient to risk their capital for such a small chance of profit. And besides,
such contingencies as wet and frosty weather, rise of wages and materials,
and the risk of errors in calculation, both as regards clerical errors and errors
in the principle, whether the prismoidal formula or average depth be employed
in the calculation.*

Professor Vignoles. in his sixth lecture {Joitrnal, p. 60), says that the
correct method is by the prismoidal formula, and that in a quantity of 332,000
cubic yards so calculated, and by average heights, there would be a difference
of 22,000 cubic yards against the contractor, and if the mean area be used,
there would be an excess of 44,000 cubic yards in favour of the contractor ;
hence, by the latter many contractors had realized, and by the former many
had lost large amounts.

It is to the industry, energy, and boldness of the English contractor that
enables him to carry on such extensive works as are imdertaken in this
countr>', and has thrown the Continental railways into his hands ; and he has
reason to be proud of the distinction. It is a practical illustration of the
maxim that science is bUnd and without hands, and useless unless guided by
experience. Many of the contracts on the English railways have been in the
hands of men who could not write their own names.

I did not, when I commenced this paper, intend saying anything of the
comparative cost of excavating materials of a more obdurate nature, but to
confine myself to common earth ; but from the interest I have taken in the

^ There are also to be added the risk of an error in the fi.xing the vaUie
of the average lead, which 1 think is the most important point ot all, requiring
Ae exercise of the soundest judgment. An.j again, it seldom happens but
what the rate of the gradient varies in the englh of a contract, w ich will
make a great difference, as before stated a rise ot 35 ft per mile w.ll double
the price ot h.iulage, and to have a small descent with the load is as greatly
n favour of the contractor. There are besides the slips in cutting, and sub-
sUing in embankment, and the upholding of tunnels, and other l'f;«'f"J
work ; and as if all these contingencies were not enough, one of the pine pal
engineers, lately in his report to the directors, urged the propriety of including
in "the contract for work ihe i«/n< of the land required lor the railway.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

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subject, I am induced to add a few words. Teihaps by so doiug I may elicit
some further information from some correspondent, who may have the means
of continuing the subject on rock excavation and blasting. In the first place
I will give what Mr. Booth, of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, says
in his pamphlet on the progressive operations of that undertaking. The
e.vcavation was about 2,006,000 cul)ic yards : it was removed from a few
furlongs to between three anil four miles in length. The excavations at —

General price per cubic yard.
s. d. s. d.
Edge Hill ; red sandstone . . . .16

Olive Mount ; red marl and sandstone, two miles long . 1 0 to 2 0
Rainhill ; clay, marl, and sandstone . . . 0 8 „ 1 1

Kenyon; sand, gravel, and marl . . . 0 8 ,, 1 0

Eccles ; marl and sandstone . . . . 0 10 „ 1 4

It i.s unfortunate that the general price only is stated, which I suppose to
mean an average lead, and not the standard of per mile.

On the Great ^Vestern Railway, near Keynsham, the cutting through
limestone cost lOrf., Is. 3d., 2s. 5</., and 2s. (id.; but this again was general,
the standard for comparison being wanting, or the horsing being mixed with
the getting. On the Cromford and High Peak line, through limestone, the
excavation cost lOd., also an average of lead. If I may be allowed to hazard
an opinion, I think the price of common rock would be for getting only lOd.
to Is. On the Glasgow and Paisley line, at Bishopton, the most expensive I
ever heard of was through drifliug whin or greenstone. It cost C«. per yard;
it was harder even than granite ; and in the Bishopton e.xcavation alone 621
tons of gunpowder was used. I have known tunnel work through gypsum
and marl cost 2s. per yard for labour only, without risk of water.
Rates of tonnage per ton per mile : —

Stockton and Darlington Railway — Coals and cinders, 2Jd per ton.
Cromford and High Peak — coal and coke, Urf. per ton.
Brandling .lunction Railway— Slate and tiles, ihd. per ton per miie.
Great North of England Railway — timber, Urf. per ton per mile.
Hartlepool Railway— coals, IJrf. per ton per mile.

S/. Ann's, Newcastle-ujmn-Tyne. 0. T.

ON FRESOO-PAINTING.

By Joseph Severn, of Rome.

(Continued from paije 165.^

In my former remarks (see ante, p. IGl,) I attempted to explain why En-
glish artists would be more likely to excel in the grandeur of historical paint-
ing, through the medium of the fresco, rather than the oil material, and
that the obstacles were not in our ignorance of that simple medium, but in
our defective design, including our artificial and theatrical notions of com-
position. I hope now to be able to show, that in those essential points, de-
sign and composition, the English school possesses the real groundwork,
which, with singular injustice to itself, it rarely or never exercises to its full
extent, and which, if it did, there would be a hope of our surpassing all the
continental schools of art ; as I think the rare quality, which I am about to
explain, is not to be found in so high a degree (if it is to be found at all) in
any of them.

Judging the art of painting, as I do, by its great Italian examples, par-
ticularly in fresco, which is its province of freedom and power, I should say
that there is a real and individual groundwork applicable and belonging to
all the various powers of painting. This groundwork is Nature ; not the
perfect nature applicable to sculpture, often mistaken, and much abused in
our time, as one and the same — but nature, with more of her imperfections
than is generally supposed ; imperfections that are essential to painting, if
character and expression, or in a word if life be the object. No doubt
sculpture, and the beautiful antique figures particularly, have somewhat
blinded us as regards painting ; and I cannot but think, that if it were the
good fortune of modern times to turn up an antique picture of high Grecian
art, even by Apelles or Zeuxis, we should find it entirely different to their
sculpture in design and composition, as well as in everything else, for such
is the case in the inferior examples at Pompeii and Herculaneum, wherein
the principles I am anxious to explain are always found.

Sculpture exists in the perfection of form, whatever that form may be, and
it must be selected from various examples ; for it is rare indeed to find per-
fect form in one individual model, as adapted to sculpture ; and this can be
easily understood when it is considered, that sculpture presents nothing but

abstract form to the eye. But painting, on the contrary, imitates nature in
all her infinite variety ; and in this universal imitation an obvious distinction
is to be made, not only as to the means of the art, but tlie mode by which
the painter attains his object. Historical painting, in including the diver-
sities of complexions and customs of the people of different nations and ages,
is obliged to include much that is ugly and unseemly, as well as much that
is imperfect in form ; for the painting art rests on its powers of representing
character and expression with all the life and vigour it is capable of; aud
forms and things which would be vulgar, mean, and even incompatible with
the abstract and limited power of sculpture, are obliged to be taken with all
their imperfections by the painter, for they assist the pictorial and mental
powers of his art. I am induced to dwell on this nice distinction, because,
with reference to fresco-painting, I know that many persons suppose that
the " good drawing," talked of as necessary, means the sculptural perfection
of form I have been speaking of, and which, as applied to painting, carries
with it the impression of insipidity and weakness, and seems to exclude the
representation of vigorous character and living expression, which most of us
feel to belong to painting. But sculpture, aud scidptural perfection, as ap-
plied indiscriminately to painting, has helped to tame it down to a classic
imbecility, if I may so call it, where the spirit of expression is driven to dwell
in the extravagance and unnaturalness of academical and theatrical attitudes.
When character and expression are not allowed to exist in form, then there
is nothing left for them but attitude. This, I conceive, will explain at once
the vast difference which is manifest between tlie quiet aud natural manner
in which the great Italian painters represented history, and that of the mo-
dern French, who have attempted to affect us in their historical painting by
every species of action and extravagance, though always with the perfect
forms and the drawing of sculpture. Their theory was to give perfection to
painting, by imitating the perfection of antique sculpture ; and they succeeded
in introducing an original style, but from which we turn with displeasure,
and sometimes disgust, to dwell on the repose and simplicity of the Itahau
masters, who, although accused of every kind of defect, we return to, and
love even for their defects, because they are natural, and because painting
assumes to be the universal language of nature. The French, in imitating
the antique, have thought it expedient to give Apollo forms, more or less, to
all their figures— to pare away every imperfection of humanity, whether it be
in gods or heroes, or even in common men ; aud hence they have excluded
character and expression, save in violence of attitude. This is the sad change
which many English people falsely anticipate is to be brought about by fresco-
painting ; and this is the mistake which I am anxious to correct, in advo-
cating the cause of fresco-painting.

Who will be so bold as to say, that perfect and select form is essential to
painting, when, in the finest examples of Eaffaello, Domenichino, and all the
other great Italians, we find in every figure some example of the imperfections
of nature purposely introduced — I say purposely, as there is no other rational
way of accounting for the fact, but that they did it on principle. The an-
tique figures were before their eyes, even more vividly than they are before
ours : they were dug up in their time, and must have appeared more wonder-
ful from their novelty ; consequently, the Italian painters must have had the
same temptation to take or leave them as we have, and they did take them,
but in part only, and SO far as they helped to develop the true and distinctive
characters of painting. The French take them entire, and the English never
take them at all. We can find, for example, in the figure of Heliodorus, by
Raffaello, something of the grand form of the lUissus (in the Elgin marbles),
but we find nothing of the antique in the terrible scourging angels, who
strike him down with such energv' and life. Now, who can say that if the
imperfection of forms which are found in those angels were taken away, it
would not leave somewhat of tameness and insipidity .' or why, if we are
struck by the terrible fury which Raffaello has given these figures, should we
not infer that it exists even in the ruggedness of their forms ?

I can well remember the shame and surprise I felt on first going to draw
in a foreign academy, at Rome — where every artist, even the beginners, pro-
duced such beautiful forms. But the fascination was soon dispelled ; for
week after week diflferent models of different ages and characters were
brought before us, from the young and gentle, to the strong and muscular,
and these artists I found made them all alike. The different characters were
so refined and idealized, that it seemed to me I was no longer in the province
of Painting, but in the ideal world of Sculpture. Young as I was, I might
blindly have concluded that these artists were in the right, had there not
been all those immortal fresco works around me with which Rome abounds,
and which convinced me of the modern error, and in the inspiration of which
works I venture humbly to oflfer these explauatioDS.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

189

These works will show that the Italian masters selected individual nature
— no doubt tlie finest examples, but always individuals. How, indeed, is it
possible to give that character which tlie art demands, without individual
nature, whereon to raise that structure of life and energy, that endless variety
of forms and colours, those varied costumes with all their particularities ?
Again, look to the landscape and architecture, with those effects of atmos-
phere which give such reality to the historic scene — how is it possible to
make the figures belong to these (and to these they must belong), if the
forms are to l)e perfected with so much ideal beauty that tliey become the
only unnatural things in the picture ?

Painting will have men nearly as they are ; give them mind to any extent,
give them overflowings of life and soul — but they must look like men, for
the art will have it so, as it had it in all the great Italian examples. Let
sculptors revel in their ideal world, but we must live in a real one if we wish
to be painters. This brings me to the immediate point of my subject,
without which these remarks would be impertinent — the groundwork of de-
sign existing in the English school, but only the groundwork. This I con-
sider to be rather in the charm of nature as a cliaracteristic, than in the
mere artistical power of drawing academically well ; for the one may exist
without the other, but in the design I am explaining they must exist together.
Its grand principle is in the natural, correct, and graceful building up of the
figure. Reynolds is great in this, although he is thought to be so bad a
draftsman, while thousands of inferior artists succeed in the academical part;
all France and Italy, indeed, abound with them ; in the latter country, even
children learn to draw according to the trick before they learn to read or
write. Reynolds aimed at something higher. It is true he gives us slovenly
and ill-defined extremities, (the result, not of ignorance, but of his numerous
experiments) but he never gives us a figure ill built up, or without the irre-
sistible charm of nature ; and this I find, more or less, the characteristic of
the English school, in contrast to every other. It may have defects in the
details of its drawing, it may have unsightly forms, it may have trivial and
vulgar subjects, its greatest excellence may be in portraits — in fact, it may
deserve most of the abuse which befalls it, but the charm of nature is never
wanting. Now this praise cannot be bestowed on any other modern school ;
and small as it is, yet it is a genuine morsel, to be found in all the great
Italian works from Raffaello down to Claude (who may be considered an
Italian) in all of which you find the charm of nature. This is the real base-
ment of good design in painting ; and although l)ut a basement, yet it is one
whereon we can raise, if we please, any kind of structure in art ; we can
safely ;ise the antique — we can even deal in the grand forms of Michael An-
gelo with impunity, but always with this guide. It was this enabled the
great English sculptor, Flaxman, (the greatest and most universal artist of
modern times) to find out the essentials of Greek art, which the French have
ever missed. But in painting it was more difticult to be found. The Italians
found it, and carried art to perfection, for in the imperfections they had the
courage and taste to leave it; which imperfections the French, in trying to
take away, removed also the key-stone of art — they left out the charm of
nature. In modern painting, perhaps, no one has gone so securely towards
high art as Reynolds, but he stopped short; and in carrying the thing further,
others ceased to have this solid characteristic, and we have ceased to care
about their works. Yet we care about Reynolds as much as ever, with all his
faults. Why is this ? — he has the charm of nature. On the contrary,
Lawrence, with fine qualities and a feeling for nature, sunk under the influence
of fashion ; and we may trace to him the long throat, small head, and little
feet, with much of the mawkishness of modern English art. Wilkie may
he regarded as the most perfect painter of the English school. He not only
had nature, though not in all her charms, but he applied all the fine principles
of art ; he concentrated them, and produced a style new, as it was a com-
bination of several never before combhied ; he took Raffaello 's power of
expressing the subject, his elegance of composition and even design, with
Rembrandt's force and Tenier's mechanism, all bound together by the charm
of nature.

This has to be done in English historical painting. The same principles
must be extended and raised as we see them in the Italian schools. So far
we are moral cowards in art, that in avoiding the errors of the French we are
content to be like little children, fed with spoon meat. In our painting we
are in leading strings, whilst we are full grown men in other things. This
must arise principally from our strong feeling for nature when we attempt
painting; for we tremble at the brink of a classic influence, because we fancy
it is not to be carried out with nature. The same with highly imaginative
works — we fall short by becoming tame and mawkish ; so that portrait, laud-
scape, and domestic scenes arc the only things left to our wilful cowardice,

and these, as we do them well, we are determined shall be the only things
we will do at all.

But T\ov the historical field is opening to us in painting of the new Houses
of Parliament, aiul we shall lie forced into a bolder and more manly style of
design. Let us not look at the French, or think that we are in danger of
falling into their excesses, for we are ml — it is «o< in ws, if we wished for
it; indeed, it is our fear of it which keeps us back. Let us, then, venture
on the boldness of Italian art, that is, to do things without caring for the
defects, but only thinking on the real and actual power which lies in the
sphere of painting, and of how little ve have yet exercised it. Our ancestors
may not have been so handsome as the Greeks ; but they were quite as manly,
as full of genius, and have left us, not works of art, but enduring principles,
institutions, laws, and a history of which we have now to moke works of art.
To tills purpose Greek art would not be desirable, if we could have it.
EngUshmen transformed to Greeks would be as absurd as Greeks transformed
to EngUshmen. The Germans have succeeded in creating a style of design
that is independent of the antique, though not nearer nature than the Italian,
or with so much beauty. We, with our strong feeling for nature, may go
still further, for we may use the antique as the Italians did, to make it our
own : but it must be to gain something like power in design — something
which shall shun the Gallic-Greek on the one hand, and, on the other, the
influences of English fashion, both equally prejudicial to art. Surely here,
as everywhere else, there are fine individual specimens of nature, if the artist
will but take time to seek for tliem, for the English are considered to be a
fine-looking people. In the great church processions of Rome, where there
are many of all nations joined with the Italians, I always thought the Irish
monks the most historic looking men. Yet, judging from modern exhibitions,
one would think the English but an ordinary race, from the sovereign down
to the artizans and beggars. Our women are considered to be the most
beautiful in the world, whatever we may paint and Ihink them ; for in modern
English art they are shown in every degree of languishment and lassitude,
from the " Betrotheds" to the " Forsakeus,''— all of which, I should say,
were the productions of the most immoral peopb in the world, even more
so than the French, who only disgust, did I not know they were meant to
represent high-minded English women, virtuous as they are accomplished.
All this arises from defective design, for as it cannot produce style, it pro-
duces fashion ; and so a hideous monster, in the shape of taste, becomes the
order of the day : — hence these ambiguous ladies, and gentlemen as their
companions, with pocket-hook faces, .k very little honest drawing will
remedy all this, but it must be drawing alone on a cartoon, for colour and
effect will paralyze it. Let us have a touch of bold art once more, even as
good as Reynolds, and we shall see fashion bow to it as it did to him.

ON THE FORCE OF THE WIND AND SEA.

Observed at the Delaware Brealcroater in 1830 and 1831, Kith some sug-
gestions concerning the transverse sections of Breaknatcrs. By
Ellwood Morris, Civil Engineer.

(From the American Franklin Journal.)

That the force of the sea and wind often operates with tremendous
energy against objects which re.sist their action, is a fact well known;
to measure this force with precision is from the nature of things im-
possible, and hence it is only by a close attention to the observed
effect produced by the waves of storms, upon opposing objects, that
the engineer is enabled to form a proper idea of the energies of an
agitated sea, when roused by gales to the assault of works raised for
the protection of harbours.

To form a well sheltered harbour upon a site fairly exposed to the
ocean, is one of the most difficult problems which can be proposed for
solution by the engineer, for such is the difficulty of forming a stable
barrier against the sea, that notwithstanding all that has been done in
erecting sea-works under the direction of the ablest minds, we can at
this dav scarcely, if at all, point to an artificial harbour in a dangerous
roadstead, which has realized the expectations of its projectors.

To appreciate, properly, the active forces which we are to counter-
vail, is the first step in framing plans for sea-works; and to add
another to the number of observed facts bearing upon this subject, is
the object of the present article.

In the years 1830 and 1831, the writer (then assistant engineer at
the Delaware Breakwater) had occasion to notice particularly, the
severity of the action of storms upon such portions of that work as

190

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUNB,

■were then elevated above low water mark ; the results of these ob-
servations we will now detail, merely premising first such brief ac-
count of the work itself as seems necessary to a full understanding of
the subject.

The Delaware Breakwater was located and begun in 1829; it will,
when finished,* consist of two detached dikes of rock, the Breakivaier
proper, a work of 1200 yards in extent, running in a line tangent to the
seaward extremity of Cape Henlopen, and commencing at .300 yards
distant therefrom; the tce-brcaker, a wo k 5oO yards long, lying
obliquely across the prolongation of the line of the Breakwater, and
distant from its western end 350 yards, at the nearest point; the
Breakwater lies nearly in the original course of the ebb tide, trending
E. S. E. and W. N. W., and will cover the harbour from the northern
and eastern ninds; whilst the ice-breaker (mainly designed to shelter
the anchorage from ice drifting on the ebb,) bears E. by N. and W.
by S., and will, at the same time, protect the interior from the winds
of the north-west quarter; the contained angle between the horizontal
projections of the two works being thirteen of the southern points of
the compass, or 146i°.

This artificial harbour is located in Cape Henlopen road, just within
the pitch of the Cape, and its site is fully exposed to the sea winds
which blov? directly in from the Atlantic ocean, over the whole arc
comprised between E. S. E. and N. E. by N. around by the East, mea-
suring seven compass points, or 781°; whilst on the other hand, it is
also exposed to winds sweeping an extent, for the most part, of deep
water, upon lines of twenty miles long in the Delaware Bay, and in-
cluding, in their field of action, the whole arc contained between the
N. E. by N. and W. S. W., around by the West, being thirteen points,
or 14t;i^; from the W. S. W. around by the South to £. S.E., an arc
of twelve points, or ISS"^ ; the roadstead is completely landlocked by
the shoals of Broadkill, and the main strand in front of the town of
Lewes, Sussex county, Delaware.

From the above statement it is evident that the roadstead under
Cape Henlopen is wholly exposed to the winds of the north-east quar-
ter, the severest that blow upon the American coast, and which fling
upon the strand within the Cape those tremendous billows which are
raised by the sweep of the north-east gales over a free range of
ocean; whoever has witnessed the fury of these storms upon our sea-
coast, will, from these remarks, appreciate the violence of the seas
which sweep that perilous road, wherein the writer has himself seen
fourteen sail of vessels stranded at the same time, and with the loss
of several valuable lives.

The average rise and fall of the tide in Cape Henlopen road is five
feet, the highest spring tides, in moderate weather, seven feet, whilst
the highest storm tides have been known to attain an altitude of ten
feet and more above the plane of low water. .

In the case of breakwaters, rising abruptly as they do from the
bottom of the sea, it seems probable that the augmentation of altitude
which waves receive in running upon an inclined coast, is not pro-
duced by them, or if at all, in but a slight degree.

The stones forming the summits of breakwaters, when assailed by
the waves of the sea, are solicited by two forces, one acting vertically
upward, with the force due to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of
water, equal in altitude to the maximum wave which assails the
work, and which force we can estimate ; the other is the horizontal
force due to the progressive motion of the billows, the extent of which
we have no means of determining.

We may make a practical application of these views as follows ;
the heaviest stone used in the construction of the Delaware Break-
water, consisting of trap rock, from the Palisades on the Hudson river,
weighed 1S4 lb. to the cubic foot ; whilst the lightest, being the Horn-
blende rock, from Quarryville, in the northern part of the State of
Delaware, weighed but 165 lb. to the cubic foot;t the average weight
of the materials being 175 lb. per cubic foot, or 2iV times heavier than
sea water.

• If it be ccmpleted upon the plan prujected by Com. Rodgers, Gen. Ber-
nard, and W. Strickland, Esq.. Ccmmissioners, and approved by President
J. y. Adams, on the 27th of February. 182y.

t The Hornblende rock referred to, as weighing 165 lb. to the cubic foot,
was the Greenstone from Jaque's quarry. A specimen of Gray Gneiss, from
one of Leiper and Crosby's quarries, was found at the same time to weigh
168 lb. to the cubic foot ; and some Black Gneiss from Hill's quarry, on
Cnim Creek, weighed 177 lb. per cubic foot. All the specimens of the above
rocks, of which the specific gravity was tried by the writer, were broken off
from masses of stone delivered at the Delaware Breakwater, in the construc-
tion of which all these varieties were then used. The specific gravities of
some specimens of similar rocks, from the same quarries, were subsequently
found, by a committee of the Franklin Institute, to be somewh»t greater
than is above stated.

Let us assume, according to Arnott, the maximum altitude of waves
to be twenty feet, then if we take the case of the Delaware Break-
water, where the storm tides rise ten feet, let a, in the annexed sketch,
Fig. 1, be the top level of the storm tide, b, the plane of low water, c,
the dry rubble foundation of tlie work thrown promiscuously from ves-
sels into the water, d, a mass of stone lying upon the rubble foundation,
with its base coincident with the plane of low water, and e, a wave of
20 ft. high, advancing from sea at high water in the direction of the
arrow, the crest rising 10 ft. above the high water plane, and the
trough falling 10 ft. below it ; then it is manifest that though whilst
the wave is upheaving near the margin of the work, it may not act
very powerfully upon substances in front of its base, yet the moment
it begins to subside, if it happens to be in the position indicated in
the sketch, with its fore foot inserted under the mass of stone, d, it
will exert upon that mass the upward hydrostatic pressure due to a
head of 20 ft., and in an instant after the horizontal force due to the
progressive motion of the wave ; and thus, as it were, by successivt
pulsations, the waves possess the power of advancing forward immense
masses of rock.

Now the upward hydrostatic pressure of a column of sea water
20 ft. high, would equal the gravity of a mass of stone weighing

20
175 lb. to the foot, if the vertical thickness of the latter were = — -

or near 7i ft.;* consequently, if the depth or thichieas of the mass of
stone were less than "tkft., it would be advanced a little to leeward by
each successive ware; but if it were of greater vertical thickness it wouli
stand fast, and resist the hydrostatic and progressive action of waves,
not surpassing 20ft. in height.

Breakwaters are, however, occasionally subject to augmented vio-
lence, from the assault of vpaves during storms, owing to the partial
removal of atmospheric pressure; a fact which has recently been
observed by James Walker, Esq., F.R.S. &c., President of the British
Institution' of Civil Engineers, and which was mentioned by him at
a recent meeting of that Institute, (as reported in the Civil Engineer
and Architects' Journal for September 1841,) in the following words: —
"At the Plymouth Breakwater, during the great storm in the month
of February 1838, several of the largest granite blocks, weighing
from three to eight tons each, composing the surface or pavement of

* Corroborative of this calculation, we find it stated in LyeU's Principles
of Geology, that " on the Isle of Stenness, in the winter of 1802, a tabular
mass of stone, 8^ feet by 7 feet, by 5^ feet in depth, was dislodged from its
bed (by the sea), and removed to a distance of from 80 to 90 feet."

This quotation shows clearly enough that a depth of more than 5i feet of
stone is necessary to withstand the action of waves.

A similar circumstance is stated in the public prints to have occurred in
a severe storm recently, upon the coast of Massachusetts, near the Boca
Island Lighthouse, where " a huge rock 23 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 6 feet
thick," which weighed probably 170 tons, was moved by the waves a con-
siderable distance up mi inclined surface ; evincing there that a vertical
depth of six feet of solid stone did not possess sufficient stability to resist the
force of the sea.

How much more accurately than the moderns, the ancients appreciated
the powerful action of waves against sea works, may be inferred by the fol-
lowing paragraph, quoted from Josephus, by Godwin, in the Trans. Instit.
Brit. Archts., 1835-6.

" In order to form a port between Dora and Joppa, Herod, in the fifteenth
year of his reign, ordered mighty stones to be cast into the sea at 20
fathoms water, to prepare a foundation ; the greater number of them 50 feet
in length, 9 feet deep, and 10 feet wide, and some were even larger than
these."

Stone of these prodigious dimensions would be very likely to mamtaia
their places in ordinary storms ; and their magnitude is in striking contrast
to the comparatively small materials used in modern breakwaters, which, as
a necessary consequence, require incessant repairs.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

191

the breakwater, which, although squared and dovetailed into the
structure, and embedded in excellent cement to the extent of their
•whole depth, and thus forming a solid mass, were torn from their
positions, and projected over the breakwater into the Sound.

" Mr. Walker attributed this to the hydrostatic pressure exerted
beneath the stones, at the moment when the atmospheric pressure
above had been disturbed by the masses of water suddenly and rapidly
thrown upon the surface of the breakwater; blocks of stone were
thus often carried to a great distance, not so much by the waves lifting
them as by the vacuum created above by the motion of the water,
■which exerted at the same time its full pressure from below."

And as additional evidence that the formation of a partial vacuum
is sometimes a consequence of the envelopment of sea works by high
•waves, Mr. Walker further stated, " that during a storm in the year
1S40, the sea door of the Eddystone Light-house was forced out-
wards, and its strong iron bolts and hinges broken by the atmospheric
pressure from within. In this instance ne conceivecl that the sweep
of the vast bodv of water in motion round the light-house had created
a partial and momentary, though effectual vacuum, and thus enabled
the atmospheric pressure within the building to act upon the only
yielding part of the structure."

As both the above remarkable instances came professionally under
the notice of Mr. M'alker, we are bound to place the utmost reliance
■upon the inferences derivaljle from his statements; and they indicate
conclusively that no lateral connexion by dovetails, or otherwise, will
compensate for a want of depth of sohd stone ; but that we must
rely for stability in the coping of sea works, chiefly upon the weight
of a large mass of materials, so connected as to gravitate as one body ;
■we must oppose pressure by weight, and counteract by gravity the
action of forces resulting from a disturbed equilibrium.

The pressure of the atmosphere is about the same per superficial
foot as would be produced by the gravity of Hi ft. depth of stone,
■weighing 175 lb. per cubic foot ; therefore, if breakwaters were
liable to be assailed by waves but 20 ft. high,* at the same time that
the atmospheric pressure mas wholly removed, their smnmits would
require coping with a depth of stone wrought into a solid mass,
equal to ll!i+7i, or 19 ft. measured vertically.

In the nature of things, however, we cannot suppose that the wlole
pressure of the atmosphere would ever be removed from any point
of the summit of a breakwater wliilst a wave of the maximum height
■was acting beneath ; and though this is very much a matter of con-
jecture, we may probably infer that under no circumstances would
more than two-thirds of the atmospheric pressure be removed from
any point ; this would be countervailed by a depth of eight feet of
stone, weighing 175 lb. to the cubic foot, and as we h-jve shown that
a depth of near seven and a half feet is necessary to withstand the
hydrostatic pressure of a twenty-feet wave, we may finally infer that
ihe summits of breakwaters should never consist of less than 15/1.
average depth of stone firmly bound iiito a solid mass, by clamps, dowels,
and cement, so as to gravitate as one body.f

* The maximum height attained by the waves of the most violent storms,
at the sites of breakwaters, is such an important element in forming the plan
of the work, that it ought always to be ascertained experimentally, (which
would not be difficult,) by attaching a machine upon the principle of a self-
registering tide gauge, to a pile well driven at the site, and properly braced
against the sea.

t This principle of constructing sea works was adopted in Rudyerd's Ught-
house, built upon the Eddystone, in 1709, and which, after successfully with-
standing the storms of half a century, was destroyed by fire iu 1759; re-
garding it, Sraeaton states that Rudyerd " judiciously laid hold of the great
principle of engineering," that " weight is the most naturally and effectually
resisted by weight," and accordingly formed bis light-house, near its foun-
dation, solid, and mainly of stone, for such a height as he conceived would
enable the gravity of the mass to resist the upward hydrostatic pressure of
the waves, in case the water insinuated itself beneath the building.

This idea was not lost upon the able and sagacious Smeaton, who, in
erecting the famous stone hght-house which succeeded Rudyerd's, built the
first 30 ft. high from the foundation, solid, and so proportioned the walls and
lantern above the fundamental solid that if their mass were reduced to a
cylindrical shape it would add another sohd column of about 20 ft. in
height ; so that in opposing the action of the sea, the Eddystone Light-house
is equivalent to a solid column of stone 50 ft. in altitude.

Now from the above reasoning, 50 x 2 •^, or 135 ft., is the altitude of the
wave, whose upward hydrostatic action this building is, by its gravity alone,
competent to resist ; and as the atmospheric pressure is never removed from
its summit, whilst the utmost altitude of the jet of water which is sometimes
thrown over the lantern is short of 100 ft., its superabundant stability must
be manifest.

The courses of this celebrated construction being dovetailed and joggled
together, so as to prevent movement laterally ; as long as its materials are
proof against decay, the immutable laws of gravitation will retain it in

The fact that continual repairs are rendered necessary, by the blow-
ing up and sweeping away of portions of the pavements of existing
breakwaters, during violent storms, strongly sustains the views taken
in this paper, and shows but too clearly, that the mass of stone usually
combined upon their summits, is deficient in the requisite stability.

The form in which the stoue ought to be laid and connected to-
gether should (the writer believes,) be that of a semi-cylinder, the
axis lengthwise of the work, and the base laid upon such an inclina-
tion seaward as may counteract sliding, and prevent the possibility
of its overturning upon the harbour angle, for we know that on a
level plane, one half the amount of force will overturn a body which
is necessary to lift it.

In the case, then, of a breakwater similarly situated to that of the
Delaware, stone weighing 175 lb. to the cubic foot, and exposed to
the assault of waves not exceeding 20 ft. high, it would seem that the
section shown in the following Figure 2 would be a proper one.

Fig. 2.

a, the high water line of spring tides, above which storm tides rise
three feet or more ; b, the plane of low water ; c, semi-cylindrical mass
of stone at least 32 ft. in diameter, thoroughly cemented and bonded
together; d, fore shore securing the angle of the sea slope, to be
mainlv formed of cubical blocks of rough stone, weighing at least
ten tons each ; e, the general foundation raised to the low water plane
by rubble stone thrown promiscuously into the water from the decks
of vessels;*/', cemented foundation prepared for the semi-cylinder,
and having a top slope seaward of about six feet base to one foot rise.

The advantage of a semi-cylindrical solid (which must average
15 ft. deep vertically,) is that if in the construction it is properly
bonded on the diameter, with thorough courses of dressed stone,
whilst the blocks which form the curved surface are cut like arch
stone, no one sfone could be by any means extracted from its place if
properly doweled laterally, and the whole woidd resist motion by its
gravity as one solid mass ; the interior backing or hearting of the
semi-cylinder would be composed of rubble stone well set in cement
mortar, and grouted full in low courses, divided into sections for the
purpose.

It is a general idea that the forces acting against a breakwater are
augmented by a great rise and fall of the tide, but from the above
reasoning it would appear that such a rise and fall as will allow a
wave of the maximum height of 20 ft. to exert its greatest energy ;
or a difference of 10 ft. between the top water of storm tides and the
low water plane, (as exists at the Delaware breakwater,! loill enable
such loaves to act with as much power upon sea works as any other
variation of tidal surface, and hence a greater rise and fall than 10 ft.
will not increase, whilst a less one would certainly diminish, the effects
of the assailing waves.

The section of the Delaware breakwater, as planned by the Com-
missioners appointed by the President of the United States, in 1S29,
under the act of Congress cf May 24th, 1824, was trapezoidal in its
general outline, the sea slope having a base of lOSif ft. to a height
of 39 ft., and being profiled after the curvilinear figure to which the
waves of storms had reduced that of the breakwater at Cherbourg;
the top was fixed at 22 ft.,t and the internal or harbour slope at one
to one, or 39 ft. base, the entire base being 166^ ft. to a hei|ht of
39 ft. ; the base of the section which we have proposed as sufficient
for a similar work, is IGO ft., and the transverse area would be nearly
the same as that of the breakwater in the Bay of Delaware.

Philadelphia, Nov. 1st, 1841.

position, and enable it to defy, as it has for 82 years defied, the utmost force
of the Atlantic storms; unless, indeed, it should beassaultei.by waves more
than 135 ft. high, which is not within the range of probabdity.

* Experience at the Delaware breakwater proved Ibil by tbi.s process alone
a ri)ugh slune work could be brought up with precision to a plane of two.feet
under the high water of neap tides.

f With the design of increasing it to 30 ft., if subsequently found necessary.

1P2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

MR. CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS AND HIS BOILER
PROJECTS.

In extirpating the heresies of hollow and obtrusive pretension, in
our review of this gentleman's projects in the February number, we
are generally conceived to have rendered an important service to the
cause of practical science. It required little penetration to foresee
that the performance of this service would subject us to much abuse
and misrepresentation. An advertising patentee can hardly be ex-
pected to be thankful for any exposition of the fallacy of his projects;
nor can the demonstration of the inefficacy of these schemes be sup-
posed to be peculiarly acceptable to those compliant analysts who have
ventured to speak most highly in their favour. We were willing,
however, to encounter the opposition and obloquy of this party,
from our sense of the necessity of resisting the growing practice of
disguising empiricism in the garb of science. With this conviction we
shall proceed to make a few observations upon the several rejoinders
we have received to our former remarks ; — not that we feel any sort of
anxiety as to their effect upon our own reputation, or the conehisive-
ness of our former arguments, but that the articulate defence of the
projects we condemned affords the fairest opportunity of exposing
still more clearly their inefficacy and extravagance.

There is one point to which, at the outset, we think it right to
advert, as it materially influences the complexion of the case. It is
this: not only are the various arguments adduced in support of these
projects intrinsically without any weight or moment, but they are
actually inconsistent with one another. Thus Mr. Williams calls upon
us to believe in the excellency of his boiler spikes, because their effi-
cacy is "neither more nor less than the practical application of the
■well-known theory of conduction," whilst his more acute disciple
A. S. calls upon us to put faith in the virtue of the spikes, upon the
strength of something which he says is "sufficient to destroy all con-
fidence in reasonings founded upon the ordinary hypothesis." So
that, while one of these preceptors requires us to believe in the spikes
because the received theory is certainly right, the other requires us to
believe in them because the received theory is probably fallacious.

In our former article, when speaking of the spikes, we observed
that they would speedily attain the temperature of that part of the
flue where they were introduced. Mr. Williams has entered into a
long and ponderous dissertation, for the purpose of showing that this
is not strictly correct ; a thing manifest enough if we be understood
to have said that the small portion of the spike in the planes of the
iron of the flue, or the portion thereto adjoining, is as hot as any part
of the body of the spike upon which the hot air impinges : but this
■we neither meant nor said. Our statement may want precision, for it
was not meant to be precise, but in the gross, and as applied to spikes
of considerable length, it is substantially true ; and this gentleman's
objection to it is about as v.eighty as an objection to the statement of
the distance between two continents in miles, instead of in feet, inches,
and decimals of an inch.

The modus operandi of the spikes is thus explained by A. S. : —
" We naturally expect that the lower extremities of the pms will
attain a higher temperature than the exterior surface of the boiler,
and we may conceive that that section of the pins which lies in the
plane of the outer surface of the boiler may differ more or less in
temperature from that of the outer surface itself; but the rapidity of
the transmission of heat may proceed according to very different hws,
and the greater difference of temperature between the extremities of
the pins, combined with the greater facility afforded by increase of
surface for the reception and giving out of heat, may occasion such an
increased intensity of transniissive action as to cause a greatly in-
creased flow of heat into the boiler." Mr. Williams, on the contrary,
says "So far from these spikes attaining such high temperature,
practice proves that so long as water is the recipient of the heat they
convey, their temperature is in fart so low as to be touched without
inconvenience, the heat passing through them as fast as it is received."
Thus, whilst A. S. endeavours to persuade us that the spikes may be
conceived to operate beneficially, by virtue of an increased transmis-
sive action arising from the high temperature of their lower extremi-
ties, Mr. Williams assures us that the temperature of the spikes is not
at all high — that they may be even touched without inconvenience —
and that the heat passes through them as fast as it is received, so that
no part of the spikes can ever be either hotter or colder than the
vfater in the boiler. Yet these are the gentlemen to whom we are
asked to pin our faith. With much of tlie dogmatism of infallibility,
they are consistent in nothing but in being inconsistent.

In our former remarks we quoted a portion of a paper which
appeared in the Mechanics' Magazine, and which purported to be a

report of a lecture delivered by Mr. Williams, in which, speaking of
he spikes, he said " The half-inch circular portion of the flue plates
which such pin has displaced is thus made to possess the faculty of
transmitting as much heat as is received and absorbed by nine half
inches superficial;" by which we understood, we said, that the pin had
the effect of transmitting to the water nine times as much heat as the
half-inch disc it displaced. "This," Mr. Williams now tells us, " is a
mere gratuitous understanding of a very plain position. I did not
give any measure or quantity of heat so transmitted; I merely said at
much heat as is received and absorbed." Did not give any measure
or quantity I What, then, is intended by a reference to inches
superficial but a reference to measure or quantity ? But we will not
higgle about trifles: we are willing to accept any amended meaning
that Mr. Williams thinks fit to give us; and he now wishes, it woultt
appear, to be understood as having only said that as much heat is
transmitted as is received and absorbed. Be it so. The improved
proposition, if it mean anything, only means that as much heat is
transmitted as is transmitted; — a truism we should have been sorry to
lay at Mr. Williams' door, except for his own requisition to that effect.

We stated, too, in our former remarks, that if spikes were capable,
by virtue of their superior quantity of surface, of augmenting the
evaporative rate of a boiler, a small flue surface spiked would be
equal in evaporative elfioacy to a larger flue surface unspiked ; and a
certain ratio would subsist between the power of the spikes in accom-
plishing evaporation, and that of the ordinary flue surface. We did
not care, we said, whether this ratio were 9 to 1, as stated by Mr.
Williams, or 1000 to 999 ; but that, if the spikes were of any use at
all, in consequence of their extended surface, a certain number of
spikes would be equivalent in evaporative efficacy to a certain area of
flue surface, or a certain ratio would subsist between the efficacy of
flue surface and spike surface. If this were so, we observed, by
making the quantity of spike surface greater and greater, the quantity
of flue surface might be made less and less, the evaporative rate of
the boiler remaining the same ; so that by increasing the quantity of
spike surface sufliciently, the flue surface might be eliminated alto-
gether, and we might actually have a boiler generating steam without
any flue surface at all. We also observed, that if a spike three inches
long were capable of transmitting more heat to the water than a spike
of one-eighth of an inch long maintained at the same temperature, the
received theory of conduction could not be right, because in that case
rapidity of conduction could not vary as the temperatures simply, but
as the temperatures and masses conjointly ; so that it would be not the
degree of temperature which would determine the rate of conduction,
but the quantity of heat. According to this doctrine it was plain, we
observed, that a very large body, though cold, would communicate as
much heat as a very small body, tliough hot, provided the absolute
quantities of heat resident in them were the same ; so that a sufficient
extent of spikes, though cold, might boil water and generate steam,
without the aid of a fire.

To all this what does Mr. Williams answer? That the auditory of
some Polytechnic Society could not see the absurdity imputed to his
projects; that he does not measure the quantity of heat transmitted
by the mere surface of the spikes; that spikes, though they are bene-
ficially available up to a certain length, yet that length is not infinite,
but the length of three inches is practically the best ; that the num-
ber, too, of the spikes must not be increased beyond a certain limit,
else the hot air will not obtain access to their surfaces; and that how
the extravagancies imputed to his projects are deducible from the
well-known theory of conduction it does not become him to say. Now
did ever any one hear such a reply to such an argument? We show
this gentleman that his doctrines lead to absurd conclusions, and he
answers us by saying that how such absurdity is chargeable upon the
received theory of conduction is incomprehensible to him. It is not
with the received theory we find fault, but with his theory ; nor do we
find fault with its absurdity alone, but also with the arrogance with
which it is advanced, and the equivocal character of the expedients
by which it has been attempted to uphold it. The received theory
of conduction is reasonable enough; the reductio ad absiirdum has no
power over it: but this gentleman's theory, turn it as you will, is irre-
ducible to anything except superlative nonsense, and yet it is ushered
forth with as much parade and ostentation as if it were the greatest
discovery that had been made for ages. But the Polytechnic Society
cannot see its absurdity. What have we to do with that ? Is it because
others happen to be blind that we are, therefore, to put our eyes out!
We know that there are persons in the world who have no very clear
conception of where it is the sublime terminates and the ridiculous
begins ; and it would be an anomaly in the history of delusion, if a
consummately preposterous project were not to have some admirers.
But as such persons are usually too incandescently wrong-headed to
attend to the dictates of sober reason, their conversion is as hopeless

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as their authority is invalid ; and it would be in every sense super-
fluous to address ourselves to them. With such we have no concern :
Dor is the Polytechnic Society anything more to us than Hecuba was
to the Prince of Denmark.

But farther ; the mere surface area of the spike is not the measure
of transmissive power. What then is the measure ? or is there a
measure at all ? If amid all the riot and pretension we have witnessed,
it should turn out that there is no measure of the beneficial effect of
the spikes at all, is it possible to resist the conviction that the whole
affair is a pitiful juggle, the effect of which is to delude the ignorant
and unwary ? And if there be a measure, why are we not told what
it is? Again, it is said the transmissive power of the spikes increases
with the length, but does not proceed beyond a certain limit, and
three inches is the best length. But all this is unsupported assertion
merely : the question is, mhy, as far as theory is concerned, there should
be a limit to the beneficial length of the spikes. The spikes, we are
told, operate in promoting evaporation by virtue of their surface —
their heat-receiving and absorbing surface, as it is called. A spike
three inches long is alleged to be better than a spike two inches long,
because it has more surface ; should not, then, a sis-inch spike be
better than a three-inch spike, for the same reasoa? It is no answer
to tell us that such is not the case. The question is, whij is it not the
case ? Why, if spike surface be beneficial at all, should twenty square
inches not be better than ten ?

Turn we now to what our correspondent A. S. advances in favour
of the spike system. He begins by admitting the truth of the obser-
vation we made in our former article upon these projects, namely,
that the spike theory is incompatible with the received theory of
conduction, and that, therefore, one of the two must be wrong ; but he
adds that it is the received theory and all the world that is wrong, and
the spike theory and Mr. Williams that are right. His line of argument
is as follows : —

The experiments of M. Delarive, says he, show that the conduct-
ing power of some fibrous substances varies exceedingly, according
as conduction takes place in a direction transverse or parallel to their
fibres. Wrought iron, being a fibrous substance, may fall under the
same law, so that heat may be able to penetrate much better in the
direction of the fibres, as in the longitudinal direction of a rod, than
across the laminae or fibres, as through the thickness of a boiler plate.
He further says that it has been found that increasing the dimensions
of a conducting substance in the direction of the conduction produces
only a slight retardation in the passage of the heat; a fact, he says,
sufficient to destroy all confidence in reasonings founded upon the
ordinary hypothesis : that, therefore, the power of transmitting heat
may depend on something more tlian mere difference of temperature;
and the spikes may, consequently, be beneficial.

All this, though extremely hypothetical, is very specious; yet it
admits, we conceive, of a very satisfactory and obvious reply, if, as
A. S. assumes, heat penetrates with unusual facility in the direction of
the fibres of wrought iron, it might certainly be conceived to be de-
sirable to insert in the plate iron of the flue discs sliced from the end
of an iron bar, or for forming the flue of iron, the fibres of which lay
in the direction in which the heat was required to penetrate. But to
justify the use of the spikes, it is necessary to suppose not merely that
heat is transmitted more rapidly in the direction of the fibres than trans-
versely to them, but that heat is transmitted more rapidly through a
spike three inches long in the direction of the fibres, than through a
spike half an inch long in the direction of the fibres. If the doctrine
advocated by A. S. be correct, we may conceive that if all the spikes
of a boiler were cut off at the level of the surface of the plate, the
discs of iron left in the plate might render the flue surface more per-
vious to the heat, on account of the greater conducting power of the
iron in the direction of the fibres. But this increased permeability
would be impaired or extinguished, if the heat had to travel through
a distance of several inches of spike before it reached the plane of
the flue surface ; unless, as we have already stated, it be held that the
heat travels quicker through a very thick than through a very thin
piece of iron in the direction of the fibres, an idea too preposterous
to be entertained for a moment. Instead, therefore, of the ar-
gument of A. S. proving the advantage of the spikes, it rather
proves that if they be already inserted in any boiler they should be all
cut off.

But further ; A. S. asserts that no regard is to be bad to the received
theory of conduction, because an increment in the dimensions of a
body in the direction of the conduction only slightly retards the pro-
pagation of heat; in other words, because the increment of dimension
and the retardation of conduction do not vary in the same ratio. But
what of that? The common doctrine of conduction does not specify
any particular ratio in which this variation shall necessarily take place.
It only says that heat is transmitted through a thin piece of iron more

rapidly than through a thick piece of iron, and that more heat is com-
municated by a square inch surface of hot iron than by a square inch
surface of cold iron. In this sense it is rather to be accepted as a
self-evident truth than as a questionable hypothesis; and the en-
deavour to overturn this doctrine is plainly quite as hopeless as the
attempt would be to disprove the most obvious truth in the whole
range of our experience. Besides, if conduction do not vary as the
temperatures simply, it must vary as the temperatures and masses
conjointly. The quantity of heat, or what is equivalent, the quantity
of matter, in a body will then become an element of the rapidity with
which heat is communicated ; and the admission of this element
immediately throws us upon the " imperial absurdities" to which we
have already adverted.

But perhaps the most extraordinary proof of the hollowness of
A. S's doctrine is the fact that he is himself, it would appear, unable
to listen to the consolation it affords. No sooner is the new doctrine
propounded than it is thrown overboard, as a thing of no worth or
moment, and our credibility is solicited in favour of another doctrine,
which, we are assured, is so much in accordance with the laws of
nature, that it ought rather to be adduced as an explanation thaa
adopted as a hypothesis. This doctrine is only a reproduction of that
analysed in our former remarks, as proceeding on the assumption that
there is a stratum of cool air in the flues resting upon a stratum of hot
air — a supposition which we showed was just as much in accordance
with the laws of nature as that a stratum of water should swim on
a stratum of oil. The hot air, impelled upwards by its buoyancy,
will always rise to the upper part of the flue, and as soon as it is no
longer hot from the transfer of its heat to the water of the boiler, it
will descend by the sides of the flue to the level proper to its tem-
perature, without any considerable intermingling of the particles of
the ascending and descending currents, as supposed by A. S., and
therefore ^vitliout any considerable tendency from that cause towards
an equalization of their respective temperatures. Nor can the rapidity
of the current of the hot air through the flues interfere with the eco-
nomy of these molecular movements ; the current through the flues
being merely a relative motion of the hot air and the boiler, and not
of the particles of the hot air with respect to one another.

This explanation, then, of the rationality of the spike system en-
tirely fails; but even if it did not fail it would be nothing to the
purpose, for this doctrine of the mode of action of the spikes, whether
good or bad, is not the doctrine of Mr. Williams. It is not the thing
to which he has called upon us to yield our assent, and is, therefore, not
the thing into which it has been our present purpose to inquire. We
come back, tlien, to the very point from which we started. We have
no alternative but to admit that the received theory of conduction as
we have explained it is right, and it is equally inevitable that we
believe the spike theory to be wrong, and this gentleman's whole
project an ineffable absurdity.

We have hitherto confined our remarks to theoretical considerations
only : were we to extend them to the practical bearings of tl'.e subject,
the scheme would appear more preposterous still. And first it might be
remarked, that all the spike theory profes^'en to accomplish is to diminish,
iu some measure, the quantity of flue surface requisite to produce a cer-
tain evaporative effect. It does not profess to save fuel — to aid combus-
tion— to increase the efficacy of the steam, or to diminish the expense
of maintenance. Supposing even, therefore, the spike theory to be
correct — supposing that a square foot of flue surface spiked were
superior in evaporative efficacy to a square foot of flue surface un-
spiked, we do not believe that any practical man, whose opinion is
entitled to respect, would recommend the adoption of the spiked
surface. And the reason is obvious : the same benefit the spikes
profess to confer is attainable by simpler and more trustworthy iijetbods.
Who is there among practical men prepared to maintain that a mo-
derate extension of the flue surface, or the employment of an appliance
to enable the feed water to extract the superfluous heat from the hot
air proceeding to the chimney — expedients whose simplicity is obvious,
and whose elKcacy has been established by the experience of a cen-
tury— is not more safe, and in every respect greatly preferable to this
expensive, inconvenient, and untested innovation ? A flue surface
studded with spikes would not only be more difficult to make tight in
the first instance, but would be almost impossible to keep tight in
those situations where the heat was great. It is well knonu to practical
men, that in the furnaces of marine and locomotive boilers even rows
of rivets are objectionable, and are as much as possible avoided ; and
the head or nut of a bolt in the same situation is found to be very
quickly worn away bv the rapid oxidation its high temperature
induces. If such be the fate of a piece of iron projecting only an
inch from the surface of the plate composing the flue or furnace, what
might be expected to become of a piece of iron in the same situation
which projected three inches above the plate surface ? How long

2 E

194

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

nigbt a spike be expected to last, where even a bolt head is quickly
buroed away ? We might proceed to show, that the spiking of flues
■jvould not merely render repairs more frequent, but also more difficult
that it would be inconvenient to clean, and in some measure danger-
ous to meddle with flues studded with these Caledonian stiletlos, fresh
from the armoury of Dircks and Co. — the unfortunate sweep or boiler-
mender being reduced to much the same condition as Regulus in his
barrel of nails, or as a heretic on the eve of being impaled upon the
pious spike surfaces of the martyrology. We might also show that
the salt which collects in the flues of marine boilers wherever there is
a leak could only be detached from the spikes with great difficulty,
some of the spikes, too, being probably broken in the attempt. But
we feel that it would be a useless multiplication of words to enter
upon such topics ; we have drawn the veil sufficiently aside to show
the fallacy and folly of this project, and we leave those parts of it
which it would be superfluous to expose, to the judgment or com-
passion of our readers.

We had almost forgot to mention that the application of spikes to
boilers is not a new idea. Spike boilers were in use many years ago
in the United States — that hot-bed of preposterous subjects — and we
are told that a spike boiler is described and figured in Gordon's book
on locomotion. Such boilers of course did not answer. Mr. Beale of
Greenwich attempted to rationalize the scheme ten years ago, by
making the spikes hollow and filling them with water. But even with
this modification, the project was found unproductive of benefit, and
Lighly objectionable in many respects. After much labour and capital
had been uselessly expended, it was in consequence abandoned.

Let us now proceed to render indelible our former remarks upon
the illusory nature of the smoke-preventive project. The pretensions
of this scheme to a superiority over all pre-existing schemes rest
chiefly upon the allegation, that it is not smoke which is attempted to
be consumed, but gas. We admitted, it will be remembered, the
superiority of the smoke-preventive principle over that which has for
its object the combustion of smoke, and we expressed our readiness
to give this gentleman whatever credit might appear due to him,
either for having been the first to propound that principle, or the first
to practically apply it. But we denied that the principle of smoke-
prevention was even attempted to be carried out in this gentleman's
furnace — that his furnace could not therefore possess any superiority
upon that score ; and we showed that smoke-prevention had, pre-
viously to Mr. Williams' expositions, been advocated in an essay
attributed to Mr. Bourne. These statements, if substantiated, will
certainly reduce Mr. Williams' merits to a superficies differing from
nonentity by a quantity incalculably small. Let us examine what is
urged in opposition to them.

The difterence between smoke and gas, it will be recollected, we
stated was, that the one was the product of imperfect combustion,
and the other was not the product of combustion at all, but of distil-
lation merely ; and we said that for this gentleman's furnace to be a
smoke-preventive furnace it was indispensable that no combustion
should be carried on in it — a condition we showed to be incompatible
with any conceivable mode of working a furnace so constructed. We
argued then that combustion must be carried on in this gentleman's
furnace, if it were in action at all ; and that it would be a mere delu-
sion to pretend that because there were doors to the ash pit the fire
could therefore be kept alive without a supply of air. To this Mr.
Williams replies, that he is guilty of no such absurdity as that of
excluding the air from the ash pit altogether; and that the doors he
places upon his ash pit are merely for the purpose of regulating its
admission. In other words, it would appear that the use of these
mysterious doors is merely to regulate the draught — a purpose which
a single damper in the chimney would accomplish. It would further
appear to be admitted that air is allowed to enter the furnace, and
that combustion is carried on therein; so that it is smoke, not gas,
■which this gentleman attempts to consume, and his furnace is, there-
fore, virtually admitted to be a mere smoke-burning furnace, as we
proved it to be in our former analysis.

In our previous observations we remarked that one of the most
serious objections to all smoke-burning plans was the necessity of
admitting an excess of air into some part of the flue or furnace,' the
refrigeratory eftect of which materially detracted from the calorific
efficacy of the combustible parts of the" smoke. Mr. Williams informs
us, that in his plan an excess of air is unnecessary, fccoi.se the air is
thoroughly diffused; and he is kind enough to hint at the "chemical
error" we are supposed to have committed in supposing an excess of
air to be indispensable, inasmuch as an excess of air, he says, is rather
a serious impediment than a necessary aid to combustion! We feel
that an apology is due to our readers for entering upon the demon-
stration of truths with which every schoolboy is familiar; but we have
no alternative between leaving this gentleman unconverted and de-

scending to expositions which every one of common capacity will
esteem as trite, obvious, and insignificant.

The necessity for the admission of an excess of air, tlien, to accom-
])lish the combustion of the imflammable matters existent in smoke,
does not arise from an unequal diff'usion of the air among the smoke,
but from the co-existence of a large quantity of uninflammable gas,
the product of combustion, which is commingled with the matters
sought to be burned. To descend to the phraseology of Mr. Williams,
the uninflammable gas operates unfavourably upon the combustion of
the inflammable gas meckanicallij by the interposition of its atoms,
and chmically by the absorption of heat. The latter of these evils
might be obviated by raising the uninflammable gas to a high tempera-
ture, but the former is insuperable so long as the quantity of oxygen
is unvaried, and is greater in amount in proportion as the quantity of
uninflammable gas is large. To take an extreme case ; suppose that
in every cubic inch of smoke there were only an atom of combustible
matter present — the rest being all incombustible gas arising from
combustion — and suppose that to every cubic inch of smoke two atoms
of oxygen were admitted ; what chance would there be that these two
atoms of oxygen would come into sufficient proximity to the combus-
tible atom to fulfil the conditions indispensable to combination '. It is
idle to talk of diffusion as a remedy for this evil ; the difficulty is not
that the gases are insufficiently mixed — for we have supposed the
mixture to be homogeneous — but that the atoms are too far apart, and
that an incombustible substance is interposed, which separates the
atoms to be combined as effectually as if there were a wall or partition
between them. This difficulty is only to be mitigated either by in-
creasing the proportion of the combining substances, so as to render
the quantity of the incombustible gas relatively less, or by so increasing
the quantity of the supporter of combustion as to afford some reason-
able prospect that the combustible atoms, when equably diftused, will be
sufficiently near some of the atoms of the supporter to be within the
range of combining attraction. The latter expedient is the only one ■
available in practice, and this expedient is in effect neither more nor
less than the admission of an excess of air into the flue or furnace, the
word "excess" meaning a greater quantity than is proper to atomic
saturation. In all smoke-burning furnaces, then, it is necessary to
admit an excess of air into some part of the flue or furnace, to accom-
plish the combustion of the inflammable parts of the smoke; and this
excess of air, by its cooling agency, diminishes the available quantity
of heat the combustible parts of the smoke would otherwise surrender.
Any diffusion appliance, whatever be its merit, leaves this difficulty
untouched ; and this, the chief obstacle to the success of all smoke-
burning projects, attaches as much to this gentleman's furnace as to
any other.

But further ; Mr. Williams observes " I am told the sole peculiarity
of my plan is that the air enters by a greater number of holes than
usual. Will the reviewer inform your readers whether this peculiarity
be not the very one which characterizes the Argand burner? Again,
whether of two smoke-burning projects the least objectionable is that
which admits the air at one hole or at many holes, it would be irrele-
vant to inquire. Now, Sir, that is the real point worth inquiring
into, and this blinking tlie main question at issue will not go down with
your scientific readers." If our scientific readers do not do more than
blink at this exposition, the fault certainly does not lie with Mr.
Williams. We thought the question had been whether this gentle-
man's furnace were a smoke-burning or a smoke-preventing furnace;
but it would appear that the claim to the title of a smoke-preventing
furnace is relinquished, and the real point now to be determined is
whether this smoke-burning furnace is better or worse than other
smoke-burning furnaces. This is at least intelligible ; yet in the face
of this announcement, and in the very same paragraph, we are told
that this furnace is no more asmoke-burning furnace than the Argand
burner is a smoke-burning lamp. The Argand lamp and the Argand
furnace, we are told, very closely resemble one other — and in what
respect? there are small holes in both.

In our former remarks, we stated that it was smoke, not gas, that
was generated in this gentleman's furnace ; and that whether the air
were admitted by one hole or by a thousand holes, the nature of the
tiling to which it was admitted could not be altered thereby. But
because an Argand burner consists of a tube perforated with small
holes, and is a smoke-preventing arrangement, this gentleman's diffu-
sion apparatus, being also composed of tubes perforated with small
holes, is said to be a smoke-preventive arrangement likewise. The
substance to which air is supplied through one hole, though smoke, is
no sooner supplied with air through many holes than it immediately is
turned into gas ; so that we have only to apply this very reasonable
doctrine to prove that the infusion which, when made in an ordinary
vessel, we are wont to distinguish by the term coffee, will inevitably
be transformed into chocolate, or something still more wonderful, if

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

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made in a coffee-pot distinguished by smsU boles of the patent diffu-
sion description.

We are perfectly aware, in common with every one who has not
been educated inCaffraria or Timbuctoo, that gas may be burned with
smoke or without smoke; and we are willing to admit — if the ad-
mission will gratify this gentleman — that the Argand burners of
Regent-street are much better calculated to promote perfect com-
bustion than the barbarous expedients of the butchers' stalls. But
the question is not which of these appliances is calculated to accom-
plish combustion most completely, but whether the aeriform matter
proceeding from the orifices of the Argand burner and from the pipe
of the butcher's stall is the same or different : whether if the gas, as
it emerges from the orifices of the respective tubes, were to be
separately collected and analysed, it would be in the one case found
to be genuine and veritable gas, and in the other smoke merely. That
such would be found to be the case we do not believe. We do not
believe Ibat the circumstance of aeriform matter, or any other matter,
being made to flow through a large hole, or tlirough a small hole, can
change its specific and proper character — that the size of the orifice
through which it escapes determines whether a substance is smoke or
gas, or whether a furnace is a smoke-burning or a smoke-preventing
one. To talk about Argand burners, as if any species of burner could
convert a gasometer of smoke into a gasometer .of gas, is idle and
ridiculous; and to compare a furnace with an Argand burner because
it is furnished with small holes, is just about as rational as to compare
it with a patent coffee-pot, or a kitchen strainer — inventions which
participate in the same distinctions.

But an excess of air, it is said, is unfavourable to combustion. We
know it well. Too much air, if admitted into the flue or furnace of a
boiler, will augment the generation of smoke as effectually as too
little ; but this is caused not by an excess of oxygen, but by a defect of
temperature, and has no more relation to the question before us than the
allegation that though a candle to burn properly must be surrounded by
air,yet ablast of air will extinguish it. In practice so much cold air may
be admitted into a furnace that its temperature will fall beneath the
point necessary for the inflammation of the combustible gases evolved,
and their combustion may thus be prevented, not by an excess of
oxygen, but by a destitution of heat. But the quantity of cold air to
which this effect is due is m\ich greater in amount than the excess
requisite for the combustion of the smoke; and the inflammation of
the gases may be maintained either by diminishing the quantity of air
admitted, or by elevating its temperature. The antiphlogistic pro-
perty of the influent air, then, is not one of its specific and necessary
characteristics, but one accidental to its temperature merely, and does
not in the least invalidate the necessity of admitting air to smoke in
excess, to achieve the combustion of its inflammable portion.

To correct the impracticability of apportioning the admission of
air in an ordinary smoke-burning furnace to the perpetual fluctuations
in the quantity of smoke evolved, Mr. Williams says "I separate the
air into two supplies, thus rendering them more manageable, and what
is more important, less liable to interfere with and mar each other's
obiects ; a system,too, which has also this practical value — the causing
them to be to a great extent mutual correctors of each other's defects."
This intimation has certainly the merit of being hieroglyphical and
cabalistic enough to defy criticism, and precludes any very specific
rejoinder. We must, therefore, be content to' remark, that as it is an
intimate admixture between the atmospheric air and the gaseous
matter, whatever be its nature, which proceeds from the fire, that this
gentleman professes to accomplish, his arrangements, supposing them
to perfectly attain that object, and that smoke-burning is assumed to
be desirable, will be valuable or not, just in proportion as the same
end is attainable or unattainable, by other or simpler means. Now,
the admission of a snfliciont quantity of air to the smoke, or the
thorough diffusion of that air, has never been fovmd to be a point of
difficulty. Indeed there is no furnace whatever, in which, by a proper
regulation of the draught and of the depth of coal upon the grate, any
quantity of oxygen may not be enabled to ascend to the smoke through
the fire; In scarcely any furnace does all the oxygen which enters the
ash pit enter into combination with the fuel ; a part almost always
escapes in its uncombined state through the burning embers, and by
the mere regulation of the draught and of the thickness of the incan-
descent stratum, this quantity of oxygen may be made as great or as
small as may be desired. As this oxygen ascends not in one part of
the grate, but through every part of it, it must be necessarily equably
diffused among the incombustible gases and inflammable substances
present, and must, moreover, be of as high a temperature as the fire
in its passage is able to impart. If this adequate supply of oxygen
equably diftused among the smoke be attainable in any ordinary fur-
nace— and that it is must be perfectly self-evident — wherein lies the
necessity or benefit of this gentleman's difl'usion apparatus? Not only

can the requisite quantity of oxygen be let in to the smoke througb
the fire, and be equally well diffused without any apparatus at all, but
the oxygen so let in will, moreover, be of a high temperature — a
condition highly favonrable to combustion. As to the air being
admitted in two supplies or in a hundred supplies, that point is one of
perfect unimportance. The only point of moment is whether the
requisite supply of oxygen is present, and that oxygen is equably
ditt'used ; and if this condition be fulfilled, it matters liot one iota how
the oxygen got there, or by what means its diffusion has been accom-
plished— whether by the instrumentality of diffusion orifices, or whether
it has made its way through the interstices of incandescent fuel upon
the bars of the grate.

We spoke so fully in our former remarks of the inherent and
necessary defects of smoke-burning arrangements generallv, that it
would be superfluous now to say anything more upon the subject.
This gentleman's invitation to investigate the merits of different
smoke-burning schemes, if accepted, would lead us into an invidious
and unprofitable discussion. Of two plans positively injurious, there
is little advantage to be conferred by showing that one is rather worse
than the other. It is sufficient to show that both are worse than the
methods most known and practised, and are, therefore, nndeservmg of
further attention. Furnaces of the ordinaiy description will produce
very little smoke, if the coals be spread thinly upon the bars, and the
draught be pretty good ; for in that case a sufficiency of oxygen will
find its way through the fire to accomplish the combustion of the in-
flammable parts of the smoke. It is usual and beneficial to have a.
dead plate at the mouth of the furnace, and a few holes in the furnace
doors, the purposes of which are obvious.

But it is time that we should turn to A. S., to ascertain what he is
able to advance in favour of Mr. Williams' smoke-preventing preten-
sions. His whole argument rests upon the imputed fallacy of the
definition of smoke given in oun former article, and it is, therefore,
sufficient for us to show, in reply, that the definition we there gave is
the natural, universal, and correct one. We defined smoke to be "the
product of imperfect combustion" — a definition A. S. altogether
repudiates. "Smoke," says our correspondent, "is here defined to
be the product of imperfect combustion ; but what are we to under-
stand by the term imperfect combustion ? there is no such thing ia
nature. Who ever heard of imperfectly-formed carbonic acid or
of steam without a saturating equivalent of oxygen ?"

In saying that combustion, which is an act of chemical conibinatioD^
is imperfect, we can only be supposed to mean that the process of
combination, owing to the co-existence of some such agency, has not
been perfected : — in other words, that although some of the atoms of
the one body have entered into combination with some of the atoms
of the other, yet that the remaining atoms have not entered into com-
binations, owing to their subjection to some such influences as those
we have indicated. The use of the term imperfect combustion, then,
does not involve the supposition that carbonic acid is imperfectly
formed — although it is not certain that.there may not be a species of
combustion which generates carbonic oxide — but that the act of form-
ing carbonic acid in quantity proper to ingredients present, has not
been completed or perfected. Any other supposition would not only
be gratuitous, but opposed to the whole tenor of chemical science,
and it is difficult to suppose our correspondent to have believed that
an opposite tenet was held by us.

But again, the term "imperfect combustion" is that employed by
all chemical authorities, and what perhaps is more to the present pur-
pose, it is that employed by Mr. Williams. We feel that it would
weigh but little with our correspondent to adduce the authority of
Sir H. Davy, Dr. Dalton, Berzelius, and Dr. Thomson, showing that
smoke is the product of imperfect combustion caused either by the
want of oxygen or the want of heat. But our correspondent
cannot surely refuse to bow to the authority of Mr. Williams.
Let him turn, then, to the 24th page of the appendix to Mr. Williams*
treatise, and he will find an extract from the specification of his patent
which runs thus : — " Smoke is the result of the impekkect coMBUSTioit
of the volatile products." After this we feel it would be superfluous
to say another word on the subject.

Our correspondent says that Mr. Williams' furnace has been very
successful in practice, which is probably true enough, if we look upon
success as the capability of being endured, or as a measure of bene-
ficial effect, such as other smoke-burning schemes have succeeded iu
attaining. There is, perhaps, no smoke-lmrning scheme whatever of
which the same thing may not be predicated as our correspondent
alleges of this ; for as we formerly mentioned, smoke-burning schemes
may, with great care, be rendered instrumental in saving fuel, but in
the aggregate of continued and ordinary working, there is always
either a diminished efficiency or an increased consumption. In the
evidence given before the committee of the House of Commons on

2 E 2

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the smoke nuisancB, in the year 1819, a multitude of schemes are
mentioned as having been found to answer extremely well, and some
are said to have been then in successful operation in the large London
breweries. Yet these same schemes have all been discontinued — a
result hardly compatible with the supposition that their continued use
had been found advantageous. Upon what principle we can form any
other anticipation relative to this smoke-burning project, than th.it it,
too, will be discontinued, so soon as the stimulus of novelty has sub-
sided, we are altogether at a loss to imagine. Besides, if our corres-
pondent be prepared to assert that this scheme has been beneficial in
some cases, and we at once admit, under the qualifications we have
stated, that sucli may be the case, is he prepared to deny that, in
other instances, it has been detrimental ? Has it not been discontinued
already in several factories in Liverpool and Manchester, and was not
its employment in the case of Messrs. Hamnett & Co.'s furnace, pro-
ductive of serious injury to the boiler, from the alternations of tem-
perature consequent upon the alternate streams of flame and cold air
flowing from the diffusion orifices and impinging upon the iron of the
boiler? It would be unfair, we admit, to condemn any scheme, be-
cause it may have failed once, or even several times ; for the failure
of a good plan may be induced by imperfect machinery, carelessness,
or even design. But neither can the reputation of a few successful
applications win our entire confidence, especially when the plan is
unaccompanied by any manifestation of qualities adequate to the pro-
duction of the alleged advantages. It is so manifestly the interest of
patentees to exaggerate the merits of their own projects ; and even
where emolument is not an object, an ephemeral reputation is some-
times so highly valued, and the tendency of human nature to regard
its own productions with partiality is so powerful and universal, that
all representations coming from an interested party are to be received
with caution. If this be the rule with rational projects, shall we dis-
pense with its observance in the case of projects whose rationality
is more than problematical ? Shall we, upon the questionable autho-
rity of a patentee, accept statements as indisputable which not only
transcend the bounds of credibility, but are inconsistent with the dic-
tates of common sense ?

To the charge which might be thought to be involved in our ac-
count of the extraordinary circumstances under which this gentleman's
ideas relative to the superiority of the smoke-preventive principle,
appear to have been developed, no defence or explanation is even
attempted to be offered. We are told, indeed, that if smoke pre-
vention be good under the auspices of Mr. Bourne, it cannot be bad
under those of Mr. Williams, a proposition sufficiently self-evident,
but altogether foreign to the question. The point to be determined
is not whether Mr. Bourne's plan is good or bad — an inquiry with
which we have nothing to do ; but whether Mr. Williams did or did
not obtain the ideas of Mr. Bourne in confidence, and appropriate them
to his own uses. Upon this point Mr. Williams is silent. He does
not say that Mr. Bourne's essay was not published anterior to his
book, that Mr. Bourne's patent is not of an earlier date than his pa-
tent, and that antecedently to the dates of books or patents, Mr. Bourne
did not communicate to him, in confidence, his ideas, upon the expe-
diency, practicability, and advantage of the smoke preventive s^-stem.
It is true that this system is not carried out in Mr. Williams' scheme,
the proposed object being defeated by the injudicious character of the
arrangements, and that therefore this furnace has no title to the charac-
ter of a smoke-preventing one. But the desire that it should be such
is palpable enough, and the existence of this desire and the boasted
possession of smoke-preventive properties, are quite as conclusive, so
far as this question is concerned, as if that desire and those properties
lad been actually realized. Whatever credit, then, is claimed upon
this score of smoke prevention, or whatever credit is claimed for the
announcement of the superiority and practicability of that system, is
not merely unclaimable by this gentleman, but it is questionable
whether he can extricate himself from all suspicion of having appro-
priated as his own what he must have known to be the property of
another. It is true that the thing taken, supposing that the fact of
such appropriation were established, is of little or no value; for the
fact of the abstraction from one person of a smoke-preventing project
and its appropriation or attempted appropriation by another, can
hardly be supposed to be productive of much benefit to the one, or of
much detriment to the other. But the insignificance of the value can-
not influence our sentiments respecting the quality of the act, unless
it be to suggest that if an insignificant object be capable of inducing a
deviation from strict propriety, a more important inducement may be
expected to render such deviations more extensive and less reluctant.
As regards this case, we refrain from making any specific charge fur-
ther than to say that Mr. Williams has not even noticed the state-
ments we formerly made upon this branch of the subject, that those
statements must therefore be supposed to be correct, and we are pre-

pared to substantiate them by the fullest evidence, and that of the
conclusions involved in those statements we must leave every reader
to make his own estimate. We therefore dismiss the subject with
the general rema»k, that the public is, we believe, perfectly capable
of appreciating the merits of a projector who is indebted to his in-
vention for his facts and to his memory for his inventions.

MR. VIGNOLES' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

SECOND COURSE. — LECTURE IV. LAYING OUT RAILWAYS.

In the preceding lectures the subject of the motive power had been much
enlarged upon, from its necessarily influencing the manner of laying out a
line. Mr. Vignoles said the student may be referred to study, at greater
leisure and in detail, the principles laid down in the works of various authors
on laying out both roads and railroads — MNeill, Parnell, Navier. Tredgold,
&c.— and the rules laid down by them may be taken as sound first principles,
though modified at present by the improvement of motive power and other
causes which could not have been known n priori. Railroads have so com-
pletely .superseded many of the principal roads, and the public convenience
has been thereby so much interfered with, that it becomes a matter of im-
portance to run the trains as often as possible, and this becomes a new ele-
ment in laying out a line of railway. Hitherto this has been done under the
impression that the engines would always carry maximum loads, and though
it is true that main lines radiating from the metropolis, into which a number
of tributaries fall, may be laid out with a view to maximum loads, yet it
becomes a consideration whether it would not be better in general to lay out
railways with a view to the trains going often, and with light loads, and
thereby to make the gradients suitable to the ground over which they pass.
On this subject Mr, Tredgold has always judged soundly. Seventeen or
eighteen years since he made various calculations on the comparative expense
of ascending and descending inclined planes, and of cutting them down to a
level ; and he states, in his Treatise on Railroads, that it will be much less
expensive to follow nearly the undulations of the surface, and " if a few
examples (of the comparative expense) be added, it will assist in removing
those extravagant notions of cutting and embankments, by which the capital
of the country is wasted in unprofitable speculations." But the practice of
engineers has been directly opposed to this, although we had almost a daily
improvement in locomotive power, afiording means of overcoming the difB-
culties of steep gradients. Before determining upon the inclinations which
he will adopt, therefore, the engineer should make estimates of the compara-
tive expense of forming and working flat gradients, and gradients of an
inferior description, and it will be found that gradients of 50, 60, and even
SO feet in a mile, may be advantageously introduced, especially where the
traffic is not very considerable. And if lines were laid out upon these prin-
ciples, instead of the traveller being overcharged with the expense of the
capital sunk, as at present, he would be charged with the expense of the
motive power, which bears a very small proportion to the total amount
exacted from passengers. Locomotive power only is scarcely more than Jrf.
per passenger per mile, whereas the ordinary charge to passengers is2d.; and
this may explain why railway companies do not lease the working of their
lines, for they make most of their profit as carriers, and not as capitalists.

In laying out railways there are generally two distinctive descriptions of
country which the engineer meets with, each of which requires a different
description of treatment with respect to his operations, 'flie first is where
there is a certain summit or ridge of country to be surmounted ; the rule in
this case will apply both to roads and railroads — viz., to get a uniform incli-
nation, if possible, up to the summit; but if that be not practicable, to lay
out the line in stages, taking care that, having once attained any inter-
mediate elevation, the line does not, if possible, descend again. In a country
of this description there will be much more difficulty in the details than in
striking out the first general idea, for it will require the greatest care and
patience to lay out the line so as to ascend to the summit at the least pos-
sible expense, by winding along the sides of hills, and crossing lateral valleys
and ravines to the greatest advantage, Sec.

The other description of country is where the extreme points of the line to
be laid are on a level, or nearly so, and the ground varies, in this case his
judgment will be principally e.^ercised in determining the general direction
of the road, in taking trial levels to determine the line of least cutting and
embankment, in avoiding valuable property, and in securing the largest
amount of traffic ; and in a country like England, which is so full of improve-
ments, gentlemen's seats, roads, streams, 8tc., it is an exceedingly compli-
cated duty to make choice of the best line under such circumstances ; but it
may be laid down as a general rule, that in any difficulty it is always better

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197

to incur a positive known exi«nse, which will not entail future liability,
than by Jiminishing the expense in the first instance to run the risk of
undergoing future loss. Thus, for example, if a line of railway upon a slight
embankment should cross a road on the surface of a wet or marshy country,
it will be better to raise the ruad to a sufficient elevation to pass it over the
railway, though the height of the bridge and approaches be thereby greatly
increased, than by slightly lowering and passing it under the railway at a
greatly reduced expense, to render it liable to be continually laid under
water. And these are the kind of circumstances that require so much care
and consideration on the p.art of the engineer, to enable him to judge of the
comparative amount of cost and maintenance "f the different systems which
he can adopt, and to regulate his designs accordingly. Now we might go
on thus increasing railway gradients until they approached nearer and nearer
to those of a turnpike road, were it not for the difficulty of regulating the
descent of them with safety. On a turnpike-road, writers have suggested
that from 1 in 36 to 1 in 40 is the best slope, because horses may gallop
down without danger, and, at the same time, it is a good trotting road up-
wards. But on railways it is not sate to go down such inclinations as that.
Professor Barlow lays down that when the inclination is greater than 1 in
160 all advantage from gravity in the descent is lost, from the necessity of
applying the break, and he has formed tables to show the amount of loss
sustained in the ascent ; thus, he states, that going up one mile of I in 100
is equivalent (of course with a maximum load) to going 2J miles upon a level ;
but he will not allow that any corresponding advantage is gained in the
descent of tins, or any plane steeper than about 1 in 180. Now, if this be
the case, we must have a totally different set of elements in forming lines of
railway from what 1 have been laying down. But, as has been already
stated, this is not the case in practice, for trains can have, with perfect
safety, the full benefit of gravity on all descents up to I in 100, and the
engines seldom carry maximum loads. The same line of argument has been
pursued with respect to turnpike-roads, where, however, there are many cir-
cumstanc s in operation which do not occur on railways — such as the un-
steadiness of horses and coachmen, which influence the question ; but the
great point to be considered is whether it is most economical to lay out rail-
ways with respect to stationary or to locomotive power. On this subject M.
Navier very sensibly remarks, that great rapidity being the characteristic of
railways, it has been considered necessary to employ locomotive engines,
which system presents an important advantage in being able to increase
gradually the number of engines as the demands of commerce require it.
whereas, on the stationary system, it is necessary to provide at once for the
greatest amount of traffic that can ever occur. But in the event of this
increase, we have still the means of using light and frequent trains for trans-
porting a heavy traffic over a line of inferior gradients, and reducing the
charge of the interest of that capital to the public. But whatever be the
description of country which the engineer may meet with, he should first of
all make or procure detailed plans on the largest scale, and upon them lay
down a number of surface levels, and from them, as from a model, to find the
line of least expense and greatest accommodation. The magnificent Ordnance
Maps of Ireland, from their great scale and numerous surface levels, will
render the task of the engineer in that respect easy, should the long-deferred
introduction of railways into that country be ever carried.

LECTURE V. — ON THE COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF DIFFEBBNT RAILWAYS.

The class will, no doubt, be inclined to think that I have dwelt too long
in the first four lectures of the present course, upon the principles of economy
in motive power, but I assure you, that if, in after years, any of you follow
up the profession, you will find the subject one of the most vital importance.
I shall this evening draw your attention to the different elements of compari-
son which should guide the engineer in forming a selection from different
proposed lines of railway, and shall take, as a text-book for that purpose, Mr.
M'Neil,s translation of M. Navier 's work On the Afeans of Comparing the
Respective Advantages of Different Lines of Railway — a work which I highly
recommend for your private study, on account of the clearness and accuracy
of the views it contains. M. Navier states " that the elements of compa-
rison of different lines of railway may be divided into two heads ; first, the
establishment of a very rapid mode of transport — a consideration which should
give a preference to the shortest lines, the velocity being supposed to be the
same in all ; second, the increase of wealth which may result from the esta-
blishment of a line of railway. The construction of a railway, like that ofa
common road or a canal, is favourable to the advancement of wealth ; in the
first place, because the actual expense of transport in this direction is dimi-
nished ; and, in the second place, because this diminution in the cost of
transport increases the value of the neighbouring properties, facilitates the
establishment of new works, and increases production ;" and the saving
effected is not merely a private advantage to those individuals who may be
directly benefitted by it, but is so much actual increase of the wealth of the
country at large. " The first of these effects— that is to say, the diminution
obtained on the actual cost of transport— is the cause of the second, so that

this diminution is the principal circumstance, and that which should be prin-
cipally considered." Taking it as established, therefore, that diminution
in the cost of transport is the principal thing, we come to the result that the
cost of motive power, on which this is dependent, is the leading point to be
attended to in the formation of any line of railway. Indeed, M. Navier goes
so far as to say that this is almost the only circumstance to be attended to ;
in his own words, " we should even say that the rate of reduction which is
obtained upon the actual cost of transport, by the establishment of a new
communication, is almost the only circumstance which should be thought
of ; " but he goes on to say, very justly, " it is also necessary to consider the
quantity of goods which is c.iiTied, or which may be carried hereafter, in this
direction," for the very essence of the railway system is to increase its own
traffic ! " for it is evident that it may be less advantageous to the countr> to
produce a great economy in the cost of transport upon a line where there is
but little to carry, and more advantageous to produce a less economy upon a
line where a large quantity of merchandise is carried." These are the prin-
ciples which I have been endeavouring to impress upon your minds, and which,
from their importance, I cannot too often repeat. '• It is, therefore," says
M. Navier, " generally necessary to take into consideration, in the compa-
rison of different lines, the quantity of traffic which may be established on
each, and even the increase in the value of properties, and the development of
production to which the establishment of these lines may give rise respec-
tively, according to the nature of the countries which they traverse, ' I
would observe, as a passing remark, that the word developpemenl, in French,
generally refers to length ; thus the development of a line of railway will be
spoken of— meaning the length of that line — whilst, in English, the word
refers to an extension of superficies. M. Navier does not go minutely into the
examination of these last elements of the question, which rather belong to
statistics and political economy than to engineering, but confines himself to
the " consideration of the reduction which the establishment of a railway
can effect upon the actual cost of transport — a most important consideration
— to which, as already remarked, It is alwajs necessary to attend ; and this
will form, in every case, the principal element of the comparison between
different lines, and often leads to determinations purely geometrical or me-
chanical, and, consequently, exempt from arbitrary deductions."

M. Navier then goes on to state, that " the cost of transport on a railway
as upon a road or canal, depends on two principal points, which it is necessary
to distinguish and consider separately ; the first of these is the expense of
constructing the railway, and the second is the expense of conveying the
goods on the railway, when it is constructed. The e.tpense of the construc-
tion of the railway is independent of the quantity of merchandise and of
passengers that will pass over it. The expense of trausport, properly speak-
ing, upon the railway supposed to be constructed, depends, on the contrary,
upon the quantity of merchandise or of passengers — that is to say, all other
things being equal, the expense will evidently he in proportion to the ton-
nage." Now, a few years back, the whole time of the House of Commons
was taken up with comparing the merits of rival lines of railway, for no
sooner was one line proposed than directly a rival line was started. It is
well known that, for the Brighton Railway, four different lines were pro-
posed— the discussion on the respective merits of which extended over a
considerable length of time. But it is a curious fact, that, in all these dis-
cussions, the principle which has been laid down this evening was never
once alluded to. Now, in the practical working of railways, the diminution
of e.xiiense of transport is generally quite independent of the quantity of
goods carried, for, after a line is constructed, the charges are generally
airanged with reference to rival lines, or to the competition which may exist
with the railway ; and the interest of the money laid out is scarcely thought
of, however much it may have entered into the a priori calculations. The
Paris and Versailles Railways may be mentioned ; two lines were started,
one on each side of the river— the Government did not like to treat either
party harshly, and passed both bills, and both lines are actually executed ;
and, from the great competition between them, the charges for transport of
goods and passengers will probably bear little or no relation to the interest of
the capital expended. There is, however, another element which renders the
calculation of a very complicated nature. The railways are different from
common roads or canals, over which, after they have been once constructed,
the public have been left to find their own way— considerations of public
safety render it necessary to incur great expenses in terminal and local sta-
tions, &c. ! and there are also secondary expenses, such as the annual cost
of repairs, police, and management, of which it may be said that they depend
partly on the interest of the cost of constructing, and partly on the amount
of tonnage carried. Now, from experience a general idea can be formed of
the expense of these items, but, before gomg into the details, I will return
to M. Navier, who says—" We may, therefore, admit, without falling into
any serious error, that the annual cost of transport on a railway is, in all
cases, formed of two parts— the one proportional to the expenses of the con-
struction of the way, and the other proportional to the amount of tonnage
carried ; and we should also observe, that the cost of transport of one ton of
merchandise cannot be specified, unless the number of tons which shall be

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[June,

carried annually from one extremity of the line to the other be known."
Now, hitherto we have been unable to determine a priori what these amounts
are — but we can tell w ith great accuracy what they have been on the differeiit
Bncs of railway now in operation. The following tables give the average of
these expenses on several lines of railway : —

Merchandise Traffic.

Coal on colliery Goods on the
Heails of charge. railways in the Liverpool and

north. Manch. Rlny.

Locomotive power — wages and repairs . . . . OSSS" . . . . 0 425*
fuel 0025 .... 0125

Total 0-380 0-550

Wagons 0-190 .. .. 0227

Conducting traffic 0 075 .... 1080

Maintaining railway 0-208 .... 0-307

General expenses 0-100 .... 0354

Total cost 0-953 2-518

* Per ton per mile — in decimals of a penny.

Passenger Traffic

Lend. U Mane. Dublin & Kings-
Heads of charge. Railw. — average townRailw. — av.
60 passengers 40 passengers
per train. per train.

Locomotive power — wages and repairs .. 0'170* 0-173*

fuel 0100 0-115

Total 0>270

Coaches 0-054

Conducting coaching 0104

Maintaining railway 0-085

General expenses 0-091

0-288
0-031
0-113
0-050
0-174

Total cost 0-604 0-656

* Per passenger per mile — in decimals of a penny.

Taking the Liverpool and Manchester Railway as an example, we find the
uiunber of passengers to average sixty per train. This may, on the whole,
be considered as a fair average on all the railroads throughout the country.
Seven years working of the same railway gives, as the average expense of
locomotive power, 0-27<i. or about \d. per passenger per mile. The gradients
do not exceed six or seven feet per mile, with the exception of the inclined
plane, and this also is an average amount for most railways— in fact, fuel
and wages are so nearly the same on all lines, that the expense of this bead
can be calculated with great exactness. The expense of locomotive power,
also, is the only one which depends upon the gradients. The other expenses,
w-hich are independent of the gradients, are — coaching, conducting ditto,
maintaining way, and general expenses, altugethei- amounting to 0-33(i., which
^ded to ^)^2^d. = 0-60<Z., or, in round numbers, three-fifths of a penny per
passenger per mile for the expense of transport. Now, let us examine the
relative expense of the merchandize traffic. We have, for the expense of
locomotive power, 0-55d., or, in round numbers, \il. per ton per mile ; for the
cost of wagons and secondary expenses, l-97(i., which, added to 0-55t/., gives
2-52d., or, in round numbers, 2\d. per ton per mile as the actual cost of trans-
port. Now, let us mark the very striking result of this comparison. Even
with all the most recent improvements, and cutting down every expense that
can be reduced, tbe mere transport of passengers costs three-fifths of a penny
per passenger per mile, whilst that of goods is only 2Jrf. per ton for the same
distance, and of tiiis Irf. may be thrown out, arising from other sources,
leaving the cost of transport — passengers, three fifths of a penny per passen-
ger per mile ; goods, Ijrf. per ton per mile. In the first case, we have an
amount exceedingly high, in proportion to the present means of transport,
whijst the second case presents a result as strikingly low. A ton of goods
is equivalent to the weight of foiurteen passengers, with 30 lbs. of luggage
eadi.

When the loads to be carried are light, and the velocities at which they
are carried considerable, the steepness of the gradients is a matter of com-
paratively little consequence, but as soon as the engine is loaded to its maxi-
mum power, the railway system becomes unable to compete with the canals^
S(j.fajr,as relates to the carriage of goods. If these are the results offered to
y«u by j^st experience, do jounot'see alt once ho-w it affects the (luestion of

laying out lines in remote districts, where but a small amount of traffic can
be calculated upon? Again, referring to the table, with reference to the
difference between carrying slowly and carrying quickly, we find that the
expense of locomotive power on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway is
0-55rf., or nearly three-fifths of a penny, yet that the expense upon the best
railways, where goods are carried at a moderate velocity, is only 0-38fi. and
the remaining expenses 0-57rf., so that it comes to this, that we have — Liver-
pool and Manchester Railway, '2\d. per ton per mile; other railways, with
moderate speeds, \d. per ton per mile. M. Navier proposes a case not quite
so strong, perhaps, as might be made out, and I will, therefore, refer to the
Brighton Railroad for an example, the expense of which, for the 40 miles, has
been about £2,600,000, or £00,000 per mile, the interest of which, ;it 6 per
cent., is 10/. per mile per day, which is the net receipt, after all expenses are
paid, requisite to insure a decent interest to the shareholders. I shall not
enter further into the question now-, but if those students who are sufficiently
advanced will take up the subject, they will soon be able to appreciate my
arguments for increasing the limits within which gradients are usually kept
—for, supposing the expense of carrying a passenger should be only 'id. per
mile, yet, if you will calculate the additional expense of the interest of
£60.000 per mile, you will find ruinous results.

M. Navier having said that the cost of transport is the chief point to be
attended to in laying out a railway, goes on to determine the amount of
power requisite to draw a given train over a given railway. The elder students
will, in connection with this subject, be aware of the opinion which has been
pretty generally entertained amongst engineers, that a rise of twenty feet pet
mile is equivalent to a mile in length. M. Navier says—" Let us observe that,
upon a horizontal line, the power required to draw a given weight is con-
sidered as being equal to almost the two-hundredth part of this weight;" but,
as I have shown in a previous lecture, the formula fur the expression of this

F

power will be ~ taking F as the friction per ton, and n the number of pounds

in each ton, so that what M. Navier calls the two-hundredth part of the
weight » ill be friction divided by the number of pounds in a ton. Taking the
friction at 9 1b., we have ^j4!_ = ,5ii- nearly. At 11 lb., ^,0^=.:^; .and
I must here repeat what I have so often before stated to you, that, although
experiments have been made, which give so low a friction as 4 lb. per ton,
that, on an average, M. Navier is nearly right, when we take into considera-
tion the numerous causes of friction. M. Navier considers the power required
to draw a given weight " to be independent of the absolute velocity of
transit, although there is reason to believe that the tractive power increases
with the velocity." Now, it has been said that the friction is the same at
all velocities. I cannot fully concur in this opinion. I think the axletree
friction may be constant under all velocities, but that, from other causes,
there appears to be, 1 will not call it an increase of friction, but an increase
of resistance, the amount of w hich has not been satisfactorily determined.
M. Navier goes on — " We conclude from this, that, in order to transport,
with any velocity whatever, constant or variable, a weight, W, to a distance
represented by a on a horizontal line, it is necessary to employ the power re-
presented by y X a — that is to say, the power necessary to raise the weight
to the height " ■" or, in other words to transport a weight any given dis-
tance on a horizontal line, is equivalent to raising it the two-hundredth part
of that distance in vertical height ; and, although this is not quite coi-rect, it
is sufficiently so for general purposes. We have before assumed that it is
the same thing to go a mile round as to go over a hill rising twenty feet in
a mile. Now, a mile being 1760 yards, or 5280 feet, we have ^^ x 5280 as
the power required, which is equal to raising the weight 26 ft. But as the
friction varies, I think we have sufficient experience now to say it is about the
same thing to rise 30 ft. in a mile as tu go a mile round : but this is quite
independent of the question, whether you should or should not allow on one
hand, and deduct on the other, when the slope exceeds the angle of repose.
I have explained to you, on previous occasions, the difference of opinion
that exists on this point. Both Mr. Barlow and M. Navier allow the ad-
vantage up to a certain point, which they fix at about 1 in 180, beyond which
point they consider the whole advantage gained to be destroyed by the
necessity of putting on the break. Now, in practice, we do not find this to
be the case, until we come to 1 in 80, or thereabouts ; however, we may take,
as a general rule, M. Navier 's concluding words on this subject : — " The
length of the line remaining the same, the amount of power consumed to
effect the transit depends entirely upon the length of the line, and the dif-
ference of the level of its extreme points." The practical result which I
have endeavoured to lay before you this evening is, that the cost of transport
is the cost of the power combined with the interest of the original cost of the
line, and that the calculation of this combined expense must form the
element of comparison between different lines of raihvay.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

199

CORROSION' OF IRON IN STEA.M BOILERS AND STOVHE PIPES.
fFrom the FrmMin Journal )

The Cmnmittee on Science and the Arts, constituted by the Franklin Institute
vf the State of Pennsylvania, for the promotion of the Mecltanic Arts, to
whom was referred for examination the Corrosion of Iron in Steam Boilers
and Stove Pipes, tvhere Anthracite is employed as fuel, Report: —

That they have gathered such information as lay in their power from those
who have witnessed the corrosive action, and combined it with their own
observations.
> It appears that stove-pipes are frequently corroded in the course of a year
or two, where they are not taken down or cleansed subsequent to their em-
ployment through the winter season. An instance is known in which 40 ft.
of pipe were corroded and rendered a perfect colander in the course of two
Tears. Nor docs it appear always as a necessary condition that the place
should be damp, although this is the case in a majority of instances, for in
the corrosion just noticed, the proprietor stated that the stove was very dry.
The corrosion rarely happens in an upright pipe, but usually in one lying
horizontally, for where such corrosion had already commenced it was said, in
one instance, to have been obviated by giving the pipe a slight inclination.
>\'here it takes place in an upright pipe, it may arise from the flowing down
of corroding matter from a horizontal layer of the same.

The same kind of corrosion is observable in steam boilers in which anthra-
cite is employed as fuel, and not in those in which bituminous coal is used.
That it does not arise from the intensity of the heat is shown from the fact,
that it is greatest in the boiler-flues which lie horizontally at a distance from
the fire, k corrosion is sometimes observed near the top of the smoke pipe
in steamboats, but this may be attributed to the alternate action of heat,
cold, air, and moisture.

It would appear then, that the corrosion is caused either by the vapours
aHsing from the combustion of anthracite, or from matter carried up mechan-
ically by the draft; or from both combined. That it does not proceed from
incondensable gaseous matter is proved by the occurrence of the corrosion
only when a stove-pipe is no longer exposed to these vapours during the
summer season, or where a boiler is cooled from intermitted fires. It does
not arise from matter carried up mechanically, for this could only be ashes,
and we know that the ashes of anthracite are of a dry nature ; and without
moisture, chemical action, or the corrosion, could not occur. It must, there-
fore, be produced from condensable vapours.

On examining the interior of a stove-pipe lying horizontally, whether
corroded or not, we find a loose ashy deposit of a greyish brown colour ;
and where corrosion has taken place, the greater part is condensed into a
solid mass, showing that it had absorbed water. Upon fracturing the solid
material, small white crystals appear under the microscope, which are gene-
rally too imperfect to admit of recognising their form. By subliming the
mass, a little empyreumatic oil and water are formed, but the greater part
subUmed is an ammoniacal'Salt. Upon testing a solution of the ashes, it
shows a large content of muriate and sulphate of ammonia, the former evi-
dently in much greater quantity than the sulphate. After complete sublima-
tion at a red heat, the ashy matter remaining appears to be nearly pure
charcoal or lamp black, with a mere trace of coal ashes. From the qualitative
tests made, it would appear that the ammoniacal salts constitute at least
three-fourths of the whole mass. A mere trace of iron was detected.

From this content of saline matter, as well as from its nature, we are at
no loss to account for the corrosion of iron where the air and moisture add
their conjoint action ; but it may be doubted whether the ashy matter has
the power of absorbing moisture from an atmosphere of ordinary dryness,
for in dry situations, it appears that there is usually no corrosion, and in the
case noticed at the commencement of the report, it may be doubted whether
the stove was dry.

How to obviate the corrosive action is a more difficult point to determine,
unless the very, simple process be resorted to of cleaning out stove-pipes
every spring, and hoiler-flues every few weeks. If the stove-pipes are required
to remain standing with the sediment in them, then a previous internal coat-
ing of white lead, litharge, or red lead might probably answer the best
purpose, since it would result in the production of chloride and sulphate of
lead, while the ammonia would be driven off. The thin coating of these
salts of lead might then prevent the contact and farther action of the ashy
deposit. Experiments made at the U. S. Mint during the winter of 40-41,
seem to show that a coating of lime on the interior of a pipe prevents cor-
rosion, and it is said that a few stove manufacturers in this city are acquainted
with the fact. The committee, however, in the face of these facts, are rather
inclined to believe that the oxide of lead will prove more efficient, since the
sulphate of lead is a wholly inert salt, and the chloride nearly insoluble,
while the sulphate of lime is somewhat soluble, and the chloride of calcium
very soluble, and therefore likely to produce corrosive action eventually.
Still the operation of whitewashing is tbe simplest mode of obviating cor-
rosion, and may be repeated at intervals.

The content of chlorine to such an extent as is developed by the above
chemical examination, is interesting in a geological point of view, since it
has not hitherto been found in chemical examinations of anthracite. Prof.
H. D. Rogers, in 1836, point«d out the fact, that where heaps of refuse

matter were burned near the coal mines, ammoniacal salts, and among them
muriate of ammonia, are sublimed, and may be found among the ashes. Now
we know that saline waters are obtained from the coal measures in the west-
ern district of Peiinsylvania, and, moreover, it is the prevailing opinion
among geologists that the coal series are marine deposits ; we can, there-
fore, explain the origin of the muriate of ammonia in the ashy deposit
arising from the combustion of anthracite, by attributing the chlorine to the
presence of a trace of chloride of sodium (common salt) in the coal or its
accompanying slate, or possibly in both. It is unnecessary to allude to the
formation of ammonia, since it is a universal product to a greater or less
extent of the dry distillation or combustion of every kind of coal.

This ammoniacal deposit is interesting in an economical point of view,
since it accumulates in considerable quantity in a single season, and may be
collected with facility. In one instance at least, ten pounds were removed
from about eight to ten feet of pipe, which was the produce af three or four
years, and hence, we may estimate the large amount that might be obtained
from many hundred pipes in Philadelphia every season. It may be employed
either for the manufacture of sal ammoniac by a very simple process of sub-
limation with a small quantity of a salt of lime, or it may be directly applied
in powder or in solution to garden soils. The influence of ammoniacal salts
in promoting luxuriant vegetation has long been known, but the admirable
work of Prof. Liebig on Agricultural Chemistry has more completely de-
veloped their influence and importance. The material before us will unques-
tionably prove of great value to the gardener and florist, if properly applied
to the soil ; but it must not be forgotten that it is very rich in ammonia, and
should therefore be employed sparingly.

February 10, 1842.

By order of the Committee,

William Hamilton, Actuary.

PROCEEDINGS or SCZESTTIFIC SOCIETIES.

•

INSTITUTION OF CUIL ENGINEERS.
March 1. — William Cdbiit, V.P., in the Chair.

" Holhom HiU, and the Plans for its Improvement." By John Turner.

This communication chiefly consists of an examination of the various plans
which have been suggested for diminishing the acclivity of that crowded
thoroughfare. An idea of its thronged state is given from Mr. Xttiishaw's
evidence before a Committee upon Metropolitan Improvements, in May,
1838, wherein he assumes the fair average annual amount of traffic between
Fetter Lane and the Old Bailey at " 20,000,000 pedestrians, 871,640 eques-
trians, 157,752 hackney coaches, 372,470 carts and wagons, 78,876 stages,
82,258 carriages, 135,842 omnibuses, 460,110 chaises and taxed carts, and
354,942 cabs." The necessity for ameliorating this great thoroughfare has
been generally acknowledged, and great changes have been made in the
locality since the rivulet called the " Old Bourne " took its course down the
hill into the Fleet river, which at that time had wharfs on either side for
landing goods from the barges, which came up as far as llolborn Bridge.
About the year 1733 the arching over of the channel of the Fleet was com-
menced, and subsequently was extended to the Thames, forming at present
one of the main sewers, having its outlet at Blackfriars Bridge. On arching
over the Fleet the ground at the bottom of the hill was raised as much as
possible ; indeed all that can be done by filling up (having reference to the
surrounding levels), would appear to have been done at various intervals.

The oldest plan mentioned by Mr. Turner is that by Mr. T. F. Taylor, in
1828. He proposed to divide the hill at the corner of Hatton Garden into
three parts, and to continue the same up Skinner Street nearly to the Sara-
cen's Head Inn ; between these points an iron suspension bridge, with a level
roadway, was to be erected wide enough to admit of two carriages abreast,
leaving the footpaths and nearly all the houses undisturbed. Tlie estimate
for this plau was about £23,000.

In 1833 Mr. Turner proposed to construct a bridge or viaduct, upon arches,
along the south side of Holborn Hill and Skinner Street, from Thavies Inn
to Sea-coal Lane. The arches would have been available for warehouses
upon the level of that half of the street which preserved its original position.
On this plan it would have been necessary to take down all the houses on
the south side from Shoe Lane to Farringdon Street ; the others being
modern, might have been raised. This plan was subsequently modified, and
the width of the street increased to 70 feet, giving the viaduct 35 in breadth.

Mr. Moselev's proposition in 1833 was to fill up the valley to the height
of 12 feet at llolborn Bridge, altering some of the houses at the bottom. In
1840 he further proposed to take 18 inches off the brow of llolborn Hill and
12 inches oflT Skinner Street, which, with raising the bottom, would bring
the gradient of the acclivity to about 1 in 35.

Some interesting tables are given of the rates of acclivities of some of the
principal thoroughfares in Loudon.

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

St. James's Street, at 660 feet from Piccadilly, is . 1 in 27

Waterloo Place, ending at Piccadilly . . . . 1 „ 25
Haymarket, at 490 feet from ditto . . . . 1 „ 22

Strand, opposite Northumberland House . . . 1 „ 33

Charing Cross, from ditto towards Whitehall . . 1 „ 37

Southampton Street, from the Strand . . . . 1 „ 19
Fleet Street, opposite Salisbury Court . . . . 1 ,, 42-a-
Ludgate Hill, ending at St. Paul's Churchyard . . 1 „ 25
Holborn Hill, varies from . . . 1 in 165 to 1 .. 23

Skinner Street, varies from . . 1 in 24 to 1 „ 29

Messrs. Barnard and Geary published a plan, in 1836, for carrying a via-
duct along the north side of Holborn Hill, between Hatton Garden and the
upper end of Snow Hill, removing the greater portion of the houses between
those points. The estimate of the expense was £350,000.

In the Second Report of the Metropolitan Improvements Committee for
1838 appeared a plan by Mr. Pocock, consisting of a viaduct on the south
side of the hill, between St. Andrew's Court and Sea-coal Lane.

Mr. Galloway's plan, in 1841, was to erect in the centre of the present
line of road a viaduct upon iron arches, between Hatton Garden and the
Saracen's Head Inn ; this viaduct was to be 30 feet wide, and used for horses
and carriages only, leaving the street below as at present, only \videning it
where requisite.

Mr. Moon's plan, in 1841, was nearly similar to Mr. Tiu-ner's, only in-
sisting upon a greater width of road.

Several propositions were also made for forming a new street either on
the north or south side of Holborn Hill ; among them are mentioned the
following plans : —

Mr. Davey's, in 1833, which was to commence at Fox Court, in Gray's
Inn Lane, cross Saffron Hill, and proceed, in the form of a crescent, to meet
Skinner Street above Snow Hill.

Mr. Whishaw's plan, in 1835, was to build a viaduct, commencing at the
end of Fetter Lane, to the north of New Street Square, thence across Far-
ringdon Market, which he proposed to render more convenient and airy, and
to terminate at the top of the Old Bailey, the roadway throughout being
perfectly level.

Mr. Ross's plan resembled Mr. Whishaw's, but was less comprehensive,
and avoided Farringdon Market, the viaduct being still nearly level.

These latter plans were laid out with a view of avoiding the existing tho-
roughfare, and the valuable property on Holborn Hill and Skinner Street.
The plans were collected by the author for the purpose of showing their
comparative merit and originality, and (as far as he was able) the dates.
The communication was illustrated by a series of drawings and lithographs
of almost all the schemes, with prospectuses of nearly all for reference.

March 1. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of the Permanent Way of the South-eastern Railway." By
John Pope, Grad'. Inst. C. E.

This communication commences with a general description of the slopes of
the cuttings and the embankments of the line, and explains the mode of
ballasting and the quality of the materials employed. On either side of the
bank of ballast, and below the level of its bed, there is an open drain, 3 feet
in width, extending throughout the line, which ensures perfect drainage from
beneath the sleepers. The different works connected with the laying of the
rails are then successively noticed. The sleepers are placed transversely, and
differ in shape from any hitherto employed. They are of Baltic fir, and are
formed by a square balk being diagonally divided so as to cut out four tri-
angular sleepers, which are laid with the right angle C downwards, which

Square balk divided to form four
sleepers.

Triangular sleeper A, B, C, con-
trasted with a half balk.

form (A B 0) has as much bearing surface as one of twice the cubic content
cut out as a half balk in the usual manner. The advantages arising from
this form in the economy of timber, the facility of packing, and the improved
drainage of the ballast in contact with the sleepers, are pointed out, and the
apparent disadvantage of tlie tendency to act as a wedge, is combated by
showing that the inclination of a right angle exceeds the limits within which
he principle of the wedge obtains. The chairs are of a peculiar form, de-
signed by the engineer to combine lightness with strength ; they are cast on
a plan invented and patented by Messrs. Ransome and May, of Ipswich,
whereby the inward inclination of the rails, instead of being made to depend
merely upon the rail layers (as is usually the case), is effected entirely by the
shape of the cavities of the chairs, which are all cast with peculiar accuracy.

Elevation of Chair, showinsr the inclination of the Rail.

The uniformity of inclination attained by this improvement greatly diminished
the lateral motion of the carriages, observed on almost aU other lines of raU-
way. The chairs are placed horizontally on the sleepers, and are fastened
down with trenails of oak compressed by the patent process of Messrs. Ran-
some and May.* The wedges employed to secure the rails in the chairs are
similarlv compressed. Details are then given of the rails, which are paralle.,
with their upper and lower tables of equal breadth ; of the amount of com-
pression of the wedges and trenails, their dimensions, shapes, &c.

The author concludes by stating, upon the authority of Mr. Barlow, the
resident engineer of that part of the line, that the passage of 70,000 tons of
ballast over several miles of the " permanent way " already completed, has
not rendered the shghtest repair necessary, although the weather has been
very unfavourable.

The paper is accompanied bv a drawing showing the construction of the
permanent way, and it was illustrated by the exhibition of a pair of sleepers
with two pieces of the rails placed in the chairs, which were fixed down with
the compressed trenails, complete as on the railway ; aU the tools employed
in laying the permanent line ; and specimens of teak, oak, mahogany, horn-
beam, walnut, and other timber, compressed and cut so as to show the sub-
sequent form of the sap vessels.

Intermediate Chair.

Joint Chair.
End view.

End view.

Remarks. — In answer to questions as to the compressed fastenings, Mr.
May explained that the peculiarity of the system consisted in the fibre of the
timber being compressed equally from the circumference to the centre. The
pieces of wood for the wedges were cut out with parallel sides and forced by
hydraulic presses into tapering moulds ; whilst in those moulds they were
subjected to the action of heat applied through the medium of low pressure
steam, and after being allowed to cool, they were forced out of the moulds,
and so long as they were kept dry would retain their form ; but as the ope-
ration simply contracted the dimensions of the sap vessels without crushing
the fibre, the power of capillary attraction was not destroyed, and when
driven into the chair and exposed to moisture, they swelled so as to remain
perfectly tight. There was this difference between wedges so compressed
and all others ; that a true wedge was formed from a piece of wood cut
parallel on all sides, whilst all former modes that he was acquainted with
produced, not wedges, but parallel pieces.

* Minutes of Proceedings,*1840, p. 84.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

201

The diminution of the bulk of the trenails, by the process, is from 100 to
63, and of the wedges from 100 to 80. It is found that the wood does not
swell until it is placed in a damp situation, as in the sleepers. Even the
most solid woods, such as African teak, can be compressed without sustaining
injury. Perfectly seasoned timber will not shrink after compression, but
green wood will shrink after the process. One of the principal advantages
of the compressed trenails is the firmness with which they hold into the
sleeper. Around the iron spikes generally used, a sheath of rust is formed
by the damp sleeper; the shaking of the carriages tends to draw them up-
wards, and the elasticity of the fibre around the hole in the sleeper being
impaired, it is of no use to drive them down again in the same place, and the
chairs eventually become loose.

The mode of casting the chairs was described to be by placing an iron
plate on each side of the pattern, ramming them up in sand, and using an
iron core, which being sustained in its position by a projecting tongue falling
into a groove in the side plates, preserves an uniform incUnation of the rail
in the chairs. Extraordinary precision is thus obtained, and only about 2
per cent, of waste-castings are made, although they are subjected to a rigid
test, for if the bearing points allow the rail to vary -^ of an inch from the
required inclination, they are broken up. The iron cores do not unduly chill
the metal, and the average strength is retained. The iron used is chiefly
" Welsh Cold Blast."

Mr. Cubitt's object has been to lay a railway entirely upon transverse
sleepers, of such a form as would expose the largest amount of bearing sur-
face for the least portion ot timber ; that the bulk of the ballast should be
beneath the bottom of the sleeper, where alone it is useful ; to use only the
best foreign timber; to have the rails rolled uniformly and sufficiently heavy;

Rails, Chairs, and Sleepers, w ith the " Cramp Gauge " fixed.

Guide Tube and Auger.

the chairs simple in form, possessing great regularity, and giving the inward
inclination to the rail within the chairs, instead of depending upon the rail-
layer doing it in fixing them ; and that the fastenings should be simple, but
firm, and not liable to breakage, or to be detached by the passage of the
carriages.

With these views he had directed four sleepers to be cut diagonally out of
each square log of foreign timber, giving about 2 J cubic feet to each sleeper ;
to place them with the right angle downwards, so that the ballast could
always be consolidated by ramming, without lifting the sleeper, or digging
around it, as with square, or other formed sleepers ; two places are planed to
receive the chairs, and one fastening hole bored in each sleeper ; they are
then kyanized in close tanks, completely filled with the prepared solution,
under a pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch. When placed upon the ballast,
the joint chairs are first put down 15 feet apart, and the intermediate chairs

loosely placed 3 feet apart ; " cramp gauges," embracing the inside and out-
side of the rails, are then fixed between each pair of sleepers, and the wedges
along one side driven up — one trenail being driven in each chair, the hole
for which is previously bored in the sleeper by a gauge, to insure an equal
projection on each side of the rail. A " guide tube " of an internal diameter
to fit the spiral auger for boring the trenail holes, with the external lip
tapered to correspond with the hole in the chair for the head of the trenail,
is then used, and by its agency the holes are pierced with great accuracy,
concentric with the hole in the chair, at the same time protecting the tool
from being injured by the cast iron. The intermediate chairs are then fixed
in the same manner, and the operations are repeated for the opposite rails ;
the ballast is then consolidated by ramming. It is found that the work pro-
ceeds very rapidly ; the ballast supports the sleepers throughout, and has no
tendency to fall away from them ; the water drains away freely, and hitherto
the passage of the ballast wagons over that portion of the line which is laid
(although they are without springs), has been productive of benefit rather
than injury.

The inclination of the rail being given in the chair had insured such accu-
racy, that after one day's traffic over it, the surface of the rails is rubl)ed
equally throughout, and not alternately on either side, as is so commonly the
case.

Mr. Cubitt did not claim the invention of the angular-formed sleeper, as
Mr. Reynolds had used it before for his longitudinal bearing rails, but he
believed that transverse sleepers of that form had not been previously laid
down ; nor did he claim the compressed wedges and trenails, or the peculiar
mode of casting the chairs : the merit of these was entirely due to Messrs.
Ransome and May, who had entered completely into his views and wishes,
and executed them with extreme inteUigence.

In answer to questions from the President, Mr. May replied that it had
been an object to gain in the trenails and wedges the greatest amount of
strength with diminished bulk, and also to cut away as little of the sleeper
as possible in boring the holes ; he had, therefore, introduced this method of
compressing them, with a view also, that in swelling from the damp they
should fix themselves tight into the soft timber sleeper, and hold the chair
fast down.

He hoped to extend the use of compressed trenails to ship-building, for
which they were eminently adapted ; if they were used, smaller holes would
be bored in the timbers, and they would hold tighter than the trenails now
used, which reqnire to have the points split and wedged up. and the heads
also divided and caulked to prevent leakage through the open sap vessels of
the wood.

The President remarked that on the Hull and Selby Railway, the chairs
were fastened to the kyanized timber sleepers by uncompressed wooden
trenails.

Mr. Cubitt was not aware of that fact ; he had always found that uncom-
pressed wedges and trenails would not hold tight. Some of the compressed
trenails had been wetted by accident, and could not be afterwards driven into
the holes in the chairs ; they nearly resumed their original size, and then
showed the marks of the turning tool upon their surfaces. In answer to a
question from Mr. Parkes as to the comparative expense of laying the line,
it was rather in favour of the system he had adopted, although the prices
paid for the items separately, were higher than usual, but the saving in
labour, and the almost total absence of waste of materials, gave the economy.

He then quoted a few of the prices paid ; sleepers 6s. 6d. each (ready to
lay down, including kyanizing) ; chairs 9/. per ton, free from faults in casting,
the contractors for them replacing all that were broken in laying the line.
Each joint chair, with three trenails and one wedge, 2s. lOd. Intermediate
chairs, with two trenails and one wedge, 2s. Id. each. The labour for laying
the line was from 2s. to 3». per yard running ; the cost of fixing the sleepers,
laying the rails, and ballasting complete, was from £1500 to £2000 per mile,
including allexpences.

Mr. Macneill fully concurred in the importance of providing for clear
drainage from the sleepers ; and in the advantage presented by the angular
form for ramming the ballast. The transverse sleepers, with such rails as
had been used on the South-Eastem Railway, were preferable to a continuous
bearing, as (hey would prevent the gauge from widening, and preserve an
uniform regularity of surface, which would tend materially to diminish the
oscillating motion so common on railways, and which was so destructive to
the engine and the carriages ; altogether this railway appeared to be the
most perfect he had hitherto seen.

He was using, on the Dublin and Drogheda Railway, chairs of somewhat
similar construction, with uncompressed wooden wedges and fastenings ; they
were very roughly cast in Scotland, with hot-blast iron, and the breakage
was very great ; they, however, cost less than 5/. per ton. He believed that
chairs such as were cast by Ransome and May would be cheaper at 9^ per
ton. The uncompressed trenails were found in many instances to become
loose. In ballasting the railway, as stone was cheap, the whole surface of
the line was pitched transversely with thin stones, and then a good bed of
broken stone used for ballast, in the same manner as Mr. Telford bad pro-
ceeded with the Holyhead Road.

Mr. William Cubitt had compressed a considerable quantity of wood wedges,
by forcing them singly, by the blow of a piston, through a taper steel mould ;
on leaving the mould they had attained their ultimate state of compression,
and they were some time before they reassumed their original bulk, but he
conceived that Mr. May's plan, by which they were dried in a compressed
state, enabled tbem to retain their form longer. He considered the systems,

F2

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

of preparation, and of laying tlie road, to be the most perfect hitherto
executed.

Some years since, Mr. Home had made a series of experiments on the
form of timber beams, which presented the greatest amount of strength with
the least quantity of timber ; he found that a triangular beam placed with
the base upwards was one-third stronger than a.y other form.

Mr. Colthurst inquired whether the trenails and wedges had been found to
have lost strength by compressing. He imagined that they would not bear
a transverse strain so well as before compression.

Mr. May replied that no experiments had been tried as to the relative
transverse strength of timber before and after compression.

Mr. S. Seaward thought it was probable the timber did suffer somewhat
from compression, but that did not militate against the system, as there
must necessarily be an original excess of strength in the trenails, so that no
inconvenience could result from tlie process.

The President observed that although uncompressed trenails do draw out
of the stone blocks, they hold fast in wood sleepers. The round trenails
used to fasten the chairs to the sleepers on the Hull and Selby Railway, were
of a proper size to fit the hole in the chair, and at the end a square head
was left, which held the chair down.

Mr. Cubitt had frequently seen trenails or plugs driven into stone blocks
to receive the iron spikes which fastened down tho chairs ; he believed they
had also been used for driving through the chairs into the blocks, but he was
not aware that they had been used in wood sleepers until he employed them
no the South-Eastern Railway.

In answer to a question from the President, Mr. Lynde explained, that
upon the HuU and Selby Railway, trenails were certainly used in conjunction
with wooden sleepers, a portion of them were uncompressed, but the greater
part were compressed like the wedges ; the latter were supplied by Mr. Wil-
liam Cubitt.

Mr. William Cubitt only supplied the wedges, they were compressed as he
had previously explained ; he believed that the trenails and wedges generally
used upon the London and Birmingham, and other railways, were compressed
by being driven through steel rings, liy heavy mallets, or by a press ; they
were most frequently used in the stone blocks to receive the iron spikes.

March 8. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of the Tanis for Kyanizing the Timber for the permanent
way of the Hull and Selhy Railway." By John Timperley.

Upon the recommendation of Messrs. Walker and Burges, the Engineers,
it was determined that the sleepers of this railway should be kyanized in
close vessels, using exhaustion and pressure, instead of in the open tanks
usually employed. The present communication, which includes a description
of the kyanizing vessels, and an account of the various circumstances con-
nected with the operation, commences by describing the apparatus, as shown
by the accompanying drawing, to consist of two tanks, a reservoir, two force
pumps, and a double air pump. The tanks are cylindrical, with flat ends,
and are made of wrought iron plates, nearly half an inch in thickness ; they
are 70 ft. in length, and 6 ft. in diameter : at each extremity is a cast iron
door, flat on the outside, and concave on the inner side, provided with
balance weights for raising and lowering it. Each end is strengthened by
five parallel cast iron gu'ders, whose extremities are held by wrouglit iron
straps rivetted on to the circumference of the tanks. Notwithstanding the
great strength of these girders, several were broken by the pressure applied
during the process. The vessels are lined with felt, upon which is laid a
covering of close jointed fir battens, fastened with copper rivets ; this pre-
caution is nccessarj' to prevent the mutual deterioration which would arise
from the contact of the iron and corrosive sublimate. There was originally
only one brass force pump, 2 in. diameter, and 6 in. stroke ; this being found
insufficient, another was added of 4 in. diameter, and henceforward a pressure
of 1001b. per square inch was easily obtained. The air pump is 10 in. dia-
meter, and 15 in. stroke. Its construction is of the ordinary kind. Tlie
author gives in au appendix to the paper a minute description of the various
parts of the apparatus, with the details of their dimensions and weight.
The process is simple and rapid ; the corrosive sublimate is first mixed with
warm water in a trough, in the proportion of 1 lb. of the former to 2 gallons
of the latter ; the clear solution is then poured off into the reservoir, where
water is added till it is diluted to the proper point, which may be ascertained
by an hydrometer : a more perfect test is the action of the solution upon
silver, which it turns brown at the requisite degree of saturation. The
operations of exhaustion and pressure employ eight men for five hours, the
whole process occupying about seven hours, during which time from 17 to 20
loads are kyanized in each tank. It is desirable that the timber should
remain stacked for two or three weeks after kyanizing before it is used. It
was found that about | lb. of corrosive sublimate sufficed to prepare one load
(50 cubic feet) of timber. About 337,000 cubic feet of timber were kyanized,
the average expense of which, including part of the first cost of the tanks,
was about 5</. per cubic foot. The timber was tested after the process, and
it was found that the solution had penetrated to the heart of the logs.

The paper contains some interesting tables exhibiting the quantity of
solut'on taken up by different kinds of wood with and without exhaustion ;
fom these it appears tliat the saturation per cubic foot in the latter case did
I o£ exceed 2'25 lb. with specimens of Dantzic timber, whereas it ranged
I etween 12'24 lb. and 15.25 1b. with pieces of home-grown wood. The
iutbor observes that this striking difference may be partly due to the greater

compactness of the foreign timber. Appended to this communication is a
correspondence between Mr. J. G. Lynde and Mr. James Simpson relative to
the best tests of the presence of corrosive sublimate, accompanied by letters
from Mr. Colthurst and Dr. Reid ; the former of these describes the process
of kyanizing adopted on the Great Western Railway, and the latter suggests
the three following tests; — 1st, dilute hydro-sulphuret of ammonia; 2nd,
a strong solution of potassa ; dilute nitric acid and proto-muriate of tin,
also gold-leaf with this solution ; and 3rd, iodide of potassium. Directions
are given for the application of these tests.

Mr. Lynde also mentions the use of a solution of nitric acid, and by the
application of hydriodate of potash detecting the presence of mercury in a
specimen taken from the heart of a log of timber 10 in. by 5 in., and 9 ft.
long. lie also details appearances of the destructive action of the corrosive
sublimate upon the iron-work with which it came into contact, which would
be prejudicial to the use of iron bolts in kyanized sleepers.

A drawing explanatory of the whole apparatus accompanied the com-
munication.

Remarks. — In answer to questions relative to the process of exhausting
the air from the receiver in which the bank-note paper was wetted at the
Banks of England and Ireland previously to being printed, Mr. Oldham
stated that as an experiment a packet of 1000 sheets of paper had remained
a whole day in water without being wetted through : whereas by exhausting
the air from the vessel containing them to a partial vacuum of 22 inches of
the barometer, and admitting water, they had been perfectly saturated in five
minutes ; the edges of the paper in simple immersion would rot away before
the mass was saturated ; by the exhausting process 5,000 sheets of bank-note
paper would absorb 16 lb. of water.

Mr. Simpson conceived that exhaustion would facilitate the process of
kyanizing ; but he believed that if time was allowed, pressure would accom-
plish the same end as perfectly, for he had observed that pieces of wood
which had remained four or five days in a water-main under pressure had
become perfectly saturated. Captain Scoresby, in his account of the whale-
fishery, remarks that when a whale carries a boat down it rarely rises again'
most probably because the fish plunges to such a depth that the extreme
pressure water-logs the boat : instances had been known of the specific gravity
of the planking being doubled by being carried down.

Mr. Newton remarked that immersion of timber in close tanks had been
practised by Mr. Langton many years since for bending timber ; a boiling
fluid was used in the tanks, and the wood was subjected to heat for a con-
siderable period. He had understood that Mr. Newmarch of Cheltenham
was the first person who used corrosive sublimate for preserving timber, and
that he had prepared and employed considerable quantities of wood. Mr.
Kyan snbseq\iently revived the system.

In Mr. Oldham's process of wetting paper, pressure was not requisite, on
account of its open texture. About the year 1819, Mr. Oldham had tried
the same process with perfect success for preserving meat.

Exhaustion had been tried by Mr. Harris for cleansing wool. The cops
of wool were put into an exhausted receiver, a solution of an alkali was then
admitted ; after remaining a short time in the liquid, a sufficient quantity of
diluted acid was added to neutralize the alkali, and the wool was washed out
in clean water. The process succeeded perfectly, but was too expensive.

Mr. Palmer had employed the kyanizing process for large pieces of timber,
for the ribs of lock gates, but had no means of ascertaining the depth to
which the mercury had penetrated. The use of corrosive sublimate was first
suggested by Sir \l. Davy in his lectures at the Royal Institution, as a means
of destroying the vegetating process in timber by the combination of the
chlorine in the former with the albumen of the latter. Mr. Palmer mucli
doubted whether the means used for exhausting the capillary tubes effected
the object, unless the timber was in a dry state, and he considered it equally
doubtful whether the solution could be forced to any considerable depth by
compression, especially if any moisture actually filled the capillary tubes.
The application of pressure in the process of salting meat suggested by Mr.
Perkins many years ago, was a complete failure.

Mr. Simpson observed that in the experiments of Messrs. Donkin and
Bramah pressure alone had been used, and it could easily be understood that
owing to the cellular formation of meat, the pressure, instead of forcing the
salt through it, caused the substance to collapse and the brine was prevented
from penetrating.

Mr. Braithwaite explained that in Payne and Elmore's process, although
pressure had been found indispensable, tlie meat was more perfectly prepared
when exhaustion was also employed, therefore both were now combined.

Mr. May reverted to the subject of kyanizing timber; he believed that
exhausting the air from the tanks previously to the admission of the solution
was a loss of time — the fluid should be admitted first, or at least while the
exhaustion was proceeding; labour and time would thus be saved, and the
air would be more completely expelled from the capillary tubes before pres-
sure was applied. It was essential that the timber should be as far as
possible deprived of its sap as well as dried : as either sap or moisture
appeared to prevent the proper action of the corrosive sublimate.

Mr. Cubitt regretted that experiments had not been made on the same-
kinds of wood both with and without exhaustion. The experiments on small
pieces of foreign (Memel and Dantzic) timber with SO lb. to 100 lb. pressure
without exhaustion, showed an increase of weight of from 11 to 2 oz. in
pieces of about ^'^ part the size of a sleeper, and that result agreed very
nearly with bis practice with sleepers of Memel and Dantzic timber, when
kvanized without exhaustion under a pressure of 80 lb. to the inch ; sleepers

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

203

of 2J to 2} cubic feet, gaining from 3 lb. to 5 lb. in weight by the process.
No result had been given of experiments with sleepers of foreign fir timber,
in which both exhaustion and pressure had been applied, but it appeared that
the Scotch fir sleepers weighing 100 lb. when kyaniied under exhaustion and
a pressure of 100 lb. to the inch, gained 33 per cent, in weight, which was
equal to 3 gallons of water being forced into less than 3 cubic feet of timber;
he thought that this difference could not be all due to exhaustion, but that it
must depend greatly upon the quality of the wood, because under a pressure
of 100 lb. to the inch, the air contained in a tubular substance (such as fir
timber) would all be compressed into about ^ of its natural bulk without
previous exhaustion, so that the difference between 5 lb. and 30 lb. forced
into a sleeper, could not, he thought, be all due to exhaustion, but must
depend upon other circumstances not explained in this paper.

The President thought that the greater degree of absorption by the Scotch
fir might be accounted for by its open texture, whereas the foreign timber
was more compact and also contained more turpentine. It might also have
been wetter than the Scotch fir, which he believed had been the case.

Mr. Taylor observed that hitherto the attention of the meeting had been
entirely directed to mechanical action, but that the chemical combination of
the corrosive sublimate with the albumen of the wood, was the point most
insisted upon by Kyan ; it was supposed to be similar to the operation of
tanning hides, in which the tannin of the bark combined with and saturated
the animal gelatin, which would not otherwise be permeable by the fluid in
which it was placed.

Lieut. Oldfield suggested that if the timber when piled in the tank was
subjected to the action of heat at 212°, the moisture contained in the capillary
tubes would be expelled in the form of steam, and that on the admission of
the solution, tbe tubes would instantly be filled with it, because of the partial
vacuum formed in them.

Mr. Colthurst observed with regard to the tests for ascertaining the amount
of saturation of the timber, that lie had tried all those described by Mr.
Lynde, and had not been able to discover the presence of mercury in the
heart of any of the timbers prepared for the Great Western Railway ; their
dimensions were 6 in. by 12 in. Dr. Faraday had, he believed, detected it
by the aid of the galvanic battery in the heart of a piece of timber 2 ft.
square, after simple immersion in the solution for fourteen days.

Mr. Moss had tried many experiments as to the most delicate tests for
ascertaining the depth to which the mercury had penetrated : the most satis-
factory test was gold-leaf, as from its strong aflinity for mercury, the presence
of the latter was immediately detected. The mode of proceeding was to put
some fibres of the wood to be tested into a small test tube, mixed with a
portion of dry carbonate of soda ; then to place over, but not in contact with
it, a small piece of gold-leaf, and apply beat to the bottom of the tube. If
any mercury was present, in however small a quantity, the fumes would rise
and discolour the gold-leaf.

Mr. W. Cubitt said that timber was at all times, more or less, charged with
moisture : he had found deals, supposed to be dry, lose 10 per cent, of their
weight from steam drying ; it was evident that the presence of moisture in
the pores of the wood must militate against the success of kyanizing by
simple immersion, unless it was continued for a very long period. In close
tanks, when exhaustion and pressure were resorted to, the moisture was
perhaps of less importance ; but still, if the sap was extracted, and the
timber previously dried, the process of kyanizing would be more efiicient.

Mr. S. Seaward adopted Mr. Palmer's position, as to the almost impossi-
bility of forcing the solution through the capillary tubes of a long piece of
timber, the pressure being applied equally all over the surface : he believed
the present method of kyanizing to be very imperfect, and alluded to a num-
ber of sleepers so prepared for the West India Dock warehouses having been
recently discovered to be decayed.

Mr. Martin confirmed this account of the decay of the sleepers : fifty out
of seventy were destroyed ; they had been prepared by simple immersion,
and had been down about five years. He had understood that some of the
wooden tanks in which the solution was kept at the Anti-Dry-Rot Company's
yard were decayed.

Mr. C. May believed that the destruction of the tanks might have arisen
from the constant corrosive action of the mercury, and not from decay. The
capillary vessels of timber filled with air and sap, under exhaustion the air
would expand and drive before it a considerable portion of the sap and
moisture. In preparing tlie compressed trenails and wedges he used steam,
and found that the pores were opened by it. He suggested that steam should
be blown through the tanks until all the timber in them was raised to a cer-
tain temperature, and then by opening the communication with the reservoir
the solution would rush in and fill up the vacuum.

Mr. Cowper believed that it was only necessary to bring the chlorine of
the corrosive sublimate and the albumen of the timber into contact, when
sufficiently dry, to insure the preservation of the wood. He had occasion to
try experiments with paper pulp, and was constantly annoyed by its decaying
— but the addition of a small quantity of chlorine had preserved it good for
two years, and he believed that it would continue unchanged.

General Pasley confirmed the statement as to the increase of the specific
gravity of timber from long immersion at considerable depths. He had
found all the timber, except the mainmast, in the Uoyal George, at a depth
of about 90 ft., water-logged. The oak timber had increased on an average
more than 50 per cent, above its usual specific gravity.
Mr. F. Braithwaite remarked upon the doubt which appeared to exist

among members as to the correctness of that part of Mr. Timperley's paper
where a sleeper containing 3 cubic feet of timber was reported to have in-
creased 30 lb. in weight. Mr. Braithwaite had made some experiments, the
results of which showed that a piece of Memel timber containing 533 cubic
inches, and weighing when dry 9 lb. became double its weight when subjected
to a pressure of about 320 lb. per square inch without previous exhaustion ;
the machine which he used not being provided with an air pump. A smaller
jiiece of American pine, containing 76 cubic inches, and weighing 1 lb. 7 oz.
increased in weight to 3 lb. under a similar pressure. This, he contended,
established the correctness of Mr. Timperley's Report. There appeared also
to be a misconception as to the amount of corrosive sublimate employed :
the paper states tliat J lb. was the quantity used for each load of timber of
50 cubic feet. He promised to make some further experiments, and report
them to a future meeting.

Mr. Bull had prepared considerable quantities of boards for the Calder and
Hebble Navigation, by immersing them in the solution for two or three days,
which was about double the period allowed by the patentees. He had some
specimens of the boards, and in almost all of them there was an appearance of
decay in various stages. An oak board 1 inch think, kyanized in 1839, had
lain ever since upon the damp ground exposed to the air : the sap part was
entirely decayed, but the heart remained sound; fungus was, however,
growing upon it. Poplar boards, kyanized in 183S, 39, and 40, were all
partially decayed ; those which were not prepared, and had been exposed in
the same situation for the same period, showed, however, more symptoms of
decay. In preparing the timber he had always followed the instructions of
the patentees, and had tested the strength of the solution with the hydro-
meter, but had mixed up fresh solutiou even more frequently than was
supposed to be required. On dismantling one of the tanks for holding the
solution, he found the iron-work partially destroyed and enturely covered with
globules of mercury.

llr. Thompson explained that the hydrometer was not a correct testing
instrument if any vegetable matter was present in the solution ; that the
tanks on the premises of the Anti-Dry-Rot Company were necessarily made
of unprepared timber ; that the bi-chloride of mercury in solution would
penetrate any length of timber, if the extremities of the sap vessels were
exposed to it's action, but that it would not penetrate laterally without pres-
sure ; it was not, therefore, surprising that a water-tight tank of unprepared
wood should decay on the outside, even if filled with the solution. With
regard to the strength of the solution, at first it was believed that 1 lb. of
corrosive sublimate to 20 gallons of water was sufficiently strong, and much
timber had been so prepared, but experience had since proved that the
strength of the mixture should not be less than 1 lb. to 15 gallons, and he
had never found any well-authenticated instance of timber decaying when it
had been properly prepared at that strength : as much as 1 in 9 was not
unfrequently used. In a cubic foot of wood prepared under a pressure of
70 lb. per square inch, mercury had been found by the galvanic battery to
have penetrated to the heart.

Mr. Home mentioned that a new process had been invented by Mr. Payne
for rendering timber proof against dry or wet rot, and the ravages of insects ;
for increasing its durability and tendering it incapable of combustion. The
mode of proceeding was to impregnate the wood with metallic oxides, alka-
lies, or earths, as might be required, and to decompose them in the interior
of the wood, forming new and insoluble compounds.

Mr. Taylor drew the attention of the meeting to a Memoir on the Preser-
vation of Woods which had been read before the French Academy of Sciences
by Dr. Boucheric. It was argued, that all the changes in wood were attri-
butable to the soluble parts they contain, which cause fermentation and sub-
sequent decay, or serve as food for the worms that so rapidly penetrate even
the hardest woods. By analysis it was found that sound timbers contained
from three to seven per cent, of soluble matter, and the decayed and worm-
eaten, rarely more than one or two per cent. ; since therefore the soluble
matters of the wood were the causes of the changes it underwent, it became
necessary for its preservation, either to abstract these soluble parts, or to
render them insoluble, by introducing substances which should prevent their
fermenting. This might be done by many of the metallic salts or earthy
chlorides. Pyrolignite of iron was particularly recommended as being a very
effective substance and cheaper than coirosive sublimate. The process was,
to immerse the end of a tree, immediately after it was felled, in the solution
of metallic salt, when, the vital energies not having ceased, the fluid was
absorbed throughout all the pores of the tree, by a process which is termed
"aspiration." The fluid had been applied in bags, to the base of the trees
when in a horizontal position, or to one of the branches, or by boring holes
to the heart, a few branches and a tuft of leaves being always left at the top
of the principal stem. It was necessary to apply the process speedily after
felling the timber, as the vigour of the absorption was found to abate rapidly
after the first dav, and became scarcely perceptible aliout the tenth day,
whilst in dead wood, or where there was any accidental interruption of the
flow of the sap during growth, the " aspiration " entirely failed ; resinous
trees absorbed less of the fluid than any other. The ends proposed to be
attained by this process were chiefly— preserving from dry-rot; increasmg
the hardness and the elasticity ; preventing the usual changes of form or
splitting ; reducing the inflammability and giving various colours and odours,,
according to the nature of the fluid absorbed.

Mr. Bethell remarked that the process described in Dr. Boucherie's pam-
phlet was identical with that patented by him July 11th 1838, two years

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[June,

before Dr. Boucberie's was mentioned in Paris, which was in June 1840.
The specification filed by Mr. Bethell stated " that trees just cut down may
he rapidiv impregnated with the solution of the first class, hereafter men-
tioned (among which is included the pyrolignite of iron) by merely placing
the butt ends in tanks containing the solution, which will circulate with the
sap throughout the whole tree ; or it may be done by means of bags made of
waterproof cloth affixed to the butt ends of the trees and then filled with the
liquid."— Mr. Bethell found that some solutions were taken up more rapidly
by the sap and circulated with it more freely than others, and the pyrolignite
of iron seemed to answer best ; he had not hitherto introduced the process
in England, because it was much more expensive than the oil of tar, the py-
rolignite costing from 6d. to 9rf. per gallon, and the oil being delivered at 3rf.
per gallon.— Mr. Bethell had used similar tanks to those described in Mr.
Timperlev's paper for preparing wood with the oil of tar, but as the oil is
ver)' penetrating, previous exhaustion of the air had been found unnecessary,
the' hydrostatic power being sufficient. The mode of working the tanks was
to charge them with timber, close them and fill them with the oil ; a hydro-
static pressure of from 100 lbs. to 150 lbs. to the inch was applied by means
of the force-pumps, and kept up for about six hours ; this was sufficient to
cause the wood to absorb from 35 to 40 gallons per load. By this means a
charge of timber was easily prepared daily, the cost being about 14s. per
load. This was the plan pursued at Manchester for the Manchester and
Birmingham Railway, by Mr. Buck (upon the recommendation of Mr. Robert
Stephenson), and also' at Bristol and Bridgewater by Mr. Brunei. Mr.
Bethell preferred egg-shaped ends for the tanks as they resist the pressure
better than flat ends. The solution of corrosive sublimate used at Hull
appeared to Mr. Bethell to be very weak. The advice given by Sir Humphrey
Davy to the Admiralty many years since was, to use 1 lb. of corrosive sub-
limate dissolved in 4 gallons o'f water, and Mr. Kyan in the specification of
his patent states that strength, but according to the paper it appeared that
45 gallons of water were used to 1 lb. of the salt instead of 4 lbs.

In answer to a question from Mr. Pellatt, Mr. Bethell stated that his ex-
periments on the use of silicate of potash or soluble glass for rendering wood
uninflammable were not yet concluded ; he had proved its efficacy in this
point — that as soon as the prepared timber was heated, the glass melted and
formed a filmy covering over the surface, which protected it from the oxygen
of the air and prevented its catching fire. The silicate also hardened the
wood and rendered it more durable. This process was included in his patent
of July 11, 183S.

Professor Brande could add but little to what had been said on the sub-
iect, but he mentioned a curious appearance in a beech tree in Sir John Se-
"bright's park in Hertfordshire, which, on being cut down, was found perfectly
black all up the heart. On examination, it was discovered that the tree had
grown upon a mass of iron scoriae from an ancient furnace, and the wood had
absorbed the salt of iron exactly in the same manner as had been described
in the new process. The degrees of absorption of various solutions by difl'e-
lent woods demanded careful experiments, as some curious results would be
obtained ; it was a question whether a solution of corrosive sublimate in tur-
pentine, or in oil of coal tar would not be advantageous, as both substances
were so readily absorbed by timber.

Mr. Defries explained the construction and action of his Dry Gas Meter,
which was exhibited before it was fixed in the Gallery of the Institution.

The instrument consists of a hexagonal case with three solid partitions
radiating from the centre to the circumference, across each division thus
formed is a flexible partition, to the centre of which is fixed a plate, con-
nected by a lever and shafts with the valves on the top of the case ; by means
of a combination of levers and cranks with a worm and screw a circular
motion is given to dials indicating the quantity of gas which passes through
the machine. ■

The gas, on entering the upper chamber, passes through the valve into the
first division and distends the flexible partition until the lever is carried to a
certain point, when by means of the connecting shaft the inlet valve is closed,
the outlet valve is opened, and the second division commences its action,
which is continued by the third, thus producing an equal flow of gas, and an
uniform motion is given to the counter-dials, which necessarily indicate the
number of times the divisions have been inflated and emptied, and thus
measure the quantity which has passed through in a given time.

The instrument which was presented to the Institution, had its sides
formed of glass in order to show the action of the machinery.

lines of moulding than the secondary compartments inclosed within them ;
3rd, Parallelism, with relation to the mouldings, or groups of mouldings,
which form the common divisions between adjoining compartments ; 4th,
Symmetry, or a siinilaritv between the opposite sides of those divisions. In
complete' tracerv, where 'all these four principles are carried out, the com-
partments are c'ompactly fitted together, and the mouldings mitre wherever
they meet. In the tracerv of the early Gothic, these principles are only
partially developed ; thus, 'in the triforium of Salisbury Cathedral, we find
foliation and subordination, but neither parallelism nor symmetry. A seg-
mental arch incloses two pointed arches, and each pointed arch two others.
Here we have subordination, and foliation appears in the arches last men-
tioned, and in the openings in the spandrils; but there is no parallelism, the
forms of the open compartments being without reference to each other, and
having blank spaces without tracery between ; and symmetry is wanting,
since the mouldings of the secondary and tertiary compartments are treated
differently in different parts of the composition. All this is characteristic of
early Gothic tracery, and may be seen at Ely, Gloucester, and other edifices
in the same style. The tracery of the cloister and chapter-house at Salisbury,
the details of which Prof. Willis illustrated by several elaborate drawings, is
remarkable as forming a link between the early and late tracery, going a step
in advance of the former, without being complete. Parallelism is added to
the two first principles, but symmetry is still wanting, each corresponding
set of compartments being treated differently on each side of the dividing
mouldings. There is, therefore, very little mitring, although the compart-
ments fit together perfectly, without any blanks between them, as in the tn-
forium of the church. So great an independence in the mouldings, where
the principles of tracery are otherwise so perfectly developed, is very singular.
The same observations apply both to the inside and outside of the windows,
although these also differ from each other. .

Another characteristic of eariy tracery is, that every compartment, princi-
pal or subordinate, has its separate hood-mould, as in the triforium already
cited ■ but in the cloister and chapter-house this is discontinued, and its
place supplied by a large double ogee. The Professor then made some re-
marks on the necessity of studying the true forms of the mouldings m Gothic
architecture. The ancient details will be found, on examination, to he drawn
with astonishing spirit and freedom of hand, whereas it is too much the
modern practice to draw all the curves with the compasses— a method totally
destructive of their real character, especially in the early Gothic style. In
conclusion, he exhibited an instrument by which such curves may be traced
with precision. It consists of a stylus, bent at one end in such a manner,
that while by turning it in different directions, it enters into the deepest
hollows, the point is always in one axis, at the extremity of which a pencil
traces the lines followed by the point. This portion of the instrument was
invented and exhibited at the Institute by Prof. Willis some time since, and
he has now added to it a parallel movement attached to a drawing-board ;
by this contrivance, the most intricate combinations of mouldings may be
traced with great facility and the most perfect accuracy.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
May 16.— T. L. Donaldson, Esq., V. P., in the chair.

A paper was read by Prof. Willis, " On Gothic Tracery, exemplified by the
Windows of the Chapter House at Salisbury,"

In the tracery of the Gothic style, four principles may be discerned, which
will be found universal when the tracery is perfectly developed. 1st, Folia-
tion, or the decoration of the compartments with those curves and points
which have been denominated cusps ; 2nd, Subordination, or the division of
the design into certain leading compartments, which are marked by bolder

GERISH'S PATENT CYLINDRICAL MORTICE LOCK.

This lock, as shown in the annexed engraving, which is drawn to
half the real size, merits general attention from the simplicity of
construction, and the easy manner in which it can be fixed to doors,
the portability of the key, and the security it affords. It will be seen
that by merely boring a hole with an auger in the door, it is at once
fixed, thereby saving considerable time in cutting a large mortice
which frequently injures the door. There is only one bolt, for the
purpose of locking it ; there is a contrivance at the back or end of
the bolt; by turning the key a lever or tumbler is let down which
prevents the latch bolt being turned back. The mortice lock before
us, strong enough for a room door, is 6 inches long and i of an inch in
diameter.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

205

THE NEW PALACE OF MOORSHEDABAD, IN BENGAL,
Erected for His Highness Nuu-anb Nazim, by Major General M'Leod.

Sir — Under this head, in the number for the present month of your very
valuable Journal, honourable mention is made of " Two very splendid water-
colour drawings by Mr. John Edward Jones, being perspective views of a
Palace built in India for one of the subsidiary princes." As the mistake into
which you have most unacco\intably fallen in the above notice is calculated
to do me some injury both in ray professional and private capacity, you will
excuse me for troubling you with a few lines on the subject.

The drawings adverted to were sent to the Institution of Civil Engineers
from the office of Mr. J. E. Jones by whom I was engaged to prepare them,
but not one line was drawn nor one brush of colour applied by Mr. Jones to
either. The work, whatever it may be, was wholly mine — drawn from plans
supplied by and directions and explanations given to me, from time to time,
by General M'Leod personally, who has permitted me to refer to bira for the
accuracy of this statement.

As I was fully prepared to bear any blame or criticism to wliieh these
exhibitions before such competent judges might have subjected me, I shall
not, I presume, be considered luircasonable in claiming any credit which these
productions of my pencil may be deemed worthy.

The following extracts from a letter of a mucli respected and valued friend
in Manchester will, howev.:-!-. show that I have no choice in the matter, but
that I am imperatively called upon in support of my own character to make
this statement — " In this month's Civil Engineer's Journal, I find an
engraving of General M'Leod's palace, and great credit given to a Mr. Some-
body for having made the drawings. Is this a mistake, or have you misled
me .'" This leads me further to observe, that I have now in the Exhibition
of the Royal Academy two other drawings (Nos. 1027 and 1050) from the
same subject, and though not copies of those sent to "the Institution," they
are composed and drawn from the same source. The two sets of drawings
will be seen by many of the same individuals, and it might be imagined without
some explanation, that I had been guilty of plagiarism, and had pirated both
ideas and subjects from those first exhibited as the production of Mr. J. E.
Jones. As this would stamp me with a character which I, in common with
every honourable mind, despise and detest, I must beg of you to give
insertion to this communication in your next number.
Rutland Cottage, I am, Sir,

John Street, Hampstead, Your obedient servant,

Mag 9, 1842. J. W. Atkinso.v.

Sir — I have seen and have been much gratified by your notice of the
Moorshedabad palace in your excellent Journal for this month, or rather that
you have thought it worthy of a place there. Mr. Jones' draughtsman has,
however, made one or two unfortunate mistakes in the drawings, which I
should be very glad if you could oblige me by in any way bringing to the
notice of those who look upon such matters with interest, in your next
monthly publication.

In the first place, the scale for the elevation is just half what it should be, the
whole space from 0 to 50 being divided into 50 instead of 100 feet. In the
next place he has been guilty of an omission in the plan, which I dare say
you will agree with me in considering in a great measure destructive of the
beauty of the southern portico, by leaving out the two internal columns
between the anta of the recess, as shown in the annexed engraving ; they
being a principal feature in the composition, while the capitals of the pilas-
ters or antas are very clumsily represented.

w

-.gJ

wm

Jt

There are also one or two i-rrors of the press in the original report, which
I ought to have marked before 1 sent it to you through Mr. Jones. In de-
scribing the circular room, p. 152, column 2, line 48, it mentions four large
covered recesses instead of caved recesses, and at the same place the words
"over which are long panels," ought to have been within brackets [ ],
without which that which follows appears nonsense. There also appears the
word bricken-edge instead of brick-on-edge.

I remain,

2iO, Regent Street, ' Yours very faithfully,

ifay 9, 1842. D. M'Leod.

TREWHITT'S APPARATUS FOR DISCONNECTING PADDLE
WHEELS.

Sir — In a recent number of your Journal, I observed a drawing and de-
scription of Trewbitt's Patent .\pparatus for disconnecting the paddle wheels
of steam vessels from the engines.

This apparatus has been applied by Scott, Sinclair & Co. to the steam ship
Phoenix, which they have just completed, and the result of the trials made
with it is so satisfactory, I consider it due to the Patentee to state that for
its simplicity, facility of operation, and absence of lial)ility to derangement,
it has not been surpassed liy any invention yet introduced for that purpose.

Tlie paddle wheels are connected to, or disconnected from the engines
with a friction strap by a few blows of a sledge hammer on the end of a key,
which is shown in your drawing; and the greatest proof of its superiority
over every other mode is that the paddle wheels were connected and discon-
nected when the vessel was at full speed.

Your obedient servant,

James M. Scott.

Grenoch Foundry, May 21, 1842.

REVIE-WrS.

./f Treatise on Land Surveying and Levelling. By Heniit James
Castle, D.P.S. London : Simpkin ami Marshall, 1842.

Practical Geology. By Butler Williams, C.E., F.G.S. London:
Parker, 1842.

Course of Civil Engineerivg, comprising Plane Trigonometry, Surveying
and Levelling. By John Gregory, Esq., C.E. Dublin : Samuel
J. Machen, 1842.

If all the books (hat have been written on the subject of surveying
had in reality been what the authors professed, and what the public
had a right to expect they should be, what a nation of surveyors would
this have been! Surely no other profession in the world has ever
been so blessed with the labours of industrious authors; — no other
profession can boast of an amount of printed paper devoted to its
especial use, which, had it been properly employed, would have sufficed
to teach the art of surveying to every man, woman and child in the
empire. But when we ask the question how many of these books
have been worth the labour bestowed in writing them, or rather in
copying and compiling them, how many have repaid the trouble of
reading, and been worth the expense of buying — one general expression
of indignant contempt for the stale and childish nonsense with which
the majority of these books have been filled, flashes upon us from
every side, an answer too correct for refutation, too bitter for ridi-
cule.

The proof indeed that these books, in common with other means
more likely to succeed, have failed entirely in tli.it which the authors
sought to accomplish, may be found in the fact that a large number of
the provincial surveyors of this country are exceedingly incompetent
to conduct even the process of common land measuring, on any thing
like an extensive scale. The great survey which has been for some
years in progress for the combined object of eft'ecting the commutation
of tithes, and the establishment of a new parochial assessment has
tested in a remarkable degree the capacity of the local surveyors in
all parts of the country. It would be interesting to know, with respect
to each county of England and Wales, how many of its parishes or
townships have been surveyed by men locally established, and how
many have been done by surveyors from the sister isle, who have con-
tinued to swarm over to this country ever since the commencement
of these surveys. It would probably be found that those counties
where a great number of enclosure acts have been obtained within the
last 50 years — those which have been the site of large engineering
works, and particularly those which contain the vast tracts of land
brought into cultivation by lowering the outfalls of the Ouse and the
None, do possess at this time locar surveyors who understand their
business, and who would have been capable, had they been sufficiently
numerous, to conduct the whole of the tithe and poor law surveys of this
country. On the other hand, in those counties where there have been
no waste lands or no open fields to enclose and to allot — where the
development of manufacturing resources has not so extensively nor so
rapidly called lor the interchange and alienation of land — and where
no new creation of the solid acres has required allotments, divisions
and subdivisions to be made, it is quite natural to suppose that the art
of surveying should have fallen ort' for mere want of practice on the
part of its professors.

U

206

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[JVNK,

The deficiency of good surveyors in England was readily supplied
from tlvjt large bodv wlioni, the Ordnance survey of Ireland had trained
up in the style of practice, which was Jof all others the best adapted
for the ordinary chain surveys of land. A great proportion of the
parochial surveys thruughoiit England and Wales has accordingly been
executed by these men, and it is impossible to deny that their pro-
ductions reilect great credit upon the school in which they were
trained, and upon the system which they had been taught to practice.
We are not able to decide whether all the objects required by the
>;ew Poor Law Act, and by that for the Commutation of Tithes have
been thus as satisfactorily accomplished as if the survey had been
executed by the native surveyors, whose local knowledge, one might
suppose, would in many respects have given them great advantages over
a body of strangers. But however this may be, the surveyors of England
have only to think themselves for all the injury which many of them
in no very measured terms impute to the immigration of their Irish
brethren. It is quite certain that if the native surveyors in England
had been competent themselves to execute these parochial surveys
■with the necessary degree of accuracy, the value of the surveyor's
labour would not at this day have been reduced to the jjitiful rates at
•which it is now performed. Compel ition, in its proper place and
under certain necessary restrictions, is a very good aid wholesome
check upon arbitrary and extravagant charges, but there are circum-
stances connected with the competition to which these parochial sur-
veys have given rise, which press with peculiar hardship upon the
surveyors of this country.

Admitting the truth of these remarks, it would appear that the sur-
veyors as a body have yet much to learn ; and in so far the publica-
tion of books to teach thein their business seems to be justified by the
■necessities of the case. The misfortune however is that books may
be either useful or useless, and if the majority of surveying books
have been of the latter class, it would have been better by far if they
had never been given to the world. But in addition to the assistance
which many professed surveyors might derive from useful practical
works, the instruction of the rising generation claims particular atteri-
tion. The establishment of numerous colleges and schools of civil
engineering, and the appointment in these of professors of geodesy
and land surveying, mark well the general importance attached to the
education of the engineer in that part of his profession which relates
to the measuring ot'land, and to the other operations necessary before
the commencement of constructive works.

Notwithstanding the great number of books which profess to treat
on surveying, there are few which comprise any thing like a course
of instruction in field engineering; and it is to supply this deficiency
that the professors of tliis art in several of the new colleges have
prepared for the use of their pupils, treatises intended to guide and
promote their studies. The three books mentioned at the head of this
article proceed from three of these professors, the author of the first
being the lecturer on practical surveying and levelling to King's Col-
lege, London, while Mr. Williams is the professor of geodesy in the
College for Civil Engineers, London, and Mr. Gregory is the resident
director of the College for Civil Engineering, Mining, and Agriculture
in Ireland.

It gives us great pleasure to be able to speak in terms of unqualified
praise of Mr. Williams' book, which not only contains a mass of con-
densed and useful instruction on those branches of the subject which
had been treated by former authors, but also presents several chapters
of great practical value upon subjects which have hitherto been quite
untouched. The chapter on hill drawing and tliat on surveying as
applicable to the colonics are of this kind. The first is an admirable
ilescriplion of the system of normal contours adopted on the ordnance
survey of Ireland, and on the French cadastral survey. It is scarcely
possible to convey a clear idea of this system without quoting the
entire chapter, but in its application to the representation on a plane
surface of the natural irregularities of a country, it may be understood
by conceiving a number of perfectly horizontal lines to be traced
around a hill, and afterwards transferred to the paper on which the
plan of the hill is represented. These lines are termed normal con-
tours, and supposing the hill to be of a iierfectly conical shape, they
would appear on the plan as concer trie ciicles, whilst in hilis of
other shapes, tlie irregularly projecting parts would be shown by out-
ward flexures of the norma! contours, and the irregularly retreating
paits by inward flexures of the contours. The practice is to trace
these horizontal lines at equal vertical distances so that the steepness
of the slope at any particular point on the ]ilan is indicated by the
distance between tiie normal contours at that point.
i. "On the Irish survey, the plans with the normal contours traced
upon them are afterwards placed in the hands of field-parlies, whose
dui V consists in filling in the detail to produce physical relief, and give
exjression of form and character to the drawings." There is ob-

viously no limit to the degree of fidelity ard value which maybe
given "to these representations. The contours for example may be
traced at very small vertical equal distances by means of levelling a
series of pickets in the same way as level stakes are fixed in railway
and canal works, and as the horizontal distance between the contours
may always be taken from the plan, and the veitical distance being
constant is always known, it is obvious that a section exhibiting the
levels of the country may be laid down in any direction from a plan
distinguished by this method of representing its irregularities. We
have thus merely glanced at this beautiful style of representation, but
we must refer our readers to the work itself for a clear and well written
description of the best method of executing it in the actual practice
of surveying.

The chapter on surveying as applicable to the colonies will be highly
interesting at this time when so many young men are looking forward
to the em|)loyinent of their abilities in this distant field.

It is proposed to divide the land into sections of 80 acres, comprised
in rectangle*, whose length is equal to twice their breadth, and of which
there would of course be eight in a square mile. But as in all new
countries the possession of water frontage is considered a great ad-
vantage, some contrivance is necessary to distribute this in an equita-
ble manner, and to overcome the irregularity which would be intro-
duced into the form of the allotments if those bordering on the rivers
were made of equal size with the others. This contrivance appears
admirably adapted to aiTord satisfaction to the purchasers of the sec-
tions, and to preserve uniformity and simplicity in the method of lay-
inf them out. It is impossible however to describe it without the aid
of^the diagrams which illustrate this part of the work. The author
states that he is " indebted for the information embodied in this chap-
ter, to the able report on surveying as applieahle to the colonies, made
by Captain Dawson, R.E. to the Secretary of State for the Colonies,
in )84U." It were well if this gentlemanly habit of acknowledging
the sources of information, which Mr. Williams has every where fol-
lowed in his book, could by some means or other be made to possess
more favour in the eyes of authors. There is one admirable feature
also in Mr. Williams'' book which we must not omit to notice, namely,
that all the lumber about practical geometry and trigonometry with
which most of the surveying books are half filled has been discarded,
and he commences the book in a plain straight forward way, by show-
ing how to survey with the chain. When youths are set to learn even
the elementary parts of mathematics, such as geometry and trigono-
metry, it is not usual to put into their hands books on surveying for this
pur[iose, and we have always been at a loss to understand for whose
benefit— unless for that of the printer and the paper merchant— so
great a quantity ol elementary instruction in mathematics has pre-
ceded the introduction of the real subject of the work. In addition
to the two chapters we have noticed, Mr. Williams' book contains ex-
cellent remarks and instruction on the following amongst other sub-
jects—levelling with the mountain barometer — mining surveys — lati-
tude and longitude— maritime surveying, the whole of which are
treated in that masterly and original 'style which indicates a perfect
command of the subject in all its branches.

Of the other two books before us we have little to say. A single
glance suffices to show that they are not the productions of practical
men. They abound in most of the faults from which Mr. Williams'
book is free. Abundantly prefaced by preliminary matter which may
be taken from any elementary course of mathematics, they have both
scrupulously followed the practice of those venerable and ancient
authors who wrote on surveying 100 years ago. Thus the pupil is
first t uioht to survey one field by it«elf, then two fields together, and
then a bolder spring is taken, and he may proceed to half a dozen or
to a large survey. All this is mere nonsense, because the principle on
which land is measured, particularly by the chain, is so perfectly sim-
ple that it is just as easy to practice upon 500 fields together as upon
one, two, or three. It will scarcely be believed that the examples
showing the method of surveying even these single fields are suchas
any schoolboy, or at least any lad who has had three days' instruction
iu the fiekl, would be utterly ashamed of.

What will the practical surveyor say to such notes as this taken
from the example of a field book by Mr. Castle, for a survey of fields
near Maiden Lane. Line 578 ends at offset 98, at 908 on 1728. Line
579 ends at offset 23, at 820 on 1955. Line 734 ends at offset 21, at
483 on 968. We could scarcely believe, even on the actual eviilence of
our eyes, that the author meant these lines to terminate not in other
lines 'but at loose points determined by offsets. There is however no
donbtof the fact, because the planshowingHhe construction lines quite
confirms it. To those of our readers who have ever paid any attention
to the subject, no comment can be necessary on such a specimen of
surveying as this. , . , ■ ,u

Both the works are full of those old woodcuts which adorn the sur-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

207

veying books written by our ancestors, and they both contain the same
ample variety of expedients for doing lliat which no one was ever
puzzled to do, and probably will never be required to do if he should
practice surveying for 100 years. To give an idea of the extent to
which the most approved system of bookniaking has been followed
by Mr. Gregory, we may state that out of the 300 pages which com-
pose the book, the tiist IGO are filled with a treatise on logarithms ami
plane trigonometry, and with tables of logarithms and suies and tan-
gents, which tables to the amount of 50 pages being duly set forth in
the middle of the book, produce the agreeable eft'eet of varying the
monotony of the letter-press, at the same time that Ihey serve to eke
out the contents of the book to a very respectable bulk. This work of
Mr. Gregory's is called a course of civil engineering, and this is the
first volume of it. None of this relates to engineering, but one may
anticipate, from the specimen before us, what a splendid contribution
to engineering science tlie succeeding volumes will constitute.

Lecture on Fresco Painting.
1842.

By Mr. Haydon-. London : H. Hooper,

Among the labourers in introducing fresco, Mr. Haydon has taken
a prominent position, and we hope will do much good. We are
pleased to see that he is no longer what he was, for though occasion-
ally breaking out against "cocked hats," and the detestable Academy,
his opposition is more tempered, and his exertions better directed.
As a lecturer on the arts, he has done more than any man of the day
in making them popular, his address is striking, his' mode of treating
his subject pleasing, his acquaintance with liis subject extensive, and
his teachings, if not always sound, erring only by aiming at an unat-
tainable standard. As a public man, Mr. Haydon is now in the third
act of his career; his first was that of the promising artist, his second
that of the embittered, disappointed, and overweening opponent of
the whole artistic community; in his third act, as a public teacher, he
has given a popularity to art by lectures both in the metropolis and
the provinces, which have not only led to the formation of many
schools of design and classes for drawing, but have raised the character
of the artist and the srtisan. After exhibiting at the British Artists'
Institution last year, and the Royal Academy this, and hiving seen
that both now and on some former occasions, he could deliver an
hour's discourse without vituperating the "cocked hats," we look
upon him as an artist restored to the world, and we rejoice for him.
He is now, we hope, about to do service to the public, and honour to
himself, by promoting the national celebration of all the arts, whicli
the Houses of Parliament will immortalize.

Mr. Haydon is one of the west countrymen who have given so many
illustrious names to art, numbering two presidencies and the triumphs
of Reynolds, Lawrence, Opie and Daily. He came up from Devon-
shire one of the most promising men of the day, and started with
Wilkie, to whom he was equal in the delineation" of nature, while he
was then superior in having the choice of southern instead of northern
features, and having higher artistic aspirations. Wilkie's subsequent
career of hononr, all know. A schoolboy quarrel with the Royal Aca-
demy, one of whose members is said to have exclaimed, on hearing of
the arrival of Haydon's pictures for the exhibition, "Oh! Haydon's
pictures to the coal-hole," made him the Timon of modern art. " Hinc
illae lachrymae. He had rivals and he had partisans, he ruled his small
senate at Utica, and the class-book of human nature teaches us the
result, the ruin of his social and artistic position, and the gradual nar-
rowing of the circle of retainers, and the increase of that of foes.
Even with extraordinary men, the end of this has generally been fatal ;
Mr. Haydon owes it to his " bona indoles " that he has survived to
lead a more useful career. After being run after by the crowd, and
the master of Eastlake, Lance, and many eminent men, he had almost
ceased to enjoy the public countenance. He was little cared for as
a martyr, and his pictures had become too academic to satisfy either
his own old admirers or the public at large. Then came a' change
over art, partly, it must be owned, the fruit of his own exertions, the
epoch of popular instruction, and he has taken a part, as we have
said, in carrying out this great end, which, recalling the kindly feel-
ings of his nature, and bringing him in close contact with the great
public mind, the mother goddess, has reanimated his exertions, and
directed them towards better ends, and he may rest assured that if he
do but show himself worthy,- he has awakened such a spirit as will
allow no faction to exclude him from public patronage, and no malig-
nity to deprive him of his reward.

We have now to come to his doctrines. Struck with the Prome-
thean fire of the Elgin marbles, he has for years breathed nothing but
Greek art, and looking at those works as the masterpieces of the

world, he has become their secretary. He holds that high art consists
in the selection of the best parts of 'the best models and in their union,
a theory which, however specious it may be, is opposed to all natural
laws. Nature always requires a balance of powers, a repose after
exertion, and the practical effectof the to lialon principle in art has been
well shown by Mr. Severn in the last and present number of the Journal.
It is to vitiate and weaken the hand of the artist, while it produces a
work which palls on the eye. We believe that it is possible to pro-
duce a greater work than the Transfiguration or the Assumption, but
then it is not by going out of nature, but bv availing ourselves of it.
The all-exquisite, for it is not the all-beautiful, seems not to have
been sanctioned by the Creator, nor to be pleasing to his creatures,
and a collection of Apollos, Venuses, Theseuses and Ilissuses, are
about as unpromising on canvas, as the career of a modern Adonis is
represented in an annual, who, too handsome for anything, wished for
the horrors of the small pox to relieve him from hi's splendid misery.
The mind will look in the picture- for what occurs in the world, and
when it knows what English princes and great men are, what an Eng-
lish senate is, and what a mass of linman beings is in any place, it
cannot attach the idea of nature to the paradisaic creatures who are
grouped by the academists. We may look at the Ilissus or the
Apollo singly, we may bear the Graces united, but we could not in-
terest ourselves even in the whole family of the Niobes, if thev were
too much above the everyday standard. It would be well fo'r art if
its professors would oftener refer to the politico-economical doctrine
that to be beautiful a thing must be fitting, and we sliould have less
of the prettiness of art. That we are very backward in drawing we
know, and we are indebted to Mr. Haydon for having called public
attention to this defect, but we cannot, and particularly with his own
wurks before us, believe that the paukalon or rather i\\e pantariston is
the right principle in art. To our seeming, his sketches, John Bull at
Breakfast and Traveller reading the Times, contain more true art,
than any of his recent grand works, and the Mock Election in the
King's Bench and Chairing the Member are better worthy of immor-
tality than his infant Mary Queen of Scots, now in the Royal Academy.
How Mr. Haydon can reject David and the votaries of lower Greek
sculpture on the one hand, and pin himself to elder Greek sculpture
on the other, is a phenomenon we do not attempt to explain, we can
only say that sculptural partisanship is equally bad whatever may be
its standard. Another, but more harmless dogma of Mr. Haydon is
the sovereignity of Greek painters, and he talks as confidently of Parr-
hasius and Polyguostus, and Apelles, as if their master works were at
Hampton Court or the .Statlbrd Gallery, and engravings of them in
every parlour. That this subject is involved in uncertainty, and that
not a fragment exists on which we can build up a judgment, is of
course no argument against enthusiasm.

We have devoted this length to an exemplification of Mr. Haydon's
views, because they are those propounded in the work before us, and
because they are widely disseminated among the public, while we
thought we should be rendering a greater service to our readers by
warning them against Haydonism, than by giving them another dis-
sertation on trullisatio and marmoratum. Mr. Haydon's lecture is one
which the public \y\\\ greedily devour; according to the modern syncre-
tic arid a;sthetic phraseology, it is highly suggestive. The artistical
part is good, the practical part is good, and with a "cave canem"asto
Haydonism, it is all good. It breathes a manly, a kindly, and an Eng-
lish feeling, it reminds us of what our forefathers have done, and if
Mr. Haydon and his brethren can but paint as he speaks, the second
St. Stephen's shall be painted by Englishmen as the first was. As to
his recommendations of painting the house with allegorical illustra-
tion of abstract principles, the Blessings of Peace, and the Horrors of
Anarchy, it may please advocates of high art and metaphysics, but
we would much rather see the Painting of the Potatoe, or the Triumph
of Punch, than any such Bolognese and un-English performances. The
allegories belong to high art, which if it recommends and executes
such things, we think is deservedly named by the bulk of the artists,
a great humbug. The commissioners have left in the choice of sub-
jects from our poetry and our history abundant scope for the de-
lineation of nature, and nature let us have.

..G? Catalogue of Worki in all Deparlmtnla of Englm/t Literature,
clasistjitd milk a Gtntral Alphabetical Index. By Longman & Co.
In this age of catalogues raisonnees, w-e suppose we must hail with
pleasure any accession to the coUeclion. Messrs. Longman's is a
pretty large one, and may be advantageously consulted.

2 G >

208

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

Gandy and Band's Windsor Castle: Part VII.
As tlie next part of this publication will be the final one, and will
contain tlie letter-press portion of it, we shall, after that has appeared
be able to speak more fully of the work and its character. A«/f ^s
we can iudse in the meanwhile, we must say it appears about to be
terminated somewhat abruptly, for there has not as yet been either
a single section or interior view of any kind, which is all the more
serious an omission, because in this respect, Messrs. & and B. could
have taken a vantage ground that had been neglected by the riva
work, and given their own a superior interest, both for professional
men and others. As it is, we fear we are likely to get not much more
information from the two together, than from either of them separately.
Whether it will be the same in regard to the letter-press remains to
be seen ; we can only say, we trust such will not be the case, there
bein.' very little to go over the same historical ground again, more
especially as there if such an ample field open for both description
and criticism, and for explanatory remark, there being very little ot
these latter in Mr. Poynter's essay, for that gentleman seems to have
been very shy of discussing the architectural merits of Windsor
Castle, as it came from the hands of Sir Jeffry Wyatville. Let Messrs.
Gandy and Baud's editor make up ; and if he at all understands the
subiect and give it proper attention, he can hardly fail to discover a
great many fresh points upon which to touch, or rather, which would
very well bear to be brought forward somewhat prominently. At all
events, as Messrs. G. and B.'s work will be less extravagant in size,
it will be a more readable volume as far as mere form goes ; all the
more desirable, therefore, is it that it should contain something worth
reading, and be entirely free from all that ' cram,' with which.those who
are employed to furnish a certain quantum of letter-press to books of
engravings, are generally apt to eke it out.

of experiments which have as yet been but very imperfectly described
and incorporated, even in approved scientific works."

EUmeniarv Perspective. By T. J. Rawlins. Loudon: Tilt and Bogue.
" ' 1812.

CONTAIN'S six plates, exhibiting a variety of diagrams both of an-
gular and parallel perspective ; it is a cheap work and is well adapted
for the beginner.

A Manual of ElecUo-metaVurgy. By George Shaw. London : R.

Groombridge, 1842.

A V£RV interesting little work on an important art yet in its in-
fancy, and one that promises to be of the utmost value ; consequently
whatever information that is given on the subject is extremely w'el-
come, particularly so when all the principal facts connected with the
art are fully developed in such a concise manner as they are given m
the book before us.

South Eastern Dover Railway— Official Map and Section.
We have before us a most complete, cheap, and extensive map of
the South Eastern District of England and part of France, showing
this railway and its section, together with all the other radways, and
some proposed new branches leading out and immediately connected
•with the 'undertaking. It appears to contain a mass of information ;
and the public, we think, are much indebted to the direction for
having it prepared. We have no doubt that it will prove very
valuable to all travellers living in the immediate contiguity of the
line, or traversing it on their way to the continent. Indeed it is so
perfect, that it ought lo be possessed as an accessory to the topography
of the district.

Fractional Arilhmeiic Revitit'ed and Practically Exemplijied. By E.

Clifford. London : Simpkin and Marshall, 1842,

The doggerel on the difficulties of arithmetic is familiar to every one ;
according'to this authority " fractions " and " distractions " are rhymes
and synonymes, and certainly there is no part of arithmetic which gives
more trouble to the unitiated. This plague of fractions, both vulgar
and decimal, Mr. Clifford has undertaken to mitigate, by rendering it
the subject of a particular treatise, in which he has endeavoured to
smooth awav the difficulties.

d'wo Essavs on Radiant Heat. By Thomas Chalmers and Daniel

R. Haldane, Students in Arts. Edinburgh : Maclachlan and Co.,

1842.

These are Edinburgh academic essays stamped with the approval
of the professor, and published for the purpose of giving a popular view
of this branch of science, for which purpose we also recommend this
joint contribulion to the notice of the public; in doing so we cannot do
better than quote the words of the Professor:—

" The clearness with which the details of this rather intricate sub-
ject liave been seized by the authors, renders them, 1 think, highly
creditable as Academical Exercises. In selecting them for publication
from amongst others, also of great merit, I wished, in the first place,
to mark my opinion of their value in this respect, and, at the same
time, to see published in a concise and popular form a correct analysis

T/ie Question Wlial can now he done for British Agriculture, answered in
a Letter to Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., President of the Royal Agn-
culinral Society. By J. Bailey Denton, Land Agent. London:
Ridgway, 1812.

Mr. Denton's answer to this question is the introduction of a general
and uniform system of drainage, with a profitable distribution of the
surface and drainage waters and the refuse of towns; and in the pro-
priety of such a measure every one will concur. It suffices to say
that Mr. Denton has urged on the agriculturists an important subiect
in an able manner. There is much however to be said on both sides,
as to their salubrious effects, on account of the employment oi manure
in the neighbourhood of great towns.

The Cabinet Cyclopedia, a Manual\of Electricity, Magnetism, and Me-
teorology. By DioNYSius Lardxer, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., v ol. i.
London : Longman and Co. 1842.

This is the first of two volumes in which Dr. Lardner proposes to
treat the subject of electricity and the cognate sciences in a popular
manner. The present volum'e takes up the elements of electro statics
and dynamics, magnetism, electro-magnetism, thermo-electricity, and
electrical machines. To say that this has been done in a masterly
manner is scarcely necessary to those who recollect the previous
volumes of the cyclopedia, and the satisfactory way in which they
were executed. The next volume will treat of the applications ot
these sciences to the practical pursuits of life, and we anticipate tor
ourselves and our readers much gratification in the perusal.

A Series of Diagrams illustrative of Meeha7iical and ^aturalPhloso-
phy, and their Practical .Application. Drawn on Stone by H. Chap-
man, and printed in colours by C. F. Cheffins. London : Chapman
and Hall. 1842.

These splendid diagrams, the first number of which,treating on the
lever, lies before us, do much credit to the patronage of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. They have been confided to
the care of Mr. Chapman and Mr. Cheffins, who have produced designs
which, to the professor and the pupil, the engineer and the workman,
will be found of interest and of value. The style ol the tinted litho-
<^rapliy does Mr. Cheffins great credit.

The Grainer's Guide. By Charles Moxon. Edinburgh, 1S42.

This is a class of works which we much wish to see extended—the
class of practical works by practical men. The reasons which Mr.
Moxon gives for treating upon the subject of graining and i™>tating
marbles? we much wish that we could give at length: suffice it hat by
the publication of this work he has supplied a desideratum in techni-
cal literature, and rendered a great benefit to the workman. 1 he
work is a large one, and vet of a moderate price, whde the specimens,
which are numerous and on a considerable scale, are nearly all exe-
cuted by hand. The letter-press is of course a minor feature in such
a work, but the directions are sufficiently copious, while, as they
eminat; from a practical hand, they are calculated to be highly useful
and to abridge in many cases the labour of the workman, and so to
extend the sphere of his employment. When we consider tiie great
ex ent to which graining is now used and the desirableness of having
well instructed workmen, we feel indebted to Mr. Moxon ^or '"^ ej^"
tions, and we are sure that he will reap his reward in the pa'ron ge of
his book by the public, both as a work of art, and one of practical
utility.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

209

1842.]

Lecture, on Architecture, mth reference to >\^P'^P%±j;'^'Xuth
Music Hall. By Joseph Hansom, Architect. London. Barth,

184'' .

M, Himom erected the Town Hall at Birmingham, which is 82

there rcupyi' vvhole width 150 feet ; it will ascend >nto a slope and
toan°ltit.de which the designer compares to thatofthes.de of a
llUftSrable steepness a%d magnitude manned w.U> an army <^f
^.wiriins ■"'500 sineers and performers. The Hall is to oe capao.e
Tc ntti, ing 8000 pf rsons, and even in case of need 15,01.0 ; the pr.ce
of the orgal which is to be the largest in the world, is included in the
est mate o £30,000. The roof Mr. Hansom proposes to construct on
the nr nciplfof the suspension bridge, from the four corners of the
bulging The voof to be of iron, and to weigh 200 tons. The height
he savs s less than that of the cathedral of Amiens, which is HO feet,
of Beauvais which is IGO, and of Cologne, Milan, Strasburg and others.
He furtlie offers for £1000 to build 1 model Hall as large as Exeter
Sal "and observes that Exeter Hall is engaged every evening dlbep-
tember except Saturday, at twentv-five guineas per night. Mi. Han
som ;iomiserwonders, but he hasdone so well hitherto that we must
not distrust his success for the future.

A Hand Book of Ornamental Mapp,ns<xnd Engineering ^3«^;

No. 3. By Benjamn P. Wilms, C.E. and Surveyor. London:

Weale, 1842.

Mr. Wilme perseveres in his labours. In the present number, one
of fhe pU tes affords delineations of the several classes o timber, other
various sgns used in mapping, and also the method of showing strata
In sect onr«"d likewise the method of delineating mountains.

F<r.i Mdii^onal Suppler^entlo theEncyclop..d^aof Cottage Farm and
Villa Architecture and Furniture. By J. C. LotrooN, b.L.S., ivc.
London: Longman and Co. 1812.

Mr. Loudon's indefatigable exertions in the cause of making archi-
tecture popular, has induced him to continue his Encyclopedia by
Lfv nL oSonallv supplementary numbers, by which means he will
ie able to coUec -"ogether a vast variety of useful domestic improve-
ment not only in the construction of buildings, but also in the tittings
Tnd furnUure The part before us fully testifies the utility of such a
work; it ^fuU of wood engravings of cottages, villas, inns, schools,

&c.

OBiTU^RY.-It is With regret that we have to record the death of Mr
Samue7seaward, who died on the 11th ult. He was one of the partners of
the firm of Ms rs. John and Samuel Seaward and Capel, of the Canal Iron
Works Limehouse, a member of the Royal Society, and an indefa igah e
member o the Institution of Civil Engineers. He devoted grea attention to
toe construction of the st.am engine, and was the patentee of several im-
provemfntsand author of a vari^'ety of papers read before the Institution of
CivU Engineers, on a comparison of long and short stroke engines, auK.har>
steam power applied to saihng ships, &c.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

THE STEAM SHIP - LITTLE WESTERN."

c,„_Uv„ureperuse the article on this vessel, inserted in your excellent
Jou nil for-the present month. 1 have no duubl you wd! agree with me that
ft comains an assertion which is not borne out by the rest o the ar ,cle .
and 1 tl nk that the writer, in m.Uing a public statement to her pre|ud.ce
o L„n,l in fairness to state ihc groiin. s on which it was based. 1 allude
To l^e oUo "ng P esrion ■ " tl.aftliere is anything either in the struc.ure
,?nhl hull or machinery pre-eminently e.Kcellent we utterly deny. In the
^[oduclion.tthrvessel, there appears'to have been too great a strainmg
?f,prnoveh a d ihere are evide.'c-esof a .lisposition to select arrangements,
noTso nulch by 'l>'^ ''>"-^i''^™""'' "'' ^^''^' '^ excellent as o. what ,s un-
"'l known, t whether so strong an expression as th^.t which forms the first pari
of the above extract was c,dl?d for: 1 can only say that I have ma.le se a
.,i,l,mCav,l the vessel, an.l have thus bad many opporlumtiesot seeing and
coi'^versing with sev-eral gentlemen interested i., her. and 1 never heard .them

hmst nf her excellence in ex ignerate;! terms ; they merely expressed their con-
filnl. o her suroassinK Ih? Heme Bay and Gravesend boats, and. as tar as

thPDier at Heme Bay about twenty minutes after ihe Cty of P™ ff yy.
the pitr at "" ^. f.rt.vp,.,„l which shows her speed to have exceeded that
:? hTu er' es^e" inThe "tlo o^ ab„ut 8 to 7. /t the Nore, the (>™.« was
nnite out of sight, and we passed her with great ease near \V oolwich if 1 re-
eo lect H t So the best of my observation, the distance from (jravesend to
ri>r kwaU was nerformed in five or ten minutes less tune than by the Rail-
1 ,7 hit boat was too far a-head to allow of any certainly in the ob-
re'va'on 0.1 afornier'?.ccasion. 1 have l.een informed, the IM,I. We.ter.

™"™^£b™v?;t I'^M^'n^i-:^ f;!;:r v\a;;;;':^Uo? ^:^

TaSl y a eoid:nuive w?sheJ, or might probtbly have been enabled to

l^m?eite had I had the aivantage of seeing Mr. Morgan himselt, irom

XTedes^gns'^nd under whose inspection th? vessel and machinery were

^Witirre-ard to the second portion of the above extract 1 have committed
» itb re^aru to tnt i ^^ ^^^^ spirited and enteri.nsmg

fi';iTf°kerat^an Morgan and Co, by whom the LMle Wester, was pro,luoed
1 should tellad if yoirwould lavour'ihem with insertion in your lorthcoming

number. , , ^j , ,^ alluded to had never

^VtherCes at' vo I. « fwo dd no? have expressed himself so doubt-
seen the e"Smes a w orK. ' ^ave been led to assign undue im-
fully on the subjec « ''^ /'j; ^^^^^ existence may indeed be indicated by
jKirtance to «" f:^^';^^^"/^ ^f 7, ^„re closely'foUowed up, must have
theory, but «hich t he same t e n inappreciable influence on the result.

^';:r^:tt;a^!^X^ofairbeneathth^p^^

end by bringing up t' :^J i= f^ '.i'';'p;,^ViTc" P^^^^ of maintaining it at that
to the ^l';e'-^f.f}";tin' a i the "iectTon and' condensation water, as well as
degree, by discharging al' 'be miec no ^^^^^ observe,

the air involved, during <^^^h revolution ott.e era ^^ ^^^^

that the vacuum ^^ ^^^^J^'^f'X^^orl^^e^^^^^^^ as 1 can make

t=;^^^^-^^-Tsr:^r' I be-

,ie?e'';he\X"alX':\i:v;it^efareCs,m^u"eo''f the ludl and the hori-
'.TnmlVsi.-n of the cvhnders as applie to beam engn . ^^^.^^^^

strnction -h'ch was des.gned b > ^ M lUiam M ^„^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^

cannot therefore be said to "a^^ "een ,„,suai." Such an assertion

siderationofwhat IS excelent,a ofwhat IS um^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^

would '"1?"'^"° ^'"S '^l^^^l^^u w ° es el t^r sale on a novel principle of
whatmaninhisseies would but la^ ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^,.^,^ ^^^^

'Zt7{::Zlf2lXlZLis .or considering .he innovation as a sub-

stantial improvement? ,•„„„:,;„„ of the engines be attributed to so

Neither can the I?"" 't^fllP°^rcUarly sLwn?^^ material ad-

ing the piston rod pass through a f^'"" "S;b°>. O^'n .^ ^,^^ ,^^„

J.^1 'S:i^:S^^^:^^^^^'^^^ -w proceed to con-

known, and have been previous y t^ised ^V seyra " « .,„„°,,., ,i„ee the

gineeis, though, for my own P"^ ^'''^"^SX ctionVrom 'the furnaces
(lame I'asses directly through them n a ernc^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^^^

to the lunne by which I apP/''^ ' " ^'-^i/,''' ,„ ,|ie patentee would have
Western's hollers are, '"'« ev • ""'^h^ .| r'iaion of Mr. Spiller's chief assist-

made them, and "■'■.'■e "J-.^J^^^^Ven v otl^lv ai.prove^d. The steam and
ant, by « bom the <lfa«'"S^ 'a' ote i i ^^^ _^ ^^ ^^.^^_.^ ,^^,^

eJuctiou valves, being balanced re uireerm^ i ;_^^^„^,^„i^„„ ^^

;es. being balanm. qu.r -^n,... ... ,^^ -.eonvenience be

than the slide valve gene all) t.^d. a' '-^ya^^ .^^ j,^^^,^., i ,„,,
made very 'arge; t e J^^.«/t < ..^<.r .^.^^ paddle-« heels are

Mr^,'s';^';:nlld thiuluperiority over ill o'thcrs has been successful y
testJd by twelve or thirteen years' experience.

210

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I beK, m conclusion, to mr.ke the following additions and corrections in Ihe
(lata conlarned m the ar.icle above referred to. The cvlinders are fiftv-one
inches diameter, stroke 4 ft. ; air-pumps .3li inches diameter, Mroke 2 ft
b in.; steam pressure in the bo'ler 8 lbs. (on Monday last it was Irernientlv
as low as 7. and occasionally Gl lbs., perhaps sometimes lo«er still l' cut of
generally by the expansion valve at J. otherwise by the steam valve at four-

revolutionsysO) but as Ihey generally make but 28, their power is conse-
(juentlv reduced to 84 (? 86) horses each.

Hopins that the above remarks may be found u-orthy of attention, and may
ma" ha?e^'.r(!duced"' "^^''^^"'"' '''"''' ""^ ''"''^'^ '" ">is month's JourHol

I r«main. Sir.

/-..;_ 0.1.1 „ I ,o., Vour most olwJient servant,

J.omlon.2itli March, mi. I'l.iLALETHEi.

THE PRECURSOR.

In a forroer number we made a few remarks respectinc this vessel and we

the'prrurs"' 'f r" '" "^"''"^ '" "'^ ^"''J^"' ^he fo^lowi,,rarc a fet^f
tne 1 recursor s dimensions : —

Diameter of cylinder .. .. ''ft 'o"

Length of stroke j g

minuT.)" '''^''"'' I""*" 520 the pair ("the piston fra'veliing at 245 ft. per

Burlhenl555 tons O.M.. and 1751 tons N.M

ix'ngih from figure head to taffrail . . oci n

Length from stem to talfrail ... ?Xi 0

L-ngih of keel and forerake for tonnage 2^2 2

Kxlteme bieadlh over paddle-boxes 611(1

Breadth ,n deck between pa Jdle-boxes ^7 4

I'-xtreme breadth on deck . 21 r

Depth of hold amidships . . '.'. Sl 0

w!!Sk! "!■ "■"" '° ^ V'; ''""^' ^"J fastenings .' .' .' .' .' .' 193 tons.
Weight of copper in bolls, &c. .. 36

W eight ot copper sheathing, 13,000 superficial ft. '.'. '.'. l(j "

Weight of hufi "^''^' '■°=''^°"^' '^"'1^" ^"d >'ieir water SCO .,

^^^sfovs'&c'w'^'''"^'''''''? ?'"'''"''^ "'« <■"'' complement of sto^^s, pro-
forwird and, 'T ''V°''',r°y'«''' =""' S60 t™^ of coals, is 17 ft. 8 in.
of icnn'.Ml 1 f'^'f'-.i ^I'cy^sel is provided «ilh tanks for the stowage

been bTrnVd „ ' ' "^ "'^,^°?' ^^i''^" ^^' ''O*' ^"^"cd in these tanks has
l^ir^oftl, ;i ^T.-T'"' fil '^'1 «>'l' «a'cr, thereby preserving the proper
trimof the ship, and Ihe requisite immersion of the paddles,
to 'he em'!n'! %V"^' ''T,'^'", \" ^^'''' «>-™igement and genera! appearance
InJ, / F V"'?- ^'=>"<lslay and Co., but stronger. They are a hand-

rellercl?in',T''' ^^"'^''='"'*^l P'^ce of workmanship^ and there are several
theClvdern n, !. [ ™"^''-"C""" not always to be fiund in the engines of
alvec^asfn" M f 7'V / ^'T "! ^^'"^ Peculiarities we shall notice. The
en^lh i,?°r,'lJ n, 1 ° ^""u' ^°^l"^ •'^ "''*^ '•y''"'!" throughout its entire
bottom iLriJ^T^''" ^'H' '^''"''" fora.hori distance at the top and
midr.'i bi, I ^'^^^ "^ *' ?*''"" f"™' ^ D-shaped pipe, and in the
"alve cas nl ui,r,r, ^"''■" "■ *^'.""" "'"'■ "> permit the expansion of the
rre^,nf.„.^il, -^ "7""""",^ ('■acturc, flexure, or strain. Many engines
Loner^.r ,! "' ■'"' "PP'-^^ce, and in large engines the want "of it
^mne Ltu "'"""''' ^"lous injury. Previous to the starting of the
Se,;ee nf 1 '"''' " ^'"''•'' ^"' ='"<^ '^'' cylinder always co!d.\nd the
euler s^arMh^^oi'n "".'""fT'^'i-^P,"" ">'' difference of temperature must

AhhAto , ,h J ■ '""I'' ['"' '-ylindcr, or tear the perls asunder.
m;rvlp^,"V^. ='"1' °\ 'h's vessel are of such a large size, the valves
Sint -T'L-' I'-'f '!'"''■ 'r" "'''^" 'hey are cold and the grease of the
hke h,?Meer^nf^K f^T 't™' ?'" '' "'''''eved by means of a wheel
ntrasecnrln",)^^ ' "^u'.^'P'.,.::''-'^'^ ^'^'e^ ■"""«" '0 '^ piniou Working
mlanVrfl a O ,M ™'" f "*'■ „^'>'^ ''"entrie rod is thrown iut of gear, bv
Z imdir s^ e nf V" '""' '■'■'■""•^,'' '' "" ^'PPe'- e»d. The roller presses upon
Lofll.evnLl. f,r""l''''™^^^ ''"'^ '"'^ it sufficiently to disengage the
Cinl levlr tori. ""' ^'■'"" '^' ""** "^ ">e eccentric rod. This 3isea-
ftagmg le\cr turns upon an eccentr c axis, and is so adiusted that the

tr;t"eeth''.7 the,"''"' '■" P*r?- "'"'^•' S'vesmotfon to The s^ 0 'and dra
the teeth of the pinion out of the teelh of the sector when the disengasin-

lhrn'fhe"fccen,ric f T"™' ''"'' '^'\ '^°*'^-°» ^^^ "'» "ne proper to thITee?
rhestardn.uh. 1.^^ " '", ^'f- ^y "^''^ J'^'ieious and'elegant expedient
hrnwf,l^^.n,in " "^T ^' ''''T" ^y "'e engine, for the sSme act which
throws the engine in g-ar throws the starling wheel out of gear and the

fnTar"?:;' m,'^,' """"" ""' "f gear^'"'°'°' .browing the Itar't ng whee
ufr,valv Tn ™"'T ^'^'•'e'l,ljy«l'eels this expedient is wanting, and

:<^ls'in^ev''t^abfe';?Pn°elJ;r"' "'^'" "''''" '""'" ^^ "'^ ^^^i-s at,
h IS most gratifying to find that the sole plate and condenser are cast in
rass'^™hrS it "ti' ""''"''" '^ above ihc^ole plate, and "he main c.entr
sTd e con.a? , '.hi ^''^''^ ''.'" °/ '^' ,!"'""* ^PPe'^'" '" ''C made by the
S v a 1 e rid 1 ""■"'•'"eiy-fittcdmetaf surfaces, without rust, and with
"r^eescaealvesTh '"'"''"'•''■ ^^,' ^> '*"'''■" "^^e provided with good
an.Tannea'rinl^f .1 ' e^Pansion valves arc situated in the steam pipe,
?,?lt',^Lf vn° . 1 ''" "'■^'""y description, with a compound cam. .adjusted
ends there are'r ^'^'''u ?' '■^l'?"»'™- '^he boilers .are fired from'' bolh
between ii,!r, 'I' '''i"! '"'^''•^ "^^ "^"^1 "("'^'-e f"'™. with a passage

mki^.^6^;na;.'J"^^'''.■^^ '*,""" "^y "'■'''^ ■ each has four furnaces
Western or^n.Zwl".M'-r^''' ^°!^"' "'' '"" "'"'y '"^'B^' ^' '"'' '^t' Creat
and hev' dn nl, =^''' l"''',^" '""',' ''<^^'» Packets constructed in the Tliames ;
of cons!dpr!ld° ,^'Tf''' '" ^' '"■?^^' "■ "'" ^" '°"Per, although the engines are

nd LeelW.L*^,.' *' ■f'°"'7- ihs paddle-wl.eels are of Ihe most substantia!

nd excellent cor.slruction of <,«y that wc have seen. Of the internal parts j

JUNB,

of the engines, we cannot be expected to speak from our own observation,
we have aVanled"""* '° the externa! jiartsthey must partake of t!ie praise

If we might be permitted to make a suggestion where everything appears
to have been so well managed, we should say that the boilers ou|ht to b^
clothed ,„ore efTiciently The fronts of them are without clothing li all. ai^
some of ihe steam pipes appear to us insufficiently covered. Thfs is a point
nvolvmg not comfort merely, but also economy of fuel, and we also consider
that^the wrought iron work is badly proportioned, the cross-heads are too

The cabins of this vessel are most commodiously and tastefully arranged,
and especial at ention has been paid lo the conditions essential to ventilatTon
cleanliness, and comfort, in a warm climate. The beams and all the other
scantlings are of such dimensions as to ensure abundant strength in everv
par., and the fastenings and excellent system of diagonal trussing employed
are such .as to unite all the parts into a rigid and substantial wliole.

Steam Ku

1 1 , V ""'^r"''°" "" ','"" ^'""»«--There are now 16 steam vessels running
daily between Graveaend and London, tile same number to Woolwich 20 to
Greenwich, ntitnerous small steamers, the boats of the Waterman's Company,
and of tlie Old Woolwich Company— between Greenwich and Blackwall;

viay to and from Dover, Ramsgate, Heme Bay, Southend, an 1 Sheerness.
the (general .steam Navigation Company musters 49 steamers, all sailin-^
from London, a lieet superior to the steam fleet of any of the continental
fi mnmn"' T ' "W^ merchandise and properly t„ the amount of
if OOaOOO sterling weekly, and whose consumption of coals exceeds in value
ioO.OOO per annum. There are not less than 5U other large steam vessels
trading beHieen London and various ports in Great Britain and Ireland- 23
steam-tugs, carrying from 30 to 100 horse power each, exclusively en^a^ed
m lowing ships between Gravesend and the Pool ; 20 iron and wooden
steamers navigaiing the river above bridge, between London Bridge and
Uielsea; 2 constantly running between the Adelphi I'ier and Putnev; and 5
to Richmond. ■'

The Tartarus steam vessel. Commander T. W. Smith, arrived at Woolwich
on Monday, April 2.3, from the West Indies. She has bt-en upwards of four
years in commission, traversing during that period a distance of 73 000 miles
and consuming about J400 tons of coal, witho it, in a single instance, bein<'
detained one hour from service for repairs to either hull or Ijoilers. °

Tlie Ho7i Company's Slram Frigate Acbar.—Oa Sunday at noon. 15th ult
this splendid war steamer left her anchorage at Gravesend. Iieanng the
lendant of Commodore Pepper, of the Indian navy, « ho will assume the

manufactured -y Robert Napier of Glasgow, and are of a verv superior
uescnption she has four copper boilers of about seven tons each The
armoury i-, filled up with 100 percussion muskets, pistols, cutlasses, and mus-
ketoons, &c,tlie whole in beautiful order, and presenting a most warlike
appearance. The Acbar carries 500 tons of coal, which, with a consumption
ot a ton an hour, will enable her to steam 20 successive davs. She made her
passage from Gravesend to Falmouth, a distance of 370 miles, in 36 hours
which gives an average speed of more than 10 miles an hour.

.American Marine Engines.— \V<t have been both astonished and gratified bv
the reception ol a drawing sent to us from America of an excellent side lever
marine engine constructed by Messrs. Stillman and Co. of New York for
two steamers built for the Spanish Government. '• El Regent" and - El Con-
gresco. It has been so much the habit of Europeans to regard the American
imchinery as rude and dangerous, as well as ur.suited to vessels intended for
the navigation of llie ocean— an impression in which, to a certain extent we
ourselves parlicii,ated— that this drawing has, we confess, suri.rised as m'uch
as It has dehghted us ; and it is an act of justice we feel called upon to render
to say that, so far as this drawing will enable us to form an opinion Messrs
Stillman s performance will not suffer by a comparison with Ihe work of even
the first of British nianufacturers. The framing of this engine rcsemblL's the
framing of Messrs. Fa»cett, Caird, and Borrie, and every part of it appears
to us well proportioned and arranged. The ingress and egress of the steam
to and and from the cylinder is regulated by spindle valves wrought bv an
eccentric ; whether these valves are of the single or double beat description
the drawing does not specify. The eccentric rod is provided with a Ion" nut
furnished with a right-handed and a left-handed thread, so as to diorlln or
lenglhen the rod at pleasure. There is an expansion valve of ihe common
descrinfion situated in the steam pipe, and «rought in the usual manner We
should have been glad lo have possessed more precise information respecting
the Ulterior of these engines, as for example, tlie nature of the piston
packiigs of the valves, air oump buckets, as well as some particulars respect-
ing tlie construclion of Ihe boiler, the consumpli.in of fuel, and the nature of
the performance as determined by the indicator. We trust we may be
favoured with such details, and no eftbrts of ours shall be wanting to make
the merits of the m.ichinery of America as extensively known and as hichlv
appreciated as its excellence appears to deserve.

PROGRESS OF RAILVSTAYS.

Railways in /Vance.— The Chamber of Peers assembled on Monday 9th
May, in their committee rooms for ihe purpose of electing a committee to
ie[iort on Ihe railway bill, brought up from the Chamber of Deputies. This
bill contains— first, a general classification of the lines intended to be con-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

211

structcil ■ spcon;i. a sMoml sTslfm of execulion, wliicli imposes on ihe depart-
ments traversc-1 by those railways the payment of txo-th'rds of llie value
of the erounti to be p.irchased. It likewise enacts that the Government shall
nav the remaining third, together with the expense of embankment, the ex-
ecutions of norks of art and stations, leaving the cost of fixinij the rai.s and
the materUl to the charge of the companies «ho shall undertake to comp.e.e
Ihem Third, the allocation of funds amounling together to the sum ot
126 obO.OOOf., applicable to the following sections :—

Francs.

From Strasburgh io Hommartin 11.500 001)

,. Dnon to Chalons UOOO.OOO

„ Marseilles to Avignon 30.000.000

,. Orleans to Tours IT.COO.OOO

. Orleans to Vierzon 12,000.000

;; Paris to Lille 43.000.000

For sundry expenses 1,. 500.000

126.000,000

The entire plan coui-isls of seven vast lines of the first order, setting out from
Paris, and leading— 1. To the Belgian frontier through Lille and Valen-
cicnne-! 2. To England by one or several | oints on the coast, to be hereafter
determined 3. To the German frontier, through Strasburgh. 4. To the
Mediterranean, through Lyons. Marseilles, and Cette. 5. To the .Spanish
frontier through Rordeau's and Bayonne. 6. To ihe Atlantic Oce.an by
Nantes 7- To the centre of France through Vierzon, with a prolongation
to be hereafter determined, wi h a branch to Bourges. And of two lines of
the second order from frontier to frontier directed— 1. From the Mediterra-
near. to ihe Rhine, through Lyons. Dijon, ar.l Melhouse. 2. I'rom the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, through Bordeaux, Toulouse, and
Cette.

WE'W CHURCHES, &c.

Mmcirsler.— On Monday. 28ih March, the first stone o^ a new church,
situate in Rodney-street. Oldham-road. was laid by Robfit Gardener. Ksq.
This church is Ihe fourlh of those now in course of predion by the ■' Asso-
ciation for ihe Building and Endowing of Ten Churches in the Boroughs of
Manchester and Salf'ord.'' Mr. Richard Tattersall is the architect. The
Niirman style of archilecture has been adopted, and both the exterior and
inter or of the building will be o( a highly ornamental chara'-ler. The
church is in the shape of a parallelogram, whose external dimensions are
about 78 feet long by .52 feet wide, with a chancel at the east end about
27 feet wide, and projecting 12 feet; at the westerly end there is also a
projection about 42 feet wide, and projecting about 20 feet, which contains
the entrances to the ground floor and to the galleries, as well as two stair-
cases to the latter, betwixt wh-ch. and over the entrances, will be a recess
for the organ and choir. The whole exterior of the building will be faced
with stone Iron the Summit delphs, wh-ch is to be neatly hammer-dressed,
except the ashlar dressings, which are to be neatly tooled. The westerly
projection will be flanked by two turrets, terminaling in pyramidal wenthered
pinnacles, surmounted by the old Norman cross, at a heif;ht of 66 feet
above the level of the street. Betwixt the turrets there will be a boldly
recessed arch, supported by small columns. The three chief compartmenis
in the west front are surmounted by archivolt mouldings. In the west gable
is a moulded opening for a clock dial, this gable terminates with coping.
with cheyron cut edges, sustaining a large Norman cross at the apex.
Each side of the church is divided into six compartments, nith a light m
each ; each compartment is separated by flat buttresses, terminating in
moulded weatherings, and a flat segmental arch with billetted mouldings,
turnedover each compartment betwixt the buttresses. The chancel stands
out quite distinct from the church, being roofed at a lower level, and there
will be an eight light circul.nr window in the upper part thereof, and four
narrow loop lights in the lower part. The east end of the church will also
have a larRe Norman cross on the apex of the coping thereon, and the
whole is to be finished to correspond with the west gable. The recess
formed at each end of ihe interior of the church by the projections outside,
will be divided from it by large eniiched arches similar to the one in the
west front. Although the accommodation required, and the amount to be
expended, rendered ihe introduction of galleries absolutely necess.ary. great
pains hiive been taken to render them as little objectionable as possible ; for
this reason the west gallery front will not be carried more than five feet inio
the church, so that on entering the same nearly the whole of the interior,
together wiih the roof, may be at once seen. On the south side of the west
entrance will be the baptistry, wih a Norman foBt, sufficiently large for
imraersicm. In the interior of the upper part of the gable at the west end
of the church there is a preparation lor a clock dial, to be moved by the
same works that move the dial in the west front, and which will also serve
for veniilaling the church ; and there will be nn enriched ornament in the
east gable to correspond, and also for the purpose of veuiil.iiion. The
church will have an open timbered roof; the tie-beam of e.ich truss is
thrown up about five Icet aboye tlie lower ends of the principal rafters,
where they set down upon th.' side walls, and the space betwixt ihe top side
of the beams and the under side of the principal rafters is divided into three
compartments, by two queen posts, under which are placed enriched pen-
dants, Irom whicli proceed curved and moullel ribs, and are continued
down the side walls, until they set down upon the capitals of moulded
corbels therein, the top side of the capiials being four feet belo^v the bottom
ends of the principal rafters in side walls. To avoid the danger ot any
lateral pressure Irom thi» furm of truss, CiUrt-irou bratkels are enclosed

within the curvel ribs, ami are coniinued a sufficient distance on ilie ti
beam, so as eventuallv to convcv the whole weiaht of the roof down upon
the stone corljels in the side walf.'s. on which the cast-iron brackets are rdso
made to set down. In the centre compartmen!. formed by the quren posts
in each truss, will be a semicircular curved rib. bolted to the prircipal
r,ifler3. The ci mmon rafters are to be wrcuuht and chamfered, and the
s'atp boarding will be wrought on .iccount of being exposed to view. As the
pitch of the roof is made to suit the char.Tcler of the building, this mode of
finishing will give great arldilion,al height to ihe interior, and add con-
siderably to the effect, ?nd at a less cost than the more customary horizontal
ceiling. Tlie church will allord sitting?, for 1.07.5 persons; nearly one-half
will be free. The entire cost oi the church will be under £3.400.

/# New Rnman Cnlholic Cathedral is proposed to be erected on a magnificent
scale in York. Tli3 ground and buililings have already been purchased,
and some of the latter have been pulled down. Upon the site chosen a mo-
nastery formerly stood. The ground, which exteniis from tiio Htdy Trinity
Church to the Bar, is to he laid out as a crescent, in the centre of which
the catbe.lral is to be erected. Mr. Pugin has been selectetl as ihe architect,
and the works are to be commenced immediately.

Incorporated Society for building Clivrclies and Chapth. — .\\ the last meet-
ing of this indefat'"able and most useful society, held at their chambers in
St° Martin's Place, Trafalgar , Square. Lond n, ill? Lord Bishop of Durham
in the chair, the principal business transacted was voting money for the fol-
lowing purposes, v'z. : — Towards building a church at Westpncd. Somerset;
for bull ling a chapel at Blackgate, Durham : building a church at Llanfy-
nidd. Flin;shirc ; building a chapel at Kiddeiminsler, Worcestershire;
building a chapel at Durslev . Gloucestershire ; building a chapel at Hard-
way. Hampshire; rebuilding the Church at Llanamore. D.-nbighshire ; to-
wards enl irging the church at Arlington. Devon ; for enlarging by rebuild-
ing the cburchat Basford. V/arw'ckshirc ; towards repairing the churi h at
Holme; Yorkshire : towards buibling a gallery in and repe-,i ing ilie church
at South Lvnn. Norfolk ; repainng the church at Bradford Abbns. Dorset ;
building a chapel at Crook. Durhcim : cnlargins the church at Burgbfiel;l,
Berkshire; enlarging ths clupelai Newton Heath, Manchester; being in
all sixteen grants, amounting to several thousanl poun Is, all supplied by
voluntary subscriptions to enlarge the means of spiritual insltuction, chiefly
by increasing free sittings.

Calcutta Cathedral— 1\k Bishop of Calcutta has forwarded to the Society
for promoting Christian Knowledge a report, in «hich will be found much in-
teresting matter relative to thi- cathedral in ciurse of erection in that
diocese. The bishop says. " It is hoped that in little more than two years
from tlie" present time, perhaps on the feast of the Epiphany. 1844. thfr
cathedral may be rea ly tor consecration. The style ot archilecture ori;.'inally
proposed has been adhered to, except where the climate and soil o,' Bengal
hive interfered. It is Gothic, mollified by the circumstances just alluded to ;
that is, Iiido-Gothic. The extreme length of ihe building, i: eluding the but-
tresses, will be 247 feet, and its width SI feet, and at the transepts 114 feet.
The height of the tower and spire from ihe grouml will be 201 If et, and of
the walls to the top of the battlements .59 feet. The internal dimensions of
the main body of th? cathedral will be 127 'eel in length by 61 feel, the
height 47 feet. The 127 ftet will prob.ably be subdivided into a choir, a
cha'ncel, and a holy table precinct. The body of the calhedrrl. if full oewed,
will accommodate about 800 persons, and it galleries should be added here-
after, and chairs occasionally placed in the aisles, as is done in all Calcutta
churches on the great festivals. 1300 or 1400. The tranjepts also, lantem,-
and western verandah, should ihey ever le wanted fi;r congregations of cate-
chumens or Sunday schools, woul I furnish above 400 additUnal seats. The
capdcity of the cathedral will not be less, therefore, than for 1700 persons.
But the arrangement of the sittings will be ruled by circumstances ; nd the
convenience of the congregation, as all the stalls, pulpits, reading-desks,
pew s, and benches are intended to be moveable.

raiSCELIiANE A.

A NEW CEMENT, A SUBSTITUTE FOR GLUE AND CAULKING.

Amongst the numerous inventions submitted to the Lords Commissioners of
the Admiralty, and referred by their Lordships to the comirittee of master
shipwrights recently sitting at Woolwich dockyard, was a composition to be
used in place of the substance with which vessels are at present caulked to
render them water-tight. The experiments ordered to be made by tl e mas-
ter shipwrights to ascertain its value when applied to the purpose for which
it is intended, and the result, are interesting and satisfactory. Two pieces
of African teak, a species of wood difficult to be joiued together by glue, on
account of its oily nature, had a coating of the composition applied to them
in a boiling state, and in a short time afterwards bolts and screws were at-
tached to each end. the joined wood placed in the testing-frame, and the
power of Bramah's hydraulic engine applied to the extent of 19 tons, when
the chain broke without the slightest strain being perceptible where tlie jom-
in" took place. A larger chain of one inch and a half in diameter was then
applied, which broke with a strain of 21 tons, the joict in the wood remain-
ing apparently as firm as at first. The utmost strain the cement can hejir in
this form, therefore, remains to be proved when experiments are made with
larger chains. Four pieces of hard wood were then joined logctlicr, weigh-
in" in one piece 44 cwt., and carried to the top of the shears in the dock-
yard, a hei-ht of 76 feet, from which it was precipitated on the bard granite
wharf wall° belovr, without any of the joints yielding in the bmaUei.t
degree. The results of these »evere tests induced the Lorda Com-

212

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

inissioncrs of the Admiralty to communicate with Lieutenant-General Sir
George Murray, G.C.B. and G.C.H., for the purpose of making ex-
periments with it in tlie niarsljes at Wooiwicli, by bringing the full
force of canon balls against it. Accordingly, a number of planks of oak 8
inches thick and fir 16 inches square were joined together with the cement,
to tegether S feet in height and 8 feet in length of the side of a first-rate
ship of war, without anything else in the shape of bolt or security to assist
the composition ; and it was. set up as a target at the butt in the marshes,
when a number of officers of tlie Royal Artillery were present to witness the
experiment. Three shots were first fired, every one entering the target, the
third in a direct line with the bull's-eye within three inches of its outer circle.
The eflTects of these shots were wonderful, they tore the wood to pieces, and in
pnly one instance, where tlie joint bad not been good, they had no effect
upon the cement. — A hole six inches and a quarter in diameter was then
bored in the centre of the target, and an 32-pounder shell inserted and ex-
ploded by a match, which tore the wood to small splinters without in many
places in the least separating the composition. This new invention is said
to possess the power of expanding like India rubber in warm climates, and
will not become brittle under the coldest temperature. It appears to be a
great favourite with naval oflScers, as it is so clean, having only the appear-
ance of French polish. The name of the inventor is Mr. Jeffrey.

The substances of which the cement is composed are simple, being merely
shell-lac and india-rul/l/er dissolved in naphtha in certain proportions ; and
heing insoluble in water, the purposes to which it may be applied are nume-
rous. Its value is about half the expense of common glue, the saving to the
country by its universal adoption will be incalculable, as the inventor has
been employed in experiments with it for upwards of two years, and has
found that in the absence of great friction it is in a manner imperishable.
An experiment was tried iu the dockyard, which shows the value a supply of
the cement will he to vessels which may be damaged at sea. Eight pieces
of wood were joined together in the form of a mast, and a strain applied to
them and to another mast of one piece of wood. The latter gave way first,
and the other only broke after being considerably bent and the application of
a rather great strain. By this substance, therefore, it is certain that ship
carpenters can have no difficulty in effecting repairs at sea, which could not
be done under any other circumstances.

Scott's Monument. — An engraving has just been published, from a drawing
by the architect, Mr. Kemp, of the monument to the memory of Sir Walter
Scott, at Kdinburgh. It is a Gothic elevation, something in the style of
\\'hat are called "crosses," and bears in some portions a resemblance to the
great lower of the Cathedral at Antwerp. It is in style between the florid
and the simple Gothic, having Hying buttresses, finials, crockets, &c., and
being ornamented with quatre feuiles, and more minute embellishments.
There are many tabernacles, but they are not occupied by figures. The
statue of .Sir Walter is placed in the centre, benea'.h the principal arch ; it is
robed in a flowing drapery, and stands on a pedestal. The pedestal does not
partake of the character of the buiMing. and gives rather an incongruous
effect to ihe whole. There is an appearance of lightness and elegance about
the design, but it may be c|uestiontd whether the building has not too
much of the monastic or clerical style to suit exactly the character of
him it is intended to commemorate.

Patent Wire Rope.— These ropes are likely, on account of their economy, to
become of extensive use for forming foot briJges over canals, and deep cuttings
of railways. Two wire ropes made at Mr. Andrew Smith's works at Poplar,
100 ft. long, 2J in. in circumference, and weighing 2i cwt.. cost 5/. os. formed
the main chain lor a suspension fcot bridge on the South-western Railway,
near the Weybridge station.

LIST OP J3-EW PATENTS.

GUANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 28tH ApRIL TO 2CtH MaY, 1842.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment ^ unless otherwise e.vpresssd.

Henry Barclay, of Bedford-row, for "a composition or compositions
applicable as tools or instruments for cutting, grinding, or polishing glass,
jjorcclain, stones, metals,and other hard snbstances." — Sealed April 30. (Four
months.)

John Robinson, of Watney-street, Commercial-road East, engineer, for
" improvements in wirullasses and capstans." — May 3.

John Railton, of Blackburn, machine-maker, for " certain improvements
in mac/tinerg or apparatus for weaving.'' — May 3.

Godfrey Wetzlar, of Myddleton-square, Clerkenwell, for " improve-
ments in rendering fabrics water-proof." (Being a communication.) — May 7.

Joseph Warren, of Ueybridge, Essex, agricultural implement maker, for
" certain improvements in ploughs." — May 9.

Francis Prime Walker, junior, of Manchester, coal merchant, for
" certain improvements iti the manufacture of candles, candlesticks, or candle-
holders, and in tlie apparatus connected therewith." — May 9.

George Haire, of Manchester, gentleman, for " certain improvements in
machinery or apparatus for sweeping and cleaning chimneys and flues." —
May 9.

Thomas Edge, of Great Peter-street, Westminster, gas apparatus manu-
facturer, for " certain improvements in apparatus for gas-water and other
fluids."— Mxy 9.

Samuel Hall, of Basford, C.E., for "improvements in the combrustion ef
fuel and smoke." — May 9.

Jacob Wilson, of Wigmore-street, Cavendisli-square, upholsterer, for
" certain improvements in bedsteads." — May 9.

William Sanderson, of Aldermanbury, London, silk-manufacturer, for
" improvements in weaving fabrics to be u^ed for covering buttons." — May 9.

John Melville, of Upper Harley-street, Escp, for " certain improvements
171 propelling vessels." — May 11.

John Browne, of Brighton, gentleman, for " improvements in the manu-
facture of mud-boots and overalls." — May 12.

Thomas Williams, of Bangor, smith, for "an improved chtirn." — May
17.

William Brunton, of Neath, Glamorgan, C.E., for " an improved metltod
or means of dressing ores and separating metals or minerals from other sub-
stances." (For the colonies only.) — May 19. (Four months.)

Joseph Gibson, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " certain improve-
ments in a.rletrees and uxletree-boxes." — May 23.

John Bennet Lawes, of Rotherhampstead, Hertford, gentleman, for
*• certain improvements in manures." — May 23.

John Bishop, of Poland-street. Westminster, jeweller, for " a new or im-
proved construction of brake apparatus applicable to railway carriages." —
May 23.

Thomas Middleton, of Loman-street, Southwark, engineer, for "an im-
proved method of preparing vegetable gelatine or size for paper, and alio an
improved mode of applying the same in the manufacture of paper." (Being
a communication.) — May 23.

William Tcdor Mabley, of Henrietta-street, Covent-garden, mechani-
cal draftsman, for "improvements in machinery or apparatus for making
nails." (Being a communication.) — May 23.

Benjamin Cook, junior, of Birmingham, brass-founder, for "improve-
ments in ihe construction of bedsteads, both in metal and wood." — May 23.

Frederick Goos, of Manchester, jacquard machine-maker, for "certain
improvements in the jacijuard machine or apparatus, to be used or employed
in looms for weaving." — May 23.

Sir James Murray, of Merrion-squarc, Dublin, Doctor of Medicine, for
" an improved method 0/ combining various melerials in a maimer not hitherto
in use for the purpose of manure." — May 23.

James Pilbrow, of Tottenham, engineer, for " certain improvements in
steam engines." — May 23.

William Geetes, of Old Cavendish-street, gentleman, for "improve-
ments in machinery for cutting cork." — May 24.

James Stewart, of Osnaburgh-street, Kegent's-park, piano-forte maker,

for '• improvements in hinges for piano-fortes and oilier purposes." — May 24.

Thomas Waterhoose, of Edgely, Chester, manufacturer, for " a certain

improvement or improvements in machinery for carding cotton, wool, flax,

silk, and similar fibrous materials." — May 24.

Joseph Due;;, of Wolverhampton, lock-manufacturer, for " an improved
loch and key to be used therewith, and an improved slide bolt for the said
lock, applicable also to other purposes." — May 21.

James Boydell, junior, of Hope Farm Works, Dudley, for " improve-
ments in the manufactu-e of keel platen for vessels, iron gates, gates-posts,
fencings, and gratings." — May 24.

James Potter, of Manchester, manufacturer, for " certain improvements
in macliinery for spinning cotton, flax, ond other fibrous substances." — May
25.

Peter Kageneusch, of Whitby, York, for " an improvement in the dyeing
of wool, woollen cloths, cotton, silks, and other fabrics and materials." — May
26.

TO CORRESPONDEKtTS.

" A Land Surveyor '' will see that we have complied with kis request ; we will
endeavour to give the magnetic variation periodirallg.

**0. T,' IVe have received his valuable cowmnnicaiion on iron, SfC. ; he shall
hear from us by post.

" B. G." His communication was accidentally mislaid — we will answer it next
month.

'■ A Subscriber " wiUJind in tlie October Number of 1810, Fol. 3, p. 334, rules
for computing the amount of earthwork in cuttings, embankments, S[C., by Mr.
Hughes. — Geological communications are admitted in the Journal.

" Juvenis." IVe have no knowledge of any locomotive engine liaving been con-
structed upon the plan proposed by him.

" A Subscriber of Derby." The conventional marks H indicate that the ditch
and fence D. &; B. belong to him, and on J to his neighbour. Wc do\not under-
stand the sign on tlie side (' ; we have never seen it used in the way shown. The
area of the field will also b,- a guide or rather a check ; the quantity belonging
to him can be computed from the plan, as the boundary lines are drawn on
the verge of the ditvh.

Books for Revietv must be scut early in the month, communications on or before
the 20lh (if with drawings, carlierj, and advertisements on or before the ZJth
instant.

Vols. 1, II, HI, anj IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

213

MARINE ENGINES,

By p. BoRKiE & Co., Engineers, Tay Foundry, Dundee.

Designed November, 1841.

CWith an Engraving, Plate VUI.)

These engines belong to that class generally denominated direct
action engines : in this respect they are similar to other engines of that
class. Their peculiarity consists in the novel arrangement of the air
pump and condenser. The following particulars of their construction
and peculiarity have been furnished us at our request, by Messrs.
Borrie and Co.

The collective power of the two cylinders by formula,

area of cylinderx 7x210 „,, ,
„^ „ =352 horse power,

33,UOtJ ^ '

but by taking the pressure on the piston at 8"a lb., and the velocity at
215 ft. per minute, the power will be 426 horse power. The strength
of the engines and evaporating power of the boilers are adapted for
the full power. The engines occupy a space of 10 ft. fore and aft the
vessel, and 221 ft. transversely. The engines, boilers, space for firing
boilers, and coal boxes, capable of containing 400 tons of coals, calcu-
lated at 48 cubic feet per ton, in a vessel with engine room in the
clear 343 ft. broad, by 23 ft. deep, only require 55 ft. fore and aft.
The ordinary length fore and aft allowed in the Government steamers
for engines. Sec. of the above power is Go ft. With 65 ft. 560 tons of
coals can be stowed in the coal boxes. With these engines, tlierefore,
a space of 10 ft. fore and aft the vessel may be made available for
other purposes, or an additional 160 tons of coals to the ordinary
quantity apportioned to the coal boxes. The coal boxes are so
arranged that they afford protection to the engines and boilers from
shot, which are placed below the vessel's load water line.

The weight of one pair of engines 110 tons.

„ the paddle-wheels (common construction) 25 „

„ the boilers, with mounting 81 „

„ the water in boilers 55 „

„ the coal boxes IS „

Total 289 tons.

The following explanation will show the construction of the con-
denser and air pump : — One condenser, a, fig. 6, and one air pump, q,
serve for both engines. The air pump is double acting, and has four
valves, d' d e' e. The valves d' d correspond with the foot valve, and
the valves e' e with the discharge valve of an engine fitted with the
common lifting air pump. This description of air pump has pistons
similar to those used in steam cylinders, and packed with metallic
packing in the same manner. Communicating with each end of the
pump there are valves opening inwards, d' d, and ethers outwards, e' e,
being four valves to each pump ; by this arrangement the piston, ff,
alternately draws and forces, at each half stroke of the engine. The
passages are of one casting with the pump, next and jointed to the
sides of the condenser, as at r r r r; doors, c c, on the sides of the
condenser opposite these passages admit of ready access to the valves :
the pump is placed at the bottom of the condenser. To render a
stuffing box unnecessary on the pump cover, o o, for the pump rod, a
tube, II H, extends from the pump cover, o o, to the cover on the top
of the condenser, s s, in which the pump rod, g, works: a suitable
stuffing box, m m, and gland, 1 1, for the pump rod are provided in the
cover on the top of the condenser. The double action air pump
possesses several advantages over those of the common construction ;
among these it may be noticed that one double action pump will do
the work of two with only the friction of one single action pump, the
dimensions of both being equal ; so one of the former to do the same
amount of work as one of the latter will only require to be of half the
area, with the same length of stroke. The efi'ective action of this pump
being at every half stroke, a much steadier and purer vacuum will be
maintained in the condenser than by the common pump, whose action

No. 58.— Vol. V.— July, 1842.

is only at the termination of every full stroke of the engine. Its
liability to become deranged is not greater, and the difficulties in
remedying these derangements when they have occurred are less than
in the common pump. Connected with the latter are the foot, dis-
charging, and bucket valves; for obtaining access to either of the first
two of these valves, the jointing of a separate door has to be undone,
and for the third several disconnections have to be made, and the air
pump cover has to be lifted. In some arrangements of engines the
whole of these valves are of very difficult access ; to obtain access to
the valves in the double action pump the undoing of two doors is only-
necessary. Although the valves at one end became deranged in action,
yet the pump with the valves at the other end would work as a single
action pump, and the engines continue in operation until opportunity
was afforded for repair. The repair could be very speedily effected,
by always having in readiness a set of valves to replace those that
became defective. If the valves of the common pump get deranged,
the working of the engine is completely suspended. In the arrange-
ment of engines with this pump, it is shown in fig. 6 as wrought by a
crank, forged of a piece with the intermediate crank shaft of the
engines. The perpendicular position of the pump rod is maintained
by a guide pulley, i i, working in guides, jj, bolted to the engine
framing, 1 1.

It has been correctly maintained that an engine air pump with a
solid piston or plunger, as hitherto constructed, will not produce so
pure a vacuum as a lifting valve bucket of the common construction.
This will hold true in respect to a single action plunger air pump
which only expels the water and gases by its downward stroke ; for as
the gases are always in position above the surface of the water to be
expelled, the descent of the plunger will lessen their volume and
increase their density to an extent corresponding to what would result
from being subjected to a pressure equal to that required for expelling
the water. There being always a head of water in the hot water
cistern pressing against the discharge valves,* these gases can only be
very partially expelled from the pump chamber. On the ascent of
the plunger, and re-opening of the valve communicating with the con-
denser, they (the gases) will partially return to the condenser, (as a
less head of water in a partial vacuum will offer less resistance to
their ingress,) and partially impede the free flow of the water in it to
the pump chamber. These defects impair the efficiency of the en-
gines, from the consequent imperfect condensation, and impurity of
vacuum ; no such defects obtain in a double action force pump, as
applied to an engine. In fig. 0 it will be noticed that the passages
between the air pump and three of the lower sides of the condenser
will always be filled witli water, during the ascending stroke of the
plunger piston to a level with the lower side of the piston plunger,
and during the descending stroke to a level with the lower part of the
upper foot valve seat. These passages, however, being specially
made of very small cubical capacity, will not admit of more water
remaining in the bottom of the condenser, on the cessation of the
engines from work, than what remains in a condenser and bottom of
air p\imp chamber of the common construction. The difference
between tiie level of the lower side of the piston plunger and the
lower part of the lower foot valve seat only admits of the water enter-
ing into the pump chamber during the ascent of the plunger, in the
limited time afforded by a half revolution of the crank. This precludes
an ingress, to any injurious extent, of gases to be acted on by the
return of the plunger, in manner as resulting from the use of a single
action plunger pump; but on the upper foot valve opening, during the
descent of the plunger, opportunity is aflx)rded for the admission of
the gases into the upper part of the p\imp chamber. During the
ascent of the plunger, these gases being in position above tlie siuface
of any water that may have entered with them, will be first expelled
through the upper discharge valve, t', into the hot well, J9. The ex-
pulsion of the gases by a double action plunger pump is, therefore, as
efficiently accomplished as by the common bucket valve pump ; and
the objections against the use of a single action force pump, when
urged against it, are unfounded.
In the drawiiigs and description one of these double action air

2 a

214

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

pumps is represented as sufficient for two engines, but under certain
circumstances two would be preferable. The space and weight
required for a pair of engines with two double action air pumps
would not much exceed the space and weight with one, and still be
very considerably imder what two common bucket valve pumps would
require.

Reference to the Engraving.

Figs. 1 and 2 side view ; figs. Sand 4 section; fig. 5 plan ; and fig. 6
section of air pump and condenser. Similar letters refer to similar parts
OQ all the figures : A, cylinders ; B, pistons ; C, piston rods ; D, con-
necting rods ; E, crank pins ; F, cranks ; G, crank and paddle wheel
shafts; H, crank shaft entablatures ; I, framings; K, piston cross-head
guides: L, cylinder covers; M and N, force and bilge water pump
wipers; O and P, steam valve, traversing shaft wipers; Q, piston
valve spindles ; R, piston valves ; S, expansion valves ; T, cross head
guide pulleys; U, piston valve casings; V, expansion valve casings;
W, steam pipe glandular joints; X, columns forming lower part of
framing ; Y, engine deck beams of vessel ; Z, cylinder water scape
valves.

Fig. 3 : a, condenser ; 6, passages from condenser to foot valves ;
c, valve doors; d' d, upper and lower foot valves; e' e, upper and
lower discharge valves; /, air pump piston plunger; g, air pump
plunger rod ; h, air pump connecting rod ; i, air pump cross head
pulley guides; k, crank for working air pump ; I, air pump piston rod
gland ; m, air pump piston rod stuffing box ; n, pipe for rendering
unnecessary a stuffing box on air pump cover; o, air pump cover;
J), hot well cistern; q, air pump chamber ; r, jointings of air pump to
sides of condenser; s, condenser cover; /, bilge water pumps; a,
feed pumps ; v, valves for closing eduction passages, in the event of
one engine being wrought singly.

THE ROYAL MAIL STEAM PACKET COMPANY.

We admire the adventure and majesty of this undertaking; we
respect, both as merchants and men, those who preside over its
destinies ; but we look upon them as the most ineligible managers of
a steam packet company that the annals of steam enterprise can ex-
hibit, and are quite worn out with the untractable incapacity which
shines through all their proceedings. Never was an enterprise begun
under happier auspices. With a directory numbering some of the
most august names among British merchants, with an influential con-
nexion abroad, a most respectable proprietary at home and a most
beneficial contract with the Government, success appeared certain and
rivalry impossible; and never did mismanagement move effectually
render " these rich gifts poor," or more speedily transform a scene of
noble promise into a chaos of withered hopes, forlorn greatness, and
wide-spread desolation.

We have patiently waited month after month, in the fond hope that
some such amelioration would be accomplished as would at least give
the enterprise a chance of success. We have suggested — we have
remonstrated — we have entreated : and holding in mind the deep
interest which many of our friends have in the undertaking — consider-
ing the baneful effect which the mismanagement of this company
would indirectly exercise upon other companies, even the best ma-
naged— and foreseeing the deplorable consequences that would ensue
to the national interests in general, and to the interests embarked in
steam navigation in particular, from the utter failure of this scheme —
we have left no stone unturned to induce the voluntary adoption of
such measures as are best calculated to avert such a catastrophe. But
it all will not do. The directors, deaf to the outcry of the public, which
is roused to a man against them — regardless of having rendered them-
selves the subjects of unprecedented odium and universal derision —
heedless of the pressure of accumulating difficulties, which every
instant threaten to overwhelm them — persevere, nevertheless, in the
very course that has already created all these disasters, and are still
distinguisiied only for the same inordinate self-sufficiency, the same

futile dogmatism, and the same wanton temerity, which characterized
the first hour of their hapless administration.

It becomes, then, a question of supreme importance, What remedy
is to be sought for this state of things? and it concerns the proprietary
dee|ily that a prompt and judicious answer should be given to this
question. Happily the answer is not a difficult one ; for as it would
appear to be indisputable, ami is indeed the universal sentiment, that
mismanagement has occasioned all the past evils, the obvious way to
prevent the recurrence of those evils is to change the management.
This, we presume, the proprietary have it in their power to do ; and
if they have not, it would be a thousand times better to break up the
Company altogether, than to endure the continuance of the present
alarming state of things. It is the wisest policy to look the difficulties
of the question fairly in the face, and certain it is that a bad compro-
mise now is better than the prosecution of a scheme which, under the
existing conditions, must terminate fatally. It is high time that the
proprietary should search the business to the very bottom for them-
selves, and insist upon the execution of such measures as are essential
to the general good. It is the only chance they have of saving any
thing from the embers.

The very christening of this Company introduces us to — if not a species
of artifice, at least to something so very like it that we are at a loss for
any other name by which to distinguish it. We should be glad to
know why this company is called " The Royal Mail Company," as if
there were no other Royal Mail Companies besides it. The City of
Dublin Company, the Peninsular and Oriental Company, the Halifax
Company, and others, are quite as much entitled to the appellation as
this helpless leviathan ; they, loo, carry letter bags: and whether the
design of this arrogated distinctive title was or was not to delude the
ignorant into the belief that this Company possessed some peculiar
immunity, or maintained some intimate species of connexion with
Government not common to its contemporaries, such certainly has
been the effect. But we pass over this trifling delinquency — though,
in our eyes, unfair to other companies, and unworthy of a great enter-
prise, to notice topics of more stirring interest.

The assumed average speed of the vessels is at least one knot per hour
too high. — The vessels have never kept their times, and they never
can do so. The computations of the average speed are founded upon
hypothetical and visionary considerations, not upon a knowledge of
the performance of other vessels. The average speeds of the Great
Western and the Tagus, as determined by the actual results of a
number of voyages, are S-3 and S-2o knots respectively ; and those
vessels are among the most efficient afloat, certainly quite as speedy
as any of the West India Mail Company's vessels. Yet the average
speed which these last vessels are pre-determined to perform is, in
some cases, as high as 10'4 knots per hour, and in no one instance so
low as that of the ascertained speed of the Tagus or Great Western.
Besides, the times of the mail arrivals should not be the times due to
the average speeds but to the minimum speeds ; the mails should
never be late except from some extraordinary stress of weather, or
some accident to the machinery. The times allowed for coaling are
short enough under the most auspicious circumstances, and cannot be
reckoned average times. The directors, in respect of time, have
agreed to do more than they can do, or indeed than, with their vessels,
can be done ; and even were the contemplated speed attainable with
the present vessels, it would be highly inexpedient to attain it, as
such could only be done at an expense altogether disproportionate to
the beneSt derived. The consumption of fuel and general expence of
maintenance increase with the speed in a wonderfully rapid ratio.
The resistance increases as the square of the velocity, the power
necessary to overcome that resistance as the cube of the velocity, and
the expense in a more rapid ratio still, on account of the increased size
and immersion of the ship. A vessel which, at the speed of 0 knots per
hour, would only cost 1/. per hour for coals, would, at the speed of
12 knots per hour, cost 10/. per hour, so that the expense of propul-
sion through the same distance is 5 times greater with the greater
speed. To look for an increased speed, then, as any palliation of the
existing difficulties, would be preposterous ; it would only make the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

215

matter so much the worse, even if attainable, by adding fearfully to
the expense.

The route is badly arranged.— 1\iexe are too many exact depen-
dencies and nice reciprocations involved in it, and it is also too
circuitous. The whole arrangements, indeed, upon this head are so
complicated as to be scarcely intelligible, and too visionary to be
practicable; and the utmost confusion appears to have arisen in con-
sequence. The movements of this vessel are dependent upon the
movements of that vessel, and the movements of this last upon those
of a third ; so that tlie detention or occurrence of accident to one of
the chain breaks the continuity, and throws all into confusion. In this
respect a transmissive line of steamers is similarly circumstanced to a
railway operating by stationary engines— an accident at any one of
the stations stops the whole line. The several stations appear to have
been injudiciously chosen; the grand rendezvous at Turk's Island,
where the Medina was lost, appears, in particular, to be extremely
ineligible. We tremble at the anticipations of a winter's storms
among the intricacies and dangers incident to the navigation of these
channels— studded as they are with rocks, banks, and islands. The
Company, it is true, has had many disasters, but has not yet had a
ninter.

The vessels are all loo large.— Theit maintenance is consequently
too expensive for the trade to bear. The mere expense of engine
room wages per month is £200 for each vessel, and about as much
more for sailors, &c. ; nevertheless the vessels are inadequately
manned. The wages and cost of victualling the crews of the several
vessels cannot be much if at all less than£100,00U per annum. T.iking
the cost of each vessel at no more than £o0,00U, and as there are or
are to be 14 vessels, 00,000X14= £840,000, and adding £00,000 for
the purchase of the City of Glasgow and Acteon, as well as the sail-
ing vessels, the total capital of the Company embarked in vessels,
without leaving them a penny in hand to carry on their business with,
■will be just one million sterling. The insurance upon this at 6 per
cent, will be £GO,000 per annum, and making the common allowance
of 15 per cent, for a sinking fund and wear and tear, the amount of
this item will be £150,000 per annum. The duration of a voyage-
that is, the time under weigh from England to St. Thomas, Nassau,
and round by Bermuda back again to England, is in round numbers
computed by the Company at lOOO hours, and the consumption per
hour in the greater number of the vessels is about 28 cwt. : 1000 X
28-f-20=; 1400 tons of coals consumed per voyage X 24 = 33,600 tons
consumed per annum upon the main line. Adding one half of this
for the consumption upon the branch lines and that of the Acteon and
City of Glasgow, the total consumption per annum will be 50,400 tons,
and much of this, taking into account the expense of freight, trans-
shipment, &c., will cost very little less than 2/. per ton. Adding to
the expense of coal that of engine-room stores, viz. oil, tallow, waste,
white and red lead, rope yarn, furnace bars, and the numberless
et cetera which every one acquainted with steam navigation as ex-
tended to foreign countries knows to be requisite for the performance
of a voyage, the amount of these united items— that is, of coal and
and of these various engine stores— cannot be less than £ 100,000 per
annum. The number of passengers, sometimes 5 or 6, rarely exceeds
20 or 30 : taking 20 as the average number, and assuming that they
all come the greatest distance, the passage money due to which is
62/. per head, and that the amount of the freight is always equal to
that of the passage money, the receipts and disbursements will stand
as under : —

Annual Receipts.

20 passengers at 62/., less victualling = 46/. £

20X2X46 = 3280X24= 78,720

Cargo, bullion. &c 78,720

Intermediate passengers, &c 10,000

Mail money 240,000

Annual Disbursements.

Wages and victualling crew £100,000

Insurance at 6 per cent 60,000

Coal depots 1^,000

Wear and tear, and sinking fund 150,000

Coal and engine stores 100,000

£420,000

£407,440

Thus it would appear that, at the lowest calculation of expense,
supposing that the speed is what the company anticipated, and that
the enterprise is better conducted than it ever will be conducted by
the present management, the excess of the expenditure over the
receipts is £13,000 per annum, and this without the charge of a
penny for management, clerks, offices, &c., or a fraction of dividend
to the proprietary. So much for the expediency of using leviathan
vessels.

We hear that the directors, not satisfied with the havoc they have
already wrouglit, have it in contemplation to establish extensive work-
sliops— to become, in fact, engineers, as the Great Western Company-
attempted to become. We question the legality of this measure, the
funds of the company having been subscribed for a specific object ;
but, however that may be, we are quite assured of its inexpediency.
In the first place, what can a circle of steam tyros know of the ma-
na'gement of such concerns ? Has their past management been such
as to induce the desire, on the part of the proprietary, to embark in a
further speculation? In the second place, the contemplated measure
would be an act of injustice to engineers, many of whom are extensive
proprietors, and who have no right to see their own money squandered
in establishing an injurious though unavailing competition with them-
selves. We presume it was with an eye towards some such measure,
that the directors took such pains to have all their engines of a differ-
ent construction, so that a mould or a spare piece of machinery-
answerable for one should be altogether unsuitable for another. We
must, in this instance, give the directors credit for greater foresight
and a more skilful adaptation of means to an end than usually dis-
tinguish their procedures ; for we must certainly admit that a more
effectual method of rendering repairs difficult and expensive, of
rendering an infinite assortment of spare machinery indispensable—
in short, of rendering it necessary to keep a heavy engineering estab-
lishment perpetually occupied, could not have been devised by the
most perverse ingenuity. Nevertheless, though much unnecessary
expense and inconvenience are thus entailed upon the Company, we
do not think it therefore necessary to attempt the mitigation of those
evils by the creation of a still greater one ; and the directors must
pardon us for insinuating, that those persons who already possess the
moulds of the various assortments of machinery— who already have
workshops, tools, and, what is better than all, who have skill— ma.y
possibly be able to execute repairs upon more advantageous terms
than those who have all of these to purchase. Instead of seeking to
scpiander money in plaster and whitewash, the directors should think
of paying some small dividend to the shareholders. Workshops and
patterns, though they may cost a great deal, will sell for very little,
and there is no proposition more self-evident to us, than that these
very estimable cognoscenti would very soon do for a steam factory, as
effectually as they have done for a steam packet company. But so
far is it from the intention of the directors to declare a dividend, that
we heir it rumoured they intend, in violation of their guarantee, to
make a furth<-r call upon the shareholders. This call, we are very-
sure, will be resisted, but that it will be made we are as thoroughly
assured ; and the best thing the shareholders can do is to at once
convene a meeting among themselves, to take the necessary steps for
resuming their delegated authority. There are among their number
men of cool and clear heads, who well know what steam navigation
is, whose advice might do much to retrieve the present unhappy state
of affairs, and the shareholders should at once decide upon taking the
management into their own hands, until the requisite steps can be
taken for appointing another executive. Let a meeting, then, of the
shareholders be held ; let a resolution be carried, to the effect " that

2 H 2

216

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

in consequence of the turn the affairs of the Company have taken,
the pubHc has lost all confidence in it ; and that it appears to the pro-
prietary that the only way of restoring confidence, as well as of
promoting the general interests of the Company, is to request the
directors to resign ; and that with the view of preventing any obstruc-
tion to the effectual introduction of a better system, and of giving the
public confidence in the reality of its introduction, as well as of
advancing the interests of the Company, it is desired that the resig-
nation of the directors sliouhi be accompanied by the resignation of
all the subordinate officials.'" As men of character and station—
which the directors are— they could not refuse to comply with such a
requisition ; and the Augean stable being fairly swept, let the affairs
be put into the hands of the most circumspect, experienced, and ener-
getic persons that can be pitched upon. There may be among the Com-
pany's officials one or two persons whom it might be expedient to
retain ; but no exception should be made on their account. A complete
clearance is indispensable to success, and should it be thought expe-
dient, after the new system has been established, to re-elect those
persons, it can easily be done, and would then be unproductive of
detriment. It is necessary to contemplate the substitution of smaller
vessels for some of those at present plying; but this question and all
others are comprehended in the fundamental one of efficient manage-
ment.

In conclusion, we desire to repeat, that for the directors individually
we entertain the most unmingled respect; we reverence thera as
English merchants and as English gentlemen, and we do not believe
there is one among them whose high character and general commer-
cial capacity are not universally appreciated and acknowledged. But
in their collective character, as the executive of a great enterprise in
steam navigation, they are only eminent for their egotistical perver-
sity, and their utter destitution of every qualification indispensable to
the exercise of so arduous a function; and we cannot but esteem it
unfortunate for their fame, as well as injurious to their fortunes, that
they ever assumed a direction of that technical and particular species
which their other avocations must have rendered inconvenient, and
for which their past pursuits have never rendered them fit. To ma-
nage steam enterprises properly requires much skill ; that skill is only
to be obtained by experience, and such experience the directors have
never had. They may, perhaps, have relied for this upon their offi-
cials, but such reliance is not a proper one; for what is it but having
directors with directors over them? Besides, not one of these same
officials has ever had any experience in the conduct of commercial
steam navigation upon the large scale, and they are, for the most part,
far too theoretical and enthusiastic, to be safe guides or discreet
advisers. It is true, time and experience might cure these failings,
and in time, too, the directors might acquire sufficient knowledge and
discretion to enable them to govern as they ought. But the Company
would be ruined in the interim, and by the time these gentlemen had
become proficients, there would cease to be a field for tlie display of
their attainments. The particular management ought to be confided
to two or three managing directors, who should be paid well for their
services, and who should do nothing else. The board of directors
should confine itself to the regulation of matters of finance— to the
determination of measures of general policy— and to seeing that the
man-aging directors did their duty. That there will probably be some
difficulty in getting persons competent to fill the office of managing
directors is undeniable, for talent such as that office requires is not
likely to be unengaged ; yet that eligible persons may be obtained
we are perfectly convinced, and no sacrifice should be thought too
great to obtain such auxiliaries, the very existence of the company
being contingent upon its skilful management.

Let the proprietary then weigh well, proceed resolutely and act
promptly. To attempt to disguise their present position would be
idle— to shut their eyes to it, insane. We do not think their affairs
irretrievable— nay, further, we are of opinion, that under proper ma-
nagement, this enterprise might become as flourishing and lucrative
as it is now disastrous and alarming. But this consummation is neither
accomplishable by the same measures nor the same men ; and the

sooner new men and measures are chosen, the less dangerous will be
the wound and the less difficult the cure. The proprietary have two
courses before them ; if they adopt the one they will continue unper-
plexed and become prosperous— if they persevere in the other they
will very soon find themselves embarrassed, impoverished, and
undone.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXVIII.

" I must have liberty
■Witlml, as kirge a charier as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

L If Michael Angelo was, as some have called him, a giant in archi-
tecture, he was also a barbarian in it. Many of his buildings are little
better than stupendous pnerihties; and all of them abound, more or
less, with vices that would hardly be tolerated in any one else. Well
may Vasari call his St. Peter's " una fabrica lerribilissima," it being
literally terrible enough in many respects. Memmo has pointed out
in his "Elementi d'Architettura," many egregious solecisms in the
works both of Michael Angelo and Palladio, and he might have ex-
tended the list of them to a much greater length. In regard to the
latter, it is, indeed, astonishing that people— or at least some people
— should continue to repeat the praises bestowed upon him a hundred
years ago, for hardly can it be averred that he now stands in the same
relative position he then did. It is also extraordinary that, while
Palladio's name has become a metonym for excellence in art, that of
Alessi should be comparatively obscure and seldom mentioned at all,
notwithstanding that in comparison with him, the other is, at the best,
tame and insipid. It is to Alessi that Genoa is mainly indebted for
its title of La Superba, and for the stately and picturesque character
of its palazzo facades. He has been as much undervalued as his Vi-
centine contemporary has been overrated. Even his name is not to be
found in every biographical dictionary ; nor, horresco refemis, does
Woods mention him at all in his " Letters of an Architect," although
he says that Genoa may justly be proud of its palaces, which, by the
bye, is all that he says about them .'

II. A German periodical on the Fine Arts speaks of a house now
nearly completed at Paris, for the banker Hope, which is somewhat
larger than the Louvre, and when finished and furnished will cost
about thirteen million francs I or upwards of half a million sterling!
Is this a "Munchausen"? if not, how happens it that no rumour
relative to such an architectural undertaking has found its way into
any English journal ? Had it been a new bonnet instead of a new
Louvre, the pattern of it would have been in London in the course of
four-and-twenty hours. This, however, is not the only instance of our
extreme tardiness in obtaining information relative to what is going
on in architecture upon the continent ; and about which just as much
is known as about the current literature of the continent. For
the last twenty years our Anglo-German critics have been pester-
ing us with Schiller and Goethe, Goethe and Schiller, and have gone
on Schillering and Goetheing, and Goetheing and Schillering, as if all
the rest of the literature were a mere blank. It is pretty much after
the same fashion that those who speak of buildings at all, repeat the
same cuckoo strain, to the tune of Parthenon and Pantheon, Pantheon
and Parthenon, Vitruvius and Palladio, Palladio and Vitruvius, till
we sicken of the very mention of them. Who is Cagnola ? asks one ;
and, who is Canonica ? who is Gartner ? who is Langhans ? who is
Rossi? who is Thon? who is Ottmer? are all questions in turn.
Truly, there is as yet no railroad for architectural intelligence ; it
travels as slowly and as crawlingly as an old Yorkshire stage wagon.
Perhaps at the end of the century, something will be known here of
what has been going on in architecture upon the continent, during the
two last decenniums.

in. "It notunfrequently happens that those who derive their know-
ledge from books are far better acquainted with things or objects than

1842.]

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217

those who have actually beheld them ; because he who reads with
attention will carefully ponder upon, and reconsider the matter under
notice, whereas he who merely looks at things can afterwards give no
clear account of them ; so far, therefore, reading is more instructive
than seeing." Such is the remark of Cervantes in his Persiles and
Sigismunda, a work that may be said to be very celebrated, although
very little is known ; and it is one corroborated by my own experience
to a far greater degree than I could wish, for I have again and again
found it impossible to obtain any sort of information relative to build-
ings, from those who have actually seen them. When questioned as
to particulars, they tell you they did not notice this, they did not
think of looking for that; this they quite overlooked, that they quite
forgot to observe ; so that what with their overlooking and their for-
getting, you find there is no getting any thing out of them. According
to their own confession they can describe nothing, nor can thev re-
member any thing ; nevertheless, instead of taking any shame to
themselves for their ignorance, such people will give themselves airs
of superiority merely because they happen to have seen what you
have not, and have had opportunities by which thev have not in the
slightest degree protited. I once amused myself at tlie expense of
a traveller of that description, who was giving nie a long account of a
building he had visited. Having suffered him to go on without inter-
ruption, and letting him have it all his own way, I placed before him
a volume of engravings of the building in question, remarking they
must be exceedingly incorrect and untrustworthy, since they did not
at all tally with his description ; in fact they did not agree with it —
or rather liis description did not agree with them, in any one particular.
The consequence was, my gentleman looked very disagreeably as-
tonished at finding himself so completely contradicted by evidence
which he could not dispute.

IV. Though I never heard of him before, I am in no danger of now
forgetting the name of the nonentity recorded by Nagler as "Phi-
lippus, an architect known to us by an inscription in Gruter's work,
which says 'Philippus architectus maxinius hie situs est.' " Truly tliere
is not much here either to forget or to remember — nothing, certainly,
worth knowing ; although it is an exceedingly great curiosity in its way,
as an article in a biographical dictionary of artists. It is ratlier too much
a la John Britton, who has foisted into his dictionary the names of
several such illustrious nobodies as carpenters, stone-masons, and
other mechanical geniuses. Surely there is little occasion for peopling
dictionaries of artistical biography with such mere ghosts and shadows
and sounds, as are Philippus and not a few others who flit before us
in Nagler's work, wliich is already so voluminous in itself, that, like
Falstatr, it requires no further stuffing out. In fact Nagler seems to
have pounced upon every name he could anywhere meet with, and has
accordingly caught and preserved some excessively small fry, people
whose names never appeared in print before, except in an exhibition
catalogue, or a newspaper paragraph. This is being over-minute and
scrupulous, more especially when we find that, notwithstanding such
minikin exactness, he has omitted some names of the first magnitude.
Will it be believed? — no, it is perfectly incredible — that, while he has
given a place in his dictionary to many living architects, and other
artists who are either comparatively or positively quite obscure, he
has actually omitted that of Charles Barry! This almost beats the
anecdote told by Krilov in one of his fables, of the man who, telling a
friend all the wonders he had just been examining in a museum of
natural history — the shells, moths, and insects there exhibited, was
asked by him what he thought of the elephant. "The elephant! —
why bless my soul ! I did not see the elephant at all!" After all, a
parallel instance to that in Nagler may be found in Wolff's account of
our English novelists, who, while he notices such bolstered-up medi-
ocrities as Lady Blessington and other namby-pamby scribblers, does
not bestow even a single word on Theodore Hook ! Utterly incredible,
yet positive fact.

V. There is an immense deal of cant in the world besides religious
cant, and certainly no little of it infects both literature and art. I have
just at my elbow a book where .Shakspeare is eulogized in expressions
that may be termed blasphemous, the writer observing, as if reproach-

ingly against the poet's contemporaries, that, notwithstanding his
unrivalled excellence, he did not obtain from them " a tithe of the
loving and reverent admiration we pay to the Creator of a world ".
This is rather too powerful for ordinary nerves, for when a man
writes in such a strain of any other human being, instead of honouring
the object of his adoration, he only disgraces himself, and compels us
out of mere charity to suppose that he must be quite insane. Much
as honest and sincere enthusiasm is to be commended in the literary
man and the artist, it has its limits, and if it oversteps them, it
becomes either raving madness or drivelling silliness. To hear some
people talk, one would really imagine that the Cartoons of Raphael
and the Elgin Marbles were the palladium of England— possessions far
exceeding in value all its colonies, and its " either Ind." They speak
of them is of things holy— as if their loss would be a loss to the
entire world, and as if civilization itself would be extinguished when-
ever they cease to exist. In like manner the enthusiastic admirers of
Grecian architecture are apt to speak of it as if the world would never
have known what architecture was, or have had anything worthy of bein"
so called, but for the pagan temples of Greece. Grecian architecture
is, I own, truly admirable, as far as it goes, but then it goes a very
little way indeed. Its resources are so exceedingly few— its alphabet
so exceedingly scanty— the combinations it admits of are so very,
very limited, that we may well be allowed to abate the demands
made upon our admiration in its behalf, as being rather too extrava-
gant. Well has it been observed by Goethe, that Grecian architecture
may be compared to a clever and intelligent child, very superior, if
considered only as a child — as such, perhaps a prodigv — nevertheless
not at all equal in capacity to a grown-up person of ordinary mental
abihty. What Grecian architecture would have ultimately become,
had it continued to thrive for ages without check or hindrance of any
kind, can now only be conjectured ; yet the probability is that it would
hardly have advanced at all beyond the point it actually attained.
Notwithstanding the poetical nimbus with which classical antiquity
has been adorned, the whole constitution of ancient society and civi-
lization was essentially barbarous, because essentially immoral : and
could it be atherwise, seeing that their very religion tended to
confound all sense of right and wrong, and tlieir deities were little
better than so many personifications of vice and baseness — profligate,
cowardly, lying knaves and rogues, cuckold-makers, and pimps. A
knowledge of the Greek dramatists may serve to recommend a man to
an English bishopric, because such has been the case before now ; but
the reverence paid to classical literature as an element of education
has, it may be feared, chiefly tended to keep up a moral taint, so that
in consequence of such influence in its higher spheres, " society itself
continues selfish, sensual, and belligerent." My pen is just such
another unmanageable beast as John Gilpin's steed, for it has run
away with me, till I have almost lost myself, and the reader lost his
patience altogether.

ON THE SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS OF SARDIS AND
MYCENiE.

By Wu.uam Rathbone Greg, Esq.

(From the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester.)

* * It is not uninteresting to observe how generally the
monuments, erected in honour of the dead, have outlived those reared
for the use or the luxuries of the living. Thus, in the East, we con-
stantly meet with extensive cemeteries, standing alone in a deserted
region, where the cities which peopled them have been entirely swept
away, and where no human habitation can be found for many leagues.
On the plain of Troy, the Tumuli are the only remaining monuments
of a time celebrated beyond all others in the history of mankind ; —
the pyramids of Egypt have long survived the cities of the monarch
who erected them ; — at Mycena, the tombs of the Atridae may be seen
in their original integrity, though their palaces have left no vestige

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behind them, and their massive citadel is fast crumbling into ruins;—
and of the renowned and magnificent Sardis, the only uninjured relic
which has reached our times, is the sepulchre of the sovereign who
first raised it into splendour.

To whatever part of the world we turn our attention, we find bar-
rows or tumuli in great abundance, and differing from each other but
little, either in construction or in form. They are generally conical
hillocks, of larger or smaller dimensions, constructed sometimes of
earth, sometimes of stone, in some cases solid, in others containing a
vaulted chamber. In our own country they are found in Cornwall, and
more especially in Scotland and the Orkneys, where they are known
under the name of cairns ; Dr. Clarke relates having met with them
abundantly in the Steppes, or vast plains in the south of Russia;— and
I found considerable numbers in Rouraelia, both north and south of
the Balkan, and also in Servia and Bulgaria. Jefferson (in his " Notes
on the State of Virginia,") describes many of them in different parts
of the New World; in Africa they are said to be not unfrequent; and
in Greece and Asia Minor they are seen in unusual quantities, and of
extraordinary dimensions. Having had the good fortune to visit
several of the more celebrated of these barrows, it may not perhaps
be wholly uninteresting to the Society to hear a short description of
the two which most deserve our attention, viz. those at Sardis and
Mycenae.

To commence with the latter. The plain of Argos, in the N.E. of
the Morea, is an extensive semicircle of flat, and for the most part,
marshy land, situated at the head of the Gulph of Nauplia, and appa-
rently reclaimed from the sea at no very remote period, as indeed
mythological history plainly indicates. It is inclosed by a vast amphi-
theatre of hills, among which is situated Mycens, the city of Atreus
and Agamemnon, said to have been founded by Perseus, about 1300
B.C. Its remains are very accurately described by Pausanias, who
flourished A.D. ISO; though Strabo declares that in his time fB.C. 10)
no vestige of it existed, and that its site was entirely unknown. It is
not, however, easily to be found, even by those acquainted with its
general position ; for though myself and my companions were fur-
nished with the best maps, and travelled Pausanias i/l hand, it was
not till the second day's search that we were at length rewarded by
stumbling upon the Citadel, among the low hills near the village of
CJiarvati.

The Acropolis of Mycenae is a rocky hill entirely surrounded by
walls, which in many parts are still tolerably perfect, and, except at
intervals, are of the oldest style of Cyclopian architecture. Of the
Pelasgians or Cyclopes, to whom all the most solid and stupendous
structures of ancient Greece and Italy are, by common fame, attributed,
we know almost nothing; nor has the profound and patient genius of
Niebvdir succeeded in throwing any material light on the origin,
history, or achievements of this singular and powerful people. Their
national existence would seem to have been almost terminated before
the commencement of the historic era; and many of the most ancient
and remarkable cities in Greece Proper and Magna Grecia appear to
have been founded by them, either while existing as an independent
people, or after their subjugation by other Greek tribes.

It is not my intention to enter here into a description of the massive
monuments which bear the Pelasgic or Cyclopian name ; but it may
be important to remark, that they consist of three distinct styles,
which I should conceive to be referable to widely different periods of
time. The first, which appears to be the most ancient, consists of
walls formed of immense blocks of stone, roughly, if at all, hewn,
generally of a square or oblong shape, put together with little care,
and having the interstices filled up wilh stones of smaller dimensions.
To this class may be referred the outer walls of Tiryns, the Pelasgic
wall round the citadel of Athens, and a large part of the acropolis of
Mycenie. The second style includes those buildings which are con-
structed of enormous blocks of every imaginable shape, but most
commonly pentagons and irregular rhomboids, and fitted together with
the most scrupulous and beautiful exactitude. The galleries of Tiryns,
some fragments which surround the hill of Argos, and others near
jirpim, in the Southern Apennines, are the only specimens of this

class I have seen. The third and most modern division of Cyclopian
architecture, is of a far more finished and somewhat less massive
character ; and the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, which forms the
subject of this paper, is, as far as I am aware, the only instance of it
extant.

The mystery which hangs over the origin of these massive struc-
tures, their singular appearance, and remote antiquity, all conspire to
render them most fascinating objects of research. But at Mycenae
our interest was more peculiarly awakened by the celebrated GaU of
Lions, the entrance to the Acropolis, and the one through which
Agamemnon led his army to the siege of Troy. It is formed of two
upright slabs of stone, 17 ft. high, and supporting an entablature of
similar proportions, viz., 15 ft. long, G'> ft. thick, and 4 ft. deep, hewn
out of a single block. Resting upon this entablature is a triangular
slab, 10 ft. high, containing in relief the figures of two lions, standing
on their hind legs on each side of a pillar, the summit of which has
been broken off. On the whole, it is a most magnificent gateway
and on gazing on it, we are at a loss to conceive how, in those remote
times, men could have acquired sufficient command of mechanical
agents, to raise and place such enormous masses.

About 50 yards from the Gate, and outside the walls of the
Acropolis, stands the immense mound, which forms the more immediate
subject of these remarks. It is a large, round, conical hill, partly
natural, partly artificial, and considerably lower on one side than on the
other. On the side nearest to the Citadel an excavation has been
made, which succeeded in laying bare the entrance or doorway, a
structure of even more gigantic dimensions than the Gate of Lions.
On entering this we come into a large vaulted chamber, inclining to
the conical form, 50 ft. across at the base, and about 45 ft. high.
Adjoining this is an interior chamber of square form, and smaller
dimensions.

The chief peculiarity in this beautiful monument struck me as being
the extreme neatness and regularity of the masonry. It contains 40
courses of hewn stone, aU admirably fitted together, but without
cement ; and it is, I should think, quite as perfect a specimen of work-
manship as could be produced at the present day.

Great doubt exists among the learned, as to rchal this monument
really was— some calling it the Tomb of Agamemnon, and others the
Treasury of Atreus. Dodwell and Dr. Clarke hold the former
opinion, while Col. Leake and the generality of travellers are
strenuous advocates of the latter. The only authorities on which we
have to rely, are the description of Pausanias, and the plays of
Sophocles and Euripides. From V.ie former, it appears more than
probable that the Treasury of Atreus was ?i!ithin the Citadel; and
indeed we can scarcely conceive that any monarch who possessed a
fortress as strong as that of Mycenae, would deposit his treasures
anywhere but within its walls. Nou- the monument in question is
outside the fortifications, and therefore can scarcely be the Treasury of
Atreus. Again ; Pausanias places the Treasury near the spring Per-
sea, which in no way corresponds to the position of this tumulus ;
for the only two rivulets to he found at Mycens rise 100 or 200 yards
distant. Now we gather from different passages in the Eleclra of
Euripides, as well as from that of Sophocles, that the tomb of Aga-
memnon mas without the walls, (although Pausanias seems to indicate
the contrary,) for Sophocles describes Orestes as visiting his father's
sepulchre before he reached the gate of the Citadel; and in Euripides,
when Orestes relates to Pylades his nocturnal visit to the tomb, it is
expressly stated that he repaired thither without entering the walls.
Now the tumulus in question being without the walls, and being also
by far the largest to be found at Mycenae, may fairly be conceived to
belong to so celebrated a monarch; and to make assurance doubly sure,
we learn from Sophocles that the sepulchre (Taipoa) of Agamemnon
?vas a mound or barrrow (Ko\»>'ij).

I have unfortunately neither the classic lore, nor the habits of
antiquarian research, which could alone entitle me to form an inde-
pendent opinion on this controverted point. Certainly from consider-
ations above mentioned, I incline to Dr. Clarke's view of the subject.
But the decision of the question is now of little moment ; for whether

1842.]

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219

it be the sepulclire of the "King of Men" (oi-aj arSpov), or the
Treasury of his father, the bones of the one and the treasures of the
other have alike disappeared, and the Grecian shepherds, with their
flocks and herds, are 'now the only inhabitants of this magnificent
abode of grandeur and of gloom.

Passing over two barrows of unrivalled interest — that of the Athe-
nians on the Plain of Marathon, and that of Achilles on the Plain of
Troy, both of which have attracted so much attention from all
travellers that it would be impossible for me to add anytliing to their
descriptions — let us proceed to cast a short glance on the tomb of
Alyattes, which is situated in the Plain of Truy.

Sardis is about two days' journey to the N.E. of Ephesus, from
which place I set out to visit it. On the second day we passed
Mount Tmolus, an extensive range which runs through Asia Minor,
parallel to the two seas. These hills are extremely wide at their
summit, and are covered with a rich soft grass, and ornamented by
trees not inferior to the finest to be met with in our English parks. As
we descended on the northern side, the Pactolus with its golden sands,
now an insignificant streamlet, murmured gently by our path, spark-
ling with the dazzling beams of an Asiatic sun, from which even the
rich foliage which hung over was unable entirely to protect it. A
sudden turn at length brought us full upon the narrow glen which
contains the Temple of Sardis, the only existing remnant, except the
Acropolis, of the ancient city of Croesus. The Temple is a most
beautiful specimen of the Ionic order ; and though two only of the
columns are now erect, yet the others are lying around so little injured,
that they pight without much difficulty be replaced in their original
position. It was curious to see our Turkish attendant sauntering
amid the ruined fragments, and endeavouring, with all the honest
politeness of his nation, to sympathize with us in our admiration of
their beauties ; tliough evidently extremely at a loss to conceive what
should have induced us to come so far, merely to gaze upon the fallen
columns and scattered friezes of an ancient temple.

But the description of Sardis, however beautiful or striking it may
have been, is not our present object. About a mile beyond the
Temple the glen opens into a wide plain, in which the cavalry of
Lydia were defeated by the elephants of Cyrus. It is a truly oriental
scene — the plain is of vast extent, and is surrounded by hills on all
sides : at one extremity stand the Lake of Gyges and the renowned
Tumulus of Alyattes. The sun was setting as we caught the first
glimpse of this lovely landscape ; its lurid rays shone over the still
surface of the lake, the habit. aion of innumerable swans ; the black
canvas tents of the Turcomans (a wandering Asiatic horde) were
scattered in profusion over the plain ; camels and goats were feeding
tranquilly around them ; and the wild figures and uncouth dresses of
the shepherds miglit be seen hurrying to and fro, to call the cattle to
their nightly quarters.

The Gygian Lake is a wide piece of water, by the banks of which
on the side nearest to the town, are great numbers of barrows or
mounds of earth, and among them the Sepulchre of Alyattes stands
pre-eminent. Herodotus, I. xciii, who probably lived about 450 B.C.,
speaks of it as being, next to the works of the Egyptians and Baby-
lonians, the most stupendous monument existing. It was constructed
he says, upon a foundation of stone, and afterwards completed with
earth. It was erected by three classes of the inhabitants of Sardis,
viz., the merchants, the artizans, and the public women. At the sum-
mit of it were fixed five termini, or small pillars with inscriptions
declaring the proportion of work executed by each class of the
artificers. Of these there is now no vestige. In the time of Hero-
dotus this monument was somewhat more than three quarters of a
mile in circumference at the base, but at present it is considerably less.
Unfortunately he does nut mention its height, nor had I, when there,
the means of measuring it, but it could not fall far short of 200 ft.
Several attempts have been made to effect an entrance into the monu-
ment, under the idea that treasures would be found there ; but hitherto
little more has been done than to scratch the surface ; and the interior
construction of one of the most ancient sepulchres in the world, (B.C
S60,) is still a secret.

Though there is less of mystery, there is scarcely less of interest,
connected with this enormous b.irrow, than with the one at Mycenae.
We know beyond all doubt, that it is the monument of Alyattes, the
father of Croesus, and the king of Lydia. We know that it was
erected by order of the wealthiest monarch of Asia, that it was de-
scribed by Herodotus, and that it must have been visited by Solon ;
and there is surely enough of magic in these associations to awaken
our warmest sympathies for this mighty relic of a people whose
fertile empire is now a desert, and whose once formidable name is
almost lost in the remoteness of past time.

Consult Pausanias' Homer; Sophocles' Eleclra; Euripides' Elcctra;
Gell's Topography of the Morea ; Leake's ditto ; Leake's Journal in
Asia Minor; Dodwell's Tour in Greece; Herodotus' ttio; Dr. Clarke's
Travels; Dr. Chandler's Travels, p. 363; Cockerell.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CYMAGRAPH FOR COPYING
MOULDINGS.

By R. Willis, M.A.,F.RS., Jacksonian Professor in the University of

Cambridge, &c.

(With an Engraving, Plate IX.)

The purpose for which this instrument is constructed is to obtain
exact drawings of the profiles of existing mouldings. The importance
of doing this is well known ; but the methods hitherto employed have
appeared to me susceptible of improvement. The oldest and most
usual is to measure a sufficient number of ordinates and their distances,
and thus to lay down the mouldings by points. When the exact form is
required, lead taps has been employed, or clay ; but the best method
of all is to lay the bed of the stone upon which the mouldings are
carved upon the paper, and trace the outline, or else to make a saw
cut transverse to the mouldings (or through a joint) and introduce
paper into this cut, upon which the section of the moulding may be
traced. But these latter plans, excellent as they are, can only be
employed in dealing with ruins, neglected buildings, or buildings under
repair. A few years ago I contrived an instrument which consisted
of little more than the stylus of the present one, and which I then pre-
sented to the Institute of British Architects under the name of a
Cymagraph. But I found it too troublesome to use with the necessary
precision, and yet so useful that I have been induced to fit up a more
complete and commodious machine, which is represented in the
annexed figures, and to which I shall venture to apply the same name,
Cymagraph. This was exhibited at a meeting of the Institute of
British Architects, on May 16 last, and the instrument itself deposited
in the hands of the secretary for the inspection of any person who
might wish to copy it. The following description wi'.l, I hope, prove
sufficient for the same purpose.

The instrument, when folded up, is 5\ in. by Hi in. and \k in. thick,
and will travel in a carpet bag without injury.

Fig. 1 is a plan of the instrument in its working state, applied
against a Gothic rib for the purpose of copying the mouldings.

Fig. 2 is a side view of the instrument corresponding to Fig. 1.

Fig. 3 a plan of the lower side, in which the cymagraph is repre-
sented as detached from the board, and folded into its place for con-
venience of carriage.

The principal piece of the machine is the stylus ABC, of which
the portion A B is straight and B C curved. A B is mounted in a
frame or carriage, having a pointed screw at A, and a collar at B, so
that the stylus is capable of revolving, and the curved portion B C,
which is nearly in the form of a semicircle, is terminated by a point
at C, which must be exactly situated in the axis of rotation of the
stylus, so that during the rotation of the latter the position of this
point may remain invariable with respect to it and to its carriage.

A button D, either of hard wood or of brass, with a milled edge, is
fixed to the stylus, and serves both to guide it in its motion along the
surface of the mouldings and to turn it round its axis as required.
The carriage in which the stylus is mounted has also a pencil holder
E fixed to it.

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[July,

If now the carriage with its stylus be moved parallel to itself over
the surface of a drawing board, it is clear that any given point of
the carriage will describe precisely the same path as the point of the
stylus does, and since the pencil is attached to the carriage, this will
also be true for it; so that if the tracing point C of the stylus be
made to pass transversely across a series of mouldings, and the
point be at the same time kept always in contact with their surface,
the pencil will simultaneously describe upon the paper the exact form
of the section of these mouldings of the same size as the original.

But the surfaces of mouldings are inflected in various directions to the
right and to the left, and the tracing point of the stylus must therefore
be capable of following such changes of direction. This it is enabled to
do bv its curved form combined with its power of rotation about its
axis; for by turning it, it can be applied at various degrees of incli-
nation, either to the right or left side of a moulded surface, as the
form of the latter may require. And as the rotation has been shown
not to affect the actual position of the tracing point C with respect to
the carriage, so neither can it affect the truth of the section drawn by
the pencil.

For example, at C the tracing point is applied to the right of the
stone surface, but at X on the opposite side of the rib it is applied to
the left of that surface, and is also turned into a different angular
position to enable it to enter the hollow. But in passing from X to Y
it must be gradually turned into the position shown by the dotted
lines, to enable it to clear the projection at Z. In fact, during its
progress across a rib of this kind, the point must be carefully watched,
and the stylus turned into the best angular position that the momen-
tary form of the moulding requires.

i have said that the carriage of the stylus is always to move parallel
to itself, and will now describe the means by which this is compelled.
The base of the machme is a drawing board of mahogany F G (| in.
thick), 10^ in. by Hi in., and made to fold in the middle like a book,
for the convenience of carriage. When in use it is kept open by a
button R on the lower surface. The carriage is guided by a parallel
motion somewhat resembling a double parallel ruler, but the propor-
tion of whose jointed arms are altered to suit the different circum-
stances of its employment.

A plate H is secured to the board by a button-headed screw, K,
having a milled headeil nut below at L. As K merely enters a
notch in the plate H, a single turn to right or left of this nut L is suffi-
cient to detach or fix the plate, together with the instrument, while
the slip of metal M, screwed to the board, serves to keep the plate in
its proper position.

Two arms N N of equal length are jointed to the extremities of H,
and also to an arm P of the same length as H ; consequently P will be
parallel to H in all positions. Two other arms Q Q, also of equal
length, are jointed at one end to the arm P, and at the other to the
carriage of the stylus, so that the latter will be parallel to P in all
positions, and consequently to H. This arrangement enables the car-
riage to move freely and steadily from one side of the board to the
other, and over every part occupied by the paper, and at the same
time keeps it always parallel to the plate H. The paper TS, upon
which the mouldings are to be copied, is secured to the board by a
pair of spring catches V, W, of which the last is placed near the cor-
ner S of the paper, to prevent the latter from being caught and turned
up by the arm N of the instrument during its motion.

It is absolutely necessary that the board of the instrument should
be held steadily, in the same position, against the mouldings during
the process of tracing. The two retaining pieces ac, b(l,3.xe provided
for this purpose ; these are attached to the lower side of the board by
thumb-screws, e,/. In Fig. 3 they are shown in the position requisite
for closing the instrument, but in Fig. 1 they are in the position for
use. When the thumb screws are relaxed, either of the retaining
pieces may be drawn out, and turned to the right or left so as to touch
some convenient projection of the moulded surface, and thus when
clamped fast, to retain the instrument in the same position so long as
it is pressed into contact with the mouldings.

This adjustment of the retaining pieces must always be made pre-

viously to taking the profile of any mouldings ; the board must then
be grasped in the left hand at O, and held firmly against the mould-
ings. The button at D is managed by the right hand, which will be
found sufficient as well to guide and turn the point of the stylus as to
keep the pencil in contact with the paper, and to raise it off the paper
when necessary, which the elasticity of the parallel motion will allow
of easily.

Fig. 4 is a section of the edge of the board at W, to show the form
of the paper springs. These, which are also seen at It k, li k, Fig. 3,
are screwed to the lower side of the board in sunk recesses, and are
released from the paper by pressing them at k. When the plate H,
with the parallel motion and carriage, are detached from the board,
they may be deposited in a recess sunk for the purpose on the lower
surface, as shown at i m ; the button R is then to be turned into the
position shown by the dotted lines, and the board may be folded to-
gether, and secured by a hook in front. The recess at n receives the
stylus, and those at s,s, s, receive the milled nuts e,f, L, respectively.
When a series of mouldings are to be copied which exceed the
limits of the paper, they must be taken piecemeal, as shown at Fig. S.
This figure shows how the entire rib of Fig. 1 may be represented,
which rib is too large to be entirely comprehended within the boun-
daries of the paper. In this and similar cases it is better to apply
the instrument against the right and left faces of the rib in succession.
In the first operation the mouldings from o top (Fig. 1) wiU be taken,
and in the next operation those from q to e (the same letters are em-
ployed in Figs 1 and 5).

Care being taken always to draw an overlapping portion of the
mouldings in the successive drawings as in this case from q to p, there
will be no difficulty in joining the separate pieces into one continuous
line by tracing them on a larger sheet.

A small black-lead pencil and common paper may be used for the
purposes of this machine, but as the point is very liable to break and
become troublesome, I find it much more convenient to employ the
metallic paper, which is prepared by Messrs. Harwood, SG.Fenchurch
Street, and requires only a brass or other metallic point instead of
black lead. Besides this advantage, the trace is indelible. The paper
for the instrument should be cut to the proper size, and carried in a
portfolio. By a somewhat different arrangement of the instrument,
the paper might be made to remain always in its place on the drawing
board in the form known by the name of a block, from which the
sheets are to be detached as fast as the drawings are made. This
would increase the size of the machine, however, by making it exactly
as large as the paper, and the folding hinge would be placed in a
direction transverse to that which it occupies in the present design.

This instrument requires no great accuracy of workmanship. The
two essential points upon which the precision of its action depends are,
1st, that every pair of arms N N, Q Q, of which the parallel motion
consists shall have exactly the same distance between their joint holes.
This is easily secured by drilling them all separately, from a pattern arm
made previously. Similarly the holes in the plates H, P, and the
carriage, must be at the same distance respectively. 2nd, that the
point of the stylus shall be in the axis of rotation. This is also easily
effected, and is as easily verified at any moment by twirling the stylus
in its carriage opposite to a fixed point.

The parallel motion may be made of thin slips of sheet iron ri vetted
together, but better of sheet steel. The hinges of the board must be
so placed that when it is closed or folded, there may be room between
its inside surfaces for the retaining plates e/and the button R, which
must be made all of sheet iron or brass of the same thickness.

The length which I have given to the arms of the parallel motion,
is just sufficient to allow the pencil to travel over the board. The
limit of the motion to the right will be found to be that the arras Q Q
will come into contact, and thus prevent farther motion in that direc
tion ; and similarly the limit to the left will be the contact of the arms
N N. If the size of the instrument is increased, th« same proportions
must be preserved between the arms and board.

R. Willis.

Cambridge, June 10, 1842.

I

^tSS^E^ S

^^sissss^sssa

S SsSsSS^ S

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

231

ON THE THERM.E OF ANCIENT ROME.

(IFith an Engraving, Plate X.)

Extracted from a Paper read by the Rev. Richard Burgess B.D.

Honorary Member, at the Royal Institute of British Architects on

Monday, ZOtk May, 1842.

* * * If, as I have before observed, we learn from the study of
temples much of the religious rites of antiquity, if from the Basilicas
something of the mode of administering justice, if from theatres and
amphitheatres the public sports and pastimes, if from circuses and
stadia open air exercises and recreations, all which I have attempted
on former occasions to make out, with a little topography by way of
light reading I— from the Therms or public baths of Rome we may
learn something of that " luxuria soevior armis " which finally over-
came the courage of the Quirites and the modesty of the Roman
nations.

It will not answer any purpose except tliat of tiring ray audience,
to investigate the state of swimming and bathing in ancient Greece ;
and unless Scipio could be shown to have been particularly hostile to
ablutions, I do not see why classical writers should make it such a
wonder that he had a bath. Seneca saw the remains of Scipio's bath
at his villa at Liternum, which he calls a " balneolum angustum tene-
bricosum," which may be translated 'the black hole of Calcutta, filled
with hot water.' " But who," the moral philosopher asks, (after
having described the darkness of Seneca's blattarium,) "would endure
to bathe in such a place now ? In short," he adds, "we have got to
that pitch of refinement that we cannot even put our foot upon any-
thing but gems." Leaving, however, the Greeks to bathe in the
sources of the Xanthus, and the Romans of the republic to lave their
hardy limbs in the waters of old Tiber, we will proceed at once to the
period when the luxury of the warm bath began to be publicly enjoyed
at Rome. I shall first give you a catalogue raisonnce of the thermae
from the Augustan age to the reign of Constantine, and then proceed,
with the help of our architectural illustrations, to describe the dirter-
ent parts and uses of the edifice, noticing as t go along the variety of
occupations for which the therma; were destined.

Agrippa was the first to teach the Roman people the indulgence of
the warm bath. The thermE which he erected in the Campus Martius
were bequeathed to the public, and they were embellished, according
to Pliny, with various works of art. Amongst the statues was the
bronze' youth in the act of undressing, called the Apoxyomeuus, a
work of Lysippus, of surpassing beauty. Some remains of the therma;
of Agrippa still exist immediately behind the Pantheon, and extend-
ing, with interruptions, to the large fragment of a vault called, from
its resemblance to a crown, the Arco della Ciarabella. Those baths
had only the corpus internum ; and except the sudatorium laconicum
mentioned by Dion Cassius, we are unable to trace by the vestiges that
remain, anv 'of the usual compartments of a thermae establishment.
It will occur to many who now hear me, that the Pantheon, when
stripped of the inimitable portico, and opened at the large tribune
facing the entrance, would be reduced to nothing more than a principal
hall belonging to the baths, very much resembling, both inform and
position, the round room to which I shall have to refer in the therms
of Caracalla (see ground plan of Pantheon). I believe it must be
allowed (however shocking to our classical tastes and feelings,) that
the portico of the Pantheon was an afterthought, and that the mag-
nificent cupola was originally intended for the large hall of Agrippa's
thermffi. Of the baths of Nero and Vespasian we know nothing,
except that the former, Balnea Neruniana, are mentioned by a poet of
the fifth century as being adjacent to the therms of Agrippa.

The next great baths erected at Rome were by Titus : they were
built over the ruins of Nero's overgrown palace, and their vast remains
still cover a good portion of the Esquiline Hill. The well-known
plans and illustrations of De Romanis will render any farther descrip-
tion here superfluous (see plan). I may, however, observe that, taking
a measurement of the thermae of Titus, and guided by the indubitable
vestiges remaining in the several vineyards and lanes around, the whole

space occupied by the buildings must have been three-quarters of a
mile in circumference. I am not aware that any description or any
account whatever has reached us of those immense therms : the ruins
themselves are the mute historians of what they once were, and it is
from the subterraneous vaults containing the celebrated arabesque
paintings that we learn that the house of Macaenas, embodied in the
palace of Nero, formed the foundations of the area on which the
thermae Titianae were erected. Those baths were built at about the
same period as the Flavian amphitheatre: the reservoir, called the
sette sale, for supplying the water, is still to be seen.

If we consider tlie thermae of Agrippa and balnea Nerouiana as
parts of the same establishment, we may equally annex the thermae
Trajanffi to those of Titus, making two large public baths ; and except
the balnea and lavacra of a more private kind, these were all that
serve to indicate the progress of luxury during the reign of the twelve
Cffisars and their two immediate successors, which brings us to the
120th vear of the vulgar era. Considerable remains of the thermae
of Trajan (which were probably begun by Doiuitian to complete the
work of his brother,) are to be seen beneath the church of S. Martino
ai Monti. We are indebted to ecclesiastical writers for a notice of
these baths : they were the "scene of two councils, in which the
heresies of the third and fourth centuries were condemned ; and
although they are to be considered as a continuation of Titus' works,
yet they retained in later ages a distinct appellation. The thermK
of Hadrian were a still further addition, or perhaps the completion
and embellishment of the works of his predecessors might cause the
name of that imperial architect to be inscribed on the walls. Two
statues of the young Antinous were found amongst the ruins; and
perhaps this circumstance has chiefly prompted antiquaries (who
sometimes snatch at shadows,) to put Hadrian's name into the list of
builders of baths. If, however, the therms of Titus were begun by
him, carried on by Domitian, and achieved by Trajan and Hadrian,
the work must have been in progress from first to last for about 30
years. If we except the therms publics, the position and extent of
which have not been ascertained, we go through the second century,
including the golden age of the Antonines, without any further increase
of those luxurious establishments. At this period (dating from the
reign of Commodus,) historians generally date the period of the de-
cline of the Roman empire ; and from this same period the great
increase of therms began. It was during the third century that those
prodigious edifices were reared whose remains are to occupy our
attention this evening. The first are the Therms Antouians, built in
the reign of Caracalla, and finished by Alexander Severus. This
immense structure was begun in the year 205 or 20ti, and was finished
with the exception of some outworks added by the successors of
Caracalla, before the year 217. In the excavation made by the
Conte Velo di Vicenza in 1820, a fragment of marble was turned up,
on which were read in ill-formed letters the names of Albinus and
^milianus. As this fragment of marble appears to be unworked, one
would conclude that it is as it came from the quarries, where it was
not unusual to scratch the names of the consuls for the year upon the
surface of the blocks. We are thus enabled to say that in the year
206, when the two consuls named were in office, the materials were
preparing for the erection of the therms near the via Appia. They
were situated near a valley which divides the Aventine mount, and
in which formerly were the Piscina Publiea. It will be seeu, by refer-
ence to the plan, that they were nearly a mile in circumference, inclu-
ding the exterior porticos, and it may be imagined what the riches of
this fabric were, from the profusion of marble and the exquisite works
of art which at different periods have been found; 1600 seats of
polished marble furnished the interior of the apartments, and the
Cella Solearis, to which we shall shortly recur, was the wonder
and admiration of all architects. The ancient authors have left us
scarcely any description of those baths, but they almost seem at a loss
for words to express the splendour of the building. The seven-leagued
word of "magnificentissimas" and "therms eximis" are found in
Spartian. Eutropius calls them an "opus egregium," and when we
find vestiges of tesselated pavement on the topmost stairs, where the

I

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222

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[JuLT,

attemliiiits bad tlieir lodgings, we may judge what tlie rooms below
must liave been, for the reception of emperors, senators, knights, and
the Roman people. There were also in this same region some
thermfe erected by the emperor Decius about the middle of the
third century. We are also made aware of some thermae of Philip
by the fragment of an inscription, and we know from Vopiscus that
Aurelian built baths in the regions beyond the Tyber. But the next
great wonder were the prodigious thermffi of Diocletian, erected
towards the close of the third century. Scarcely any mention of this
stupendous fabric is to be found in any of the ancient writers whose
■works are extant. The story that forty thousand Christians were
made to work like slaves in rearing the building, rests upon very
slender authority ; but if it were so, they might have been consoled
with the reflection that they were only aiding to erect a Christian
church, for one of the most splendid basilicas of Rome is now formed
out of the ruins. We shall shortly recur to the remains of those baths
when we come to description. The next and last edifice erected in
ancient Rome for this purpose were the therniE of Constantine,
probably about the year 325. Considerable remains of these exist
on the Quirinate Hill, adjoining the Colonna Gardens: .Sextus Aure-
lius says they were not inferior to the other. The two colossal
equestrian statues now on the Monte Cavallo, the bas-reliefs and
busts, as well as the fresco paintings kept in the Ruspigliosi Palace,
all came, as it is most probable, from those ruins. The three statues
of Constantine and his sons (two of which now stand on the balustrade
of the Campidoglio), and above all the inscription which relates that
a praefect restored those baths to their pristine splendour, prove
that we are right in identifying those ruins with the name of
Therma; Constantinianse. The remains now visible are used for
hay lofts, and are not sufficient to enable an ordinary observer to form
any idea of their plan or extent. Nevertheless the creative genius
of Palladio and Serlio has attempted the task of restoration, and it
is not for me to cope with such high authorities, of whom, as well as
of the baths they illustrate, it may be said to their immortal honour,
stant nominis umbras.

We have now run through the catalogue of thermic which were
erected at Rome during the iirst three centuries of the Christian era,
and there is uo reason to suppose they were not all existing when
Constantine added those we have just mentioned. Publius Victor, in
his regionary or catalogue of public buildings, made about the year
360, enumerates all the great thermae we have mentioned as then ex-
isting; and under the same head (together with Lavacra) reckons up
a total of fourscore. Besides these, there were the balnea in private
houses, the nymphaea and laeus in gardens, and the aquse sanatariae,
more or less used for bathing; and such was the accommodation for
the luxury of cleanliness, that not an inhabitant of Rome, unless he
decidedly preferred it, need have continued unwashed, for in the
public establishments a bath might be had for the smallest piece of
money coined at Rome* But our wonder will be increased at the
magnificent luxury of the Romans, when we have made ourselves
acquainted with the different parts and uses of a thermae establishment,
which I now propose, according to my slender means, to point out
to you.

Description'.

All the thermae, as far as we have the means of ascertaining, had
the same aspect, and with very little variation in the distribution of
their parts. It will be seen by reference to the plan of ancient Rome,
that the three great fabrics of that description, which in part remain,
have had their principal elevations towards the south-west : by this
arrangement they secured the means of providing summer and winter
apartments, as they did in their large villas. The space occupied by
the thermae was nearly a square : in the case of Caracalla's each side
measured 1100 feet ; of Diocletian's about the same ; of Titus' some-
thing less. Attached to each was a castellum aqua; or reservoir,
divided into compartments, and supplied by an aqueduct, so that an

Rex iJ^is.

-Dum tu quadraiUe lavalnm,

Ilorat. Sat. i. 3.

abundance of water was always at hand for the purposes of the
establishment. In Diocletian's and Titus' baths those reservoirs were
detached from the main building ; in Caracalla's it served as the back
of the theatridiura, while the immense thickness of the walls pre-
vented all inconveniences. On each side of the theatridium, where
the spectators sat to view the exercises in the arena, was a paloestra,
(K) which, according to Vitruvius, ought to be a peristyle, either
square or oblong. In these, gymnastic exercises were performed iu
the winter months, and on either side of those were rooms destined
for the attendants or balneatores ; those at the end (O) have upper
stories, and the stairs cut in the walls are still to be traced. The same
disposition maybe observed in the baths of Diocletian, and something
similar, though much less perfect, in the Thermae Titiana;. I have
said that the place in front of the theatridium was the arena for
exercises in the open air: the ample space lying between that
and the principal elevation was the grand xystus (Q) or plea-
sure-ground. The xysta, Vitruvius says, ought to be made so
that, between the porticos, there may be groves and rows of
plane trees. Walks, he adds, (ambulationes) should be laid out among
the trees, and places for repose (stationes) should be made of opus
signinum. A similar space, though inferior, lies behind the north-
west elevation (Fj, and this I take to have been the minor xystus,
where the lower orders of the people were permitted to have free
access, and might extend their perambulations on each side of the
nine peristyles. Vitruvius speaks of xysta in the plural number, and
I think by comparing the plans of the other thermae, it is evident that
each was furnished with a major and minor xystus, observing that dis-
tinction of classes for which equality men are in all ages so remarkable,
but which we can adjust without any odious comparisons, by having
our xystus major at the end of Picadilly, and our xystus minor some-
where about'the Tower Hamlets 1 But to proceed with our outworks :
it is generallv supposed that the two large hemycylia, one of which
remains almost entire as to its ground plan, were added by Helio-
gabalus. They contained, first a paloestra (K), communicating with
rooms (L) or scholae where, in all probability, philosophers delivered
public lectures, and with some square compartments (Jj, which we
would designate academies for holding discussions. The open walks
(N) are Vitruvius' hypoethr:e, and they communicate with the covered
Ambulachra, which were not unlike the cloisters of a monastery.
Here the students and philosophers could take their exercise in undis-
turbed meditation, and repass at pleasure into the long hypa?tlirae
ambulationes (H) which, according to the Vitruvian precepts, ought
to join the xystus. In other therma- the two sides of the square
wanted those magnificent hemycyclia, and had more of the exedrae,
like (G) ; they were furnished with seats for conversazioni ; in Dio-
clesian's baths such recesses were numerous. The fourth side of the
exterior works, turned towards the via Appm, presented a splendid
elevation, as may be well conceived from the illustration of JM. Blouet.
There are sufficient indications of this lower series of compartments
having been used for baths, and I rather think that these were
dedicated to the use of the common people, who might pass from
them into the minor xystus. There were not less than fifty separate
baths, each with its ante-room (Cj, where the bathers might undress,
and from whence they might ascend by staircases to the higher parts
of the building, or pass into the portico, which continued the whole
length of the front. The elevation consisted in two rows of arches
supported by columns, and surmounted by a balustrade ornamented
with statues. The spectator, in viewing this front from the via Nova,
(a street made when the therms were erected,) saw the stately trees
of the xystus waving their luxurious foliage above the balustrade, and
the dome which covered the pinacotheca rising majestically over the
whole; and after approaching the vestibule (I) in the middle of the
elevation he ascended into the xystus, and betook himself, as we shall
now do in imagination, to the interior of the fabric.

It will be remarked, by a slight reference to our ground plan, that
there are duplicates of all the rooms and peristylia, and that the
middle space is occupied principally by three large compartments, the
first (J') girt with the spacious hypaethrae (H), has been a circular

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

223

room not unlike the Pantheon if stripped of its portico. This is sup-
posed to be the caldarium, and being exposed to the sun, received
much of its beat therefrom ; to which the hypocaustum or place for
heating water being adjacent, or underneath, gave additional warmth ;
in the midst was a circular reservoir, in which the batliers took their
exercise together, the spectators, leaning on a barrier, were admitted
to the suffocating sight. Any one who lias seen the large baths in
Turkey may form a correct notion of a caldarium. I allude now
especially to the baths at Bronsa, in Bythinia, at the foot of Mount
Olympus, where I have seen this process of hot bathing, and where
the Turks seem to enjoy swimming in water heated to a degree which
would certainly boil a Christian or skin a Jew. After the process of
scalding, it must have been grateful to the sensations to pass back
again into the next room (D, which was the tepidarium ; in this also
there was room for swimming about, and after this {in the reluming
process) the bathers passed into the large room, which is the second
of the three mentioned, and which was the cella tepidaria; here in
four recesses were deep and ample basins (G'), discovered in the
excavations of ISilO to have been lined with marble, with the steps
for descending into them existing; in the centre of each side were
two immense circular basins called Baptisteria, and which are probably
those now standing in the Piazza Farnese ; this spacious apartment
(F) with the rooms (B) at each end, measures 300 feet by 100, and
the centre portion of it was supported by eight immense columns of
granite, and must have been the most imposing saloon in the whole
establishment. Taken in its whole extent, we conceive this to have
been the pinacotheca, which the ample room now formed into the
church of Sta. Maria degli Angioli, at Diocletian's baths, resembles.
The third great compartment no one doubts was used as the natatio
or cold swimming bath, called also the frigidarium, and sometimes
piscina, because originally a large basin of cold water or a lake, where
fish were kept, was so called ; this too was supported by 8 columns,
not inferior to those of the pinacotheca. At each end were the
vestibula (Y), and the Apodyteria (Q'), and the rooms (A')
where the Capsarii took care of the clothes, and the correspond-
ing places B' C, where the Aliptse and Unguentarii were ready
to anoint and perfume the bathers, and the rooms D' called
Diffits, where they might have refreshments. By this arrange-
ment, the bathers who desired to go through the whole process
of a purification, might pass from the cold natatio facing the north to
the caldarium facing the south, and return again by the same gra-
dations of heat and perspiration, until they were ready for a repast or
a repose, or a conversation in some of the numerous apartments.
Such were the rooms (R' T') and perhaps others that might be reached
by ascending to the second story;* now either the large room (J') or
(F') must have been that famous cella solearis mentioned by Spartian,
and as the middle room, liolding the most prominent place in the
whole plan, appears to unite all the properties necessary to meet the
description, I have always been of opinion (before I had the satisfac-
tion of finding M. Blouet agree with me) that the pinacotheca was
the cella solearis ; 1 do not think it necessary, however, to stand out
for the heat of the sun, for antiquaries yet differ upon the word
solearis, and the room, as far as the epithet goes, might either be
<-alled from the sun or from the lacing of a slipper ; the remarkable
feature of this cella solearis was the working of the roof; it appears
to have been fretted or cancellated by copper lacing over a vast extent
of space, in such a way as to render both its design and execution a
matter of astonishment to artists; if the large central room which I
have designated the pinacotheca was the cella solearis, then its mag-
nificence would be increased by the works of art which were placed
in it, for such rooms in the public thermae became as many national
galleries where paintings were deposited (as the word pinacotheca
implies), and other speoimens of art which the authors thought fit to
expose. The space was so ample that it was not necessary to make
previous application for a good place, and the admission being gratui-

* M. Filouet, however, designates the room (R') sudatorium, applying some
clirectiors of Vitruvius a little too vaguely.

tons, the connoisseurs paid more than one visit, and found out the good
picture or statue in the most obscure places. Our attention is yet to
be called to the two large open peristyles (U') in which the athletic
exercises were performed, as the Mosaic pavement opened in 1826
indicated, for in the semicircular recesses (P'j were represented full
figures of Discobuli, some with their names written near them, others
with the wreath of conquest in their hands. The hemycyclia fP) were
used for the visitors of the sports, and the separate divisions (V)
were probably schools or ephebia, where the youthful arms were
practised in manly exercises. We have now only to finish, the prin-
cipal facade of the xystus. On each side of the caldarium (or circular
room in the middle) is a comparatively small basin (K), and these
I take to be the sudatoria, one for the men and another for the
women. By a passage from these we enter into two square rooms,
which are suitable for the vestiaria, and may be considered as the
apodyteria for this more dignified part of the baths. The rooms M'
and N' may fairly be assigned for gymnasia in fine weather ; the cor-
ner apartments (N') are open on two sides, and lead into the xystus ;
to complete our idea of this once splendid building, we may look at
the restored elevation of this facade by M. Blouet, which, after what
has been said, we can hardly believe to be over-wrought or exagge-
rated in ornament.

I may not lengthen this paper by attempting to speak of the con-
struction and materials of this ancient edifice ; the quantity and
quality of its decorations may be inferred from the noble specimens
of art that have come out of its ruins ; the Farnese Hercules, the
Glycon, the Bull, the Torso Belvedere, the Atreus, are too well known
to need repetition. The treasures found and carried away by the
nephew of Pope Paul III. were enough to have formed an interesting
museum of antiquities ; the Flora, the tvs'o Gladiators, and a quantity
of busts were among them. The granite column now standing at
Florence attests the magnitude of the pinacotheca from whence it
was taken ; and yet all we know is perhaps but a fraction of the rich
art with which those thermas were embellished. When we consider
the immense provision made for bathing in ancient Rome (for there
were seven or eight great thermae at one time existing), the practice
must have been diffused throughout the whole population. As early
as the Augustus, a poor man might wash for a farthing, and little boys
(Juvenal intimates) paid nothing. But the practice, which at first
was wholesome and of public utility, afterwards degenerated into
effeminacy and indolence. The Emperors promoted the abuse of the
bath by their example ; Hadrian bathed in public with the lowest of
the people. But it is a consolation, to know that those splendid edi-
fices were not erected solely for the sordid purpose of bathing; by
reference to our ground plans we shall see that but a portion of the
whole therma was dedicated to that object ; we may leave the motley
throng in the frigidarium, pass by the half naked groups in the cella
tepedaria, and say nothing about the delights of the sudatorium, or
the boiling process of the caldarium ; the tilthy and effeminate we
may enclose within the limits of the three large centre rooms ; but all
the rest of the space was dedicated to nobler and more manly pur-
poses. The whole must have presented an animated scene, and the
magnificent display of works of art appears to have compensated in
some degree for the disgusting exhibition of works of nature. In the
peristyles were the competitors for a laurel crown exerting their mus-
cular strength, while poets and philosophers sat looking on in the
recesses of the exhedrs ; there a public orator delightens an in-
tellectual audience with the flowers of rhetoric ; in the walks of the
xystus wandered in groups the sons of Apollo, while the notes of the
lyre resounded from behind some shady plane tree ; parading in the
hypaethriE were senators and politicians, and in the more retired am-
bulachra the students of Plato's or Aristotle's philosophy ; in front of
the theatridiura the foot race was run, and the applause which saluted
the man who won, rung through the stately arches of the adjoining
hemycyclia; in the terraces of the upper story were companies of
idlebutwitty spectators, looking down upon the passengers moving
along the Via Appia, or espying from afar the approach of a governor
returning from his province. A thousand occupations of pleasure and

2 12

224

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

recreation were carried on within the walls of the lofty apartments,
which were covered with all the variety of colours and costly material,
•where the Egyptian granite was incrusted with the green, yellow
and red marbles of Numidia. In the midst of this splendour might
have been seen a swarm of dirty and ragged plebeians criticising the
painting and statues of the pinacotheca, and although they indulged
in gross and vulgar sensuality, could display a taste in works of art
■which our modern populace might envy. In winter as well as in
summer those places of public resort were open ; the soft climate of
Rome required no fire to warm the room with a southern aspect, and
the fountains which played in every direction refreshed the very air in
the hottest season. This description is not only applicable to the
therma: of Caracalla, but also to the others whose ruins stili exist, and
cover almost an equal space. Indeed, if we may credit Olyrapiodorus,
the baths of Diocletian had more than 3000 seats of polished marble.
Kor have we yet mentioned all the apartments and their uses which a
thermae establishment contained ; we have assigned no place for the
conisterium, where the athletae were sprinkled with dust, that the
antagonist might hold hira the faster ; no place for the elseotherium
where he was besmeared with oil, that the hold might be slippery ;
there was the sphaeristerium or tennis court ; the bibliothecae, the
coryesea, the musea, must all find a place ; but I have not attempted
to fasten a name upon every compai-tment, just for the sake of filling
lip the plan. Let it suffice to have enumerated the parts and uses of
a thermae, and with the help of other men's labours to have illustrated
one of the principal causes of the decay of the empire. It is thus,
gentlemen, that we learn, from the labours of the antiquary and the
architect, what the historian has passed over in silence, and we are
enabled, with these plans of the ancient thermae before us, to account
for the facts which the historian has recorded, viz. that the valour of
Rome sunk ingloriously before the vigorous arm of the barbarian. It
was when Vitiges, the king of the Goths, cut oft' the supplies of water
in the fifth century, that the therniEe began to be deserted, but not
before they had been one of the most powerful causes in bringing
those Goths to the walls of Rome. If a society for the suppression of
vice had arisen in the age of the Antonines, the plague might have
been stayed ; but in the absence of moral and legal restraint, vice was
promoted and activity of body destroyed ; and it might have been
said with truth of the motley crowd in a therms,

" Non his juveulus orta parcntibus
Infecit sequor sanguine Piinico."

But in making some practical application of this subject, I would
observe, in conclusion, that it does not follow, if we could have some
such public establishments now, that the same evils would arise; with
our experience of past ages, and with that leaven of morality which
the influence of a pure religion has introduced, it might be possible
for us to adopt all the advantages of the therms without their mis-
chief; their cleanliness and health-promoting exercise without their
effeminacy, their means of recreation without their idleness, their
useful resources without their foolish luxury.

" Tliink'st thou tliere is no tyranny but that
Of blood and chains ? the despotism of vice,
Tlie weakness and the wickedness of luxury,
The negligence, the apathy, the evils
Of sensual sloth, produce ten thousand tyrants,
Whose delegated cruelty surpasses
The worst acts of one energetic master."

To this the therms of Rome bear witness, and therefore our thermae
may not resemble those. * * * *

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF COLOGNE CATHEDRAL,
AND ITS PROPOSED COMPLETION.

" They dreamt not of a perishable home,
"Whu thus could build."

The cathedral of Cologne, if completed as proposed by the power-
fid mind which designed it, would probably be one of the most won-
derful and beautiful monuments of the skill of man in the whole
world ; — its enormous size, the elegance of the details, its completeness
as a whole, would alike strike the beholder as unequalled and sur-
prising. Cologne, although as Coleridge says,

" a town of monks and bones.

Iron litre Bridge.— It is strange that the plan of making bridges of iron
wire, so successfully adopted in Switzerland, France, and elsewhere abroad.
sliouUi not yet have found favour enough in England to be fairly tried on
the large scale; the noble bridge at Frcyburg, in .Switzerland, is 301 feet
wider than the Menai Bridge, and though it consists of one span, it is at le.ist
equally strong, and cost only a fifth part of the money. The wire bridge
" . ."^Jk^JIJ^.'^ f^" Knglish leet span ; that of Menai 569. The Menai bridge
cost 120,000/., that of Freyburg, 25,0001.— PaMmvrl, by Captain Basil Hall.

And pavements fanged with murderous stones,
And Iiags and rags and dirty w enches '. "

in which he counted seventy stenc?ies, may be termed the Rome of this
side the Alps, containing more objects of interest to the architectural
antiquary than any city in this position that I remember. Foremost
amongst them all, however, is the cathedral, even unfinished as it is.
No one who has seen it will easily forget the effect produced by it, or
cease to desire that it should be worthily completed knowing as nearly
all do know, that by a series of lucky accidents that some of the original
drawings are preserved to us. The designs for the principal front,
which it seems were formerly kept, one with the archives of the ca-
thedral, and the other in the masons' lodge, were lost when the French
occupied the city in 1704. In 1S14, one of the drawings, namely that
which represents the north tower, was accidentally discovered in a
corn-loft at Darmstadt, by a decorative painter who was about to
occupy the loft as a studio. Being drawn on parchment, it had been
used for many years as the bottom of a sort of tray in which to dry
beans; but with the exception of the marks left by the nails which
fastened it to the wooden rim, and a fracture in the lower part of it,
was little injured. It fortunately came into the possession of Dr.
Mdller the distinguished architect, of Darmstadt, who published
a fac-simile of it in 1818. At the time of the discovery of
this drawing, M. Willemin was publishing his work "Monuments
Fraiirais inklili" and Dr. Miiller was struck by the analogy which
appeared between the style of a large window represented in the
r2th No. of that work, and that of the details of the tower at Cologne.
He mentioned the circumstance to M. Boisseree, who was then occu-
pied on his large work on the cathedral of Cologne; inquiries were
made of M. Willemin, and it was learnt that the window in question
formed part of a very large drawing of a church on parchment, and
then in the possession of M. Imbart, an architect at Paris, who had
obtained it from M. Fourcroy. M. Fourcroy, it seems, had found it
in Belgium. M. Boisseree contrived to purchase the drawing, and it
was at once recognized as representing a part of the fa9ade of Cologne
cathedral.* It was afterwards sold to the King of Prussia, and His
Majesty presented it to the city of Cologne. United with the drawing
discovered at Darmstadt, it represents the whole of the principal
front. The size of the drawings together is about 6 ft. 6 in. wide,
and 13 ft. long.

The longevity, it may almost be said the immortalily, of an idea
hardly needs illustration ; if it did, the design of this cathedral might
in part serve the purpose. Recorded centuries ago by the mind
which conceived it, the intention is but now about to be fulfilled ; and
what i(s realization at this moment may further lead to, yet remains
to be seen. Another and an analogous instance is now before us.
Two hundred years ago Sir Christopher Wren proposed to rebuild
London with the Exchange in the centre, and the main streets radiat-
ing from this building on all sides. Circumstances were opposed to
it, and the intention has lain dormant. In our day, however, one of
our countrymen, called in to advise on the rebuilding of Hamburgh,
has re-urged this idea, and if I am rightly informed, so successfully

* It is supposed that llie plan bad been carried from Cologne about the
middle of the I5th century, to serve as a model for the numerous churches
which were then built in the Low Countries.

1842.]

THE CIA IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

225

that the senate is about to adopt it in the new city. The emanations
of the mind, like the mind itself, may be said to endure forever — they
continue to operate through the world, and to influence the future long
after their origin has been lost sight of.

To return, however, to Cologne cathedral. Thanks to the power
of steam, and the situation of the city on the Rhine, this structure
has been vievv'ed by most of us, and it would be impertinent to make
remarks upon that with which you are as well or better a.cquainted
with than myself. A short time ago, however, M. Daly, the editor
of the "Revue Gcni'rale de V Architecture " of Paris, kindly forwarded
to me some information on the late repairs and decoration of the
building, and an account of the enthusiastic efforts which are being
made, not merely in Germany, but in other countries, to ensure the
completion of the building. It is the substance of this information
■which seems to be sufficiently interesting to be worthy your attention,
that I propose briefly to bring before you.

I may remind you that the first stone of the present building was
laid on the 1-lth of August, 1'248, and that the choir was consecrated
Sept. 27, 132"2, or 74 years afterwards. It was more than a hundred
years after this date before the south tower was taken up to its present
altitude, hardly half its proposed height ; the north tower is even
now not more than 20 feet, perhaps, above the ground.

When the soldiers of the French republic had possession of the
city at the end of the 18th century, the cathedral was used by them
as a stable, and was considerably injured. Moreover, iron cramps,
which had been extensively used in the construction, caused great
ravages in the stone work, and there being no funds with which to
repair the evil as it became apparent, the destruction of the building
seemed more than probable. After the peace, endeavours were made
to restore the damage, but it was not till 1S21, when the King of
Prussia interfered zealously, that the matter was taken up in earnest.

In 1829 the complete restoration of the choir was commenced,
(including the rebuilding of the flying buttresses, galleries, and win-
dows,) which most desirable work is now_ achieved, and as it would
seem most satisfactorily. A very hard and durable stone has been
employed in the restoration, and the architect has studiously avoided
the use of iron in the masonry, so far as was practicable, either dove-
tailing the stones together where additional solidity was required, or
when this was deemed insufficient, employing clamps of bronze. The
outlay since 1829 alone, has been more than £40,000, partly furnished
by the Prussian government. The immense scaffolding which still
fills the choir of the cathedral, is about to be taken down so as to
expose to view the decorations that have been applied.

Beneath the whitewash with which the interior of the choir was
disfigured in the last century, they discovered the painted decorations
that originally adorned it, and in which the colours were applied with
a sobriety and wisdom rarely met with in the works of the middle
ages. All the principal parts of the construction, such as the columns
and ribs, have been re-covered with a yellowish plaster, to remove the
cold tint of the stones, the joints of the masonry being nevertheless
left visible. The smooth surfaces of the roof are painted in imitation
of the pierre de tuf, of which indeed the roof is constructed. Some
red bands or fillets separate the light colour of the plain parts from
the deeper tone of the ribs, and serve to give the latter more relief.
The leaves and ornaments of the key-stones, the capitals, indeed all
the sculptured portions, are gilt with a backing of bright red.

In the heads of the pointed arches above the triforium, angels are
painted on a ground of sculptured ornaments, gilt. The wall of the
cloister, even, is covered with paintings of the 14th century. On the
interior surface they represent processions, upon a gold ground ; on the
exterior figures of saints, on a blue ground, powdered with stars. The
mouldings of the pointed arches which enclose the figures are also
very richly painted.

Fourteen colossal statues, representing our Saviour, the Virgin
Mary, and the apostles, are placed against the pillars of the choir, and
are said to be models of monumental sculpture and polychromatic
decoration. The draperies are painted to imitate rich damask stuffs,
adorned with embroideries, coloured aud gilt, representing animals

and birds, executed with skill. It was much feared, in conse-
quence of the thick coating of dirt with which time had covered
these figures, that the renewal of the painting would have injured the
effect of the sculpture ; so far from this, however, the success is most
complete.

This magnificent assemblage of architecture, sculpture, and paint-
ing, is made perfect by a series of stained glass windows, of the
commencement of the 14th century, which, instead of injuring the
effect of the mural paintings, by the coloured light which flows through
them into the beautiful structure, harmonize the whole, and produce
an effect which I can well conceive to be very striking.

The choir with its side aisles and chapels is, as already men-
tioned, the only part of the cathedral which is complete, the towers
and nave remaining in an unfinished state — a splendid promise only, an
outline of a magnificent intention, which yet remains to be filled up
and made perfect. It seems possible, however, that it may not remain
so much longer. Fired by the successful restoration of the ancient
works, and anxio\is to realize the original idea in all its integrity and
unity, the inhabitants of Cologne have determined on continuing the
works vigorously. On the llith of February a society was organized
for that purpose, and the day was set apart for religious intercession
and rejoicing. The enthusiasm displayed on this occasion is said to
have been extraordinary ; a procession of more than 5000 persons took
part in the ceremonies of the day ; Protestants and Roman Catholics,
liberals and conservatives, joined on one common ground, and outvied
each other in generous efforts to ensure the completion of this fine
monument bequeathed by the middle ages to modern times.

This outburst of feeling on the part of the inhabitants of Cologne
has been responded to, not merely throughout Germany, but in the
neighbouring countries : branch societies have been formed for the
purpose, literary men and artists have associated to publish magazines,
the profit of which is to be devoted to the cathedral, a committee to
receive subscriptions has been organized in France, and another
in Rome ; the King of Prussia has made himself responsible for
i£8000 per annum, and has further suggested that each of his provinces
should defray the cost of one of the flying buttresses. The King of
Bavaria, as in most similar instances, is not behindhand in the good
work, but has formed committees in all the towns of his kingdom, and
moreover has commissioned the manufactory of stained glass at Munic!'.
to produce three fine windows for the cathedral, at the cost of £3200.
In Germany all classes of societv, all professions, all faiths, have spon-
taneously united in favour of the projected work, not merely, as M.
Daly suggests, under the influence of a lively interest in the welfare
of the arts and for their sublime creations, or even from a sentiment
of piety, but from a new-born feeling of the re-establishment of moral
unity in Germany, and a desire to retrieve its ancient grandeur.
Piety, art, and patriotism — love of God, love of the beautiful, love of
country — unite in favour of the completion of a building in which
modern Germany will give her hand to the Germany of the middle
ages, across three centuries of discord. Architecture has been too
often called on to embellish the triumphs of brute force ; in this case
it may record the willingness of a nation to be united. From the
Bible we learn, continues M. Daly, that the first great monument with
which architecture ornamented the world was the Tower of Babei,
that is to say, of confusion, of discord. It is worthy of the architecture
of our day to complete a noble edifice, high upraised, which may be
at once a temple to God and a record of union.

To this I most fervently respond, and trust that the patriotic and
elevated desires of the German people on this head may be fully
carried out. The crane of the ancient builders has continued to sur-
mount the grass-covered summit of the tower, mutely telling of their
return, and prophesying ultimate completion.* I venture to express
a hope that it may soon be seen again at work, playing its part in a
much more elevated position than it is now.

George Godwin, Jun.

" BeinR decayed, it was taken down in 1816, to prevent accidents, but was
restored in 1819.

226

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

July,

NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

Bo:leks. — II the steam space be contracted, there will inevitably be a
large coiisiimptioii of fuel as well as a low degree of efficiency in the engine;
for the iteam will be mixed with particles of water, wliich will carry oft'
much heat, and this water by entering the cyhnder will endanger tlie safety
of the engine, at the same time that it diminishes its power by resisting the
motion of the piston, blocking up the ports and choking the condense)-. It
is o;ily when the quantity of water which comes over with the steam is very
great that these eft'ects are obvious ; but eveiy particle of water mingled with
the steam is a positive detriment, and the only effectual preventative of the
evil is to make the steam space abundantly large. Mr. Watt's proportion,
which is well known, is we believe better than any other.

It is a usual and judicious practice to take tlie steam from the highest part
of the boiler or steam chest, generally by an internal pipe turning upwards
and in continuation of the steam pipe. This internal pipe is sometimes made
of malleable iron, in which case it rapidly oxidizes, and in the course of a year
ortwo will often disappear altogether. Copper is the best material, and around
pipe is preferable to a square or flat one. The latter description we have
known to have had its sides squeezed together by the difference of the
pressure of the steam witliin and without it.

The oxidation of boilers is an inexplicable subject. The outsides of boilers
are chiefly worn — on the bottoms by leakage, or the action of the bilge
water — in tlie ashpits from the wetting of the ashes — and on the top from
the dripping of water fiom the deck. The insides are subject to oxidation
only above the water line — not equally over the whole surface of the iron
bounding the steam space — but more in one part than another, and the differ-
ence is traceable to no specific cause with which we are acquainted. It is
ge:ierally observable, however, that oxidation proceeds most rapidly upon
those parts upon which the steam impinges, and also upon the parts adjacent
to brass or copper. The iron in the neighbourhood of the safety and stop
valves is generally the most rapidly corroded ; but this eflfect is not invariable,
nor is it known to what the want of uniformity is due. The oxide is some-
times detached in a number of consecutive black scales, like the leaves of a
book, which fall oft' only when disturbed; in other cases no oxide adheres to
the surface of the iron, and the only evidence of the existence of oxidation
is the diminution of thickness in the plate, which is readily observable where
two plates overlap. A very thin coat of Roman cement might be applicable
to the interiors of steam chests with advantage, either in conjunction with
pieces of zinc, or zincked iron, or pe>- ne.

/{anting bridges. — Every boiler should have a hanging bridge at the ex-
tremity of the flue where it enters the chimney, projecting downwards 18 in.
or 2 ft. from the top of the flue, according to the depth of the flue and other
circumstances ; and the best boilers are so provided. This hanging bridge
toay be made either of brick or of plate iron ; its efl'ect is to retain the hot
air in contact with the iron, and to permit that portion only which occupies
the lower part of the flue, and is consequently the least hot, to escape to the
chimney. A hanging bridge at every turn of the flue has in some instances
been used with much advantage.

Furnace bars. — Where the length exceeds 7 ft. it has been found that
more steam is generated and less coal burned, by shortening them. They
must never be bound at both ends, nor the bearers be so constructed as to
permit ashes to accumulate in the space left to allow of the expansion of the
bars, else the expansion will either break the bearing bars or the brackets
which support them, or the middle portions of the bars will bend up into
the tire, and be quickly burned away. If there be two sets of bars in each
furnace the middle bearer should be double, to allow the ashes to fall into
the ash-pit through the space between the ends of the respective sets of bars.
The front bearer should also be removed a little from the dead plate, and the
back bearer a little from the bridge, for the same reason .

Paddle Wheels. — The loss of beneficial eft'ect from backwater is not
great, but there is another source of loss hitherto unnoticed, though of no
trivial moment. The impulsive velocity of the several floats immerged in
the water is proportional to their horizontal distances, that is, supposing that
there are four floats immerged, the distance through which the first float
tends to impel the vessel during its motion from the position of the first to
th.at of the second float is equal to the horizontal distance between those
floats, whilst distance through which it tends to impel the vessel during its
motion from the position of the second to that of the third float being, in
like manner, equal to the horizontal distance between those floats, is a very
different quantity from the first. Thus there are two forces acting with
different velocities at the same time, and these forces must be to a certain

extent antagonistic. If we suppose the vessel to be moving with the velocity
due to the motion of the float from the first to the second position, then the
excess of velocity due to the motion of the float from the second to the
third position is thrown away in giving a useless velocity to the water ;
whilst, if we suppose the vessel moving at the latter velocity, or at a velocity
approaching thereto, the floats entering the water become an actual impedi-
ment to the vessel's progress, and will carry a mass of broken water before
them, in the same way as the bow of the ship, and in practice we have seen
this occur. To prevent the loss of power from this source, the relative
velocities of the floats should be such that the horizontal distances travelled
over in equal times should be equal.

Slide Valves. — It is always best for the faces on the cylinder to be
formed of face plates of cast iron, from IJ to 2 in. thick. When the engine
is of sufficient magnitude to render an expansion joint in the casing expe-
dient, the best mode of fixing the face plates is to screw them to the cylinder
with countersunk bolts, both of the surfaces having been jireviously planed,
and a little red lead interposed. In other cases it is as good a plan to fix the
face plates to the valve casing, the surfaces being planed as before. The
bolts which attach the casing to the cylinder will also serve to keep the face
plates in contact with the casing ; but they must be screwed at both ends,
and have a conical enlargement in the middle to fit into the holes of the
face plates, which holes must of course be made conical likewise.

No large cylinder should be faced lying on its back, for its own weight
alters its form, and makes the valve face untrue; emery should not be used
in grinding a valve to its surface. The most approved practice is to make
the two surfaces first, as true as possible by planing ; next, to try the valve
on with a little reddening, and help the surfaces cautiously with a file where
required ; and finally, to polish with powdered Turkey stone and oil.

The effect due to a given quantity of lap or cover upon the steam and
exhaustion sides of slide valves, as well as of that due to various degrees of
travel in the valve, are questions looked upon as very mysterious, and they
are certainly important.

If .? = half the length of the stroke of the piston in inches ;

s' = half tlie length of the stroke of the valve in inches ;

/ = that part of the stroke completed before the steam is cut off in
inches ;

^' = that part of the stroke completed before the exhausting port is shut;

^" = that part completed before the exhausting port at the other end is
opened ;

e= cover on steam side;

c' = cover on eduction side ;

Then < = s j 1 + cos. (2 sin. "') \

f = s< 1 +C0S. (2 sin.

-1.

1 + COS. (2 sin.

-/)}

(1)

(2)

(3)

By these formulas the action proper to valves with any degree of cover or
throw may easily be computed.

Cocks. — Every cock about an engine — gauge cocks and all — should have
a bottom and a stuffing box, else they will be very troublesome as soon as
they begin to leak ; blow-oft' cocks in particular are a perpetual annoyance
without this provision. The valves invented by Mr. Kingston of Woolwich
as substitutes for cocks are very ingenious, and we understand operate most
satisfactorily. All vessels should have these valves, or some analogous con-
trivance, at the place where the blow-off and injection pipes penetrate the
vessel's sides, both for the purpose of preventing the escape of water into
the ship in the event of the pipes being broken, and to permit the blow-off
and injection cocks to he re-gronnd, without involving the necessity of taking
the vessel into dock.

NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF BillDGES OF CAST IRON,

WITH SOME EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST

IRON GIRDERS OF LARGE DIMENSIONS.

The basis of calculation of the strength of cast iron beams is derived
from the fact of a bar one inch square and 1 2 inches long breaking with one ton ;
consequently the square of the depth, multiplied by the thickness and divided
by the length in feet, gives the breaking weight in tons. In a table given in

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

227

the Journal, vol. iv, for 1841, p. 79, the specific gravity of cast iron is stated
as 7-82 r, which, taliing water as unity, gives 460 J lb. as the weight of one
cubic foot of cast iron. It is also observed that if the gravity be different,
the strength must be reduced in proportion ; another authority gives 455i lb-
as the weight of a cubic foot of cast iron. Both of these weights are suffi-
ciently near for practical purposes. The weight of metal in a structure may
be found by multiplying the length in feet by the number of square inches in
the section, and by 3-2 (the weight in lb. of a bar one foot long and an inch
square), which will give the weight in lb. ; or find the number of cubic
inches, and divide the same by 3-7J, which will also give the weight in lb.

In the Second Part of the Transactions of the Rojal Society, 1840, is a
paper " On the Strength of Cast Iron Pillars," by Eaton llodgkinson, Esq.,
from which I extract the following. The ratio of strength is constant in
pillars whose length is 30 times their diameter, up to 120 times, but not in
shorter lengths. In the experiments, when the pillars broke, it was generally in
the middle, as if the weight had been apphed transversely. The theory of the
comparative strength of pillars is that they vary inversely as the square of
the length : e. y. a pillar half the length of another of like area, in section
would have four times the strength. In the experiment the pillars broke
with I to i the crushing weight. The crushing weight of cast iron is 49 tons,
and its tensile power about an eighth of that amount. If the crushing
weight of cast iron be taken at 1.000, wrought iron would be l'74o.

The rule as given by Barlow for the stitfuess of cast iron beams is that it
is as the cube of the depth if the weight be in the middle, and if distributed
J of that weight would be borne with an equal degree of deflection.

In the above extracts sufficient is developed of the theory of the strength
of iron for the present purpose of illustrating these notes.

In Weale's work on bridges, we learn that iron was introduced as a main
constituent of a bridge in 1775, by Thomas Fainolls Pritchard, of Shrews-
bury ; also that the principles that govern a bridge of carpentry are the same
as for a bridge of iron, and in cast iron bearing bridges the construction
must be considered as partaking more of the beam than the arch, although
there are some important works in which the properties of the arch appear
to have been mainly depended upon by the engineer. In the celebrated
Sunderland Bridge, 236 ft. span, the versed sine being nearly tliat of a semi-
circle, the principle of the arch is fully carried out, small portions of the arc
being in frame work, like the pend stones or voussoirs of a stone bridge.
In Southwark Bridge, London, of three arches, the centre 240 ft. span, and
the side arches 210 ft. each, with a versed sine of 24 ft., the ribs of the
arches are in long lengths, and 61 ft. in depth. This bridge contains 3115
tons of iron: the centre arch aloue contains 1665 tons. Up to 1830 there
were only two cast iron bridges erected iu France — the Pont des Arts, of a
similar construction to Southwark Bridge, and the Pont de Austerhtz. The
reason of this material not being more extensively used in that country up
to 1830, was stated to be the great expense of iron, and the uncertainty of
casting large pieces; although the same writer states, in favour of the use
of this material, that it is adapted to bridges of large spans, and that it is as
durable as stone, less expensive, more easily constructed, and, as compared
with wooden bridges with abutments of stone, is one half less expense. A
new construction of iron bridge has been invented by M. Polonceau, and
erected at Nantes, in the Bridge of Eidre, and the Carrousel Bridge of Paris,
drawings of which are given in vol. ii. of the Journal, p. 79 : they are called
Polonceau bridges after their inventor ; see vol. iv. of the Journal, p. 92,
whence the above account has been condensed. Tlie Carrousel Bridge was
completed in 1836; it has three arches, centre 187 ft. span, rise 16.1 ft ;
two side arches 156 ft. span, and rise 15^ ft.; width of piers 13 ft. The
principle of construction is a wooden arc on the laminated principle incased
with cast iron, the transverse section being elliptic and cast in 22 lengths
and from its shape has been called the " tidjular rib." From the preceding
notes sufficient has been shown that cast iron can be used in bridges to
the extent of 300 ft. span. When the circular arc is used similar
to Southwark Bridge, engineers are agreed that -^ of the chord line
is a sufficient rise, and that -^ of the span is sufficient width for the piers,
the strcngtii of the abutments being regulated merely as retaining walls.
But they are not agreed whether greater depth should be given to a rib at
the hauuches and diminish towards the crown, or that the greatest depth
should be at the crown and diminish towards the abutment.

Provided that the principle of a beam girder, brestsummer, or joist be
considered as the true theory of construction, a beam parabolic on the upper
edge and horizontal or level on the lower edge, and reduced at each end to
one-third of its depth in the centre, will be equally strong as if its form was
parallel throughout. On the London and Birmingham Railway a bridge is

constructed under the Hampstead road, where the lower edge of the beam is
cambered vvith a versed sine of 3 ft. ; the upper edge is also circular, being
drawn from two centres, the extreme depth being 2 ft. in the centre, and
9 in. at each end : the span is 25 ft. ; sectional area in middle 67] superficial
inches. There is another bridge on the same railway crossing Park-street, of
two openings of the same span ; the beams have a sectional area of 56J iu.,
and are horizontal at top, and cut out in the centre to tlie form of an arch,
the spandrils being filled in solid. From the above two bridges a fair com-
parison may be instituted, and the inference drawn that no advantage is
gained in material in adopting the arch, over the girder ; and 1 apprehend
also that the only advantage gained by the two centred or bent girders,
whose elevation is a " phase" like tlie new moon, is in the extra depth acting
in a perpendicular or ordinate line, and not on a radius line with either of
the arcs. It may be also inferred that if the bridge be of largo span and the
arched form used, it will be necessary for calculating the breaking weight of
the bridge to take the whole depth from tlie chord line, including the depth
of the roadway bearer, and deducting therefrom the openings between the
spandril fillings. Indeed no advantage is gained in coi.tiuing the principal
weight of iron used in the structure to the arch formed at bottom, over the
equal distribution of the weight over the roadway bearer, and filling in of
the spandrils. By this means the insistent weight, or the weight of the
materials composing the structure, is more equally diffused over the whole
erection. In farther confirmation of the above remark, that no advantage
is gained in adopting the arch over the girder, I may observe that in the
arched form all above the piers are cast iron, which rest upon bed frames or
dead plates laid on the piers, and that the ribs are strengthened longitudinally
by fillets, mouldings, flanches, &c., and that when the structure is of more
bays or spaces than one, the different ribs in each arch are united by
junction pieces on the piers in the direction of each rib. The ribs are also
strengthened sideways with vertical diagonal frames or cross stays and dis-
tance pillars, and with horizontal diagonal braces and the roadway plates, so
that the whole forms a complete square piece of framework, and mav he
compared to the American trellis bridge, with a circular piece cut out of
it to form a headway betweeu each pier.

But to return to the principle of construction of iron bridges, as adopted
by various engineers on the railways in England. I will give a description
of the different kinds of bridges which have been constructed of this ma-
terial. The principle of the bow and string suspension, as employed by Mr.
Leather in the bridges of Hiinslet and Monk Bridge at Leeds, (the latter
being 112 ft. span, the former 152 ft. span,) has been adopted on the Thames
Junction Railway, and on the London and Birminghara line tlie same principle
is applied to a bridge over the Regent's Canal at Caindeu Ton n, the roadway
being on the chord line, and the ties of the bow strong bars of wrought iron :
the span is 50 ft. On the same line, the load from Baniiuiy to Lutterworth
is carried over the railway on a bridge, with a span of 61 ft., in this case
the road is above the bow. and the ties are distended below the chord line :
the distance between the under side of the bow and tie bar is 4 ft., which is
filled in with studding pieces or saddles, about the san.e scantling as the
spandril filling of a bridge of similar span ought to be on the common con-
struction. The same plan has been used on the Manchester and Leeds road
as the bridge over the Regent's Canal ; in Ibis bridge 288 tons of wrought
iron, and 155 tons of cast iron were used : a similar biidge is on the North
Midland line, at Derby. This kind of bridge is used where headway under
the bridge is an object. On the Birmingham and Gloucester line, at Chel-
tenbaiii, a bridge is built on the above principle, where both the rib and the
tie at the level of the roadway are cast iron, the lower one being suspended
at a distance of 4 ft. 3 in. from the upper, with strong iron rods about the
same distance apart ; the tie or bottom rib has also a rise or versed sine of
IS in. On this line of railway 654 tons of cast iron, and 150 tons of wrought
iron were used in bridges. On the Great Western Railway parallel gurders
were mostly used. In a bridge over the I'addington Canal 37 ft. span, the
extreme depth of girder is 22 in., and breadth of flanch at top and bottotu
% in., of a uniform thickness of 2{ in. ; the weight of iron in the bridge is
41i tons. A similar bridge to the last was erected over the Grand Junctioa
Canal, in which above 73 tons of iron were used ; the dimensions are as iu
the last example, except the span and depth of girder; the latter is 26 in. deep.
The bridge over the Uxbridge road, containing 165 tons of iron, is on the
principle of a framed floor of joists : the railway crosses tl e high road vety
obUquely, say 15', at the junction of a cross load ; oi.e girder is used similar
to a trimming joist, with seven others weighing about 30 tons, tenoned
through it and bearing upon it. This girder weighed 9.\ tons, and was 26 in.
iu extreme depth, with flanch at top and bottom 11 in. broad, of a uniform

228

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

thickness of 4} in., and 32.i ft. long between bearings. This girder broke
soon after the bridge was completed, but was replaced again without increase
of weight. On the Midland Counties line the parallel girders were assisted
with side rods of wrought iron, their ends being passed through cast iron
lugs, on the upper edge of the girder, aud the middle bent over a stud cast
on the lower edge in the centre, the superstructure or roadway being gene-
rally planking, but where the girders were elliptic, the planking was placed
on the lower flanch, and the back of the girder stood above the roadway.
On the Great Western line the space between the girders was filled in with
9 in. arched brickwork, the girders being placed about 4i ft. apart. On the
Pollack and Govan Railway, the Glasgow and Edinburgh, Grand Junction,
and Leeds and Selby, the bridges were of the ordinary form.

The weight to be carried over a bridge or lailway should be calculated for
two trains passing over at the same time, and for a turnpike road the passage
of troops is considered the most severe test, but in practice one of the ribs
should be calculated to hear the estimated weight which it is presumed will
pass over the bridge. In the Park-street bridge previously described, of
95 ft. span, an area of 50 superficial inches is given to the rib ; and in No. 7
of the first table of experiments, for a span of 28 ft., with 10 tous the
deflection was J of an inch, the sectional area being 38 in., evidently showing
the Park-street bridge abundantly strong. By a reference to the unpublished
experiments on cast iron rails, you will see that the (perceptible) deflection
of cast iron commences at about one-fourth of its breaking weight, so that
the girder No. 7, with an area in section of 38 in. would be capable of sus-
taining a weight of 40 tons. The girder of the bridge that broke on the
Great Western Railway at the Uxbridge road had an area of nearly 176 in.,
with a span of only 32 ft.

By reference to the paper in the Transactions of the Royal Society it will
be seen that wrought iron will bear nearly as much again as cast iron before
crushing, and by reference to Wood's experiments on rails, it will be observed
that it remained elastic up to five-sixths of the weight that destroyed its
elasticity, and the deflection commenced with one sixth part of that weight ;

therefore, notwithstanding the greater power of its resistance to a crushing
force, the greater elasticity renders it inapplicable to the purposes of bridge
building on the plan of an arch.

I have been induced to extract the table from Wood's work on railways,
to see whether wrought iron was ap])licable for bridges constructed on the
common plan, having lately seen curved ribs of that material formed of rail-
way bars acting as the suppott of the "lagging" of centreing, aud as Mr.
Pritchard (who introduced cast iron), in one of his earliest propositions on
the subject, suggested cast iron ribs as a permanent centre to a back arch of
masonry (Weale's Bridges, page 100).

From what has been said, I do not think wrought iron can be applied as
I thought it could to large bridges. In the preceding examples of construc-
tion are the following different plans. The principle of the arch fully de-
veloped, as in Sunderland Bridge ; arched ribs on the common plan, as Vaux-
hall and Southwark Bridges ; the French tubular rib ; the bow and string, as
Monk Bridge, Leeds ; and four descriptions of girders, viz. parallel, para-
bolic, parabolic curved, or one whole elevation as a phase, and the parallel
assisted with tension rods ; also an adaptation of the bow and string of three
varieties, viz. the Ijridge over Regent's Canal, on the road from Baubuiy to
Lutterworth, on the Birmingham railway, and the Cheltenham bridge on the
Gloucester and Birmingham railway, being a total number of thirteen diffe-
rent constructions, many being used to suit localities and confined situations;
but for situations where no restrictions exist, the girder is the best form up
to 30 ft. span, the arched bow and string to 60 ft., the common arch to 150
feet, the framed voussoir, as Sunderland bridge, to 250 ft. and all spans
larger.

As to what sliould be the sectional area when the common method is
practised, the following particulars, collected from executed examples, may
be found useful : say 25 ft. span, 30 superficial inches ; 50 ft., 40 ; 100 ft.,
110 ; 130 ft., 165 ; and the proportion of the breadth of the rib to its depth,
one-fifteenth, say 2^ inches breadth for 36 inches depth.

1st Table

OF Proof in Tons and Deflection in Inches of Cast Iron Girders elliptic on upper edge.

No. of
Experiment.

Distance between
supports in feet.

Extreme depth

in centre.

inches.

Do. at ends.

Size of Fil
Breadth.

et at top.
Depth.

Size of Flanch at bottom.
Breadth. Depth.

Breadth or

thickness in

middle.

Proof in 1
tons.

\

Deflection
in inches.

No. 1

18 0

HI

lU

U

li

4

u

C

3

s

2

22 6

18

15

1*

If

H

If

8

I

3

17 9

13

lU

If

If

4

If

6

f

4

22 0

15

12

If

If

5

IJ

H

6

i

5

19 6

15

12

If

If

5

If

6

g-

6

13 0

10

8

If

If

7

If

a

1

if

7

28 2

20i

174

2

2

6

H

10

1

8

13 4

12

10

If

If

4

li

6

i

9

32 4

24

19i

2

2

8

H

12J

f

10

20 6

15

12

If

If

5

li

6

1

11

12 8

10

8

If

If

4

H

a

A

12

19 6

15

12

If

If

■ti

H

H

6

i

13

18 3

16

13

2f

2*

6

1*

If

m

i

14

36 0

30 24

3

2

9 2J

2i

20

TiJ

2nd Table of Girders parallel throuohout their entire length.

1

10 6

n

5

n

5

If

If

6

i

2

8 2

Oi

5

u

5

If

H

7

■ft

3

10 0

10

5

If

5

u

H

H

A

4

9 0

H

n

u

7

If

If

7

Te

5

20 6

20

6

If

6

If

If

15

TS

3rd Tabli

. CONSTRUCTED FROM WoOD ON RaILROADS, EXPERIMENTS ON STRENGTH OF WROUGHT Ir0>

t Rails.

1 281b.

3 0

3^

2}

2J X 1 1 none

none | J

6i to 7f *

i

2 36

3 0

3ii

2f

2J + U

g

f

i

3i „ 5

Bent.

3 32

3 0

H

2i

2f X f

1

lA

f

2i „ 3i

do.

4 32

3 0

3^

2f

2* X 1

1

li%

f

5 „6

do.

5 39

3 0

4-rV

31

2} X 1

1

1*

1

5 „ 6

do.

6 43

3 0

3i

H

2f X J

h\

1^

i

• 5 „ 6

do.

With the first weight the elasticity remainecl, with the second weight it was destroyed.

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

229

EXPLAKATION OF TaBLE.

No. I . The girders were laid together in pairs, with a block of iron between at
each end, and squeezed together, and the diminution of the distance between
the two girders was divided as the deflection of eacli. Before the pressure
was applied, parallel chalk lines were struck at a small distance apart, to
ascertain the position of the neutral axis, which was found to be nearly in
the centre of tlie depth. The bearing was 9 in. from each end, and the
pressure applied in the middle : the girders were kept from goiug back to
their natural position by a strong loop of wrought iron embracing them both.
The girders were elliptical on the upper edge or back, and horizontal on the
lower edge ; they were also strengthened on the upper edge, and had a broad
flanch at bottom, and sometimes a flanch at both top and bottom. The
whole of the girders, except No. 14 in the first table, were used at the
Oxford and Cambridge Club. No. 14 was also used in the construction of
the City of London School, Cheapside. After the above experiments, the
architect in his next work, the Judge's Chambers, abandoned the fillet at top,
and diminished the thickness ; as for example, a girder of the same length
of bearing as No. 1 in the first table had a uniform thickness of I J- in.,
depth in centre 15 in., at end 10 in., breadth of bottom flanch 4 in. : the
girders at the last-named work were not proved.

No.3. Mr. Wood calls the three divisions of the section " top, rib, and keel,"
the rib being the portion between the top and keel, for which two last terms
I have substituted the words fillet and flanch, and for the whole three terms
I have the extreme depth. No. 6 is the only rail that was parallel, which
weighed 43 lb. per yard, and No. 4, which weighed only 32 lb. per yard, was
elliptic or fish bellied : it retained its elasticity as long as No. C, with an
equal weight.

Mr. Wood gives one table of experiments of east iron rails, the average
weighing 55 lb., 3 ft. 9 in. between supports, being straight on the upper
edge, and parabolic on the under edge ; extreme depth in centre C in., at end
4 in.; breadth at top 2:^ in., tapering away to 1=^- in the middle, and swelling out
at bottom into a square, each side being | of an inch, and the diagonal being
vertical, broke with 5| toi»s ; and he observes that cast iron is very rigid,
and deflection trifling before fracture, and that by mixture of metal, so as to
increase its specific gravity, the same rails took Ijtons more weight to
break them.

The following are from experiments which have not bteu published. A
rail of cast iron, straight on top, elliptic on bottom, edge 7 in. deep in
centre, 3^ in. at each end ; flanch at top 2^ in. x IJ in., at bottom li in.
X li in. and ^in. thick in the middle ; with 5 tons, in the middle deflection
was apparent ; distance between supports 3 ft. 8 in.

At 7 tons, the deflection was yub of ""i inch-

9
10
II
12

m

■Si

I) ^ „ Broke instantly through its

centre.
Another cast iron rail, 2 ft. 8 in. between supports ; 5 in. in middle, SJ in.
at each end, and ^ thick ; flanch at top 1 J in. < 1 in., at bottom 1 J in. x | in. ;
broke with 8^ tons ; fracture in the middle, and nearly perpendicular.

St- Ann's, Newcastle-npon-Tijne. 0. T.

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

A paper on lighlning conductors, in connexion w itli the accident at Rrix-
ton Church, was lately read at a meeting of llio London Kleclrical Society.
Its aullior, Mr. M'alker, the secretary of the society, bad made a survey of
the damage done to the tower of Brixton Church, and found in it so practical
an illustration of Dr. Farailay's opinion on the "lateral discharge," as to
induce him to investigate the subject more closely. It seems that no ar-
rangement of metals could have been better adapted than that met with in
this steeple to invite a flash of lightning to do mischief. There was a regular
series of stepping-stones, as it were — first, an insulated metallic cross, then
twenty feet of stone work ; in passing this interval the roof of the lantern
was shattered. Then come twenty or thirty feet of conductor, in the form
of the clock wire, and a water pipe ; and then a break of twelve leet. Here,
again, was an explosion, and an immense mass of masonry was shattered

away from the base of a column intervening' between the termination of the
water-pipe and the commencement of the next series of conductors. Within
the belfry a " lateral discharge " took place ; the fluid passes from one con-
ductor to a vicinal one for no other reason than to obtain a wider path. The
author showed that electricity not only chooses a short but also a wider
path ; and that the "lateral spark" arises from the latter property. He then
explained that it is not enough to have a continuous or an insulated lightning
rod ; but it is most important to have it far away from other metallic bodies;
for however capacious the rod may be, and however adapted to convey, not
only what passed down it. but ten thousand times more, yet, if another con-
ductor is near, a ilash will pass between the two, and ignition of neighljouring
combustibles will be the result. Fortunately, in the case in question, only a
small part of the whole fluid passed « itliin the tower, consequently the lateral
explosion'w as not severe. As it is not always possible to place lightning rods
entirely out of the neighbourhood of other conductors, Mr. Walker showed
that the possibility of the fluid's passing between them should then be con-
verted into a certainty by making metallic coiumunication between them, and
thus tracing out a path along which the fluid might pass without the de-
velopment of light and heat. He spoke of the peculiar property of the points
of leaves, twigs. Sec, in drawing oft" quietly charges ni electricity, and stated
his conviction that tall trees would always be found valuable, if not in en-
tirely averting, at least in greatly mitigating the force of a lightning shock.
The theoretical opinions given in this communication were based upon the
experiments of the Royal Institution, the object of the author being to show
how closely they were illustrated on the grand scale of nature, and to direct
the attention of the public generally to a closer study of the properties of
lightning-rods, a subject on which, perhaps, more than on any other prac-
tical point, more ignorance prevails than can be well conceived.

EXPERIMENTS AT WOOLWICH ON COAL- BOXES OF STEAM
VESSELS.

On 11th May a large detachment of the Royal Artillery attended in the
Marshes, to make experiments with powerful gunsag.ainst the erection repre-
senting the side of a steam vessel, and the coal box. The experiiueuts
commenced at a range of 1250 yards, with 68-pounder and 56-pounder gunsj
Colonel Dundas' 110 cwt. gun requiring 181b. of powder to each charge,
and Mr. Monks' 97 cwt. gun requiring IG lb. of powder each charge, made
excellent shots, but failed in passing through the coal-hox, although the iron
composing the interior portion of the case was rent for several inches where
the balls had struck, and where they were retained, having evidently ex-
pended the greater portion of their force in passing through the coals. This
result was rendered certain by the effect of one of the balls, which had
passed through the portion of the erection extendmg beyond the coal-box,
driving before it a solid piece of the wood, 12 in. square, and about G or 7 ft.
in length, and ultimately passing through a similar thickness of wood in the
rear, sinking deep into the earth composing the butt. There were three other
guns, 5G-pounders, respectively of 85 cwt., 81 cwt., and 67 cwt., in weight
each, fired during the first six rounds, but they were then discontinued, and
the practice carried on with Colonel Dundas' and Mr. Monks' guns, but they
failed in destroying the coal-box to any greater extent than has been stated.

The experiments were resumed on the following day with Mr. Monks'
56-pouuder gun, weighing 97 cwt. The officers in command were so satisfied
with its practice, that it was ordered to discontinue firing after the 21th
round. Several of the shot entered the coal-box, and caused great destruc-
tion ; and although they did not pass through, they tore the joinings from
the bottom to within about two feet of the top. T\\ o more rounds were fired
from the 68-pounder, one of which rent tlie joinings at the east end of the
coal-box from the bottom to within about three inches of the top, and a great
quantity of the coals fell out. The experiments with these guns, which were
made at the long range of 1250 yards, having been concluded, General
Millar's 10-inch gun commenced practice, having been previously pl.'.ced at a
range of 9(.0 yards. The firing from this gun with shells was the best that
could have been witnessed. The first shell entered the centre of the bull's
eye, but did not explode, probably from the action of the loose coals through
which it passed extinguishing the igniting composition before it could com-
municate with the contents of the shell. The secor,d shell entered within
about two feet of the bull's eye, and did not explode, prob;ibIy from the same
cause as in the former case. The th-rd shell entered about nearly the same
distance from the bull's eye as the second, only nearer the ground, and in six
seconds exploded, throwing up into the air a flame of ignited small coils to a
height of upwards of 30 It., forming a grand and imposing spectacle, and
scattering fragments of the shell, wood, and coals, to a distance of 200 yards
in all directions. A fourth shell was fired, but it entered and exploded in the
butt.

The experiments were again resumed on the following Friday, w hen it was

2 K

230

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

resolved to fire the red-hot shot 32-pounders, at a range of 800 yards. Tlie
first of these entered at the bottom of the coal-box, nearly in the same line
with the bull's eye, and set fire to the wood work, which continued to burn
slowly along with the ignited coals. The second red-hot shot entered about
three icet from the bull's eye, and so lodged amongst the coals that it was
full a quarter of an hour before the smoke of the ignited coals could make
its way through the hole where the shot entered, and at the top of the box,
I)ut it afterwards rapidly gained an ascendancy, and would have consumed
the whole had not the fire been put out by a party of men with the fire
engine. The experiments were concluded by firing an 8-inch shell from a
battery, at a distance of 950 yards, and it struck in a horizontal line with the
bull's eye, tearing the eastern side of the coal-box, and exploding when it
reached the back part of the box, scattering the coals, fragments of shell,
and wood to a considerable ilistance.

It is probable the result of these experiments, which have been so far satis-
factory, will give rise to others of a similar nature, as they appear to be of
great importance. Were the coal boxes maile of iron half an inch thick,
instead of a quarter of an inch.as theone experimented with, itwould afford,
especially at the back, a more secure hold to the rivets of the joinings, the
only parts which may be considered as having given way during the severe
tests. The action of the loose coals appears to have a great effect in pre-
venting balls passing through them when about six or seven feet in thickness,
and placed in an iron box, and the discovery may prove of great importance
in future fortifications, and in the defence of important stations.

IMMENSE BL0C:K OF STONE, SHIPPED FOR THE NELSON

MEMORIAL.

On Thursday, 9th June, we had the pleasure of witnessing the arduous
undertaking of putting on ship-board this huge block of stone, weighing
30 tons, intended to form the lower part of tlie figure of Nelson. This
beautiful piece of liver rock, when first detached from its original site in
Granton quarry, was 45 tons, its under bed resting 16 ft. 3 in. below the
datum line of low water at Granton Pier. It had, therefore, to be raised a
perpendicular height of 40 ft. over the inclined plane of the railway leading
cut of the quarry to the summit level.

It was first conveyed over the floor of the quarry nearly on the level 73 ft.,
then up an incline ^6 ft. long, having a rise of II ft. 9 in., a second incline
430 ft. long, having a rise of 26 ft., a third incline 112 ft. long, having a rise
of 2 ft. 3 in.

This was accomphshed in three days by means of logs of limber laid
down, covered with a strong flat iron bar, and malleable iron rollers 34 in. in
diameter, and hauled by strong purchase crabs ; nearly another day was
occupied in placing it on a wagon built for the purpose, and conveying it
along the railway to the place of shipping, opposite the old castle of Granton,
where a dock was excavated to admit the vessel coming alongside the rock,
ivhere the shears and other powerful apparatus were fixed.

Mr. Cole, wlio was entrusted with the management of shipping this gigantic
block, and the Government stores for the purpose, has been eminently success-
ful in his hazardous task. It appears, that to test the apparatus and ascertain
if every part was properly proportioned and efficient, on Wednesday one of
the tliree blocks required to complete the figure, weighing 13 tons, was
shipped, Bnd every part of the beaiing acting perfectly satisfactorily, it was
determined to ship the large one on the follo»ing day, should the tide flow
sufficiently high. At half-past one o'clock we were on the spot, when the
stone had been already hoisted, and in suspension between the ponderous
shears, all hands anxiously waiting for the vessel. The Albion of Goole,
Captain Wright, was placed alongside, there being then scarcely sufficient
•water. Precisely at two o'clock the vessel being hauled into her berth, the
process of lowering the shears to the required angle being accomplished with
great accuracy, the purchase tackles began to move, and so gradually and
steadily was all this managed, that not the least creak or surge was percep-
tible in any part.

In 20 minutes from the commencement of lowering away, the vessel having
received the block, which put her down exactly a foot, was hauled into deep
water.'] iAlthough a great number of people were congregated, not the
slightest noise or confusion occurred : every one seemed highly gratifled,
from their giving three hearty cheers, on the vessel being hauled out.

His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch has made a present of these fine blocks
to the committee of management for the memorial, and we feel happy in
announcing their being safely shipped without the slightest accident.

We were happy to bear Mr. Cole express his sense of the kind attention
and assistance received from Mr. Hawkins, resident engineer, and Messrs.
Orrell and Wighlman, contractors, Granton Vkr.— Edinburgh Evening Post.

MR. VIGNOLES' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

SECOXD COrRSE. — L'ECTURE VI. ON THE GAUGE OF RAILW.VVS.

After some preliminary observations, illustrating parts of the last lecture,
and particularly in reference to w'hat was stated respecting the Brighton
railway, Mr. Vignoles proceeded to enter on the subject of the breadth or
gauge of railway, which he explained to denote the distance between the
iron bars which form the track or way. The definition of the gauge of the
old tramways, introduced the observation that, from their form being as it
were an artificial rut, they were styled by the French ornigres, of which the
literal translation was " wheel-rut." The present ordinary railway gauge
was 4 ft. 8J in., and some speculations were made as to the choice of such a
particular breadth ; and quotations were made from Mr. Wood's Treatise on
Raihmys to show that it had been owing tn an accidental circumstance — viz.
that the first conclusive experiments on the principle of the present loco-
motive engines had been made on the Killingworth Colliery railway, which
was laid to that gauge. In some of the first of the Acts of Parliament for
modern railways, it had been made imperative by a special clause to adopt
this particular gauge, and many companies submitted quietly to the enact-
ment, thereby preventing all chance of improvement in what was assumed
to be perfect ab initio; but about six years ago much discussion having taken
place as to the proper gauge, this decree was altered, and there is now no
limitation in the width of the gauge, which is left entirely to the discretion
of the engineer. Now, the consequence is, that although it would be de-
sirable that there should be a standard gauge fixed, yet, so divided have the
public been as to what is the right one, that we have at present no less than
seven different gauges used throughout the United Kingdom ; some of the
.Scotch lines, for instance, have a gauge of 4 ft. 6 in., and others of 5 ft. 6 in.
The Eastern Counties Company have adopted 5 ft. The gauge of the rail-
ways in Russia is 6 ft. On the recommendation of the Irish Railway Com-
missioners, the Belfast and Armagh Railway Company have made their
gauge 6 ft. 2 in. On the Great Western Railway the gauge is 7 ft. Now,
as much as 18 years ago, Mr. Tredgold, a celebrated and scientific engineer,
made the following observations : — " The width between the rails being de-
pendant on the height of the centre of gravity of the loaded carriage, and
this again varying witli the nature of the load and the velocity, it will be
obvious we cannot do better than make the breadth between the rails such,
that by disposal of the load, the centre of gravity may be kept within the
proper limit in cither species of vehicle, whether swift or slow, and it would
be desirable that the same breadth and the same stress on a wheel should
he adopted on all railways. We would propose 4 ft. 6 in. between the rails
fur heavy goods, and 6 ft. for lighter carriages to go at greater speed."
Now, it is remarkable that, during all the discussions that took place with
regard to the gauge, this observation was never referred to. M'hen Mr.
Brunei broke through that fixed number for the gauge, and adopted another,
he gave very Strong and sound reasons for so doing ; whether he was right
in assuming so high a number as seven is questioned b) many, but the prin-
ciple upon wliich he went was this—" I have (said he) laid out the line as
nearly level as possible ; the curves that I have adopted are nearly equivalent
to straight lines ; I keep the centre of gravity low, by placing the body of
the carriage within the wheels, and anticipating greater stability and steadi-
ness, I shall be able to go at a much higher speed, and with much more
assurance of safety." The Irish Commissioners argue thus — " From the
nature of the locomotive engine, its power is so great in proportion to the
friction it has to overcome, that it is capable of drawing a load which (even
with a greatly increased breadth as compared with common road carriages)
extends to a very considerable length, and, in order to reduce this length as
much as possible, it is necessary with the present breadth of way to make
the wheels run within the frame which supports the carriages; the seats of
the passengers are, therefore, placed above the periphery of the wheel,
which, for the sake of lowering the height of the centre of gravity, is made
as small as possible."

One great theoretical objection, tlkerefore, to the narrow gauge, is the in-
creased friction consequent upon the reduction of the diameter of the wheel,
since besides what is due to the load, the friction of a wheel, at the axle,
may be said to depend upon the proportion of the diameter of the wheel to
the diameter of the axle ; but, in attempting to carry out this principle in
practice, the axle has sometimes been turned down so small as to produce
much greater and more positive inconveniences, and it is very questionable
if it be prudent or desirable to make the proportion between the wheel and
axle greater than 15 ta 1, and which proportion can be obtained with 3-feet
wheels. Now, with a 4-feet wheel and a 3-inch axle, tlie proportion being
16 to 1, it may be well doubted if, on this account alone, the large wheels
are worth their greatly increased ecst. The commissioners, however, urged
that the same carriage room may be preserved, by extending the breadth of
bearing of the rails, so as to allow the wheels to run outside the frame, in-
stead of running within it, in which case we can bring the body of the car-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

331

riage down to the axletree. The gauge may be tluis increased from 4 ft. 8A in.
(0 C ft. 2 in. — thus arguing for an increased breadth, that the centre of
gravity may be lowered, and the diameter of the wheels thereby reducing
the friction, and increasing the power, to overcome the "surface resistance."
This is, in other words, getting more leverage ; but such an advantage, how-
ever, does not apply so much to rail" ays as to common ruads, for. on the
railway, there is little or no obstacle to be found in the shape of surface re-
sistance, except what are as a few grains of dust compared with the obstacles
to be found on the common road, or the deep ruts in a wood, which require
very large wheels for the timber wain. " At the same time (continued the
commissioners), the load itself may be reduced in height, the bottom of the
carriage, or truck frame, being, in this case, limited by the axletree of the
larger, instead of the periphery of the smaller wheel, and, with this reduction
of hei"ht, the wear and tear will be reduced, and the case of the motion
increased. Moreover, the force to be overcome being less with the same load,
we may, by retaining the power of the engine the same, carry a greater load
than at present with the same velocity, or, retaining the same load, carry it
at a "reater velocity by increasing the diameter of the driving wheels of the
engine; or, if it be not desirable to increase the velocity, the speed of the
piston might be reduced, which would be a great practical advantage; or,
lastly, preserving the same load and velocity, the form and weight of the
engine may be made less, and, probably, the one or other of these arrange-
ments would he adopted, acconling to the nature of the traffic on the rail-
way. Thus, in passenger and mail trains, it might be desirable to increase
the velocity, whereas, in the carriage of hea\-y goods, it would be most eco-
nomical to increase the load." '• But (say the commissioners) there is a
pohit which must be attended to, and tliat is, that the whole of the advan-
ta"es apply only to level lines." Now the Grer.t Western was thus suscep-
tible of having a wider gauge, since the line was made nearly level, for, as
the commissioners observe, " in ascending the various gradients and inclined
planes, the load has to be raised in opposition to gravity, and the power
necessary to effect this is frequently equal to, or exceeds, that which is em-
ployed to overcome the fric'.ion, and wdl remain the same to whatever ex-
tent the friction is reduced. To avail ourselves fully of the reduced friction,
those planes which cannot be worked by assistant power require to be re-
duced in Ihe'ir slopes, in the same proportion that the wheels are increased,
or, otherwise, that assistant power be applied on proporlionably less slopes
than according to the present practice" — that is to say, that the power of
the engine is employed in overcoming the friction of ihe load, and in raising
it up the several ascents, and what is gained by increa.sing the breadth of
the railway and making the wheels run outside the frames, is only applicable
to the former, the latter remaining the same as before ; " and the advantage
of the alteration would be overrated if this circumstance wt-re not taken into
consideration." Thus it is that the additional advantage arising from the
diminution of friction is so small, when you come to otiier than nearly hori-
zontal lines, that the advantage is lost. There is yet another reason for
increasing the gauge— viz. that we are enabled to construct the machine
without being cramped in space for the moving p:trts, and affording a larger
diameter for the boiler ; it was this consideration, probably, which first in-
duced practical engineers to pay attention to incre:ising the gauge above
4 ft. Si in. If we had to begin railways again, we should certainly make the
gauge wider than 4 ft. 8i in. Inlaying out future lines, particularly where the
traffic is not great, the point of consideration will be to obtain the greatest
advantage at the least expense, and to determine how much the gauge ought
to be increased ; and Mr. Vignoles stated, that, after having paid a deal of
attention to the subject, he gave it as his opinion, that a gauge of six feet
would be amply sufficient to satisfy all reasonable conditions. The Irish
Railway Commissioners had observed, " that, at present, the load is seldom
equal to Ihe power of the engine, and, this being the case, but little would
be gained by a greater breadth of road," with a view only of reducing the
resistance, already much inferior to the power by which it is to be ovtrcome,
except by allowing an increased s-peed on the line generally, and on the level
planes in particular. With a full and overflowing trafiic, there is no doubt
it would be advisable to employ the greatest possible breadth of bearing ;
but it is useless, or worse than useless, to incur a present expense for a benefit
which it is not likely that there will ever be the means of taking advantage
of, so that, unless under the circumstances just mentioned — viz. an incessant
traliic, Mr. Vignoles thought that a seven-feet gauge was over the mark.
Mr. Vignoles stated, that the consideration of curves was connected with
that of the gauge, that it was a most important element in the consideration
of railways, and would be taken up in another lecture. The rule given for
raising the outer rail, on curves, required the gauge to be included as one
element in the calculation, as also the height of the cenire of gravity above
the rails, which was also contingent on the gauge, as before explained.

INSTRUMENT FOR CALCULATING VELOCITIES ON
RAILWAYS, &c.

(With an Engraving, Plate IX. J

The instrument represented in the annexed plate, which I have
named a "Veloci meter," is intended to supersede tlie long calculations,
frequently necessary, in obtaining velocities in engine trials.

When the times of passing tlie quarter mile posts only are noted,
such an apparatus is hardly called for, since, tlie distances being con-
stant, a table may readily be made out which will give the velocitiesr
due to the diflerent times ; hut it is a common practice, and perhaps a
more satisfactory one, to note the times taken in traversing the several
gradients, where the distances as well as tlie times are variable. The
lengths of the inclines are generally fractional, and probably no two
are the same, and none of the times of travelling over them are equal;
consequently each case involves a distinct calculation, and where the
trials have been extensive, several days may be occupied in making
these reductions. It is, therefore, a desideratum to have some other
means of obtaining the velocities, than that aftbrded by the ordinary
methods of calculation.

The instrument devised for this purpose, is another application of
that very important geometrical principle — the equality of the ratios
of the sides of similar triangles. In the right angled triangle ABC
(Fig. 1), let A B be taken to represent any given number of minutes
and seconds, and A C the number of miles and chains passed over in
that time. Then, if A B be produced until it becomes equivalent to
an hour, and from its extremity D, a perpendicular be drawn inter-
secting A C produced in E, A E will represent the number of miles
that would have been traversed in the hour had the motion been
continued, that is, it will indicate the rate per hour at which the dis-
tance A C was travelled. Now, if A E be made to revolve round A,
and to take any other positions, as A E' or A E," it is clear that the
relations will still be the same, and that if any distances A C,' or A C,"
be described in the time A B, A E' and A E" will indicate the re-
spective rates per hour. If, in addition to this, B C be made moveable
along A D, or, what is the same thing, if A D be divided into minutes
and seconds, and lines be drawn from the divisions parallel to B C,
we shall be able to adjust the revolving line, to any distances and times,
within the limits that may be allowed by the arrangement.

It will probably be objected, that if the line A D, representing an
hour, is to be divided into minutes and seconds, its length must be so
great as to make the instrument too unwieldy for common use. This
difficulty is, however, very readily surmounted.

If A D (Fig. 2), be taken to represent a quarter of an hour, instead
of an hour as in the last figure, it follows, that other things being the
same, A E will represent one-fourth of the number of miles per hour;
that is, if A E had four times the number of divisions, it would in-
dicate the rate per hour : if, therefore, A E have two scales, one for
adjustment and the other with divisions one-fourth the size for indica-
tion, the velocities may be read off as before. Or if it be desirable
to make use of one-tenth of an hour, instead of one-fourth, we have
only to mike the indicating divisions, one-tenth of the size of the
adjusting divisions, and the same result will follow.

In the application of this principle to practice, the following
arrangements are made : — A D is the scale of time, embracing in this
case one-tenth of an hour, or six minutes ; each minute includes 15
divisions, one of which will, therefore, represent 4 seconds, and as
each of these may be readily bisected by the eye, the scale may be
considered as divided into periods of two seconds each. A E is the
scale of distance, turning on the centre A, the adjusting scale being
divided into 4 miles, and each of these subdivided into 80 chains;
the same space is divided on the indicating scale into 40 miles, and
each of these into eighths, ten miles on the one scale being equivalent
to one on the other, in consequence of the time scale extending only
to one-tenth of an hour.

To obtain results by this apparatus, the revolving scale is moved
until the division answering to the number of miles and chains passed

2 K 2

232

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

over, is made to coiucide with the division, representing the number
of minutes and seconds, occupied in the transit; and this adjustment
being made, the rate per hour is read off on the indicating scale, at
its point of intersection with the line D B. For instance, a gradient
1 mile 25 chains long, is traversed in 2 minutes 48 seconds; what is
the velocity ? The divisions corresponding to these data being made
to coincide, as shown at (a), the point of intersection on the indicating
scale is examined, and the velocity found to be rather more than 28
miles per hour, which is the result given by calculation.

Again, a locomotive travels 1 mile 54 chains, in 4 minutes 40
seconds: required, the rate per hour. The revolving scale is moved
as before, until the distance division 1 mile 54 chains at (6), is brought
to (6') on the division of 4 miles 40 seconds ; the edge of the scale
will then occupy the line A c', and the point (c) on the scale will have
arrived at the point of intersection (c')( showing the velocity to be
rather more than 2IA miles per hour.

Of the three data time, distance, and velocity, any two being given,
the third may be found, so that the apparatus may be employed in
finding times, and distances, as well as velocities. Thus, having fixed
the velocity at which the trains on a railway are to travel, and know-
ing the distances between the stations, the times of arrival may be
ascertained, by adjusting the revolving scale to the required velocity,
and noting (he times corresponding to the given distances, and should
the results be unsuitable, other velocities may be assumed, until the
desired ends are fulfilled.

I have constructed two of these instruments, one for small, and the
other for greater distances. The first (as far as J can remember, for
it is not now in my possession,) is about half as large again as the
accompanying drawing, and has the same arrangement, except that
the indicating scale extends to 45, instead of 40 miles, and the time
scale has double the number of divisions, so that differences of a
second are appreciable. The other has a time scale extending to 15
minutes, each minute being subdivided into periods of 4 seconds, so
that differences in time of 2 seconds are available. The scale of dis-
tance has the adjusting scale divided into Hi miles, and each mile is
subdivided into distances of 2 chains ; the indicating scale extends to
45 miles, and each mile is divided into tenths. In both cases, the
subdivisions of the time scale are made by lines of different colours,
so as to avoid confusion.

These instruments, although made of Bristol board, and having a
needle for the pivot of the revolving scale, gave results within one-
eighth of a mile per hour of the truth ; an approximation quite near
enough for ordinary purposes. They were used for some time in
engine trials, on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, and were
found to answer very satisfactorily.

Derby, May 13, 1842. Herbert Spencer.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS, ROYAL ACADEMY.

Great was our surprise, on looking over the catalogue, to find that
the Professor of Architecture has not contributed a single drawing of
any kind to the Exhibition. How are we to explain this ? Are we
to attribute it to the retiring modesty of true genius ? Hardly so :
we are, therefore, inclined to set down the Professor's absence to a
different cause — certainly not to too sensitive modesty ; neither does
it bespeak in him any very great zeal for that department of the
Academy in which he is, or ought to be, more especially interested.
We own we have been disappointed, for we had made quite sure of
seeing, if nothing else of his, the design for the Taylor and Randolph
Institute at Oxford ; more especially as he has not seemed unwilling to
give publicity ^to it, having nearly a year ago allowed a woodcut of it to
be given in one of the Oxford papers. Perhaps he has since repented
of doing so, for he can hardly have heard any very favourable com-
ments upon it ; nevertheless, as the design has been seen, and as the
building when erected cannot possibly be secreted from public obser-
vation, Mr. Cockerell need not have been so very shy of exhibiting
any drawings of it, unless he thinks it is most prudent to steer clear
of criticism as long as he can, instead of running into the very jaws
of it, in Trafalgar Square. All, therefore, we can at present say, in

regard to what the Professor is doing at Oxford, is that it promises to
be just such another architectural ornament to that university as the
Westminster and British Assurance Office is to the Strand, which has
found one, and only one, solitary admirer, viz., Mr. Britton, who, in his
usual language, calls it a "fine building"! There are several other
things eitlier actually in progress, or about to be begun — that is, if
there be any truth in report — which we fully expected to obtain a
sight of at the Exhibition ; among the rest, of the Albert Gate that is
to be, leading into Hyde Park, which the newspapers have told us is
to be something quite magnificent, and, therefore, we hope, will not turn
out after all to be something exceedingly paltry. Neither do we see
Tite's model of the portico of the Royal Exchange, as now extended,
and improved from the first design, or any drawing of the inner
costite, which we have heard will now be different from the published
engraving of it, and which, whatever it may be as to taste, will, we
trust, never be made such a palpable absurdity, in a climate like ours,
as a mere open coiu't for a place of rendezvous for business.

Sir Robert Smirke never exhibits upon paper, and had ho never
exhibited in stone and mortar it would have been no loss to English
architecture ; but Welby Pugin — we do not understand what motive
he can have for never sending any drawings of the numerous catholic
churches he has erected, because hardly can he shrink from a com-
parison of them with the majority of the designs for churches we
here meet with, year after year ; rather would such comparison be a
triumph to the author of the "Contrasts."* It is possible that the
Academy have resolved Mr. Pugin shall have no such triumph on their
premises, and have, therefore, shut their doors and their catalogue
against him as an audacious " Babylonian," and follower of the lady
in scarlet. Others there are who seem now to have ceased exhibiting
— Decimus Burton, Basevi, Salvin, Blore, &c. ; nor have any pro-
vincial architects contributed a drawing of any building of note to
the present exhibition. Whether it be that the profession are grown
lazy, or whether they have come to the resolution of turning their
backs upon the Academy, since the Academy shows very little dis-
position either to countenance or to back them, or to do anything for
their better accommodation, we cannot say; but there certainly are
some symptoms of indifference and falling off, on the part of the
architects, or perhaps they have taken their cue from the Professor,
who, on his part, may be loth to encroacli upon the exceedingly
limited space allowed for architectural drawings.

Limited as that space is, and much as it requires to be extended in
one direction, we could wish to see it still more abridged in another,
namely, as to height; for of the four tiers of architectural drawings
hung up on the walls, only the second one from the floor, or that on
the litic, can be properly seen and examined. The other two may be
seen by those who will undergo the fatigue and trouble of stooping
down to the one, and standing on tiptoes to catch a sight of the other;
but as for the fourth or uppermost it is impossible to see it at all. Of
architectural subjects so hung, nothing whatever is discernible — nothing
can be made out, except the mere general form; all detail, and even
the separate features, are lost, and if this circumstance be an advan-
tage and a favour in some instances, it becomes a great disadvantage
and a piece of injustice in others. Many of the drawings put out of
sight in this manner are not at all larger — several are even smaller —
than those which are placed much nearer the eye. Are we, then, to
understand that it matters little whether they can be discerned or not?
for if so, why are they hung up at all ? or why does the Academy
allow its catalogue to hold out to us the promise of seeing a great
many productions which, when we begin to look about for them, we
find are not to be seen at all? — which tantalizing discovery, by the
bye, is the most we can discover of them. In this predicament are
nearly all the competition designs for the Camberwell church; the
consequence is that it is impossible to compare them together, or dis-
tinguish one from another. Quite useless, therefore, is it to attempt
to follow the catalogue, by taking the numbers seriatim ; all we can
do is to refer to the catalogue for the titles of such of the subjects as
the eye can reach. The consequence is that, on looking over the
catalogue afterwards, we invariably find that we have passed over a
number of subjects which, judging from their titles, ought to be worth
seeing. We reproach ourselves for our own carelessness and negli-
gence, in omitting to take notice of so many interesting subjects : how
could we possibly pass by such or such design, without even stopping
to see what it was. And yet we should have served Barry's designs
just the same, had they been placed like many others which, as far as

" How happens it that the series of " Lectures" by Mr. Pugin, so osten-
tatiously advertised several months ago, as being about to appear in the
Art-UMion, are not yet forthcoming? Did the editor find them much too
" Babijloman" to be made use of ; or did lie begin to cackle and reckon upon
his chickens before they were hatched ;' One or the other certainly seems
to be the case.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

933

seeing them is concerned, might just as well have been hung withtlieir
faces towards the wall, and have had their titles written in large letters
on their backs.

Having mentioned Mr. Barry, we will nowspeakof his two interiors,
Nos. 1030 and 1040, the intended Royal Gallery and St. Stephen's
Hall, in the New Houses of Parliament, which are admirable as archi-
tectural pictures, masterly in execution, carefully made out in detail,
without being prim or tame, and freely touched and full of effect,
■without that effect being at all strained or exaggerated. On the other
hand, the architecture itself is pictorial and scenic ; rich, but chaste,
and consistent in character. Yet it is a question with us whether
these drawings will satisfy the expectations of all who look at them
for the effect of the proposed mode of decoration with fresco-paint-
ing,* the spaces intended to be so filled up being nothing more than
a series of moderate-sized compartments, in which oil pictures or
pieces of tapestry might be inserted. Except, then, those panels form
part of the architectural arrangement, and are provided for painting,
there is no pictorial embellishment.

Nos. 1019 and 1055, two very forcible and clever perspective
drawings, sliowing the interior and exterior of the church now
erecting at Wilton near Salisbury, by Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon, are
sufficiently conspicuous, and are remarkable, not only on account of
the unusual style made choice of, but for the equally unusual liberality
with which the design seems to be carried out, so very different from
that of the "greatest accommodation at the minimum of cost" prin-
ciple adopted of late years, and which has covered the country with
cheap churches, which it would be complimentary to compare to barns,
they being far more unsightly — crammed with pews and galleries, for
the purpose of packing a congregation together within the smallest
possible compass. In proportion to the space it occupies, the Wilton
church affords comparatively very few sittings ; and is, besides, so
uniformly decked out, and that in a manner quite contrary to estab-
lished regulations, that we cannot for a mo?nent suppose the Church
Commissioners or other authorities to have been concerned with it, or
that there was any competition, and a programme from a committee
on this occasion. Whether the style — which is a mixture of the early
Italian or Lombardic with Norman — was suggested hy or suggested
to the architects, we know not, but they certainly appear to have had
a carle blanche afforded them, and to have been not at all stinted ;
■whereas stinting and stinginess usually manifest themselves most
disagreeably in nearly all our recent ecclesiastical structures, for if
they make any pretension to architectural design externally, they are
chillingly naked and bare within, or vice versa ; else are they equally
insipid and mean throughout. There are no indications here of the
design having been pared down, and we hope that such operation will
not or has not taken place in the building itself. The design, indeed,
is not so entirely satisfactory that it would not have borne any addi-
tional study; but scarcely ever does it happen that the afterthoughts
adopted for a building during its progress are improvements or cor-
rections— rather quite the reverse. The omission of those ornamental
expletives which, whatever share they may have had in influencing
the first choice, are, on maimer comideration, rejected as superfluous
redundances, allowed to pass in the drawings, because nothing is
easier than to omit them in the building itself. The lofty square
campanile at the north-west angle, detached from the church itself,
except as connected with it below by a short corridor forming an in-
ternal communication between them, is not only a very marked feature
— one which gives variety as well as importance to the whole exterior
— but being so placed, serves to extend the front very much ; and we,
therefore, think its position in the plan better than that of the Streat-
ham church campanile, which is attached to the apsis end of the
building. The front itself has a good deal of rich and characteristic
detail: the decorated porch below, and the large wheel window above,
tell well in the design ; but we apprehend that the red tiling —
especially that strip of it forming a penthouse covering to the pro-
jection of the lower part of the front, within which the entrance or
porch is recessed — will produce a rather crude and disagreeable efl'ect
in execution, and have a too homely, if not a positively mean and
vulgar, look.

With No. 1038, "The County Assize Courts erecting at Cambridge,"
by the same architects, we are not so well satisfied. The style is
Italian, and the composition a Doric order in pilasters, with seven
intercolumns or compartments, five of which are filled in with open
arches resting upon detached columns of a lesser order. The loggia

* In regard to fresco-painting, the present exhibition affords no symptoms
of our anista preparing for it. On tlie contrary, the lion in it, Maclise's
" Scene from Hamic!," indicali's a taste diametrically opposed to fresco, for
it is completely in the wax-work style of art— perfect deception, and nothing
higher.

thus formed gives both character and picturesque expression ; still
the ensemble is neither particularly happy nor particularly original.
It looks too much like a mere architectural reminiscence, without any
attempt at individuality, and without much study as to detail. It
strikes us, also, that the whole facade is by far too low — at least, such
is the idea conveyed by the drawing, which, it must be owned, is not
a particularly agreeable one, being exceedingly heavy in its shadows.

Nos. 1027 and 1050, are drawings of the Moorshedabad Palace.
An elevation and plan of the Palace appeared in the Journal for May
last.

No. 1037 shows us Mr. Elmes' building for the Law Courts at
Liverpool, from the same point of view as the outline wood-cut draw-
ing of it in the last volume of the Companion to Ihe Jllmanac, but with
some subsequent alterations in the design, the chief of which is that
the southern portico will now be octastyle, diprostyle, instead of hexa-
style, monoprostyle. It further appears, from the small plan, that the
semicircular projection at the North end — a drawing of which we
should like to have seen here — is considerably enlarged. But if so
far there is some improvement and amplification, we perceive also
that there is now some retrenchment in regard to decoration, for in-
stead of the screen between the square pillars in the lateral divisions
of the East front, having panels with subjects in bas-relief, there will
be no other sculpture there than a single large wreath in each com-
partment, and even that may probably be eventually omitted. We
regret this change in the design, for we would rather have seen some-
thing added in regard to sculpture and embellishment than the con-
trary. Of display with columns there is enough, a very unusual and
striking degree of it, so much so that something is wanted to produce
consistent richness in other respects. Therefore, if instead of adding
more columns to the South portico, its pediment had been filled with
sculpture, and the reliefs on the other parts abovementioned had been
retained, the whole would have been materially better, a much finer
piece of architecture, and of very superior quality, whereas now the
quality at first promised will, we fear, be greatly abated. However,
although it will not be made so much of, as the drawing and descrip-
tion in the " Companion " led us to expect, there will, at any rate, be
one novel and happy idea in the composition, namely, the square pil-
lars with screens between them, which, as may be seen by the present
drawing, will produce a piquant eftect, and serve to carry on the order
uninterruptedly throughout, at the same time avoiding that wearisome
monotony which it is so difficult to avoid or get rid of in Grecian ar-
chitecture, without breaking up the composition, or introducing irre-
levant features that more or less jar with the colonnaded portions of
the design.

No. 1068 is interesting as a representation of the so-much-talked-of
embellishments of the Temple Church, and certainly the vaulting of
the roof is splendidly decorated in a mode almost unique in this coun-
try; yet rich and tasteful as it is in itself, we do not think it either
accords with the style of the edifice, or is particularly appropriate to
its character. Its gaiety and luxuriance recommend it rather for a
ball or banqueting room tlian for a church, at least not for one which
is in other respects almost bare of ornament of any kind. In the
building itself the eftect may, perhap?, be different — very much better;
if not, the cost so incurred might have been sparetl, and the money
more judiciously applied to the im])roving and embellishing the ex-
terior of the Gothic building in the Temple, facing the garden, which,
if it does not need being repaired, certainly stands in very great need
of being reformed.

The two drawings by Mr. Ferrey marked Nos. lOSl and 1092, are
both, we presume, views of the same building, viz. a house erecting
for Chas. Porcher, Esq., at Cliff, near Dorchester, although 1092 is
merely called a Design — a mistake, probably, in the catalogue, or in
the earlier impressions of it — and it is to that side of the building, or
its entrance front, that we give the preference, as being more piquant
in character than the other, which, owing to their being so many win-
dows, all very spacious and nearly uniform in size and design, is some-
what too monotonous, and seems to require breadth and repose. Upon
the whole, however, it is a very pleasing specimen of the Tudor do-
mestic style.

Of the three drawings sent by Mr. Donaldson, one is so remarkable
that we give its title at length from the catalogue; "View of the
jirincipal part of an approved design for rebuilding Hallyburton House,
Augusshire, N. B., the seat of the late Lord Douglass Gordon Hally-
burton, composed in the style of the Florentine palaces and villas, at
the express desire of his Lordship." From this explanation it appears
that the peculiar style here adopted was entirely of his Lordship's
own choosing, and so far the architect is not at all responsible for
what we cannot help considering a very unhappy selection, for even
what are the merits of the early Florentine palazzo style, discom-
mend it almost more than any other for a modern country mansion.

234

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

for which purpose it is by far too stern and forbidding, and partakes,
moreover, too much of town architecture. Still, although the style
was forced upon him, we think there was no occasion for Mr. D. to
follow it so closely. Without too widely departing from it, he might
have treated it with artistical freedom — might have subdued some of
its asperity, and have refined it in many other respects; instead of
which, he rather seems to have exaggerated some of its least pleasing
qualities. Besides what is mere matter of taste, we should appre-
hend that the peculiar shape of the windows, viz. two arches resting
upon a central column, must not only produce a bad effect within the
rooms, but be very disadvantageous in regard to internal character
and mode of decoration.

No. 1118, "An Elevation of All Saints' Church, Gordon Street,"
is by the same architect, in a style equally unusual as that of the
preceding subject. Disposed, however, as we are to welcome novelty
in designs for churches which do not profess to be in the Gothic style
— to welcome almost anything in preference to the customary com-
mon-place portico, generally very ordinary in itself, and thrust forth
is a sort of apology for the general architectural slovenliness — we can-
not say we greatly relish this specimen, and we relish still less its
execution in the drawing, for in the building the shafts of the pilasters
are not of stone like the other dressings, but merely of brick, ovving
lo which and to their projecting so very slightly from the face of the
rest of the wall, they are scarcely visible, distinguish themselves
neither by difference of colour and surface, nor by shadow, therefore
their capitals lock only like so many patches of carved stone, discon-
nected from every thing else. What would Mr. D. himself say to
columns with only their capitals in stone, and their shafts of brick-
work ? Most probably he would call it a great solecism in taste; and
in our opinion he has committed quite as great, if not a greater one,
because, at all events, the shafts of such columns would show them-
selves distinctly, which is not the case with those of his pilasters.
The front of the church in Gordon Street exhibits far more of niggard-
liness in saving the paltry difference of cost between stone and brick
for the pilasters than of the economy of design, for though it was
deemed expedient to adopt such homely material for what are im-
portant parts in the decoration, there are three small circular slabs of
coloured marble introduced in the frieze, which produce no other
effect than so many small windows or pigeon-holes. There is also a
good deal of carved stone work over the doors, difficult to be described,
for though supplying the place of pediments to them, those large
arched ornaments are altogether diflerent from any sort of pediment.
If, therefore, retrenchment was necessary at all, we think it might
have been applied to these extraneous pieces of decoration, which
might liave been either reduced to pediments of the usual form, or
omitted altogether.

1097. "Storehouses and other buildings, designed for a public com-
pany," by E. B. Lamb, is so unfavourably placed as to be in danger of
being quite overlooked. It is, however, worth while stooping down,
to obtain a sight of it, for it shows how much valuable effect may be
produced witli the simplest means by nothing more than artist-like
arrangement and management ; we say " nothing more," yet that
nothing more seems to be very far mure than architects in general
can accomplish, or even seem to aim at. While so many of our pub-
lic buildings, and those not the least costly ones, are, in the quality of
their architeclure, little better than warehouses or barracks, as, for
instance, the exterior of the new portions of the British Museum, we
here perceive how even storehouses might be rendered tasteful and
highly picturesque architectural objects ; and were the banks of the
Thames lined with warehouses and storehouses similar in style to
those here designed by Mr. L, the view from the bridges and from
the river would afford a finer succession of architectural scenery than
any other part of the metropolis. If we want a striking contrast to
this, in i)oint of taste, we have only to turn to

No. 1 1 11), " The North and West Fronts and the Interior of the
First Quadrangle of the Royal Naval School, as approved by the
council and proposed to be built at Counter Hill, Deptford." J. Shaw.
This is a mere red brick house, full of windows, of most dismal physi-
ognomy, and without any sort of pretension to architectural design;
therefore it has no pretension to be thrust into an exhibition room —
more especially one where room itself is so scarce that many things
far more worth seeing, are thrust out of sight.

On No. 1139, with its stately Corinthian portico, first catching our
«ye, we had no idea that it could be other than a mere design, and
were, therefore, very agreeably surprised to find, on referring to the
catalogue, that it is the representation of the "Wesleyan chapel, &c."
now erecting at Kingston-on-Hull, for it has certainly a far more
classical look, and is withal a more varied composition, than anything
similar in style in our own church architecture. Besides being an
octastyle, the portico has an inner recess, with two columns in antis,

whereby it acquires a very unusual degree of effect and richness,
which is further increased by the whole being raised on a stylobate
terrace, out of which is cut a flight of steps forming the ascent to the
portico. On this terrace are two lower buildings or wings (for the
sacristy and keeper's hoivse,) connected with the central one, by open
colomiades of the Grecian Doric order. Picturesque, however, as are
the arrangement and combination in this respect, we must confess we
are not altogether satisfied with the design of these wings. The
elevations of their sides towards the portico (with a door between
two windows in each), sadly impair the general effect, and have too
much the look of ordinary park lodges : the vs'indows should be omitted
here altogether, and placed on the other side. Neither is the lesser
order so good as it might be, and the columns are so far apart that it
looks poor and straggling, and produces a disagreeable contrast with
the central portico. In fact had the lesser order been Ionic, it would
have combined far better with the Corinthian one: Messrs. Lockwood
and AUom would have done well — or we may say, would have done
better than they now have — had they bestowed a few second thoughts
and corrections on this design.

The Wesleyans seem to be now vying with the Catholics in new
structures and show of architecture, for the very next No. (1140) is
"The Wesleyan Theological Institution, now erecting at Richmond,
Surrey." Who Mr. A. Trimson, or Trimen, for his name is spelled both
ways in the catalogue, may be, we know not, but he certainly recom-
mends himself to us not a little by this specimen of his taste. The
style is the later Gothic, and the character collegiate, with some
degree of novelty also in the arrangement, there being a range of
spacious and more than ordinarily ornamented windows on the lower
floor, with two series of chamber windows above them.

Among those drawings which we did see, but which we have not
noticed, is No. 994, " A Royal Academy for the fine arts, including a
National Glyptothek and Pinakothek," by C. Tottie ; nor should we
mention it now, were it not to express our astonishment that such an
Alexandrine-verse design, "dragging its slow length along," should
have found any one to admire it. Remarkably poor and insipid in
itself, it is spun out to most wearisome monotony, for it is little more
than a mere string of Corinthian columns, with two rows of arched
doors and windows between them. It is just such another piece of
architectural insipidity as the front of the Royal Institution, Albemarle
Street, or that of Chester Terrace, in tlie Regent's Park — mon-
strously prolix, exceedingly lengthy, very drawling, and intolerably
dull. This is an ungracious conclusion to our remarks, but there is no
help for it, for here conclude we must, unless we choose to risk the
chance of being c.rcluded from the present number.

Electbo-Magnetism as a Moving Power. — The Consul-General of
the Netherlands, in a communication dated the 18th April, thus annouaces
the removal of the hitherto greal obstacle to the practical application of
electro-magnetism as an effective propelling power : — " A private gentleman,
M. Ellas, of Haarlem, has just pubhshed the description of a new machine
invented by him, for the application of electro-magnetism as a substitute for
steam. The object of the inventor has been chiefly to remedy the defects
which, in 1839, rendered the otherwise ingenious invention of M. Jacobi, of
St. Petersburgh, a fotal failure, in as far as practical utility is concerned.
Those defects originated, it seems, in the erroneous supposition that the
power of the magnetic bars exclusively resides in their extremities, whence
the form hitherto given to all electro-magnetic machines — viz. that of a
horse-shoe — which, while it occasions an unavoidable interruption of the
magnetic stream at each new inversion of the poles, at the same time leaves
the power resident in the remaining part of the bars wholly unemployed.
The new invention of M. Elias, on the contrary, has the very great advantage
of rendering effective the full power of the magnetic stream uninterruptedly,
and throughout the whole body of the apparatus. This consists of two
concentric rings of soft iron, standing on the ^ame plane, of which the ex-
ternal one is immovable, while that on the inside revolves round its own
axis. By means of a piece of copper wire, wouud about each of these rings,
he has given them six magnetic poles, placed at equal distances from one
another, the whole being so contrived that the one ring exerts its inducing
power on the other throughout the whole circumference, and always at the
same distance. A small hut very perfect model of this important invention
is now open to public inspection here ; and the result of its operation is
allowed, by those skilled in such matters, to be such as to insure the most
triumphant success."

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

sas

REVIEWS.

Architecture of Machinery ; an Essay on propriety of form and pro-
portion, with a view to assist and improve De<:ign. By Samuel
Clegg, Jiin., C.E. London: John Weale, 1S12.

If the execution of this work had been at all answerable to the
interest of the subject it professes to discuss, our present task would
have been a more agreeable as well as a more simple one. But after
a diligent perusal of Mr. Clegg's essay, we find ourselves unable to
resist the conviction that its author has failed in his object, and that
the consummation which this essay was intended to bring about is just
as remote as ever. We feel it, therefore, in some measure incumbent
upon us not merely to enter a protest against the heresies into which
Mr. Clegg has fallen, but, so far as our limits will permit, to relieve
the necessities his essay was meant to extinguish.

We perfectly agree with Mr. Clegg in thinking that the beauty of a
piece of machinery is a consideration by no means unimportant, and
it is one in our mind second only to the qualities of efficiency and
convenience. We believe, with Mr. Clegg, "that the majority of
those for whom machines are constructed cannot enter into the merits
of their internal action, or of their comparative performance; and,
therefore, not being willing to yield the right of opinion, judge from
outside show, as tliey would of a picture or statue, where the only
aim is to charm the eye, or excite pleasurable sensations in the mind."
We think also that " It may, therefore, be inferred that in many
instances the want of elegance in the contour of a machine is not only
displeasing to the spectator, but disadvantageous to the manufacturer;"
and we believe that it is disadvantageous to the manufacturer because
popularly displeasing. But we cannot assent to the legitimacy of the
conclusion deduced by Mr. Clegg from this proposition: we do not
think it follows that, where architectural contour is unattainable
without the infraction of architectural rules, it will, therefore, be the
best or even the most popular course to adhere to the mechanical
contour merely, or be content with those unadorned forms which
science indicates as the best for withstanding the strains to which
machinery is subjected. The selection of such unembellished forms
■we may suppose would be made by the accomplished mechanician,
who would probably see in their superior scientific fitness an ample
compensation for their destitution of ornament ; but we can scarcely
suppose such inducements to be operative with those who, without
any pretensions to scientific capacity, are nevertheless disinclined to
surrender their right of judgment, but judge of an engine as they
•would judge of a picture or statue. Upon such persons all evidences
of nicety of scientific disposition must manifestly be thrown away ;
and they will in general esteem that to be the handsomest design
■which is the most exuberantly embellished. It is quite true that many
of the designs to wliich a preference so regulated will be given must
probably be ungraceful and incongruous; inconsistent perhaps with
every principle of good taste, as well as with every established prin-
ciple of science. But this only argues the absence of good taste among
those who are pleased with such barbarisms, at the same time that
it shows they are solicitous to gratify a sentiment which to them stands
in the place of it. Nor can we be astonished at this depravity of
taste among the multitude, when we remember how rankly it flourishes
among those even with whom science is familiar, and reflect that taste
is the resultant of an infinitude of influences, each slight in its indi-
vidual character, and too remote and evanescent to be determinable
by rules, or be susceptible of reduction to any empirical form of
expression. The great majority of mankind are not only destitute of
that natural sensibilitj' upon which delicacy of taste can alone be
engrafted, but are often unpossessed even of that knowledge which is
necessary to enable them to distinguish glare and extravagance from
true sublimity. To the less obvious or obtrusive beauties they will
be insensible ; they will derive pleasure from what is distasteful to
those of more cultivated understandings, and will often mistake
imperfections for excellence.

It appears to us then th-at Mr. Clegg's argument, instead of proving
the propriety of engineers adapting the exterior of their machinery
to the taste of their customers, rather shows that the customers ought
to improve their taste, or not intermeddle. But at the same time we
find that Mr. Clegg, in opposition to his own precepts, recommends
a style of machinery the alleged superiority of which rests upon
qualities which science alone can illustrate, and which the commonalty
can neither appreciate nor comprehend. There is much inconsistency,
we think, in this part of Mr. Clegg's dissertation. He first tells us,
p. 2, that an attention to outside show, or, as we understand it, to em-

bellishment, is highly expedient, whilst in p. 3 he deprecates the use
of any ornament whatever. " If," says he, " those parts (of machinery)
are made in such a manner that they have strength in the proper place,
stability without unnecessary weight, and simplicity of form without
meanness, they require no other ornament, because their own propor-
tions will constitute their greatest." We confess this looks very much
like a riddle to us. The embellishment of machinery either is or is
not expedient, and we should have been thankful to Mr. Clegg, had
he stated a little more clearly to vihich doctrine his opinion inclines.
From the examples of marine engine-framing which he recommends,
and other circumstances, we conclude that he is hostile to the intro-
duction of any embellishment whatever, on the principle, we presume,
that that which contains everything necessary and nothing redundant
is the most fit, and consequently the most beautiful. If this be Mr.
Clegg's creed — and we believe "that it is — we must say that we think
it a very preposterous one. Fitness, though a constituent of beauty,
is not the only constituent : disproportion will, it is true, give pain,
and symmetry will confer pleasure ; but many things, though perfectly
well proportioned, and excellently adapted to their intended purposes,
have very slender claims upon our admiration on account of their
beauty. A barracks or a cotton mill may be as well adapted to their
respective ends as St. Paul's or the Parthenon, but who would, there-
fore, pretend that they were equally beautiful ? In like manner, an
engine with a wooden beam or wooden framing, and with the malleable
iron work, with the exception of the rubbing parts, just as it left the
smith's anvil, maybe as scientifically constructed, and in every respect
as efEcient as the most highly-finished engine that ever was manu-
factured. But who would, therefore, be prepared to maintain that it
must necessarily be as handsome? We differ entirely from Mr. Clegg,
in regarding fitness as synonymous with beauty ; at the same time we
willingly admit that beauty can never exist in perfection where fitness
has not been scrupulously attended to.

In p. IG Mr. Clegg favours us with the following definition of taste,
which appears to us liable to exception: — "By the word Taste is
meant that proper and well-directed exercise of the judgment by
which a man acquires facility in detecting impropriety of form, and
distinguishing with readiness the masterpieces of great hands from
the performances of vulgar artists." Now correct taste, we contend,
involves not merely the possession of a sound judgment, but of a good
deal more. Any mathematician can determine the proper form of a
body to resist any given strain, and a man of great knowledge and
experience may be supposed capable of determining the best shape
and proportion of a structure for fulfilling any required condition. But
all this may be settled and the question of beauty remain untouched,
and it is only indeed where the dominion of judgment ends tha'; the
empire of taste properly begins. Not that there is anything in taste
inconsistent with the results which judgment has developed, or even
independent of them, but that when science has exhausted her skill,
another agency is available to carry us to a still higher pitch of
excellence, and to heighten our enjoyment, not by any new evidences
of fitness, or by any appeal to our judgment at all, but by calling into
activity a multitude of hidden sympathies, and establishing a commu-
nion with the most exalted sensibilities of our nature. We do not mean
to say that in looking at machinery — whatever be its character — such
feelings are likely to be excited in any eminent degree ; but whatever
pleasure may be derived from its inspection, over and above that due
to the sense of its judicious construction and arrangement, is undoubt-
edly due to their existence. Beauty is not to be estimated by the
rule or the plummet, or computed by means of logarithms ; and
the author of the work before us, by reducing beauty to a mere
question of fitness which may be so estimated has, in our opinion,
degraded taste from her proper sphere, and proved himself incom-
petent for the function he has ventured to exercise.

But it is time that we should consider some of the forms of
machinery with which Mr. Clegg presents us. Fig. 24 is the framing
of a marine engine, as constructed by the Butterley Company ; fig. 25
is the raarineengine-framing of Boulton and Watt; and fig. 2(! resem-
bles the framing made by Mr. Clegg for the City of Londonderry and
other vessels. There is no attempt at decoration in any of these
examples, and they are all, in our estimation, far from handsome.
Fig. 27 is the framing of the Wilberforce, the diagonal stay of which
is curved. We agree with Mr. Clegg in thinking this curve disad-
vantageous, but the object was not, as he supposes, to introd\ice a
large condenser. The stay of the framing of the Royal Tar, by the
same maker, is likewise curved, although the condenser is of the usual
description ; and that framing has stood and lasted better than any
with which we are acquainted. Fig. 28 is the framing of the Don
Juan ; fig. 29 the framing used by Messrs. Seaward ; and fig. 30 that
atone time used by Messrs. Fawcctt and Co., of Liverpool: these
three framings are of the Doric order. We agree with Mr. Clegg in

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

JULT,

thiuking that this order of architecture is not well adapted for tbe
framings of steam engines ; and, indeed, our opinion is that not one
of the existing orders is fitted for that purpose. There is something
very unmeaning in columns stuck upon the top of columns, and little
columns stuck here and there over the framing, of all possible propor-
tions and dimensions. Nevertheless, although figs. 28, 29, and 30 are
indisputably architectural monstrosities, they are in our eyes less
displeasing than the vapid and quakerlike arrangements shown in the
preceding figures, and we believe that two-thirds of our engineers
will be found to be of our way of thinking.

In much of what Mr. Clegg says about wrought iron work we
perfectly concur, and we do not anticipate much opposition from
engineers to the doctrine that wearing parts should be susceptible of
re-adjustment, or that every portion of the moving parts should be
made equally strong. We'dissent, however, from Mr. Clegg when he
says that the arrangement shown in fig. 53 is the most approved system
of attaching the ends of rods to their cross heads (tails), and that the
arrangement sliown in fig. 54 is the one to be avoided. The former
method consists in constructing the cross (ail with a large oval hole in
the centre, through which a pin passes horizontally, and to which pin
the end of the connecting rod is attached by means of a strap and
cutter. The advantage of this plan Mr. Clegg informs us is " that it
allows some play and wear in the brasses, without giving rise to bad
consequences." But the bad consequences are altogether imaginary ;
a few marine engines have been constructed upon this plan, but the
provision has been found needless, and no engineer now thinks of
employing it, especially as it is reckoned unsightly and more expen-
sive to manufacture. The universal practice now is to attach the
connecting rods to the cross tails, in the manner shown in fig. 54, which
this gentleman reprehends; and we do not believe that he can adduce
a single example of any ill effect having resulted from it. The
angular straps shown in fig. 53 are objectionable ; they are very liable
to crack at the angles, and several of those of the City of London-
derry have so given way. In speaking of side rod eyes Mr. Clegg
says " The circular eye,' fig. 57, is not calculated for equal strength,
nor is the br.ass bush practically correct, for there is no provision for
.wear." We are unwilling to believe that Mr. Clegg supposes circular
side rod eyes are generally or ever made without any provision for
■wear ; for we cannot suppose any one undertaking to write upon
marine steam machinery so profoundly ignorant of the subject as to be
capable of entertaining any such supposition. Yet, whilst resisting
this belief, we must confess ourselves unable to understand Mr. Clegg's
statement on any other hypothesis.

We cannot follow this gentleman further, and have only room, in
conclusion, to say that although the several ordinary orders of archi-
tecture are unsuitable for machinery — and preposterous it is to copy
in iron the lineaments and proportions intended only for stone — yet
there may and there must be a species of architecture adapted to this
purpose, which, without interfering with the proper disposition of
materials, will accommodate itself to existing shapes and conditions,
and add the highest degree of grace and refinement; so that, whilst
securing the homage of the superficial and uninitiated, it cannot fail
to earn the approbation of the most proficient and fastidious. We
anticipated from the title of his book that Mr. Clegg would have
given us some examples of an architecture of this description, instead
of informing us that the first principle of the architecture of machinery
is that there be no architecture in it. Cast iron has its appropriate
architecture as well as stone, engines as well as cathedrals, differing
as much, too, from mere unembellished construction as a barn differs
from an abbey. On a future occasion we may perhaps give some
specimens of this architecture of machinery ; at present we can only
say that such an architecture exists, and it is no commendation of Mr.
Clegg's essay to say that it leaves the knowledge of tlie subject
precisely where it found it. The plates accompanying the essay are
very good, though for the most part superfluous ; the wood cuts are
excellent, and the typography magnificent. But the thoughts are for
the most part trivial and common-place, the reasonings sometimes
inconsequential, the statements often inexact, and the style neither
very elegant nor very perspicuous. Whatever other branches of
knowledge Mr. Clegg may be skilled in, it is plain that his acquaint-
ance with the structure of steam machinery, as well as with the
resources of decorative art, is limited and superficial ; and we conceive
it to be unfortunate for his reputation that he has ventured upon an
undertaking which renders those deficiences so conspicuous and so
inexcusable.

Memorials of Cambridge : a series of F'ie/vs, ffc.

Of this work, which has now reached its 29th number, and which
is, therefore, approaching towards its conclusion, by no means can we
report so favourably as we could wish, for instead of manifesting any
improvement upon its predecessor, "The Memorials of Oxford," it
shows an evident falling oft" in tbe graphic department, many of the
views being uninteresting in subject, poor, spiritless, and inaccurate
in drawing; and but very so-so/s^/y engraved, notwithstanding that
the name of J. Le Keux is aflSxed to them, which is all, we suspect,
that there is of his in those we allude to. Mr. Bell is so decidedly
inferior to Mackenzie as an architectural draughtsman, that by yoking
them together in the same work its character has been rendered very
unequal. Even Mackenzie himself has here somewhat disappointed
us, several of the subjects by him being not fresh views, but
merely repetitions of former ones by himself, and probably engraved
from the same drawings as the latter. This ought not to be, more
especially as many of the subjects might be shown to greater advan-
tage by being taken from a different point of view. Hardly, too, do
we complain very unreasonably, when we allege it as a fault that in
some of the views the buildings themselves are shown so remotely as
to be very little more than accessories in the general scene ; or again,
when we say that more than one piece of architecture is here very
inadequately represented. In this latter predicament is the Fitzwilliam
Museum, of which merely a view of the front is given, and that by no
means a very good one, although it bears the name of Mackenzie as
the draughtsman.* Yet as this structure is entirely a new one, more
than a single drawing of it would have been very acceptable ; or, at
all events, there should have been one interior view, and if only one,
it should have been that of the entrance hall, and sculpture gallery
around it. But if little has been done with the pencil towards ex-
plaining that important public edifice, very much has been done with
the pen in describing it; at any rate comparatively much, for the
account of the Museum is almost the only satisfactory piece of
arcliitectural description that has yet been given in the course of the
work. It is indeed so unlike any of the other " descriptions," that
we almost suspect it must have been derived from some other pub-
lication ; in which case it is a pity that the editors — for there are
actually two employed — did not help themselves to more matter of
the kind equally good. Yet of description and remarks on the
respective buildings there is scarcely anything at all, although such
would seem to be an almost indispensable accompaniment to a series
of views — to what is a graphic publication of popular character as to
size and the mode of getting up, not a library work for the antiquarian
student. The "Memorials" smell too much of the laboratory of the
British Museum — that admirable national establishment where old
books are ground young again — a process that may in time be applied
to old women also. Of most undisguised book-making the very last
number exhibits a striking specimen; the account is that of Queen's
College, and because Erasmus happened to reside there some time
while he was in England — a fact that might have been stated in a
couple of lines — we are treated with a whole history of him, for it
would seem no information relative to him is to be met with in any
biographical dictionary or encyclopedia. However, if the learned
editors help themselves hugely to such pieces of fat, they give their
readers plenty of lean, for nothing can be more meagre, jejune, and
scanty, than the information to be here picked up relative to the build-
ings themselves. What they will say of Downing College and of the
new libraries by Cockerell remains to be seen ; perhaps it will turn
out to be just as much and no more than what they have said of the
Observatory. Mr. Le Keux has been most unfortunate in choosing
his writers, for they seem to have been recommended to him by that
sable gentleman who sends not only cooks, but book-makers.

Appendix C to the new edition of Tredgold on the Steam Engine and
Steam jsTavigation. Gorgon engines, as fitted on board H.JVI.S,
Cyclops, illustrated by ten plates and descriptive letter press. By
Samuel Clegg, Jun., C.E. London : John Weale, 1842.

This is a very valuable addition to Tredgold : the execution of the
plates is perfect, and the manner in which the several objects are
represented is unexceptionable. The whole of the details of the
Gorgon engine are given with the sizes marked upon the several

* The design is more intelligibly shown in a woodcut view of it in the
Athenaeum, No. 512, which also contains plans of both floors ; and a section
of (he building and other illustrations have also appeared in the Companion
to the Almanac.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

237

parts, so that the plates are in fact working drawings, from which the
things represented might be made. This is precisely wiiat engineers
want, and have always wanted ; and we are very confident that this
work will be most acceptable to the profession, as well as to the public
generally.

But we have higher cause of satisfaction than the excellence of the
work. The drawings from which ihe engravings were made were
supplied with the sanction of Messrs. Seaward, the constructors of the
engines, who, with a liberality, and we may add a discernment, which
do them infinite credit, have allowed the whole details of their engines
to be published to the world. We hail this departure from the narrow
and futile policy it has been too much the endeavour of engineers to
pursue, in making secrets of the dimensions of their machinery, as
the harbinger of a better day. The age of secrets is gone; true
science and true art recognise nothing cabalistic ; and merit should
repudiate an auxiliary which empiricism alone does not disdain. But
concealment is not only illiberal : it would be inexpedient if it were
possible, and impossible if it were expedient. There is no size, pro-
portion, or particular of any engine of any maker which may not be
obtained, and which is not obtained by those sufficiently interested in
the matter to take the necessary trouble. All therefore that engineers
can do is to throw impediments in the way — to render the attainment
of the desired information not impracticable, but only more difficult;
and this difficulty will in no wise prevent those who are professionally
interested in the matter from obtaining that information, however
effectually it may discourage and deter those from whom no rivalry is
to be apprehended, who have no prominent interest to promote, and
whom it is most the interest of every engineer to illuminate. To
engineesthe publication of the details of the Gorgon engines will
carry little information that they did not possess before, and probably
among them all there will not be one who will adopt anything more of
the (jorgon principle in consequence ; for every engineer — even the
most unskilful — is apt to consider Iiis own modes of construction
superior to all others. But with the public generally, and with steam
packet companies in particular, the case is very different. They are
in the dark respecting many things; they may have heard disparaging
reports in reference to the Gorgon engines, which these drawings may
neutralize ; they may see evidences of excellence therein of which
they had no previous conception; and the existence of these evidences,
unbalanced by evidences of the excellencies of other engines, and
which other engineers conceal, will greatly contribute to the favour-
able consideration of Messrs. Seawards' arrangements. The directors
of steam packet companies, and indeed all unprofessional persons
interested in the operations of steam power, are necessarily very
impressible ; that is apt to be reckoned the best thing which is the
most prominently before them, and to monopolize their attention is
almost to secure their preference. It is, therefore, of the utmost
moment to every engineer to bring the merits of his work forward as
prominently as he can ; and there is no more effectual method of doing
this than by publishing the whole details of his machinery, without
further note or comment than is necessary for making the drawings
intelligible. One publication of this kind is better than a thousand
pu6Bng pamphlets, for such aids to notoriety are always received with
aversion and distrust, and give an unfavourable complexion to the
claims of those who resort to them. But an unreserved delineation
of the actual parts of machinery, accompanied by an open, unbiassed,
and manly statement of the reasons good or bad for the modes of con-
struction adopted, and so explained as to be easily intelligible, can
have nothing about it to repel, and it will first secure attention, next
reconciliation, and finally probably adoption.

The Architectural, Engineering, and Mechanical Drawing Bock, with
descriptive Letter-press. London: Weale, 1842.

This work contains many plates of interesting public works, and is
well adapted for the use of the younger members of the constructive
professions. It consists of three divisions, viz., architecture, engi-
neering, and mechanical drawing, giving numerous illustrations of
each on a large scale. The architectural series is of (J plates, the
engineering of 14, and the mechanical drawing of 8, besides two
plates of alphabets, &c. The mechanical drawings are particularly
useful.

Examples of Encaustic Tiles, Pari II. J. B. Nichols and Son.

The author observes that the publication of the first part of his
work has elicited so many communications from parties interested in
the subject, as to enable him to form the present part principally from

such communications. Instead, therefore, of being confined to speci-
mens from Hampshire, the work now takes in other places, including
at present Malvern, and the Chapter-House, Westminster ; and the
;'.uthor states his intention of continuing the series from Malvern and
Gloucester cathedral. The series from the Chapter-House, West-
minster, communicated by Mr. Cottingham, is highly intt'.resting:
some of tliese tiles are of very complicated design.

Practical Essai/ on the Slrtiigth of Cast Iron and other Jilttah. By
Thomas Tredgold. Fourth Edition, with Notes by Eaton Hodg-
kinson, F.R.S. London: John Weale, 1842.

Tkedgold's work on Cast Iron has long been admitted to be the
best work upon the subject, and most deservedly has it maintained its
rank for the accuracy of the tables. It is, therefore, quite unnecessary
for as now to enter into the merits of the work before us. In
bringing forward a new edition, Mr. Weale has done well in selecting
an individual so eminent as Mr. Hodgkinson, for the purpose of editing
it. He is well known for tiie many important experiments which he
has made on iron, nnd which are published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society, British Association, &c., all of which we hope to see ia
the second volume of this work. When this second volume appears,
we shall not fail to notice both volumes very fully.

KIDDERMINSTER NEW CHURCH.

Sir — My attention has just been called to a letter in your journal of
this month, by Mr. Wardell, strongly animadverting upon the proceed-
ings of the Building Committee, in reference to the new church at
Kidderminster, charging them with disgraceful chicanery in their
mode of discharging their duties, and intimating that they never
intended to act impartially between the competing architects.

Now, Sir, my plan being that originally and unanimously chosen as
the best among all the other competitors, and as its eventual rejectioD
by the Committee on the ground of its excess over the stipulated
estimate in a great measure caused the unusual delay Mr. W. com-
plains of, perhaps you will allow me very briefly to state the facts as
they occurred, which, when fairly considered, place the impartiality
of the Committee's intentions beyond all doubt. I may add that the
fact cf my plan having been originally chosen, and subsequently to my
deep regret relinquished, renders me at all events an unexceptionable
witness to the honour and the integrity of the Committee.

The designs were sent in on the 21st of December last: ten days
afterwards mv plan was pronounced the best, and I was empowered
to make out working drawings, with the understanding that the final
adoption of the design was to depend upon the estimate not exceeding
the advertised sura. I can truly testify, that in this stage of the
business, in the interviews I had with the Committee, nothing ap-
peared more constantly before their minds than the desire to act fairly
and impartiallvto all; and when it is remembered that their respected
chairman was the Rev, T. L. Claughten, the vicar, quite a sufficient
guarantee is afforded that nothing unfair would be either attempted or
practised.

I was allowed a month to prepare working drawings. They were
sent in Feb. 4th, and tenders from builders were advertised for in the
Worcestershire papers, to be forwarded by the 1st of March. The
opening of these tenders showed a considerable excess in the estimate,
and the Committee, in consequence, very reluctantly felt themselves
under the necessity of relinquishing my design — a proceeding of
which I could not reasonably complain, however much I might regret
it, since it was only in pursuance of an arrangement to which I had
been a party. Three other designs having been chosen with mine,
and Mr. Alexander's standing second, that gentleman was next elected;
and as, upon the receipt of the tenders on the 18th of April last, the
estimate came within the £3000, Mr. Alexander was appointed as
the architect to the church.

These, Sir, are the simple facts of the case, and your readers will,
I think, see that there is nij foundation whatever for the insinuations
of Mr. Wardell. I do not undertake to say that the Committee were
altogether justified in keeping the drawings of the whole body of the
competitors 15 weeks without any explanation till they made their
final decision, but I only desire to assert, which I do from actual know-
ledge, that the strictest imijartiality governed their proceedings, and
that their uniform aim was to do justice to all, and give undue
preference to none.

I am afraid this letter will hardly reach you in time for your July

2 L

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

23S

number; b.U as its object is to vindicate a body of gentlenien as I
think unjustly ^ittackc-d, I trust ycu may be able to find space for it.
I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

251, 0.rford-ilrecl. Frkdekick Fkaxcij.

P^ I have said notbinsr about Ibe possibility or Prudence of
,tteraptinatobuilda|!0o^ cburch to bold 1-200 persons for iSOOO :
that is another question, irrelevant to the present correspondence.

rWe have also received a letter from Messrs. Starkey and Cuffley,
of Manchester, on the same subject, who were competitors. 1 liey
likewise confirm the impartial decision of the Committee.— t^lTOR.J

ROYAL ACADEMY EXHIBITION.

SlR-Under an impression that any incident, however trifling, con-
nected vvith the publicity of architectural works may be usefu to
Lme of your read'ers, and not uninteresting to any, I offer for insertion
in vour next Journal the following facts. , , . . i,:„i.

At tbe usual time for sending in pictures and drawings from which
to select for the public Exhibition of this year, a perspective view ot
In e -teL ve vilU^vhich has recently been erected and universally
adni^dforits picturesque effect, was forwarded by ^^^^^^
from a distant county , and in due time reported to be admitted During
the season the architect himself, being in London, searched in.ain
or tWs drawing in the Exhibition room; and in "P'y « a 0--^^-/
iDQuirv into the cause of its omission, was led to a back staircase,
whe efamong manv others, he recognised h\sadvuUeddrawn,g quietly
Tenosin-^n a'corner, and having on its frame the marks of the cramps
bv wl icli ictures are usuallv athxed to the walls, proving, of course,
tLrluiad' actually been hung np. The only -P -^l^.l^'that " in
be obtained of this mystery was contained in V'"'"',. '^'^w^i ad bee"
conseauenee of the unusually great number of works that bad been

eTu^" inio^siblefor the- Lmmittee "f Arrangement with ever^
wish to do justice to tbe author's talents, to find a place for his
Sure"" H certainlv is neither a miniature nor a portrait, any more
tllanNo. ^m, Pickjord's IVautwuses .' which I suppose is mcani for

an architectural subject!

I am, sir,
Your obedient servant,
]6M Jn„c, 1H42. The Architect.

and Mr. Siblev, which, were modelled by J. E. Jones, in which ^lowever ,
so much talent was displaved, that he has little cause to be d,st
;essed t any comparison, especially as we learn that he has hitherto
aboured witi; amat'eur love of the art of "-'''^''•"£■^6 P,^ ^^^^J
allv a Civil Engineer. The principal model room wash illiantU iigUtea
bv Faraday's light, the same as that which illuminated the Jhrone-room
a the Queen'sfat; fete. Defries exhibited his >"g,^"!7^,'^T g- ™ete
in the same room, and the other rooms we,e ''S'-'^'i^^by WiUuns s
dioptric lamps, and Cross and Blackwell's improvement upon Palmer s

''The'aTendance of the Council and Members of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, and also the Architects, was very numerous ; there was
also a viry large number of visitors, many of theni of high rank and
disanction. The Duke of Wellington, we observed, made a complete
circuit of the rooms, and examined every |,l-^g -'^ rtt C'uis
Among the distinguished visitors we noticed P='^'''^"''^^'[']'>V3r
of Northampton, the Earl of Devon, Lords Bexley, Lowtber,
Mounteagle, Blaney, Baron Rolfe, &c.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS,

Mr Walker, the President of the Institution of C.vil Engineers,
eave his annua conversazione, on Saturday evening 4th ultimo, and
fs usual in addition to a most hospitable reception and pod ^ire
suppUed ample food for curiosity by a remarkably well selected
coUection of works of art, and models of machinery, all of which ou
iTmits will not permit us to particularize. The Admiralty, with
brcomig liberally, sent several of their beautiful models of men-of-
war si "ling ihesnperwnly of the mode of construction introduced
by Sir William Symonds, and his talented assistant Mr. Edye ; nea
these were appropriately placed a coUection of models of improved
marTne engine^s, by Maailays and Field, Miller Seaward and Fair-
buri From among the multitude of other models may be selected
Dockrav's self-acting signal for Railways ; mallets for raising ships ;
fhe Sn Ligl bo^use.V Messrs. Walker and Burgess, bridges by
Gravatt^Roe's%rrangements for cleansing sewers; Captain Reid s
wa?er.wlieel,01dham's machine for numbenngbank notes. Cheverton's

rechanicat carvings in ivory, and Braithwaite's pressed carvings in

wo d exhibited ti close alliance existing between the fine and

mechanical arts. Dent's astronomical clock, made for the Emperor

S- Russia, and that with Professor Airy's new escapemen , attrac ed

Ich UtenUon, as did also the models of Wilton Churc^i, and the

Sambrdge Courts by Salter, from the designs of Wyatt and Brandon ;

■«d that of Railton's, Nelson Memorial Column, with he simple and

niechancally contrived scaffolding, with wliich GrisscU and Peto are

"ow erecting it. A bugle horn covered with platinum by >"eans of

M Ruolz's eLtro-galvanic process, showed a very successful substitu-

tion of a chemical for a mechanical process. First among the

specimens of the fine arts, must be P'-«^d ^'^ "f Sed sket'ch";

tiful engraving of Miss Power. Some portfolios of spirited sketches

by Nixfn, and bv Oliver and Tathams, Bailey's busts of Fusel. ; and

Stoddart and his model group of charity of course were ad,n.rable and

it was scarcely fair to place so near them the busts of the President

ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER FROM THE CHALK BASIN.
This question has assumed such a decided character of P'tizanship that
we cannot allow it to remain any longer unnoticed, particulailv af ei the
Accent exhibition of misstatements, garbled reports, and ^"PPrf'Sed fact^
AVe hall h^ month confine ourselves to the publication of the valuable
report be ngtirsecond, bv Mr. llobert Stephenson to the D"^'^'"^ » *«
prrposedCo'uipany for Supplying the metropolis with tlie pure acrt^u on-
taminated snrine water from the chalk basm ; and m our next number we
:hrenter't^";^into an examination of this -Por^-t qu-t,on. and expose
the fallacious representations that have been issued to the public.
Mr. Stephenson's Second Report.
In ,av former report (see Jounial, Vol. IV, p. 1,) I endeavoured at some
leiWh to expkin the views which presented themselves to me, durmg an
■xamination of he experiments made near Watford, for the purpose of ascer-
"nh gt "l°at xtenl the metropolis might be supplied with -ter froni tha^
ei.hbourbood, bv means of sinking shafts into the chalk formation below
Ihe eve of the v'alley of the Colue. In addition to a mere statement of the
resu deemed it neeessarv to point out some peculiar ties which 1 con-

Sved the chS forniation to possess, and which rendered it, in my opinion,
vvell calculated for yielding: a steady and .abundant supply- _-

Since the publication of these views, I have lost no opportunitj of care uuy
studvinV he remarks which have been made, and the objections which have
been ur^ed against the positions I then established as the basis of my opunons.
Some°of tire replii to mv report have assumed the form of pamplets,
which separately I 1 ave not time, even if I had the inchnatiou, to .answer;
hut in now hv UK before you the results of the further inquiries, which at
th re°:f r^ fas. repor\ 1 suggested should he undertaken to confi.cn or
refute mv opinions, I am necessarily led to notice such of the statements as
annear^alculated, eitlier by the authority from which they emanate or the
pEilS with which they are adduced, to atfect the views I had taken, or
the conclusions which I had drawn from tliera. „^^,„^. „.:.„, . ^^^

Amongst the assailants of my opinions, are some a"°">"f*V.I e vi'ntase
though I feel that such a mode of attack places opponents on the vantage
Iround inasmuch as thev possess the privilege of makui? statements totally
fn™p;table tMhe matter'at issue, or calculated to lead to f^l^-^n.^oucln^
sion without subjecting themselves to any responsibilit> ; "^^rtherless in
he nVrsent report I am bound to overlook the motives by which it may be
suDDOsed" ome of mv opponents are actuated, and wldle I acquiesce in such
of thefr objections al appear well founded, to repel those which are either
fnapScabl^ or contradicted by circumstances vvhich have come under my

°The"prmplfre't which claims mv first attention is from the pen of Mr.
Web^ erTnd Igi'e H this preference for two reasons ; the first, because Mr.
Web te 's name is one of repute in the scientific world, and whose researches
during the early advances of geology in this country, greatly extended the
knowledge of the cent formations of our Island; and the second, because
H strikes at the very root of the opinions I endeavoured tc. expound u my
firm r report. Both his name, therefore, and t;,e wide and essential differ
encTin our views, suggest the propriety of selecting 1"^ Pamphkt to f^ee
and unreserved discussion; for if his statement be consistent with exismg
Lets, the opinions which I have advanced must be erroneous, and farther
consideration of your project entirely useless. j„,,;„„ ,i,p stratum

Mr. Webster denies, emphatically, that the chalk .r''^:'" '"Li Juce th^
of London clay is tbe '• great water-bearing stratum, ^"<' ;°" "^^^^^'^^Xs
inference, that 1 had mistaken the true source of ^I'PPjy '° ^'^^.^ i e
Artesian wells which are sunk in the metropolis and its ""S ';~i,rly on
seems to arrive at this conclusion, from my not l>«""g/^^^" ["'Xtk ^^^^
the " sand and plastic clay stratum," which reposes betv. en he chalk and
London clav ; whereas I consider the stratum to which he alludes not tne
n^grcat watc;-beariug stratum," but merely a subordinate member of that
which mav be so called.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

239

Both the chalk and sand are extremely porous, and there can be no ques-
tion that each of the "belts" of country occupied by their outcrops con-
tributes alilic its share to the supply of the great reservoir of water
covereiP by the London clay.

In the construction of Artesian wells in or about London it is obvious,
therefore, that the supply docs not come immediately from the plastic clay
sands ; hut this does not militate against my conclusion, that the reservoir
formed by these sands is supplied principally by the absorption of rain,
through the medium of the chalk, which occupies far more extensive areas
than tlie plastic clay sands, and consequently possesses (even though it may
not be so porous as sand) infinitely greater powers of absorption.

Mr. Webster tlien proceeds to state, that where wells are sunk through
the London clay into the chalk, the water which the latter yields is most
probably derived from the water-bearing stratum " above it.

That this was the case in the Ilampstead-road well (the instance quoted
by Mr. Webster), I am not prepared to deny, though I much doubt the fact ;
but it cannot be considered conclusive against the supposition of chalk being
extremely porous and absorbent, especially as innumerable examples may be
referred to in every district occupied by the chalk, as incontestable evidence
in its justification ; moreover, many instances exist, even in London, where the
supply of water to wells sunk to the plastic clay sands having proved insufficient,
it has'become necessarj-to sink them into the chalk, when an increased supply
has been invariably procured ; for example, in the wells at Messrs. Meux and
Keid's breweries, at those at Greenwich Hospital, and Mr. Nicholson's dis-
tillery, the necessity has arisen, and been met successfully by such a process.
And since no particulars can possibly be given of the sinking into the chalk
in the Ilampstead-road well, no general inference as to the contents and
capacity of that formation should be drawn from it, more especially as other
examples, upon a much larger scale, such as those above mentioned, may be
quoted to prove that an augmentation in the feeders is immediately consequent
upon penetrating the chalk below the sands.

I am well acquainted with the chalk district between Watford and Tring,
and it having devolved upon me, in the course of my connexion with the
London and Birmingham Railway, to sink a great number of wells in the
chalk, my attention has been particularly called to the extraordinary quantity
of water existing in the chalk immediately below the level of the natural
drainage of the country — that is, of the adjoining streams, and I was at the
same time struck with the conformity apparent between the surface of the
subterranean reservoir of water and the natural surface of the country.

The evidence which the valley from Watford to Tring affords in reference
to this point, is replete with interest, for it establishes beyond all question
that the water absorbed by the chalk is held up to a very high level towards
the edge of the basin ; indeed, there is sufiicient evidence in the district just
mentioned to prove that the surface of the water absorbed by the chalk
assumes an inclination corresponding almost exactly with tlie declivity of the
valley by which tlie district is drained. Thus, near Watford and in the vicinity
of the river Colne, all the wells require to be sunk to the level of the Colne
before the supply of water is obtained ; but as we proceed up the valley
towards Boxmoor, Bcrkhampstead, and Tring, water is procured at levels
corresponding strikingly with the inclination of the valley, far above the
levels of the water in the wells at Watford.

The Tring cutting on the London and Birmingham Railway presents
another forcible example of the constant and rapid absorption of water by
the chalk. In the execution of that cutting a very large quantity of water
was encountered, notwithstanding the situation was on the summit of the
chalk ridge, forming the actual l)rlm of the basin, where it could not be
supplied with any water but such as fell upon the immediate neighbourhood,
yet it yielded upwards of one million gallons per day, and continues to
yield an extraordinarj- quantity up to this hour, without any sensible dimi-
nution.

This is surely incontrovertible evidence that the chalk absorbs water witli
the utmost facility, and as a consequence, when the levels are suitable,
readily yields it up again. It may not be uninteresting to add, that previously
to this work being commenced, attempts were made to sink wells to test the
material from the surface of the land to the intended ilepth of the cutting;
hut so freely did the water flow from the chalk, that it was found impossible
to sink several of them by ordinary means to tlie deptli of 60 ft. Similar
results have followed all experiments of this kind which I have witnessed,
and those who are best acquainted with the sinking of wells throughout dis-
tricts occupied by the chalk formation, concur in the opinion that it should
be regarded as an enormous mass of rod saturated trith water, which it
yields with the utmost rapidity, by the action of a very small hydrostatic
pressure.

I might here enter into a minute detail of the levels of the wells sunk in
the districts occupied by chalk, which have come under niyoliservation, were
I disposed to extend this report to an unusual length ; but I beheve it will
be more satisfactory to the committee that I should allude to the results
which have been laid before me by the gentlemen who were deputed by me
to examine waterworks, which are known to derive their supply entirely
from such wells ; with this impression, therefore, I transcribe the following
extracts from the reports which have been placed before me : —

WiNciiESTEu. — This town is at present supphed by wells. There is a well
that has lately been sunk on the hill, near the barracks, entirely through
chalk, to the depth of 170 ft. ; near the bottom there are fissures, out of
which the water rushes with considerable TioUnce ; the water rises about

10 ft., and after pumping for seven hours successively, it is reduced 2 ft_ ,
but immediately the pumps stop working it rises again to the same height i n
15 minutes.

The water is raised by the aid of an 8-horse engine working a 6-inch
pump, 2 ft. stroke, and from 18 to 22 strokes per minute ; at 18 strokes per
minute the pump lifts 44 gallons, or 31,680 gallons per 12 hours.

At the railway station there is another well sunk in the chalk, to the depth
of 80 ft. ; at Christmas time there was about 4 ft. of water, and in April
about 12 to 14 ft. In October, a month when the springs are generally low,
the engine was kept constantly at work, day and night, for 4 or j weeks, and
could not lower the water beyond 2 ft. from the bottom. In July, last year,
after working the pump for an hour and a half, the water could not be
lowered more 18 inches. The quantity the pump lifts is the same as described
above. The engineer never knew a deficiency.

Through the town of Winchester there is a very fine stream of water,
which rises from the chalk hills.

I was informed, at Winchester, that at Sir William Heathcote's seat at
Merdon Farm there is a well in the chalk, 331 ft. deep; the water appears
to pass across it like a river, with a rapid current.

Sir Thomas Baring, at his seat at Stratton Park, has sunk a well in the
chalk, and is now having a steam engine erected for lifting the water to
supply his estate and mansion.

Arundel. — There is a well at the bottom of the town, which supplies
nearly the whole of the inhabitants of that portion. It is stated to be only
20 ft. deep, sunk in the chalk ; a deficiency has never been known.

The upper part of the town and the castle are supplied from a spring,
which rises from the chalk in the valley, on the south-west side of the town,
where there is always an abundance.

Brighton. — The whole of this town is supplied with water obtained from
the chalk, either by wells or from the water-works. The water-works are
situated about a mile from the town, on the Lewes road, adjoining the
barracks. The surface of the ground at the well is 64 ft. above high water
mark. A well has been sunk to the depth of 97 ft. ; at 16 ft. above the
bottom there are four adits driven in from the sides of the well, to the extent
of 46 ft. each, and about 6 ft. square ; they are driven north, south, east,
and west ; the water flows into these adits from fissures in the chalk, in very
considerable quantities, and appeared to flow towards the sea.

The water rises to difler,«:nt heights at various periods of the year ; it has
been as low as 58 ft. 6 in. from the surface, or 38 ft. 6 in. of water, and as
high as within 8 ft. 10 in. of the surface. In the present month of April,
when I viewed the works, before the engine commenced working, it stood at
31 ft. below the surface, or 66 ft. of water, and after the pumps had been
working 12 hours, the water was lowered 2 ft. 9 in. ; it will regain that quan-
tity in a very' short time after the pumps have ceased working.

The water is lifted by an engine of 20-horse power, working three pumps
8} in. diameter, and three pumps 8,i ill. diameter, both 18-inch stroke, and
1.") strokes per minute, lifting together 231,840 gallons per 12 hours, the time
the engine works daily, Sundays excepted.

Previously to the Company being formed, there was a strong opposition in
the town, and a cry that " all the wells would be dried up," but since the
works have been in operation, there has not been a single complaint. The
only well that was effected was one close to the works in the barrack yard :
this well has been lowered a few leet, and no complaints of want of water
have arisen since then.

The supply at present is to about an eighth part of the town, besides for
watering tlie streets, and it is daily increasing. The quantity is amply suffi-
cient for the whole lown. When the springs were low in June, 1840, the
six pumps were kept working day and night, for eight days, when the water
could not be lowered more than 12 ft.

The pumps are fixed in the well in such a manner that either set can be
raised or lowered, according to the height of the water in the well. There
are two rising mains 9 in. diameter, (one to each set of pumps,) and an
air-vessel, 4 ft. diameter, C ft. high ; tlie delivery-pipe from tlie air-vessel is
12 in. diameter ; near the exit it is furnished with an air-valve and a steelyard
lever, loaded witii about 80 lb. The water is conveyed througli a 12-inch
main, about a mile in length, to the reservoir, the bottom of wbirh is 113ft.
above the top of the well, and the surface 120 ft. The water is crmveyed
from the reservoir by a 10-inch main to supply the eastern part of the town,
and a 12-incb main, to the old Stein, then 10 in.; there are branch mains,
from 5 to 10 in. diameter ; the service-pipes vary from 2 to 5 in. diameter.

Dover. — This town is entirely supphed with water from wells sunk in the
chalk, and from the water-works' at the lower level of the towns in Mr. Wal-
ker's vard, where there is a well sunk in the chalk lielowthe clift"; the surface
is 10 ft. above high water mark, the depth is 33 ft. 6 in., and the diameter
12 to 13 ft.; it is a tidal well; when high water, there is about 10 ft. of
water, and at low water, 3 ft. The water is lifted by the aid of a 25.horse
engine working two pumps, 8 and 9 in. diameter. 3 ft. 6 in., and 3 ft. stroke,
and 18 to 20 strokes per minute; at the rate of 20 strokes they lift 317
gallons per minute, or 228,240 gallons in 12 hours; the water is lifted 160 ft.
to the top of a tank.

This well supplies about 50,000 gallons jicr diem. There is another supply
obtained at the gas-works, lifted hy the aid of a two-horse engine.

Deal and Walmer. — Water-works have been lately erected about a mile
to the west of Deal, which obtain their supply from a well 120 ft. deep and
6 ft. diameter, the surface beiug 90 ft. above low water mark ; there is 16 ft.

2 L 2

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUAY,

of water standing above the bottom; there are two wells, one 110 ft. deep
and the other 120 ft., which are connected together by a tunnel driven from
within 4 or 5 ft. of the bottom of the deeper well to the bottom of the
other ; from this tunnel a verj- copious sujiply is ohtaiuc'l at all times ; after
10 hours' successive pumping the water is lowered 10 ft., and regains it after
the pumps have ceased working in three hours.

The water is raised by the aid of an 8-norse engine, working two 8-inch
pumps, 22-inch stroke, and 20 strokes per minute, liftii-.g 160 gallons per
minute, or ll.'>,200 gallons in 12 hours. There is a well within 120 yards
of the above wells belonging to the mill, 90 ft. deep, which has never been
effected by the pumping at the above works.

I'amsgate. — This town is entirely supplied by wells in the chalk, and
water-works ; principally, however, from tlie latter, which obtain their supply
ftom a well sunk in the chalk, the surface of which is 177 ft. above high
water mark ; the depth is 183 ft., of an oval shape, 9 and 6 ft. diameter ;
the lower 25 ft. is enlarged to 25 ft. diameter, from the sides of which there
are two tunnels, one 42 ft. long, and the other 25 ft., which supply an abun-
dance of water, issuing from fissures in the chalk ; there is generally 20 ft.
of water, which is reduced to 16 ft. after the engines have been working 12
hours. The water is raised by means of a 12-borse engine, working two
14-inch pumps in two lifts, 24-inch stroke, and 16 per minute, which lift
224 gallons per miuute, or 153,720 gallons per 12 hours. There is also a
smaller engine of 6-horse power, working two 9-inch pumps occasionally.
The large engines are worked three days per week. The water-works supply
about 700 houses, two or three breweries, malthouses, and shipping; a de-
ficiency has never been known. There is a well belonging to a cottage within
100 yards of the above well, and 160 ft. deep, which has never been affected
since the works have been erected, nor has there been a single complaint in
the town.

The water is raised into an open reservoir near the engine-house, and con-
veyed by a 9-incb main the distance of IJ miles to the town.

Cantebbhry. — This city is principally supplied from wells sunk in the
chalk.

Gravesend. — This town is supplied by a well sunk in the chalk, and also
by water-works near Windmill Hill, where there is a well sunk entirely in
the chalk, 138 ft. deep ; at the bottom there is a tunnel from which the
springs issue ; the water is raised by the aid of an 8-horse engine, working
two 12-inch pumps, 24-inch stroke, and 10 strokes per minute, which is
195 gallons per minute, or 140,000 gallons per 12 hours.

About four years ago an action was brought against the Water-works
Company by the proprietor of a well in the vicinity of the works, for a sup-
posed injury. Tlie proprietor alleged that his well was affected when the
engine was working, and shortened his sujiply. The case was referred to a
barrister, who examined several engineers and others, whose evidence was so
contradictory that he made a personal e.^amioation on tlie spot : after sealing
down the cover of the well, the engines were kept working, under his direc-
tions for a certain length of time ; and after the time was conchided, the well
"was again examined. Subsequently the barrister decided in favour of the
company. I have not yet been able to obtain the precise particulars of the
inquiry, hut the above statement shows that the barrister did not consider
that the well was affected.

Nearly 40 years since a speculation was commenced, to make a tunnel
under the Thames at Gravesend. A shaft was dug, and a powerful steam
engine erected, a little to the westward of the gas-works, under the superin-
tendence of Mr. Uodd, the engineer. After an expenditure of several
thousand pounds, it was found impossible to get rid of the water. The
stratum was chalk. The water was perfectly fresh, although the river water
in this part of the Thames is brackish.

St. Albans. — This town is supplied by wells sunk in the chalk, and by
water-works which obtain their supply from a well sunk in the chalk to the
depth of 1G3 ft. The water rises to the height of 19 ft., and is raised by the
aid of a steam engine of 8-horse power, working a 5-5-in-b double acting
pump, 24-inch stroke, and 20 strokes per raiunte, which lifts 82 gallons per
minute, or 59,040 gallons per 12 hours. After pumping that period, the
water is reduced to 9 ft. In the immediate neighhourliood of the viorks
there are several wells, one within 20 ft., none of which were ever affected
by the pumping of the above engine.

The above extracts from reiiorts made by gentlemen who visited the various
places, must, I am persuaded, go far to satisfy the most sceptical that the
chalk formation is everywhere ahundanlly charged with water; they in fact
demonstrate, that many very important towns are at this moment actually
deriving their supply from that rock which Mr. Webster denies to be a water-
bearing stratum ; and whilst reflecting on this fact, it should not be forgotten
that, in all the instances just alluded to, no resources beyond small wells and
a few short drifts were required to afford supplies which should not be
regarded as inconsiderable, more especially when connected with a statement
that water cannot be obtained abundantly from the chalk formation.

I cannot, however, content myself with extracts from reports made by
parties who may be supposed to be prejudiced in favour of the project with
which they are connected. I must, therefore, insert a few passages from
"Conybeare and Phillip's Geology," — a work, whether we regard it as de-
scriptive of the state of geological science at the period of its publication, or
as a record of an extraordinary mass of practical facts intimately connected
with the science, alike deserving admiration.

In speaking of the chalk formation, tliey say —

The ower beds H t x chalk formation and every fissure, are, with few

exceptions, completely filled with water. All the rain and snow which fall
upon chalk percolate downwards to the base, where the water is stopped by
a sub-soil of blue clay, and that occasions it to accumulate in Wie chalk,
until it rises to such a height as doth enable it to flow over the surface of
the adjoining land."

" Id this manner are formed the springs and rivulets which issue near the
foot of every chalk hill."

These are the observations and conclusions acquiesced in by parties who
were influenced solely by the investigation of truth. They were not swayed
by any particular bias ; their opinion cannot be supposed to be affected by
one motive beyond those which science demands.

Having, therefore, I trust, satisfactorily proved that the chalk abounds with
water, ii will naturally be expected that I should meet the question of
quantity; for upon this some of my anonymous assailants establish their
case, not, I must confess, without a show of probability, provided we admit
that what has not hitherto been done is impracticable.

I grant, at once, that the quantity of water — viz., 8.000,000 gallons per
diem, which it is now proposed to raise from a shaft or shafts sunk in the
chalk, has no precise precedent ; but, surely, this admission is no argument
against the possibility ; on the contrary, I hold that the fair deduction from
the above record of facts is, that ttiis or a m^ich targrr mtpply may be
ol/taiiifd from the chalk, from prosecuting the sinking of shafts much deeper
than has hitherto been attempted, together with the extension of horizontal
driftways from the bottom of the shafts.

On mentioning the horizontal driftways, it is perhaps unnecessary to reply
specifically to Mr. Webster's observations on this expedient for procuring an
increased supply ; for when he speaks of " groping" in the dark for water,
it is obvious that he is unacquainted both with mining and with the precise
nature of the construction of the chalk rock, and particularly in reference
to the character of the fissures which intersect its mass in every possible di-
rection— sometimes, it is true, more in one direction than another — easily,
however, determinable by observation.

Mr. Webster playfully opens his remarks by observing that "Many are old
in years, yet young in geology." This assertion I will not attempt to dispute,
but state another, which I hope Mr. Webster will as readily concede — viz.,
" Some are old in years, yet young in mining." When Mr. Webster has
spent as much of his time underground as I have done, and not till then,
will he understand the exact truth of this remark. I will not permit myself,
however, in this place to make any remark in disparagement of Mr. Webster,
as I am convinced any observation of a personal nature never, in a question
of this sort, can be substituted with propriety, for sound arguments or fair
deduction.

With respect to the extent of supply, therefore, 1 would at once refer to
every mining district in this or any other country. Can we look at Cornwall
(when considering the matter in reference to the supply of water from chalk,
as a rock abounding with water,) without concluding at once that increasing
the depth of our shafts beyond those examples already quoted would be
attended by a prodigious augmentation in the flow of water to the well. The
extension of the under-ground workings of a mine, and the concomitant
increase in the supply of water, are equally calculated to bring to the mind
the overpowering conviction, that similar results would inevitably follow
the adoption of deeper shafts and a more extended system of drifts than
have hitherto been attempted in the chalk. To minds unhabituated to such
consideration, these general allusions to mines may not present the same
conviction; but to the experienced miner, I am persuaded the conclusions I
have drawn from the facts (exhibited by the wells suuk in the clalk near
Watford and elsewheie) will appear as necessary consequences.

It was my wish, in this Report, to have cited some well-authenticated
particulars relative to the quantity of water raised from mines in different
parts of this country, believing that they would have borne out my views in
the strongest possible way; but on pursuing my inquiries upon this subject,
I found that I could only arrive at general results, for it unfortunately happens
that accurate records, in a shape calculated to be of value, are not kept in
the various mining districts. In Cornwall, however, this remark does not
apply so forcibly, for a precise record of the performances of all the pumping
engines employed in draining the mines is published in " Lean's Monthl)
Reports."

From these Reports it is ascertained that upwards of thirty milUons of
gallons of water are daily raised from great depths to the surface, and from
the consolidated and united mines alone, the daily quantity exceeds 54
millions of gallons.

There c;.n be no doubt that, were similar records kept of the quantity of
water raised to the surface in other mining districts of this country, that
results equally if not more striking would he exhibited, nor should we, in
the comparison, neglect to notice tlie fact that, unlike the chalk, the primary
strata of Cornwall in which the mines are suuk possess but limited channels
for the free communication of the water.

These allusions to the mining districts may he deemed, perhaps, by some,
as altogether irrelevant and inapplicable to the point under consideration,
since the shafts are scattered over an extensive space of country. This is
certainly true when we speak of Cornwall ; but the objection is to a certain
degree obviated by specific allusion to the consolidated mines, and I can for-
tunately advert to another ease, respecting the quantity of water which may
be obtained from one or two shafts — an instance which, I think, must be
considered unequivocal.

In the county of Durham two shafts within a few yards of one anothe .

1842.]

THE CIA^IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

241

are now in process of being sunk for the purpose of a coal-pit. They have
encountered a stratum of sand lying between the magnesian limestone and
the coal formation, abounding with water to an extraordinary degree. For
some mouths past, and up to the present moment, more than 10,000 gallons
per minute, or 14,000,000 per 24 hours, have been pumped from the stratum
of sand crossing these two shafts.

Here, then, surely we have an instance which proves the practicability of
obtaining, within a small space, a much greater quantity of water than is
sought for, or calculated upon, from the proposed shafts in the chalk.

It is probable that some may be found to urge that, even here, the cases
are not absolutely parallel, the water in the one instance being drawn from
sand, and in the other from chalk ; but I would ask when we connect this
case of quantity with those already n)entii)nc<i as actually existing in the
ciialk, (for example, at Brighton,) can any reasonable doubt be entertained
that a supply, up to the amount of 10,000 gallons per minute, or more, may
may be obtained from the chalk by the adoption of the means I have
proposed ?

Having, I believe without-prejudice, most carefully weighed these and all
other facts wliich have come before me relative to this matter, I have mil//
to add, that I am perfectly convinced of t he feasibility of ttie proposed plan,
as far as regards quantity.

.4nd now I beg to relinquish this part of the subject, and proceed to
another, which will, doubtless, form one of the chief features in the oppo-
sition which you will encounter in laying your prigect before Parliament — I
allude to the question whether such a quantity of water as you contemplate
sending to the metropolis can be drawn from the chalk without injuriously
affecting local interests ?

That part of my former Report bearing upon this point was vehemently
called in question by the Rev. Mr. Clutterbuck, of Watford; and as he and
his relatives possess property in the neighbourhood of tbat i)lace, 1 con-
sidered it my duty to recommend the Committee to allow Mr. Clutterbuck
to suggest any experiments which he conceived were calculated to decide
whether the views I entertained were correct or incorrect.

For this purpose, he suggested that the steam-engines at the experimental
■works near Watford should be kept at work without intermission for three
days and nights ; that previously to the pumping being commenced the levels
of the water standing in all the adjoining wells should be accurately ascer-
tained ; that these levels should at proper intervals be again measured, for
the purpose of detecting any change which might take place during the
process of pumping.

I readily acquiesced in every suggestion which I thought calculated to allay
those apprehensions Mr. Clutterbuck and others needlessly entertained.
Accordingly, on the 3rd day of March, 1841, the necessary preliminary
measurements having been made, the engines were set to work, and, at the
close of the experiment, not one of the levels of the different wells was
found to corroborate the objections of Mr. Clutterbuck ; so far from it,
-there was no perceptible difference in any one of them.

It is only reasonable to exp.'ct that an experiment of this kind, undertaken
expressly for Mr. ClutterbuckS satisfaction, and, as it were, under his own
direction, would have enabled him to remove from his mind any impressions
S3 to the injurious consequences which be had anticipated would result from
the establishment of waler-nnrks in the immediate neighbourhood of his
property ; on the contrary, he adheres to his preconceived opinions, instead
of deducing the most simple, obvious, and only rational conclusions from the
facts developed by the experiment made at his own suggestion.

He addresses a letter to Sir John Sebright, in which he studiously avoids
all detail of the experiment made at his express wish, and during which
several parties were associated with him in taking the measurements, and
brings forward other measurements, and observations made by himself atone,
at some prior period, during the sinking of the shafts, when no regularity
existed in working the pumps. He never even alludes to the wells in tlie
town of Watford, some of which he measured with myself; he does not
admit that those levels were taken with a confident anticipation on his part,
that they would be instantly lowered when the pumping commenced. He
makes no mention of the disappointment on finding, after three days' inces-
sant pumping, that those levels were in no degree affected; he makes no allusion
to any one of these circumstances or results that so completely negatived his
previous positions, and which would have carried couviclion home to the
mind of any unbiassed inquirer after truth ; but he proceeds disingenuously
to select various levels of wells, taken by him at a distance of several miles
from Watford, where it was quite impossible the influence of pumping could
extend ; yet all the variation of level in the distant wells he deliberately
attributes to the pumping, willtout making the slightest effort to reconcile
the discrepancies which would have Ijeen apparent, had be candidly recorded
the results of the experiments to which I have already previously alluded.
Finding, in fact, that the wells in the immediate vicinity would not tally with
tis notions, he calls in the aid of distant wells, where the levels, according
to his own showing, were so capricious that anomalies constantly presented
themselves, and in the end he adopted a theory at variance with all hydro-
statical laws. To discuss it would really be a waste of time, and I think I
shall be justified in treating it thus summarily, by stating that it follows
from his theory, that pumping at any point in the chalk is not so likely to
affect the neighbouring as the distant wells ; and so distinctly is this the
tendency of his theory, that he gives a diagram where the level of the water
in the clialk is shown to be influenced to a far greater extent at fifteen miles
than at one mile dLstant. Previously to the experiment being made at Mr.

Clutterbuck's request. I fully explained to him the circumstances which had
led me to entertain views so diametrically opposed to his own ; I explained,
in the most particular manner, that those opinions were forced upon me by a
long series of observations which could not be called in qnestion ; still he
never refers to the facts which 1 communicated to him. but finishes his letter
with an exposition of views totally irreconcilable with them. The series of
observations 1 have just meutioned were brought before me during the exe-
cution of the Kilsby Tunnel, on the London and I3iriuingham Railway, where an
extensive bed of quicksand was met with in the process of tunnelling. Before
any progress could be made, it was necessary to drain the sand of water, and
for this purpose several shafts were sunk and steam engines erected on the
line of tunnel. As the pumping progressed, the most careful measurements
were taken of the level at which the water stood in the various shafts aud
boreholes; and I was soon much surprised to find bow slightly the depression
of the water level in the one shaft influenced that of the other, notwith-
standing a free communication existed between them through the medium
of the sand, which was very coarse and open. It then occurred to me that
the resistance that the water encountered, in its passage through the sand to
the pumps, would be accurately measured by the angle or inclination which
the surface of the water assumed towards the pumjis, and tbat it would be
unnecessary to draw the whole of the water off from the quicksand, but to
persevere in pumping only in the precise level of the tunnel, allowing the
surface of the water flowing through the sand to assume that iiichnation
which was due to its resistance.

If this view were correct, it was evident that no extent of pumping what-
ever would have effected the complete drainage of the bed of sanil. To test
it, therefore, boreholes were put down at about 200 yards from the lino of
tunnel, when it was clear that, notwithstanding pumping had been going on
incessantly for twelve months, and for the latter six months of this period at
the rate of 1800 gallons per minute, the level of the water in the sand, at a
distance not exceeding 200 yards, had been scarcely reduced.

The simple result, therefore, of all the pumping was merely to establish
and mairttain a channel of comparatively dry sand in the immediate line of
the intended tunnel, leaving the water heaped up on each side by the resist-
ance which the sand oflfered to its descent to that line on which the pumps
and shafts were situated.

Observations of this description were continued for upwards of two years,
and it is upon them that I rest my views respecting the drainage of the
chalk, or any other porous stratum or mass, by means of pumps concentrated
at a focus ; indeed, when once suggested, it seems so self-evident that we may
with considerable confidence predict the results of any pumping operations,
under such circumstances as are found to exist in sand, chalk, or any rock
or material, presenting resistance to the free motion of the liquid flowing
through it. This resistance is unquestionably represented by the angle of
inclination which the surface of the water assumes, and this, again, is no
doubt much influenced by the size of the fragments of which the same may
consist, thus giving rise to a variety of modifications in the slope of water,
in difl'erent directions, from the focus of pumping.

If the above views be correct, and of which, supported as they are by
indisputable facts, there can be no admission of a doubt, it follows that the
result of pumping at a deep shaft, in chalk or other similar porous material,
would be the drainage of a portion of the district, represented by an inverted
cone, the point being at the bottom of the shaft ; the upper surface, or what
is generally designated the base of the cone, occupying an area depending on
the inclination which the fluid assumed in passing through such porous mass.
This inclination must vary with the character of the material, but in no chalk
that I have ever met with can it be inconsiderable ; consequently, from no
extent of pumping at any one point in a formation like chalk, can the influ-
ence be apparent at any great distance.

Before I commenced the above remarks, it was my intention to have
extended them into greater detail, hut I found that adducing abstract calcu-
lations would tend rather to obscure than to elucidate tbat which is really
clear and simple. I have, therefore, contented myself with such a statement
as will convey, I trust distinctly, my views, and the reasons upon which they
are based, and I am not without hope that the following facts are established
— viz. : —

1. That the chalk is the '• great water-bearing stratum" underlying the
London clay, and from which all the Artesian wells, directly or indirectly,
draw their supplies.

2. That below the level of its natural drainage of the country it is charged
with an enormous quantity of water, which may be obtained with extra-
ordinary facility by pumping.

3. Tbat the quantity obtainable from shafts is amply sufficient to meet the
object contemplated by the Company.

These facts established, it is scarcely possible to believe tbat any who are
interested in the supply of the metropolis with pure water will hesitate in
assisting you in carrying out your project, and I cannot conclude without
expressing an ardeut'wish that'the subject may he treated by alt parlies in a
Uberal and impartial spirit ; and I am persuaded tbat this new source of
supjily of water will soon be made available for the most important capital in
the world.

Robert Stephenson.

242

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

EXPERIMENTS ON FOUR WHEELED ENGINES.

All experiment has recently been made on the London and Birmingham
Railway, to show the safety of four wheeled engines when the fore-axle is
broken ; for this purpose the fore-axle of a four wheeled engine was cut nearly
through, and in tliis state, was sent from the station towards Koade; the fore-
axle broke in two as intended, at the point where it had been dividtd, hut
the occurrence had no apparent effect on the movement of the engine, which
continued its course till it reached Roade, when it was crossed from the
down to the up line, and returned in safety to Wolverton. On the following
day, the engine in precisely the same state started from WoKerton, with six
wagons of wheels and axles — making a gross load of thirty-two tons, exclu-
sive of engine and tender. With this load the engine attained a speed of
twenty-five miles per hour, and arrived safely at the Watford Station, distant
thirty-fo\ir miles. Soon after leaving Watford, and when it was again running
at a speed of twenty-five miles per hour, one of the front wheels slipped off
the rails, and the engine was delayed seven minutes until it was replaced.
The engine again proceeded towards London, but at about two miles beyond
the Harrow Station, where the line is on transverse sleepers, the wheels once
more slipped off the rails, and the engine, in that state, ran npwards of 200
yards before it was stopped. In twenty minutes it was again lifted on to the
rails, and started to Camden Town, where it arrived in safety before live
o'clock.

[The experiment is reported to be " highly satisfactory." Forourowu part
we cannot see what there is to make it so ** highly safiftfactnry ;" we view the
experiment in a very different light : what more serious evil can there be than
an engine running off the rails as in the above case ? Imagine an engine twice
off the rails within the distance of ten miles ! Suppose a similar accident had
occurred with any other engine and train, would the tools and the men have
been ready to replace the engine upon the rails within ten or twenty minutes
after the accident had happened .' and would the same precautions have been
taken and the same look-out for the avoidance of accident ? Let lis hear of
no more such mad-hrainen, hair-breadth experiments ; this one is quite
enough.]

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
G. B. AiRv, Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic

Variation.

Dip
at 9 A.M.

Dip
at 3 P.M.

1842. Mareh

April

23 10 39
23 11 0

68 27 J
68 40

o /

68 32
68 35

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

March 15. — The President in the Chair.

" Sesvriplion of the Iron Siew Bridge across the Regent's Canal, on the
Eastern Coiinties Railway." By Edward Dobson, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

This bridge is built with a direct span of .^)4 ft,, at an angle of 79° with
the centre line of the canal. The level of the rails is 1 1 ft. 6 in. above the
water, and it is constructed to have a water-way of 4 4 ft., with a clear head-
way of 10 ft. above the towing-path.

The dimensions of the severaj parts of the bridge and the mode of putting
tbem together, with the masonry and the cost of the construction, are de-
scribed in detail, and illustrated by an elaborate working drawing.

As an appendix to this paper a description is given of a bridge over the
same canal, on the line of the London and Birmingham Railway, on account
of the similarity of its construction. The span of this latter bridge is
50 ft., but being made for two double lines of rails, it was thought expedient
to have three main ribs instead of two, as in the former. The details of
construction of this bridge are also given, with a drawing of one of the main
ribs and its tie-bar.

" Remarks on the Ravages of the Worm (Teredo NavalisJ in Timber."
By Robert Davison, M. Inst. C.E.

This communication describes the ravages committed by the " Teredo

Navalis" upon the fir piles of the foundation': of the old bridge at Teign-
mouth, five arches of which, after having been built only 12 years, fell
suddenly ; the construction of a new bridge llius became necessary, and it is
now in progress nnder the direction of Messrs. W^alker and Burges. The
worm is described as entering the wood through a hole not larger than
a pin, and perforating the timber in all directions, but chiefly in the direc-
tion of the fibre, at the same time increasing the size of the holes even
sometimes to an inch diameter ; a few of the worms had been found of the
extraordinary length of 3 ft. They confine their operations between low-
water mark and tlie bottom of the river, show ing that they cannot exist out
of water.

A specimen of part of a log picked up off Jersey was as much perforated,
but ill a different manner, the worms having peuetr.ited the wood indiscrimi-
nately all over the surface ; in some cases leaving in the holes a coat
resembling the tail of a lobster about 3 in. in length, which showed that the
ravages had been committed by the " Lymnoria Terebrans."

The paper was also accompanied by a specimen of wood sheathing charged
with nails, from the bottom of a vessel believed to be about 100 years old,
together with some of the worms (" Teredo Navalis"), for the purpose of
showing the peculiar shape of the head^ — resembling a pair of forceps, with
which they cut away the wood.

" Description of the Roof of Messrs. Simpson and Co's Factory." By
John Boustead, Grad. Inst. C.E.

The truss of this roof is double, consisting of two frames cf Memel
timber. The principals are fitted into cast iron shoes resting on the walls,
with projections let into the wall plates ; they taper towards the ridge,
and there abut against a cast iron ring-piece, througli which a wrought iron
bolt IJ in. diameter passes, and answers the purpose of a king-post in sup-
porting the collar-beam. To the under side of this beam is attached a heel
and eye-plate, to either end of which are linked bolts passing between the
principals, and secured by nuts at the backs of the shoes, thus forming effi-
cient ties to resist the thrust of the principal rafters.

The slate-boards are supported by five purlins 4 ft. apart, and abut against
a ridge-piece resting on the kings.

The span of the roof is 34 ft. 3 in. The pitch is about 3 to 1 , and the
principals are placed 9 ft. apart.

The scantlings of the principal timbers are: — Principals 9J by 2J in.
tapering to C.V by 2 J- in. ; coUar-beam 7 by 3 J in. ; purlins 6 by 4 in. ; wall-
plates 6 by 4 in. ; slate-boards 1 in. tliick ; ridge-piece 10 by 2 in.

The principals were sawn out by a template, so as to insure the given taper
and the accuracy of the angles of the ends ; they were then laid in a hori-
zontal position ])Iaced at the required angle, and the collar-beam inserted
.V in. deep into each principal, and secured by bolts | in. diameter; the mode
of raising the roof is then described.

Some of the advantages of rjufs of this construction are stated to be,
economy in materials and workma^iship, with lightness and simplicity, and
that all sagging of the timbers uiLiy be rectified by screwing up the nuts of
the kings and shoes.

The truss is recommended for buildings where lofty apartments or coved
ceilings are required, and also for its presenting so few points for the suspen-
sion of heavy weights that may subject the timbers to strains for which no
provision baa been made.

From the examinations that have been made, this roof seems to answer
satisfactorily ; it has been erected three years and a half, and has sustained
heavy falls of snow, but the ridge and rafters have preserved their lines per-
fectly, and the walls show no signs ni" having been subjected to undue
pressure. The design of the roof is siru, le, its appearance light, and it may
be considered an interesting specimen of the art of simple carpenti^ assisted
by iron-work.

A drawing of the truss accompanied tiie paper.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

April 4. — M. Siguer read a paper On the means of preventing the explosion

of boilers in .steam vessels, or of confining the effects of such explosions, when
they do occur, within very circumscribed limits. He recommends, as a
general principle, that the boilers should be composed of many distinct
parts (tubes), so that in the event of the rupture of any one portion, there
may be no injury beyond the engine-room, and that the metal of which they
are' composed should be thin, in order that it may not be deprived of its
tenacity in the process of manufacture; and he insists upon strict attention
being paid to their shape, which should, he says, be spherical, cylindrical, or
conical, as being best calculated to offer an equal resistance to the explosive
power.

M. Arago communicated the result of some experiments made with the
view of solving the long-disputed question as to whether the iraiismission of
light is more or less rapid, according to the density of the medium through
which it passes, and reported his experiments before the Academy in proof
that the transmission is not equally rapid.

18^2.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

243

M. Dupasquier read a paper On the iise of iron as a tesl in Marsh's appa-
ratus/or the detection of arsenic. M. Dupasqiiier stated unequivocally, that
by>the use of a preparation of iron, such as had been resorted to at times by
cMbists intrusted with the task of testing the presence of arsenic, stains
apparently arsenical, but which are not so, may be produced.

April 11. — A paper was read by M. Domeiko, On the siher minen in Chili,
and the mode of working them. " The mines extend from the north to the
south, parallel with the coast, to a distance of 1.^0 leagues fiom the environs
of St. Yago to the other side nf Copaipo. The silver mines of .Vcqueros,
which are the special subject of the paper communicated to the Academy,
■were discovered in 1825 by a muleteer, whilst collecting wood on the moun-
tain. He found by chance sever.-!! small blocks of native silver, and, having
mentioned his discovery to hi> acquaintances, they proceeded to the spot,
and collected immediately silver to the value of 10,000 dollars. Soon after-
wards the vein itself was'discovertd, and its richness was foiiud to equal all
that had been anticipated. From that period up to 1840, the date of the
last returns, this vein has jlelded about 30,000 marcs of silver annually.

A paper was read On the Dcytierreotype improvements of M. llisson. M-
Bisson, by a galvanic process, covers the plate with a slight coating of silver,
much more even and perfect than the surface of the ordinary silvered plate,
and the object was, consequently, represented with greater fidelity and bold-
ness. .Another improvement of M. Bisson's is. in giving, by tlie .action of
the galvanic pile, a slight gold tint to the drawing, nliich takes away its
unpleasant looking-glass appearance, and causes the oljjects to stand forth
almost as clearly and vigorously as in drawings produced by hand.

Ajtril 18. — A paper was read by M. Regnault, On the dilaling powers of
gases, and on the i-elntire powers of air and mermrial thermometers.

A specimen of a reddish sediment, deposited by a shower of rain at Am-
phissa, in Greece, on the night of the 24th ult., and forwarded by M. Bouros,
with a paper on the subject, was examined by the Academy. The last mail
from Smyrna brought an account of a similar fall of rain at about the same
time, due of the journals of that place, alluding to this phenomenon, states,
that the sediment resembled the sand of the desert, and supposes it to have
been taken up by a whirlwind, and, combining in the clouds with water, to
have been held in suspension until it had travelled to a distance of nearly
1,000 miles to Smyrna. The wind, adds the Smyrna Journal, was blowing
fresh from the southward at the time, bringing heavy clouds, accompanied
bv a peculiarly hazy atmosphere, observable only in long continued siroccos.

May 3. — .\ paper was read from M. Reville, of Havre, On the use of cotton
sails for ships, as more economical than those made from tiax, and being
at the same time equally serviceable. Certificates from various persons who
have made use of cotton sails, and specimens of their old and new were laid
before the Academy.

From Messrs. Hempeland Ilamann, On a new Compass, of their invention,
for meastiriny ellipses. The report of Col. Puissant and M. Sturm on this
invention, which was read to the .Academy, states it to be superior to any
instrument for the same purpose hitherto known ; consequently, the Academy
decided on expressing pubUcly its approbation of the invention.

From M. Jobard, of Brussels, on some experiments which he proposes to
make, with a view of ascertaining the best means of prerenting the explosion
of steam boilers. The principal experiment proposed by M. Jobard is, such
a construction of the boiler as will permit, when the mixture of explosive
gases has been formed, the introduction of a stream of atmospheric air, so as
to render them inexplosive.

From M. de Castelnau, On some geological revolutions in the central parts
of North .Imerica. The period to which M. de Castelnau directs the atten-
tion of the Academy is that corresponding with the geological revolution to
which the bordering portions of Canada and the United States owe their
present configuration, viz. that which formed the great Lake of Canada, ex-
tending from east to west, with the exception of Lake Michigan, the direction
of which is from the north to the south, with a slight deviation towards the
west. At the south of the southern point of this lake, there extend toward
the Ohio on the one side, and the Mississippi on the other, vast prairies,
entirely formed of deep alluvial soil covering an old calcareous bed. Every
thing indicates, says M. de Castelnau, that this region was formerly the hasi]i
of a lake of much greater extent than those which now exist in this part of
the world, and, on approaching the Mississippi, the proofs of this pheno-
menon become more evident. He considers it certain, that at a remote
period there was some obstruction to the course of the Mississippi, which
produced a stagnation of its waters, and raised them to an elevation of 40
metres ; for wherever the rocks present an abrupt front towards the river,
they offer a series of parallel lines, inclining slightly towards the north. The
geological formation of the land in the vicinity of Lake Huron, presents the
character of a vast Silurian formation. According to M. de Castelnau, Lake
Superior formerly discharged itself into Lake Michigan, which had its termi-
nation in an immense basin, to which he gives the name of Lake Silurian,
and which probably discharged the excess of its contents into the Mexican
Sea ; but a revolution of nature checked the passage of the waters to the
extremity of Lake Michigan, and produced at Lake Silurian the rising ground
known as the Illinois, wliich must have been of greater extent than it is now,
asd it is not impossible, that with its progressive depression, the waters will
at some distant period resume their former course.

Mag 9. — At a special meeting M. Cordier communicated various de-
tails relating to the horrible accident on the Versailles railroad, ex-
tracted from an official report addressed to the Minister of the In-
terior by Messrs. Combes and De Senarmont, the engineers of Mines, charged
with the inspection of rail-roads. In addition to the facts already known,
it states that the foremost locomotive was a small one, with four wheels,
and the other one of large dimensions with six wheels, made by Sharp and
Roberts. The boilers of both are at present without the slightest injury.
According to the testimony of the Commissary of Police of Meudon, one of
the carriages was altogether consumed in ten minutes. The report contains
the following summary as to the cause of the calamity. The accident ori-
ginated in a fatal concurrence of circumstances, which were all gross faults,
easy to have been foreseen, and still more easily to have been avoided. The
first cause of the accident was the employment of a locomotive with four
wheels. It is essential that every carriage intended for service on a railroad
should rest on six wheels .it least, in order that if one of the axles should
break, the carriage should rest on supporters, and continue its course. The
second fault consisted in the employment of two locomotives for a single
train. The consequences of this arrangement are self-evident. .\ third cir-
cumstance was, the precaution taken to lock the door of the wagons ; so that
in such a case as that which occurred, all escape was prevented, and the tra-
vellers were condemned to suffer all the consequences of the first accident.
Another cause which had much influence on the catastrophe, was the neglect
to isolate the train from the locomotive, so as to prevent the shock occa-
sioned by the sudden check to the speed with which they were proceeding.
It is worthy of remark, that if all those causes had not existed together, and
if only a single precaution had been taken, the accident would not have hap-
pened. If the first engine had been furnished with six wheels when its axle
broke, it would not have lost its equilibrium. If a second locomotive had
not been employed, the only consequence of the accident would have been
a shock ; and, even admitting that the two first causes of the accident existed,
had the doors of the wagons not been locked, a number of the passengers
might have escaped the flames ; and the interposition of the elastic system
would have saved the train even if no other precaution had been observed.
The Academy listened to the account in mournful silence. Several members
afterwards made remarks on the inconvenience of using locomotives with
four wheels ; M. Elie de Beaumont particulariy protested against immense
trains being drawn by several locomotives, the danger increasing in propor-
tion to the number of machines employed. The custom of locking up the
passengers was also much spokeij against. Towards the close of the sitting,
a rumour having spread in the Academy that Admiral Dumout d'Urville was
amongst the number of the dead, or at least that he had not been found
after the accident, it being certain that he had entered one of the foremost
wagons, yi. Arago proposed that two members should be appointed to make
inquiries respecting him ; and if they found him among the wounded, to tes-
tify to him all the interest that the Academy took in his fate.

A report by M. Segnin, was read, of a series of experiments performed by
order of the .\cademy on the cuirass made of hemp, the invention of M.
Papadapoulo. The report states, that the balls of cavalry pistols, fired at a
distance of from three to five paces, only penetrate to a depth of about the
third of an inch ; consequently, the report is favourable to the inventor ; but
a discussion having arisen on some points not alluded to in the report, the
decision of the Academy, as to the value and importance of the invention,
stands over until the points under discussion shall have been treated upon
by the reporter.

RIISCEI.I.AMEA.

Tlic Monster Steam i'n/p.— This vessel, which is nearly ready to be launched,
is built by three or fonr spirited individuals on their own speculation in the
small toHn of Derry, Ireland, where a fe« mcnth.s previously it was never
supposed that a vessel of her magnitude would ever be built ; her dimensions
are 222 ft. in length between perpendiculars. 37 feet beam, and 2f; feet deep
in the hold, burthen 1750 tons, B.M., she is to be fully rigged as a 50 gun
frigate, the length of main mast to be flO ft. and 33 inches diameter, main
yard 79 It. and "22* ft. diam. in the slings, foremast 83 ft. and mizen mast
76 feet, she will be'ablc to spread 6,400 yards of canvas. There are three decks,
the upper one to be left entirely clear for action, and to be pierced lor
■M guns, the windlass anri capstan gear will be placed "twixt decks. .'-Ihe is
to be propelled by .Smith's Archimedean Screw, which will be 12 ft. diam.
and M ft. pitch, but the length will be only 7 ft.: it is to make 88 revolutions
per minute, llie gearing consists of a cog wheel 20 ft. diam.. working into a
.smaller wheel of 5 ft. diam., upon who.se axis is the shaft of the screws.
The engine power consists of two cylinders (iS in. diam., 4 ft. 6 m. stroke,
and to make 22 strokes per minute, nominal power 306 horses ; there are to
be fcur .air pumps 11) in. diam. and 4 ft. 6 in. stroke, and 3 cylindrical boi ers.
The engines are to be placed close abalt the vessel, leaving the midships cjear
for passengers.

A very beatdifu! stained glass window has recently been put up over the altar
of West Hackney church, 'the centre part of which is a copy o' >l»e celcbra'ed
altar-piece at Mrgdalen College, Oxford— Christ bearing the cross, very hnely
coloured, from the original picture ; and on either side stand out in bold
relief ihejfigures of St. Paul and St. Peter, after Uaphael. They stand lu

244

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JPLT,

niclies, whicli have a very strikinpr efl'ect, the metal work beins so contrived
.-IS to have the nppearanc'e of one sheet ot glass. The whole of the subjects
have been Rut U(iin amasterly style, are beautifully ilraati and coloured, and
reflect much credit upon Mr.' Holder, the arlist, of Gray's-inn Road. We
understand that llie subjects were seleetid by the excellent taste and judg-
ment of the rt-ctor. the Rev. Mr, Birch, and at whose sole expense the
whole ha« been compUted.

Marulchojie Pmiiif Asioeialion. — This Association for the imiTove-
ment of Street Pavlny; is one highly wortliy of the consideration of the
professions, and of the support of those interested in the parish of Maryle-
oone. We shall enter upon the subject of wood paving next month.

Conservative Club.— We understand that the designs for the new building
are entrusted to Mr. Sydney Smirke. and Mr. Basevi, who are appointed
conjointly architects for carrying out the design, which it is reported will be
upon a mat;nificent scale.

St. Jiisten Cornwall.— An Act of Parliament has been obtained for the
purpose ot effecting considerable improvement in this torn, and the Com-
missioners have decided upon erecting a new town hall and market. Designs
for which were submitted in competition, and that by Messrs. Eales and Cope
of Blcomsbury Square. London, has been selected by them for e.iecution.
The fafade is in the Italian style to be executed in granite. The cost £5000.

Standing Orders.— \n tlie House of Commons on Thursday, 23d ult., Mr.
Wilson Paf.en brought forward the motion of which he had given notice,
namely. " That so much of the Standing Orders of ihis House as obliges
promoters of Railway Bills to give their notices, and to deposit their plans
and .sections In the months of tehruary and March, instead of the months of
October and November, be repealed." The motion was carried without the
sligh'est opposition.

Tlii lioyiil Tar. Peninsular steamer, having undergone a thorough repair in
London by Messrs. Miller. Ravenhill. and Co.. who have put in new boilers,
thereby etfi cling a « onderful reduction in the consumption of fuel.went down
to Southampton, and made an experimental trip, tin ier ihe inspection of Mr.
Lsmb, the government engineer. She is now on duty wiih the Peninsular
inails.

LIST or NEW PATENTS.

GB.\NTED IN ENGLAND FROM 28tH MaY TO 23rD JuNE, 1842,

Sit Months alloioedfor Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

William Yodng, of Queen-street, lamp-maker, for " improvements in
lamps and candlesticks." Sealed May 28.

Philip Jacob Kayser, of Oracechurch-street, manufacturer, for " im-
provemcnfs in the construction of lamps." May 3L

Henry Phillips, of Exeter, chemist, for " improvements in purifying gas
for the purposes of light." May .'U.

Richard Watson, Jun., of Cloth-fair, gas fitter, for " improvements in
draining Imid embankments, and cutting of railways and other engineering
works." May 31.

Henry Wilkinson, of Pall Mall, gun-maker, for " im;)rot;cmert<« in un-
loading shipping, especially those vessels called colliers." May 31.

Locis Nicholas de Meckenheim, of Vienna, but now of London, en-
gineer, for " improvements in the manufacture of iron." May 31.

Henry Beaumont Leeson, of Greenwich, doctor of medicine, for " im-
protements in the art of depositing and manufacturing metals and metal
articles by electro-galvanic agency, and in the apparatus connected therewith."
June 1,

William Henry Kempton, of South-street, Pentonville, gentleman, for
** improvements in the manvfaciiire of candles." June 1.

James Reed, of Bishop's Stortford, statuary and mason, for " improve-
ments in tiles, stating, and the construction of water-tight joints, and in the
covering and'easing of buildings and other erections." — June 2.

Henry Jubber, of Oxford, confectioner, for "improvements in kitchen
ranges, and apparatus for cooking." — June 2.

Benjamin AiNGWORTH, of Birmingham, gentleman, for "improvements
in the manufacture of glass, for the purpose of producing glass which may
be v-scd for the purposes to which plate glass and window glass are usually
applied." — June 4.

Edmund Tuck, o£ the Hayraarket, St. James's, Westminster, silversmith,
for " improvements in the covering or plating with silver various metals and
metallic alloys." — June 4.

William Irving, of Regent-street, Lambeth, engineer, for " an improved
corn drill, or machine for sowing all kind of seed or grain." — June 7.

John Woodcock, of Manchester, millwright, for " improvements in the
construction of steam-engines." — June 7.

James Nasmyth, of Patricroft, near Manchester, engineer, for '• certo'n
improvements in machinery or apparatus for forging, stamping, and cutting
iron and other substances." — June 9.

Joseph Chatwin, of Birmingham, lamp-maker, for " improvements in the
construction of cocks." — June 9.

John Gkorge Hughes, of No. 158, Strand, general agent, for " a new
application of telegraphic signals, and the mode of applying the same." —
June 9.

James Anthony Emslie, of the Borough and County of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, civil engineer, for " certain improvements in pumps." — June 9.

Stephen Bencraft, of Barnstaple, gentleman, for " im/irovements in the
construction of saddle-trees." — June 9. •

Arthur Howe Holdsworth, of Brook-hill, Devon, gentleman, for
" improvements in constructing certain parts of ships and vessels in order to
arrest the progress of fire, and for regulating temperature." — June 11.

Richard Garrett, of Leiston Works, Suffolk, agricultural instrument
maker, for " improvements in the comtruction of horse-hoes, scarifiers, drag-
rakes, and drills, for cultivating land. June 13.

Thomas Banks, of Manchester, engineer, for "improvements in the con-
struction of wheels and tyres of wheels, to be employed upon railways." —
June 13.

MoSES PooLE, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements in obtain-
ing the colouring matter from wool, and woollens dyed with indigo." (Being
a communication.) — June 13.

William Cotton, of Leytonstone, Essex, Esquire, for " an improved
weighing machine." — June 13.

Daniel Williams, of Oxford, slater,for " improvements in covering ridget
and hips on the roofs of buildings." — June 13.

Isaac Moss, of Macclesfield, Cheshire, silk trimming manufacturer, for
" improvements in the manufacture of covered buttons, ornaments and fas-
tenim/s for wearing apparel." June 13.

William Morrett Williams, of Bedford.place, Commercial-road, and
of 163, Fenchurch-street, lock manufacturer, for " improvements in the con^
struction of Idtks and keys, which he proposes to call " Williams' lock and key
improved." — -June 13.

Henry Hough Watson, of Bolton-le-Moors, consulting chemist, for
" improvements in bleaching, changing the colour of, and otherwise preparing,
purifying and refining tallow, and certain other organic substances, mijcturet,
compounds, and manufactures." — June 21.

Joseph Bunnett, of Deptford, Kent, engineer, for "improvements in,
pavements, for streets, roads and other surfaces, and in machinery for pro-
ducing and repairing the same." — June 21.

John Dickson, of Brook-street, Holborn, engineer, for " improvements in
rotary engines and boilers, in stopping railway carriages, and in machinery
for propelling vessels, part of which improvements are applicable to propelling
air and gases." — June 21.

Frederick Gye, jun., of South Lambeth, gent., for "improvements la
binding pamphlets, papers and other documents." — June 21.

Thomas Gaunt, of 10, Dalby-terrace, City Road, gent., for "improve-
ments in the means of applying any such power as is or may be used for pro-
pelling vessels or carriages to produce locomotion thereof." — June 21.

Henry Bewley, of Dublin, licentiate apothecary and chemist, for " an
improved chalybeate water." — June 23.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

" Connecting Rod "—TAt question of Long and Short Connecting Rads A«
already occupied a considerable portion of the Journal.

Seyton's communication will appear next mouth.

J5 G.—If the engine of 10 tons weight be of Just sufficitnt power to draw a tram
of 50 Ions weight at 20 miles an hour on an eren plane, it will require e8-100(As
additional power to convey the said train at the same r<i(e up an hiclined plane <^
\tift. in the mile, and double the power up an iiielined plane of lift, m the mile.

•■ Beale's Rotary Engine."— A. H. V.'s remcrhs on ttds engine came too late for
iniertion this month; we think Ihei/ had better be deferred until we have reported
some farther experiments that are about to be made, which will appear m tlus next
month's Journal. In our account of the perjormanee of the " Anil John .Icott
Russell ' we omitted to notice that lite distance from London Bridge to (jreeiunich,
performed at the first trip in 39^ minutes was against a strong tide.

T. p. We are compelled to defer this communication until next month.

Books Received— Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society oj Man-
chester, Vol. VI.; Mr. Gtantham's work on Iron Ship Building ; and '■ On the
Use of Mechanical Power ;" which wilt be noticed next month.

Books for Review must be sent early in tlie month, communications on or before
the 20th (if with drawings, earlier), and advertistments on or before the i5i t
instant.

Vols. I, II, HI, and IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume

ERRATA.

Strawberr,) Hilt.— la our last number, the engraving is stated to be the
" Ground Plan," instead of which it ought to h:.ve been the ' "'nf'Pfl
Floor " ; and instead of letter c in the recess, it shoidd have been r ; and the
opening shown as a door should have been a window ; the letter e ought to
have been placed opposite to the window of the room C.

Page 205, col. 2, line 3, of Reviews, for Practical Geology, read Practical
Geodesy.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

245

THE THREADNEEDLE STREET STRUCTURE.

Public attention has been excited in a very unusual degree by this
building. And no wonder : for, in the first place, the character of the
design is in many respects not a little striking in itself; in the next,
people were quite taken by surprise when, the scaffolding or screen
before it being removed, they beheld what, for this country, may be
termed an almost unprecedented display of sculpture; and, in the
third, their curiosity is the more excited, because no one as yet
positively knows for what definite purpose the edifice is intended.
To these circumstances maybe added one wliich nowise tends to
diminish public astonishment and admiration, namely, that the building
is altogether the enterprise of a private individual (Mr. Moxhay),
who has shown in it a degree of taste and liberality quite exemplary;
certainly an example that we trust will be followed, and, moreover,
one that reproaches not a few of our recent structures, both on account
of their insignificant character, and the paltry economy manifested in
them. With the exception of the uisuia or group of architecture
formed by the Athensum, Travellers', and Reform Clubhouses, the
other buildings about town, even of that class, from the " City Club"
in Broad-street to the sulky "Oriental" in Hanover-square, are,
whatever they may be in regard to internal accommodation, more or
less poor and abortive in point of design— the works of mere builders,
not of architects. The same remark applies to the offices belonging
to many assurance and other public companies. If not the buildings
themselves, the designs are for the most part propped up entirely by
columns or pilasters, for there is generally nothing else architectural
about them ; and those might very well be spared altogether, as being
not only useless in themselves, but because they become ridiculous
affectations when mixed up, as is usually the case, with mean and in-
significant features, which are thereby made to look some degrees
more mean and trivial than they otherwise would. We have heard
it urged as an excuse, that in most cases all the money which can be
allowed, or that people choose to allow, for external decoration is
swallowed up by columns, so that the rest must be put off with what
is more expressively than elegantly termed "a lick and a promise,"
with a few streakings after "scored pork" fashion for rustication,
and a few meagre mouldings to doors and windows. If absurdity be
an excuse, the excuse just alluded to is valid enougli, of aU reason;
for why should columns be introduced at all for mere decoration, if
for the sake of having them every other part must be deprived of due
embellishment, and the whole consequently rendered a maimed, incon-
sistent, butched-up attair, a ridiculous mixture of the would-be fine
and the must-be paltry ? We had hoped that the examples of the
Travellers' and Reform Clubhouses (more especially, as the former
has been published as a study for architects,) would at once have
clapped an extinguisher upon the miserable " pseudo-classical" system,
of which the only recommendation is that it requires no study or
invention whatever, but merely iwin enough to be able to copy coluunis
and antcE from Stuart's Athens, or other publications of the kind.
Tims one man's Grecian is just as good as another's; and, with hardly
an exception, the mark of the Beast is upon that of them all. Whether
Mr. Moxhay's building — which we ourselves have here almost turned
our backs upon — will have the effect of now spiriting up others, both
professional men and their employers, to emulate his example, is what
time must show. In itself it certainly is a very superior specimen,
and a far greater public ornament than many of what are called public
edifices; which is no great compliment, by the bye, some of the latter
being little better than so many public deformities. Perhaps it is well,
therefore, for them that it is neither next door or opposite neighbour
to any one of them ; for even now it puts us quite out of conceit with
some of the newly-erected buildings in its vicinity — with the two
fire offices at the corner of Bartholomew-lane, and the Wesleyan
Missionary Hall in Bishopsgate-street ; although if columns — no matter
how they mav be introduced — are sufficient to constitute grandeur or
beauty, the buildings just mentioned possess a decided advantage
over the one in Threadneedle-street. The facade of this last is
No. v.— Vol. 59.— August, 1842.

exceedingly simple in composition, for it consists of no more than a
door and two windows on each side of it, between which and the
entablature is a deep panel extending nearly the entire width of front,
and filled with a relief, the figures of which are little less than the
size of life, and not being placed at such a distance above the eye
as sculptural decoration of the kind usually is, wherever applied at
all, thev possess a degree of importance in the design that would be
lost were they elevated fifteen or twenty feet higher. Hitherto,
wherever sculpture has been introduced at all in the front of a build-
ing, it has been either in little bits and patches, or else placed where
it cannot be properly seen as a work of art, but merely as ornament
and accessory embellishment, valuelessandunmeaninginitself,altliough
it may serve to give an air of richness to the architecture. We perceive
that there are panels with reliefs in the attic of the front of Bucking-
ham Palace, and that is all that can be seen or understood of them.
In such cases there is no situation from which the sculpture can be
properly seen, for the nearer we approach the building in order to
obtain a distinct view of it, the more are the figures foreshortened, and
so far distorted ; and almost any scratches and scrawls would there-
fore answer the purpose as well, either for a near or distant view.

Though the building in Threadneedle-street owes its character
chiefly to Mr. L. M. Watson's labours — the author of the noble and
poetically-conceived and tastefully-executed piece of sculpture which
is now attracting so much attention — it is not without more than
usual degree of embellishment in other respects, having a carved frieze
and rich cornicione. The former, indeed, is not altogether so satis-
factory as could be wished, for the rabtsco or foliage is too stiff and
formal in contour ; and it is also to be regretted that a little more
embellishment was not bestowed upon the door and windows, which
now look too plain for the upper part of the front. Still, taking it
altogether, this facade is incontestibly one of the most striking,
original, and artistical pieces of architecture in the whole metropolis ;
beyond all comparison superior to those masses of collective littleness
or of spun-out common-place, and frigid dulness and meaimess which,
because they are great, are looked upon as being also dignified and
grand.

While the patrician and aristocratic patrons or would-be patrons of
art and pretenders to taste do not care to exhibit other architectural
taste ^ro lo«o//(i6/ico than what may be seen in such spruce specimens of
it as Staftbrd House, and the very iicai yet certainly very piddling and
anything but dignified mansion of the "Great Duke," or as the brick
wall in Duchess-street, which looks like the entrance to a manufactory,
or brewery; — while such, we observe, are the architectural specimens
exhibited to us by the opulent and the great, a comparatively humble
individual — and what is worse, a man in the "city " — one, therefore,
in whom it is little less than insolence to pretend to taste at all — has
shown a degree of spirit, liberality, and taste, infinitely more credit-
able to himself and advantageous to the sculptor who has bad the
opportunity of displaying his talents upon such a scale, than it is likely
to prove at all favourable to many other buildings, which now look
more paltrv than ever, when contrasted with Mr. Moxhay's.

Not the least curious part of the matter is that on this occasion
there has been none of that fussiness — generally "much ado about
nothing" fussiness — which so frequently takes place ; as, for instance,
in the remarkably silly business of the Nelson Monument, when, after
two humbugging competitions, nothing better could or was allowed to
be chosen than an overgrown nonsensical column, for which no design
whatever was required beyond the mere working drawings. We are
afraid, too, it will be found after all that the very best choice of all
has not been made in regard to the Royal Exchange,^- although the

'■' Even were that part of the adopted design very much superior in point
of design to nlial it is— at least, if \reinay judt'e from tlie views published
of it— the idea uf making the Kxchangc itsch— the area where tlio meielianis
will assemble and transact business— a mere open court, is so truly prtpos-
tcrous— sucli a practical absurdity— tlint w? trust it will never be carried into
(xe.utiui. The cili;:cns must be drea<lfully alraid indeed of jmuMmi.'/oH, if
aiipiclicnsive of being sniotlieredtw mujsi'.were the Kxcliange to be covered in.
Me wonder lliey do nut feel similar alarm at their (niildhail bampiets, and
instead of talking of a new ruof for lliat structure, do not propose that it

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

design is certainly superior to the majority of those sent in, and very
far superior indeed to the one that, to the utter astonishment of every
body, obtained the highest premium !

Equally, or even still more curious is it, that the design for the
building in Threadneedle-street is by Mr. Moxhay himself. We do
not vouch for the truth of this: it may be mere report, but it has
never been contradicted or called in question ; and, at all events, there
is everv reason for believing that, whoever may have made the actual
drawincs, the ideas for the design are entirely Mr. M's own, the whole
being in character altogether different from that ob«eivable in any
other building about town, and from the manner of any other architect.
It is easy enough, therefore, to decide negatively, and say who could
certainly not have had any hand in the design. Hardly any professional
man would have ventured to propose sculpture upon such an extensive
scale, or have thought of making that predominate in the decoration,
to the utter exclusion of columns, pilasters, and other usual "proper-
ties" of architectural composition. Much more likely is it that a
" classical" architect would have said — for such was actually the case
in respect to one of the designs for the Royal Exchange — that the
sculpture might be omitted altogether, without in the least injuring
the general character of the building. In the opinion of such a one,
a blank panel would produce nearly as good an effect as Mr. Watson's
relief. Very rarely indeed does architecture extend any patronage
to sculpture in this country, otherwise than as mere heraldry, allowing
the sculptor to perform the part of coach-painter, and insert a tiny
ducal coronet, or some Gothic armorial bearings and their supporters
■within the pediment of what is intended for a Grecian portico. Of
classical sculpture to any extent in this country, we have indeed one
example in the series of Homeric subjects which adorn the exterior
of the Marquis of Bristol's mansion at Ickworth ; and we have now
just got another in Threadneedle Street.

Before putting aside our pen, we have to remark that the removal
of the French Protestant Church — a very ugly building in itself,
although of nearly the same physiognomy as almost all city churches,
not excepting the more admired than admirable ones by the "great"
Sir Christopher Wren — has been attended with a double advantage ;
for while it has made way for the new building in Threadneedle-street,
a new structure for that church is now erecting in St. Martin's Le
Grand, on the opposite side of way to and at no very great distance
from the Post Office. The style is Gothic, and although small, the
building promises to be very far better than almost anything of the
kind about town. Such is our impression at present, and we trust we
shall have no reason to depart from our opinion, when the building is
conioleted.

THE SPIRIT OF ARCHITECTURE.

It cannot, we conceive, be denied by the most resolute upholder of
modern greatness, that architecture has greatly declined among us in
these latter ages. The causes of this retrogression have been from
time to time pointed out in this journal as due to a want of adventure
among architects, and a blind adoration of the architectural forms of
Greece and Rome ; and these expositions have been received with the
incredulity natural to men whose prejudices suggested an opposite
doctrine, and wlio felt that the acknowledgment of architectural
degeneracy involved a sort of latent censure upon themselves. We,
therefore, propose to go into the subject a little more specifically,
with the view of showing that it is the spirit of architecture about
which architects ought to be truly solicitous, and that in architecture,
as in most other things, the spirit is oftenest and most deeply violated
by an indiscriminating adherence to the letter. We shall likewise.
have occasion to notice the present penury of real architectural skill,
and the pernicious influences of the existing modes of practice and

should be unroofed a'toa;ether, especially as there are plenty of roofs on such
wcuasions, each guest bemg provided with the roof of — his own mouth 1

instruction ; and we shall venture to suggest the adoption of certain
measures, by which these evils might, we conceive, be mitigated or
averted. We are too well acquainted with the untractable natures of
architects to imagine that any counsel or remonstrance of ours would
be much attended to, so long as it might be safely disregarded ; but
we believe we shall be able to show that architectural art, in the
proper sense of the term, is in a very precarious condition, and that
unless architects awaken from their lethargy, and do something for its
advancement or regeneration, the administration of the art will pass
from their hands into the hands of the new sect of decorators, or into
the hands of the civil engineers, and architecture, in the ancient and
proper meaning of the word, become extinct altogether. We think
architects are so obviously interested in preventing such a catastrophe,
that they may perhaps give some attention to the means adapted to
obviate its occurrence; and we are, therefore, induced to hope that
we may be heard with more patience and less incredulity than usual.
The svibject is manifestly an invidious one, and our remarks, therefore,
require much liberality of interpretation ; but we rely upon the temper
and judgment of those whom the inquiry most nearly concerns — upon
the absurdity of supposing that we should derive gratification from
being grutuitously censorious — and upon the fact which we, once for
all, assert as the key to our observations — that our animadversion is
not directed against individuals, but against systems.

And we would, in the first place, remark that whatever architects
may think of the present condition of their art, the public opinion is
that it never was in a state of greater degradation. This opinion
architects may possibly deride : they may look upon pul)lic appro-
bation as no evidence of excellence, and public discountenance no test
of demerit, and may console themselves for the public alienation by
the pleasing emotions they themselves derive from their own combi-
nations and the congenial taste of a few eccentric virtuosi. But we
would beg leave to insinuate that it is not for their own gratification
that architects ought to work, but for the gratification of the public ;
not for a little knot of odd and pedantic men, but for the great bulk of
mankind ; and although architects may affect to despise the popular
taste as indiscriminating and uncultured, they will certainly find it
much nearer the standard of unperverted truth than any taste formed
in the narrow and exclusive circuit of a particular profession. Indeed
we look upon the technical quality of the taste which architects very
generally imbibe as one of the most serious hindrances to eminence in
their art. Certain objects become associated in their minds with
pleasurable emotion, which in the minds of other men are productive
only of indifference or disgust, as anatomical preparations of the brain
or intestines may appear beautiful to the medical student, though
exceedingly loathsome to every body else. Every profession is apt
to create particular bonds of association and particular habits of
thought, which it is the aim of all sensible men to exterminate or
conceal ; and in an art addressing itself to the world at large, any taste
deserves to be called bad vidiich is founded upon associations accidental
to a particular individual or profession, instead of upon such as are
universal and indestructible. Of all errors into which the mere ar-
chitect can fall, none is likely to be more pernicious than that of being
too architectural — of appealing to sympathies which architects alone
can feel — and relying upon classical allusions and microscopic graces
which to ordinary observers are invisible or insignificant. This is a
departure from the spirit of art, and a servile subserviency to the
letter ; and indeed it will generally be found in copying the forms of
ancient structures for modern uses, the deviation from the true prin-
ciples of art is in the exact proportion of the fidelity of the imitation.
To architects who have been long in the habit of contemplating with
little less than idolatry these creations of genius, the exact imitation
of their peculiar features is likely enough to excite emotions of beauty
that will be exceedingly strong; but in the minds of men in general,
the prominent sentiment excited will be that such structures are alto-
gether unfit for modern purposes, and as such are ineligible and un-
attractive. We therefore find that the most celebrated architects
since the time of the ancients have been the greatest innovators, and
what may seem still stranger, the greatest architects have net, properly

18-12.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

247

speaking, belonged to the profession of architecture at all. Michael
Angelo was a sculptor, fiir Christopher Wren a professor of geometry;
and we honestly believe that much of their eminence is due to the
accident of their having been architectural interlopers. They brought
to their new occupation an unsullied taste— extensive information-
imagination which had never been frozen by the chill atmosphere of
schools— sensibility which gilded the commonest objects with the
rays of its own benignity, and which had communed with the chief
aspects of nature, and the most conspicuous objects of the moral and
intellectual worlds : and they poured out these accumulated treasures
upon their architectural creations, and moulded inanimate matter into
images of unspeakable beauty, and quickened it into life by the fire
of genius; and while in the course of nature the spirits of these great
men have passed away, the reflection of them still exists in their
works in all its primitive majesty, and still rules the minds of other
men — not by virtue of associations peculiar to any race or generation,
but by such as are common to all men in all ages, and are the insepa-
rable concomitants of the qualities by which they are awakened.

There are probably few persons prepared to maintain that there is
any architect at the present day equal to those great masters, or that
the condition of architectural art is as exalted now as when they
flourished. The cause of this declination is, we conceive, chiefly due
10 the apparent paradox of architects being too solicitously educated;
in other words, tlieir education is in our eyes far too architectural.
They become thus as it were a separate caste, having few or no sym-
pathies with men in general, and their beauties are such as are not
associated in common minds with any interesting impressions. They
are, moreover, far too much under the influence of rules and precedent,
and attach too much importance to certain recipes of beauty which
are administered with too little reserve and discrimination. That there
are among architects now living men of genius we do not deny, but
what we complain of is, that they can on no terms be induced to (xert
that genius ; they are afraid of ridicule or failure, and instead of
producing works of real genius, which we are convinced many of them
could do, are content with the reputation of insipid correctness, and
ponderous mediocrity. This may, it is true, be a very safe policy for
individual practitioners, but is certainly a very spiritless one, and is
absolutely fatal to the progress of art ; for how can there be improve-
ment if there be not even adventure? Besides, this pusillanimous
mode of procedure reduces architecture to a mere trade — a trade,
ioo, of the meanest description, since it does not require even manual
dexterity for its exercise. It oft'ers a premium to dullness, by placing
stupidity and genius upon the self same terms : reduces architectural
proficiency to a simple acquaintance with certain lengths and breadths ;
and makes beauty a mere question of arithmetical computation, which
the artizan is quite as competent to resolve as the artist.

One of the distinguishing features of the present age is love of
novelty and of powerful emotion, and if architects continue unable
to administer to the popular taste, other instruments will certainly be
•sought for. Many of the constructions which formerly belonged to
architecture have already passed into the province of the civil engi-
neer ; and it can scarcely be doubted that all those which require the
exertion of science rather than taste for their execution will speedily
follow. No one now thinks of applying to architects to build bridges,
or piers, or lighthouses, or anything indeed which is not to be em-
bellished. The architects, therefore, it would appear, have already
been driven from many of their strongholds : one — an impregnable
one — remains with them, and that is — Art. From this position no
power can ever drive them, so long as it is defended; but, with a sui-
cidal infatuation that is scarcely credible, they appear of their own
accord disposed to abandon it to their opponents. By art we do not
mean the power of multiplying Grecian constructions, or of producing
columns or gateways which shall be in accordance with the rule, for
this the engineer or any one else is perfectly able to do ; but we mean
the invention of new modes of decoration and distribution answerable to
particular purposes, or such a combination of old modes as will constitute
in reality a new invention. Except in cases where this is done, the
intervention of an architect is altogether superfluous, and if old designs

are only repeated, or repeated with some insignificant modification, ar-
chitects will cease to be employed ; and builders will engage to proiluce
churches or mansions, as ship-builders now produce ships, or engineers
steam engines. It appears to us, therefore, to be of the last import-
ance to architects to cultivate assiduously the art of decorative design;
not after the formal and prescriptive manner they have observed
hitherto, but by means calculated to promote the progress of art, and
to awaken the sympathies of the community.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XXXIX.

" I must have liber'.y
Withal, as large a charter as the wnJs,
To blow on whom I please."

I. HoWEVKR bad a system of things may be— however flagrant and
notorious its abuses— there are always some who are interested in
supporting it, and who accordingly set their faces against any reforms
in it. Little, therefore, is it to be wondered at that there should be
architects who decry competition, and who would fain keep up the
old system of architectural monopoly and favouritism, which worked
so well for them and their predecessors, and under which they Jlourislied

in many cases with the very minimum of talent, the system itself

being calculated to suppress all superior talent, by aflbrding it neither
chance nor opportunity. Fortunately that system has been somewhat
broken down of late years, and the consequence is that some of the
"mighty ones" have been thrown into the background and the shade;
and now when we look at their works, it is with wonder and regret-
wonder how they could have obtained the imposing reputation tliey
did at the time, regret that so many of the fairest opportunities-
opportunities not likely to occur again, unless the buildings erected
by them happen to be destroyed by fire— should have been recklessly-
flung away upon them. That competition has its evils and abuses is.
not denied ; highly desirable, therefore, is it— not to get rid of com-
petition itself, but— to check and reform the abuses now tolerated in
it. Let us, however, look also at the blessings of monopoly and non-
competition, before we decide which of the two systems works the
best for the art itself, and for the public. In the metropolis alone
there has fallen to the share of one monopolist— of one who may well
be said to have been unrivalled in his profession, for the very sufficient
reason that no rivals have been suft'ered to approach him— opportunity
after opportunity, many of which might be called splendid ones. To
that individual alone is the metropolis indebted for the followin>j
most distinguished architectural ornaments of it, viz. :—Coveut Garden
Theatre, the Mint, Post Office, British Museum, new centre of the
Custom House and its "Long Room," College of Phy>iciaus and
Union Clubhouse, St. Mary's Church, Wyndhara Place, tlie Library
and other buildings in theTemple, King's College (Somerset Place),
and the Conservative Clubhouse, besides some others of less note and
less importance. With the exception of the first-mentioned— and
even that is in very equivocal taste— the rest are little better than so-
many architectural blanks. When you have said that their columns
and antffi are, as far as they and their capitals go, accurate copies
from one or two well-known and now rather hackneyed Grecian exam-
ples of such members, vou have summed up all the merits of the great
or we might say the big architect of the big edifices above eimme-
rated. Pity, great pity '. that he could not keep the secret of his vast
genius and exquisite taste entirely to himself. How many works of
pretending duUness and pompous insipidity might we have escaped,
had he not met with his copyists in Foulston and others, who have
covered the land with their soi-disant classical structures, with their
mockerv of Grecian porticos stuck on to buildings that in every other
respect"are of the most John Uuhish physiognomy. Most strange it
is that with all its rigid punctilio, its servile and superstitious reve-
rence for classical models and precedents, the followers of this school

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

make no scruple whatever of entirely falsifying the character of
Grecian architecture, of running counter to all its principles, and ex-
punging from it all its charm and all its sentiment — all that gives it
effect, and all that renders it imposing and impressive.

II. To this most unfortunate school the study of Grecian archi-
tecture has most assuredly not proved the torch of Prometheus.
Insteatl of kindling them by its flame, it has only smothered them in
its smoke, or its smoke has served to blind the eyes of other people.
Some of them may have anatomized Grecian architecture, may have
cut up its carcase, and descanted upon the separate limbs and members
with tolerable ability ; but hardly ever have they been able to tack
them together again, except in the most clumsy manner, and then it
has still been but a carcase, from which the spirit that once gave it
life and grace has fled, and which they are unable to revive by breath-
ing into it a newer spirit, an operation not to be accomplished by a
pair of bellows — not even by a patent Vitruvian one.

III. In the efficacy of Vitruvian bellows, however, the Institute of
British Architects have, it seems, very great faith, since they have
thought it worth while to collect an assortment of them. Surely the
Institute must either have a good deal of cash to fling away, or have
been bitten with a strange curiosity mania, or it would never encumber
its bookshelves with such " venerable lumber" as the different editions
of Vitruvius, not one of which, probably, either has or ever will be
opened, except to look at its title-page and date. One would imagine
that the library must be most abundantly stocked with other archi-
tural works of every kind, because until it was so furnished, a single
copy of Vitruvius might be deemed sufficient ; more especially as
Vitruvius is not so very scarce an author but that a copy of his work
may be obtained any day, or even picked up at almost any book-stall.
Yet the Institute \\l\l have plenty of Vitruvius ; it will also have
nothing else — or, at any rate, very little more than Vitruvius. Cer-
tainly the gaps and hiatuses in its library are many and startling. It
does not contain even a set of Wiebeking's works ! In fact, to mention
what it does not contain would be to make out a list, a bulky catalogue
rather, of nearly all the choicest and most valuable architectural pub-
lications which have appeared on the continent for the last hundred
years, and not a few English ones besides : in short, precisely that class
of works which are not likely to be possessed by private individuals
— at least, only a very few of them — and to which, therefore, it is all
the more desirable and requisite that there should be access in the
library of that body which represents the architectural profession.

IV. Arthur Parsey, who is labouring hard to mislead the public, has
lately been again advertising, and otherwise doing all that he can to
attract notice to his "New Science," for which he has just received
a tolerably hearty lashing in the Atlas, and has there been called, in
very plain terms, an impiident charlatan and quack. It certainly does
require more than ordinary mortal impudence to refer, as he has done,
to some of the publications which have exposed the utter absurdity
of his " Sciertce," and its worse than uselessness in practice — or rather
its actual impracticability, without even attempting to gainsay any
one of the objections brought against it, or to point out the miscon-
ceptions and prejudices, if such they be, of his opponents. And
although those who have contradicted him with their pens are
comparatively few, all the world — at least all the world of artists,
are decidedly opposed to him, not even a single individual having
adopted the Parseyan Principles of Perspective, notwithstanding
that six years or more have elapsed since they were first broached.
We all know that prejudice has frequently caused great oppo-
sition and mistrust at first, in the case of many inventions and
discoveries, that have since been universally adopted. Yet if Mr.
Parsey lays " the flattering unction to his soul," that such is the
case with regard to his own, he dupes himself far more than he
does anybody else. The matter is one which admits of no dispute,
for if his " converging perpendiculars " really do produce a more
faithful and therefore natural representation of objects, the great im-
provement attending such system would be as manifest at the very
first as at last, because it would, in fact, be self-evident. It is idle to
say that artists would still be prejudiced against it, if only because con-

trary to their former practice, too inveterately confirmed to be all at once
laid aside. Their refusing to make use of the "New Knowledge"
could not prevent its spreading elsewhere; their refusing to open
their own eyes to the Parseyan " new light " could not hinder the rest
of the world from opening theirs and being illuminated by if. If the
painters — some of whom seem scarcely to pay any attention at all to
perspective — did not care to avail themselves of Parsey's grand dis-
covery, at all events the architects would hardly have failed to do so ;
and scene-painters would long ere this have certainly turned it to
account, and have astonished and delighted the public by such very
improved and natural mode of representation, more especially for
their bravura architectural vistas and compositions. However, to give
Parsey his due, he possesses both bronze and nerve in a most extra-
ordinary degree ; while every body else who understands any thing of
perspective laughs at it, he himself stands up undauntedly and be-
praises it in his own " lectures " with such rodomontade flourishes
as the following (copied from one of them) : — " Hail, then, the accom-
plishment as a British achievement, and let our native talent first reap
the advantages of an improved practice." Pity that talent — -native
and foreign alike — turns its back on Parsey, and refuses to benefit by
the advantages he so liberally holds to them.

V. There is, no doubt, some very deep and mysterious meaning in
what must strike ordinary eyes as very ridiculous, namely the half
white-washed and half tawny face of the building on the West side of
Trafalgar Square. Is that "Union" intended as a satire upon Unions
generally — both political and matrimonial? The structure certainly
looks very much as if spliced together by a modern match-maker — a
fashionable specimen of the compound creature termed iVIan and Wife.
After all, the greater probability is, that there was neither satire nor
joke in the matter, but that the odd diversity of complexion in the build-
ing arises from the " Club " contenting themselves with compo for their
portion of it, while the " College " would have theirs of stone. Why,
then, some inquisitive folks may ask, did not the architect proceed
accordingly, and make the two buildings two distinct designs, instead
of passing them oft' for a single one dressed in a motley suit ? — A puz-
zling question! to which the most likely answer that can be given, is,
that he thought it good economy to make one design serve for both,
and to kill two birds with one stone.

VI. The world has had didactic poems upon almost every subject.
The " Art of Cookery" has found poets to chaunt its praises and its
precepts, as well as the "Art of Poetry" itself; but I do not believe
that any poem upon architecture exists in any language ; at least I have
been unable to discover even the title of such production. And yet,
methinks, the subject is one of which very much might be made in
poetry. What visions of gorgeous splendour does even the very
name of the Alhambra conjure up 1 How awful, sublime, the eternal
cavern fanes of India, and the massive and many-pillared structures
of Egypt. Persepolis, Palmyra, Baalbec, Ionia, Greece, the Roman
and the Goth, all throng around the bard, and court his strain ! But
come, this is sheer rhapsody and frenzy, easily abated, however, by
a dose of — Sniirke. .So far from being inclined to patronize poems on
the art of architecture, many architects seem never. to have read that
of Horace on the Art of Poetry, from the first lines at least of which
they might, mulalis mutandis, learn something, as haply the following
paraphrase may show : —

Should some odd painter lovely Venus dra«-

In judge's w ig and grave costume of law ;

Or deck some legal sage in C'ashnieie shawl,

And feathered bonnet, how you'd stare and srjuall !

You'd think him mad ; and fair ones cry, " Oil dear,

How droll ! how monstrous ! how absurd ! bow queer !"

You'd laugh ; yet m by ? — not more absurd such dress

Than many a '-classic" architectural mess.

Where nought agrees — no part another matches,

But all's made up of motley shreds and patches;

A daw in feathers — peacock here, there goose ;

■' Splendid but neat," magnllicent yet spruce ;

And pert as spruce— more paltry than refined,

"With front all foppery, and all rags behind.

1842.]

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249

Poets and painters may invent, we grant.
So, too, were their invention not so scant,
May architects ; yet not play such queer triclis,
As tacli Greek columns to a box of bricks ;
With Parthenon for moiiel, build what looks
As if just sent home from the pastry-cook's ;
Crowd Roman porticos with London sashes,
Or show such dogsrel taste as was great Nash's.

LITHOCROMY.

Report of the Commillee appointed to examine the Elgin marbles, in
order to ascertain rchether a7ry evidences remain as to the employment
of Colour in the decoration of the Architecture or Sculpture. Read
bij W. R. HANnLTON, Esq., Honorary Fdlon; at the closing ordinary
JWetting of the Session 1S36-7, held Monday, 2ith July, IsS".

(From the Transactions of the Royal Inst, of Bnt. Architects.)

Committee appointed by resolution passed at the ordinary meeting
held Monday, the 5th December, 1S3G, to examine the Elgin marbles
in the British Museum, in order to ascertain whether any evidences
remain as to the employment of colour in the decoration of the archi-
tecture or sculpture, and to report the result of their examination.

The Committee to consist of \V. R. Hamilton, Esq. Foreign Sec.
Roy. See. of Literature ; R. Westmacott, Esq., R. A. ; C. L. Eastlake,
Esq., R. A. ; C. R. Cockerell, Esq. R. A., Hon. Fellow ; Dr. M. Fara-
day, F. R. S., Hon. Member ; and Messrs. Angell, Donaldson, and
Scoles, Fellows.

Elgin Room, British Museum. — At a meeting held on Tuesday,
the 13th of December, 183G ; present, R. Westmacott, Esq , R. A. ;
C. Eastlake, Esq. R.A; Dr. Faraday; Messrs. Angell, Donaldson,
and Scoles ; as also Messrs. Forshall and Hawkins, officers of the
Museum ; T. L. Donaldson stated that Messrs. Hamilton anil Cockerell,
being at Cambridge, had written to say they could not attend.

The attention of the Committee was first directed to fragments
Nos. 127 to 130 inclusive, in black, being Nos. 252 to 255 red, portions
of the Ionic antas capital and continuous mouldings of the hexastyle
portico of the Erectheum. The object was to ascertain whether the
inequalities of the surface of certain portions of the plain faces arose
from a coating of some substance originally placed upon the surface
of the marble, for the purpose of receiving the colour or paint, or
■whether it resulted from the action of the weather.

It appeared, upon examination by a powerful glass, that the raised
portions, which remained in some parts, and which had a deeper
ochrish tone than the rest of the marble, was the original surface
highly polished, and that the general surface of the marble had been
pretty equally worn away to the depth of about ^'- part of an inch by
corrosion.

The ochrish tint also seemed the result of the weather, as upon
examining portions of this and other blocks of marble which were
broken, the fractured surface presented in some parts a like colour,
produced evidently by the action of the weather, or other accidental
circumstances, such as contact with the earth, &:c.

The committee then proceeded to examine the fragment marked
No. 154 in black, and No. 260 in red ; No. 2G0 being a portion of one
of the beams of the propylea of the Acropolis at Athens. The fascia
presented evident marks of coloured meandering ornament, and upon
washing the surface the outlines of the meander were found to be
marked or indented with a sharp tool. The whiter part has the sur-
face polished, but the surface of the darker portion is rough. The
committee could not decide whether the darker tone resulted from
the stain produced by the atmosphere, or rather the dust and dirt of
the air, which would adhere more to the rougher surface of the marble,
or whether it arose from the original application of paint or colour ;
but the presumption is in favour of the atmosphere or dirt, as the dirt
or colour readily washed off with a sponge.

The committee were unable to decide whether the parts now

smooth and rough were originally in that state, or whether the part
now rough has become so in consequence of the action of the atmo-
sphere upon it, the sniooth part having been protected from that
action by gilding or colour.

No. 308 in black, now 131 in red, at the north, end of the Elgin
room, and upon which the capital from the propylea of the Acropolis
of Athens is placed, is a larger fragment of the same part of the pro-
pylea as No. 2G0, and the ogee bed moulding is preserved entire, with
the leaves distinctly apparent on the surface. Upon being moistened
with a sponge, it was evident that the outlines of the ornamental
leaves and stems were engraved with a too!,* and that the darker
parts of the ornaments were rough on the surface.

Sarti the modeller being present, who has been employed for many
years by the trustees of the British Museum, being now engaged in
taking moulds of the whole series of the Elgin Marbles belonging to
the Parthenon, stated to the committee that he had never been able
to discover traces of paint or artificial colour on any of the figures of
the bas-reliefs, metopes, or sculptures of the pediments, although his
attention having been originally drawn to the subject, he had carefully-
examined every portion of the surface of each figure, for the purpose
of ascertaining whether any traces or signs of colour were to be found.
He stated also that the whole surface of the marbles had been twice
washed over with soap leys, subsequently to their having been moulded
on former occasions, as that or some strong acid is necessary for the
purpose of removing the soap which is originally put on the surface
in order to detach the plaster of the mould. Dr. Faraday was of
opinion that this circumstance was of itself sufficient to have removed
every vestige of colour, which might have existed originally on the
surface of the m.arble.

The committee then proceeded to examine two Athenian tiles in
Room VI. of the Townley Collection, their attention being directed to
them by Mr. Hawkins.

They are of terra cotta, covered with a thin coating of fine stucco,
the surface of which is decorated with the meandre, and honeysuckle,
and lotus-leaved ornament. The surface being moistened with a wet
sponge, three ditierent colours were perceptible, a white (or tone of
the ground or plaster), green of a darkish untransparent tone, and 'a
deep red in small portions, of unfrequent recurrence in the pattern or
composition.

It occurred to the committee that where these architectural enrich-
ments were employed in large quantities, it is probable that the mode
of forming them might have been similar to that adopted by decorators
at the present day, known by the term stencilling. The fragment in
question was hardly of sufficient length to enable the committee to
decide whether this method was adopted, or whether the enrichment
was done by hand.

\st Jane, 1S37. — At a meeting of the committee held in the Elgin
room of the British Museum, present, Messrs. Hittorf,Hamilton, West-
macott, Angell, and Donaldson, the minutes of the previous meeting
were read, as also the following letter: —

Atherstone Hall, April 17, 1837.

" Mr. Bracebridge is happy to forward a memorandum of patterns
and colours from the Erectheum ; they are drawn from the northern
portico of that conjoint temple of Minerva Polias, Pandrosus, and
Erectheus, so well known in the Acropolis. This side of the temple,
being so well sheltered from the sea breeze, has presented its sculp-
tured ornaments as fresh and sharp as if lately finished ; and the
columns of this portico being fluted with capitals elaborately worked
and well sheltered, have retained remains of colour. At the top of
the flutings especially, a thin coat of slate-coloured paint is visible, at
other points yellow and red color may be traced ; but the remaining
pieces are so small, and the colours so much faded, as to leave the
subject in dispute ; this being alone certain, that there was colour
once carefully applied (at all events to the intaglio parts of the relief

" Mij»ht not this mode of engravinjj; the outline have been for the purpose
of prevemirig the colour from spreading beycnd the pattern, as well as for
giving a bliarp and distinct outline to the ornament V

250

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[August,

or concave parts of the capitals, &c.), and that this colour was of
various shades; the protuberant part of the work retains no colour.
The probability that blue, red, and yellow were used is very strong.
Some portions of paint might be chipped otf and subjected to analysis,
■which would determine what there is, in truth, but little or no doubt of.

"Mr. Bracebridge has not examined the capital in the temple of
Theseus, said to bear marks of paint, but he believes much the same
could be said of it as above of the Erectheum.

" In the winter of 1S35-6, as Mr. B. has stated in his letter to Mr.
Wordsworth, printed at the end of ' Athens and Attica,' an excavation
was made to the depth of 25 feet at the south-east angle of the Par-
thenon; here remains were found of huge blocks of marble fresh from
the quarries, chippings, &c. ; and below these, fragments of vessels,
pottery, and burnt wood. No one who saw these could doubt that a
level was dug down to below that where the workmen of the Partlie-
non had thrown their refuse marble, in fact the level of the old Heca-
tompedon, of which possibly the burnt wood may have been the re-
mains. Hire were found many pieces of marbles, and among these
fragments parts of triglyphs, of fluted columns, and of statues, par-
ticularly a female head (the hair in nearly the costume of the present
dayj. These three last mentioned fragments were painted with the
brightest red, blue, and yellow, or rather Vermillion, ultramarine, and
straw colour, which last may have faded in the earth.

"These curious specimens are carefully preserved in the Acropolis,
but much fear is entertained of their retaining the brightness of their
highly contrasted colours for any length of time. The colours are laid
on in thick coats. The female face had the eyes and eyebrows
painted. When we consider the brilliancy of Pentelic marble when
fresh worked, tliere appears a reason for using colours beyond that of
imitating the usages of Attica in more ancient temples, namely, that
the minutiae of the work in many parts would have been lost to the
eye amidst the general brilliancy."

Mr. Donaldson informed the committee, that having in his posses-
sion various portions of coatings taken by him from several buildings
at Athens, he had forwarded them to Dr. Faraday, Hon. Member, with
the request that he would be pleased to furnish the committee with
his opinion upon the composition of such portions of coatings; to
which he had received the following reply.

'^ Royal iMtitution, 21s/ April, 1837.

"My DEAR Sir — I return you the box, with the remains of the
samples.

"A. Portion of coating taken from the antae of the Propyleum.
The blue produced by carbonate of copper : wax being mingled with
colour.

" B. Portion of coating taken from the soffits of the mututes of the
Theseus. The blue is a frit or vitreous substrance coloured by copper.
Wax is present here.

" C. Portion of coating taken from the columns of the Theseum.
I am doubtful about this surface. I do not find wax or a mineral
colour, unless it be one due to a small portion of iron. A fragrant
gum appears to be present in some pieces, and a combustible sub-
stance in all. Perhaps some vegetable substance has been used.

" D. Portions of coatings from the caissons or lacunaria of the
Theseum. The blue is a copper frit or glass, with wax.

" E. Portions of coating from the northern wing of the propylea.
The colour, a carbonate of copper. Wax is present.

" F. Ditto, ditto (north wing propyleaj, as E.

"I also return you the drawing and the letter.

" Ever truly yours,
" T. L. Donaldson, Esq. &c. (Signed) " M. Faraday."

In order to ascertain whether a portion of the surface of the statues
of the Fates, which presented an ochrous tint and a more glossy sur-
face than the other parts, was due to some foreign matter artificially
applied to the surface, some parts were peeled otF easily from the
back of one of the figures on the application of a penknife. These
were also submitted to Dr. Faraday, who reported as follows.

" Ruyal Inslitulion, 8th Jane, 1S37.
" My dear Sir — The particles you sent me seem to have come from
a prepared surface. Being put into a dilute acid, a portion of ad-
hering matter is dissolved, and the principal portion is left in an un-
touched and cleaner state. Being then washed and dried, it is found
that this consists of carbonate of lime and a combustible substance
which protects the carbonate from the acid. This combustible sub-
stance when heated is destroyed, leaving charcoal, and then acid can
attack the calcareous matter. The combustible substance may per-
haps contain wax, but it does not present undeniable traces of that
body. It is in small quantity as compared with the wax present in
Mr. Donaldson's specimens. There is no mineral colour present in
the particles, except it may be a small portion of iron colour, and that
I rather judge to be accidental. Whether or no any animal or vege-
table colour had been used is more than I can say.

" I am, dear Sir,

"Very truly yours,
" W. R. Hamilton, Esq. &c. (Signed) M. Faraday."

The secretary also submitted to the committee various portions of
glass eyes, which he had taken from the torus between the volutes of
the Ionic columns of the tetrastyle portico of the Triple Temple in
the Acropolis of Athens. They are of four various colours.

On this occasion also M. HittorlT, having a series of drawings of his
restoration of the Temple of Empedocles at Selinus, restored by him
and coloured in its several parts according to his opinion of the poly-
chromatic system as applied to architecture, favoured the committee
with a full explanation of the grounds upon which he had applied
colour to the various parts of the edifice.

The committee then proceeded to examine the several marbles
alluded to in the first report, and were satisfied with the accuracy of
the former observations of the committee.

Upon a consideration of all the facts contained in the preceding
minutes, it appears to the committee, that there remain no indications
whatever of colour artificially applied upon the surface of the statues
and bas reliefs, that is, upon the historical sculpture. That, according
to Dr. Faraday's opinion, those portions of the marble which from the
tone and surface might be supposed to be the result of colour applied
thereon, are the original surface of the marble stained by the atmo-
sphere, the presence of iron in the marble, or by some such natural
cause. That some of the architectural fragments present indisputable
traces of tone indicative of regular architectural ornaments, and that
the outlines of such ornaments are distinctly traceable, being marked
with a sharp instrument upon the surface of the marble. The committee
cannot positively state, from the appearance of the marble, that such
tones have been produced by colour, as they think that none of
the colour itself remains, but that the indication of tone results from
mere variation of surface. Judging, however, from the information
contained in Mr. Bracebridge's communication, there appears no reason
to doubt that colour has been applied. This is confirmed by the por-
tions of coatings brought from Athens by Mr. Donaldson and analyzed
bv Dr. Faraday, who has detected frit or vitreous substance and
carbonate of copper mixed with wax and a fragrant gum. This analysis
proves that the surface of the marble of the shafts of the columns of
the Theseum, and other parts of the edifices from which these speci-
mens were taken, were covered with a coloured coating. The glass
eyes also of the Ionic capitals of the tetrastyle portico in the Acropolis
at Athens prove, that various materials were employed by the Athe-
nians in the decoration of the exterior of their marble buildings.

But although the statues and bas reliefs of the Parthenon, at least
those portions of them preserved in the Elgin collection, do not alFord
any evidence of the use of colour, yet there is a constant repetition
of small circular holes in the horses' heads and manes, and in one
hand of each rider, showing that there had been originally bridles and
straps to the horses, either of metal, leather, or some other similar
substance. Similar holes are perceptible in the statue No. 94 (in red)
of Proserpine, one of the two female figures of the eastern tympanum
of the Parthenon, called also the Seasons or Hours ; they are in the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

251

arm just above the wrist, apparently for the purpose of attaching
bracelets, and in the shoulders at tlie junction of the drapery, as
though a metal rosette had been affixed there. On the neck of one
of the Fates No. 97 (in red) are also two noles, which seem to have
been for a necklace. In the back of the torso of Victory No. 9G (in
red) are large holes, iu which it is supposed bronze wings were fas-
tened. No. 101 (in red) is a fragment of the upper part of the head *
of Minerva ; the sockets of the eyes are hollow, and were evidently
filled with metal or with coloured stones, and holes remain in the
upper part of the head, atfording the presumption that there was
originally a bronze helmet attached to the marble. The angles of the
^gis of No. 102 (in red), which is a fragment of the statue of Mi-
nerva, one of the principal iigures of the western pediment, are drilled
with holes, by which the metallic serpents were attached, and in the
centre a head of the Gorgon.

Thomas L. Donaldson, Hon. Sec.

THE ARCH IN ARCHITECTURE, ITS ORIGIN, FORMS,
AND PROPORTIONS.

The oblique arch having so prominently occupied the pages of the
Joiinial, there being ten papers on that subject, and only one on the
arch itself, by Mr. Frederick East, Vol. 2, page .354, has induced me
to offer a few observations. Mr. East states, on the authority of Livy,
Virgil, Herodotus, Ktesias, and Strabo, that, probably, the arch was
instrumental in the construction of the hanging gardens of Babylon,
built B.C. 1200; but that certainly the arch was known in Assyria, as
also in Lydia, which latter country was subdued by the Babylonians
about the period above mentioned ; and with respect to the Roman
works of the " Avaca maxima," said to be commenced by Tarquinius
Priscus, and finished by his grandson Tarquinius Superbus, "th King
of Rome, Ferguson in his Roman Republic, hints that they may be
the relics of some city previous to the erection of Rome. From these
authorities there can be little doubt but that the arch was in familiar
use at an early period, but unknown in Greece till within a century of
the Christian era.

Tliis subject engaged my attention several years ago at a very early
age, in consequence of the prominence given to the five orders over
the arch, which, in my humble opinion, was worthy of a more promi-
nent place ; the only works known to me at that time solely devoted
to it, being, a treatise published in 1772, by Dr. Charles Mutton, and
Attwood on the constiuction and properties of arches; since that the
following authors have come to my knowledge :—Semple, Telford^
Ware, Sraeaton, Milne ; and of foreigners, French — Perronnet, Gau-
thier, Borsland, Bruyere, and Belidor; and of Italians — Alberti, Pal-
ladio, and Serlio. First let us consider what an arcli is ; the term is
derived from the Latin arcus, a bow, and has been defined to be a
concave structure raised upon a mould called the centreing, in the
foim of the arc of a curve, serving as the inward support of some
superstructure; also as part of a circle less than a semicircle ; as a
hollow building raised upon a mould in the form of a semicircle ; as a
contracted vault ; and as an artful disposition of stones generally in a
bow-like form, by which the weight produces a mutual pressure and
abutment, so that they not only support each other and perform the
office of an entire lintel, but may be extended to a great width, and
made to carry the most enormous weights. There being no word in
the Greek language meaning an arch, it is inferred that the object
was unknown, altliough it has been said that the pediment of the
Greeks suggested the arch, and it has been found in the Temple of
the Sun, at Athens, and of Apollo at Dydamus, concealed in the walls,
covering the necessary openings, perhaps similar to discharging
arches as now used by the moderns. In sacred history the arch is

* This fragment alone may perhaps be considered as an exception to the
previous siatement, that no evidei ces of colour existed <<n the statues or
figures of the Parthenon. The hair appears to have a red tint, which becomes
ilistiaclly apparent upon the application of water.

first mentioned in Ezekiel, chap. -10, v. 16, in his description of the
Temple. "There were narrow windows to the little chambers, and to
their posts within the gate, round about, and likewise to the arches,
and windows were round about inwards, and upon each post were
palm trees." B.C. 574. The bridge over the Euphrates, at Babylon,
Herodotus expressly says, was built on stone piers bound with lead,
and lintel or squared beams of timber. The tunnels al^o at Babylon,
mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, were probably covered in the same
way. Visconti, on the authority of Plutarch, assigns the invention to
Alexander himself, who lived B.C. 323, or about a century after He-
rodotus ; Dr. Pococke thinks the Egyptians were unacquainted with
the arch, although Belzoni found Egyptian arches at Thebes, and one
at Gouinon, leading to the valley of Beban el Malook, and Diodorus
Siculus, in describing one of the celebrated buildings of Egvpt, takes
particular notice that it was tipped with one stone ; Sir John Chardin,
in describing the subterranean passages at Tohelminar, does not in
any way allude to the arch, a circumstance he would not have omitted
if it had been the case ; one tomb is said to be arch-roofed, but it is
in solid rock.

The Romans liave the merit of being the first to introduce the arch
into general use. The earliest on record is the conduit at Tusculum
near Rome, 16 ft. wide, and 30 ft. high. The second, the theatre of
Marcellus at Rome, built in the time of Julius Caesar, where semi-
circular arches are found, and I think it may with truth be said, a
genuine arch did not exist prior to the time of the Romans. With
the remarks of your former correspondent I agree, that the arch was
not known in Greece, and I think there is doubt of its being used at
Babvlon, or Assyria, or in Rome, earlier than the time of Caesar,
B.C. 50. In the quotation given from Ezekiel, it appears to me that
the true arch is meant, as the impost was the earliest ornament in
arches of stone, and that, too, with leaves resembling those of the
palm. This would place the invention nearly .500 years previous to
the time of Caesar. Again, the absence of any remains is a great
obstacle to the latter conclusion, so that we must be content to allow
the merit to the Romans of bringing the arch into general use, but the
extent of its application was reserved for modern times, as Waterloo,
London, Gloucester, and Chester Bridges amply testify.

There are the following forms of arches in use ; the date of their
introduction is almost as uncertain as the origin of the arch itself: —

Tudor Arch, called after the name of the reigning family.

Arched Dome, which arose in Etruria.

Semi, or Roman, in exclusive use until the 12th century.

Horse-shoe, or Moorish, more than a semicircle, found in East
Morgan, a building of the Anglo-Normans.

Elliptic, first found in the tower of the Deanery of Lincoln, 1500.

Inverted Arch, found in Cathedral of Wells and Salisbury.

Catenarian, or Arch of Equilibration.

Scheme or Skene, or Imperfect Arch, less than semicircle.

Hyperbola, and Parabolic, from sections of a cone.

Trochoid, or Cycloid, invented by Descartes, 1615.

Epicycloid, formed by motion of a point in a paddle-wheel of a
steam boat, a combination of circular and progressive motions.

Pointed Arch, first occurs in church of Friendsbury, built by Pau-
linus the Sacrist, 1137 ; called also the Saracenic Arch. Supposed to
be introduced from the Crusaders, although more probably it took its
rise from the intersection of two circular arches, called interlacing, an
example of which is in Kelso Abbey.

There are 22 varieties, drawn from four, six, and eight centres.

Straight Arch, or Plat Band, with joints converging to a common
centre, an example, Lincoln Cathedral and Greenwich Hospital.

Vaulting or Groins, the latter arises from the intersection of the
former, about the Hth century.

Rampant or Flying Arch, used to connect buttress and pinnacles
with the main building.

Having stated as much as I can learn as to origin and dilFerent
forms of arches now in use, the most important part of the inquiry
remains — the proportions of the arch in its adapkition to bridge
building; the tiifferent forms, as circular, segmental, and elliptic, must

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

252

^. considered more as dependent on situation. The proportion of
?ar s 1 s Serally been estimated in parts of the span or chord, and
r'^ up'toi, has been stated as the proper depth for the vousso.rs
I^'tK'c own ; apex-the thickness of abutment i of the span, and of
the piers -. The rise or versed sine should not .n any case be less
han of U e chord. When the height of the piers exceeds the nse
of th; arc an addition of i (if their size be estimated by the previous
ind.rd) i made to their thickness, and .-hen the span of the arch
excetds 50 feet, it is usual to increase the voussoir as the abu ment
or ke vback i approached. The success that has attended Mr.
Brune • bold experiment of the Maidenhead Bridge, carried into suc-
Sssfu execution amid the sneers and jibes of his -mpeers, >n the
ppl cation of brick to a span for which, a few years ago - ^t-e^av e
granite was considered competent, augurs favourably or the use ot
f ct?of brick to an extent never before contempU^ted, e^pec^l y
^vhere hieh banks offer the additional inducement to try the ettect,
he being then no approaches to make. The Maidenhead Bridg
s turned ^in half-brick rings in cement, 5 ft. 3 in. in depth at the
IS vmnea m^ 6 sorineine; the two main arches are

S:;".i'l£S ^a^ wUhTri^ % of 24ft.3in.; the land
arch re 21 ft. and Is ft. span, there being six of the latter on one
side and two of the former on the other. The immense mass of - ft.
iHepth of brick in the arch is, in my opinion, the true source of

''The-proper position of the joint in complex figures, such as the
ellipse, parabola, and cycloid, is a good exercise in geometry; the
posUion of the joint should be perpendicular to a tangent at that point,
n confident that arches of stone might 1^^ ^^^'-^^'f^^'^^^f
their present extent as regards span; there would be no danger o
compression of the materials, as the cohesive power per square i h
of granite, sandstone, and Bath stone, are respectively 2bUU. 8Jb, and
755 lbs, the weight per cubic foot of each material being 1/3, 144, and

92 lbs. Q ^_

Newcastk'upon- Tyne.
The following works have been consulted :-The C. E. & A. Journal;
Elmes on Architecture; Woodward on the Wisdom of the Egyptians;
Sir James Hall's Origin of Gothic Architecture; !^tuart ^ f'^^^^
Athens, and Stuart's Dictionary ; Papers by Stukely, Gunn, and b.r H.
Wotton, in the London Archsologia.

NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

[AususT,

Holding down bolls.— Those which go through the bottom of the
ship, if of iron, are verv quickly eaten away. It is a usual and bene-
ficial practice to tin them before they are inserted, but even in this
case thev do not last very long; the tinning is probably in most cases
iniured in driving the bolt : zincing would be better. When the vessel
has much rise of floor, and the keelsons are consequently very deep,
and the bolts therefore very long, it is often very inconvenient to get
the bolts introduced at all, especially if the vessel draw much water ;
for the blocks upon which the vessel has to be placed in the dock
require to be very high, and when high there are few docks in which
there is a sufficient rise of water to enable the vessel to surmount
them It has, therefore, been found expedient in some cases to make
the holding-down bolts with a nut at each end, and to reeve them from
above ■ but in such cases it is almost indispensable that the bolts
should be of copper or Muntz' metal. If of iron the threads of the
screw would be soon worn away, or the nut would get so fixed by
corrosion that it would be very difficult to get the bolts out when they
required to be renewed. Holding-down bolts of the common descrip-
tion last from three to five vears, but if made of copper or Muntz' metal,
they will last as long as the ship. Those holding-down bolts which
go through the keelson merely with a notch cut upon the under side
of the keelson for the reception of the nut, waste away more quickly
than those which go through the ship's bottom. As a general practice

the best plan is to make twelve bolts go through the bottom in each
engine, four at the crank framing, four at the cylinder, and four at the
main centre ; and these bolts should be of copper or Muntz' metal, with
screws at both ends. The rest of the holding-down bolts should be
of iron, and should not go through the keelsons, but be screwed into
them, as wood screws, by means of a square neck, and be furnished
with a screw and nut above. It is of course necessary that the threads
of the bolts screwed into the wood should be wood screw threads, and
the bolts themselves should have considerable taper.

Expansion Faim.— Slide expansion valves are, in our opinion, the
best, yet they are very little used; probably from the difficulty of
obtaining a good combination for altering the degree of expansion ;
yet such a combination is, we conceive, attainable enough, and there
are already several exquisite contrivances of Mr. James Whitelaw's
which go far towards the removal of the difficulty. Of the double-
beat description of expansion valves, that description is extremely
objectionable which has two discs of brass upon one spindle, fitting
into the upper and lower valve seats, situated in an upright pipe.
Such valves can never be tight except by accident:— if tight when
cold, they cannot be tight when hot, for the spindle being surrounded
with steam, will expand more than the pipe in which the seats are
situated, which has steam only on one side, and which is, moreover,
generally of cast iron, the spindle being of brass. The double-beat
Cornish valve is the only species of double-beat valve that should
ever be employed. Messrs. Fawcett, of Liverpool, have, in some
cases, applied a single-beat valve for expansion, with perfect success.
It would, of course, be extremely difficult to open this kind of valve,
but for the combination of levers, or rather the principle of the com-
bination, used in Mr. Watt's original valve gearing; but Messrs.
Fawcett have greatly simplified that arrangement, the proper action
being produced by means of a single crank.

Heat.— It cannot be doubted that combustion would be rendered
much more perfect in steam engine furnaces if the incandescent fuel,
instead of being surrounded with water, which, by a rapid absorption
of heat, depresses the temperature of the fire, were surrounded by
some substance which would prevent the heat from being abstracted
by conduction, therebv rendering the heat of the fire the greatest
possible under the existing conditions. But it becomes a question
•.vhether if by lining the furnaces with fire brick, and thereby pre-
venting the heat from being carried immediately from the furnace
into the water, the same amount of beneficial effect would be obtained
as by the present practice ; and this question resolves itself into the
stiU'more abstruse one whether heat is a material substance or a mere
property of matter. If heat be a material substance, whatever heat
is not given out in the furnace will be given out in the flues, supposing
the temperature of the chimney to be uniform ; but if it consist m
mere vibration, either in the particles of bodies or any etherial fluid
pervading them, we may suppose the possibility of those vibrations
'o counteracting one another as to subside or cease without the pro-
duction of any adequate effect upon material substances. Sound, it is
well known, consists in the vibration of the air; and it is further
known that two sounds may conspire to counteract each other's effects,
and actually produce silence. Two rays of light, in like manner, may
be so managed as to produce darkness; and mny we not, in like man-
ner, imagine the possibility of two rays of heat producing absolute
cold ' It is not impossible that in all furnaces such neutralization may
take place, in a greater or less degree ; and it is not at all consequen-
tial that bv making the combustion more perfect in the manner we
have indicated, a greater available heat will be produced. The subject
is indeed involved in much uncertainty : it is a very important subject,
and we beg leave to recommend its investigation to those who have
time and opportunity for experimental researches.

Engine Frames.— ^Ve think the adoption of the Grecian or Gothic
orders of architecture in the cast iron work of steam engines, is an
evidence of bad taste ; but the rejection of every species of embellish-
ment is worse still, being indicative of the want of taste altogether.
The beauty of a piece of machinery is, in our eyes, a point of no tritling
moment; a handsome engine will always be better taken care of and

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

253

more cleauly kept than one not so distinguished; it will realize a
higher jirice if sold, and need cost little if anything more in the first
production. We would not, it is true, sacrifice any useful quality to
embellishment, nor would we purchase beauty at any great expense ;
but we think it extremely desirable that the patterns for the cast iron
work of machinery should be so made that, whilst securing the most
attainable degree of fitness, tmy will, without any great additional
trouble, confer the additional quality of beauty. We know that there
are those who maintain that beauty consists altogether in fitness, and
that that object is the most beautiful which possesses every physical
property necessary for its intended uses, and nothing more ; but this
is so preposterous and puerile a heresy that it scarcely merits confuta-
tion. A Corinthian column would be quite as fit for supporting its
superincumbent weight, if reduced to a mere cylinder of stone ; but
would it then be as beautiful? The dusky plumage of the sparrow
forms as eflicient a defence against the weather's inclemencies as the
metallic splendour of the humming-bird, and the lumiblest productions
of our looms as effectual habiliments as the gorgeous fabrics of Da-
mascus, or the choicest productions of Cashmere. Fitness is indeed
in most things one of the must conspicuous constituents of beauty, but
it is one only of a great number, and not always the one which most
prominently interests us ; and although there are men of such cold
imaginations and lethargic sensibilities as to disenable them to per-
ceive beauty in objects except in the ratio of their fitness for a specific
purpose, yet such men are only exceptions to the order of nature, and
are as surely of a defective constitution as those who are unable to
relish the delights of harmony in consequence of the want of a musical
ear. The pleasure we derive from the contemplation of the works of
Nature is not in many cases due to any sense of fitness. The spectacle
of a mountain landscape does not awaken the sentiment of beauty
from anv specific configuration of the cliffs, or any distribution of the
rocks and rivers connected with ideas of fitness, but by virtue of the
sympathy with sentient beings associated with the perception of those
objects, and which appeals not to the judgment but to the imagination
and the heart. The rugged mountain vk'hich starts abruptly from the
vale — the eternal snows which crown its summit, and pour Irom their
bosom innumerable cascades, and the giant fragments, grey with age,
that are strewn about its base — fathomless and impassable ravines,
through which the waters foam and wrestle, like an angry and impri-
soned maniac — clifis overhanging and inaccessible, where the eagle
reigns in solitary majesty — and echoes which repeat the roar of the
cataract and the sighs of the rising tempest — these are all admitted to
be beautiful, but it is sympathy alone to which their beauty is attribu-
table, and which gives them life and interest. Without it the sub-
limest landscape would no more affect us than any casual assortment
of colours on a painter's palette.

The ruling appetite of human nature is love of sensation, and
nothing is capable of making us feel deeply but the fortunes, past,
future, or possible, of man, or at least of some sentient being. Objects
do not possess any property in tlicmselvcs capable of exciting the
sentiment of beauty, but interest us only by their capability of reflect-
ing emutions associated with them ; and that man will relish beauty
most strongly and perceive it most readily, whose imagination is most
lively and whose social aftections are the most fully developed. The
beauty of material objects being merely the reflection of emotions
pre-existing in the mind, no beauty will be perceived where tliose
emotions do not exist ; and those emotions are so nearly akin to
benevolence, that a iove of beauty is justly held to be symptomatic of
an excellent heart, and those whose taste is inanimate or perverted,
are, not without reason, suspected to be persons of a low morality,
especially in its finer gradations. Good and sensible men cannot
regard the quality of beauty as unimportant to any object, and will
advocate its creation in all cases where great expense would not be
the consequence ; and in the frames of steam engines where it may be
attained so easily, we think there are few who will advocate its
rejection. There is a species of decoration answerable to steam
engine frames, or rather an infinitude of kinds, which would confer a
high degree of beauty, not by the use of any of the existing archi-

tectural orders, which will create associations which must end in
disappointment, hut a species of embellishment proper to this specific
purpose, and such as to be susceptible of adaptation to all the shapes
which science indicates as the fittest for resisting the strains to which
the framing is subjected.

ON PAINTING TIMBER.

We extract the following observations on painting timber when
exposed to damp, by Mr. Lander, from the Professional Papers of the
Roval Engineers.

" I beg leave to lay before you a few observations which I have made
on the construction and causes of decay in bridges, on the works at
Devonport, having been employed on the erection of the bridge at the
north-west barrier in the years Is! 12 and IS 13, and also on a large repair
in 1S37 ; and I am now employed on a similar repair at the north-east
barrier bridge, which, I think, was built in 1>1G, which has induced
me to make the following remarks : —

" 1st. These bridges were paved with Guernsey pebbles, which, I
think, was one cause of decay, as the wet constantly dripped through
the joints; an evil which may be avoided by macadamizing, by which
such a compact body is formed that the wet cannot get through, and
the joists and girders, &c., are thereby kept perfectly dry, besides the
advantage of the vibration being very much reduced, as is the case
now at the north-west barrier.

•2nd. The whole of the wood-work below, as well as the under side
of the flooring, was frequently payed over with coal tar, which, form-
ing a thick bodv on the surface, was another, if not the greater cause
of decay, as it completely prevented the air from acting on the wood,
thereby keeping all moisture within, which of itself is suflicient to
decay it. It must be observed that the plank or flooring was so rotten,
th >t in many places it would not bear the weight of the men to work
on it, and many of the joists and girders broke into two or three pieces
in removing them : some of them were found to be quite dry, and in
a similar state to snuff.

3rd. As a further proof of the bad effects of paying and paving
bridges, I may state that the bridge at the south-east barrier across
the old works leading to Stonehouse, the girders, joists, &c. of which
have never been payed or painted, and the road above always mac-
adamized, remains sound and good at this time ; and I know this to be
a much older bridge than either of the former.

4th. I should state that the timber alluded to above is oak, but I
think the same observations will apply to other timber, and in other
situations, such as fences; for many posts and rails of the stockade
fence here have frequently been found decayed, while in other and
older fences, although much worn by time, yet not having been payed
or painted, the fibre of the wood remains in a healthy state.

51h. I am also of opinion that skirting to walls, anil linings to store-
houses and other buildings, if not painted, would last much longer, as
the damp from behind would then be allowed to evaporate by the
action of the external air.

PROFESSIONAL BEQUEST.

Siu — The following information deserves to . be more generally
known to the public, and particularly to the profession, than I believe
it to be ; and no way occurs to me more likely to attain that desirable
end than the notice of it in your journal, w hich, as it is especially
dedicated to whatever concerns architecture and surveying and their
professors, is a very suitable medium for giving it publicity.

By the will of Mr. (ieorge Jernegan, o"f Hatton Garden, himself in
the profession, dated the 2Sth November, 1812, and proved in the
Prerogative Court of Canterbury in IS Hi, the following bequest, iitler
aha, is njade. viz., after stating "Ten pounds per annum in perpetuity
I present to my two executors, viz., Jl. each, for their attendance and
trouble, in seeing to the final adjustment of these concerns," the will
proceeds "the residue and remainder of interest in the 3 per cent.
Reduced Annuities, I wish to go towards the support and comfort of
some worthy character bred a surveyor and architect, and in aid of
any charity for such a purpose, and this annuity in perpetuity." By
the details stated in the will, it would appear the amount of the
<lividends applicable to this purpose is 10/. per annum. The executors
appointed in the will were Mr. William Baxter of Clapton, and Mr.
George Booth of Bucklersbury.

2 N

254

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

Doubtless tliis trust property has hitherto been honourably appro-
priated ; pfill, as there are no ilmibt many now living who would be grate-
ful for such aid, and whose cases come within the limited description,
it would afford them some satisfaction to know that prior claims alone
prevented their participating in the benefit, and I trust such informa-
tion may be granted them through the meilium of (his journal. Perhaps
also it might be well for the Institute of British Architects to keep a
note of the circumstance in their records, for reference on some future
occasion of a vacancy : and I trust this bequest may be the nucleus of
a much more important provision for those who, in a greater or less
degree, may be helpless and destitute.

I am. Sir,
Your very obedient servant,

July 11, 1S42. A Constant Reader & Subscriber.

P.S. Allow me to suggest to any of your readers who may possess
information of any other similar bequest, that they would be conferring
a great benetit by giving it publicity.

ESVIE^WS.

IRON SHIP-BUILDING.

1. Iron as a Material for Ship-huildivg. By John Grantham, C. E.

London : Simpkin and Slarshall, 1842.

2. Paper on the same siihject, read before ilie Liverpool Polytechnic

Society, given at page 124 of this volume.

It is rather surprising that it should have been reserved until the
present dav to apply iron extensively as a material for ship-buildiiig.
We havebeen so long acquainted with the capabilityof metals for floata-
tion, we have availed ourselves of this property so frequently, both in
ordinarv pursuits, and for many important purposes, that the non-ap-
plicaticn of it to ship-building appears almost unaccountable. Mili-
tary iiier, vre should have thought, would long since have had their
attention drawn to it, being familiar with the metal pontoon in the
erection of temporary bridges. It is from the beginning of this cen-
turv, however, that we must date our history of t'.ie subject, when we
find iron boats employed on some of the canals, particularly in Stafford-
shire. Mr. Grantharn's firm seems to have engaged in the construction
of these boats as early as thirty years ago. In 1S15, a Mr. Jevons,_ of
Liverpool, launched a small iron pleasure boat on the Mersey, which
completely answered his expectations. It seems to have been mali-
ciously sunk in the Duke's Dock, where it was subsequently found
■when the dock was emptied for repairs. In 1S17, Mr. Jevons made
arrangements with Mr. Horton for establishing a yard at Liverpool for
iron ship and boat-building, and in 1S18, lodged a caveat in the
Patent Office with the view of taking out a patent for an iron life-
boat, the model of which was exhibited in the underwriter's room at
Liverpool. The death of Mr. Horton frustrated these plans. The
iron life-boat appears to have met with the fate of its predecessor,
having, after a disappearance for some time, been found in the
Mersey with holes drilled in her chamtiers ; she was, however, re-
paired and sent to the West Indies. In 1S20, Mr. Aaron Manby took
out a pater.t for iron steam-boats in France, a measure which appears
to have given the first impetus to this branch of metallic industry. A
■vessel cilled the ..-Jaron Manhy was built by the Horsley Company
for the Seine, and in 1S22, started from London for Havre. She was
commanded by the present Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B., who co-
operated with Mr. Manby in the enterprise, and from Havre was
navigated to Paris, having been perhaps the first and only vessel of
any description which ever went direct between the two capitals.
Mr. Manby afterwards established ironw orks at Charenton near Paris,
and built other iron boats, which boats continue in work up to the pre-
sent lime. The next step we have to notice was the construction of
an iron steamer for the Shannon, under the direction of the elder Mr.
Grantham. Mr. John Laird of Birkenhead afterwards commenced
building iron vessels on a large scale, as did Messrs. Fairbairn and
Co., and Ditchburn and Mair of London. At a subsequent period
Mr. Fairbairn of Manchester undertook a series of experiments at
Glasgow in which iron vessels were employed. Subsequently Pro-
fessor Airv,the Astronomer Royal, undertook the task of ascertaining
a mode oi' correcting the magnetic compass in iron vessels, and pro-
viding against the effects of local attraction. Captain Johnston also
investig;ited this subject on the Shannon, and Mr. Grantham at Liver-
pool. Mr. Holmes, in his pamphlet on steam navigation with the
Indies, seems to have been one of the first to advocate the system of
iron steamers on a large scide, and altliough he wrote so late as in

MiAiiiaLjiLVu ^_'_,.._„. . ..^-.

1S38, his view's then seemed in advance of the day; subsequent ex-
perience, however, has gone far to prove their correctness. Two
years ago Mr. Crenze, of Portsmouth Dockyard, fnok up the subject,
and was one of the first to treat it practically. We may mention in-
cidentally that the late Mr. Egerton Smith, of Liverpool, took a
share at an early period in the advocacy of this, as of so many im-
provements. Mr. Grantham read a paper on the subject of iron ship-
building before the Polytechnic SoAety of Liverpool, of which he is
the President, and this paper has swollen into a goodly treatise now
lying before u«, and to which we are indebted for the materials on
which our present remarks are based. Thus dismissing the litera-
ture of the subject, we sliall resume its history by reminding our
readers of the great progress made of late years. The Government
has begun an iron steam navy, the powers of which have been tested
and established on the coasts of Syria and China. The East India
Company have followed the same example. To the East and West
Indies and to South America, iron sailing vessels of a large size have
been sent, and have overcome the difficulties and prejudices which
were opposed to them. One of the largest of this class is the John
Garrow, of 711 tons, and we cannot refrain from saying that the
owners, Messrs. Anderson, Garrow, and Co., are deserving of a high,
meed of praise for having steadily and perseveringly prosecuted
their exertions under most discouraging circumstances. The Join
Garrorc, from bad construction, turned out a heavy sailer, and it be-
came necessury to lengthen her and remodel her lines. The bold
attempt of Mr. Brunei in the plan of the Great Britain steamer, is one
of those events which have fixed public attention, and the issue of
which is anxiously regarded. For sea and river navigation, and for
towing, the iron steam-hoat has shewn very great capabilities, and
has established itself on the Thames, the .Shannon, the Mersey and the
Clyde, on the Seine and the Elbe, on the Nile and the Ganges.

To appreciate the causes which of late years impeded the exten-
sion of iron ship-building, we must consider the serious prejudices
arrayed against it. It was represented, that however serviceable the
iron boat might be on the river, that on the ocean it perilled the life
of the mariner, and the property of the owner. It was said that the
disturbance of the compass by the mass of the vessel was irremediable,
and that the seaman was thus deprived of his greatest safeguard. Be-
yond this a disposition to drift to leeward, and unsteadiness under the
helm, were charges scarcely less formidable. It was said, too, that
the speed of the vessel would be impeded by fouling, as the metal
surface of the hull became covered with barnacles and weeds. Nay,
the vessel itself was held forth as perilous, as liable to corrosion from
the sea-water, and consequent destruction of its substance. The stiff-
ness of the hull is another imputed defect, tending to the diminution
of the sailing power of the vessel. These serious charges produced
their due effect; from whatever cause emanating, whether from the
interested suggestions of timber ship-builders, or the spontaneous
effusion of timid ignorance, the seaman was alarmed, the ship-owner
deterred, and the underwriter raised the premium of insurance. Thus
an accumulation of dirticulties was created, which the energy, enter-
prise, and public spirit of those engaged has alone been able to re-
move, however groundless the charges have turned out to be. The
phenomena of magnetism, as connected with iron vessels, are but little
known, but it has been established by the experiments of Captain
Johnson that an iron-ship becrmes a large permanent magnet, having a
strong magnetic current in the direction of the ship's length, and causing
a serious "disturbance to the general polar direction towards which the
needle points, and to which it must be made again to turn itself. This
Professor Airy has successfully effected, and many long voyages have
been made in iron vessels with compasses so corrected. The careless-
ness of captains of ships has occasionally thwarted this measure, but
its soundness has not been impugned. Professor Airy mentions a
singular instance with regard to this question. The compasses in an
iron ship had been corrected by one of the Messrs. Simms, the mathe-
matical instrument makers, and the ship left the docks in the Thames
for Gravesend ; at this latter place the Captain stopped and rode up
to London in a state of frenzy, having found the action of his com-
passes most erroneous. Tlie person who had corrected the compass
instantly went to Gravesend, and there to his astonishment found that
betvieen the time of having corrected the compass and that of the
sailing of the vessel, a large iron stove had been erected near tlie bin-
nacle. Professor Airy truly observes : — " This vessel might have been
lost on the shoals of the Thames on her first voyage, and not a word
would have been heard about the iron stove." In treating of the mag-
netic action in the compass, Mr. Grantham takes the opportunity of
mentioning that an iron vessel is formed of an immense number of
plates and bars of different forms, having varying degrees of mag-
netic force, and the electric currents running in various directions.
As a curious question arises as to tlie period at vfliicU the current

K.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

begins to take a uniform force througli the vessel, and neutralising or
turning into one cliannel the multitude of conflicting currents, Mr.
Grantham has undertaken to make experiments on the subject. It
has been supposed that the course of the magnetic current is deter-
mined during the operation of rivetting, or that its intensity is con-
siderably increased, its force being also influenced by the polar direc-
tion of the sliip's keel while on the stocks, but Mr.' Grantham states
that helms been led to doubt tliis. The polarity of the ship, he con-
siders, is not affected by rivetting, but seems to be dependent on the
quantity or quality of the iron, and he thence deduces that there is
reason to believe that time will have but little effect in increasing or
diminishing the magnetic intensity. Captain Johnson, we may add,
has observed, that the compass placed a few feet above the deck is
not much attracted by the iron, and it is a common practice for the
captains of iron ships to place a compass in the cross-trees at the top
mast-head, by wliich to ascertain the correctness of the one placed in
the binnacle. Sir Howard Douglas has raised the question whether
the changes of climate are likely to affect the intensity of the electric
current. We think they might in a slight degree, but experience has
proved not to such an extent as to interfere with the safe action of the
compass. The long voyages to the East and West Indies, and to South
America, have abundantly proved the efficiency of the compass in iron
vessels. As to iron vessels being more subject to drift to leeward, and
steering ill, as these are circumstances dependent on form, thev can be no
peculiar defects of iron shipping. The navigable powers of iron vessels,
when properly constructed, are as perfect as those of timber vessels ; but
it is the case that many iron ships being built for a light draught of
water, are flat-floored, and very full, without adequate and counteract-
ing depth of keel. This, however, has nothing to do with a deep-sea
ship. Fouling in the case of iron ships has been much exaggerated,
for it can be entirely got rid of by the application of a scraper, such
as Mr. Grantham has invented and described. The corrosion of the
iron plates by the action of sea-water proves a groundless alarm — no
case of destruction from this cause in many vears' experience has yet
occurred. Mr. Grantham remarks, that so slight is the apparent decay
of the vessel when in use, and so much slower in its progress than
is exhibited by iron when applied to other purposes in salt water,
that many who have observed the fact, are led to suppose that some
occult and preservative law is in operation peculiar to iron so em-
ployed. The phenomena of iron rails on a railway will occur to our
readers on this occasion, and also those affecting wood pavement.
As oxidation is promoted by heat, Mr. Grantham recommends that in
■steam-boats the boiler should be kept as far as possible from those
ports of the vessel which are above water, or means should be adopted
to keep them cool by interposing non-conducting substances. The
connection of copper pipes with the shell is also to be avoided, and
for this purpose the same gentleman states that he has latterly made
short lengths of wrought iron pipes, with flanges, and rivetted them
to the vessel.* It was assumed that iron vessels would be found un-
suitable for warm climates, as subjecting the crew to a greater heat,
but neither in the Niger, or the Euphrates, nor in the China Seas, has
this proved to be the result. Even at home ship-owners have been
deterred from the use of iron by the fear that the public were preju-
diced against it, although the experience of the Glasgow and Liver-
pool steamers, and other large vessels, shows no such unwillingness.
We agree with the author before us in regarding stiff'ness of hull as
an advantage and not an injury to the sailing power of a vessel, pro-
vided the elasticity of the rigging is sufficiently secured. The preju-
dice of the underwriters with regard to iron vessels, will most likely
turn out very much in the same way as that with regard to chain
cables. They would .not formerly insure a vessel which had chain
cab'es ; then it came to the use of one cable of hemp and another of
iron, and now most probably underwriters would oliject to a ship as
insufliciently found if she had no chain cable on board. If the under-
writers do not give way with regard to iron ships, the owners and
builders have the remedy in their own hands, for it is in contempla-
tion on their part to form a marine insurance companv of their own.

Having now disposed of the objections to iron shipping, we shall
refer to some of its merits. The first cost is perhaps the feature of
primary interest : on this subject Mr. Grantham sums up.

" From a careful consideration of the question of cost, I have arrived
at the following conclusions: —

" 1st. That a good serviceable iron sailing vessel, not exceeding 300
tons burthen, will be equal in cost to an English-built twelve years
timber-built ship, of the same external dimensions, without includiug
the price of copper sheathing for the latter.

' On the subject if corrosion of iron, and ihe means of rempclying it. see
Mr. Mallett's Papers in this Journal, vol. i, p. 312 ; and vol. iii, p 387 • Mr.
Neilson's Patent, vol. iii, p. 303 ; and Mr. Wall's, vol. iii, p. 429. '

"2nd. That iron vessels of above 300 tons have the advantage of
being rather less expensive than wooden vessels.

" 3rd. That for very large merchant vessels and ships of war, iron
will also be found to be much less expensive than wood.

"4th. That iron sea-gaing steamers bear also about the same pro-
portion according to their different sizes.

" 5th. That iron vessels, for rivers, may be built at a light expense,
but so built are unfit for sea service."

The prime cost, presenting this immedi ite advantage, is not the
only pecuniary benefit; for iron shipping, from the durabilitv of the
material, requires few repairs, and when broken up is more produc-
tive than timber. Repairs, the great source of profit to otlier ship-
budders, can never accrue to the iron ship-builder to an equal extent.
The hulls of some of the large Clyde steamers have not cost 1/. these
five years, while the usual calculation for a timber-built steamer is
that the expense of repairs will in ten or twelve years have equalled
the iirst cost. The advantage, in case of breaking up, is in fivour of
iron as against timber, four to one. Turning to their physical merits,
we should premise that malleable iron is one of the strongest mate-
rials,* while it may be converted into any shape ; on the other hand,
timber for curved parts must be grown with great trouble in an
unnatural form, or else scarfed, and its strength consequently impaired.
The ease, moreover, with which iron beams and frames of any di-
mensions and in one piece can be wrought, overcomes one of the
greatest difficulties in ship-building. As regards the mode of fastening,
copper and iron bolts must be used to secure the frames of a timber-
built ship, and are so badly contrived that they have little hold, while
they are the source of destruction to the ship, as being of a different
substance. Mr. Creuze sums up well on this point. He savs of iron,

" Among the advantages are the greater durability of the material,
not only from its relative durability with that of timber, but from its
requiring no such metallic sheathing to ]>rotect it from the ravages of
worms. Also the greater durability of the structure, as a whole, in
consequence of the greater permanency in the perfect combination of
its several parts, arising from the fiistenings being of the same texture
as the portions of materials brought into connexion. The metallic
fastenings to a timber-built vessel act, it must be remembered, not
only chemically, but also mechanically, to accelerate her destruction
so soon as the close connexion of the several parts is at all diminished."

A wood ve.ssel is compared by Mr. Grantham to an arch, being made
up of a great number of parts of various forms and sizes, placed in
diff'erent directions, and being dependent on each other for support.
If one becomes loose, the whole structure is more or less endangered.
In consequence, a most elaborate system of bracing bv iron straps,
knees, and bolls with nuts, is now pursued. The bolts do not accord
with the materials they fasten together, and the wood is so soft that
when a severe strain arises, a general yielding takes place, by the
boltheads sinking into it, and the wood itself 5;iving wav to the pres-
sure it receives from the neighbouring parts. In the iron vessel, on
the other hand, the outer shell of the vessel is composed of a series
of plates so rivetted together that its strength is nearly equal to that
it would be if formed of one plate. The consequent strength of iron
vessels needs little to be said in proof. On the canals the iron boats
are put to the severest service, as carrying iron stone, pig iron, and
refined iron from the blast furnaces. Mr. Grantham refer; to many
instances of vessels getting aground and on rocks without injurv, and
several cases of their being left resting on one or two points of support,
without any strain to the framing. A large casting, weigliing four
tons, is mentioned as having fallen into the hold of the Princess Royal,
Glasgow iron steamer, in consequence of the tackle having given way,
but without damage to the vessel. Greater capacity for stowage is
one of the grand points on which iron shipping claims superiority.
Mr. Grantham treats it thus: —

"The shell of a timber-built vessel is so much thicker than that of
an iron vessel, that, with the same outside dimension^, the l.itter is
frequently IS inches wider and 12 inches deeper in the hold than the
former. Taking the most^^avourable part of a vessel — n imely, in the
centre of the length — in a vessel of 20U tons, the proportion in favour
of the iron vessel will be as 5 to G; but in the ends, which are drawn
finely off", the disparity is much increased, m.ikiiig the proportion of
the whole contents about as 5 to 4. Supposing, therefore, that a
vessel built of timber could stow 200 tons, she would, if ni.ide of iron, •
have room for 2o0 tons. The total capacities of the largest vessels
will probably not approximate nearer than as 5 to 6; tnakii.g the iron
ship of GOUtons not to exceed in outward dimensions the timber one
of 500 tons. The advantage of this is very great, and enables an iron

' Vide Mr. Fairbairn on the Strength of Iron, with respect tcS .ip-buikling,
in our third Vol., p. 388.

2 N 2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

256

vessel to trade, and remunerate the owners, in cases in «l"ch a
wooden vessel would not return a profit ; for, if we suppose tliat the
freight of a 500-ton ship would just pay tlje expences required to
navigate her, an iron vessel would leave the freight on the extra 100
tons as clear profit." . ,

"An iron vessel required to carry 250 tons, therefore, equals, in the
first cost, a wooden vessel that will carry only 200 tons ; and an iron
vessel required to carry GOO tons will cost less than a wooden vessel
built to carry only 500 tons."
Again, of steamers he says,

" The comparison is much more in favour of iron than with wooden
vessels. As the average cargo of a steamer is only, perhaps, about
one-third of the load, in engine, cargo and coals together, an increase
of one-fourth in her stowage adds 75 per cent, to her capacity for
carrying cargo. In other words, to carry a given cargo, the iron
steame?may be much less than a wooden one."

Light draught gives the iron ship the monopoly of shallow rivers,
and cannot fail to lead to a great extension of navigation. The Indus,
chiefly on account of physical difficulties, has hitherto been a closed
river ; the employment of the new class of vessels must, therelore,
create a lar" e traffic on its waters. Cleanliness is a mercantile quality,
and is accompanied by health, the nuisances of bilge water and vermin
being got rid of in the iron ^hips. With regard to the latter annoy-
ance, it is related that a colony of rats took possession of the Iron
Duke previous to her first voyage, but not relishing the obdurate
material of which she was built, a portion of them deserted her at
Calcutta, and the remainder immediately on her return to England.

StrenMh goes a great way to ensure safety in a vessel, and iron
plates in%trength are, to English oak, as 49-CS to 10-01, or nearly 5 to 1.
Iron ships are further to be preferred in this respect as readily ad-
mitting the division of the hull by bulkheads. Superior speed Mr.
Grantham claims as one of the results to be expected from the extended
use of iron. He considers that the cheapness and flexibility ot tliis
material will allow of the model of a vessel being made finer, without
corresponding loss in the amount of steerage, and m the carrying
qualities. In the event of accident, the repairs of iron ships are very
tritiing, as instanced in the case of the Nemesis war steamer, which
ran on one of the SciUy rocks in the British Channel with such violence
that, to use the expression of Captain Claxton, "if she had been of
wood she would most probably have left her bones on the spot." bhe
was however, navigated round to Plymouth, and the repairs easily
effected for about 3U/. On the subject of repairs the author so often
quoted declares that it is erroneous to assume that iron vessels are
more difficult to repair than those of timber, for the injuries are
generally external and confined to a single spot, and may in most cases
be sufficiently repaired by any ingenious man, if the ship be but pro-
vided with a" few drills, spare plates, bolts, and other necessary articles,
which no captain should neglect to carry among his stores. Besides,
he says, when iron vessels become more generally employed, the
necessary assistance will be found at all considerable ports and stations
at which" they may touch. We may add, too, that ultimately the ship's
blacksmith will be rated instead of the ship's carpenter, or perhaps
in Queen's ships the rating of the armourer raised, hi warfare the
resistance of the iron sheeting to the impact of shot striking the hull
in an oblique direction is an advantage, while even a shot entering the
vessel is less injurious than in timber ships, as no splinters are pro-
duced—the great cause of death and wounds. Shot holes in iron
sheeting adroit of being readily stopped, and in an easy manner. The
injury from the recoil of lieavy artillery, such as is now used, is less on
board an iron ship, and enables them to carry a heavier armament.

It is to be regretted that, in their anxiety to secure contracts, iron
ship-builders have sometimes been tempted to construct vessels of a
less degree of strength than due consideration would have dictated,
and have thus endangered the success of the system. Plates of all
forms and dimensions have hitherto been used, from -f^ to | of an inch
in thickness, but Mr. Grantham observes that these are by no means
the limits within which the plates must of necessity be made ; some
of much greater strength will, in the farther progress of the art, most
probably be put in requisition. Of late, as the size of the vessels
has increased, and the extent of the voyages peformed by them, the
strergth of the plates has been increased. On strength of material
it is to be remaiUed, that oxidation proceeds no faster on the surface
of thick iih'.tes than of thin plates ; so that plates of i inch have
double llie durability of those only l inch in thickness. In his
remarks on jointing Mr. Grantham decides in favour of the lapped joint
in prelercnre to the fiusli joint, and also in favour of double rivetting.
By Mr. Eairbairn's tables read before the British Association at Glas-
gow, it appears that, assuming the strength of plates to resist tension

[August,

to be .. .. r. 100

A double rivetted joint will be '^

And a single ri vetted joint , •• .

In the system of fiush-jointing, twice the number of rivets are re-
quired : and, therefore, to obtain the advantage of double rivetting,
four rows of rivets are necessary to each joint.* As to the objection
which has been raised to the lapped joints, that they make the hull
rout'h and lessen the sailing powers, Mr. Grantham's defence is that it
is very questionable whether the edges, presented in almost straight
and parallel lines, can at all impede the vessel's velocity, while
they give her a better hold of the water. In reference to an inquiry
whether, in case the heads fly off and the rivets fall out, the strength
of the vessel is lessened, and a hole left for the admission of water,
our author observes that he never heard of such an accident, and that
in his yard no occasion has been found to replace a single rivet.
Should.'however, the head of a rivet break off while the vessel is
afloat, it by no means follows that the rivet itself should fall out ; on
the contrary, when originally secured in a workmanlike manner, the
piece remains so firm in the hole as to require the application of a
strong sledge to drive it out. Among the errors to be guarded against,
Mr. Grantham places that of bolting on a false keel of timber to an iron
vessel, by which the Iron Duke, a vessel of 3.50 tons was nearly lost,
for haviiin- struck heavily on a sandbank, she tore away the false keel,
and broke oft" the bolts by which it was fastened, so that the water

entered the holes. , , •, , •,.,

Considered as a national question, and with regard to its capability
of extended application, the use of iron in ship-building acquires a
ereat importance. At present the shell merely is of iron, but the
decks and bulwarks must ultimately be made of that material. In the
shape of chain, iron has been extensively used for cables and for run-
nine rieeing, for halliards, topsail sheets, &e., in which latter capacity
it is found to be superior to hempen cordage as being much more
slender than ropes of the same strength, so that it will pass through
smaller sheaves or blocks, while it stands better to its work from not
being subject in atmospheric changes to any perceptible expansion or
contraction. The introduction of wire rope will, under such circum-
stances, evidently lead to a greater use of iron even for rigging. For
masts iron has also been adopted, and Mr. Grantham mentions one as
in use for upwards of twelve years in the Ballinasloe steamer, without
sustaining any perceptible loss in its strength. This mast serves also
as a ventilator to the cabin. As we stand now with regard to mate-
rials for shib-buildii.g and rigging, we are dependent on foreign coun-
tries, while our builders labour under great disadvantages in compe-
tition with their foreign rivals with regard to both timber and hemp,
the raw materials of their art. Little timber, be it remembered, is
grown in this country, where it is a precarious and little profitable
production, subject to the ravages of the worm and of fire, and requir-
ing many years before it brings a return. Neither does it give much
employment to labour in its production or subsequent application.
Mr. G'rantham, on this subject, remarks in a paper read before the
late meeting of the British Association at Manchester, that the H,n-
rfos/a» timber vessel had cost £72,000, of which about i 12,000 was
for labour, and £48,000 for wood, and much of this was expended in
the East Indies; but an iron ship of £72,000 value would cost£b/,000
in labour, all expended in this country, and the remainmg £o,000
would also be paid here for the raw material. Were iron substituted
for timber and hemp, we should not only give greater employment to
iabour in our mines, but also in our building yards and to our seamen,
for now the inducement is to build ships in those countries where the
material is most abundant, while we cannot compete in freight with
ships built by several other nations, owing principally to the compara-
tively low rate at which they can procure the materials for building.

The steam navigation interest is that which has the most to look
forward to from the general introduction of iron. At the present day,
the machinery and fuel occupy so large a portion of the vessel, that
very little room is left for stoWage. The weight and tremour of the
engines shake and strain wooden vessels and the machinery itself,
until the repairs of both swallow up most of the profit which would
otherwise be realized. The necessity for a greater degree of adap-
tation between the vessel and the machinery, is a topic which Mr.
Grantham has well handled. The engineer, he complains, is generally
very vet^ardless of the requirements of the vessel, and the ship-builder
often clings to principles of construction, which, when applied to
steamers, are ill suited to the attainment of a high speed. A wooden
vessel, when she takes the ground, and frequently when she encounters
heavy weather, becomes so much altered in shape that, were the en-
gines so attached as to form part and parcel of the whole, they would

" Vide also Mr. F.ilibairn on rivetiiiig boiler plates by machinery, at page
351 of our 3rd Vol.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

257

1842.]

bo in danger of being broken down, or otherwise injured. Few timber
stei^ers. he adds, can be placed in the graving dock, without firs
s ackenVna the hoUling-down bolts of the eng.nes to allow the vessel
0 spreahut, lest the^framing should be broken. Were iron vessels
leiieral, the case would be di&rent ; the engineer might, with perfec
irty, firmly unite the vessel and the engine being the de-gn r o
both- and being responsible for the success of the whole he will not
allow one part to suffer for the benefit of the other, but labour to com-
bine both so that they shall mutually support each other. "Then,
indeed"" s.ys Mr. Grantham, "we may expect to see a perfect

'Tconclusion, we feel it our dutv to say that the public ^^re greatlv
indebted to Mr. Grantham for having taken up. this subject, and
treated it with so much ability.

The Theoni and Practice of ProijelUng through Water, >r>th observations
ontlccinparatn. Resistance offered by IVatcr to Bod,es movmg
through it at different Felocities, comprising aho a Description o/ an
Imp°oved Method of applying Mechanical Power to Steam Navi-
gation. By Hekrv Booth. London : John ^^ eale.

Mr. Booth is so favourably known to practical men by his past
successful exertions in the cause of steam improvement, that any
speculations of his, relative to such subjects deserve an attentive con-
sideration, and are almost sure to obtain it. The ultimate object of
his present pamphlet appears to be the recommenda ion of a p an ot
propellino- vessels he has invented, and from which he anticipates far
greater efficacv than can be obtained by any modes at present in use ;
and lie seems 'to found this anticipation partly upon t be conviction
that the received theory of resistance is erroneous, and he calls upon
engineers " not quietly" to acciuiesce in the appalling theory which
ordains that 30 horse power being required to move a given vessel
and burthen 5 miles in the hour, '2-10 horse power will be Kqu-yed t"
move the same vessel and burthen 10 miles in the hour. Mr. bootli s
conviction of the inaccuracy of the received theory of resistance is
founded upon the results of certain experiments which he rela es, ancl
which, if correctly conducted, certainly present some anomalies not
very easily explicable. In experiments with models for ascertaining
their resistance when moving in water, he objects to the use ot a
weight moving at very different velocities as the true representative
of the amount of power expended. He says, and his assertion is
obviously true, that a weight which descends 10 feet in ., seconds
does not give out as much power as the same w;eight falling the same
distance in (1 seconds, and that at the velocity due to the descent of
a body falling freely, no power could possibly be given out; and lie
suppo'ses that the apparently great increase of resistance to models
moving in water at high velocities, is partly due to the dimimshed
efficacv of the weight as a moving power, the velocity of the weight s
descent having in many experiments at least been increased with the
increased velocity of the model. By making such arrangements m
liis apparatus that the time occupied by the weight in descending
through a given space was always the same, and the velocity ot the
model varied by the use of larger or smaller drums for coiling up tlie
string, Mr. Booth has obtained results very dillerent from those ob-
tained where the drums remained of the same diameter, and the in-
crease of the velocity of the model was attended by an increased
rapidity in the descent of the weight. u f ti

There are several circumstances which prevent the results ot tlie
experiments from being conclusive in our eyes. The difierent degrees
of the immersion of the models do not appear to have been noted;
and the want of uniformity in this respect is an obvious source ot
fallacy. At high velocities it is well known models and light boats
will rise almost out of the water, and their resistance will then be
very little; and whether this source of diminution in the resistance
may not have existed in these experiments— or to what extent— we
are unable from the details before us to assert. Mr. Booth will pro-
bably tell us, that the velocities in the cases from which he has drawn
his results were equal, and that therefore the effect proper to the di-
minished immersion of the boat must be equal also. But he must
recollect that the boat in the one case travelled a greater distance than
in the other, and although it is true that 7 ft. G in. of progress in 3
seconds is equivalent to 15 ft. in (i seconds, yet the rates of progres-
sion are different, and the sum of the resistances may consequently be
unequal. In other words, if 15 feet be travelled over in >> seconds,
less than half of the 15 feet will be accomplished in the first 3 seconds,
and more than half in tlie last 3 seconds, the velocity being accele-
rated ; and in the cases where the 15 feet were passed over, there may

be a diminished resistance in the first part of the motion from its
Greater slowness, and in the last part of the motion from the diminished

''"T^^ZeZZit. of fallacy to which we cannot now advert,
and must content ourselves with saying that we do not think any
exper me'its upon the resistance of bodies moving in water where the
nrim; mover is a weight susceptible of acceleration in .Is descent
are nam- degree entiUed to confidence. Major Beauh.y employed
a chain he Ihiks of which were raised successively from the ground
by the le cending weight, to counteract the tendency to acceleration.
Other experimentalists have made use of governors, and other con-
tri •ances'for the same purpose, and the resistance has been measured
by a dynamometer. All the experiments so conducted have been con-
firmatorv of the received theory; and we shall be willing o pu equal
fiTh in Mr. Booth's researches so soon as he shal have adopted s.mi-
a y efficacious means of obviating error and holds the ™™ersion of
his models at the different velocities to be a necessary element of the

'" BuUt is not upon experiment alone that the received theory rests
it« pretensions; running 'water and wind, it is we known, impinge
upon stationary objects with a force increasing as the square of the
elocity, and the -atmospheric resistance to railway trains fo lows the
same la; If water be let into an inclined shoot, the velocity ot the
wMer two feet down will be twice what it is at one foot down ; and
1?U irthe lame nuantity of water which runs at twice the velocity,
?he dept of water'in the shoot at the lower level will be only one
haVof' hat it is at the upper. Now every particle of water which
fs two feet will, by virtue of the fundamenta laws of mechanics
ha e ust wice the foVce as every one of those which have descended
onefio aida particle of water will therefore strike any object at
die lower "evel with just twice the force that .t would do at the
„»r .m all the Daricles of water in the shoot, if striking against
"r/y" w iu g y'e out twice the force at the lower level that they
would d^a he upper. But at the lower level they occupy only half
he depth in he shoot, and therefore impinge upon only half the area ;
a^d a do b d force upon half the area is just a quadrupled force upon
the whoTa ea, which is the received theory. Mr. Boo h says a con-
id eX part of the resistance of ships s made up of fr.ctioi, and
hat friction does not vary as the square of the velocity. To this it
on v necessary to say that we know so little about friction that we
hokl it unwise t'o draw any analogies from it. Friction, we know, is
ncUsed by increasing the rubbing surface, and increased also by
minishin^it : it is increased by allowing two pieces o some sub-
taices c°ontict to remain for a few minutes at rest, w iilst in other
cases no appent increase takes place, and it is certainly aftected by
many causes which we cannot hold to be mechanical. Besides, we do
ot b'el e"e that friction forms any considerable part of tl.e oppo-tion
exoerienced by a vessel in moving through the water. The speed ot
as?e"uve elisalways increased, at least in smooth wa er, by in-
creasing her length, and in some cases, as Mr. Booth, in another place
a seis by increasing the breadth ; but in both of these cases the fric-
tion 's increased. Thus much we have found it necessary to say in
suppor of the received theory of the resistance being as the square
of Ae veloc ty; but whether as the square o the velocity or as any
thinc^elsTwe donotthinkittobeat all relevant to the merits of
M Bootl I's propellers. Whatever the resistance may be, it is un-
changeabh' fixed in the nature of things, and has to be overcome by
Mr R^o 1 's uronellers, just as much as by any others. Propel ers niay
vmlnexpendin' he engine power more or less beneficially, but they
cannot aUei- the ?sistance of the ship, and we are at a oss to discover
the leas'm of these two questions having been mingled together in

''Tli;:S:ur:7;Sulsion Mr. Booth recommends,maybe under-
stood by- supposing a double arm upon each side of the ship extending

f m th'e oXary^position of the P-'f/''"'-, '",;'■;,:;''', ">„,'^td
the water level, moved backwards and forwar . b> he engme, am^^
furnished with a plate moveable upon an axis at ib. lo«ei <^Yr''™»y-
This arm consists of an inner and outer portion, between which the
nhte is situated, and this plate is so hung that upon the advance of

U from opening or shutting with an injurious force. Mr. bootti also
biteiTs Un't i? project sh-.dl be in active operation during only a small
port on 0 he sfroke of the engine, the power given out by the engine
durnp. the remainirg portion being accumulated by means ot fly
M< to ci -e a speed to the propellers during this short interval of
•U' miles per hoer. The action proper to a row-boat is hus approx-
ma^edto,';nd horses are imitated, 'who, in pulling a boa,, always

258

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

exhibit the principle of concentration. " Tims nntiire works, and we
only endeavour to imitate Nature in her most successful eiforts, by the
alternate concentrated operation of the patent propelli^rs."

We confess it appears to us there is much want of judgment and
much puerile jargon in all this. If the propeller be moved at 3i miles
per hour and the vessel at only 10, every stroke of the propeller will
put in motion a column of water of an area equal to the propeller,
■with a velocity of 31 — 10 = 21 miles per hour; and as this water is
moved by the engine, a great part of the engine power is thus use-
lessly expended. Mr. Booth is probably not aware that by increasing
the velocity of the paddle-wheel by reducing the area of the float,
and thereby increasing the consumption of steam by the engines, and
consequently the power, the velocity of the ship is actually diminislied
in some cases. Twenty strokes of the engine per minute will thus
sometimes be less effectual than 15, though with the same pressure in
the cylinder in both cases ; and the cause is, the difference between
the speed of the paddle and the speed of the ship is then too great,
and much of the power of the engine is expended in throwing the
wafer back, instead of forcing the vessel forwards. As to the imita-
tion of the expedients of Nature, we must beg leave to insinuate that
Nature is best copied when the means devised are the most answer-
able to the purposes for which they are intended ; and that to copy
ducks' feet and horses' legs in works of art, merely because Nature
employs such agencies, is to depart from the princiiile by which
Nature operates, in the exact proportion of the fidelity' of the
imitation.

We are unable to extend our remarks further, and there are many
heresies which must, therefore, remain unnoticed. We regret that
■we have been compelled to be so uniformly censorious, but Mr. Booth
can well spare the reputation which the best of such schemes is able
to confer, and neither is nor needs to be a mimdicant of praise. He
will, therefore, we are sure, pardon us for stating our honest conviction,
that this is one of the very worst plans of propulsion that has ever
solicited the favour of the public.

Transactio7!S of lite Royal Iit&titiile of Brilish Architects. Vol. I.
Part 2. London: Longman and Co., 1842.

" Better late than never." After a gestation of six years (for
Part I. of this work bears the date of 1836), and a parturition of we
know not how many months since it was advertised as preparing for
the press, the representatives of the architects of Great Britain have
at length brought forth what they facetiously call their Transactions :
theirs, it must be presumed, upon some principle of appropriation,
since, out of the one hundred and eighty-five pages of which the volume
(or half volume) consists, less than thirty are the production of the
professional members of the Association by whom it is published.
And of this small contingent, by far the greater portion belongs to the
late and present honorary secretaries, upon whom it was perhaps
incumbent to contribute something ex officio — so at least it might be
supposed, judging from the easy tooth-pick sort of way, in which one
of these gentleman dispatches a subject upon which he might have
told us a great deal if he had pleased, and per contra, the laborious
illustration of an Arnott's stove! undertaken by the other. There
remain, therefore, only some half dozen pages, devoted to an inves-
tigation of that remarkable arch popularly called the stone beam, in
Lincoln Cathedral, which it is possible to consider as a free will
offering from any member of the profession, towards promoting the
objects which the Institute may have in view in the publication of their
proceedings, and for this we are indebted to Mr. Nicholson of Lincoln.
It is very certain, as every one knows who knows anything of the
proceedings of literary and scientific societies, that a paper maybe
most interesting and valuable as addressed to a general meeting and
accompanied by illustrations, and yet possess neither importance nor
novelty to entitle it to permanent record ; and yet it seems strange
that an interval of six years, during which something supposed to be
worth listening to has been read at every meeting of the Institute,
should have produced so little which on review should appear worth
preserving. It is impossible but that the eminent architects who appear
among the members of the Institute, should meet with incidents in the
course of their extensive occupations which might suggest valuable
communications on practical subjects ; but the fact is, that we find the
names of none of those professional gentlemen whose means of obser-
vation are the most enlarged, either in the body of this volume, or in
the list appended to it of nineteen papers read at the ordinary meet-
ings during the session of 1840-41, of which nineteen papers, be it
further remarked, eight only, exclusive of two translations, are claimed
by the professional members of the Institute.

Wesavall this in no unkind feeling towards our professional friends.
We admire sincerely the spirited endeavours of the Institute to carry
out some of the most important objects for which the members pro-
fessed to embody themselves, and if they have not been supported by
all who are interested in their proceedings and who protit by them,
the fault is most assuredly not theirs ; but if the Institute seek to be
recognized by the public as a literary society, they must exhibit a
little more energy in the performance of the character they assume.
The profession in general may not be such ready writers as some
others, vet there are those among them who are sulliciently familiar
with the printer's devil; and unless some of them will show a dispo-
sition to contribute at least a reasonable quota to their own publication,
thev can scarcely expect the continuance of that aid from their honorary
members, and others not bound to the Institute even bi' that slender
tie by which alone they have been enabled to produce the volume
before us. If these gentlemen hold the hunonr of appearing in the
Transactions of the Institute at a discount, we disagree with them.
They raav go far without finding themselves in better company.

These observations must be understood as totally independent of
our opinion of the volume itself, which is one of the most valuable
offered to the profession and the public for a lung time past. It con-
sists of ten papers or essays, illustrated by numerous engravings and
wood-cuts. The first in order is a dissertation "On the mechanical
construction of the Vaults of the Middle Ages," and the name of
Professor Willis is a sufficient guarantee that it has been treated in
the most able manner. The subject of stone vaulting in general is
one which has been hitherto much neglected by English writers, and
the works of foreigners, beginning with the celebrated treatise of
Philibert de I'Orme, published in 156S, have been entirely devoted to
the forms of vaulting peculiar to the classical and Italian styles of
architecture, and they have exhausted their ingenuity in devising
methods to meet all cases of obtaining, from plans and designs, the
forms of the individual stones of a building for the use of the mason,
and these operations have always formed a regular branch of archi-
tectural science in France, under the name of the "coupe des pierres."
The necessity of regular laws and systems to the Gothic architects in
the construction of their marvellous vaultings is obvious, and much of
their practice is probably mixed up with the problems of Efe I'Orme,
who treats his subject as one well known, and claims only the merit of
first reducing it to writing ; but of their peculiar methods nothing
has been transmitted to us.

"It becomes, therefore," says Professor Willis in his introductory
pages, " a curious and interesting subject of inquiry to trace, from an
examination of the structures themselves, what geometrical methods
were really employed in setting out the work, and how the necessity
for these methods gradually arose. Independently of the value of
such investigations to the history of the science of construction, the
knowledge of the methods actually employed would greatly assist us
in the imitation of the works of each period. For the forms and
proportions of every structure are so entirely dependent upon its
construction and derived from it, that unless we thoroughly understand
these constructions, and the methods and resources which governed
and limited them, we shall never succeed in obtaining the master key
to their principles, and instead of designing works in the style of any
required age, we must content ourselves with merely copijing them.

"The following paper must be considered as an attempt to sketch
out an investigation of this kind, and in offering it to the body of
practical men wdto are assembled in this Institute, I am not without
hope that some of them may be induced to collect facts and examples
by which this investigation may be carried on and completed. For it
will appear, as we proceed, that most of the facts required are of such
a nature that they can only be derived from the existing buildings by
the aid of scaffolding, minute measurement, and close observation,
which it is not often in the power of mere travelling observers to
obtain.

"Now professional men are so commonly entrusted with the repairs
or restoration of these old structures, that if they would take the
opportunity of making the required observations in every case where
scaffolds were erected about a building, and if such observations were
transmitted to the Institute, a few years would sutTice to bring together
a body of examples from which general rules might be deduced. It
is only by comparing many examples that this can be done, for general
rules deduced from single instances are commonly worthless."

The subject thus proposed the author follows out in four sec-
tions, devoted to the consideration of — the general construction of
the vaults of the middle ages ; the curvature of the ribs ; the ridge
ribs, liernes (or short ribs in decorative vaulting), and bosses ; and
lastly fan vaulting, upon which so much ignorance has been promul-
gated, and so much learning expended, both of which are dispelled
before Mr. Willis's simple and clear-headed investigation of facts.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

259

The first section begins by pointing out the essential difference
between Roman and Gothic vaulting, the latter consisting of a frame-
work of ribs or stone arches, upon which the real vaulting is supported,
a mode of construction which the author designates as "rib and pane
work." In the early stages of vaulting, during the Norman period,
these ribs oifered very little geometrical diilicully, but as the number
of ribs was increased, a more artificial mode of structure became
requisite, and the investigation of the mechanical processes by which
the arch stones might be fitted to each other, so as to produce the
existing results, occupies the remainder of section 1. Among the
diagrams which illustrate this portion of the work are exhibited the
working lines left by the masons on the beds of the vmssoirs of ancient
arches which have' been taken down. In section 2, the first point
considered is the difficulty of adjusting the curvatures in groined vaults
when the springing and elevation of the lateral, transverse, and
diagonal arches are on the same level, but the spans different. In
circular arches this difficulty is accommodated by stilting them at the
imposts, or making the diagonal ribs a segment less than a semicircle.
With the introduction of the pointed arc!; this difficulty was greatly
diminished; " but notwithstanding the possibility of making pointed
arches of any proportion of height and span with their centres of
curvature upon the impost line, it will be found that the old expedient
of placing the centres of curvature above or below the impost line,
for the better adjustment of these arches, was still retained in pointed
architecture until the four-centred arch was brought in. I shall proceed
to examine this more at length, since it involves so much of the
characteristic appearance of these vault?." This characteristic
appearance in original Gothic vaulting arises from the curvature
of" the ribs, (as Professor M'illis makes it evident by numerous
examples,) being always arcs of circles, and he comments very justly
and severely on the erroneous but comujou method of jjrojecting
the diagonals of Gothic vaults by ordinates, to the ulter destruction
of the medieval character of the work — "This is the genuine prin-
ciple of the Roman and Italian groined vault, but is altogether foreign
to the principles of Gothic architecture, in which every rib should
spring as a separate and independent arch, and in which the elliptic
curves proAiced by this method are totally at variance with the
characteristic forms of the style." This mode of projecting the
diagonals was taught by De I'Orme, but he was perfectly aware
that it was inapplicable to Gothic vaulting, of which, as a matter of
curiosity, he gives a description, making every rib perfectly inde-
pendent of the rest in its curvature. This stupendous blunder is
therefore due to more modern times. Even in genuine Gothic vaulting
the effect becomes comparatively vapid after the introduction of the
four-centered arch, owing to the regularity with which all the ribs
start at the same angle from the impost.

The third section is of great ] ractical utility, and treats of projecting
the forms of the stones in decorative vaulting, especially of such as
form the converging poiits of the Hemes. The subject is complicated,
and not to be made intelligible without refereiice to the diagrams by
which it is copiously illustrated. The Hemes in decorative vaulting
form a variety of elegant figures about the centre of the vault, of
which a star shape is the most common. Hence Professor Willis has
given to one class of this description of roof the name of slellar
vaulting, which very happily expresses its character. The depend-
ance of the designs of these vaults upon geometrical construction is
well illustrated, the form sometimes coming out in the solid when its
existence would hardly be suspected from a mere view of the plan ;
and on the other hand being sometimes symmetrically laid down, and
disappearing under the elfects of the perspective. As vaulting
advanced in complexity, a revolution took place in its mechanical
construction. This occurred when the compartments of Heme vaulting
became so numerous, and consequently so coi4racted, " that it was
found simpler and stronger to work the small [.ortions of panel sur-
face between the branches of the boss stones out of the same block,
than to cut them away and drop in the panel afterwards. Then the
bosses, from the increasirg complication of the patterns, began to
approach so close, that it was worth while to take the pains to make
them meet, and thus the crowns and ridges of the vaults came also to
be built solid. Lastly, the solid construction was extended to the
entire vault, and so by gradual degrees the mechanical and decorative
construction of the vault, which began by being identical, ended by
becoming totally different." This brings us to the subject of section
4 — fan vaulting.

We must here ;.gain refer to the work and the diagrams, in which
is developed the method by which the complicated forms ol the stones
in these remarkable structures may be accurately modelled. The
characteristics of fan vaulting are thus described : —

"The ]iattern of these vaults is always a kind of tracery of the
same class as the perpendicular tracery which at that period occupied

the heads of windows or the surfaces of walls, the only difference
being that th.e mullions, instead of leing parallel and vertical, are
curved, and radiate from an impost. Instead, therefore, of the hori-
zontal transoms of windows, we have level circles intersecting the
ribs at nearly equal distances, and intermediate rays or ribs are inserted
between the princij)al ones. The panel spaces into which the surface
of the vault is thus divided are furnished with arch heads and foli-
ation, exactly as the similarly produced panels are ornamented in the
tracery of windows.

"I have already stated that in the Heme vaults a star pattern is
commonly found, which radiates from each impost in the same way
as the fans of the present class of vaults. The difference between the
star and the fan is, that the star is formed of ribs, which mav be and
often are of different curvature, and the rays of the star of different
length, but so skilfully arranged with regard to their solid effect, that
although irregular upon the plan, this irregularity is not offensively
perceived in the complete work.

"The fan is, on the other hand, formed of ribs strictly of the same
curvature and elevation, and its outline is bounded by a horizontal
circular rib instead of the zig-zag line of Hemes in the former vaults
by which the rays of the star are pointed. The effect of the fan is
that of a solid of revolution, upon whose surface panels are sunk;
the effect of the star is that of a group of branching ribs. This differ-
ence of character is assisted by the mode in which the mouldings are
disposed in the two cases. In the older vaults a vertical plane upon
the plan line of every Heme or rib divides it into two symmetrical
halves; but in the fan vaults the moulded rings and arch heads are all
perpendicular to the surface of the vault.

" In fan vaults the quantity of decoration is so much increased, and
its parts become so small, that it is no longer practicable to frame the
tracery of these vaults on the rib and panel system with Hemes and
boss stones, and consequently the portions near the crown of the vault,
where the decoration is compressed and crowded, are always con-
structed of jointed masonry. But the branching ribs below the first
series of arch heads are still built of long stones filled in with panels,
and the tas dt charge from whence the ribs spring is also laid in level
courses as before. There are a few exceptions to this general de-
scription ; for example, the vault of Henry the Seventh's Chapel,
which, however, differs in many other particulars from these fan
vaults, and will be separately described. It is entirely constructed
of jointed masonry without panels. Also the vault of Islip's Chape!
at Westminster is a real fan vault, but without any mixture of rib and
pane! work."

In illustration of this portion of the subject, the author has described
the vaulting of the chapel at the east end of Peterborough Cathedral,
the construction of which is identically the same with that of King's
College Chapel vault, on a smaller scale, but of very superior execution;
that of Henry Vll's Chapel ; and that of St. George, at Windsor, tlie
latter being not a real fan vault, but " a wagon vault, whose lateral or
transverse vaulting cells enter it below its crown." These descrip-
tions are accompanied by three elaborate engravings, exhibiting the
construction in tlie most perfect manner, by isometrical views of the
upper surfaces. There are also plans and sections of the same sub-
jects, and of the beautiful Heme vaulting in the cloister at Canterbury.

An appendix adverts to some very striking effects produced by
modifications in the forms of the spandrils in the vaults of the cloister
at Norwich, upon which it is unnecessary to dwell, as the paper froui
which it is transferred was read lately, and reported in the Jounn !
at the time.*

We hope enough has been said on this admirable essay to recommend
it to all who profess the study of our mediaeval structures, whether
as architects or antiquaries. The information it contains addresses
itself to both classes, and if it were for the sake of this paper
alone, the volume ought to be in the hands of every one inte-
rested in Gothic architecture. We cannot conclude better than in
the author's own words, hailing with the most sincere satisfaction
the promise wliich he holds out.

" In conclusion I must beg it to be recollected that I offer this paper
as a sketch of an investigation, for the completion of which 1 request
the assistance of the members of the Institute in the collection of
facts and examples. 1 have endeavoured throughout to show from
evidence the existence and employment of geometrical methods from
a very early period, and have attempted to restore some of these
methods. I have also ventured to assert the importance of certain
forms and arrangements in imparting character to the buildings in
question. The necessary limits of a paper of this kind have prevented
me from introducing several topics which may appear to belong to the
question in hand. Thus I have suid nothing respecting mechanical

" See p. 9^— Journal for March, 1842.

260

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AUSVBT,

principles, and have confined myself to form and arrangement But
ft anpears to me, from examination of the works of the Middle Age
architects, that the latter considerations had an infinitely greater influ-
ence upon their structures than the relations of pressure, then very
little understood, and about which they made manifest and sometimes
fatal errors; so that this omission may be fairly allowed, or at least
the discussion of this part of the subject may be carried on separately.
Also with respect to the elaborate and beautiful class of vaults which
I have termed Lierne Vaults, I propose, at some future time, to otter
to the Institute a supplementary paper containing many observations
upon them, and probablv additional remarks upon the entire subject.
Lastlv, since the methods which I have explained in this paper have
been 'for tlie most part elicited from an examination ot the existing
vaults, it may he worth while to compare them with those that are
recommended and taught in the books of stone-cutting already quoted
and referred to, as well as with modern actual practice."

Mr Poynter's paper "On the contemporary styles of Ciothic
architecture in England and France," supplies what has long been a
desideratum. Considering the novelty and importance of the subject,
we could wish, as we have already hinted, that it had been treated
more at length, but we must accept it according to the intention of
the author, who professes no more than some observations " oi slight
texture, as an index to more diligent inquiries." A chronological
table (which, with some account of the paper, was inserted in the
Journal at the time it was read,) exhibits a parallel of the styles of
French Gothic, as distinguished in the treatise of that eminent and
candid antiquary M. de Caumont.with those of the English, as divided
and designated bv Rickman, and the characteristics of each are rapidly
traced in the essay. It is a masterly sketch, like the illustrations by
which it is accompanied. We are not aware that any representation
has ever before been given to the public of the magnificent tower at V er-
neuil.a view of which forms the frontispiece to the volume. The other
engravings appended to this paper are, the eastern view of the cathe-
dral of Coutances, and the doorway of a small church near Dreux.
The latter is designed to illustrate a peculiar form of pediment
common in the Tertiary or Flamboyant Gothic of France, but un-
known in England, and a custom in French architecture of making the
portals of the smaller churches occupy the whole height of the centre
compartment, "an arrangement which producing an excellent ettectby
its simplicity, may," as the author pointedly observes, " reprove a
tice too eoramun in modern Gothic architecture, of executing
designson a smallscale, and little designs on alarge one." Sumraa
the subject is handled in this paper, it will be found a most useful chro-
nological guide to the student who is about to examine the mediaeval
architecture of our neighbours.

One of the marked peculiarities of foreign Gothic, glanced at in a
few words in the last paper, forms the subject of the next, in which
Professor Willis has treated of " The characteristic interpenetrations
of the Gothique Flamboyant." The fanciful intricacy of parts which
characterizes the later continental Gothic, and distinguishes it Irom
our contemporary perpendicular style, has given rise to the excessive
employment of interpenetrating surfaces. In English Gotliic, examples-
of this sort of composition are confined to the interference ot adjacent
architectural members, and even these are not common ; but in the
Flamboyant style, members are introduced and accumulated one upon
another, for the express purpose of showing interpenetrations. •' X hus
two difterent bases mav be given to the same shaft, or even two or
more difterent turretswith pinnacles may be placed in an identical
position on the plan, and made to interfere and interpenetrate through-
out their entire height, from the base upwards, in a manner that
defies description, and can only be illustrated by drawings."

We shall, therefore, not attempt to follow the various specimens ot

internenctratioii which are displayed iu the diagrams but merely

notice the iirincipal illustration— a doorway in the t^athedral ot

Nevers, flanked by pinnacles, or rather heaps of pinnacles, the com-

' position of whicli appears at lirst sight to set at nought all attempt a

' developement or classification. Mr. Willis has, however, unravelled

this strano-e tangle of architectural details, and has shewn its compli-

' cated eftfct to be produced bv " the co-existence upon the plan o

1 three distinct architectural members, each having its own set ot

' mouldintrs." These members, whicli are represented in the plate

< both combined and separate, are two square shafts with their separate

< pinnacles, caps, bases, &c., set diagonally, so tliat the angles of the
' one pierce through the faces of the other, and these are enveloped in
' a cylindrical column, round which are twisted spirally four shalts, each
\ with its separate cap and base.

j C To he concluded in the next Journal.)

prac-
great
Mimraarily as

Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Societu of JUanchester,
Second scries. Vol. VI. London : John Weale.

Tins Society has long stood eminent for the value of its papers, and
the high character of several members for the extent of their literary
and scientific attainments; it therefore affords us much pleasure to
receive the present volume, which contains 23 papers, several of
which are of the utmost value, both to the architect and the en-
o-ineer. The researches and able experiments of Mr. Fairbairn on the
strength and properties of cast iron, are particularly deserving of a
careful iierusal. This paper contains " a laborious inquiry into the
transverse strength of cast iron from various parts of the kingdom,
and also an extended investigation into the less cultivated field of
their relative values, as regards their adaptation to the arts." From
this paper we hope to liave an opportunity of giving some extracts,
and a more extended notice. There is also another paper by Mr.
Fairbaini equally valuable— that on the strength and properties of
anthracite cast iron. He first makes some observations on the nature
and properties of anthracite used for the melting of iron, in Vi^ales,
France, and America ; and after detailing several experiments on the
strength of iron, he concludes by saying— "I consider the use of
anthracite coal rather favourable than otherwise to the manufacture
of iron ; and provided some well conducted experiments were made
to ascertain the requisite proportions of flux and ore to this descrip-
tion of coal, much might be done to improve the quality of the iron,
and to bring into useful operation a valuable and important mineral
production."

In last month's Journal we published Mr. Greg's interesting paper
on Sepulchral Monuments; by the same author we have another paper,
entitled " Remarks on the Mural Architecture of remote ages.
There is a paper containing some observations on Sculpture by Paul
Moon James Esq., in which he takes a review of the works of our
modern sculptors; and there is also one containing a curious inquiry
into the orit^in of the " Babylonian arrow-headed character," by Mr.
James Nasmyth, which mav be read by the antiquary with much
interest. From the press of other matter, we are precluded from
giving a more extended notice of this varied and extapded volume,
but we shall not omit future opportunities of turning ^ur attention
to it again, by giving a few extracts from some of the papers which
are connected with the profession.

^ .Series of Diagrams Published by the Society for the Di_^itswn of
Useful Knowledge. Drawn on Stone by H. Chapman, and Printed
,n Colours by C. F. Cheffins. Part II. London : Chapman and
Hall, 1842.

These diagrams not only maintain the high character with which
we hailed them on their first appearance, but give an earnest ot
possessing even more extended utility. In the present number the
delineation of the mechanical powers is continued, and is accompanied
with the section of a fire engine. We should suggest that the value
of the work to students would be increased if each plate were accom-
panied with descriptive letter-press, explaining the power ot the
screw, pullev, &c., as appUed in the diagrams.

.4 Treatise on Engineering Fieldwork, and Levelling. By Petkr
BiiUFF, C. E., A. Inst. C. E. London : Simpkin and Marshall, lb42.

Students have no cause to complain of the want cf books on
surveying, but of the embarras ele choix, for among so many works
they must certainly find themselves at a loss. The book before us
forms the second part of the second edition of Mr. Bruff's treatise,
with many valuable additions and improvements. When it is complete,
we shall notice it at some length.

NcLv Cemetcr„.--\V^ understand that the designs for laying out the nov
cemetery on the lands of 15angholm. recently lued from the Governors ot
(™r"e Heriot's Hospital, have been considered by the committee ot the
eemeTery company, who have awarded the first premu.m to Messrs. Cousm
indGale architect .Royal Kxchan^e, and the second to Mr. Ihoraas Tayloi
arcbUet Mackenzie Place-all of this city. There wee 1, Jesigns sen
f,reom.elton inchuling several from London ; it thereture retiects great
r duTo re'siientartrsts, ihat their works should have heen pre erred,
,11 1,1 manimouslv in such a competition ; and there could be no tavou-
; ism br tCname; of t le successful competitors only became known after
yw,U\,-nrtt ere preferred That for «hich tlie first premium is au;arde(
nlheGothi sty and includes a chapel wherein ihe usual services ot
Episcopahans. at the interment of the deadVill be pcrlormed when required.
—Edinliurgli Observer.

IS

42:]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

261

ANSWER TO THE REVIEW OF MR. HAYDOX'S LECTURE
OX FRESCO.

Sir — It is impossible not to be gratified by the tone, temper, and
kindness evident in your review of my lecture on fresco. Tliere are
one or two mistakes as to facts, wliicli are easily corrected, and one
or two as to mv ttieories of art, wliicli it is but just you grant me an
opportunity of refuting. With these exceptions, the article is so
gentlemanly in its feeling, so totally opposite to the scurrility of the
greater portion of the daily and Sunday press whenever my name
comes under their consideration, that I was pleased and startled.

At one time the whole of the press aided and supported me, and I
can only attribute the change to this — that for the last 25 years the
students have been brought up to consider me a monster and a rebel;
that all students in art form literary connexions in their youth ; that
the vounw literary men branch off into reporters, critics, or editors ;
that thev have carried their early impressions with them, and that
thev consider it a moral duty to drive Haydoa out of the art, or off
the' face of our common mother earth, just or unjust. Be assured,
therefore, to meet with jus/ice is something so novel, that before
beginning my reply, your readers must pardon my allusion to it.

The assertion that my quarrel with the Academy was a school-boy
quarrel, and that it originated in some one saying " Hnydon'i pictures
to the coal-hole!" is an entire delusion; and the President before the
committee of 1830, pale and exasperated, found it anything but a
" school-bov affair." But now is not the time to recur to so painful a
subject: it'will be time enough to return to it when the present noble
views of Prince Albert, the Commission, and the Government are
baffled, they cannot tell why ; when a series of portraits are recom-
mended, as most suitable to British taste, in the Houses of Parliament,
instead of historical designs ; when fresco is given up, and cartoon
drawings become a joke; — iill thn, let the Academy question rest,
let the Royal Commission get experience, and let the public patiently
w ait the unravelling this Gordian knot !

The reviewer says, " I hold high art to consist in tlie selection of the
lift parts, of the best models, and in their union." So far from it,
that in mv lectures I have always held up to rilicule Pliny's assertion
that such was the practice of Zeuxis at Crotona, when he painted a
Helen for the Crotoniates. The selection of the best model, and
rejiderirg the parts defective in harmony with the parts not so, is not
selecting different parts from different models, which never can har-
monize at all. I have ever held high art to consist in restoring man,
woman, child, and animal, to the essential physical perfection of their
species, cleared from all consequences of accident and disease, as
God first created them, more or less, according to the style, for art is
<livided into epic, dramatic, and historic, aud in the illustration of
the epic by the species — man — the instrument of illustration, must be
as abstract as the style. Man is here supposed to be above the
degradation of human emotion, or historic fact. The perfection of
his body is an emblem of the supposed perfection of his soul ; the
one must be as much above human frailty as the other; but in the
dramatic, the instrument used will bear some deterioration of form
from the high standard of the epic, to suit the individuality of any
character which is affected by human passion ; whilst in the historic,
the agents may and must be disfigured by the localities of individuals
known to have possessed such characteristics, however inconsistent
they may be with a human form in the abstract. The one arm of
Xeiton— the little figure of Xapoleon — and the hump of Richard, are
as essential to the historic, as they would be offensive to tlie epic. This
is Haydonism, if you please, and not the mistakes of my reviewer.

My kind reviewer wonders at my rejecting David and the lower
Greek, and adopting Theseus and the elder Greek ! and I wonder he
classes the two together, in the same thought, the same breath.'
What ? class the principles of vitality, action, repose, flexion, exten-
sion, compression, gravitation, flesli, bone, and tendon, the character-
istics of the elder natural Greek, as visible in the Ilyssus and
Theseus, with the systematized deformities and pedantry of the lower
A/(n<;^;rai Greek? The principles of Phidias (the elder Greek) are
the principles of the Creator, and Phidias may be considered without
profanation as the representative of the principles of the Creator on
eartli, as far as conveying the efiect of vitality by inert marble, in his
imitations of the form and actions of man, can entitle him to the im-
mortality ; and, therefore, the perfection of sculpture, as visible in the
Elgin marbles, is not inconsistent with the perfection of painting
wh°n form is considered, and it may be laid down as an axiom in
painting, that when the nature, simplicity, and principles of the Elgin
marbles are considered inapplicable to British art, British art will be
in a condition of inextricable mannerism of either vulgarity or con-

ceit. The Elgin marbles are not Greek, they are human. The
reviewer says the nai'Ka\ui'or the navTapisroc are not sound principles
of art. Certainly not, exclusively : they are the seasoning of the
navafauKawf (the all-essential). Convey the all-essential by the all-
beautiful, but not at the expence of the all-essential.

" Another of Mr. Haydon's theories," says he, " is the sovereignty
of Greek painters; that not a fragment of their works exists rs ko
argument against enthusiasm." This is a sort of insinuation I have
all my life suffered from, viz., that my convictions proceed from en-
thusiasm, and, therefore, have no ground ; whereas mv enthusiasm
has always been the consequence and never the cause of mv conviction.

If the descriptions of Pliny of the mode of Apelles to produce tone
by glazing apply to the Venetian school, (which produced tone by
glazing,) where is the want of reason in saying Apelles coloured like
the Venetians, and must have done so ? If Quinctilian says Zeuxis
discovered the principles of light and shade, light and shade they
must have had ; if a bull was painted the head coming out and the
tail going back, tiiey must have had foreshortening: so of their
expression, composition, and perspective. Of their drawing we are
certain, and of their execution by touch there can be no doubt.

The reviewer concludes by ridiculing mv principle of adorning the
Houses of Parliament, and calls the subjects allegorical 1 I advise
the illustration of " the best Government to regulate without cramping
the liberty of man," by a series of historical subjects from the history
of the world. Surely the allegory is only in the abstract principle;
but the illustration of the horrors of anarchy, democracy, despotism,
and revolution, and the blessings of law, justice, and monarchy, by
positive historical facts, with statues between each fresco of the great
men who have caused the principles to be established, is anything but
an insipid allegory without meaning or sense. " Nature we want, and
nature we will have," says my friend (for I am sure he is so) : then
comes the question, what is nature? Queen Elizabeth eating beef-
steaks and drinking ale for breakfast, the pathetic murder of the
princes in the Tower, and St. Augustine preaching Romanism to the
Britons, are all equally nature, but nature under different views. To
conclude ; the " care cunein" is not as to Haydonisms, but as to what
will be much more dangerous to fresco and sound design, viz., " The
ale and beef-steaks of art," under the pretence of nature.

With every apology,

London, July 3, 1842. B. R. HIydon.

REMARKS OX THE "DESCRIPTION OF THE PERMAXENT
WAY OF THE SOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAYS"

I.v this age of discoveries, in this truly patent century, the minds
of so many men, both theoretical and practical, are engrossed by an
ambitious zeal of improving the inventions of their predecessors, and
by the wonders of their brains of obtaining the reputation of a
Smeaton, a Watt, or a Stephenson, that we must not be astonished to
find amidst such a host of competitors some advocating schemes
stamped with absurdity. It would really be a useful lesson to some
of these ardent aspirants for fame to read the list of patents taken
out during the last forty or fifty years : it would serve to cool their
temperament to find how few have derived any profit from their
inventions. Tliat men imagining themselves possessed of the I ump
of invention (I am not sure whether [ihrenolugists admit of such an
organ,) — having neither the advantage of a good theoretical education
nor the experience acquired by years of practice — should commit the
grossest mistakes, both in principle and mechanical combination, is not
astonishing, neither should we wonder that purely ])ractical men should
fail in theorv, or pure theorists in practice ; but wlien we find men
possessed of the greatest talents, of great experience and of good
theoretical knowledge, at times advocating principles false alike in the
eyes of the practical and theoretical man, it only shows with how
much caution we ought to proceed in the path of discovery, and hovr
necessary to the establishment of sound principles it is to have a
journal like yours, open to the discussion of subjects connected with
engineering." These remarks have suggested themselves to me in
reading the " description of the permanent way of the South-eastern
Railway," which appeared in your journal for this month. I had
previously often heard that Mr. Cubitt, who, as an engineer of great
abilities and extensive practice, must ever he regarded as a high
authority on engineering subjects, maintained the superiority of the
triangular to the rectang'iilar sleeper, but on what principles, previous
to reading Mr. Pope's description and the report of the conversation
wdiich ensued amongst the members of the C. E. Institution, I could
never ascertain. It is clear that their superiority in point of nltimalft

2 O

262

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

economy cannot be determined until tliey have been tested by some
years' use. With regard to first cost, it appears that the advantage
of the triangular sleeper is trifling; indeed, if we had not Jfr. Ciibitt's
word to the contrary, I should have said that it was inferior even in
this particular. Any other advantage resulting from the use of the
triangular sleeper, I certainly cannot conceive, except that the ballast
can be more easily rammed, in this case no doubt a very great advan-
tage, i;;;! from the form of the sleeper it will evidently require that
operation very frequently. I shall, however, quote from the descrip-
tion, and if any of your readers can explain to me the other advantages
stated, I shall consider it a great favour : —

" The sleepers are of Baltic fir, and are formed by a square balk
being diagonally divided so as to cut out four triangular sleepers,
which are laid down with the right angle downwards, which form as
much bearing surface as one of twice the cubic contents cut out as
half a balk, in the usual manner. The advantages arising from this
form in the economy of timber, the facility of packing, and the im-
proved drainage of the ballast in contact with the sleepers, are pointed
out, and the apparent disadvantage of the tendency to act as a wedge
is combated, by showing that the inclination of a right angle exceeds
the limits within which the principle of the wedge obtains."

No doubt a sleeper of this form has as much bearing surface as one
of twice the cubic contents cut out as half a balk, but it should also
be recollected that any weight passing over such a sleeper will exert
a pressure increased in the ratio of the square of two to unity, as can
easily be seen by resolving the weight in directions perpendicular to
the inclined surfaces of the sleepers ; and it must also be noticed that
this increased pressure on the ballasting is exerted in the worst
direction possible, that is, laterally, where there is nothing to retain the
ballast, whereas with the common rectangular sleeper the pressure is
vertical, and after the first year the ballasting becomes consolidated,
and requires comparatively very little ramming. I think, therefore,
that for the first year it may be less expensive to keep a railway
laid with triangular sleepers in proper order, but that after the
first year the "triangular system" will be found inferior not on'y
in point of expense, but also of solidity and firmness. I should
certainly be much pleased to learn from Mr. Pope how " the
inclination of a right angle exceeds the limits within which the
principle of the wedge obtains." Perhaps Mr. Pope could point out
these limits : I am sure your readers would also be highly pleased if
Mr. Home would publish an account of his series of experiments on
the strength of timber, for the results are quite extraordinary. If these
remarks appear to you worthy of being inserted in your valuable
journal, you will oblige me by doing so.

Yours trulv,

Diddin, Jane 10, 1S42. ' J. F.

BOOKMAKERS' DESCRIPTIONS.

Sir — Very much to my dissatisfaction, I find that vour Journal has
prophesied truly with regard to the "Memorials of Cambridge," for
there is nothing that amounts to description at all of Cockerell's new
building for the Public Libraries, &c; nor is the view of it as it will
appear when completed shown so as to enable one to make out from
it what the design really is, the principal front being so exceed-
ingly foreshortened that little more than the projecting parts of the
elevation are shown. Owing to the portico being taken quite on its
flank, one peculiarity — either oddity or original idea on the part of
the architect— is not at all discoverable, namely, that it has a central
column, consequently no central doorway! — a circumstance in the
design so very important as well as unusual that, instead of being
concealed, it ought to have been indicated as plainly as possible. At
any rate, if concealed in the graphic description of the building,
it ought to have been pointed out in the letter-press one ; but the
latter turns out, just according to your Journal's prediction, to contain
no description at all, although the wrapper of each No. of the work
promises " descriptive accounts of the buildings." Perhaps this may
have been a misprint on the wrapper of the first No., which has
unluckily not been rectified ; and it surely must have been intended
that we should read "with historical but no descriptive accounts, &c.

Of the two editorial M.A.'s, one an Esq. the other a Rev., neither, it
seems, knows anything whatever of architecture, or is capable of even
describing a building; yet surely one of the two should have been
chosen for his competency in regard to drawing up the "descriptive
accounts." As it is, it certainly would have been better had no promise
whatever of the kind been held out to purchasers. Yet even without
positive promise to that elTect, many would, like myself, naturally

expect to find the buildings shown in the plates explained, if not
commented upon, in a tolerably full and satisfactory manner, in the
letter-press, which is certainly not done here, save in the solitary
exception specified by your own reviewer, and which is, therefore,
rather an unfortunate one as far the character of the "Memorials" is
concerned, because it renders all the more striking the absence of
similar explanation and description in the other subjects. For not
again describing what has been repeatedly spoken of before by others,
and rendered quite familiar to us in consequence of having been treated
of in a variety of publications, there may be some excuse ; but very
far different is the case with regard to what may be called " unedited"
buildings. One of these is the " Pitt Press," to which may be applied
the writer's own words, who tells us, "We possess but a very obscure
and defective account of the early history of printing in our Uni-
versity," for his account of the structure is equally "obscure and
defective." All that we gather from it is that the building was
designed by Mr. E Blore, that the first stone was laid in Nov. 1S31,
and that it was opened in April, 1S33. To be sure we are favoured
with a copy of the inscription on the foundation stone, with the
names of the nobs who took a part in the highly important ce-
remony of placing it, " Tota inspectante et plauciente academia,"
which last is merely a bit of solemn bounce — a silly white lie,
that contradicts itself, because, even if such were the fact, it could
not possibly have been recorded upon the stone until after the cere-
mony. A grosser blunder — a more egregious practical Hibernianism
— perhaps was never made; and as Mr. Le Keux's editors had not the
noui to discover it, they have very innocently shown np that exquisite
specimen of University sapience, and swallowed the bull, without
making "any bones" of it. As to Mr. Le Keux's own share in the
work, I suspect it to be very small indeed, for although his name is
attached to the plates as the engraver, none of them seem to have
been even touched by him ; else, if they really are his work, they
manifest a very great falling off from his former excellence.

I remain, &c.

T. W.

ROYAL ACADEMY EXHIBITION.

Sir — Observing a letter in your July number, under this head, con-
taining complaints from The Aidiitect of a design, the perspective view
of which was forwarded by him from a distant county for the purpose
of being submitted to the Council or Hanging Committee for exhi-
bition this year, and which, in due time, was reported as having been
admitted, and afterwards did not appear on the walls of the Royal
Academy, and having been treated in precisely the same manner my-
self, I deem it right to mention the fact, in hopes that some of your
numerous correspondents may be able to suggest some reasonable
excuse for such indecision on the part of the Hanging Committee.

Wiien I hear of letters having been written by the officials of the
Royal Academy to some architects who had sent works "obviously
varying from the regulations" laid down by the Council, although
" the porters are instructed not to receive any " such, in order that,
even after the last of the tmo dayx "announced in the public papers
for the reception" of "works intended for the annual exhibition,"
they might have an opportunity of complying with those regulations;
when I find that upwards of 40 of the works catalogued under the
head of Architecture in this year's exhibition bear no relation what-
ever to that noble art ; and, above all, when I find such a moiiniain-in-
labour-like title as " No. 1011, Raising the monolitlial granite obelisk
between Fleet Street and Ludgate Hill, on the morning of June 26,
1S33," and then see the mouse-like production which the reviewer in
the Gent.'s Mag. very pithily describes as being the representation of
"five labourers, with the aid of a triangle and a pulley, performing
the Herculean task of setting this vast obelisk on its pedestal," I con-
fess myself quite at a loss to account for the bad faith kept by the
Hanging Committee with your correspondent The Architect, and with,

Sir,

Your's, faithfully,

London, July 9. Ego quoque.

Tunplkf Rnnds. — In 1S18 there existed in England anil AVales paved streets
and turnpike-roads to the extent of 10,725 miles, and other public higliways
93,104— making altogether 114,829 miles. From the re.icrt of the lords of
the committee upon turnpike tnists. it appears that in the year 1829 the
extent of turnpike-roads in England was 18,224 miles ; Wales, 2G31 miles ;
Scotland, 836 miles — making a total of 25, .511 miles.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

263

MR. VIGNOLKS' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

LECTURE Vtl. — ON CVEVES OF EAILWAYS.

This leclurevas devoted (o the consideration of curves upon railways, and
Mr. Vignolcs pointed out the principles on which should be compared the
economy and ailvania<;es to 1* obtained by the adoption of curves, with the
inconveniences attending on them; the saving of expense in form-aion,
eanh'.vork, bridging. S;c.. by curving round natural obstacles; the advantages
of attaining a more level line, av( iding interference with valuable property,
or approa-hing towns, mineral or manufacturing establishments, &c., all
entering into the former — the practical inconveniences of additional resistance^
tn motion and retardation of velocily to ensure safety being the set-off;
and. among other elements, it was stated that the breadth or gauge of the
railway affected the calculation. The Proiesscrthen showed that along very
wide valleys, through champaign countries, and where the grounds undu-
lated, so that the ridges, dividing the water courses, were successively crossed
by the railways at right angles to their general direction, the saving by
lateral deviation would seldom be material, and consequently, that the curves
may be laid out so flat as to be pracically equivalent to straif.ht lines — the
" acciti£?ts dc terrain,'^ to tise a French phrase, being, in such districts, to be
overcome by cutting and filling, to the extent justified by the importance of
the line and traffic, or by the introduction of undjlating gradients, some-
what approximating to the natural surface of the country. But in iracir.g a
line of railway along the sides of hills boundiog narrow valleys, particularly
where the main valley is broken by lateral rivers, then the economy from
curving becomes very ^reat, and the introduction of curves to the greatest
possible extent, cons stmt with safety, is allowable.

Mr. Vignoles then went on to consider the various means employed to
obviate the practical inconveniences arising from curves on railways. He
begcn by explaining the pecidiar distinction in make between carriage-wheels
and a.xles constructed for running on railways and those for common roads
— in the former the wheel being keyed fast to the axle, and both moving
round together— in the latter the axle being fixed to the carriage, the wheels
only moving round. Many aittmpis bad been made by engineers to give the
railway vehicle the advantage which the road carriage 1 ad of turning with
facility and safety round sharp ben 's. hut in vain, as the wheels always got
of!' the rails laterally, at even moderate velocities; it was only on the old
tramroads that the wheels were loose on the axles. Railway wheels being
thus fixed to the axles have the tendency to move on a straight line, so that
on the occurrence of a curve the ellort to continue in motion in the direction
of the tangent of that curve creates a certain degree of resistance, as the
wheels are only kept upon the rai's by the flanges pressing against the inside
edge of the cuter rail of the curve. The Professor then entered into a
number of technical details, which he illustrated to the class by diagrams,
explaining why the llarge of ihe wheel had now, by common consent, been
placed on the inner side of the periphery of the wheel rather than on the
outer side ; and also the reason for allowing a certain amount of jday, being
the diilerence between the gauge of the rai!s and llie gauge of the wheels,
and the manner and cause why the rim of the railway wheel is male some-
what conical — that is. tlie wheel, instead of being quite cylindrical, is really
Ihe fr«s;rum of a cone — stating at the same time, the rule for giving the
proper "cone" to the wheel, being dependent on the minimum radius of
curvature on the line to be travelled over, and the maj:iniim velocity. In
general, the " cone" was stated to be about one-seventh of the breadth of
the lim of the line, giving about one inch for the difierenre of diameter of
the wheels at their inner and outer edge, for, when carnages are passing
round a curve, the wheel and axle, being connected, roll together as a rigid
body, and require the contrivance of the " play and ihe cone "' to prevent
too much lateral friction of the flange, and to get the wheel round the curve
without dr.-.gging. Mr. Vignoles then showed that on the ordinary railway
gauge of 4 ft. 81 in., and in the 3-feet wheels, the above amount of cone ai.d
play wou'd be sufficient to meet a curve of only iOO yards radius, which is
greater than ar.y which ought to be laid down on a travelling line for high
speeds.

The centrifugal force due to the velocity of the carriage was next to be
considered. As Icfore stated, its tendency in moving round a curve is to
keep a tangential course ; this force may be accurately computed (being de-
pendent on the Velocity of motion, weight of the carriage, and the radius of
curvature) by well-known formula, whence is deduced the fractional part cf
the weight of the carriage, representinp the centrifugal force. The Professor
gave the formula, and worked it out on a supposed velocity of something
more than IT miles per hour, or about 25fj ft. per second, on a curve o: 200
yards radius, whence the centrifugal force was found to be l-30ih of the
weight of the carriage. Mr. Vignoles quoted the following niles— viz.,
" muhiiMy the square of the velocity in feet per second by the gauge of the
railway, and divide the product by the accelerating force of gravity, multi-

plied by the radius of curvature in feet," which gave an expression, which,
though not the fraction of the weight, was what would do very well for
practical and ordinary purposes ; it was the height which the outer rail of
the way should be elevated, to counteract the centrifugal force, and prevent
the wheel flying off at a tangent to the curve. He then stated M. de Pam-
bour's more strictly mathematical, bnt more complicated, rule for obtaining
the same amount of elevation of the outer rail, and showed the table of results
calculated by that engineer and by Mr. M'ood. of which we only give the
extremes, by which it appears that, supposing it safe to encounter so sharp a
curve as one of 250 ft. radius, at the rate of 30 miles an hour, the outer rail
of the way must be eleva'ed 12 in. ; but for a radius of 5000 ft., or nearly a
mile, at the rate of 10 miles per hotir, the requisite elevatii.n is rnly l-16th
of an inch. Having elevated the outer rail, the axle of the carriage, resting
on the two rails, gets such an inclination as will produce on the load a gra-
vitating force inwards equal to the centrifugal force outwards; and there
will neither be any tendency in the carriages to upset or to press the flanges
of the wheels against the rails. The rails once laid, if the carriages run
slower than the calculated rate, the centrifugal force is overbalanced by
gravitation, and the flanges of the wheel press the inside rails; if quicker,
Ihe contrary effect takes place, and the flanges press against the outer rails,
so that some medium rate of travelling must be fixed on; and, as the slow
trains are in general most heavily laden, any increase of friction has a more
powerful effect of retardation than will occur to lighter loads moving at
greater speed. Mr. Wood, therefore, advises that the outer rail should not
be eLvated more than will compensate the centrifugal force produced at the
slower rates of motion with heavy trains. Mr. Vignoles then forcibly illus-
trated Ihe practical effects of neglecting these rules.

He then entered on the subject of laying out curves on the ground, by a
succession of set-offs at the end of each length of any given measure — the
set-oft' being calculated from the r.adius of curvature, considering the given
measure (say a chain length) as the side of a circumscribing polygon ; and,
oil the large scale, and ]'ractically. a number of these sides of a polygon
become the segment of a circle. Mr. Vigno'es gave a simple approximate
rule for finding the sct-ofl' from the radius, or the reverse, by " divide the
number 792 (the number of inches in a chain) by the radius in chains — the
quotient is the set-off per ch.in in inches.' Thus, the set-off per chain for
a curve of a mile radius is 9.9. or, in round numbers, 10 inches. M"hen the
curve is of less than one mi'e radius, it is advisable to make the sets-off by
half-chains. It was observed incidentally by the Professor, from the same
rule, the set-off due to the curvature of the earth was in round numbers, about
eight inches per mile, and hence had arisen formerly some curious engineering
mistakes, from supposing that a horizontal line was a tangent to the earth's
surface ; and, in setting oul canals, an inclination of eight inches per mile
had .more than once been given to the water line, wliile it was imagined it
had been laid out for a dead level. In conclusion, Mr. Vignoles mentioned
that some further observations on curves would occupy the next lecture.

LECT.KE VIll. — ON CL'KVES.

I.N- continu .lion of the subject of curves, Mr. Vignoles explained that in
many cases it was impracticable or inconvenient to apply, on particular
ground, the approximate rule given in the last lecture, of setting out curves
chain by chain, or other short lengths, making each the side of a regular
polygon, the set-off being constant. In that method the given length was
strictly a secant, and not a tangent, to the curve. Another formula was
mnre generally applicable, and sharp curves on hill sides, tlirough thick
woods, had been quickly and accurately set on therefrom. It was this;

offsell = radius — (radius — tangent)- ; the demonstration of this was given,
and illustrated by a diagram. For the field, tables calculated beforehand,
for Ihe greatest number of usual curves, should be prepared ; but. on the
occurrence of any peculiarcases, the calculation could be very readily made,
with the help of a pocket table of natural sines. The Professor then reca-
pitulated St me of the leading points that had been gone over in detail at the
last lecture, observing that on the three principal expedients for counteracting
the injurious eflecis of curves, the usual mcasun-ments might be easily
remembered— viz., half an inch for the " cone '' of the tread of the wheel ;
one inch as a maximum amount of " play " of the wheels between the rails (it
being disadvantageous to allow too much play) ; and one inch for the
extreme elevation of the outer rail in laying the way, that being the measure
due to a velocity of 2-5 miles an hour, on a curve of half mile radius. Mr.
Vignoles then observed that the "cone" being given to the wheels, on
account of the curves, when the line of road was perfectly straight, this
conical formation of the tuyere was not required, and the general disadvantage
of such a fo.'-m of wheel, not bearing upon the whole face or upper button of
Ihe rail, preponderated. It had, therefore, become customary to incline the
rail, to meet ihe cone of the wheel, and this should always be done, both
on straight lines and on curves whose radii are not small. This inclination
of the surface of Ihe rail is obtained by casting the receiving chair accord-
ing'y on rails ; having a continuous bearing on longitudinal sleepers, or

264

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

licaring dirccl on cross timliers, without the intervention of chnirs, tlie wooJ
is cut to tlie requisite angle; or tlie inclination is some'.imes given to the
rails in i)assing tlirougli tlic rolls. M'ithout this precaution of inclining the
bearing stirl'ace of the rail to meet the cone of the wheel, the edge rapidly
wears, and the laminfe of iron peel oil' in strips, more or less, according to its
quality, and there is no more critical test of the perfection of rolled iron
rails than the manner in which the hutton edges go through this ordeal.
With the above precautions of "cone," " play." and elevation of the outer
rail, the res-istances opposed by curves to a single carriage may be considered
to be practically anniliibted ; hut when the trains become very lonp-, there
must, of necessity, be a considerable lateral action and grinding, from the
change of direction of the original drawing force through a number of
carriages', but Mr. Vignules stated that, although no conclusive experiments
had been made to show the e.'cact amount of resistance from this cause, his
oivn observations and experience led him to conclude that the degree of cur-
vature on railways might be safely extended further than they have hitherto
been laid down on principal lines.

Mr. Vignoles referred to fonner observations of his, that the public would
be better accommodattd by more frequent departures of smaller trains, and
that with such trams the curves would be of still less importance, adding
that it could only be by the introduction of greater curvatures to save ex-
pense ; and, as he had re[)eatedly argued fur the same reason, by the
adoption of steeper gradients, that the benefits of railway communication
could be extended through many districts, and to the m.rc distant parts of
the country, as on the most economical principles of construction. Mr.
Vignoles referred to (he report of tlie Irish Railway Commissioners, and to
the works of Mr. \Vood, M. de Pambour, Lieut. Lecount, and other writers,
for further details on curves, observing, in conclusion of this part of the
subject, that where curves are so quick as to require it, especially in crossings,
the additional precaution of guard rails becomes expedient.

In adding a few words on the subject of coupling carriages together in a
train, the Professor insisted strongly on the draw-boys being always in the
centre, and observed that, as a general rule, the connecting links should be
screwed up as stiff as possible consistent with the curves of the railway, as
otherwise the carriages are apt to swing. He mentioned that the best
coupling was that of Mr. Ilcnry Booth, the talented manager of the Liver-
pool and Manchester Railway frum its very first origin. But, as a general
form of combining the draw -boys and buffers on a central rod or tube with
spiral springs acting solely from the centre, Mr. Vignoles spoke in the
strongest terms of the apparatus of Mr. Thomas F. Bergin, the manager of
the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, on which line they had been used with
advantage for a number of years.

I.ECTIKE IX.— ON TTNXELS.

Ix proceeding to treat of the subject, which might be termed that of the
great works of art, to be introduced in the formation of roads or canals, but
particularly uf railways, Mr. Vignoles said that it would not be possible in
the lecture-room to go into the details of the constructions, but that he
must limit himself to general principles. The rules for consideration when
such works ought to be adopted were sufficiently simple ; for example, to
determine where tunnels should be substituted for open cuttings, or viaducts
for embankments. The French engineers, who are in general very much
better mathematicians than we are, and probably, from that very circum-
stance, more inclined to be theoretical, are much in the habit of introducing
formulx which, often very useful, are not always readily applied by the
practical men of this country. Supposing it to be required to determine aj
what point on a longitudinal sectiun (for road, railway, or canal,) it is
advisable to begin to tunnel, instead of continuing a simple excavation — that
is, the point where it becomes as cheap to tunnel as to cut open — for such a
case the following formula is given by an eminent French engineer : — Let
«= depth of cutting ; / = breadth of road, railway, or canal, on the travelling
surface; a — depth of bed, of road, or railway, to be first excavated, and
afterwards filled with road material or ballast ; or depth of canal below the

water-line; ~ =slope of excavation ; p = price of the cutting per cubic
yard. The expense of excavation per yard forward of the sectional area of
any cutting will consequently he a pxp (Ix- = x; and, when this price ex-
ceeds the price per lineal yard forward of tunnelling, the latter is cheaper,
supposing the given prices to cover all risk and contingencies in each case.
But, as circumstances are continually varying, the English engineer so
repeatedly finds that he has to modify — and perhaps finally abandon — the
general theiiretical rule, and fall back on his own experience, and that of the
contractor he may be disposed to employ, that, although he may occasionally
resort to such a formula as an approximation, he ceases to employ it in
practice, and obtains the sectional area of the given cutting in superficial
yards, by simple mensuration, and multiplies it by the price. All the complex
conditions involved by slips, faults, water, and the ntimerous incidental

occurrences in great works, to occasion unforeseen expenses, render prices
uncertain, and prevent any fixed general rule : and it is only when the
materials and probable contingencies are perfectly well known, that the
element of cost can be safely introduced Into the mathematical formula. For
dry indurated sands, gravel, sandstone rocks. &c., calculations may be made
within probable limits of error ; whereas, in many instances where the theo-
retical rule and general opinion, even of thosi sufficiently experienced, would
recommend tunnelling, it has been tried in vain, abandoned after great
expense in contending with water, and recourse had after all to open cutting.
The average cost of tunnelling upon the principal railway lines, as actually
executed, appears to be about 60/ per yard forward, in some instances as
much as 100?., especially when driven forward in reckless haste, and in
attempting to sink shafts or drive drifts, without due consideration as to the
quantities of water in the various strata, or the means of at once grappling
with the difficulties of drainage or pumping. With great facilities, favour-
able material, and not too much hurrying, the same area of tunnel has lieen
driven for so little as 20/. per yard forward. In round numbers, and on an
average, the sectional area of the ordinary tunnel for a double bne of rail-
way, to be worked by locomotive engines, may be called 50 superficial yards
when finished, or within the ring of brickwork or masonry, if lining were
required ; in this latter case, the sectional area of the opening to be excavate 1
may be assumed as about SO superficial yards. Mr. Vignoles observed that,
for future tunnel operations, with the benefit of past errors and experience,
by avoiding undue haste in execution, and with sufficient caution and activity.
40/. per yard forward for tunnelling may be taken as an average approximate
fair price. Now if it were wished to compare this expense of tunnelling
with the cost of open cutting, the Professor observed that, from his expe-
rience, which had been very considerable, in removing earth in large
quantities, he was not disposed to put a less price than that of Is. per cubic
yard for removing material for deep excavations, especially when this price
is to cover contingencies of slips. Sec. ; with such a price, then, an open
cutting 55 ft. deep, roadway 24 ft. wide, and soil requiring slopes of two
horizontal to one perpendicular, would give a sectional area of 800 yards—
that is, the expense (in estimate) would be the same as that of tunnelling.
But Mr. Vignoles observed that, in adlition, the future maintenance of the
tunnel should be taken into consideration, as well as whether the material
from the cutting could be disposed of with adv.antage ; the nature of the
soil, and a variety of other circumstances which he stated, all of which
would influence the decision. In sott rock, which would work with facility,
and \et stand nearly perpendicular, the depth might be very much greater
than 55 ft. before tunnelling would be cheaper. In such cases, a depth of
80 ft. and upwards had been resorted to. In chalk the proper slope to be
given, which was very variable, would greatly alter any elements of calcu-
lation, while, on the other hand, in forming tunnels through chalk, experience
had shown that water was the great enemy, and had entailed enormous
expenses. The Professor went into a great many other poiuts for comparing
excavations with turnelling, but they appeared too technical to be satisfac-
torily explained in a brief abstract such as this.

On ViAPfCTS ..\Nn AouEDrcTS. — Mr. Vignoles next proceeded to the con-
sideration of viaducts and aqueducts, into w hich, he observed, a totally diffe-
rent set of conditions enter, the cost varying from 20/. per line.al yard to the
price for which no rule could possibly be laid down. Viaducts such as that
of which the L ndon and Greenwich Railway wholly consists, may, probably,
be executed for 20/. to 30/. per yard, including the foundations. Of course,
the foundation entered materially into tlie calculation, and where water had
to be crossed, largely increased the expense. In some peculiar instances, a
large river viaduct, or bridge, has cost as much as 200/. per lineal yard. The
Professor instanced a viaduct he had built over the river Kibble, at Preston,
for the Norih Union Railway. The length was 300 yards, the height about
45 feet above the water, .and the whole mass, including concrete foundations
(where the rock was not attained), comprised about 25,000 cubic yards ;
coller-dams were used for the piers, and fur one abutment. The bridge con-
sisied of five arches, each of 120 feet span,batiring on the face and spandrils
from the parapet to the impost course — roadway about 27 feet wide ; the
total cost, including all contingencies, was j£45,0C0, which is 150/. per yard
forward, or 36s. per cubic yard on the w bole solid contents ; this might be
considered a lo.v price, inasmuch as an ordinary brick bridge, of twenty to
thirty feet span only, and wiih facilities for construction, can seldom be built
for less than 20s. per cube yard. Where no water or expensive foundations
are to be encountered, and where the spans of the brick or stone arches do
not exceed about GO or 70 feet, Is. per cubic foot on the solid contents of the
viaducts may be put as a good covering price. Mr. Vignoles stated that, for
such viaducts, about GO/, to 70/. per lineal yard might probably be taken as
the average approximate cost, and the additional expense, from a consider-
able increase of height, does not become so very great, as it chiefly affects
the piers only. The Professor then enlarged much on adopting timber
arches, with piers of masonry, for viaducts of large span and great height,
and produced a number o! drawings of such bridges, some actually con-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

265

structeil, anJ some only proposed. The heights were from 70 to 130 ft., the
minimmn price heing 35/ , and the niaxiiimm SO/, per lineal yard. He further
pointed out that high embankments should he avoided, and timber viaducts
substituted, as a mere point of economy, even without taking into consider-
ation the risk .and danger of slipping in such great masses of earth. In an
embankment only 40 ft. high, an occupation bridge for a farm would often
cost nearly £1000; it was, therefore, only in crossing a very narrow valley
or ravine, M here no bridges under would be called for, and no ma.sonry—
except perhaps a culvert of the very smallest dimensions— that very high
embankments should be m.ide. Mr. Vigno'es alluded to several such, varymg
from 70 to 90 ft. higti. which he had made, and pointed out a terrible failure
in one case, althougli in other instances success had followed. In passing
through hilly countries and along mountain sides torn by ravines, the intro-
duction of the timber-top viaduct, with stone piers, to overcome points of
great but partial difilculty, was strongly rrcnmmended, especially as great
additional height of viaduct could be given at small expense, and thus
excavations on each side saved.

FKOCSEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ACADEMY OF SCIE>"CES.

3/ay 30. — The reading of papers connected with the accident on the Versailles
Raihcay occupied a great portion of this sitting. One of the most interesting
was by M. Francois, an engineer of mines, on the means of preventing the
crystallization of iron used in machinery. On the examination of the rup-
tured axle of the engine, which was the cause of the calamity on the 8th
ult., the conclusion come to was. that the rupture had been caused by this
crystallization, the iron being of the best quality, and of a volume more than
sufficient for the purpose to which it was appUed. Similar results on other
railways have been ascribed to the same cause ; but no person has been
successful in the means of preventing the recurrence of accident by an
improved mode of manufacturing the iron, and all that coidd be done in the
way of precaution was, not to permit iron axles to remain in use for so long
a period as to undergo the crystalline change which is so fatal, and of which
external appearances give no indication. M. Francois informs us, that, in a
long continued series of experiments, be has observed that a magnetic action
upon iron when in a state of fusion, will produce the change alluded to,
causing the small and closely adhering grains to crystallize into coarse and
larger grains, depriving it of its compact character ; and it is inferred that
the action of heat upon axles employed in machines, subjected to great
Telocity, will produce the same effect. This can only be prevented by di-
miaishing the volume of silicate in the iron, by carefully sweating the coal
employed in melting, and above all, by the use, in the manufacture of axles,
of iron which has already undergone a partial change in its vitreous cha-
racter, and which, on being reworked, is much less susceptible of crystalline
change than new iron. Another communication on the same subject, by
Colonel Aubcrt, was also read. He agrees with JI. Francois as to the cause
of the imperfection complained of, but appears to think that the only real
precaution is, to change the axles employed in railway locomotives so fre-
quently as not to give time for them to undergo the crjstalline change, which
is found to be so destructive. Another paper, by Mr. Manby, on the causes
of railway accidents, and the means of preventing them, excited much
attention. This engineer recommends the use of four-wheeled locomotives,
but with some important modifications in the construction of them, both as
regards the axles, so as to expose them to an inferior degree of stress than
upon the present system, and the frame-work of the wheels, which should,
he says, be within the wheels, and immediately under tlje boilers. He also
lays down some practical rules for counteracting the lialulity of locomotives
to run off the rails, and mentions several facts in support of the correctness
of the various portions of his system.

A paper, by M. Pambour, on the means of checking, or rather equalizing
the velocity on railways, by the use of fans, deriving a force of resistance in
the precise proportion of the velocity communicated by the impetus of a
train, was next read.

M. Fleurian de Bellevue made a commnnication on the deterioration of
stone in bnihlings, which he ascribes to an emanation of acid gas from the
earth. He recommends a series of minute, but apparently almost imprac-
ticable, chemical experiments in the way of analysis of this emanation.

A communication was read from M. .Vgassiz, announcing that the King of
Prussia has placed at his disposal a sufficient sum of money for him to test,
in the glaciers of Aar, the truth of his theorv' respecting the progressive
motion of glaciers towarda the adjoining valleys. He is about to pierce an
opening downwards from the highest point of the glaciers, aud expresses a
conviction that the result will prove his theory to lie correct.

M. Arago addressed the Academy at some length on the eclipse of the
sun, then about to take place.

June 6. — A paper On the nature of the air which «■« breathe, under varioux
circumstances, was read. The author, M. Leblanc, has directed his attention
principally to an analysis of the air in rooms, hospitals, &c., — in fact, in all
situations' wherever it is vitiated by the congregation of persons. He begins
by showing, tiiat the air of an empty room, the doors and windows of which
are not closed, is precisely the same as that out of doors. This is, of course,
natural; but he states also that he found the same to be the ease in the
closed green-houses of the Jardin des Plantes, a seeming contradiction, which
he explains by the absorption by the plants contained in them of the car-
bonic acid of the air, and the giving nut again of this air purified by the
plants which had absorbed it. But in one of the wards of the hospital of
I.a Pitie, the doors and windows having been closed, the quantity of carbotiic
gas — that destructive element to human life — was found to be tripled, as
compared with what it was before the room was closed, and, in one of the
sleeping-rooms of the SaltpetriDre, the quantity of carbonic acid in the morn-
ing, the doors and windows having been closed during the night, was eight
times greater than in the open air. In the great lecture-room of the Sor--
bonne, after a lecture of an hour and a half, one per cent, of oxygen had dis-
appeared, and been replaced by one of carbonic acid. The quantity of car-
bonic acid in one of the ecoles d'asile, of Paris, after it had been closed for
three hours, whilst the pupils were taking their lessons, was found to be
precisely the same as in the experiment at the Saltpetriere. At the Chamber
of Deputies, he found the quantity of carbonic acid vary from two to four
parts in a thousand. The latter amount approaches the limit at which res-
piration becomes oppressive and injurious. In the latter portion of M. Le-
blanc's paper, he gives an account of some experiments with air deteriorated
bv the burning of charcoal.

INSTITUTION' OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

March 22. — Joshua Field, V.P., in the Chair.

On- Water Power.

" Remarks on Machines recipient of Water Power ; more particularly the
Turbine of Fonmeyron." By Professor Gordon (Glasgow).

Notwithstanding the diminished importance of water power since the
almost universal application of the steam engine, some situations may still
be found, in the mining districts of Cornwall, of Derbyshire, and of Cum-
berland, the Highlands of Scotland, and generally in the districts compara-
tively destitute of cheap fuel, where it is desirable to render falls of water
available.

The theory of water power, as it now stands, may be announced in general
terms thus : " The mechanical effect obtained is equal to that of the moving
power employed, minus the half of the vis viva which the water loses on
entering the machine, and minus the half of the vis viva which the water
possesses when it quits the machine."

Bernouilli recognized the second cause, and soon after Euler the first.
Borda, in his " Memoire sur les Roues Hydrauliques" in 1767, gave the pro-
position in precise and general terms ; whence he concluded that to produce
its tot.ll mechanical eftect, " the water serving as moving power must be
brought on to the wheel with impulse, and quit it without velocity."

This principle being admitted, the circumstances ue.it to be considered
are : The height of fall — the supply of water — and the nature of the wort
to be done.

These positions heing laid down, the author proceeds to examine the relative-
efficiency of water wheels of various constructions.

The undershot wheel acted upon by the velocity of the water when con-
fined in a rectilinear course, or when hung freely in a stream : in the former
case the efficiency of the machine is equal to 32 per cent, or nearly one-
third ; in the latter the ratio is 42 per cent, or about ffhs.

The breast wheel is gener.illy applied to falls of from 4 to 8 ft. ; in these
the efficiency reaches as high as 60 to 65 per cent, of the mechanical effect
of the fall of water. The buckets being filled to two-thirds of their capacity
their velocity is seldom less than from 7 to 9 ft. per second.

The consideration of this wheel led Poncelet in 1824-25 to the invention
of the " undershot wheel with curved floats," the eiHciency of which has
been found equal to from 65 to 75 per cent. The velocity of this may be
55 to GO of that of the effluent water — a velocity equal to that due to nearly
the whole height of fall ; hence the efficiency becomes " about double that
of the ordinary undershot wheel." This wheel has not been much employed
in Great F)ritain, although frequently used in France and Germany.

The overshot wheel is most generally employed in Great Britain for falls
IjCyond 10 ft. in height, and some excellent examples occur for work of every
description, from rolling iron to spinning silk. Its efficiency averages 66 per
cent, but has risen as high as 82 per cent.

The economical use of water as a moving power varying in particular cases,
rendered desirable the discovery of a receiver cajiable of general ap|)licatioB,
in all circumstances of height of fall, quantity of water, and .amount of work
to be done; and after intense study Fourneyron produced the Twhine, tlie
peculiarities of which form the subject of the paper.

Tlie imperfect horizontal water-wheels which have been used for centaries
in the mountain districts of central Europe and in the northern Highlands,

266

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Air GUST,

are nientioiieil ; tliea are noticed the experiments of MM. Tardy and Piobert,
and the allusion by Borda to horizontal wheels ; then a general description
is given of the numerous experiments made up to the year 1825, when M.
Burdin constnicted wheels in which the water was received at the circum-
ference of a vertical cylinder, descended in conduits, placed in a helical form
round the surface of "the cylinder, and made its escape at the bottom : the
etficiencv of these wheels was stated to be 75 per cent., but no exact
experiments were ever institvited.

Tlie defects in all the previous machines led to the invention of the Turbine
as it is now designed by M. Fourneyron : its construction may be compared
to one of Poncelet's wheels with curved buckets, laid on its side, the water
being made to enter from the interior of the wheel, flowing along the buckets,
and escaping at the outer circumference ; centrifugal force here becomes a
substitute for the force of gravity.

The mechanical construction of the Turbine is then given, and its action
is thus described. The water when admitted to the reservoir rises to a
certain level, exercising a hydrostatic pressure proportional to the heiglit of
the column, and on the sluice being raised it escapes with a corresponding
velocity in the direction of the tangent to the last element of the guide
curves," which is a tangent to the first element of the curved buckets; the
water pressing without shock upon the buckets at every point of the inner
periphery, causes the wheel to revolve, then passes along the buckets, and
escapes at every point of the outer periphery ; by which arrangement the
size of the machine even for a large expenditure of water is kept within narrow
limits.

The advantages of the Turbines are stated to he —

1st. That they are with like advantage applicable to every height of fall,
expending quantities of water proportional to the stjuare root of the fall,
their angular velocities being likewise proportional to these square roots.
2nd. That their net efficiency is from 70 to 75 per cent.
3rd. That they may work at velocities much above or below that corres-
ponding to the maximum of useful effect, the useful effect varying very
little from the maximum nevertheless, and —

4th. They work at considerable depths under water, the relation of the
useful effect produced to the total mechanical effect expended not being
thereby notably diminished.

These advantages are stated to have been realized in the extensive practice
of M. Fourneyron, of M. Brendel in Saxony, and of Herr Carliczeck in
Silesia, as well as other engineers.

A comparison of the theory and practice of the construction is then
instituted, and the following conclusion is drawn : — That if one Turbine has
been constructed which works well under a known fall, expending a volume
of water exactly measured, this Turbine would serve as a type for all others.
Knowing the fall ane the volume of water to be expended, the Turbine
would be made similar to its type. Its Hnear dimensions would lie those of
the type, directly as the square roots of the volume of water, and inversely
as the fourth roots of the heights of fall. Its angular velocity would be to
that of the type, directly as the fourth roots of the cubes of the heights of
fall, and inversely as tlie square roots of the volumes of water. These
pracical rules were first made manifest by M. Combe of the Ecole des Mines.
A general review is then given of most of the Turbines erected by M.
Fourneyron at Pont sur I'Ognon, at Fraisans, at Niederbronne, and at Inval,
upon which last were tried the experiments which completely estabUshed the
reputation of the Turbine as an applicable machine. The details of these
experiments are given, whence the mean results appear to be, that the height
of fall being 6 ft. 6 in. —

With au expenditure of 35 cubic ft. of water per second, the efficiency

63

79

126

144

„ (forwhich it was constructed) =

0-71
0-75

0-87
0-81
0-80

These experiments were tried by the application of Prony's Brake Dyna-
mometer, to the vertical shaft of the Turbine itself.

M. .\rago's proposition for employing the power of one branch of the river
Seine upon Turbines, to replace the wheels at the Pont Kutre Dame, thus
giving about 2000 horse power for supplying Paris with water, is then men-
tioned, as also the results of experiments with very low falls; showing that

With a fall of 3 ft. 9 in. the efficiency of the Turbine was = 0-71
2 ft. „ = 0-64

10 in. „ = 0-38

The Turbines of Miilbach and Moussay are mentioned, as are the failures
of several of these machines constructed by other engineers, and the paper
concludes with an account of a Turbine at St. Blazeux in the Black Forest,
■where the height of the fall is 345 ft., the quantity of water 1 cubic foot per
second, and the reported efficiency from 80 to 85 per cent.*

Remarks. — Mr. Taylor said that Professor Gordon's Paper on the Turbine
had been brought before the Institution with the advantages of illustration
afforded by the model made under the superintendence of Mr. Jordan for
the .Museum of Economic Geology; a most useful institution, for the present
advanced state of which the country is in a great degree indebted to the

' The discussion upon Professor Gordon's, and Pmfessor Mcseley's Papers
extended over several evenings, but are all recorded logelher for the sake of
acility of reference.

zeal and scientific knowledge of Mr. De la Bcche, who conducts tlie geo-
logical survey of the kingdom ordered Ijy the Board of Ordnance.

The Institution was indebted to the courtesy of Mr. De la Beche for the
exhibition of the model, and Mr. Taylor had been anxious that the subject
should be brought forward at this time, as the only period at wliich such a
permission could have been granted ; for models once deposited in the
museum were not allowed to be removed. But it had been arrested in its
passage from the hands of its maker, and thus had been procured for the
inspection of members of the I.stitution.

Mr. Taylor then proceeded to remark, that, although the improvements in
the application of steam had rendered water power of less value than for-
merly, yet there were many situations, particularly in the mining and high-
laud districts, where it was still employed beneficially. And as an instance
of the extent to which water power might be applied, he mentioned a case
in Devonshire, where in the adjoining mines of Wheal Betsey and Wheal
Friendship, near Tavistock, which have for many years been under his ma-
nagement, a fall of water of 526 ft. in height is employed in giving motion
to seventeen overshot wheels, eight of them performing the duties of pump-
ing water from a depth of nearly 200 fathoms. The diameter of the largest
of these wheels being 51 ft. with a width of breast of 10 ft. clear within the
rings, the smallest of the eight being 32 ft. diameter, and the others of
intermediate sizes.

Four other wheels give motion to machines for drawing up the ores to the
surface, tlieir diameters varying from 40 to 26 ft.; and the five remaining
wheels are employed for mills for crushing and stamping tlie ores. In
addition to all this power, a steam-engine with a cylinder of 80 in. diameter,
and 10 ft. stroke, is provided as an auxiliary in periods of drought or frost.

He then gave tbe distribution of this water power in the following tabular
form : —

Overshot Water Wheels employed in pumping water atM'heal Friend-
ship Lead and Copper Mines, near Tavistock, in July, 1841. From data fur-
nished by Mr. Anthony Rouse, engineer at those mines.

All the wheels operate on their pumps by means of a simple crank formed
on each end of the centre axis or gudgeon, on which the wheel is mounted.
Two long rods extend nearly in a horizontal direction, from the pins of those
cranks, to the upright arms of two bell-crank or elhow levers, which are
situated at the mouth of the pit, or shaft, and from the horizontal arms of
those elbow levers, two vertical pump-rods are suspended, in the pit. Those
rods and the pump-work are the same as commonly used for steam engines
in Cornwall, with plunger pumps, except that there are two pump-rods in
each pit, and they move up and down iu contrary directions, owing to the
two cranks on the ends of the axis of the water-wheel being bended in op-
posite directions ; by that arrangement the weight of the two rods counter,
balance one another; one half of the pumps are connected to one rod, and
the other half to the other rod, and the water is raised in the pumps by
turns. All tlie wheels have a considerable length of horizontal rods, to ex-
tend from their cranks to the elbow or bell-crank levers at the pit's mouth ;
and in some cases a very considerable length of such rods, occasioning much
friction.

1. Old Sump Wheel, 51 feet in diameter, 10 feet broad. Thewater poured
into its buckets was at the rate of 5632 gallons per minute ; which, at 10 lb.
per gallon, would be 56,320 lb. weight, descending 51 feet = 2,872,320 lb.
per minute descending 1 foot; that is, the power of the water expended; or
being divided by 33,000 lb. (for a horse power according to .Mr. Watt) gives
87-0 horse power expended.

The wheel when so supplied made 5 revolutions per minute, and worked
6 pumps, as follows : —

Lifts.

Path. Feet.

Diam.

Weight.

1
3
1

1

43 If

112 3i

25 3

6 5

134

13

14

9

lb.

16,136

38,922

10,225

1,132

66,415

The length of stroke in the pumps was 6 feet; and the effective motion in
the pumps to raise water, was at the rate of 30 feel per minute.

The weight of the columns of water in all the 6 pumps, amounted to
66,415 lb. weiglit, whicii being raised 30 feet per minute= 1,992,450 lb.
per minute raised 1 foot ; that is, the power realized or exerted in actually
raising the water; or being divided by 33,000 gives 60-36 horse power
reahzed.

Wherefore an expenditure of water power equal to 2,872,3201b. per
minute descending 1 foot (or 87'0 h.p.) produced a useful effect realized in
water raised by the pumps, equal to 1,992,4501b. per minute raised 1 foot
(or 60'30 H.r.) ; the useful effect or work done being at the rate of 09-4 per
cent, of the power expended, the remaining 30-6 per cent, being lost, partly
by friction of the pump-work, and resistance to the motion of the water

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

267

through the pumps, and partly by imperfect application of the water to the
wheel.

II. Taylors North TJ'/ieel, 50 feet diameter, 6j feet broad ; was supplied
with 5199 gallons of water per niinute= r8""5 h.p. expended. It made 5
revobitions per minute, and worlied 6 pumps with a stroke of 6 feet ; weight
of the columns of water in those pumps 44,689 lbs., which was raised 30 ft.
per niinute = 40'63 h.p. reahzed ; being ol-6 per cent, of the power e.\-
pended.

III. Taylor's South JJ'/ieel, 40 feet diam. 4 J feet broad ; supplied with
416"-4 gallons = 30-5 h.p. expended. It worked 2 pumps. 0 feet stroke,
5 strokes per minute ; weight of columns 30-270 lb. = 27'53 h.p. realized ;
being 54'3 per cent.

IV. Brentoa's /(Viee/, 32 feet diam. 7j feet broad; supplied with 8897'4
gallons = S6-3 h.p. expended. It worked 5 pumps, 6 feet stroke, 4} strukes
per minute; weight of column 30-092 lb. = 24-03 h.p. realized; being only
28-5 per cent, of the power expended, which is to l)e accounted for by the
additional friction of a great length of horizontal rods by which this wheel
works its pumps.

OvEasHOT W.iTER Wheels AT Whe.^l Betsy JIi.nes, in July, 1811.

I. Job's Wtieel, 42 feet diam., supplied with 2890 gallons of water per
minute = 36-78 h.p. expended. It made 4 revolutions per minute. Weiglit
of the columns of water in the pumps 28-314 Ih. 0 feet stroke = 20-6 h.p.
realized ; being 36 per cent.

II. Williams's W'Aec?, 40 feet diam. ; 3027 gallons per minute = 36-6S h.p.
expended. It made 4.^ revolutions. \Veight of columns 26-434 lb. ; "i feet
stroke = 26'43 h.p. realized; being 721 per cent.

III. Buller's Wheel, 40 feet diam., 1912 gaIIon3 = 23-17 h.p. expended.
It made 3 revolutions. Weight of columns 22-901 lb. 7i feet stroke =
15'61 H.p. realized ; being 67-4 per cent.

IV. Carpenter's Wtieel, 44 feet diam., 1983 gallons = 26-46 h.p. expended.
It made 4^ revolutions. Weight of columns 18-0C2 1b., 6 feet strokes
15'26 H.p. realized ; being 57'6 per cent.

Conclusion. — If Brentoa's Wheel at Wheal Friendship is rejected, as an
extreme case, the average performance of the other three wheels at Wheal
Friendship will be 5S-3 per cent. ; and of the four wheels at Wheal Betsy
63-3 per cent. Or the average performance of all the seven wheels will be
61-2 per cent.

Wheal r Old Sump 69-4 ]

rriendshp. ^aylor^ North .... 51-6 I 58-5 per cent.

' L Taylor 3 South .... 54-o J

{Job's 50-0 "]

Williams's 72-1 ^, „

Buller's 67-4 \ ^^'^ P''" •^«"'-

Carpenter's 57-6 J

Mr. Jordan described the turbine to consist of three principal parts : —

1st. A cylinder with a base upon which are fixed the guide curves, direct-
Big the water at a certain angle upon the buckets of tlie moving ring.

2nd. A sluice regulating the flow of water from the bottom of the cylinder
upon the buckets, and

3rd. The external or revolving ring with its buckets, and its upright shaft
whence the motion is communicated to the machinery to be driven.

The buckets are confined between two annular plates, tlie lower one being
attached to the vertical shaft, in the bottom of which is fitted a hardened
steel thimble, into which a pivot of " glass-hard steel " works ; tliis inversion
of the ordinary arrangement of the pivot, is to prevent any particles of sajid
or other substances from getting upon the point, and producing friction. Oil
is introduced to this pivot by a tube connected with a small pump, worked
by the machinery at the requisite speed to keep it lubricated.

The form of the buckets is a mathematical curve, and on the pertection
with which this is traced, will depend tlie efficiency of tlie turbine.

These parts are enclosed within a cylinder, so arranged that it shall serve
as the reservoir, whence the water is admitted upon tlio moving parts by the
sluice, which must be well fitted to prevent a loss of water, and is uniformly
raised or lowered by gearing placed on the top of the cylinder. When the
height of the fall is considerable, the cylinder is closely covered, and the
moving shaft passes through a stuffing bo.x in the centre, but with low falls
the cylinder is open at the top.

A great advantage in the machine is, that the castings and iron work com-
posing it, are (with the exception of the buckets) very simple, they require
little adjustment, and only a few parts are turned or bored, so that tlie con-
struction ought to be economical.

Mr. Rennie had endeavoured to introduce the turbine into notice some
years ago, and the nature of the curves had been examined in an article in
Herapath's Magazine. Professor Gordon's statement correspondeil very
nearly with what he had heard from MM. Foumeyron, Arago and .Morin, and
subsequently seen of these machines when in France. He had vi.■^ited a tur-
bine erected by a -Mr. Isterwood at a flour-mill at St. Maur, near Paris ; the
machine drove ten pairs of millstones 3 feet 4 inches in diameter, at tlie rate
of 200 revolutions per minute, equalling 40 h.p. ; subsequently three addi-
tional turbines were erected for the purpose of driving ten pairs of stones
each, or in all forty pairs of stones by four machines ; each turbine hail a
diameter of 3 ft. 2 in. and a depth of bucket of 8 inches, with a fall of water
of about 6 ft. : when entirely submerged to the depth of 4 feet, tlie turbine

continued to make (as in low water) 50 revolutions per minute. Subse-
quently, in September 1840, he visited the flour mills of M. D'-A.rblay at
Corbeil. These mills are four in number arranged in a quadrangular form ;
each mill contains ten pairs of millstones, which were originally driven by
four well-proportioned cast iron wheels of about 18 ft. diameter ; two out of
the four wheels were still at work, but the other two had been replaced by
two turbines similar in dimensions to those at St. Maur. One of them was
working ten pairs of stones. The motion was communicated to a horizontal
shaft by means of bevil wheels, one fixed on the upper extremity of the up-
right spindle of the turbine, the other of smaller diameter fixed ou the end
of the horizontal shaft, on which also were fixed the riggers for driving, by
means of straps, smaller riggers fixed on the millstone spindles. The work
was very regularly done, and the proprietors expressed great satisfaction.
The second turbine was then erecting, and the third and fourth water-wheels
were to be replaced by similar machines. No fault was attributed to the
original wheels, but their efl'ect was not equal to that of the turbines. The
maker (.Mr. Isterwood) stated that he had made these machines entirely
under the direction of M. Fourneyron, who alone knew how to trace the
directing and emissive curves, and that unless they were properly described,
the effect would be greatly reduced. He at the same time stated as his
opinion, that there was no economy in the construction of the turbine over
the common water-wheel, as the former is more complicated and costly.
M. Fourneyron seemed to doubt whether any other machinist than himself
could construct a turbine properly ; the principal difficulty being in tracing
the curves, which had bean the study of his life ; he quoted several instances
of failure when strangers had attempted their construction. M. .Vrago and
M. Poneelet were of the same opinion ; the former stated that the effect of
the curves was contrarj- to theory. M. Morin expressed his confidence in
the accuracy of the experiment made with the fr'ene or friction brake of
Prony applied to the axes of the turbines.

Mr. Rennie had seen a cast iron water-wheel with close buckets veiy
nicely balanced, 24 ft. diameter and 3 ft. 6 in. wide, made under the direction
of his father, realize 80 per cent, of eifective power, and Professor Gordon ia
the paper spoke of 82 per cent, for an overshot water-wheel. He did not
however by these observations mean to disparage the turbine, with which
the mechanical world generally was not sufficiently acquainted.

r>lr. Taylor thought that Mr. Rennie had overlooked the two prominent
advantages of the turbine, in comparing it with other methods of employing
water power.

1st. That of its being equally adapted for very low or for very high falls;
in falls under 10 feet the breast-wheel afl^orded but an imperfect mode of
using the power, as the actual efficiency fell far below what ought to be ob-
tained by a more perfect machine ; and in falls above 50 or 60 feet, if over-
shot wheels were used, a number of them must be constructed with the dis-
advantnge of increased expense and probable inconvenience in their appli-
cation. Instances had been adduced of turbines working with a fall as low
as 2 feet and as high as 343 feet ; the efficiency of the former being stated
at 64 per cent, and of the latter from 80 to 83 per cent.

2nd. That they are not affected by back or tail water like almost all other
hydraulic machines; it having been shown, by direct experiment, that when
working at considerable depths under water, the relative proportion of use-
ful effect produced, to the total mechanical effect expended, is not thereby
notably diminished. This in his opinion was one of the most important ad-
vantages of tlie turbine.

For high falls, the water-pressure engine and Barker's mill, as improved by
Whitelaw and Stirratt, rivalled the turbine ; and for low falls there were
many machines which were very effective ; for instance the balance-engine,
and the old " flap-jack," with a reservoir of water at one end of a beam and
a pump at the other; he had seen such a machine working with a ten-foot
stroke, pnmping from a depth of 200 fathoms ; but for falls subject to great
fluctuation, none of these machines appeared to equal the accounts given of
the turbine.

Mr. Farey had not collected from the paper, or the discussion, how the
quantity of water passing through the turbine had been measured. The
power exerted appeared to have been tried by a break applied directly to the
axis of the turbine, whereas ordinary water-wheels are usually tried by the
work which they actually do perform, and that by the intervention of ma-
chinery which causes a considerable loss of power by friction. In order to
make a fair comparison, the two kinds of machines should have been
experimented upon exactly in the same manner, which did not appear to
have been done.

When Mr. John Taylor stated, that the effect of the best of the large
water-wheels used for pumping water out of the mines under his manage-
ment, had been calculated to be 69 per cent, of the power expended ; it
would be found that the effect produced had been computed by the weight
of the columns of water in the pumps, multipUed by the height through
which such weight was raised ; such being the usual mode of reckoning. But
it is obvious, that much more power was exerted by the water-wheel than
would thereby be brouglit to account in the 09 per cent., owing to the fric-
tion of the pit-work and pumps by which the water was raised. The turbines
appear to have been tried in a way which would not incur much of that loss,
but which would bring to account in the per-centage nearly all the power
which, in practical operations, must be lost by the friction of the machinery
with which a water-wheel or a turbine must of necessity be connected, in
order to perform sucli operations.

268

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

Professor Moseley's Constant Indicator.

" Jiesul/s of a Trial of the Constant Indicator upon the Cornish Engine at
the East London ITater-troris." By Professor Moselc-y, F.R.S., c&c.

The oliject of tliis communication is to exliibit ami explain the results
given by the author's Indicator during a continuous registration from the
28th January to tlie 25th February, 1842, the engine during that time making
232,617 strokes. The numbers registered by the counter of the engine and
the Indicator were noted each morning and evening, and .ire recorded in a
fable appended to the paper. The differences between each two consecutive
numbers registered by the counter, giving the number of strokes made
between each two observations, are contained in one column of the table, and
in another column are the differences between the successive registrations of
the Indicator. These arc followed by the mean registrations of the Indicator
at every stroke of the engine, being the quotients of the numbers in the
last-named column divided Ijy tl-.e corresponding numbers of the preceding
column. The paper, after thus stating tlie numbers registered daily by the
Indicator during the ]>eriod of trial, proceeds to explain the formula to which
they are to be applied, in order to determine the work done daily by the
engine. The formula, when reduced from the general one by the introduction
of the numerical values of the constant dependant upon this engine, is

U-16I-.1474 N--090J1 L.
in this expression, U represents the units of work (in lb. raised one foot
high.) done ujmn each square inch of the piston through any given time,
during which the number registered by the Indicator is represented by N,
and the space in feet which the piston traverses, by L. The second term of
the formula, which is very small as compared with the first, is a correction
for the influence of the friction of the Indicator on the number registered
by it. The formula being then reduced by tlie substitution in it of the nu-
merical values before alluded to, the whole number of units of work per
square inch of the piston done between the 2Sth January and the 25th
February is shown to have been 2I,464,067"1727. From this is deduced the
work done during the same time upon the whole area of the piston as well
as the duty done upon the piston for each cwt. of coals. These calculations
are followed by a comparison of the results given by the Indicator with those
previously obtained from actual experiment by Mr. Wicksteed ; whence it
appears, that with a necessary allowance for a difference in the lengths of
stroke at the periods of the two experiments the results of the two are
almost coincident. The work per stroke upon every square inch of the
piston as obtained by experiment is 120'574, whilst as shown by the
Indicator it is 110-338'lb.

Professor Moseley exhibited the Indicator, and described its construction
and action ;* the accompanying engraving (Plate XI.) represents the Indi-
cator constructed by the committee. C and D are cylinders, each four inches
in length, communicating Ky the steam steam-pipes A and B with the top
and bottom of the cylinder of the engine to which the Indicator is applied,
and well clothed with felt to prevent radiation. In these cyhnders work
two solid pistons, each four square inches in area, fixed upon the extremities
of the same piston-rod E F, which piston-rod (when the steam i>assages A
and B are oi)en and the Indicator is in action) sustains in the direction of its
]ength a pressure equal to the difference between the pressures upon the two
pistons fixed upon its extremities, or (since these sustain the same pressure
■with equal portions of tlie opposite sides of the piston of the engine) equal
to the effective pressure of the steam on four square inches of the piston of
the engine. This pressure upon the piston-rod is made to bear, by means of
a shoulder Z, upon the steel spring S T, which spring is connecteil by means
of links at its extremities with a second similar and equal spring Q R. sup-
ported at its centre upon a solid projection P, from the cast-iron frame of the
instrument. The pressure of the piston-rod upon the lower spring borne at
■the extremities of the upper spring, whose centre is fixed, is thus made to
separate the two springs from one another, and the separation produced is,
by a well-known law of dcllection, directly proportional to the pressure sus-
tained, so long as the deflections are small. The limits within whicli this
!aw of deflection obtains, are greatly extended by the pecuhar form given to
these springs, first suggested (it is believed) by M. Morin. One surface if
each spring is plane, and the opposite surface of that well-known parabolic
form by which an equal strength is given to every portion of the length of
the spring. The spring being thus tapered from its centre to its extremities
wittiout impairing its strength, its deflection is distributed more uniformly
throughout its length, and being thus made less (for a given separation of
the springs) at every point, the elastic limits arc nowhere so soon passed.

By this connection of tlie piston-rod with the springs, its position is made
to vary directly as the effective pressure upon its extremities, or as the
effective pressure upon four square inches of the piston of the engine, so
that every additional pound in that pressure will cause the piston-rod to alter
Its position by the same additional distance in the direction of its length.

The pulley or wheel I K (which, from the peculiar functions assigned to it
Sn this machine, we propose to call the integrating wheel,) turns upon the
piston-rod as its axis, and traverses with it at the same time in the direction
of its length, being prevented from moving on it in that direction by means
of two shoulders fixed by adjustment screws.

* The Editor is indebted for the annexed engraving of the apparatus and
description to a report of a eommittee appoinlcd at the tenth mei'ting of the
British -\ssociaiion. Memljers of the committee, the Rev. Professor Moseley,
M.A., F.RS., Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq., F.R.3., J. Enys, Esq.

The arras of this wheel are pierced by apertures, through which pass three
rods united at their extremities (as shown in the figure,) so as to form the
rigid frame G II, which frame turns also upon the piston-rod as lis axis, but
does not traverse with it in the direction of its length ; so tliat the wheel I K
is made by its motion with the piston-rod to traverse the rods of the frame
longitudinally, whilst it is made to sweep the frame round with it by any
motion of rotation which may at the same time be communicated to it about
its axis. It receives such a motion of rotation from the cone K L, which is
so placed that its side may be accurately parallel to the piston-rod, and which
is kept continually pressed against the wheel at K by means of a spiral spring
inclosed in a tube at II, and acting continually against the extremity of the
spindle on which the cone turns.

A system of bevel wheels U, Y, X, communicates to this siiindlc, and with
it to the cone, the rotation of the pidley N, which pulley is driven by a cord
carrying a weight at one extremity, and passing by the other extremity (over
directing pulleys) to the piston of the engine, or to some point which moves
preciselg as tlie piston of tfie engine does, but through a less space. The circum-
ference of the pidley N being thus made to move precisely as the piston of
the engine, the angle described by the cone, during any exceedingly small
period of time, is made to be exactly proportional to the space described
during that time by the piston of the engine. Now let it be observed, that
the circumference of the integrating wheel I K partaking of the motion of
that portion of the surface of the cone with which it is at any instant ia
contact, the number of revolutions, or rather parts of a revolution, which it
is made to describe during any exceedingly small period of time, beginning
from that instant, is dependent upon two causes ; first, upon the dimensions
of the particular circle of the cone which is at that instant <hiving it, and,
secondly, upon the particular angle through which it is driven by that circle,
that is, it depends, first, upon the distance of its point of contact K with the
cone from the apex of the cone at that time, and, secondly, upon the angle
which the cone describes about its axis during that small period of time.
Jloreover, that if either of these two elements of variation remained always
the same, then the number of revolutions, or parts of a revolution, made by
the wheel, would vary directly as the other, whence it follows by a well-
known principle of variation, that when (as in the present case) both these
elements vary, it varies as their product ; or that the number of revolutions,
or parts of a revolution, made by the integrating wheel during any exceed-
ingly small period of time, varies directly as the product of two factors, of
which one is the angle described during that time by the cone, and the other
the distance of the point of contact K of the cone and wheel from the apex
of the cone.

Now the former of these factors has been shown to vary directly as the
space described during that small period of time by the piston of the engine,
and the latter to vary directly as the effective pressure which the steam is
then exerting upon the piston of the engine.*

Thus, then, it appears that the number of revolutions, or parts of a revo-
lution, made during any exceedingly small period of time by the integrating
wheel, varies as the product of the space described by the piston of the engine
during that time, by the effective pressure of the steam upon it during that
time, that is, it varies as the work or dynamical effect of the steam upon the
piston during that time. And this being true in respect to every small period
of the time during which the stroke of the engine is in progress, is true of
the whole stroke ; whence it follows, that the number of revolutions, and
parts of a revolutiou, made by the integrating wdieel during the stroke is pro-
portional to the w hole work, or dynamical efl'ect of the steam upon the piston
during the stroke.

The integrating wheel carries round with it the frame G H, on the hollow-
axis of which frame is fixed a pinion running into a wheel, whose axis turns
upon bearings fixed to the frame of the instrument, and the number of whose
teeth is to that of the teeth in the pinion as ten to one. This wheel carries
also a pinion running into a second wheel, their numbers of teeth being in
the same proportion, and so through a train of five wheels and pinions. The
circumference of each of the four last wheels is divided into ten equal parts
and numbered, and the circumference of the first into 100. The number of
revolutions of the integrating wheel is thus registered to five places of inte-
gers, and to one place of decimals.

Now this number of revolutions has been shown to he proportioMal, in re-
spect to each stroke, to the work done by the steam upon the piston during
that stroke ; if, therefore, the .iction of the Indicator continued the same
during successive strokes, or if the direction of the pressure of the steam
upon the piston, and that of the motion of the piston, were not reversed at
every stroke, then would the number registered during any number of strokes
of tlie engine be directly proportional to the work done by the steam upon
its piston whilst that number was registered. At the return-stroke of the
piston of the engine, the pulley N, however, revolves backwards, and sup-
posing it to carry with it the spindle of the cone, the cone also revolves

" The position of the integrating wheel upon the piston-rod is so adjusted,
that Ijefore the steam is admitted the integrating wheel may be brought, by
the elasticity of the springs, exactly to the apex of the cone. In order to
prevent it from being stoppetl by the ajicx of the cone, if accidentally it
should be made to pass it, a S'jlid piece projects frum the frame of tlie instru-
ment, having its surfaces adjusted so as to receive the edge of the wlu'el when
it IS lorced bBvonil the apex of the cone, and to serve as a stop to the motion
of the cone in iho direction of itsspindle when the resistance of the wheel is
thus removed from it.

FROF? MOSELEYS CONSTANT TNDJCATOK FOR STEAM ENGINES.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

269

backwards, so that if the integrating wheel remain in contact with the cone
at any other point than its apex, it too will be made to revolve backwards,
and the number registered iu the preceding stroke will thus l)e diminished by
the number of revolutions made by the integrating wlieel during this stroke:
but let it be observed, that before the motion of the piston of the engine is
reversed, the direction of the pressure of the steam upon it, and therefore the
direction of the pressure upon the piston-rod of the Indicator is reversed,
by which altered direction of the pressure, as well as by the elasticity of the
springs, the integrating wheel is made to ascend to the apex of the cone, and
to remain there during the return-stroke, so that no number wliatever is
registered during that stroke.

Thus, then, the remaining number registered during any time by the instru-
ment when applied to the double acting engine, is proportional to the work
done upon the piston by the steam at the alternate strokes during that time.
The mathematical formula by which the work is determined from this
number, and allowance made for the friction of the Indicator, is given in a
subsequent part of this report.

In order etTectually to guard against any error which might accidentally
result from the reversed motion of the piston, a contrivance has been intro-
duced in the combination of wlieels Y, X, U, by which the revolution of tlie
cone may be arrested whilst that reversed motion takes place. To adapt the
instrument to register (if required) the work done at every stroke of the
piston, a four-way cock has been constructed, which may be made, by the
action of the engine, to control the direction of the steam passages of the
Indicator, in such a way that the upper cylinder C shall always communicate
with that portion of the cylinder of the engine which is tilled with steam,
whilst the lower cylinder D is made always to communicate with the vacuum.
When the Indicator is thus used, the cone is made, by a simple adjustment
of the mechanical combination U X Y, to revolve constantlyyb/'icffn/s, whilst
the motion of the piston of the engine, and therefore of the pulley N, alter-
nates. It remains now only to speak of the application of the Indicator to
the single acting engine, or Cornish engine.

The registration during the down or in-doors stroke of that engine is
already explained. During the first portion of the nji or out-of-doors stroke
the equilibrium valve is opened, and the pressure upon both the pistons of
the Indicator thus becoming the same, the integrating wheel is brought by
the elasticity of the springs to its initial position at the apex of the cone,
and thus, although the cone turns backwards, the wheel remains at rest and
nothing is registered. When the equilibrium valve closes, the pressure of
the steam in the upper portion of the cylinder of the engine, and therefore
in the upper cylinder C of the Indicator, preponderates ; the integrating
wheel descends from the apex of the cone and tlie register revolves bac.;-
wards, deducting from, or diminishing, the number before registered by pre-
cisely the number of units of work w-hicli is done by the steam (jammed
back into the upper portion of tlie cylinder) ayainst the returning piston.
Now this is precisely the deduction which the theory of the steam engine
shows ouglit in this case to be made, and the registration of each double
stroke of the single acting or Cornish engine is, by this backward movement
of the integrating wheel, perfected. Let it be here observed, that the Indi-
cator in the r/owH-stroke performs the definite integration of a loyarithmic
function, viz. that which represents the pressure of the steam as a function
of space, described by the piston during the expansion of the steam, that it
then calculates the numerical amount of the integral it has thus completed,
and registers that amount ; that it performs a similar operation in tlie up-
stroke, and deducts the corresponding amount as a correction from the first.

The above must be received as an attempt to place the theory of the
instrument under a general and popular form. .\ mathematical discussion
of it accompanies this Report, in which the corrections due to friction and
other causes are fully considered.

formul.e for detekmixixg the work of .\n exgine by mean's of the
Indicator.

The following are the values of the constants which enter into the general
equation in its application to the Indicator constructed by the Committee.

Radius of the integrating wheel. ... =p ='J'99 in.

Radius of the piston of the indicator = ;-* = l'125 in.

Radius of the pvdiey measuring to the centre of the cord = R = 3 in.

.■\ngle at apex of cone =2 i = 90^

Friction of piston, of integrating wheel on cone, Sic, mean value = F=
1-2074 lb.

-Additional deflection of springs due to each additional pouud of pressure
on piston of Indicator = \ Spring No. l = -028.

Substituting the above values of p, r, R, i in equations (2) and (3), we obtain
for double acting engines,

If in these equations we substitute the values of A for the different systems
of springs, and also the mean value of F, which is l-2a lb., we shall obtain
for spriny \o. 1, A = '028 in.

U = 59G614 »jX--3018

L (common engine).

U = l-67052(^')N--i-F(,-=)L (4.

for single acting Cornish engines,

U = l-670o2 (^)X_.(,« ;-l)f.l (5.

' The radius of the piston is so taken that its area may e jual exactly
four square inches.

(-1)

(2 1\
1 + -1 L (Cornish engme).
P »/

The values of U, obtiiined from the above formula?, being mnltipled by the
number of square inches in the surface of the piston of the engine, will give
the whole number of units of work yielded by it during the time of the
experiment.

It will be observed, that no account is taken in these formulse of the
weight (3 lb. Oi oz. ) of the pistons, the integrating wheel, and the rod to
which these are attached. The influence of this weight is, in fact, allowed
for when, the springs being placed in the Indicator, and therefore loaded
with it, and sustaining no other pressure, the iutegrating wheel is moved to
such a position upon the rod as tliat its circumference may coincide with the
apex of the cone. The springs are then just so much deflected as by their
elasticity to sustain this weight, and that initial deflection remaining super-
added to any additional deflection to which they may be subjected by the
additional strain thrown upon them, the weight of the pistons, &c. will in
every position be accurately balanced by it, and the additional strain thrown
upon the springs will produce precisely the same deflections as though no
such weight existed.

Mr. Xloseley then described the difference between the instrument and
that of M. Morin for applying the principle of M. Poncelet, to consist — First,
in all those mechanical combinations which are peculiar to the instrument in
its application to the steam-engine, M. Morin's instrument having been
applied to measure the traction of horse. — Secondly, in the surface of a
cone being substituted for the plane surface of a circular disc ; by which
arangement the rapidity of the changes of velocity due to corresponding
changes in the position of the integrating wheel, is diminished in the same
proportion in which the sine of one-half the angle of the cone is less than
unity ; and the force necessary to drive the integrating wheel being di-
minished in the same proportion, the chance of an error arising from the
slipping of the edge of the integrating wheel on the surface from which it
receives the impulse is lessened in proportion. — Thirdly ; in the separation
of the registering apparatus from the integrating wheel ; by which separation,
whilst the springs are relieved from the ertect of the momentum and the
friction due to the weight of the registering apparatus, the latter being in a
state of quiescence, the registration is legible whilst the Indicator is in
action. — Fourthly; in the variable position of the links connecting the
springs together, by which variation the same series of deflexions may be
obtained under diti'erent ranges of pressure. In fact, that the Indicator has
nothing in common with the " compteur" of XI. Morin except the principle
of M. Poncelet and the springs under a modified form.

The amount of the friction of the pistons, was then examined and the
peculiar construction of their metallic packing explained; it was shown also
that instead of great difficulties arising from the friction of the integrating
wheel upon the cone, or its slipping upon the surface, a very slight pressure
of the spring produced sufficient adhesion to drive the registering apparatus.
Tlie professor then explained the advantages resulting from a registration of
the duty of steam-engines generally, not during the time of a few isolated
experiments, as with the common Indicator, but extended over any given
period and through every stroke of the engine, displaying all the changes
which had occurred during that time : — with this view it had been decided
that the instrument should be attached to the engines of the Great Western
steam-vessel on her next voyage to .\merica.

He then expressed his obligation to Mr. Wicksteed for the facilities afforded
him for the experiments at Old Ford, and paid a well-merited compliment to
Jlr. Iloltzapffel for the excellent construction of the Indicator.

Hemarks. — In reply to a question from Jlr. Yignoles, Mr. Xloseley stated
that the instrument was not under its present form adapted to locomotive
engines, but that a grant of £100 had been made by the British Association
for the construction of such an instrument.

Mr. Cowper, in compliance with the request of Professor Moseley, illus-
trated his description by setting the instrument in motion, showing that the
registration depended iipon the revolutions of the integrating wheel : he
demonstrated the cases of motion without pressure, and pressure without
motion ; in tlie former case the integrating wheel being stationary at the
apex of the cone while revolving, does not receive any impulse from the con-
tact with it, and therefore does not register ; in the latter case, the surface
of the cone upon which the integrating wheel traverses, being at rest, does
not communicate anv rotative motion to it, and consequently no registration
can take place; but when motion and pressure are combined, the cone
revolving and the integrating wheel travelling from the apex some distance
towards its base, the exact product of the motion of the cone and the steam's
pressure upon the piston would be registered by the amount of the revolution
of the integrating wheel.

Mr. Wicksteed observeil that every facility had been afforded to Professor
Moseley for applying his new Indicator for the purpose of ascertaining the
duty performed by the Cornish engine at Old Ford, but that he had not at
all interfered with the experiments, being desirous of ascertaining whether
the results would correspond with his trials. That after the work of the

2 P

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

engine had been registered while it was making about 179,000 strokes, the
mean result as stated by Professor Moseley. was so nearly that arrived at by
Mr. \A'ickstccd, that he had no doubt of the accuracy of the machine as a
good indicator of the real duty performed by the engine, tlie difference in the
result of the mean pressure of the steam, deducting the vacuum, or 0-73 lb.,
■was O-l'J lb., namely, according to Mr. Wicksteed's experiments 12'94 — 0-73
= 12'21 lb., and according to Professor Jloseley Ti'OOlb. ; this difference
might arise from a variation in the mean length of stroke during the two sets
of experiments — from a slight variation in the point at which the steam had
been cut off — from a variation in the level of the water in the pump well, or
other practical causes ; the difference however was so insignificant, that he
•would rely on the accuracy of Professor Moseley's Indicator, and allow the
possibility of a slight error in his own experiments.

Mr. Farey observed that Professor Moseley's instrument must be influenced
by variations in the length of stroke, for whenever the piston makes a long
stroke, tlie cone and the train of registering wheels, must he turned farther
round, and would register a higher number than they would do in case of a
shorter stroke ; supposing the impelling force exerted by the steam to be
always the same. If the instrument could be really made to give its results
according to the actual length of all the varying strokes made during the
time of observation, by truly aggregating these varying lengths into one sum,
the results would be free from the usual uncertainty respecting an average
length of stroke. In the monthly reports of engines in Cornwall, the per-
formance is reckoned according to some reputed length of stroke, which had
been fixed upon for each engine, when it was reported, and it is afterwards
assumed that no departure from that reputed length has taken place, when,
in fact, such departure does often occur.

It would be very desirable to have a moving card applied to the new in-
stnmient, in order to indicate the impelling force of the steam in the cylinder
by tracing curves on paper, like those by the ordinary indicators. This it
appeared might he done, with the advantage of causing the paper on which
the curve is drawn to travel onwards and bring fresh paper into its place, so
as to obtain a series of distinct curves for as many succeeding strokes.

The form of the springs of Professor Moseley's instrument would be a de-
cided improvement if substituted for the spiral spring of ordinary indicators ;
Mr. Farcy had applied to an ordinary indicator a mode of exhibiting at a
glance, whether the engine was exerting more or less force than its ordinary
ap])ointed task ; the plan answered that purpose : but as it required the
indicator to be always in action, the spring of the indicator broke after work-
ing more than two days, he therefore abandoned it. The springs in the new
instrument were proved by the trial at Old Ford to be capable of enduring
continual exertion without breaking. The professor had stated that the
scale of flexure of the new springs was found to be exactly, according to
theory, equal divisions with equal forces ; this might be expected because
the flexure of the springs was small, and the bending force acted in a direc-
tion nearly at right angles to the length of the springs. In ordinary indi-
cators the scale should not always be equal divisions, because the wire of the
spring being wound spirally into a screw of small diameter, the spiral obH-
cjuity of the thread of such screw becomes more oblique to the direction of
the bending force, as the spring is stretched, and less oblique as tlie spring
is compressed, and hence the scale of pounds per square inch by which the
curve should be measured for summing up the results, ought to be a scale of
unequal divisions.

The indicators originally used by Boultou and Watt were of a large size,
■with a long and powerful spring curled into a cylindric form, as large in
diameter as could be included in the cylinder of the indicator, and the motion
allowed to the piston by the spring was very short ; such indicators were
judiciously projiortioned, and they do not show any sensible inequality of
divisions in their scale. But recently, indicators have been frequently made
without th; knowledge of their true principle, and the rules of proportion
are not oscrved, so that it will sometimes he found, on actual trial of such
instruments with weights, that their scale of pounds per square inch is not
in equal divisions, although it is usual to employ a scale of equal divisions
for suraniing up the curves traced by them. In Boidton and Watt's indi-
cators the scale of pounds per square inch was formed from actual trial with
■weights, but such trials were paade when the indicator was cold, and dis.
mounted from its place upon the steam engine. A much better mode is to
apply the weights on the upper end of the piston-rod when the indicator is
placed on the cyhnder of the engine, while it is hot, its piston being supplied
■with the same quantity of oil, and the spring being in the same state as when
it is in use. The depression of the piston by the weights is recorded by
drawing a line with the pencil of the instrument on the card itself, in the
same manner as the usual atmospheric line is drawn thereon. A series of
lines thus drawn with given weights, Ijccome so many original stages for sub-
dividing between them, to form a true scale for summing up the curve de-
scribed under the same circumstances and nearly at the same time.

Professor Moseley's instrument had two cylinders and pistons operating in
concert on the same piston-rod, and springs of peculiar construction to indi-
cate the uidjalanced pressure exerted by the steam to impel the piston of the
engine. The elastic force wherewith the steam acts above the piston (called
the positive pressure or plenum) is shown by a common indicator, but the
clastic force wherewith the uncondensed steam is at the same time reacting
beneath the piston (called the negative pressure, or imperfect exhaustion or
vacimm) is not shown ; hence the observations are limited to two odd halves
of the stroke made by the piston, those halves being commonly the plenum

during the descent, and the exhaustion during the ascent of the piston ; it is
taken for granted that the other two odd halves are the same as those which
are observed, although such assumed parity is not always the true state of
the case. In the new instrument the indication that it would make by draw-
ing on a card, would be that of the difference subsisting between the iilenum
above, and the exhaustion beneath the piston of the engine, during its de-
scent, and ascent, wherefore it would indicate on one caid as much as two
ordinary indicators can do on two cards, if they are applied one to the top
and the other to the bottom of the cylinder of the steam-engine; in that
case each indicator shows on its own card what the elastic force of the steam
is during the plenum, and what it is during the exhaustion, but the required
result (which is the ilifference between the two) must be obtained by com-
bining together in the computation those distinct curved lines which are
drawn on two separate cards. Professor Moseley's combined indicator pis-
tons, acting on the same springs, would at once indicate such difference by
the cux\e which it would trace on the one card.

In answer to a question from Mr. Parkes as to whether the new instru-
ment had been put to any other test than its apparent agreement with Mr.
Wicksteed's estimate of the resistance overcome ; and whether the common
indicator had been applied to the engine at the same time. Professor Moseley
said that he had not compared the instrument with any other, but had sub-
jected Mr. Wicksteed's calculations to a rigid investigation, and felt quite
satisfied that they approximated closely to the truth. He relied upon them
as corroborations of the accuracy of the instrument.

Mr. Parkes observed that it would have been more satisfactory to engineers
to have been assured that every means had been taken to demonstrate the
truth of the results recorded by an instrument which had such important
functions in view, lie wished to know in what manner the pressures de-
noted had been ascertained — whether by weights or by comparing them with
a mercurial column, lie had found the latter mode more exact than weights,
in verifying the scale of the common indicator, as the instrument being
heated was then in precisely the same state as when it was in use. He had
found that a certain amount of correction was frequently necessary, as both
the spring and the amount of piston friction were affected by heat.

Professor Jloseley replied that the instrument had not been compared
with the mercurial column, but that the resistance of the springs, and the
friction of the piston and instrument generally, had been ascertained by very
accurate experiments, so that he had full confidence in the results.

Mr. Parkes said that notwithstanding the respect and deference he felt for
Professor Moseley's attainments and ingenuity, his past experience would not
permit him to place entire confidence in the results afforded by the instru-
ment ; indeed he considered them to be altogether fallacious as representing
the force acting on the piston of the Old Ford engine. He could not admit
that the apparent near identity between Mr. Wicksteed's computations of
resistance, and the constant indicator's registration of force, amounted to
proof of the instrument's accuracy ; for it seemed to him that Mr. Wicksteed
had omitted to take into account one important item of force, without the
exertion of which a piston could not be brought from a state of rest into a
state of motion. He referred to the force required to give velocity to the
piston. Mr. Wicksteed had weighed the greater part of that resistance which
might he called ponderable, and had estimated the remainder, assigning
about 12 lb. per square inch on the piston as the total amount, after deduct-
ing the resistance to the piston's descent arising from uncondensed steam.
Thus, an elastic force of 12 lb. on the piston would counterpoise a resistance
of 12 lb., but motion would not ensue until a superior force were applied.
Considering the number of strokes made by this engine per minute, Mr.
Parkes could not estimate the velocity of the piston at less than from 300 to
400 ft. per minute, which was very great for this enormous mass, and would
require the exertion of proportionate power. He regarded the piston of the
engine, loaded with 12 lb. per square inch, as he would aMjall of 12 lb. weight
in a gun balanced by a fluid of a corresponding elastic force ; but such ball
would remain motionless unless it were propelled by some additional force.
This state of things had been denominated by Professor Barlow " the pre-
paration for motion." Now as Mr. Wicksteed's estimate proceeded no fur-
ther than the production of this state of things, and as Professor Moseley's
constant Indicator recorded the mean pressure of the steam in the cylinder
as barely equal to it, he could not assent to the accuracy of either method of
determining the total resistance overcome by the steam.

Mr. Parkes would cite the experience of others as to the quantity of force
actually expended in giving velocity in a Cornish engine, over and above that
necessary to balance the weight at the opposite end of the beam, friction,
&c. included. In the fifth part of Vol. HI. Trans. Inst. C. E., Mr. Enys has
reported some experiments made at Mr. Parkes' suggestion, on several
engines. He would cite those of the Tresavean, as the cylinder was of the
same diameter as the one at Old Ford, viz., 85 inches. The water load was
equivalent to 12 lb. per square inch on the steam piston, and when about
half the usual velocity was given to the piston in the in-door stroke, a
pressure of about 17.i lb. was denoted throughout the stroke, by a mercurial
column connected with the cylinder. Mr. Loam had since transmitted to
him the following abstract of experiments made on the same engine, January
28, 1842. " Two indicators were used at the same time, and an open mer-
curial gauge ; the engine was held in-doors until the mercury became sta-
tionary, in order to ascertain the muiimum quantity of steam power necessary
to produce motion. The pressure was 15 lb. per square inch, when tlie water
load was 12 lb." Here, then, a force of 3 lb. was found requisite to establish

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

271

an equilibrium between the power anJ resistance ; and a further force of
2J lb. per square inch was necessary in order to urge the mass at about the
half of its ordinary velocity. Mr. Enys stated that less pressure was exhibited
when the engine was brought in slower, and i-ice versa; and tliis was con-
sistent with everyday experience. Now, though the Old Ford engine had
not to overcome so much frictional resistance as a deep mine engine, yet,
having a weight to raise, according to Mr. Wicksteed, alone equal to 11-8 lb.
per square inch on the piston, Mr. Parkes was of opinion that this could not
be effected at the usual working velocity, with less than H or 15 lb. pressure
of steam per square inch, ne would suggest to Mr. Wicksteed, to repeat
Messrs. Enys and Loam's experiments, and also to work his engine with
steam reduced nearly to such pressure in the boiler as would barely suffice to
bring the piston down. Such experiments would confirm or invalidate the
results given by Professor Moseley's instrument, and probably lead to the
discovery of its imperfections, should any exist.

It appeared that Mr. Wicksteed conceived a greater amount of elastic force
to be required to perform a stroke in proportion to the degree of expansion
given to the steam in the cylinder. He would quote the pressures deduced
by Mr. Wicksteed under five cases of expansion, as they exhibited some
curious anomalies. They were taken from Table VI. of Mr. Wicksteed's
Treatise. According to his table, when the steam was stopped at 6 ft. of the
stroke, the mean force exerted during the stroke of 10 ft. was 13 lb. per
square inch ; at 4} ft., 13.^ lb. ; at 4 ft., 14| lb. ; at 3i ft., 15^ lb. ; and at
3.f^ ft., Id^ lb. It must be observed that in every one of these eases, the
resistance, as appreciated by Mr. Wicksteed, amounting to 13 lb. per square
inch, was a constant quantity ; so that, for some unexplained reason, an
invariable load appeared to require a variable force to overcome it ; a sUding
scale of power, given as the measure of a constant resistance. It was possible
that some small difference might have existed in the velocity of the stroke,
in these cases ; it was also possible that some error existed in the method
used for determining the pressures, or in the evaporative quantities. How-
ever this might be, it was clear there was an error somewhere, as it could not
be granted that an effect deemed constant in all these cases could require a
varying cause for its production.

As these appreciations differed widely from each other, and still more so
from the indications of Professor Moseley's instrument, Mr. Parkes hoped
that Mr. M'icksteed would re-consider and verify this part of the subject. In
corroboration of his opinion that the acting force recorded by the instrument
Is too low, he would draw attention to the circumstance that, during the
period of its application (28 days), the duty performed by the engine for
each 94 lb. of coal amounted only to about C8i millions, and it would not
be unreasonable to expect that at least 150 millions should have been the
result under the different circumstances of mine and water-works engines, as
100 millions had been performed for some months by mine engines under a
water load equal to 12 lb., and a mean steam pressure of 18 lb. per square
inch of the piston. Whereas, if the water-load of 1 1 lb. at Old Ford vras
overcome by an amount of force little exceeding 12 lb. per square inch, a
proportionate increase of duty ought to have resulted, but such was not the
case.

Mr" Parkes then proceeded to comment on the phrase " effective power,"
•which he understood from Professor Moseley, as signifiant of the force of
the steam, or piston pressure, measured by his instrument. He thought
that phrase more strictly applicable to the a:'.iount of power given off by the
engine, when ascertained, as it might be in the case of pumping engines, by
the weight raised ; or, as it could only be determined on rotative engines
driving machiiiery, by a dynamometer applied at the extremity of the crank
shaft. He would illustrate this by an example. There was at Birmingham
a corn-mill belonging to Mr. Lucy, worked by an excellent engine of 40
H.P., made by Messrs. Boulton and Watt. This engine had a fly-wheel
■weighing 24 tons, and nine pairs of stones were driven, besides dressing-
machines. Mr. Lucy had taken out a patent for an apparatus as a substitute
for the fly-wheel, which had been removed. The engine so altered now
drives ten pairs of stones, under the same pressure of steam, and with the
same consumption of fuel as before. Thus, what he should denominate the
"effective power" of the engine was increased, by this simple change, eleven
per cent. Yet Professor Moseley's instrument, or any other indicator, would
have exhibited, both before and after the alteration, the exertion of a pre-
cisely equal force on the piston. Neither did the Professor's instrument
register the absolute, or what Professor Whewell had denominated the
" labouring " force of the steam on the piston of an engine, as it made no
deduction of the amount of force, whatever it might be, which was neces-
sarily expended in overcoming the resistance opposed by the uncondcnsed
.-team. Its construction permitted it only to record the difference of these
amounts. For these reasons he could not regard the instrument as likely,
even when made trustworthy, to become of that utility to engineers which
■was the Professor's aim and hope. There was a greater need of an accurate
dynamometer capable of showing the eft'ective power of an engine ■whilst in
regular work, and he was happy to say that this desideratum had been sup-
plied by Mr. Davies of Birmingham, by whose permission he would take an
early opportunity of describing to the Institution the construction and effi-
cacy of this instrument. It was very important that a self-registering ma-
chine should be made, capable of recording the mean steam pressure ope-
rating throughout a stroke of the engine, but it was still more important
that this registration should be accurate ; and he hoped that the remarks
which had been made would only urge Professor Moseley to farther investi-

gations, and induce him to enlarge as much as possible the useful powers of
the instrument.

Professor Moseley observed that when a body passes from a state of rest,
through a state of motion and into a state of rest again, or from a state of
motion at a given velocity through a state of motion at a different velocity,
and back to its first velocity again, then is the work which must be done
upon it by the moving power the same in amount, whatever may have been
the velocity thus intervening between the two states of rest or of equal
motion of the body, provided that the resistance opposed to its motion and
the space through which that resistance is overcome be in all cases the same.*
In Mr. Wicksteed's engine the resistance thus opposed to the motion of the
piston, and the space through which that resistance is overcome at every
stroke, are thus constantly the same (or in other words, the work done upon
the resistance is the same at every stroke of the engine), and the pistoiv
passes at every stroke from a state of rest, to a state of rest again ; it follows
therefore by the above well-known principle of " vis viva," that the work
done by the steam, as the moving power upon the piston of the engine whilst
it completes a stroke, is the same, whatever may be the velocity communi-
cated to it, and to the mass which it carries with it, at any period of the
stroke. It is true that to put the piston, and the mass carried along with it,
at first in motion, a pressure greater than the resistance is required, and there-
fore greater tlian the mean pressure necessary to complete the stroke ; a
piessure equal to the resistance would only bring it into the state of rest
bordering upon motion ; to cause it to pass from tliis state of rest to a state
of motion, more pressure is required, and the more as the velocity to be
acquired, whilst it m.oves through a given space, is greater ; or in other
words, in order to communicate any given velocity to a body whilst it moves
through any space, there must be an excess of the work done by the driving
pressure through that space, over tliat expended upon the resistance through
that space ; but all this excess is accumulated, and unless the steam pressure
be afterwards made less than the resistance, or unless the steam be after-
wards expanded through a distance dependent on the amount of this accu-
mulated work, so that it may expend itself in overcoming the surplus resis-
tance through that space, then the piston will strike upon the cyhnder
bottom. This principle may be illustrated by an example ; suppose that the
load upon the piston of an engine is 10 lb. per square inch, and that the
steam is admitted at a pressure of 15 lb., it is erident that by reason of the
excess of 5 lb. pressure of the steam above the load, the velocity of the
piston will be made continually to increase until the steam is cut off, and
afterwanls, so long as the steam pressure exceeds the load, or until by its
expansion the steam pressure is reduced to 10 lb. per square inch. Up to
this point the velocity of the piston and of the mass moving with it wLU con-
tinually have been increasing, a great momentum will therefore have been
acquired by it, and this momentum will carry it on to the completion of the
stroke -, although after this position is passed, the steam pressure will be less
than the load, and would by itself be insufficient to remove it. In other
words, the work done by the steam upon the piston will have continually
exceeded that expended on the load up to this period of the stroke, and the
surplus will have been accumulated in the moving mass,t which surplus work
will carry on the piston to the end of the stroke when a cyhnder full of
steam will be delivered of greatly less pressure than the load. If the steam
had been worked at full pressure, it is erident that at every stroke a cylinder
full of steam would have been discharged of the same pressure as the load.
In this consists, therefore, the advantage of working expansively. It is evi-
dent that the piston acquires its maximum velocity at the point where the
steam pressure becomes equal to the load, and that the engineer, by the
manipulation of the steam valves, produces that adjustment by which the
velocity acquired by the piston at this point (or the work then accumulated
in it) is caused to be just sufficient to carry on the piston to the end of the
stroka, but without striking the cyhnder bottom ; it is moreover evident that
the greater this maximum velocity can be made, the farther the piston will
be carried beyond the point where the steam pressure is equal to the load,
and the less will be the pressure of the cylinder full of steam discharged at
the completion of every stroke, or the greater the economy of the steam
power. .

A second illustration of the same principle may be drawn from the effect
produced by a pressure suddenly thrown upon a spring. Suppose a spring
which would rest dcllected through an inch under a pressure of one pound.
If when this spring is in an undeflected state this pressure of one pound be
suddenly thrown upon it, it is certain that the spring will, at first, deflect
considerably beyond that distance of one inch in which its deflection will
eventually, after many oscillations, terminate. In fact, if it is thrown on
with mathematical suddenness, the first deflection will be two inches. To

* This is a principle well known to mathematicians as resulting immediately
from the principle uf " vis viva," and is as old as the days of D'Alemberl j it
appears first to h'tve been applied to questions of practical m>-chanics by
M.M. Coriolis and Poncclet.

1 The number of units of work thus accumulated is represented in 11>. one

foot high by i - D! ; whence w represents the number of lb. in the Meiyht of
the moving mass, t) its velocity in feet per second reduced to the piston
g = Z2i lb. The expression - i" is said to represent^the vis viva ; so that the
accumulated work is equal to half the vis viva.

272

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

explain this, let tlie pound ■n-eight be supposed to be applied gradually to the
spring liv dropping grain after grain of sand slowly upon it. The spring -nill
then evidently be brought to its deflection without ever passing it. Now let
it be observed that on this supposition the first grain of sand only will have
descended through one inch, the next descending through less than an inch,
the next through yet less, and so on. Thus the work done upon the spring
by each succeeding grain will be less than that done by the preceding. Yet
the aggregate work done by these successive small pressures, each working
through a different space, is' sufficient to deflect the spring one inch. Non-
let all the grains be placed at once upon the S])ring. When it has deflected
an inch, each grain will tlien have worked through an inch, and a great deal
more work will, on the whole, have been done on the spring than before,
indeed twice as much ; but the work done before was enough to deflect the
spring an inch ; more than enough to deflect it has now therefore been done,
that is, more has been done than has been expended. The remainder is
accumulated in the moving mass of the sand and the spring, and carries on
the deflection greatly beyond the position of equilibrium.

The Indicator was placed upon the engine of the East London Water-
works, in the belief that by the experiments of Mr. Wieksteed, the work
actually performed by that engine was better known than that of any other.
All the calculations and inquiries which have since been made have fully
confirmed that opinion. And he had full confidence in that verification of
the registration of the Indicator which is supplied by its agreement with Mr.
Wicksteed's estimate of the work of his engine.

In reference to the use of the term " work," Professor Moseley stated, that
the various terms used by foreign engineers to convey the idea attached to
that term, appeared at length to have resolved themselves into the single
term " travail ; " and that of the variety of corresponding terms used in Eng-
land, the term " work " was probably the most obvious translation of " tra-
vail; " that it moreover appeared to him the simplest and the most intelli-
gible ; and that on these grounds he had adopted it.

In answer to the obseriation made by Mr. Parkes suggesting the con-
struction of an indicator which would register the work of the machine at
the point where it is applied, instead of at the cylinder of the engine, Pro-
fessor Moseley stated that such an instrument would undoubtedly be very
valuable, especially if it could be made to register correctly the work trans-
mitted bv a rotating shaft ; but that for the purpose contemplated by him it
would be entirely useless— this object was to effect, in respect to ordinary
engines working' under constantly variable pressures, that constant registra-
tion of the duty, the introduction and publication of which had led to so
remarkable an economy of steam power in the working of the Cornish en-
gines. No registration of the work done at the working points of the ma-
chine driven by the engine, would supply a fair estimate of the duty done by
the engine ; a' greater or less portion of the work done by the engine being
lost by reason of friction in its transfer through the machine, from its driving
to its'working points, according as there was a greater or less complication
of moving parts and rubbing surfaces intervening, lie repeated that his
object had been to determine the working qualities of the engine itself; and
that he had for this reason specially sought to eliminate from his estimate
those verv influences of the friction of the machine driven by the engine
which Mr. Parkes thought it so important to include in it. It would have
been a fault of his Indicator (for the purpose contemplated by it) if it had
taken anv notice of the effect of that change made in the machinery of Mr.
Lucy's mill, which Mr. Parkes had spoken of. He had used the term effective
wori; (not effective pow er) of the engine, to signify that excess of the work
of the steam on one side of the piston, over that opposed to it by the im-
perfectly condensed steam on the other, which it was necessary to know in
order to estimate the real duty of the engine. It was solely for tlie deter-
mination of that duly that the Indicator had been constructed, and the
alterations which Mr. Parkes had suggested would have subjected its regis-
tration to influences which, in reference to that purpose, he had specially
sought to eliminate.

Mr. Farey remarked, that it would lead to an incorrect appreciation of the
merit of the new indicating instrument, if it were to be considered merely as
a substitute for the ordinary indicator, when in fact they are two instruments,
adapted to and equally useful for different purposes. The new instrument
does not preserve any record of the minute details of any one stroke, like
the ordinary indicator, but it records a true aggregate of all the details of
any number of succeeding strokes ; it gives the same results as would be
obtained if it were possible to have two ordinary indicator cards correctly
taken, at each succeeding stroke of the engine, during the whole time of ob-
servation, bv means of two indicators, one of them applied to the upper, and
the other to the lower end of the cylinder ; and also provided, that an accu-
rate admeasurement of every one of all those cards was afterwards made, at
ten places in the length of the card, by the scale of pounds per square inch,
in the usual manner, and the amount of the ten measurements added into
one sum, and then (without averaging each card) that such sum of each card
shoidd be carried to a continuous account to obtain a grand sum total repre-
senting all the force that had been exerted, during both halves of each stroke
made throughout the experiment, reckoned at ten stages or portions of the
length of stroke. Such a grand total of all the cards would be a number
representing the same fact, as is represented by the number shown by the
new instrument ; and would therefore be dealt with, in each case, in a simi-
,ar manner, as one of the data (viz. that representing force) for calculating
(by aid of other data representing motion or space) the whole power exerted
during the time of observation.

In trying the performance of a steam vessel, alternately up and down a
measured mile in the river Thames, it is usual to take an indicator card from
each engine, at every such run ; and by summing up each card, some diffe-
rence will be found between them, wherefore an average of the results of
several cards will give more authentic information respecting the force
exerted by the engines during the whole trial, than could be obtained if one
such card alone had been depended upon. The new instrument takes cogni-
zance of every stroke that is made by the engine during the whole time of
observation; and in cases (such as in the Great iVestern steamer) v\here a
considerable variation of force in succeeding strokfs occurs frequently during
such time, it is a desideratum to obtain the results which this instrument is
intended to give, and which, as far as it has been tried, it seems likely to give
with fidelity.

The instrument when applied as it had been at Old Ford, becomes another
mode of ascertaining performance, similar to what is reported monthly re-
specting the engines in Cornwall, but not exactly the same as is there called
" duty," because the new instrument would show the aggregate of the un-
balanced force, that had been exerted (during a given time) by the steam, to
impel the piston ; whilst the monthly reports show (by load in pounds,
length of stroke in pumps, and number of strokes made) the aggregate of
force exerted in the same time, in overcoming the resistance that the mere
hydrostatic weight of the columns of water in the pumps, opposes to the
motion of the engine.

The instriimpnt (.usht always to show more force than the reports do, and
the difference between the two, would be the aggregate of all the force that
had been lost during the time, by friction of the moving parts of the engine,
pumps. &c. Respecting that loss of force, there is no more of it than arises
from such friction, from working the air-pumps, &c., and from resistance of
the water, but it is wholly a mistake to .suppose that any such loss is aug-
mented by producing motion. Professor Moseley had just stated the true
theory on that head, which theory was demonstrable mathematically, and
admitted of no ijuestion. It would be needless to go further into what had
been so well explained, except to observe that the theory applies without the
least abatement, or modification by incidental causes, to the case of any ma-
chine which, like a steam engine, regains the same state, as to rest, (or as to
motion) at the end of the time of observation upon it, as the state in which
it was at the commencement of that time ; and the theory shows that in such
a machine, no part of the force exerted upon it (or exerted by it) can have
been expended, or lost, in producing motion, whatever may be the number or
the extent of changes or variations in velocity of motion, that the machine
had undergone during the time of observation ; for although force must be
exerted to produce motion from a state of rest, yet all force that is so exerted
will be rendered back again when the motion which was produced has ceased,
and the state of rest regained ; in the steam engine that is the case at the
termination of every h.tlt-struke. Respecting trials by means of the smallest
force of steam, which will just press the piston of a pumping engine slowly
down in the cylinder, or cause the engine to come creeping in-doors: they
are not much to be depended upon as evidence of the force that is actually
lost in overcoming friction ; first because no steadiness of exhaustion can be
kept up beneath the piston, nor steadiness of steam above the piston, whilst
the engine is so treated, and also because the counterweight of engines in
Cornwall is not apportioned with any great nicety. In general they are
worked with more counterweight than is requisite, and but little loss is occa-
sioned by so doing ; for if the counterweight is unnecessarily great, so as to
carry the engine quick out of doors (that is, to cause the pump-rod to
descend briskly) then the equilibrium valve is closed sooner, and therefore
retains more steam between the top of the piston and the cover of the cyl n-
der. in what has been called the steam cushion, which stops the descending
motion of the pump-rod ; and in consequence of more steam being reserved
in such cushion to go towards the supply for the succeeding stroke, that
increase in the reserved steam compensffles in part for the v\aste of force
occasioned by the redundancy of counterweight, which caused the quick
motion.

Mr. Farey had received from Mr. John Taylor indicator cards of Taylor's
engine at the Uniled Mines ; one card was taken socm after it was first set
to work, with an cxtravagaut counterweight, and another card was taken
imiuediately after several tons of balance had been added without alteration
of the load of water m the pumps ; balance in Cornwall is contrary to coun-
terweight, so that adding balance eflTects a reduction of counterweight. Now
if an attempt had been made to ascertain the friction of that engine by try-
ing what strength of steam would cause the engine to creep in-doors, the
day before the balance was added, the friction would have appeared (by that
mode) to have been 3 lbs. or 1 lbs. per square inch greater than it would
have appeared to be after the balance had been added : although that was an
extreme case not likely to occur often, yet errors in the imputed amount of
friction, to the extent of I lb. or l^lb. per square inch would be continually
made, if dependence were to be placed on that mode of trial of engines w nrk-
ing with so much counterweight as they may happen to have. The friction
of modern engines in Cornwall, including that of their pit-work and pump,
and the resistance of the water, he believed would not be found materially,
if any, greater, than was the case in Mr. 'Watt's old engines, when the depth
of the mines was not half as great, and the weight of moving parts not one-
third as great; for the improvement in pit-work and pumps, and engine-
work, had kept pace with that increase of depth and weight.^ The pump-
rods are hung more truly perpendicular, and the lengths of timber for the
rods are better jointed so as to cause them to hang straighter in the pit
whilst working, and avoid lateral vibratory fle.xure, and therefore the rods
rub less against their guides ; the plungers are set truer, and being of larfje
diameter, have less rubbing surface in proportion to their contents, the lifts
being higher, and short lifts being avoided ; these and many other improve-
ments tend to reduce the friction in proportion to the force exerted.

The small quantity of steam expended, .and consequently of water injrcied
into the condensers, as well as better joints to prevent leak:ige of air into the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

273

exlnusleil parts reduces the ]io«cr required to wcrk the air-pump to a smaller
proportion of power exerted by tlie engine than formerly. And in particular
the valves and «ater-wavs through tlie pumps are made more open than for-
merly, so as to diminish the lo?sof force that is occasioned by resistance of the
water; that lossof force by resistance increases as the square of the velocity of
the motion, when loss of force by mere friction does not increase by increase of
that velocity. He believed few'larse engines in Cornivall, which are making
what is now' thought tolerably good performance, lose more than at the rate
of 3 lbs. per square inch of the piston, by friction of their moving parts, and
by resistance of the water, and by working their air-pumps, and the best
and newest engines probably still less. It would of course be understood
that he meant by ."! lbs. what is commonly called li lb. fur moving the en-
gine each way. or through each half stroke ; but that is not a correct way of
statingit; IJ lb. friction incoming in-doors.and 1= lb. friction and resistance
of water in going out-of-doors, would be more likely to be correct. AVith
all that has been done in Cornwall, these matters still admit of further
improvement.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Twelfth Meeting, 1842.

[We are indebted for the following report partly to our ovrn correspond-
ents, and partly to the Athenceum and the Manchester Guardian — the latter
paper gave a verv- copious account of the whole of the proceedings, includ-
ing the speeches delivered at the dinner.]

Report from the Committee on R.iiLv.w Sections, presented by
Professor Vignoles.

A grant of 200/. from this Association was made at the Glasgow meeting
in 1S40, on a joint application from the Geological and the Mechanical
Sections, towards obtaining profiles of the various railways, chiefly with a
view of putting on record (before tlie slopes of the excavations become
soiled over and covered with vegetation) the geological appearances and
strata developed in the many vast openings made through the country by
the operations of modern engineering. At the Devonport meeting last year
a renewal of the unappropriated balance of the first grant was made ; the
whole sum has since been expended, and the results are now laid before the
Sections originating the subject, in the shape of the numerous working plans
and sections of several cf the railways, and of the enlarged parts of the
profiles of the excavations.

In obtaining these the Committee appointed by the Association have great
pleasure in reporting, that they have been aided in the most effective and satis-
factory manner by all the railway companies to whom they have applied, and
also by their several officers, the engineers in particular having taken extreme
pains and great interest in forwarding the views of the Association. M'ben
so many parties have thus zealously co-operated, it might be almost invidious
to name one without specifying all; but in particularly mentioning Mr.
Swanwick, the engineer of the North Midland Railway, the Committee wish
to do so for tl-.e purpose of remarking on the great pains taken by that
gentleman in marking, as his works went on, all the geological details of the
cuttings, which pass through so interejfing a region, and which has put into
the possession of the Committee a vast extent of most valuable records of
the kind sought for, and which at the same time forms a most striking
example, well worthy of imitation, of the combination of engineering and
geological information, applicable for economic purposes.

The Committee were not at first able to organise a system of working the
grant to their entire satisfaction ; but they found after some experience that,
■with the favourable disposition shown by all the railway companies, they
might (without increasing the e.-:pense,) by degrees and in nn great time,
be able to form an interesting and valuable collection, not only of the sec-
tions of the excavations of the railways, but of the whole of the plans and
profiles of all the lines, which, concentrated in one public depository, and
open to the inspection of all scientific and literary bodies and individuals,
and to the public in general, under proper regulations, would be of high
interest. In fact such documents were almost necessarily required, as the
mere indices whereby to identify the particular geological profiles ; and so
useful and important is such a collection likely to become, that it is not
unreasonable for the Committee to hope and believe, that after another year's
experience shall have matured their arrangements and perfected their pro-
posed system of records, and brought down the expense to a .certain and
moderate rate per mile, the subject maybe taken up by Her Majesty's
Government, and made to form part of the great geological survey of the
United Kingdom, conducted by .Sir Henry De la Beche, in connection with
the trigonometrical survey now carrying on by Colonel Colley and the offi-
cers of the corps of Royal Engineers. The Committee, therefore, are nut
without hopes that the geological and mechanic .1 Sections will again unite
in applying to the General Committee for a further grant cf 200/. at the

present meeting, to enable them to complete the organization they have
began.

The documents which the Committee have to submit are the following:—

1st. Plans and sections of the whole of the Midland Counties Railway
from Rugby to Derby and Nottingham, about 58 miles. Knlarged sections
of the cuttings on that railway, prepared to be filled in geologically. The
chief characteristics of this district are the gv'psum beds, commonly called
plaster of Paris, and the hydraulic lime, well known to engineers as the
Barrow lime.

2nd. Plans and sections of the whole of the North Midland Railway,
from Derby to Leeds, about 72 miles. The entire of the geological details
have been laid down on the working sections of the cuttings ; but as it has
been considered by the Committee that a uniform system should be observed-
enlarged sections have been prepared, on which, as on the similar sections of
the other hues, the strata should be delineated. It may be observed here,
that these enlarged sections are on the natural scale of 40 ft. to an inch.
that is, the vertical and horizontal scale are alike, which is not always the
case in ordinary geological sections, and very seldom so with the working
sections, for earth work and similar engineering purposes. This railway
intersects the coal districts for many miles, and is replete with interesting
objects.

3rd. Plans and sections of the Manchester and Leeds Railway, from Man-
chester to Normanton. about .30 miles. These latter are not quite finished,
but will be so before the close of this meeting. Enlarged sections of a con-
siderable portion of the excavations on this railway, are filled up with the
geological details.

4th. Enlarged sections of the excavations on the Glasgow, Paisley, and
Greenock Railway, about 22i miles, with the geological details.

5th. The same for the Manchester and Bolton Railway, about 10 miles,
containing full details of the strata where the remarkable fossil trees were
found, and of the trees also, models of which are in the exhibition room at
the Royal Institution in Manchester. The liberality of this company will
afl'ord several opportunities for the members of the Asscciation to visit these
trees, and the particular profile of the excavation where they are will remain
in the Geological Section, or in the Royal Institution, where the models are.

6th. Enlarged sections of the Hull and Selby Railway, about 30^ miles,
with the geological details.

Some other enlarged sections are stated to be preparing for the Committee,
but they have not come to hand in time for the present report.

These records, according to the directions of the Association, will be de-
posited in the Museum of Economic Geology, in London, where they may at
all times hereafter be usefully referred to.

In conclusion the Committee cannot refrain from observing that the docu-
ments thus collected are equally important and interesting to the philosopher,
the geologist, and the engineer. To the philosophical or theoretical investi-
gator they present the curious and varying features of the crust of this
portion of the globe ; to the practical engineer they offer a memorial of the
experience of the profession, whence many a serviceable lesson for future
operations maybe learned ; whereby difficulties and expense may be hereafter
avoided and diminished, and from which valuable information may be derived
for tlie appliance of materials in constructions, it being one of the great arts
of the engineer to avail himself of the most, immediate natural resources
which he has to displace in one instance, and to apply them usefully in
another, when in juxta-position. And, on the other hand, the minute vari-
ations of strata and soil thus accurately delineated, and referred to well-
defined altitudes, with respect to the general surface of the ocean, become of
the very highest interest to the geologist, and no less so to the mining
engineer, more especially on the lines of railway intersecting the coal and
mineral districts, where, in numerous instances, labour, directed by science
and sustained by commercial enterprise, has laid bare in deep chasms the
secrets of Nature, and the stores whence this country has derived so many
advantages, and whose well-directed energies have drawn from our mines
of coal and rude metals that abundant wealthland prosperity which the more
splendid productions of Potosi and Mexico have failed to bestow on their
possessors.

On Straight Axles for Locomotives, by Prof. Vignoles.

The fatal results of the late terrible catastrophe cii the Paris and Versailles
Railway (rive gauchej has draw n the attention of the public in general and
engineers in particular, to the causes which produce such fearful elVects ; and
the breaking of the axle having been prominently put forward as the original
occasion of this and many other railway accidents, it seems desirable that a
dispassionate in(iuiry should be instituted, and an endeavour made by calm
discussion to elucidate truth.

It is not intended, in the present note, to allude, cwept in general terms
to the above accident. It is clear that the breaking of the axles in this case
was not of itself sufficient to produce such a disaster. It was not the driving
axle that broke, but the fore axle of the small four-wheeled engine; and it

274

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

was with sre.it regret that I perceived the cause of the accident attributed to
the principle of construction of the machine. It must be quite evident to all
engineers who have attentively read the details of the accident on the Ver-
sailles Railway, and of the one that occurred on the Lomlon and Brighton
Railway soon after the first opening, that the same causes were in operation,
and greatly aggravated the sad results in both instances, viz. the coupling
together of two locomotive engines of unequal power and of diflercnt con-
structions, the smaller in advance ; — On both occasions a long train of heavily
laden carnages were moving at very high velocities on a falling gradient j
on the occurrence of the accident to the smaller engine in front, the driver
suddenly turns ofl' the steam ; the man on the larger engine behind, from
uhatever cause, does not act simultaneously, and a few seconds continuance
of the vast unchecked momentum of the heavy engine with the steam on.
overwhelms the smaller machine, and the whole tr.ain is overthrown. It is
scarcely possible to regulate this unity of action, more especially in the loco-
motives of unequal size and construction. "Why are engines propelling from
behind objected to ? Evidently because, in the event of any obstacle occur-
ring in front, a simultaneous check cannot be given to the rear engine, and
it drives the carriages forward upon each other, at the very moment when the
opposite effect is required.

There is, therefore, quite sufficient to account for the accidents in both
cases, without raising the ridiculous and exaggerated cry against the four-
wheeled engine per se. As respects safety to the travelling public, I believe,
and I venture to say, in common with a great many engineers who are not
manufacturers, that there is no material difference between the four-wheeled
and the si.\--wheeled locomotives ; but that the consideration most generally
influencing the selection is that of the distribution of the weight of the ma-
chine, so as to impinge less injuriously on the rails ; and it is well under-
stood that the system of the double trucks, or eight-wheeled supports for
locomotives, tenders. Sec, as adopted on the American Railways, has been
introduced on this principle, the rails and upper works in that country being
in general«tiuch lighter than with us.

The real and important point, and which seems to have been quite lost
sight of in the vivacious discussions on what I would call the minor question
of the number of wheels, is, whether the cranked axles fur the driving wheels
of locomotive engines ought not to be abandoned, and whether driving a.^les
should not be always made straight. The extent of prejudice in favour of
cranked axles is most extraordinary. The very great increased expense
incurred in making and strengthening them, the additional complexity and
cramping into narrower space of all the moving parts of the machinery, and
the consequent wear and tear and inconvenience involved by their use, to say
nothing of the augmented risk, far overbalance, in my opinion, any theo-
retical advantages alleged in their fav ur, but which advantages and supe-
riority, in practice, over the straight axle engine, I could never discover and
wholly deny. Eight years since, after a hard struggle with the manufac-
turers, straight driving axles were adopted lor the locomotives on the Dublin
and Kingstown Railway. On that line, especially on Sundays and on holi-
days, the traffic is quite equal to that on any railway yet open. Trains of
from 12 to 1.5 carriages (but with one engine only) are at such times sent
every quarter of an hi. ur from each end of the line ; and there has been no
instance of accident from any cause connected with the form of engine or
axle, or with such frequent departure of heavily laden passenger trains ; and
the finance accounts of the Company show that the cost of locomotive power,
repairs. &c. is below that of other lines using cranked axles ; nor do I know
of any cause of objection to the straight driving axle, after seven or eight
years experience of their use, without, I believe, a single instance of failure
which fully justifies my opinion of their superiority.

On other railways I have been connected with 1 have not always been so
fortunate as to have succeeded in banishing the cranked axle. As sometimes
happens in Governmental and political struggles, the votes of the controlling
body have overpowered the opinion of the executive, where a difference
among members of our profession have given opportunities for Directors to
exercise their own discretion ; and cranked or straight axles, four-wheeled or
six-wheeled engines, have been alternately adopted according to the pre-
vailing ideas of the majority of the several railway boards.

I have, however, reason to believe that several engineers of high standing
are becoming converts to the straight axle, and I congratulate the public on
it. as a very important step in the right direction.

In respect to the attention to be given to the manufacture of axles, it is
impossible to pay sufficient regard to the importance that the scrap iron
should not only be of very good, but also of exactly similar quality, and that
each scrap should have gone through the same processes in its previous
difierent stages. On this subject I hope some of the experienced manufac-
turers who are present. will throw some light, especially on the details, for on
the abstract principle there can be no dispute, although I suspect it is
greatly neglected, in particular for ordinary carriage axles, and probably
only scrupulously attended to in forming the driving axles of locomotives.

Some of the French engineers, hov. fver, have, within a very recent period,
suggested that we must seek for the causes of the often unexplained rupture 1

of axles in another way. M. Francois and Colonel Aubert have both lately
read, at the Royal Academy of Paris, jiapers on the subject, and attribute
the cause of the fracture of the axle of the engine on the Versailles Railway
to the iron having been crystallized from the action of heat or magnetism.
In support of this opinion it is stated that the axle broken was formed of the
best iron, and was of sufficient dimensions; and that the fracti>re bad a de-
cided crystallized appearance : and I have indeed myself often observed the
same character in broken ax'es, so much so as to induce me to fancy some-
times that they had Ijeen formed of cast iron.

M. Fraufnis stated in his paper that he had made a long continued series
of experiments, and had observed that a magnetic action on iron in a state
of fusion will produce similar etiects. and change the small and closely ad-
hering particles into coarse and large crystallized grains, depriving the iron
of its compact character. This talented mineral engineer inferred that the
action of heat upon axles moving at high velocities might produce the same
effect. Both M. Frauf ois and Colonel Aubert seemed to be of opinion that
the only real precaution was to change the axles of locomotive engines so
frequently as not to give them time to undergo the crystalline change ; sug-
gesting, however, that iron that had been previously worked up should alone
be employed for axles, and not new iron, which had more of a vitreous cha-
racter, and was more susceptible of crystallization.

Since this paper was prepared, I have reason to believe that this crystal-
lization of wrought iron has been noticed by si me of our eminent manufac-
turers, whose opinions there may be an opportunity of obtaining ; and if it
be. as Mr. Fairbairn informs me, that cold swaging will crystallize hammered
iron, the shocks that locomotive engines sustain in their rapid transits may-
well be put as a greit cause of this remarkable change.

It is, however, clear, that to remedy and replace straight axles is much
easier and cheaper than to deal with cranked axles, and I venture to state it
as my humble opinion, that as much ingenuity and talent is thrown away in
arranging locomotive engines with cranked axles, and in perfecting the
manufacture of those " crooked billets," as there was in rolling iron into
undulations for fish-bellied rails ; which are now almost as much forgotten
as, I doubt not, the cranked axles for locomotive engines will one day be.

Remarks. — Mr. Ilodgkinson was certain, from the results of his experiments,
that asuccession of strains, however slight, would produce a permanent deterio-
ration of the elasticity of the iron. — Mr. Fairbairn had been told by the engi-
neer on the Leeds line, that he considered all crank axles to he constantly dete-
riorating from percussions, strains, &c., and that they should be removed
and replaced by new ones periodically, to avoid danger of fracture. — A dis-
cussion arose as to whether the crystalhzed appearance observed in fractured
axles arose from defects in the manufacture, in the quality of the iron, or
from the effects of working, either by percussions, strains, or magnetic action.
— Mr. Grantham, although a manufacturer of cranked axles, admitted that
straight axles were less liable to break. Cranked axles, from the way in
which they were welded together and shaped, were rendered weak and liable
to fracture. On other grounds, however, he believed that the cranked axles
were preferable, as they produced a steadier motion, and much heat was
saved. — Mr. Garnett believed that more straight axles had broken than
cranked ones. — Prof. Willis showed the effect of vibration iu destroying
molecular arrangement, by reference to the tongues in musical boxes, &e. —
Mr. Nasmyth believed that the defects in axles, &e., arose in the manufacture,
especially from cold swaging and hammering, and also from over-heating in
welding, all of which causes injured thif toughness of the iron. In small
articles he found great advantage from annealing; and he believed that axles
might be annealed very cheaply, and would be more serviceable. He dis-
Uked the fashion of referring all unaccounted phenomena to magnetism and
electricity, although he was convinced that very singular electric phenomena
accompanied the transit of locomotives and the rapid generation of steam.
With this was connected the non-oxidation of rails, where the traffic was ia
one direction, and the rapid oxidation when the same rails were travelled
over in both directions, as in the Blackwall railway. He had also observed
that brasses, in some cases, had from friction entered into culJ fusion — that
is, at a heat not perceptible to the eye, a complete disintegration of the mo-
lecular structure had taken place, and he had seen the brass spread as if it
had been butter or pitch. He had no doubt that this arose from electricity,
hut had not ascertained the fact from experiment. — Mr. Fairbairn stated, that
in hand-hammered rivets the heads frequently dropped off, and presented a
crystallized appearance, while those compressed by machine were sound.
He found that repeated percussions, from the rivetting, hammeiinp plates,
Sec, induced magnetism in iron boats. — Mr. Vignoles could not, from liis
experience, agree to Mr. Nasmyth's theory of the oxidation of rails by single
traffic, as the railway from Newton to Wigau had been single for a long time,
and was as bright as the Manchester and Liverpool. The lilackwall railway
was not an analogous case, as no locomotives were employed. — Mr. Roberts
disbelieved the deterioration of axles by work; he would rather trust an old
axle than a new one. He believed cold swaging and hammering to be the
chief causes of mischief. In fact, if axles were sent out sound and well
manufactured, they would rather improve by working.

Mr. Nasmyth at a subsequent meeting gave some valuable practical sug-
gestions on the cause of breaking of axles, which we purpose noticing next
month.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

27-5

0>' THE Action of Air and Water on iron. By Mr. JIallet.

This is the third rejiort for which the association is indebted to Mr. XIallet.
The ohject of former tabulated results was to determine the actual loss by
corrosion in a given time, and the com])arative durabilities of rust of the
principal kinds of cast iron of Great Britain, and to discover on what dura-
bility depended. The tables of experiments now presented show that the
rate of corrosion is a decreasing one in most cases, and that the rapidity of
the corrosion in cast iron is not so much dependent upon the chemical con-
stitution of the metal as upon its state of crystalline arrangement, and the
condition of its constituent carbon. The present report, too, extends the
inquiry to wrought iron and steel, of whicli between thirty and forty varieties
have been submitted to experiment. The results show that the rate of cor-
rosion of wrought iron is in general much more rapid than that of cast iron
or of steel. The finer the wrought iron is, and the more perfectly uniform
in texture, the slower and the more uniform is its corrosion. Steel corrodes
in general more slowly, and much more uniformly, than wTought or cr.st iron.
The results of the action of air and water in the several classes of iron have
been examined and chemically determined. The substance spoken of as
plumbago was next described. It is produced hy the action of air and water
on cast steel, especially that in the raw ingot, in the same way as it is in the
case of cast iron.

A quantity of plumbago, found in the wreck of the Royal Geori/e, absorbed
oxygen on exposure to the air with such rapidity, that it became nearly red-
hot. Mr. Mallet next described a method of protecting iron by a modification
of the zinc process. It was found impossible to cover the surface of iron with
zinc, to which it had no affinity. The first process was to clean the surface
of the iron, taking off the coat of oxide, and then immersing it in double
chloride of zinc and ammonium, which covered it with a thin film of hydro-
gen, by which its affinity for the zinc is much increased. The iron was then
covered with a triple alloy of zinc, sodium and mercury. Mr. Mallet produced
several specimens of his alloy, one of a bolt to be driven into a ship's side,
and another a cannon shot covered with his prepai'ation, and exposed to the
weather on the roof of a building, and which was perfectly preserved. Cannon
balls were so much oxidised by exposure to atmospheric influences, that in
five or six years they became useless. The French Institute had been engaged
in experiments to protect these, and had been compelled to abandon it. Mr.
Mallet also brought under the notice of the section a method of preventing
the fouling which takes place on the bottoms of iron ships, especially in
tropical climates, by means of which new invention he had ascertained plants
and animals were prevented from adhering to the ship's bottom.

Another series of experiments related to the rate of corrosion of cast iron,
■vrrought iron, and steel, exposed to atmospheric influences — a matter of great
importance to the engineer. The characteristic form of corrosion in air, as
contradistinguished from that of water, was also pointed out. This series
of inquiries was now complete. The next matter which had engaged his
attention was the rate of corrosion of rails on railways. The general opinion
•was, that the rails travelled over were not corroded at all. He had been
enabled to lay down three sets of rails on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway :
one not travelled over, the second in use and not exposed to corrosion, and
the third also in use, but made impervious to moisture. The loss of the first
was 2-o55, of the second '2-344, and of the third '2-650, — results which
seemed to indicate that the rail travelled overdoes corrode more slowly than
that out of use. Mr. Mallet concluded by referring to Mr. Nasmyth's theory,
that corrosion is checked by the trains passing over the rails always in one
direction, and takes place when, as in the case of the London and Blackwall,
trains pass both ways. ^

Tl>e Vice-President paid a high compliment to Mr. Mallet on the value of
his investigations, and the success which had attended them. The cost to the
association of these inquiries was far less perBaps than that incurred by Mr.
Mallet in addition to the sum voted him ; while the results might have been
made more conducive to his private purposes, had Mr. Mallet chosen to
conduct them for his private advantage. In reply to a member, Mr. Mallet
said his preparation for the bottoms of iron vessels lasted for about two years
and a half in Kingston harliour, in a vessel exposed to a rapid tide-way. He
did not think his preparations would answer for copper sheathing. Nothing
but copper would protect wood ; but he looked forward to the time wlien the
greater proportion of our vessels would be constructed of iron.

" On the mode of conducting experiments on the resistance of air." Bv
Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S.

Mr. Hodgkinson said, that, having been honoured by the .Association with
a request to pursue some experiments on the resistance of the air, he was
desirous of exhibiting an instrument prepared for making the first series of
these experiments. He proposed, in the first instance, to seek for the force
of the wind moving at different velocities, upon plane surfaces of given di-
mensions, these surfaces being either perpendicular, or inclined at any angle,
to its current ; to determine this, he intended to ])Iace the apparatus upon
the front of the first carriage of a railway train ; the road along which the
train passed having for a short distance poles stuck up, one hundred or two
hundred yards asunder. He would try the experiment only on days when
there was no perceptible wind ; and then, if the time in seconds, taken in
passing between two poles, be carefully observed, and the pressure indicated
upon the discs (which were of two feet and four feet area, both roimd and
square), the resistance per square foot, with a given velocity, wou'.d be o! -

tained. He hoped to determine these facts, with various velocities and at
different angles of inchnation in the discs, trying the same experiments with
both discs at the same time, to ascertain whether the resistance to a square
surface and a round one, of equal area, was the same, and that the results
might correct each other. It would then be determined how far the law of
resistance of air to planes moving obliquely through it agreed with the theo-
retical suppositions hitherto in use. To apply the result of the proposed ex-
periments to the case of bodies at rest, acted upon by the wind, he assumed
that the resistance of a body moving with a given velocity through the air
at rest, was the same as that of the wind moving with the same velocity, and
acting upon the body at rest. The directors of the Manchester and Bir-
mingham Railway had kindly consented, at Mr. Buck's request, to allow him
to make these experiments ; and he was indebted to Mr. Fairbairn for the
apparatus, — This was placed on the table. It consists of two discs of wood
(which may be round, square, or of any other form), made inclinable to any
ancle, by means of screws that fix them to their position, and having two
straight rods moving in slots, and an attached quadrant to measure the
angle. To ascertain the force of the wind, one of Salter's balance springs is
placed behind each disc, attached to the cross piece which connects the two
rods of the discs ; and this indicated the force of the wind at any moment.
Several suggestions were made as to the instrument, and the mode of trying
the experiments ; to which Mr. Hodgkinson said he would give every con-
sideration.

Experimental Inquiries on the Strength of Stones and other
Materials. By Mr. Hodgkinson.

After noticing the present state of knowledge on this subject, and the
experiments of Barlow, Rennie, and of other experimentalists on the con-
tinent, Mr. Hodgkinson said he had long felt anxious to ascertain how the
three forces — the crushing, the tensile, and the transverse strength — and the
position of the neutral line — (that separating the extended and compressed
fibres in a bent body) — were connected in bodies generally ; and his experi-
ments had for several years been directed to discovering facts upon each of
these matters, in order to determine the question. His experiments some
years ago, made for the British Association, with respect to the values of hot
and cold blast iron, had shown that the ratio of the forces of ultimate tension
and compression was nearly constant in all the species of cast iron ; and a
few experiments made at that time on sandstone and marble, had led him to
suspect that nearly the same would be the case in these and other hard
bodies. Through the liberty of his friend Mr. Fairbau-n (who had, as usual,
given him every assistance his establishment afforded), he (Mr. Hodgkinson)
had made a great many experiments upon wood, sandstones, marbles, glass,
slate, ivory,^bone, &.Q., to ascertain the tensile, crushing the transverse
strength of each ; also, as far as possible, the situation of the neutral line in
thirteen different kinds of timber (including oaks, pines, teak, &c.) All the
three sorts of experiments w-ere made as far as possible out of the same
specimen in each case, to render the results as unexceptionable as they could
be made. The wood was of good quality and perfectly dry, having been
chosen for this purpose, and laid in a warm dry place for four years or more.
Previous to experiment, the bars of wood were all reduced with care to the
same dimensions, and afterwards weighed, to ascertain the specific gravity.
They were then laid upon supports to obtain the deflections with given
weights, and the breaking weight with its deflection. The two portions into
which a specimen was broken were afterwards reduced in the middle by the
lathe to the form used in Mr. Barlow's experiments, in order that the experi-
ments might be torn asunder in the middle, by a force acting directly through
the axis, and thus to obtain the tensile strength of the wood. Afterwards,
the thick ends of the specimens were turned by the lathe into cylinders, all
of the same diameter and length, as nearly as practicable, and their exact
dimensions afterwards taken, in order to ascertain by experiment the resist-
ance of the woods to a crushing force. After describing the character and
results of his experiments on the various substances named above (specimens
of -which he produced), Mr. Hodgkinson gave the following summary of
results of very numerous experiments on marbles and stones of various
degrees of hardness : —

Crusliing force per square inch
called 1000.

Transverse strength
Tensile force of bar 1 inch square,
Desciption of stone. per sqr. inch, and 1 loot spaces.

Black marble H3 10-1

Italian marble 84 10-6

Rochdale flagstone l"* 9 9

High .Moor stone lO"

Stone called Yorkshire flag .... _ 9 S

Stor.e from Little HuUon, near Bolton 70 8 S

Mean rates 100 9'8

Mr. Hodgkinson gave the following recapitulation of results :— Calling the
mean crushing strength per square inch, in the different articles experimented
upon, 1000, we have —

876

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURNAL.

[August,

Tensile
strength.

In timber 1900

Cast iron 158

Glass (plate antl crown) . . 123
Stone and marble 100

Ratio of mean
Transverse fransile to one
strenRtli. strong force.

85-1 1-55

10-8 1-66

10- 1-78

9-8 1-105 or 1-89,

taking the
hardest only.

The ratio of the crushing force to the transverse force is nearly the same in
glass, stone and marble, including the hardest and the softest kinds. Hence
if we know the transverse strength or the crushing strength in any of these
bodies, we may predict the other ; and, as glass and the hardest stones
resist crushing 'with from seven to nine times the energy that they do being
torn asunder, we may get an approximate value of the tensile force from the
crushing force, or t'ice versa. These results render it probable that the
hardest bodies, whether cast iron, glass, stone, or marble, admit of certain
atomic displacemeats, either in tearing asunder or crushing, these displace-
ments being in a given ratio to each other, or nearly so. In future calcula-
tions as to the strength of bodies, the crushing strength ought to be made
the fundamental datura, which I have recently done, for the reasons shown
in this notice. The ratio of the transverse strength to the crushing strength
is greater in cast iron than in glass, marble, and sandstones, arising from the
ductability of that metal. The necessity of enlarged inquiries in these matters
will he seen, when it is reflected that calculations of the transile strength of
cast iron, or marble, or stones in general, made from the transverse strength
by the modes used by Tredgold, Navier, and others, give the transile strength
twice or three times as great as it ought to be.

The Chairman said the section was greatly indebted to Mr. Hodgkinson
for his very interesting communications. Those experiments had attracted
much attention from scientific men, and the Royal Society had presented him
their medal for a former paper on this subject. [We may here mention, that
this communication was only some portion of a more full and perfect paper,
to be read before the Royal Society ; such communication being now made
onlv as would not preclude Mr. Hodgkinson from laying the more complete
results before that society.] He might also express the opinion of practical
men, that no experiments, either as to e.xtent, care, or accuracy of observa-
tion, gave results at all comparable in point of value with those of Mr.
Hodgkinson, who, he hoped, would have the time and inclination to pursue
his experiments to a greater extent. There were no results in practical
science of greater importance than those which showed us the strength and
stability of materials. In the structure of buildings, upon which the comfort
and wealth of so many individuals depended, and in other structures in
engineering operations— an ignorance of the important facts arrived at by
Mr. Hodgkinson had, in many cases, led engineers to make structures dis-
proportionatelv strong or weak ; in the one case causing unnecessary waste
of materials and unnecessary expense, in the other periling the stability of
the structure, and the safety and lives of those within it.

The Rev. Dr. Peacock (Dean of Ely) then made an oral communication
" Upon the report of the fOMinlsxioner.i for the restoration of lost standards
of weights and measures, and upon their proposal for the introduction of a
decimal system" (during which communication Sir Wilhara Hamilton took
the chair). After stating that the imperial standards of weights and measures
(the yard, the lb., the gallon, and several of their multiples) had been lost
in the fire vs-bich destroyed the two Houses of Parliament, he said that a
commission (of which he was a member) had been appointed, to report on
the best means of restoring these standards. He noticed the proceedings of
a former commission, on whose recommendation the act of the 5th Geo. IV.
had been passed, declaring the imperial standards of weights and measures,
and prohibiting all others to be used, and pointed out the erroneous data on
•which that former commission had fixed the standard yard ; by which data,
therefore, the present commission did not recommend its restoration, but
rather to take the extant copies of it, especially the one in the care of Mr.
Trancis Baily, as the authority upon which the new standard yard should be
■formed. The commission also recommended to the government that the
standards of length and weight should be independent of each other, wiiich
was not the case before. The standard pound weight was Troy weight
(5780 grains), though the pound avoirdupois (7000 grains) was used through-
out the country, in the proportion perhaps of 10,000 to one of Troy. The
commission recommended the standard pound to be the representative of the
avoirdupois, and not (as before) of the Troy pound ; that, hereafter, the use
of the Troy pound should be abohshed, except for a very limited number of
transactions, and that the avoirdupois pound should be considered as the
standard pound of Great Britain. They reconimeuded that measures of
capacity should be determined by measures of weight— by far the most con-
venient method, inasnuicb as weighing was a much more accurate operation
than, for instance, the formation of a perfect cube. The commission also ven-
tured to recommend strongly some alterations in the coinage, and the systems
of weights and measures, arising out of a more extensive introduction of the
decimal scale. The nearly unanimotis determination of the commission was,
that any attempt to interfere materially with the primary units of the
coinage,' weights, and measures, in ordinary use, would produce such confu-
sion and bad consequences in the ordinary transactions of life, that they
woidd adhere strictly to all those primary linits, viz., the pound sterling of
our coinage, the yard, in the measure of length (and also the foot, for there

were two primary units in this measure), the acre, in the measure of areaSF
the gallon, in the measure of capacity, and the imperial pound in the measure
of weight. As the coinage must necessarily be the basis of any changes
leading to the more extended adoption of a decimal scale— taking the pound
sterUn" as the primary unit, they proposed to introduce a coin of the value
of 2*. "(one-tenth of the pound); another, either silver or copper, of one-
tenth of 2s. (or 2d. and a fraction) which might be called a cent (the
hundredth of a pound) ; and the thousandth part of the pound sterling, or
nearly the value of our farthing (of which there are 960 in the pound),
which new coin it was propose<l to call a jnillet (from thousandth). The
difference in the value of tlie copper coinage was less important, as it was
merely a representative coinage, aud had not an approximating intrinsic
value,' hke the gold and silver coinage. For the proposed coin of 2s. various
names had been suggested, as Victorine, rupee, or florin ; it being not much
different from the vatue of some of the rupees of the East Indies, or the
florin of the Continent. Under this new decimal scale the shilling would be
retained, and also the sixpence (but the latter under another name, more
representative of its value). For the half-crown would be substituted the
2s. or Victorine. The very rev. gentleman dwelt at some length on the
advantages of this change, in the extensive money transactions and accounts
of bankers and merchants ; in the Bank of England, for instance, where a
thousand clerks were employed, where it would greatly facilitate the opera-
tions of calculation and book-keeping. Thus, discarding millets (for bankers
now excluded the subdivisions of a penny in their accounts), the sum of
.€17 3 Viclorines, 7 cents, would be represented at once by 17-37 ; only two
places of decimals, instead of as now in pounds, shillings, and pence. He
showed how the princiole was applicable, with still greater advantage, in
cases of weights and measures (where the scale was now most anomalous
and absurd). Suppose the rental or value of 30-64 acres of land to be
required, and that the land cost £09 3 Viclorines, 4 cents, an acre. The
reduction in common arithmetic was one of very considerable labour, difli-
cultv, and time. Indeed, if this decimal system were adopted, the labour
of teaching arithmetic to school boys would be reduced nearly one half. But
bv this plan (as the rev. doctor showed), the result might he obtained in five
li'nes of decimals, containing only 21 figures. As to weights, the most
extensive change recommended by the committee would be to introduce the
uniform weight of 10 lb. to the stone, instead of the varieties of 8 lb. in
some, and 14 1b. or 16 1b. in other parts of the kingdom; the hundred
weight to be called centna (a German term). There were all the changes
proposed in weights, the commission not wishing to interfere with the sub-
division of the pound, which admitted of four subdivisions into 8 oz., 4 oz.,
2 oz., and I oz. The pound and ounce would remain, therefore, exactly the
same' as at present. As to the measure of length, the commission thought
it too violent a change to alter all the milestones ; but there would be no
difficulty (with reference to the standing orders of parliament, in railway
matters', &c.) to introduce the measure of 1000 yards, which might be called
a mih/ard. However, the commission made no recommendations as to no-
menclature, leaving that to the legislature. Thus the changes proposed to
be introduced, not onlv to ensure a decimal coinage, but a decimal subdivision
of weights and measures, were by no means of that formidable and appalling
character which manv persons supposed they must of necessity possess.

On the use of Beton and Concrete in the construction of Breakwaters.
Mr. Vignoles called the attention of the section to the works now going
on'at Algiers, in the formation of tafakwaters by the use of concrete, under
the direction of M. Poirel, where We said a shelter had already been made
for 15 sail of the line, at an expense, even under all the difliculties presented
by the circumstances of that -country, of about 20s. per cubic yard ; and he
had no doubt that in this country, in any situation where a good hydraulic
Ume could readilv be procured, the expense would not exceed 10s. per cubic
yard. Some very extensive works of the same kind had also been executed
at Marseilles. Jlr. Philip Taylor, of Marseilles, in confirmation of Mr.
Vignoles, mentioned several instances in which concrete was used in that
neighbourhood, with the greatest success. He stated that bc'ton was a ma-
terial much used in that vicinity, though scarcely known m England. It was
composed of one part of ground brick, and two parts of lime. Mr. Smith,
Jlr Fairbairn, and several other gentlemen, expressed their opinions as to the
value of concrete, and its applicability to a variety of purposes to which it
was not commonly applied.

Mr. Scott Russell's Inde.rfor the speed of Steam Vessels.

Mr. Russell stated, that his index of speed was founded on the well-known
dvnamical fact, that if an aperture were made in the lower part of a vessel
containing water, and a stream were allowed to issue from it against an aper-
ture in another vessel containing water, the force of the current would keep
the water in the second vessel at the same height as in the vessel from which
the current issued. It would follow, from this principle, that if a vessel were
passing through the water at a speed equivalent to that of the current produced
by a given head of water, the resistance would raise water m a tube inside
the vessel, hut subjected to the action of the external fluid. Mr. Russell then
proceeded to detail the particulars of the invention to which he had applied this
principle, bv passing a tube through the bow of the vessel, and carrving it along
the flooring to the centre of gravity of the vessel, where it terminated in a

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

277

vertical glass tube, exhibiting the weight of water witliin. To this tube
there was attached a moveable scale, the zero of which being placed on a
level with the point at which the water stood when the vessel was at rest,
the rise of the water in the tube when the vessel was set in motion exhibited
the velocity at which the vessel was passing through the water. With the
view of testing the accuracy of this invention, he had tried it repeatedly
over a distance of 15 miles, measured trigonometrically. He had also com-
pared it witli the best logs, and was perfectly satisfied of its accuracy. From
these experiments he had constructed a scale, which he exhibited, and of
which the following is a copy ; the first column exhibiting the speed in miles
per hour, and the second the height of the water in the tube above the zero
line expressed in feet and decimal parts : —

Miles per hour. Feet on the scale.

15 7-5625

14 6-5880

13 5-6800

12 4-84

11 4-067

10 3-36

9 2-722

8 2-151

7 1-647

6 1-21

5 0-84

4 0-537

3 0-3025

2 0-134

1 0-0336

A NEW SELF-ACTING Weir AND ScoDRiNG Si.uicE, by Mr. Batcman.

Mr. Bateman observed that the great objections to fixed weirs and dams
were, that by causing a partial stagnation in the water above them, they
allowed the bed of the stream to be silted up by the deposition of mud,
gravel, &c., whereas the proposed weir would adjust itself to the various
changes in the condition of the stream, and prevent any filling up of the
channel by making the stream clear itself. Mr. Bateman's weir^is composed
of two leaves turning horizontally on pivots, which are placed below the
centres of the leaves, so that the upper portions of them shall be of much
greater area than the lower. The upper leaf is also far larger than the
lower, and turns in the direction of the stream ; while the lower leaf turns
against the stream, and overlaps the bottom edge of the upper leaf, and is
forced against it by the pressure of the water. The comparative area of the
leaves and position of the pivots is so arranged, that in ordinary states of
the stream the tendency of the current to turn over the top leaf is counter-
balanced by the pressure of the water against the overlap of the bottom one,
the counteracting pressures keeping the weir vertical and the leaves closed!
the water flowing as usual through a notch in the upper leaf. But when the
water rises above the usual level, the pressure above, from greater surface
and leverage, overcomes the resistance below, and the top leaf turns over,
pushing back the lower leaf, and thereby offering the least possible obstruction
to the water, and giving a passage at the very bottom of the stream to the
gravel or mud.

The following diagrams will explain the construction of the weir : —

In answer to questions and objections, Mr. Bateman explained how diffi-
culties, arising from trees floating down, the complete turning over of the
leaves, &c., might be obviated by suitable stops, grating, &c.— Sir J. Robison
observed, that the Rotterdam Canal had weirs on a similar principle ; but
Mr. Bateman explained that those weirs turned vertically on their axis.
Mr. Vignoles stated, that from the cheapness and apparent advantages of
this weir, he hoped it would be brought under the consideration of the Com-
missioners of the Shannon navigation, and recommended for trial on that
river, to which it appeared pecuHarly applicable.

Mr. Bateman, in obviating some difficulties suggested, explained that, in
a weir 20 ft. long and 5 ft. deep, which his drawings and model might be
supposed to represent, the sum of the closing pressures would be 795C lb.,
and the sum of the opening pressures would be 7669 lb., the pivots being so
placed as- to give the areas of leaves above and below the lines of their axes
the ratio of 2 to 1. The leaves would consequentlv be kept close by a force
equal to the difference between these pressures;" that is 287 lb. As (he
water rises these conditions would, however, be changed. Supposing the
water to rise one foot, the additional pressure would be 12001b., of which
800 lb. would be exerted in opening, and 400 lb. in closing the leaves ; and
the result would be that the sum of the opening pressures would exceed that
of the closing by 100 lb. The leaves would consequently be opened. He
also explained that the sills against which the gates arc made to close, might

be so regulated as to discharge the greatest flood o, water without allowing
the leaves to open more than a moderate quantity; but, if thought necessary,
the gates ought to he allowed to assume a position perfectly horizontal in
cases of high floods, and thereby oppose the least possible resistance to the
passage of the water. The sluice might also be protected from being choked
with trees and brushwood floating down the stream, by means of a grating.

Mr. Liddell read a paper on Ventilalion, on a met/tod proposed by Mr.
Fleming, of Glasgow. It had been tried in a large building occupied by a
number of poor persons, each family having a room. From the unclean and
intemperate habits of the inmates, and their number (about 500), the house
was very unhealthy, and many deaths from contagious diseases took place.
In the plan adopted, the galleries were traversed by pipes of nine inches
diameter, which united in a vertical pipe of large dimensions communicating
with a lofty engine-house chimney ; and small pipes of one inch diameter,
at the top of each room, communicated with the pipes in the gallery. This
plan had also been tried in the Glasgow Fever Hospital, in which the beds
for fever patients, &c. were fitted up with the tubes for carrying away
noxious effluvia. ,V similar plan for the ventilation of ships and steamers
had been introduced by Dr. Reid, by leading tubes from the berths into a
stove on deck, or, in steamers, into the chimney. Mr. Liddell stated that
the expense fur a house of 60,000 cubic feet was only 40 lb. of coal in
twenty-four hours.

Sir J. Robison remarked, that from his experience the plan of Mr. Fleming,
as far as regarded the size of the pipes, was inadequate.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

At the meeting of the Electrical Society on Tuesday evening, 19th July,
a paper on this subject by Mr. Charles Walker, the Secretary, was read.
The author entered into a very close investigation of the most important ex-
periments that have been adduced in illustration of the nature "of these in-
struments ; and stated that discharges of Leyden batteries have been very
generally selected as representatives of lightning flashes. He then showed
the great difference between the visible character of the two flashes, and ana-
lyzed the cause on which each depends ; demonstrating that the only case in
which the resemblance is in any degree to be traced, is when a Levden dis-
charge fractures the glass, and passes directly between the coatings ; and
that in all other cases the said discharge is the result of two forces acting
counter to each other. Thus he reaches his first conclusion, that the dis-
charge of a Leyden jar does not resemble a flash of lightning; and therefore
that Leyden jars should not be employed in these experiments. He then
said that many points on which philosophers of the present day diflVr, are in
connexion with the results of the Leyden experiments ; and hence, if it can
be shown that these experiments ought to be excluded, the at present com-
plicated inquiry will be much simplified. He proceeded to trace the close
resemblance between the discharge of a prime conductor and a cloud, illus-
trating his opinion by the aid of the magnificent machine belonging to the
Polytechnic Institution ; and showed that experiments with this conductor
are in all essential points legitimate. He then described an extensive series
of experiments to prove that a wire on which sparks are thrown from the
prime conductor represents a lightning-rod ; and then that sparks will pass
from such a wire, and therefore from a lightning-rod, to vicinal conducting
bodies. This last position was illustrated in a general manner by an assist-
ant holding in his hand a glass rod surmounted by a brass ball ; the ball was
connected by stout wire with the gas-burners of the room, and thus when
sparks were thrown on it from the conductor the electricity passed into a
good discharging train to the earth. Now, while this took place, the appli-
cation of a piece of metal to any part of the wire produced a spark ; and not
only so, but the same could be obtained from any of the gas-burners in any
part of the room ; and even when the writer descended into the workshops,
two stories below the machine, sparks could be obtained from the burners
there, which v«re indeed very much out of the direct line of circuit, so great
is the desire of the electric current to use a wide path. This is the source
of danger alluded to in the paper on Brixton church, reported in the last
Journal. However, as the wires |in this, as in several other similar experi-
ments, were not directly between the conductor and the earth, the follow-
ing arrangement was made, which answers every condition, and the general
result of which proves that tlie wires above described do act as lightning-
rods. Attached to the prime conductor of the machine was a thick brass
rod, terminating in a five-inch ball ; immediately beneath this was erected
a similar rod surmounted by a ball. This rod was screwed into a small brass
disc on the floor, and was considered a perfect representation of a lightning-
rod, when sparks or 'flashes were passed into it. Near this a shorter and
smaller rod (also terminating in a ball) was held ; when the end of this rod
touched the brass disc, no sparks passed between the two, when it did not
touch, sparks passed in abundance. Much of the value of the inquiry was
shown to depend on this experiment. If the former state of things repre-
sents what occurs in nature, there is no danger of a lateral spark ; but if the
latter, the danger is great. That metallic contact in this experiment pre-
vented the appearance of sparks is an experimental proof of the safety result,
ing from the metallic coonf-nions formerly recommended. These latter re

2Q

278

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

suits are given in explanation of the vvell-known e3ipcr.ment of t^e two me-
tallic discs ; and Mr. Walker shows that no lateral discharge takes place
between these discs, because the vicinal metal is in contact ^ylth the ower
disc While, therefore, the author agrees in recognising the value of light-
ning-rods, he has strong reason to believe that this lateral spark will occur
"nless proper precautions are taken; and though he differs in some degree
from oiheil he does so in a feeling of perfect good-fellowship, and expresses
a willingness to forsake his opinions whenever they are shown to be un-
tenable, lie states, in conclusion, that even if he is in error, still science
will have gained something ; for the received opinions will then have been
able to withstand another assault, and will only stand the firmer.

IMPROVEMENTS IN LIVERPOOL.-ADVANCE OF ARCHITECTURE.

It has long been a subject of regret to men of refined and cultivated
minds that the architecture of our towns displays a miserable degefleracy
from the purity of ancient taste. This degeneracy was perhaps to be ex-
pected The state of the fine arts is determined by laws exactly the reverse
of those which regulate the progress of the useful arts and mechanism. As,
therefore these have advanced, so has architecture declined. Elegance and
chastity of design have been too often sacrificed to utility and economy ; and
the profession of the architect, which in Fxome or Athens could claim the
patronage of Augustus or Pericles, has in modern times received little en-
conragement from the great and powerful. But within these last few years a
light seems to have been gradually dawning, which, we would fam hope, will
reflectbaci something of the splendour of ancient days. Men of rank, ol
education, and refined taste, have applied themselves to a study which was
before often deeraded by the influence of ignorance and vulgarity. Archi-
tecture has rapilily advanced and a pure style is taking the place of a bar-
barous and confused medlv of ancient and modern conceptions.

Perhaps our town of Liverpool is the best example we can bring forward
to illustrate these remarks. The stranger must view with admiration, and
our fellow-townsmen with pride, the taste and judgment displayed in the
designs of many of our recent buildings. St. George's Hall and the New
Colkgiate Institution, for both of which we are indebted to the talent of
Mr Elnies, cannot receive too great commendation.

We purpose to furnish, from time to time, notices of the principal new
buildings that may rise up amongst us, with a view to encourage the more
general cultivation of a refined taste in Architecture, and shall on the present
occasion commence with

BRUNSWICK EUILDIMGS.

We have been much struck by a visit to this structure, now nearly com-
pleted, in Brunswick-street, and we are sure our readers will be gratified by
a description of its chief characteristics. It has been constructed in the
palatial style of Itahan Architecture, presenting massive, unbroken facades
towards Brunswick and Penwick-streets ; the rusticated basement is par-
tially elevated above the street, and forms a substantial stylobate to the
superstructure. The ground story is channeled between the windows and
surmounted by a Doric entablature, which runs entirely round the building,
forming a band on which are set the windows of the first story ; these win-
dows are crowned with segmental pediments supported on appropriate
trusses, whilst those on the story above have their pediments of the usual
angular form. The main cornice, the most prominent feature in the design,
projects three feet five inches from the face of the wall, and, in addition to
the usual coml)ination of mouldings, has raodillions of a novel character ; a-
frieze below is enriched with scrolls contained within panels. The quoins at
each of the angles exhibit a variety in workmanship, and increase in solidity
as thev approach the ground. Throughout, simplicity appears to have been
studied, and breadth of effect has been obtained, not so much by vertical
breaks or superfluous ornament, as by adhering to what is termed " the hori-
zontal line in architecture." .

The entrances are in Brunswick-street, and form a centre-piece of three
semicircular arches, filled in with bronzed perforated doors, one of which
leads to a handsome court-yard. This court is entirely covered with glass,
and artbrds light and access to the interior. The building is fitted up with
sets of offices, arranged so as to meet the wants of every description of
tenant, whose comforts appear to have been studied m every minute par-
ticular. , , , , , ,

The whole building is of fine free-stone— that of the ground story ot a
light reddish tint, and all above it of white. Viewing both fronts from the
opposite corner of Fenwick-street, a little higher up, it presents a very
beautiful and striking appearance, from its general uniformity, or strict keep-
ing in design, the richness of the corniciDg and mouldings, and the chaste-
ncss of the ornaments— none of which are superfluously introduced. The
groat number of windows gives it also an air of liveUness rarely attained in
commercial structures. Of these there are twenty-seven in three rows in the
facade to Fenwick-street, which is the longest ; and eighteen in that to
lirunswick-street, in rows of seven in the two upper stories ; and with four
below— two on each side the two doors, between which is a handsome per-
forated window, making the apertures uniform in position. The arches over
the doors and window between, we should add, have ornamental keystones
carved in classical heads in full projection.

The covered court in the interior of the pile is an oblong square, with two
ranges of galleries on each side, running longitudinally, and across the north
end : and forming open and cheerful passages to the several oflices above.
These galleries are fronted with handsome massive balustrades or railings,
each of a different but strictly classical design. The lower portion or base-
ment of the immense skv-ligbt over head is of a segmental, or rather ogee
form ; and the centre is elevated some feet over the higher point of each
s°Ement, bv light frame-work, which forms a continuous range all round of
snTall perpendicular arched openings, affording ample ventilation. The
sloping glazed roof on each side and at the ends (in pavilion form) over-
hangs this ornamental open-work-so that the rain cannot enter excepting
in very high winds, and even then but slightly. There is au ornamental
semi-circular projection at the south end of the court-withm which is a
spiral additional staircase. The appearance of this court whether seen
from below, or from any part of the galleries, is at once novel and palatial—
the top resembling a 'conservatory. It is, indeed, a principal feature m
the building, and has already attracted the attention and admiration of
many visitors. The court, and the galleries, are smoothly covered with
aspbaltura, and the latter have numerous perforated gratings of cast-iron on
the same level, admitting additional light and air There '^ a range of
offices water-closets, &c., in the attic, all round the four sides of the base of
the large sky-light covering the interior square or court, with a wide passage
open to the' air, and fenced off, clear of the glass, by a light iron railing.
This passage forms a pleasing promenade. The rooms at this elevation are
liffhted both from the sides and by roof-lights, and a few creeping plants of
slender fohage trained here and there to the glass, so as to subdue and
mellow the light required for the rooms below, are alone wanted to give the
whole the appearance of a green-house surrounded by cottages. It may be
added that the mode of ventilation is so well contrived, that no additional
heat is perceptible in the area below, even while the summer sun is shiniDg

''"Ihe interior arrangements of the building appear to be such as to ensure
the utmost convenience. The stairs are easy, and all the rooms well lighted

""Thrtown is indebted to Joseph C. Ewart, Esq., for this structure. He
has evidently given to Messrs. Arthur and George Williams, his architects,
more scope than is usually granted to men of their profession on simdar
occasions ; and they appear to us to have displayed a rare degree of taste and
judgment in the design and completion of the budding, which may undoubt-
edly be considered an honour and an ornament to the town. It cost
f 13,000, and covers 835 superficial yards.

CHAPEL-STREET.

In Chapel Street, two fine commercial buildings are in a state of progress
—one nearly completed, and the other (adjoining the property of Messrs.
Waterhouse and Sons) raised to the plinth. The latter, at the corner of
Chanel Street and west corner of Old Hall Street, is of large dimensions;
and as it is situated immediately behind the Exchange Buildings, m the
centre of the commercial portion of the town, and in one of its principal
thoroughfares, public curiosity may be gratified by a sketch of the design.
We have been kindly favoured with a sight of the plans and elevations, by
the architect, Mr. C'ulshaw ; and the following description (drawn up on the
supposition that it were completed, which it will shortly be) will be found

to he pretty accurate : — , ^ r i /r t

The building is in the Roman style of architecture, and each facade (front-
ing Old Hall Street and Chapel Street, respectively) consists of an attached
Dilastrade of the Corinthian order, from the temple of Jupiter Stator. It u
mounted upon a rock- faced stylobate, crowned by a graceful attic, which dies
into the pediment at the end. The principal fa9ade, towards Old Hall Street
is pierced with six Venetian windows ; and the end front, towards Chapel
Street contains three similar windows. These apertures are of large dimen-
siors being upwards of ten feet in width, aud continued the whole height,
from the basement to the entablature. They are each finished with an arch
and an enriched key-stone, and are ornamented at the height of each floor
with a neat panelled entablature, supported with light iron columns of the
same order, set back from the face of the reveals. The spacjf between the
pilasters and windows are finished with sunk and channelled joints, which
serve for the window dressings. ,,,.,,. wu • .-

It is to be regretted that the corner of this noble building, at the junction
of the two streets, is cut off at the height of the stylobate, tor the purpose of
public accommodation on the foot-walk ; and this renders it necessary to
introduce a truss to carry the angle pilaster, which produces a novel, but, we
think, rather deteriorating appearance. , , , ,, c

The interior arrangements are considered well adapted for the purpose for
which thev 'are intended-that of brokers' offices-the apartments being
very roomy and well lighted.— i!>er;jooi Paper.

FRESCO AND ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.
Mr. Simpson, the decorator, of West Strand, has devoted considerable at-
tention to the subject of fresco and encausUc painting, in «»»f'l"/»;/^ "J t''^,
opinions expressed in their favour by the '«'<= Committee of the House of
Commons, Ld the encouragement which they appear likely to meet with
from the present Commission. He has made several experiments on variou
cements for the purpose of ascertaining their fitness as grounds for orna

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

279

mental and decorative paintings, and under the direction of Mr. Latilla and
other artists has produced specimens of each. Mr. Simpson has, in some
instances, adopted the ground of lirae and marble dust, according to the plan
of the ancients, on which he has succeeded in fixing the colours, and pre-
serving their iutensity and brilliancy so well that even a copious and repeated
washing has not removed them, nor materially diminished their effect. Still,
he has of course been confined, on this ground, to the use of such pigments
as are not injured by lime. But the greatest success has attended tlie use of
the beautifully white and hard cement, known as Keene's cement, n^ manu-
factured by Messrs. White and Sons of Millbank, on which, when in a moist
state, the colours are easily applied, and become, when dry, perfectly fixed ;
and it possesses the farther great advantages of admitting of the highest
degree of finish, and allowing the use of those pigments which will not bear
the mixture of lime. These specimens have been repeatedly washed with
soap and water. The painting in encaustic and a tempera (which Mr. Simp-
son has been enabled to render permanent) on Keene's cement, when dry
and even polished, has proved quite satisfactory ; as the brilliancy and
clearness of the tints, contrasted and thrown out by the whiteness of the sur-
face, produces an effect superior to any other ornamental painting yet at-
tempted. No doubt other materials will be introduced, but it is those' above
described to which Mr. Simpson's attention has as yet been principally
directed.

REMARKS ON THB " PONT DU CARROUSEL," PARIS.*

Sir — I beg to rectify' an incorrect dimension contained in your number
for July, relative to the size of the centre arch of the Pont du Carrousel in
Paris, and will, with your permission, take advantage of this opportunity to
offer some few observations on the construction of this bridge, erected by
me, according to the plans of M. Polonceau, whose merit as an engineer of
high standing is considerably enhanced by the conception of this very elegant
structure.

The length of the chord line of the three arches is the same, viz., 156 ft.
6 in. intrados, and the rise or versed sine is 16 ft. English measure, being
full .[^ of the chord.

The arch is an arc of a circle, whose radius intrados is 198 ft. 5|, and
forms between the radii passing through the extremities of tlie chord line an
angle of 46° 26'. The depth of the voussoir, or tubular rib, including the
flanches, is 2 ft. 10|, and its breadth across the middle is equal to half its
depth. Each tubular rib is composed of 23 pieces, having 11 lengths of
about 14 ft. 9 in. on one side of the laminated wooden arc, whereas there
are on the other side only 10 whole lengths and 2 half lengths, these half
lengths being placed against the piers, in order to cross the joints so as to
obtain greater rigidity, which by this combination became very considerable.

The wooden arc, which is composed of good, well-seasoned fir, having
been erected, greatly facilitated the work, for once cut to its proper shape,
so as to leave a small space between the sides of the wood and the metal, the
half voussoirs had only to be appHed thereto, bolted together and forced up
into their proper place by means of struts and wedges, after which keys
were fitted into grooves reserved for the purpose at the extremity of each
portion of the rib ; and when all were ready they were gently forced down
to a bearing, so as not to displace or deform the arc, beginning at the two
two piers, and terminating at the centre, where the last key tightened the
whole ; and so great was the power of these keys, that with a light hammer
I could lift the whole arc from the struts, or lov.'er it again with the greatest
ease imaginable. These keys enal)led us, therefore, to set the ribs with great
precision, and almost simultaneously, which circumstance is of considerable
importance in the construction of an iron bridge, on account of the incon-
venient effect produced by expansion and contraction of the metal.

The hollow rib offers considerable advantage over the flat rib, on account
of its rigidity, which is so great as to be capable of resisting all lateral strain
with the aid of very little cross framing, or horizontal bracing.

There exists, In the construction of this bridge a peculiarity which has
probably not been generally observed, although we were afraid, previous to
the work being finished, that it would produce a very unpleasing eft'ect. The
evil was, however, unavoidable, as it arose from the circumstance that the
Administration des Fonts et Chaussees required a certain height under the
centre arch at high water, and the Prefect de la Seine would not on the other
hand, consent to the elevation of the roadway on the quay above a certain
height. It became, therefore, requisite to inchne the chord line of the two
side arches, and although there is in each a fall of 2 ft. 8 in. towards the
quay, the eflFect is scarcely perceptible, unless when the water in the river
rises nearly to the spring of the arch, which only takes place in the rainy
season.

By the above plan the road over the bridge forms a curve instead of a
level, and probably gave rise to the idea that the centre arch was of greater
span than that of the other two. The curve of the road was still further
increased, so as to obtain tlie level of the quay, by dimmishing the diameter
of the circular bearing rings against the buttress to 1 1 ft., whereas the
diameter of those next the pier is 12 ft. 5|.

Great attention was paid to the form of section of the tubular rib, in order

'' Drauings of this bridge are given in the Jouniul, Vol. U. p. 79.

to avoid any bad effect that might result from contraction in the casting, and
such care was taken in moulding that very little remained to be done to the
pieces when they came out of the sand. The tubular ribs were cast and faced
at the Forges et Fonderies de Fourchambault, under the management of M.
Emile JIartin, who paid very particular attention both to the quality of metal
employed, and to the moulding of the pieces.

The general allowance for contraction of cast iron in cooling is yi^, and
this was found to be as near as possible the case. But the greatest difficulty
to overcome was the tendency of these voussoirs to bend as they cooled, and
that in consequence of the outer edges of the flanches cooling faster than
the centre part, because it is well known that the slower the cooling process
is carried on, the greater will be the contraction of the metal. To obviate
this it was found requisite to curve the model itself about J of an inch in
the length of 14 ft. 9 in.

The circular rings and other cast iron pieces were cast partly in Paris, but
the greatest portion in Normandy: with the exception of the facing of the
voussoirs or tubular ribs, all the fitting-up was done on the spot.

The object of having these circular supports for the roadway was to obtain
a certain degree of elasticity, sufticient to preserve the tubular ribs against
the vibration of the road when carriages heavily laden are passing on the
bridge ; and this desideratum was most effectually attained, for I have fre-
quently examined the effect, and have invariably found that when under the
influence of a heavy load, and while the road was vibrating considerably,
that, owing to the elasticity of these rings, the tubular ribs were perfectU
steady. I shall be happy to add some further remarks on this subject, if you
consider this paper to be worth inserting in your useful Journal.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

London, July 19, 1842. H. II. Edwards.

[We shall, with much pleasure, receive any other communication Mr.
Edwards may forward us. — Editor.]

MR. CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS' BOILER PROJECTS.

Sir— I have just been perusing a table of " Experiments on Furnaces and
Steam Boilers," submitted by Mr. Charles Wye Williams to the British As-
sociation, and it is with unfeigned regret I observe the valuable time of the
Association is occupied with such matter. The ostensible object of this table
is to show the superiority of IMr. Williams's mode of effecting combustion
over the plan usually adopted, hut never was a table made less calculated to
accomplish this object, and more likely to destroy the last vestige of profes-
sional confidence reposed in its author. The use of coal to steam engine
boilers is the generation of steam, and I should imagine that even Mr.
Williams himself cannot deny that that mode of combustion is the best which
practically is found to generate the greatest quantity of steam with the least
expence ; and Mr. Williams may, when he first has leisure, begin to convince
himself that he will not be benefitted by telling steam-vessel proprietors (to
whom economy of fuel is of the greatest importance) that he has found a
means of increasing the heat of flues, if he cannot also tell them that the
consequence of such increase of heat is (and should not lie) an increased
evaporation of water by a given quantity of fuel. Mr. Williams, in his ten
deductions from his two tables, has under consideration the quantity of
water evaporated per unit of coal, economy of time, as he calls it, and the
perfection of combustion. In his first deduction he says, that " the quantity
of watej evaporated by any given weight of fuel furnishes no test of the
quantity evaporated in any given time." In the second, that " the quantity
of water evaporated by each pound of coal is a very inadequate test of the
quantity of heat given out by such coal." In the third, that " as the weight
of water evaporated per pound of coal bears no jiroportion to the weight of
water evaporated per hour, economy of fuel may be the reverse of economy
of time." In the fourth, that " the area of the furnace has no necessary
connexion with the heat generating power of the coal." In the seventh,
that ■' the temperature of the products escaping by the chimney will be in
the ratio of the heat in the flues, and both in the ratio of the r.iteof combus-
tion and the quantity of heat generated," and so on through his other deduc-
tions. Now, in the name of all the smoke-preventing schemers of the pre-
sent day, what has any one or all of these deductions to do with the supe-
riority of Williams' furnace over tlie common one, if Mr. Williams can tell, I
shall be much obliged to him, for so far as I can sec, they are of use only
in mistifying the subject, and enveloping it still more thickly in dense clouds
of smoke. The mode of testing the economy of fuel with any kind of fur-
nace or combustion, is of the simplest description, and to all schemers there
is only one course open : — let them find how much water can be evaporated
per unit of coal, used in the common way, with any boiler, and let them find
how much fuel used in their way is required to evaporate the same quantity
of water in the same time, with the same boiler unaltered, except in the
furnace. Such is the way in which they will meet the case in |iractice, and
such is the way in which they must treat it to jirocnrc the coiifidence of
steam-vessel proprietors, and I may perhaps be allowed to add such is the
way in which Mr. WilUams' table does not treat it.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

A.

2 Q 2

S80

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[AUGUSTI

WOOD PAVING.

1. On the Use of Mechanical Power in Draught on Turnpike Roads,
nilh Refennce to the neiv Si/stem of Wood Paving. London:
Blackwood, 1842.

2. Wood Paving in Loiidon ; a practical Treatise. By J. Lee Ste-
vens. London: Spencer, 1S41.

3. Wood Paving in the Provinces. By the same.

4. Prospectus of the Marykhone Practical and Scientifc .Association
for the Promotion of improved Street Paving.

Our earliest associations heretofore have taught us, in thinking of
great roads as works of art, to esteem durability as their chief excel-
lence, and a compact mass of stone as the best means of ensnring
this attribute. Talk of engineering monuments, and the Appian Way
rises before the mind's eye, or some of those many roads of the
Romans which, after centuries of wear and tear, still bear on them
the ever-flowing tide of traffic. And now this is to be as a dream ;
our ancient prepossessions in favour of stone or a macadamized con-
crete are to give way to what has been considered a most perishable
material, one rejected in all structures in which the property of
durability is to be consulted. We are not totally unacquainted with
wooden roads, for the corduroy roads of America have made us
familiar with them ; but whatever our ideas may be of their capaljility
of holding out against the ravages of time, we have too little liking
for them, too little opinion of their comfort, to give them any chance
of jolting our successors, when we are able to afford a more costly
road. It is, nevertheless, true that the experience of two or three
years has been sutficient to establish the efficiency of wood as a
paving material, and to ensure it a large future extension.

Our prepossessions on the subject have been that wood as a paving
material would be subject to great abrasion, would rapidly decay
under the influence of weather, and would present a very slippery
surface. The effect of damp upon wood, however, is rather para-
doxical: if partially subjected to damp then decay ensues, but while
kept constantly damp the injury is trifling. The abrasion experience
has proved to be less than that of granite, while the practical opera-
tion, as we shall hereafter show, is such as allays all fears on that
ground. As to the slipping of horses, the greater frequency of its
occurrence upon wood paving is very questionable, while it is an evil
which attaches only to a partial line of wood and stone paving, for
were wood used on a large scale, an alteration in the shoes of horses,
such as has been well provided by several inventions, would wholly
remove this cause of objection.

Having, therefore, in wood a paving material of sufficient durability,
whether we regard resistance to weather, or to abrasion from the
weight carried on it, we have now to look at it in operation. In
all specimens which have stood well we find an upper layer of wood
reposing on a bed of concrete; for as to the idea of dispensing with
the underlayer of concrete, it is one the fallacy of which has been
shown and abandoned. The concrete we regard, therefore, as an
essential feature of the system ; and thus we have a non-elastic
stratum of concrete with an elastic covering of wood, or a jacket, as
it may be termed, in reference to its operations in defending the con-
crete from the weather, and a buffer, as repelling the shocks of the
carriages traversing the road. Now it is in these elastic properties
that, according to us, the whole secret of the success of wood-pav ng
lies. Let us consider that there is not merely the road, which has to be
provided for, but also the power which traverses it. Theoretically it
might seem that the smoother and consequently the harder and more
durable the road the better ; but there is, as we have said, the power
using the road to be taken into account, and the difference between an
elastic and a non-elastic road is great in this respect. For as in the
case of resistance to impact on the part of the non-elastic medium,
the whole is distributed through the elastic medium of the
power, so to speak, traversing the road, so, in the case of an elastic
medium, this resistance is divided, and thus apparently diminished.
Familiarly, this is illustrated by the example of wood and stone stairs:
while we run up stone stairs our feet are pained, and we get
sooner tired, to which the softness of the wooden stairs is an imme-
diate relief. Therefore, upon the elastic medium we can do more
work, either as to quantity or as to the length of time in which we
are employed on it. This is the case with the horse : when it gets
on the wood pavement the relief is sensible; instead of the whole
resistance from the impact with the stone being communicated to
its feet, as in the case of stone, it is distributed. If we consider
the structure of the horse's leg, the natural habits of the animal, and
the serious effect of a London pavement in shortening its working
life, we must feel very sure that, on the ground of comfort to the

horse alone, the advantages of wood-paving are very great.
Indeed, upon some lines of road, where there is much wood pave-
ment, the sensible benefit to the omnibus and cab proprietors is
acknowledged, and the extension of wood-paving must tend greatly
to utilize the power of the horse, and so to reduce the price of his
labour under every head, whether of length of life, of health, or of
subsistence. Animate power is, nevertheless, not the sole power
which we have to consider: a short space of time must bring the
steam carriage also on the road, and we must provide for that. But
the steam carriage is in a iike manner provided with delicate and
elastic machinery, and we know that the effects of vibrations on hard
surfaces are greatly to increase the wear and tear and consequent
expense of the machine. On this ground, therefore, the wood pave-
ment is also to be preferred, in which respect many advocates of the
steam carriage system have admitted the superiority of wood. So
far, then, as to tlie mere effect of vibration on the elastic power em-
ployed, whether animate or inanimate ; but in the case of animals,
there is also a voluntary action which, although little regarded, is
worthy of some attention. All those who attempt to estimate dynam-
ically'the results of muscular action, are well aware how much the
will and disposition, the nervous condition of the animal, has to do with
it, and under all circumstances, we should consider that wood would
be more favourable to the exertion of the powers of the horse. What
the seaman call "working with a will" is half the battle, and those
who have noticed the wood pavement in Oxford-street must have
seen the evident pleasure which the omnibus and cab horses have in
running upon the easier surface.

In thus considering the tractive power we have perhaps travelled a
little out of the logical order, for we should first have considered
what is the quality of a wood surface with regard to the degree of
resistance it affords to the traffic passing over it. We thought this,
however, less important, for the capability of having tight joints is
evident, and the smoothness of wood is one of the apparent objec-
tions to it. Presenting, therefore, an evident superiority over stone
as to surface, the saving in wear and tear of carriages must be con-
sequent. Attributing to wood that it causes much less wear and tear
than stone to animals or vehicles passing over it, the converse of this
is that those animals and vehicles must cause less wear and tear to
the road, and, therefore, a very heavy item of expenditure be sensibly
diminished, as also the amount of toll levied for the maintenance of
the road. We may perhaps here mention that, according to Mr.
Macneill's opinion, "based on the relative wear of the iron of horses'
shoes and of the tires of the wheels, that the wear and tear of horses'
shoes and consequent destruction of the road is much greater than
that of wheels, and the injury, consequently, of a steam carriage
would be less than that of a coach and horses. While bringing in
corollary opinions of this kind, we must not dismiss the question of
elasticity without referring to the evidence of Mr. Macadam, as to
the good effects of laying over a bog a Macadamized road on an under-
layer of hurdles, which is the system of wood-paving reversed. It
may, however, suggest some ideas.

As to the details of wood-paving, we are on the present occasion
incurious about them, whether they ought to be cubes or hexagons, or
what, provided always that they are laid upon a solid substratum.
The mode in which the blocks are laid, as to the grain of the wood, is
important to be considered, whether with the fibres vertically, hori-
zontally, or diagonally. This is a subject well worthy of experiment,
first in relation to the mechanical strength, then as to abrasion of
surface, and further as to the beneficial effect or otherwise of the
admission of damp by the fibres. Another subject for experiment is
as to the durability of wood under several circumstances : first, under
alternate wetness and dryness, and secondly, while in such condition,
as to the effect of frequent traffic or otherwise. It appears at present
that, while bearing considerable traffic, wood will stand exposure to
all weathers; while in many other circumstances seemingly more
favourable, it is attacked with rot. The cause of this has never been
satisfactorily ascertained ; but it remains as the subject of experiment,
like the anomalies in iron rails, where, side by side, will be found rusty
rails and bright ones, under nearly the same circumstances.

Looking at wood-paving in its various relations, we come to another
topic— the convenience to the public from the sound of the wheels
being deadened on the wood pavement. The greater quiet which
ensues is much appreciated by the shopkeepers and other residents in
large thoroughfares ; but the convenience is not less to the passengers.
Those on the footway and those in carriages, besides having freedom
from noise, which is a great relief to many, are enabled to converse,
which at present, in Clieapside or the Strand, is often impossible. It
is on this ground of greater quiet that wood-paving has been already
adopted around many churches and public buildings, and its extended
use for this purpose will not only benefit the auditories but also the

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

1842.]

public, whose progress through the thoroughfares on Sundays is greatly
impeded by the barriers placed for diverting the carriages from places
of worship. Around the New Church in the Strand, at St. Giles s, tie
Old Bailey, and many other places, wood-paving has been successfully
used, and we hope it will be even more extensively adopted. Clean-
liness is another requisite of public accommodation, v,h\di is a
recommendation of wood-paving. ■ . > ■

On the ground of economy, the first cost of wood-paving, taken in
conjunction with the outlay for repairs, successfully bears the com-
parison with granite or macadamized roads, while the economical
advantage in the wear and tear of horses and vehicles is still greater.
Wood-paving has now been pretty extensively adopted in the
metropolis, and a good part of the line from the Mansion House by
Oxford-street to Regent-street, and by the Strand to Westminster
Bridge, is laid with it, and these several portions we hope to see
united, so that it mav be tried upon a more satisfactory scale than has
yet been done. Not that we have any distrust as to it, but because
"we think that scope has not vet been afforded for the lull display of
its good qualities. While on this subject we may mention, inciden-
tallv, that Mr. Bradwell, the machinist of Covent Garden Theatre, the
inventor of the artificial ice laid down in Baker Street, in the New
Road, and in the Colosseum, in 1S35 submitted to the City Paving
Commissioners, a system of wood-paving, similar to that afterwards
laid down in the Hay market, but the idea of wood was scouted by the
Commissioners.

Now let us turn to the first work with the title of whicli we have
headed this article. It is devoted to the advocacy of the steam
carriage system, as the best means of effecting which it maintains
that it is' requisite to pave the turnpike roads with wood. Ac-
cording to the author, and to Mr. Worsley, one of the steam car-
riage invenlois, in a pamphlet published by him, "the only real
diticultv at present to tlie general use of the steam carriage instead
of horse power arises from the great inequalities of surface resistance
on the coinmon roads." These inequalities of surface resistance are
said in some cases to require an S- horse, in others perhaps a 40-horse
power, "arising from the softness rather than the roughness of ordinary
roads, which are formed of materials varying in nature and quality,
liable to be affected bv every change of atmosphere." The remedy
for this is said to be found in wood-paving, as it presents the same
firm and even surface in all seasons and weathers. It is recommended,
therefore, to wood-pave all the turnpike roads, when the superior
economy and speed of the steam carriage over horse power will, it
is expected, be brought to bear.

Mr. Stevens is the agent and professed advocate of the Metropolitan
Wood Pavement Company, the most successful company hitherto, and
of course his strain is all' leather. The author of the first pamphlet
has also a preference for this company, but his reasoning is general.

The contest in the Marvlebone Vestry on the question of paving
Oxford-street with wood was conducted with great acrimony, and
with a spirit of partizanship such as to disgust all well-tlunking men.
When, therefore, this matter was decided by the triumph of the
wood-paving party, sober consideration as to the importance of paving
as an item of municipal expenditure, and the expediency of econ-
omizino- under this head, led to the novel circumstance of a local
society" being founded for the promotion of improved street-paving,
which has been organized, and we hope will be successful in Us exer-
tions. Unpledged to any particular system, whether of wood, of
stone, or of granite, the object of the supporters of this institution is
to point out to their fellow-parishioners the best mode by which
paving can be effected, and the funds of the parish economized. It
is, in fact, a local association for carrying out similar objects to those
of the Metropolitan Improvement So'oiety, but in a more restricted
way. When we consider the large amount of local taxation in this
country, direct and indirect, scarcely under ten niillioiis, in the shape
of poor rates, county, church, highway, paving, sewer, and lighting
rates, and turnpike t'olls, the class of peisnns by whom these sums are
expended, and their woful ignorance of their duties, with its attendant
prejudices— the Poor Law for example--we may feel fully assured
that a very large amount of money is wasted which has been already
raised in ways oppressive to the community. The necessity, con-
sequently, of'public enlightenment ou muricipal administration is very
great, and no better means exist for the attainment of this object than
the formation of local societies like the Marylebone Street Paving
Association. A less expenditure is not always the cheapest mode of
administration, while mechanical circumstances will often impede the
best-intentioned but uninstructed administration. One parish in Lon-
don lost several hundreds a year by using dirty scales in the workhouse ;
others have suffered by receiving hot bread instead of cold, bread
losing often as much as five per cent, in cooling, a difference pocketed
by the contractor. It is by intimate acquaintance with details,

281

therefore, and not by party wrangling, that the public funds are to be
saved, and it is highly desirable that the well-instructed and inde-
pendent members of the community should bear this in view. To
Mr. Charles Cochrane, the founder of this Association, we think great
prai«e is due. Being a member of the Marylebone Vestry at the time
of the above-mentioned Oxford-street discussion, he employed him-
self zealously in collecting all the evidence he could as to the durability
of wood in various positions, the results of which investigations he
detailed in his speeches to the vestry. In deciding the opinion of the
vestry in favour of wood-paving his exertions had great weight, and
subsequently as a permanent means of benefiting the parish he estab-
lished the Association in question. Independent in his social position,
of large fortune, unbiassed in favour of any particular plan, the
motives of Mr. Cochrane cannot be impugned, and he may rest assured
that by the example he has afforded, which will have its weight in
other places, as well as by the good he has effected, he has conferred
a greater benefit than if he had availed himself of his standing for
those party and political purposes which are so much more tempting .
Had he obtained a triumph for blue or yellow, had he turned out the
functionary of one party to put in the nominee of another, he might
have ensured greater applause from his constituents, but he would not
have done so much good. We cannot impress too much on all parties
the propriety of giving up party warfare where local interests are
involved, requiring the most prudent and careful consideration.

In conclusion we strongly recommend all public bodies who are
about to adopt wood-paving, to take the precaution of having a good
bed of concrete, of Thames sand and stone lime, with a small portion
of Roman cement and pnzzolana. As to wood without concrete, it is
quackery, and a waste of money.

SCULPTURE IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

fFmn the Jltlieyueum.)

If in one of its shapes, the spirit of calculation has been prejudicial
to architecture in this country, it has, in another, occasionally been
rather favourable to it, and given it an impulse. V, hile it has pre-
vented many of our public structures from being what they ought to
have been, causing them to be turned out of hand maimed, hurried oft,
unfinished productions; it has sometimes, in the case of private
speculations, led to a degree of architectural display that contrasts
forcibly with the grudging penuriousness which has hitherto been
allowe'd to manifest itself so offensively in works of greater import-
ance—those from which our taste as a people is likely to be judged
by other countries. On examining the numerous public structures
erected within the last five-and-twenty or thirty years, we find quite
as much cause for regret as for congratulation— for regret that so little
should have been made of the respective opportunities afforded ; and
that, too, not so much in consequence of economy, as from want of
judgment and taste ; and owing to the designs not being properly
matured— to their not being purged from inconsistencies— and to there
being a more or less offensive disproportion between the character
aimed at and the mode in which it has been carried out. Nor can we
refrain from here remarking, that while architects lay so much stress
on the proportions of the orders, &c., which are only matters of me-
chanical routine, easy enough to be learned even by the dullest, few
of them pay attention to what may be called arlmlical proportion— to
that of the wsem5/e, so that this last shall be in perfect "keeping,
and homogeneous in character, instead of looking, as is too frequently
the case, no better than a compilation of ill-assorted fragments, where
pretension and meanness go hand in hand. The list of /os/ opportumttes
would be one of some extent ; and we should certainly place in it
more than one structure or architectural improvement, winch less
fastidious and less exigeanl or more good-natured critics have not
scrupled to commend. Buckingham Palace, the Post Othce, British
Museum, Mint, College of Physicians, York Column, Covent Garden
Market, King's College, the Cemetery at Earl's Court, and numbers
numberless would be so classed by us, notwithstanding that it is not
difficult to point out in everyone of them some individual merit-
some solitary feature, perhaps quite an accidental one-for which it
may be praised, if we choose to shut our eyes to the solecisms and
sins by which it is overwhel,ned-to the frigid dulnessand insipidity,
or vulvar taste and architectural bathos manifested in each of them as
a who?e. It avails not to say, that in many instances the architect has
not fair play, that sufficient means are not afforded to enable him to do
all be could wish; because it behoves h.m to display his ability by
makine the most of the means which are aftcrded him, instead of
injudiciously aiming at more than, as he must or ought to be aware

282

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

he can at all satisfactorily accomplish. If architects are so pinched
by their employers that they cannot finish up their buildings consist-
ently, why, in the name of common sense, do they squander away so
great a part of their pecuniary resources upon such extraneous common
places as columns and pilasters, dragged in for the nonce, as if for the
express purpose of making the poverty of the rest of the building all
the more apparent and offensive ; and in such manner as to bring
columns and porticos now almost into disrepute? Such a system is
no less at variance with economy than with good taste ; and has
served only to fill the land with buildings in a pseudo-Grecian style,
marked by an offensive mixture of showiness and poverty — with what
is, in fact, hardly worthy of the name of style at all, it amounting to
DO more than feeble, mechanical mannerism. Private speculation has,
on the other hand, occasionally encouraged architectural design on a
scale of liberality that contrasts forcibly with the petty parsimony
observable in buildings of a higher grade, and where it becomes posi-
tively offensive. The shop architecture of the metropolis has im-
proved, although by no means in the degree that could be wished ;
since, for the greater part, it exhibits more of expensive showiness
than of either good taste or invention. The individual architectural
specimens of this class, which deserve to be pointed out, are com-
paratively few ; for when we have mentioned one at the corner of the
Quadrant, opposite the County Fire Office, at the corner of Oxford
Street and Berners Street, another by Mr. Inwood, in Old Bond Street,
a fourth in Tavistock Place, by Mr. Maddox, and one just opened m
Aldgate — which last is a more striking facade of its kind than, perhaps,
any other in town — we have enumerated nearly all that are remarkable
for more than the superficies of plate glass. There is, however,
one piece of architecture which, though it does not exactly answer
to the name of shop, belongs to the same caste, and which certainly
may be referred to with approbation; we mean that called the Kemble
Tavern, at the corner of Bow Street and Long Acre. Notwithstanding
}bat it is executed merely in compo, and that it is now barbarously
disfigured and vulgarized by certain very uiiclassical insignia of the
business to which it is devoted ; in point of design this building puts
to shame many which are constructed of far more durable material —
some of them, too, by men of eminence in their profession — persons
who would, doubtless, stand amazed, if asked to make a design for a
similar purpose. When we look at the two new Assurance OflSces
in Bartholomew Lane, at the " Atlas " in Cheapside, or the "West-
minster and British" in the Strand, we feel not only dissatisfied, but
convinced, that the architect of the Kemble Tavern would have
acquitted himself far better, and made much more of them, had the
opportunities been afforded him : in saying which we are at any rate
unprejudiced, for of the individual we know nothing whatever, but
form our opinion solely from that sample of ability and taste. He
certainly has shown more than ordinary gusto in that little production,
which, though not quite so celebrated, is, we venture to affirm, a better
piece of design than Palladio's House at Vicenza. He — that is, the
Bow Street, not the wonderful Vicentine architect — has there intro-
duced some novel and pleasing ideas, and in adopting the Tivoli
example of the Corinthian, he has not, as some others have done,
omitted what is so strikingly characteristic in the original, namely, the
"bossy sculpture" of the frieze, deprived of which the whole is
thrown out of keeping, and the entablature no longer agrees with the
columns. At the same time we must admit that he has, in one
respect, deviated both from the character of the order, and from that
of the rest of his own design, inasmuch as he has made the antre-caps
by far too plain, so that they contrast disagreeably both with the en-
tablature and the capital of the columns themselves ; which is, in our
eyes, a greater blemish than the accidental disfigurement we have
alluded to.

Among other architectural speculations belonging to the genus
"shop," we have the Pantheon Bazaar and the Lower Arcade, either
of which might almost satisfy the most Pennantizing antiquary for
the loss of old Exeter Change. As a speculation, it may be doubted
whether the "Arcade" has answered ; neither does it seem to have
conferred any reputation upon the artist who designed it; yet it is,
nevertheless, a tasteful and scenic merceria, and is, besides, admirably
accommodated to a climate like ours.*

' We have just heard that a similar passage, as the French call it, is about
to be formed, extending from Wellington Street North, facing ihe English
Opera House, to Catherine Street. The situation Joes not promise much for the
scheme, becauie no additional communication or thoroughlarc in that direc-
tion seems to be required ; whereas it would be a great public improvement
could some of the narrow lanes and alleys, in difierent parts of the town,
be converted into Hell-paved covered passages, so as to be cool in summer,
and deaji and dry in wet weather.

APPARATUS FOR REVERSING ENGINES.
Sir — Having seen in your valuable Journal a description of a
method for reversing engines, by the use of the common side valve,
making the induction and eduction pipes alternately steam pipes, I
submit to your notice a method of accomplishing the same in a much
more simple manner, as will be seen on reference to the accompany-
ing diagram, and shall feel obliged by your giving it a place in your
forthcoming number.

Fig. 1.

Figure 1 represents the section of
a cylinder and nozzle of the form
generally used, with the addition of a
valve for reversing, made with two
pistons to obviate the pressure at-
tendant on the use of the slide valve
— the pressure on the pistons being
the same on both ends.

Figure 2 is a horizontal section of
the same.

Figure 3 is a section of the valve
for reversing ; C passage to condenser :
S steam pipe ; A and B passages
leading to nozzle. The letters are
the same in all the diagrams.

Fig. 2.

Fi?. 3

^Jl^ -

In the position of the. valve as sliown, the steam is admitted
through S, passing through A into the cylinder, forcing the piston P
up. If it is wished to reverse the engine, we have only to move tlie
piston valves to E E, as shown ; the steam being admitted through S,
as before, passes through B B to the top of the piston P, and forces it
down. The slide valve will have to be made with no lap, and roust
be worked by an eccentric keyed on the shaft.

In large engines where expansion valves are used, they could be
set so as to cut off the steam to the end of the stroke, as the slide
valve would be open to the full length of the stroke. The piston
valves would also act as a throttle valve, and could be worked easily

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

CSS

by one man in a pair of large engines, whereas by using the slide
itself four or sis would be required. This would, I should think, add
greatly to its efficacy by being so easily under control — more espe-
cially in the Thames and the Clyde, in the latter of which it is often
necessary to stop and reverse every two or three minutes.

Mmj 17, 1842. Seyton.

P.S.— Lap is not applicable to a valve to be worked by an eccentric
keyed on the shaft to work the engine both ways, for if it was set
right for going a-head, it would be too late to reverse.

[We think very favourably of the plan for reversing engines com-
municated by our correspondent. In large engines its employment
might supersede the necessity of throwing the engine out of gear, and
the use of starting apparatus, and would confer a faci lity in starting
and reversing which does not at present exist. We do not under-
stand what our correspondent means by cutting oft' steam to tbe end
of the stroke. Tbe expression seems to us to involve a contradiction,
inasmuch as the act of cutting oft"nieans the prevention of more steam
entering the cylinder at some point of the piston's progress before the
stroke is completed. We may further observe that although it is
quite true that lap is inapplicable to a fixed eccentric intended to
move the engines both ways, it is not inapplicable to a fixed eccentric
in ordinary engines, for in ordinary engines no fixed eccentric can
move the engines both ways. Lap is only inapplicable in the case of
some double-ended levers, or in the mode of reversing our corre-
spondent recommends. — Editor.]

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic

Variation.

Dip
at 9 A. M.

Dip
at 3 P.M.

1842. May

off/

23 11 39

0 /

68 45

o /

68 46

STEAm MAVIGATIOIV.

THE "ATMOSPHERIC" STEAM-BOAT.

This vessel is adapted for river navigation, the hull is entirely of iron, but
with deck and fittings of timber. Slie was built by Messrs. Ditchburn and
Mair, the eminent iron boat builders of Blackwall.

The length between perpendiculars is 150 ft.; breadth of beam, 18 ft.;
depth of hold, 9 ft. 9 in. ; and drauglit of water, 4 ft. 8 iji.

The engines were constructed by Messrs. John and Samuel Seaward and
Capel — they are upon the old atmospheric principle. There are three
cylinders placed immediately under the line of shafts, with the cranks set at
an angle of 120 degrees, so that in every portion there is the full power of one
cylinder in action, which produces an equable and uniform motion. There are
no cylinder covers or piston rods, as the connecting rods communicate at
once from the pistons to the cranks. The pistons are forced upwards by the
pressure of the steam, and then allowed to descend again by the production
of a vacuum underneath, the air constantly pressing upon the upper side.
There is one condenser and one air-pump connected with the three cylinders.

The engines have been worked several times, and are represented to
have performed most admirably and efficiently, and the boat proved to be of
unrivalled speed.

The following are the proportions of the engines : — the cylinders 47 in. dia-
meter, ar.d 3 ft. stroke ; the pistons make 34 strokes per minute ; tbe pressure
of the steam is represented to be 8 lb. on the square inch ; the paddle-wheels
are 16 ft. diameter, and have 24 hoards, 9 ft. long by 14 in. deep.

The power of the engine may be calculated thus : — if we take the pres-
sure of steam in the upward stroke at 6 Ih., and the pressure of the atmo-
sphere occasioned by a vacuum underneath the piston, on the downward
stroke at 13 lb., allowing a trifle under the full weight of the atmosphere,

we shall have a mean pressure of

6 + 13

= 9.5 lb. on the upward and down-

ward stroke; and the velocity of the piston (3 ft. x 34 x 2) = 204 ft. per
minute ; and the area of each cylinder (47- x .785) = 1 735 in. ; we shall have

for the power of the 3 cylinders ( 3 — — n^Huui ) ^ ^^^ horses nearly.

And if we take the same proportion of nominal power to the effective power
as in the ordinary low pressure marine engine, which is generally half, we
shall have the nominal power of the three cylinders = 153 horses, which it
must be admitted is a tremendous power for so small a vessel. We cannot,
therefore, be surprised that the boat is one of the fastest, if not the fastest
on the river.

We are at a loss to conceive what advantage Messrs. Seaward and Capel
expect to gain by the revival of the atmospheric engine for navigation pur-
poses, except it be to get a longer stroke in applying the direct action prin-
ciple. Against this we have double the capacity of steam cybnders,
consequently nearly if not quite double the weight and expense, 'besides the
very serious evil of exposing the interior of the cylinder at every downward
stroke to the cooling influence of the atmosphere.

To show that the cylinders are double the capacity of those constructed
on the ordinary principle, let us lake the pressure of the steam as above at
6 lb., and the vacuum equal to 13 lb., which together is 19 Ih., just double, at
each upward and downward stroke ; at the mean pressure taken in the above
calculation, therefore, one half the capacity of cylinder will be sufficient.
Again, let us prove this more clearly, by calculating the power of two cylin-
ders working on the ordinary reciprocating principle, each 40-i-i diameter ;
the area of the two being 2600 inches, rather less than half the collective
area (5205 in.) of the atmospheric cylinders, tbe power will be, taking the
same stroke and velocity as before, and pressure (6 4- 13) = 19 lb,

/19x2600x24\ ,„. ^

I 1 =30o horses.

V 33,000 /

The Slc<nn Association. — We must honestly confess that the Ster.-,n A.^soci-
ation has disappointed our hopes, in common with m<ist persons interested in
the advancement of the art of steam navigation. Not that «e have any
fault to find with anything the Associatiun has done — all of which is usefi'il
In its kind, and in our eyes has been wisely planned and ably prosecuted —
but that many things have been left unattempted of far greater moment than
any of those to which attention has been given, and which tbe Association
and it alone is competent to undertake. What, for example, can be of greater
imjiortance than the establishment of a system of registration, such as that
in I'se in Cornwall, of tbe consumption of fuel in different steam vessel.*:, in
relation to tbe power exerted; and who 1 ut the Steam Association could
establish such a system ? Tbe duty of the Cornish engines has by this simple
expedient been raised in the course of a tew years from 26 millions of pounds
raised one foot high, by a bushel or 84 lb. of coal to 120 millions — an increase
of mechanic. 1 virtue of nearly 5 times, simply in consequence of the care
and emulation the system of registration has excited. It would be too much
perhaps to expect an ec|ual increase of efficacy, or equal diminution of expense
in steam vessels, but that great improvement would be effected by registralion
is scarcely to be doubted ; and as it is the propelling power which constitutes
the great expense in the maintenance of steam vessels, we think the attention
of the yteam Association should first be given to that subject, and that tbe
discussion of pilotage laws, harbour duties, &c. — \^■hich, however settled, can
etlect steam interests little in comparison with the economizalion of fuel —
might be wisely postponed until a system of registration has first been organ-
ized. We refrain from going into any details relative to this question for
the present, and must be content with saying that in our apprehension tbe
details do not involve any practical difficulty or inconvenience. We trust
the Association will speedily give its attention to this subject, and will use
its best efiorfs to assist or facilitate the accumulation of all statistics of steam
machinery that appear calculated to advance steam navigation, and l>romote
the interests of those er gaged in it. Hitherto the Association has been the
representative, not of all the considerations proper to sleam enterprise, but

01 those only which have a commercial complexion, and which any associ-
ation can do the least to ameliorate. It does not augur well to see our
engineers and ship-builders present only at the annual dinners ; but we trust
to see them soon taking a part in the Asiooialion's proceedings, and to see
tbe Association assume its proper position — not of the representative of the
counting-house — but of the representative of the science.

The Locovwtive, No. I. — A boat with this cognomen is now running between
the Adelpbi Pier and Greenwich. She is fitted by Messrs. Braithwaile. Mil-
ner and (Vo. with a locomotive engine precisely tbe same as those working on
railways, with the exception that it is taken off its wheels, and set upon
bearers laid across the bottom of the boat, and instead of the railway wheels
there are fixed upon each end of the driving or cranked nxle a pinion wheel,

2 ft. 4 in. diameter, which works into a cog wheel 7 ft. diameter, keyed ou

10 the shaft of the paddle-v. heels ; the shaft is in one piece, and has a beuiiinff
in the centre upon the U p of the boiler, 'Ihc engine is what is generally termed
a 10-ton engine, fitted with two cylinders, 12 in. diameter, and 18 in. stroke ;
the pistons make 100 to 130 strokes per minute. The boiler is 3 ft. 2 in.
diameter, and contains 84 tubes 2 in. diameter and 8 ft. G in. long, and a cir-
culr.r fire box, 3 ft. 3 in. diameter. The pressure of the steam within the
boiler is from 43 lb. to 50 lo. on the square inch. The paddle wheels are

1 1 ft. 4 in. diameter, with float board 10 in. deep, anil 5 ft. long. They have
a dip of about 18 in., and when the engine makes 100 strokes Jier minute
tbe padille-» heels make 33 revolutions. The length of the boat, which is
iron, is 103 It. on tbe water-line, with a beam of 11 ft. 6 in., and draws 2 ft.
2 in. when light. The tot.al weight of engine, boiler, paddle-wheels, and
coal boxes, is 12 tuns ; the engine room occupies 21 ft. in length of the boat.

2S4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August

The spceil is equal 10 about 12 miles through the water ; and the consumption
of fuel is about the same as on railways. In consequence of the engine being
fixed in the boat instead of moving at such high velocities it does on tlie
rails, there is nothing like the same wear or so much lialjility to derange-
ment. Tliere are one or two evils attendant upon the ])resent use of the
locomotive engine ; one is, that in conseijuence of the muddy state of the
water of the river Tiiames, the boiler is apt to prime, which may be obviated
by making a larger steam chest than ordinary ; there is also an unpleasant
horizontal vibratory motion in the boat, in consequence of the horizontal
and rapid movement of the pistons, which we think can be got rid of by
placing the cylinders diagonally on the sides of the boiler. Tins alteration
would also allow the moving parts to be got at much better than they now
are, which, in consequence of being placed under the boiler, are very awk-
ward to be got at. No doubt these defects will be easily got rid of. and
other improvements introduced, under the able hands of Messrs. Braithivaite,
Milner, and Co.

]HISCEI.I.ANEA.

In last month's Journal we gave an account of the removal and shipment
of the immense block of Granton stone presented by his (Jrace the Duke of
Buccleuch for the statue of the immortal Nelson, and wdiich is intended to
grace the summit of the column now erecting in Trafalgar-square by Messrs.
Grissell and Peto ; we have now to record it.-; arrival into the river Thames,
and removal to Trafalgar-square. On Saturday, June 25, it was safely landed
at Mr. Foote's wharf, AUngdon-street, Westminster, in the presence of a
large number of spectators, and was conveyed by the aid of 22 horses through
Parliament-street and Whitehall toils last and final resting-place, Trafalgar -
square. The crane by which this ponderous mass was landed was erected
about three years since, by Mr. Luke Embleton, of Southwark, under the
superintendence of Mr. Thomas Searle, of Wapping Wall, and is a beautiful
piece of mechanism. The work, however, of its elevation to the top of the
column still remains to be eficcted, and we hope its accomplishment will be
as successful as its journey hitherto. The stone in question is slated to weigh
30 tons, and has already been reduced to favour its more easy removal from
a block weighing at least 4j tons ; it is of the description known as " Craig-
leith," of the liver rock, and in point of iluraliility equal to granite. We
understand ihat the removal of this stone from the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh to Charing-cross has been efTeeted without either the breaking
of a chain, or the splintering of a handspike. Mr. Bailie, the sculptor, has
now his part to perform,

Claudct^s Daguerreotypes. — We were much delighted to witness at the Ade-
laide flallery M. Claudet's instantaneous process of taking portraits. To
him is due an improvement which, we may say. is almost equal to the original
discovery. Previously to this improvement, ihere was considerable difficulty
in obtaining a faidiful likeness, in consequence of the time required tor a
sitting, and also the necessity for having a clear sunny day for the operation ;
but now, in a strong light, it will require hut a moment or two, and even on
a cloudy day. as it was when we last witnessed it, portraits can be taken in
from 10 to 14 seconds. To show the instantaneousness of the process, M.
Claudet is enabled to take portraits of animals, trees, plants, &c. He has
also introduced another important improvement — that of introducing a back
ground, representing a landscape or interior. During the last month M.
Claudet was honoured with a visit from the Queen Dowager, who had her
portrait taken as well as of those of the suite who attended her. With these
she was highly delighted, and expressed her astonishment at the rapidity of
the process. We wish we could see this valuable processs more extensively
employed in obtaining copies of some of our finest specimens of sculpture,
paintings, and public buildings. Although M. Claudet at first devoted his
attention wiih much praiseworthy eflect in obtaining portraits, if we may
use the term, of all the principal buildings in London, Paris, and Italy, he
met with little or no encouragement. He was, therefore, obliged to devote
his attention to a more profitable department — that uf human portraiture,
and. if we judge rii^htly from the number of persons who daily flock to his
studio at the Ailelaide tjallery. he will find it amply enrich his coders, and
make up f(jr his prcvi(, us losses. We wilh much pleasure recommend a visit
to his eslablishment where may be seen porlraits of many public characters,
and of many celebrated buildings.

Asphallc Roofing.— \t was remarked as a singular cirenmstance, during (he
conflagration at Hamburg, that roofs covered with asphalte, of which there
are some here, opposed rather than encouraged the progress of the (lames.
It was imagined, on account of the substance of which Ihese roofs were com-
posed. Ihat they wouki easily catch fire, and be the cause of great mischief;
such, however, was not the case, for it appears that the fire had little or no
cfiect on them : and when the roofs of the houses fell in, the asphalte, in
which a sort of nibblt is mixed up, was found to have resisted the ellects of
the heat, and like a mass of dirt, served rather to smother the flames than
to give them increased vitality. — Time.K.

IiIST OF NE\ir PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 6tH TO 28tH JuLY, 1842.

Sir Montlis allowed for Enrolment j unless otherwise expressed.

John Hakrison Scott, of Somers Town, engineer, for "improvements
in metal pipes, and in the manufacture thereof." — Sealed July 6.

Gbokgk Edmi'nd Donisthorpe, of Bradford, Yorkshire, top manu-
facturer, for " improvements in combing and drawintj wool, and certain
descriptions of hair." — July 6.

JosEPU Hall, of Cambridge, agricultural implement maker, for " improve-
ments in machineri/for tilling land." — July 6.

Lady Ann Vavasour, of Melbourne Hall, Yorkshire, for "improvements
in machinerij for tillinij land." — July 7.

Richard Hodgson, of Montague-place, in the county of Middlesex, gent.,
for " improvements in obtaining images on metallic and other surfaces." —
July 7.

James Timmins Chance, of Birmingham, glass manufacturer, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of glass." — July 7.

Cuarle" Vugustus Preller, of Eastcheap, merchant, for '• improve-
ments ir ■hinerg for preparing, combing, and drawing wool and goafs
hair." .. . iraunication. — July 7.

William Fairbairn, of Manchester, engineer, for " improvements in the
construction of metal ships, boats, and other vessels, and in the preparation
of metal plates to be used therein." — July 7.

John Perring, of Cecil House, Strand, hat manufacturer, for " improve-
ments in wood paving." — July 7.

John Bird, of Manchester, machinist, for *' improvements in machinery
or apparatus for raising or forcing water and other fuids, which said im-
provements are also applicable as an engine, to be worked by steam, for pro-
pelling vessels and other purposes." — July 7.

William Pritchard, the elder, of Burley Mills, Leeds, manufacturer
for " an improved method of consuming or preventing smoke, and economising
fuel in steam-engine and other furnaces." — July 7.

William Revell Vigers, of Russell-square, Esq., for " a mode of keeping
the air in confined places in a pure or respirable state, to enable persons to
remain or work under water arid other places, without a constant supply of
fresh atmospheric air." A communication. — July 7.

Jean B.\ftiste Francois Jouannin, of Upper Ebury-street, Pimlico,
mechanic, for " improvements in apparatus for regulating the speed of steam,
air, or water engines." A communication. — July 9.

John Peter Booth, of the city of Cork, merchant, for " improvements in
machinery and apparatus for working in mines, wh'ch are applicable to rally-
ing, lowering, and transporting of heavy bodies ; and also affording assistance
in promoting a more perfect ventilation of the mine." — July 9.

James Crutchett, of William-street, Regent's park, engineer, for " im-
provements in manufacturing gas, and in apparatus for consuming gas." —
July 12.

Thomas Deakin, of Sheflield, merchant, for " improvements in the manu-
facture of parts of harness and saddlery furniture." — July 12.

Jean Leandre Clement, of St. Martiu's-lane, engineer, for " improve-
ments in apparatus for ascertaining the temperature of fluids, and also the
pressure of steam." — July 12.

William Henry Stuckey", of St. Petersburgh, novr of Upper North-
place, Esq., for " a pneumatic engine for producing motive power." — July 12.

Joseph Schlesinger, of Birmingham, manufacturer, ior " improvements
in ink-stayids, and in instruments for filing or holding papers and other
articles." — July 16.

Robert Benton, of Birmingham, land agent, for " improvements in pro-
pelling, retarding, and stopping carriages on railroads." — July 16.

Joseph Barling, of High-street, Maidstone, watch-maker, for " improve-
ments for producing rotary motion in machinery, worked by manual labour."
July 10.

John Chatwin, of Birmingham, button manufacturer, for " improvement^
in the manufacture of covered buttons." — July 16.

Charles Robert Ayers, of John-street, Berkley-square, architect, for
" improvements in ornamenting and colouring glass, earthenware, porcelain^
and metals." — July 23.

Joseph Partridoe, of Bowbridge, near Stroud, Gloucester, dyer,'[for
" improvements in cleansing tvools." — July 23.

Eugene de Varroc, of Bryanstonc-street, Portman-square, gent., for
" apparatus to be applied to chimneys to prevent their taking fire, and for
rendering sweeping of chimneys unnecessary." — July 23.

Alexander Johnston, of Hdl House, Edinburgh, Esq., for "improve-
ments in carriages, which mag also be applied to ships, boats, and other pur-
poses ivhere locomotion is required." July 23.

Edward Cobbold, of Melford, in the county of Suffolk, Master of Arts,
clerk, for " improvements in the means of supporting, sustaining, and pro-
pelling human and other bodies on and in the water." — July 28.

TO CORRESFONDSNTS.

"C. B.'* — IVe cannot give any particulars at present of the progress of the
large iron steam vessel at Bristol ; we ivilt try to do so the first opportunity.

Wc vert/ much regret to be compelled to decline inserting Mr. Tottic's comments
on our critici.vns in last month s imirnal.for if we do so, we should then have
similar comments front all other parties who Jnay not like our notices of their pro-
ductions.

Mr. Shuttlctoorlh's Pamphlet on Hydraulic Propulsion on Railways must stand
omr for further consideration.

Boohs received and not noticed in tlie present Journal : — " Ila'id-Book o^^
Mawhestcr ;" " On the Evaporative Power of Boilers, by C. W.Williams, Esij. '

Errata.— In the Review of Mr. Booth's^pamphlet, p. 2.57, in the fourth
paiagraph, lines 6 and 10, for two feet, read /our feet.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

285

EXPERIMENTS ON THE TENACITY OF WROUGHT IRON,
By James Nasmyth, C.E.
Sir — It may perhaps be interesting to some of the readers of your
Journal to have an account of the results of some experiment! which I
have lately been making, with a view to obtain more correct knowledge
of the nature of the important changes which take place in the Unacity
of wrought iron, when subjected to various kinds of treatment, more
particularly as regards the employment of wrought iron in the case
of railway axles, &c. At all times, any addition to our knowledge of
the nature of those causes which induce changes in the tenacity of
wrought iron, ought to be considered as a subject of much importance,
seeing that in so many cases our lives depend on the tenacity or
strength of a piece of that material. This subject has, however, of
late become infinitely more important, on account of the truly wonder-
ful success and extension of the railway system, and as the whole of
that vast improvement, in consequence, rests its success on the strength
and tenacity of wrought iron, any addition to our knowledge on that
subject cannot, I trust, but be considered of value.

The subject has, however, received much additional interest, on
account of many theories and much controversy, which has arisen in
consequence of an opinion which has been given forth from rather a
prominent quarter, viz. the French commission appointed to investi-
gate the causes which led to the late disastrous accident on the Ver-
sailles railroad. The most remarkable part of the conclusions
which that body gave forth, was in substance this : — namely, that
however tough and strong a railway axle might originally be as it
came from the hands of the maker of the said axle, that the very fact
of its being caused to revolve day after day in connexion with the rails,
would ere long, through the agency of some mysterious electrical ! or
magnetical influence, have its nature, as regards the toughness or
tenacity of the iron, so impaired, as to become at length totally unsafe
and unfit for use.

A more truly alarming and uncomfortable doctrine could not have
been produced than this, inasmuch as we should never be able to
know when the point of unfitness was attained, except through the
occurrence of one of those disastrous and melancholy accidents which
have but too certainly attended the breaking of a railway axle; and
as the above opinion was based on conjecture as to the supposed
influence of the most dark, hidden, and mysterious of all nature's
agents, we might therefore have groped about in vain for such a
knowledge of the subject as would be most likely to prevent such
dangerous changes taking place in the tenacity of the iron ; and more-
over, by having our attention diverted to so ;io«-understandable a class
of natural causes, we should be likely to cease to search for the cause,
cure, and prevention (which I trust my experiments will go to prove,
have more intimate connexion with our workshops and workmen, than
with philosophers and their laboratories) ; and as the results of the
experiments I have made on this subject are applicable to the treat-
ment of wrought iron generally in reference to its every day use, I
trust that the results may be found of practical value, the more so as
they go to prove that we have the cure and prevention entirely at our
command, without calling for the slighest additional labour or expense
in the treatment of wrought iron.

From former practical experience in the working of iron in the
process of forging, I had always observed that, however tough, tena-
cious, and excellent in quality a piece of wrought iron might originally
be, that, by certain treatment, that tenacity might be all but entirely
destroyed ; and as such treatment is very frequently absolutely neces-
sary in the forging of wrought iron into certain forms, the knowledge
of how to remove the bad effects consequent on such, became impor-
tant to know. I am happy to state that this knowledge is so
simple and easily put in practice, that I trust, in future, no piece of
forged wrought iron will henceforth be applied to its purpose without
having been passed through so simple and salutary a process, which
you will find requires neither skill, labour, or cost worth naming.
Having made these observations, I shall now proceed to work.

It either is or ought to be known to all practical men concerned in
Vol. v.— No. 60.— September, 1842.

the working of wrought iron, that if a piece of the very best and tough-
est iron is hammered in the process of forging until it ceases to be
red hot, that the effect of such cold hammering, as I may term it, is to
cause the iron to become so brittle, that it will in many cases break
across in the process; or if it does not at that time, this process of
cold hammering has so removed and destroyed its tenacity, as to
render it capable of being broken with the slightest blow ; in order to
prove this by direct experiment, 1 took a bar of the very best wrought
iron, li inch square, and subjected it to the following experimental
tests : —

Experiment 1.

A bar of the very best li inch square wrought iron, at temperature
60°, was laid over the edge of the anvil, thus, Fig. 1, the end projecting

Fig. 1.

about 2i or 3 inches over at A ; with 9 heavy blows of a large sledge
hammer it broke off short, as indicated in the figure, the fracture ex-
hibiting that clear crystalhne texture due to a good quality of iron
at that temperature.

Experiment 2.

Part of the same bar of iron was taken and heated red hot, and
hammered till it was nearly quite cold ; when it had arrived at tem-
perature 60" (same as the first experiment), it was placed on the anvil
with the end overhanging as before, at A, cue slight blow broke it
sharp and square across, the fracture exhibiting a most beautiful close
crystalline grain, more like the fracture of steel than iron, but such a
fine grain as would (and indeed very frequently is) considered a proof
of good quality, that is, fitness to be trusted to ! So much for the
appearance of the texture as a criterion of fitness. Here, then, we
have distinct proof, by this experiment, that we have reduced the
blow or shock-resisting quality of the iron fully ^ by the effect of cold
hammering alone ; and what renders the knowledge of the effects of
such a process the more important is, that in most cases we shall find
that, in order to give the piece of forged work the requisite finish and
fine surface, as they come from' the hands of our workmen in that
department, that this very cold hammering and swaging, as it is
termed, is required, the more so as it is by such a process that iron
forgings are so finished/roni the hammer, so as to require the least pos-
sible labour after, and as every good workman in that department is
anxious to turn his work out of hand with the very best surface on it,
which this cold hammering enables him to do, it is not a very easy
matter, and (as I will soon show) not at all desirable, to require them
to discontinue the practice, which many have endeavoured to do from
want of a full knowledge of the subject. There is nothing inherently
wrong in this practice of cold hammering— fs.r otherwise ; the evil
rests with the applying such a cold hammered piece of forge work to
its purpose without having been passed through the curative process,
which is simply this, namely, to heat the piece of forged work in
question to a dull red heat, and lay it down to cool at its leisure. The
value of this most simple process will be well illustrated by Ex-
periment 3.

Experiment 3.
A piece of the same bar iron as employed in the preceding experi-
raents was, after being heated red hot and hammered till cold (which

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Skptkmbkr,

cold hammering produce.!, as is usual, a most beautifully smooth sur-
face, in which good workmen delight.), again heated to a dull red heat,
and laid down to cool at its leisure; being then at temperature 60", it
was placed over the edge of the anvil as before, and after receiving

105 of the most vigorous blows
of the same sledge hammer as
was employed in the preceding
experiments, it exhibited the
most extraordinary evidence of
tenacity, by resisting all at-
tempts to break it, having
passed into the form as given
at Fig. 2, that is, bent quite
double, and the excessive dis-
tention across the part B— C
causing the width across at E
to decrease at least I of an inch,
while the compression at the
centre of bending caused the

^^ metal to expand a like quantity

at F G Every practical man knows that this is a most severe test
of the tenacity of iron, and which the piece in question stood with the
most perfect success, for even after having received 105 blows, no
evidence of fracture was visible.

This third experiment then brings us to this most important con-
clusion, that there is no inherent evil or ill etfect produced by cold
hammerin<r, hut far othenme, namely, that by subjecting wrought iron
to the mos"t violent hammering or compression at a low temperature,
and then submitting the iron work so treated to the simple process of
heating red hot and slow cooling, that we have enhanced its tenacity
or shock-sustaining qualities at least twenty times. Here, then, we
eet hold of some/acts which I trust I may consider to bear with some
important efifects on the treatment and use of iron, especially in the
ca^e of its application to railway axles, as from their very required
form the process of cold hammering and swaging is all but absolutely
necessary in forging the bar of iron out of which they are formed into
the requisite shape.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

The above Fig. 3 is the form of a railway axle (one half the length
only is shown) as they are generally made, the bearings being at A,
the wheels being keyed on the part B. In forging such an axle, the
bearings are formed with the requisite collars at the ends by hammer-
ing the iron at that part by a series of direct blows of the hammer, and
givinf them the requisite finish or precision of form, so far as can be
done previous to being finished on the turning lathe, by means of tools
called swages, which consist of two pieces of iron covered with steel,
and made smooth ; and being of very nearly the same curve as the
bearingof the axle, they enable the smith to transmit his blows with
much greater precision, and also avoid all hammer marks.

Fig. 4 may perhaps serve to convey some idea of what is termed a
swage. A and B are the upper and under swages, which enable the
smith to transmit the blows from the sledge hammer with the greatest
precision, and to convert the blow of the hammer into a compressing
effect over a very considerable surface of the cylindrical bearing of
the axle. During the process the axle C would be laid in the semi-
circular hollow of the under swage B, while the upper swage would
be kept firmly pressed upon the axle bearing, so as to cause it to
receive the blow the instant it was given on the top of the upper
swawe A. I have been the more anxious to detail this process, as it
is to the effects of this swaging that we are to ascribe the majority of
cases of broken axles. Not that the process is bad in itself— far

otherwise ; it is only bad in its effects, provided we stop there. But
if we only take the" trouble to anneal such a swaged axle after it has
received the most severe compression, by swaging or hammering at
low temperature {i. e. GO^ or thereabouts,) by simply heating it
to a dull red heat, and laying it down to cool at leisure, we should then,
as in the case of experiment 3rd., have a most extraordinary degree
of toughness and shock-resisting quality conferred on it, in place of
such a state as detailed in experiment 2nd., with, in all probability,
such disastrous results as there are but too truly sad records of.

I have also been anxious to detail these experiments, as they appear
to me to bear directly upon the subject of railway accidents which
have arisen from broken axles, in the investigation of which the
appearance of the fracture of the broken axle has been made the cri-
terion of fitness or otherwise of the iron for such use, and in many
cases the iron has been condemned in consequence, when the real
truth might in all probability be that it was simply the result of cold
hammering, without the subsequent process of annealing at a dull red
heat, as before named.

In the case of experiment 2nd we have what would in general be
considered evidence (so far as texture or grain of the fracture goes)
of very fine quality of iron ; but what was its actual fitness I leave my
readers to judge by the result of that experiment.

With all due reverence for scientific research, I cannot but think that
in this subject, as in many others of the same nature, there is too
great a tendency to hunt after explanations of causes and modes of
prevention which, as liefore said, we find a much shorter and satis-
factory road to, by searching for them in our workshops rather than
in our laboratories. I trust my readers will in general agree with me,
that the result of these simple experiments tends to illustrate what I
state on this head. Our workshops are (if rightly looked into) the
true schools of practical science, wherein theory may be seen in its
really true state, namely, accompanied with all the circumstances
which conspire to give the true result.

Experiment 4.

Being desirous to try the effect of temperature in influencing the
appearance of fracture as regards crystalline texture, a part of the
same bar, as in all the preceding experiments, was taken and warmed
from 60° to 100". Such was the effect of this 40° of additional heat,

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

287

that after receiving about 50 blows
over tlie edge of the anvil, it
passed into the form given in fig. 5,
the fracture being entirely Jibrmis,
like wood, of a fine lead gray colour,
and totally free from the appearance of
any sparkling crystals. This experi-
ment, then, warrants the conclusion,
that the appearance of the fracture is
also no criterion of the quality of the
iron, if temperature be left out of the
question, inasmuch as 40^ has not only
vastly improved the tenacity, but also
wrought an entire change on the aspect
of the grain of the iron. It is well
known to practical men that a very few
degrees of heat will most materially
affect not only the appearance of the fracture of iron, but also its tenacity.
But for my reluctance to occupy more of the space of your excellent
journal, I should most gladly have given farther details and experi-
ments ;* but I trust such as I have endeavoured to describe will be in
some degree acceptable, and be productive of useful results. I would
most strongly recommend all who are interested in such matters, and
who have the opportunity, to repeat the experiments themselves,'!' as
I doubt not the results would not only agree with what I have found
and stated, but also tend to rivet the recollection of them in their
minds, as the subject is one of the very highest importance to all,
especially to those whose professional character and success may be
influenced by possession or otherwise of such plain workshop facts.

I have no desire to make any great claim of discovery here, but I
shall feel highly gratified, if what I have brought to light as to the
vast accession of shock-resisting quality conferred on wrought iron hy
the combined action of cold hammering and subsequent annealing should
prove, as I am confident it will, a substantial benefit to all who have either
their lives or property depending on pieces of /Brought iron, whether in
the case of a railway axle, or other application.

I am no advocate for over-burdening the attention of engineers
with compulsory clauses in specifications, but I would most strongly
recommend attention to annealing of all bolts and axles, on which
much depends. The recommended process requires no extra expense
or trouble worth naming, and companies would do well to see that
such was attended to.

Bridgewater Foundry, I am, Sir,

near Manchester, Yours most respectfully,

Aug. 1, 1842. James Nasmyth.

NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

Engine Frames. — The foot or projection descending from the
diagonal stay to the condenser or main centre bracket is, in our
opinion, superfluous and inexpedient. If the attachments of the
main centre to the bottom are such as they ought to be, this projection
from the diagonal stay can have no upward pressure thrown upon it ;
and if the bottom attachments are insufficient, the diagonal stay is unable
to resist the upward pressure without injurious straining and vibra-
tion. The attachment for the main centre is best, we consider, when
cast in the form of a bracket on the sole plate, as in the engines of
the Trent and Isis, by Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill. The bottom
part of the engines of Messrs. Maudslays and Co. consists of too many
pieces : the sole plate is one casting, the condenser another, and the
main centre bracket a third ; and these parts have to be fixed together
by bolts, and there is a joint of great superficies between the sole

' We sincerely hope that Mr. Nasmyth will not hesitate to favour us with
all the information he can upon so important a subject, and we feel assured
that we are only echoing the sentiments of our readers in expressing such
a desire. — Ecitok.

T And record them in tlie Journal. — Editor.

plate and condenser, which is undeniably a very bad thing. In Messrs.
Miller's engines all these parts are cast together: the sole plate, con-
denser, and main centre brackets consist of only one piece which is
certainly much the best system.

All the bolts in the framing for the purpose of connecting the several
parts of it together should be turned with a little taper, and the holes
should all be widened out. If this be not done, the framing will be
very likely to work. Where there is much side strain upon the bolts
they should be of steel. The soles of the plummet blocks and the places
they rest on upon tlie frame should be planed all over ; the outsides
of the paddle shaft brasses, and the insides of the plummer blocks
should also be planed all over ; fitting strips will work into the sub-
stance of the brass, and the bearings will get slack sideways without
the possibility of tightening them. Horns to the crank beams are
unnecessary, if the framing be well fitted and bolted, but if adopted,
should have some means of being tightened sideways as well as fore
and aft, in the sockets on the beams in which the horns slide. A hori-
zontal cross between the engines is a very useful attachment; and the
connecting pieces at the end of the engines between the frames should
extend upwards and downwards on the columns, so as to obtain as firm
a hold of them as possible. The surfaces should all be planed, and
the holes widened. A common planing machine maybe made to plane
sole plates, cylinder faces, or framing by fixing a bracket to carry the
tool upon the carriage, and bringing the thing to be planed to the side
of the machine, and there fixing it. A string attached to a ratchet
operating on a screw may be easily made to move down or forward the
cutter.

f'alve and parallel motions. — The valve motion of one engine is
identical with the piston motion of the other engine; and the parallel
motion shaft of the one engine, by being extended to the other engine,
might be used to work that engine's valve. A combination, too, of
the motions of the two engines might be used to work the expansion
valve, so that both the slide valves and expansion valves might be
worked without either cams or eccentrics. To carry this out in
practice it would be necessary to have a solid shaft within a hollow
shaft, extending from engine to engine, the parallel motion of the one
engine being connected with the solid shaft and the parallel motion of
the other with the hollow shaft. The parallel motion, then, of the
starboard engine would work the larboard valve, and vice versa. The
expansion valve might be a slide valve working on the inner flat
surface of an ordinary short D, with the upper tails connected so as
to form a port, and wrought by a spindle through a hollow valve rod.
The motion proper to the expansion valve might be obtained from
the combined or antagonistic motions of the solid and hollow shafts,
which sometimes move in different directions, and at other times in
the same.

The best sort of foot and discharge valves would be the slide valve,
and indeed the valves of the several pumps might also be made slide
valves, with much advantage. The slide valve vfill neither make a
noise, nor get gagged with chips or dirt. By way of parenthesis, we
may remark that the slide valve seems to be peculiarly well adapted
for the feed-pumps of locomotives. If the air pump were furnished
with a slide instead of flap valves, it might be made double-acting,
and with half the size would maintain a better vacuum in the con-
denser than is attainable by the existing modes. There would then,
of course, be no valves in the bucket, which would become, in fact, a
common piston. It would be easy to work the injection slide by the
engine, so as to apportion the quantity of water to the quantity of
steam— a measure of each being admitted every stroke— and to make
the rate of its admission more nearly identical with that of the flow
of steam into the condenser. This would probably have the effect of
making the vacuum steadier, and would prevent the engines from
being choked with water when brought up in a sea way, if used in
conjunction with a cataract.

The most convenient way of packing slide valves is from the back.
The packing screws should come through a cross bar supported by
proper lugs in the casing, so as to take the strain off the door, and
should then extend through brass bushes rivetted into the door, and

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

be provided with a jam nut outside, to prevent any dripping of
water, or escape of steam. It is common with some engineers to let
the packing project beyond the face of the valve an inch or two,
little pieces being cast on the cylinder to continue the circle of the
valve, and afford a support for the packing beyond the face. Messrs.
Maudslays make the packing merely to abut against the face, without
going beyond it. This method requires the length of the packing to
be determined with great exactness previous to its introduction ; and
if it swivels the least on the back of the valve, there will be a vacant
space at the one corner, and a double thickness of packing at the
other.

The packing port should always, if possible, be opposite to the
port of the cylinder, and when it is not opposite it is very important
that the valve, if short D, should have the upper and under portions
connected by three rods ; indeed, in all large engines three rods are
best. When there are only two, the valve at the extremity of its stroke
is apt to bend back from the face, and will generally wear taper.
The valve rod is often, in the case of short D valves, attached not
immediately to the diaphragm of the valve, but to a malleable iron
jaw, which is secured to the valve diaphragm. But we think it the
simplest way for the valve rod to go at once through the valve dia-
phragm, with nuts upon the under side, and for the square pin by
which the valve is moved to be supported by two brackets cast on the
valve diaphragm, there being a little play left fore and aft in the
square eye of the valve rod, to admit of the valve being pressed
forward as the faces wear, without interfering with the stuffing box
above.

Paddle centres. — We do not think favourably of the plan of boring
out the eyes of the paddle centres, turning the bosses on the shafts,
and fitting the centres on with a single key. When once the centres
get rusted in their seats, when fitted in this way, it is next to impossi-
ble to start them, and if the vessel has to go into dock, it will some-
times be necessary to break the centres before the paddle rings can
be drawn towards the sides of the ship. Nor do we think well of the
plan of putting the centres on in two halves. It is almost impossible
to prevent such centres from becoming slack upon the shaft, unless
they be encircled by a malleable iron hoop. We like best to see the
bosses on the shaft, and the eyes of the centres square ; each centre
made in a single piece, and fixed on the shaft by means of eight good
thick and wide keys. A cut should be made with a chisel at the head
of each key, so as to raise a projection on the shaft against the end
of the key, to prevent it from working out. These burs can be easily
cut off at any time the centres require to be shifted, and the keys, if
made of proper strength and taper, may always be started without
any very great difficulty. The heads of the paddle arms should be
secured in sockets in the paddle centre, with keys. We do not at all
like the plan of fixing the arms with bolts to the sides of a centre
indented to receive them ; we have never known any of this kind of
centres to be in use for any considerable time without the arms
becoming loose.

Crank pins should always be made much larger than is required for
strength, else they will be very apt to heat. The crank pin of Messrs.
Miller and Co.'s West India packets is llj ; of that of Messrs. Scott
and Sinclair's about 71. We like the crank pin to be put in from the
inner side, that is, through the eye of the paddle crank, and secured
by a strong screw tapped into the pin pressing upon a washer of
adequate strength, which rests on the crank pin eye. We do not
approve of large cutter holes through the eye and pin, by which they
are much weakened ; and think a single steel pin of moderate dia-
meter, driven through the crank pin and eye, sufficient to keep the pin
firm, assisted with the screw at the outer extremity.

Drag links are a useless incumbrance : the end of the pin in the
loose eye of the crank should, of course, be rounded, to admit the
fall of the outer end of the shaft without snapping the pin, and should
be steeled, so that it may not wear very fast. There should be a
removable steel or brass block in the loose eye for the pin to press
against, rounded to the shape of the pin, and slipping into its place
in a dovetail. This should be on the driving side : on the backing

side there should be a small square block fitted into a recess in the
crank eye, and pressed against the pin by a screw with a jam nut, so
that there may be no back lash in the loose eye, when the sea strikes
the paddle-wheel. The screw should always be on the backing side,
else the continual pressure on the point of the bolt will be apt to
rivet it in.

Different modes of Propulsion. — Up to the present time the common
paddle-wheel is undoubtedly the best; but we have high expectations
from a very novel plan of propulsion devised, and now in the course
of being matured, by the Messrs. Whitelaw, of Glasgow. Mr. Smith's
screw has succeeded far better than most engineers ever expected ;
but it is certainly as yet less efficient than the paddle-wheel. Yet we
understand the Great Western cognoscenti have adopted the screw in
their iron leviathan, and intend to drive it with a belt. A thousand
horses' power and a belt! Who, after this, can refuse to put faith in
Indian rubber ? We know not if this be an emanation of Mr. Brunei's
genius, or a device of the chivalrous Mr. Guppy ; and we think it is
to be regretted that the public is not more specifically informed to
whom the brilliant thought is principally due. Our grandmothers
certainly had but little idea of spinning-wheels on so magnificent a
scale, else they might have bequeathed some hints of very material
import. They might perhaps have told us that belts are apt to stretch
and slip, when there is much strain put upon them, and that salt water
and heat and steam do not act beneficially upon leather. But as no
such legacies have been left us, and the days of spinning-wheels are
gone, we must now make up our minds to wait with resignation the
issue of the Great Western experiment, though we question much
whether it will be brought to an issue for ten or twenty years to come.
We really think it would have been well for the Great Western
people, had they gone to Messrs. Maudslays and Field for another
Great Western. Had they done so, they would have been sure of an
excellent vessel, she would have been afloat long ago, and would now
be earning money.

PROFESSOR MOSELEY'S CONTINUOUS INDICATOR.

We think upon the whole very favourably of this contrivance, but
it appears needlessly complicated and expensit-e, and perhaps some-
what liable to get out of order. The friction cones, we consider, are
not sufficiently safe and certain in their action. A little oil falling
upon them, and a little undue friction in the machine — accidents likely
enough to occur, especially in a steam vessel — would cause the cones
to turn round, without carrying the wheel-work with them, and thereby
vitiate the indications. These evils in our estimation are susceptible
of a remedy, and we should propose a form of indicator something
after the fashion of that figured in the subjoined rude sketch, as less
objectionable, perhaps, than Professor Moseley's, though without any
pretensions to the character of a matured or unobjectionable scheme.

A A are the springs; BB
the links connecting them;
C is the cylinder of the in-
dicator; D the cock for in-
serting it in the cylinder
cover; E a ratchet wheel, en-
circled by a ring, with a num-
ber of internal palls, as in the
patent windlass, and termi-
nating in a lever, F, with a
long slot, in which the end of
the rod, G, may be, by the
bell-crank, H, moved either
towards F, or towards E; G
is connected with the engine,
and if the pin moving in the
slot of the lever, F, were
always stationary, it would always carry round the ratchet an equal
distance. But when the pressure in the cylinder is increased, the
piston of the indicator is forced farther up, and the rod, G, is drawtt

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

289

nearer to the centre of E, and consequently carries the ratchet round
a greater distance. The slot should of course be made so that G
might be carried to the very centre of E, though not so shown in the
figure. Instead of a rod, G, a string with a weight or spring for
bringing it back might be employed : and instead of the bell-crank,
H, a chain or piece of silk or catgut, with a couple of puUies and a
spring, might be used. These puUies, or one of them, might mani-
festly be made spiral, so as to move the pin of G out and in, according
to any desired ratio; or the same effect is accomplishable by a suitable
construction of the spring.

We do not think it of the least use to register the pressure of steam
beneath the piston as well as above, in any double-acting engine ; as,
if the valves are properly proportioned, the upnor and under pressures
must be always the same. It is desirable to ascertain by a common
indicator that the action in the up and down stroke is identical ; and
then the registration of the difference of pressure during one part of
the stroke will be a correct indication of the engine's performance.

We are glad to find that Professor Moseley's indicator is about to
be applied to the Great Western, and we anticipate vast benefit to
steam navigation from its application to steam vessels in general. We
trust Professor Moseley will urge the advantages of such a species of
registration upon the attention of steam ship owners. It is of the last
importance, and the public is greatly indebted to Professor Moseley
for his successful labours in removing many of the difficulties which
stood in the way of the establishment of a comprehensive and efficient
system. We shall be greatly disappointed if he fails to follow these
labours up, or neglects the steps necessary to render them beneficially
available in practice. Some representation should be made to the
Steam Association on the subject.

THE ELEMENTS OF STEAM IlfPROVEMENT.

One of the most important improvements in the steam engine developed
of late years is expansion ; and although it can scarcely now be called
an irnovation, yet it has not, up to the present time, come into uni-
versal use, and where adopted, has not been carried to that degree to
Vfhich it might be beneficially extended. In Cornwall, it is true, ex-
pansion has accomplished the greatest wonders, and in our largest
steam vessels the most eminent benefit has been derived from its use ;
but in many steam vessels, expansion is very little or not at all prac-
tised, and in those in which it has been carried farthest, it has not, we
think, been carried sufficiently far. We know it will be objected to,
that to carry expansion much farther in steam vessels would require
high pressure boilers, and that such boilers are too dangerous to be
admissible. But we do not think high pressure boilers, if made as
they ought to be made, in the least more dangerous than the low pres-
sure boilers in ordinary use. On railways they are regarded without
apprehension; and among the innumerable locomotive boilers in use,
there has been scarcely any example of accident. There would,
therefore, seem to be no good objection to locomotive boilers in steam
vessels on the score of danger, and they have already been introduced
by Messrs. Bury and others in river steamers with eminent success.
But there is a serious objection to tbem in the case of sea going
steamers, in consequence of the deposition of scale, which would soon
prove destructive to the brass or copper tubes. This difficulty, how-
ever, is surmountable by the use of some of the contrivances already
before the public for keeping the boilers supplied with fresh water ;
and the necessity of those contrivances to locomotive boilers, confers
upon them an importance to which they would not otherwise be en-
titled.

There are two modes of returning the same water continuously to
the boiler, so as to obviate the necessity of replenishing the boiler
with water from the sea — the one is to condense the steam by the
interposition of cold surfaces, the other to cool the water which lias
become heated by the condensation of the steam, and use it over again
for the purpose of condensation. The first plan is that carried out in
Hall's condensers, and in the condensers of Mr. David Napier and
others ; the second is known as Symington's system of refrigeration :
and we think it important to inquire which of these plans is the least

objectionable, and whether one of them, at least, may not be carried
out in practice without giving rise to evils that will more than neu-
tralize the benefits derivable from an extension of the principle of
expansion.

The condensers of Hall require to be provided with large pumps
worked by the engine ; they occupy considerable room in the ship,
and the weight of water and weight of metal in them are both very
great. The refrigeratory pipes require to be made strong enough to
resist the atmospheric pressure, and all the joints, of which there are
a vast number, require to be particularly good for the same reason.
These are serious objections, and another, also of considerable weight,
is to be found in their expense. Condensers for engines of 300 H. P.
cost several tho\isands of pounds, and contain about ten miles of pipe.
Mr. David Napier's condenser is only applicable in the case of iron
vessels, and has the same disadvantage as Hall's in having the pres-
sure of the atmosphere to sustain. It is, however, less expensive, but
is rather susceptible, we apprehend, of derangement from leakage,
and it is almost impossible to repair it when deranged. Symington's
plan consists in leading a flattened copper pipe proceeding from the
hotwel! forward and aft on the outside of the ship near the bilge, so as
to be always beneath the water, and out of the reach of injnrv either
from ice, barges, or buoys, as well as from the ship taking the ground.
This pipe is so made as to possess the requisite surface for cooling
down the water proceeding from the hotwell to the temperature ade-
quate for injection ; and is at the same time so nicely fitted to the
vessel as not to constitute any appreciable impediment to her progress.
Indeed, we do not see why this pipe might not be so constructed as to
form jDro tanlo the copper of the vessel, which, in effect, it would be
if made with only a very small projection and a considerable depth.
In Symington's plan this pipe forms the whole apparatus — there are
no pumps or other machinery to work, and as the condensation is not
performed within the pipe, it has no atmospheric pressure to sustain,
and therefore may be made of light materials, and without any par-
ticular care in jointing. Indeed, even if there were a hole purposely
made in the pipe, it is very questionable whether a drop of water
would leak either in or out, the pressure within and without being
just about the same.

It would be foreign to our present purpose to enter into anv enu-
meration of the various benefits to be derived from feeding marine
boilers with fresh water. It is sufficient to say that they are eminent
and manifold, and involve, to a considerable extent, the question of
economy of fuel. In muddy rivers, too, it is very important, after
starting with clean water in the boilers, to use the same water over
and over again, and we believe that, in such situations, this will be
found the only remedy for priming. But these considerations, though
important, are poor and insignificant compared with those which flow
from an effectual extension of the principle of expansion in steam ves-
sels, and to which the use of fresh water in the boilers is, in our
opinion, indispensable.

We understand that Symington's plan of refrigeration has been
applied to several steam vessels with eminent success; but one vessel
to which it was applied, the Cil;/ of Londonderry, it svas subsequently
removed from. This certainly looks unfavourable ; yet, if the plan
has been found to answer well in the case of some vessels, it is diflSoult
to perceive why it should fail to answer universally. The most natural
supposition therefore is, that the failure in the case of the Citi/ of
Londonderry was the result of accidental circumstances, such as will
often befall the best devised schemes, b\it which are always suscep-
tible of rectification. As we happen to be intimately acquainted with
the causes which led to the removal of Symington's apparatus in this
particular instance, we shall briefly state them, partly as an act of
justice to that scheme, and partly to exemplify how easily the most
trivial and irrelevant circumstances may sometimes conspire to con-
demn and render vain even the best contrived arrangements.

Anteriorly to the application of Symington's plan, the City of Lon-
donderry was an old and had always been a slow vessel : it was resolved
upon to lengthen her, with the view of increasing her speed, and the
occasion of this alteration was seized upon for the application of

290

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Sbptember,

Symington's contrivance. When the vessel was tried after having been
lengthened, she was not found to be as fast as was anticipated, and the
fault was thrown upon Symington's pipes for obstructing the passage
of the ship tlirough the water. These pipes were therefore taken
off, but the vessel did not go any faster in consequence, and the pipes
would perhaps have been applied again, had not the event of the
vessel being nearly as slow as ever so discouraged the owners, that
they deemed it inexpedient to go to any farther expense. Even had
Symington's plan been re-applied, she would have still been inefficient
for their purposes ; she was therefore laid aside, and is now broken up.
It is a natural objection to Symington's plan, that the pipes on the
outside of the ship are peculiarly liable to injury. In this belief we
ourselves participated, but experience has proved the objection to be
unfounded. The City of Londundtrry encountered several severe
storms in the Bay of Biscay, without the pipes sustaining the slightest
damage ; and in the other cases in which they have been applied —
as in the Dispatch, where the plan has now been in operation for some
years — no injury to the pipes has ever been found to occur. Indeed,
after having given much inquiry and consideration to the subject, it
is our decided belief that Symington's plan is not only the best for keep-
ing boilers supplied with fresh water at sea, but that it is unattended
with any evils or inconveniences unknown to the common method of
condensation. The expense, too, is not great; the direct advantage is
not inconsiderable ; and the indirect advantage of such magnitude as
to have induced us to give this mode of condensation so conspicuous
a place in this dissertation.

Expansion is the most effectual known agency for economizing fuel ;
high pressure steam is indispensable for efficient expansion ; and
locomotive boilers are necessary to the use of high pressure steam in
steam vessels with safety. The use of locomotive boilers involves
the necessity of feeding the boilers with fresh water, and this is best
to be accomplished by Symington's plan of condensation. It is also
expedient (hat the locomotive boilers used in steam vessels should be
provided with some species of self-acting feed, as the quantity of
water in such boilers being small, the water level, without some such
expedient, will be liable to great and sudden fluctuation. But upon
this topic we are now unable to enlarge, and must reserve its con-
sideration for our next number.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XL.

■• I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the umds,
To blow on whom I I'lease."'

I. George Robins most assuredly did not consult Welby Pugin,
when, in his late advertisement of the sale of Weddington Castle, he
spoke of Lugar as " an artist possessing a perfect knowledge of
Gothic architecture." No doubt he would say just the same of any
one else who had built a castellated pigstye, which vias to be knocked
down by his hammer. George is privileged to puff — no matter how
impudently — for it is his vocation. But it is lamentable to see the
same sort of nauseous puffery indulged in where there ought to be
something like reasonable opinion assigned for the praise that is
bestowed. It is a pity that, instead of an Income-tax, a tax was not
levied on superfluous and nonsensical epithets. " Splendid" and
" Elegant" have been so bandied about of late as to have lost all their
value, and almost their meaning, too. In some cases — and those not
a few — they might be supposed to have changed their meaning alto-
gether, and to have become synonymous with "paltry" and "trum-
pery." With advertisement and paragraph writers everything is, in
fact a trump card : they have nothing but trumps dealt to them, and
they themselves deal in nothing but trumpetting. Even the Times
has lately got hold of a penny-trumpet — that, perhaps, of some
penny-a-liner — with which it has been squeaking out the praises of

one or tvvo publications, which formerly, supposing them to have then
appeared, it would not have condescended to notice at all.

II. Mr. Moxhay seems to resemble Lord Byron, inasmuch as, on
waking a few weeks ago, in the morning, he found himself suddenly
become famous. Within the last month, his name has appeared and
his building has been spoken of in almost every newspaper, and that
in a manner more flattering to both, than to some of the "Dons" in the
profession and their handyworks. Not a few have been the peregri-
nations made to Threadneedle Street, by artists and people of taste,
for the express purpose of viewing a piece of architecture whose
character is so remarkable, on account of the exceedingly important
share which sculpture has in it. The artist employed upon the last
has performed his task with more than ordinary ability, and has
produced what will bear deliberate examination as a work of art — as
something more than so much ornament, intended merely to aid the
general effect. Whether what has been here done by a private indi-
vidual will have the effect — either general or partial — of introducing
sculpture into architecture, as a more important feature in it than
it has hitherto been made in this country, it would be as hazardous to
prophecy as it was to predict the London earthquake.

III. It is justly remarked by the writer of the " Spirit of Archi-
tecture," that the engineer — and, he might have added, the builder —
is now treading upon the heel of the architect. Well, let us then hope
that those who bear the latter title will feel spurred on thereby, and
endeavour to rouse themselves from their lethargy — from the drowsy
system of giving us literal copies of a few of the forms or parts
belonging to the style professedly adopted. At the best they show
themselves no more than mere copyists, unable to think for themselves,
or to get on at all vvithout incessant prompting: nor is itunfrequently
they betray how utterly ignorant they are of the real character of the
style they profess to follow. In fact, as far as they study style at all, very
many seem to have no other notion of doing so than merely by piece-
meal, and in fragments. They can pore over its separate bits — they
have its alphabet tolerably well by heart ; but farther than that they
are either quite unable to get, or too itidolent to strive to advance.
They take no grasp of any style ; they do not attempt to make them-
selves masters of it. Perhaps, after all, no wonder such should be the
case ; for if the study requisite for attaining a comjilete knowledge
of style, composition and effect, be not felt to be a delightful pursuit,
it must be felt to be a confounded bore. The bored or wooden-boards
will content themselves— what a virtue is content! — with what they
can pick up out of " Stuart," and other works of that kind. But they
would also do well to reflect — if only because it may touch their own
pockets — that they are not exactly the patentees of the works they
make use of so very liberally, and study very scantily. The engineer
and the builder can take a leaf out of them, just as well as themselves,
and thereby become every inch as chtssical. Little occasion is there
for an architect for such things as the York and the Nelson column,
when an engineer would do quite as well, perhaps even better. Little
occasion, too, is there to employ a sculptor, when anything rough-
shaped into the form of a man will serve for the statue that is to be
hoisted up to such a height as to render seeing it out of the question.
rV. It is somewhat singular, that while polychromy has been
adopted at Munich for one or two buildings, the Ionic monopteral
temple in the "English Garden," the Post Office, and Great Theatre,
the throne-room of the palace should be entirely white and gold ;
although a very good opportunity was there offered for trying the full
effect of polychromic architectural decoration precisely after the
antique fashion, by decorated colouring and painted enrichments
applied to the mouldings and surfaces of the various architectural
members. Probably the monochrome or achromatic style of embel-
lishment adopted for this apartment was intended to contrast with the
rest, all of which are painted with subjects in fresco ; which last cir-
cumstance, and that of the rooms being throughout of nearly the same
size and shape, occasion a degree of monotony that it would have
been better to avoid. No "Episodes of Plan" are to be found in
the Neue Residenz at Munich, though the throne-room itself admitted
of being rendered a rather striking one, since its purpose admitted of

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

291

a form being adopted for it that can very seldom be introduced at all.
So far from being inconvenient, a semicircle, with the throne placed
on the chord or straight of the room, either between columns, or
within a tribune forming a smaller semicircle, would have been better
adapted to the particular purpose than any other shape. It would
then, too, have been manifest at once that the room was especially
intended to be and to remain what it actually was, and that it had been
planned expressly for the use to which it was applied, and for no other.

V. Wolff's remarks on the Berlin Museum are one of the ablest and
most interesting pieces of architectural criticism I have met with for
some time— searching, and perhaps a trifle too hypercritical, but the
building itself is one that will bear a little more probing than usual.
As to probing, it is not every critic who can perform the operation
dexterously ; neither is it every architect who relishes the idea of its
being performed upon himself. Well, therefore, would it be, were
architects to anticipate critics, and thoroughly probe their own designs
in the first instance, with an unflinching hand ; at least, well consider
what objections are likely to be made by others, and whether they can
be at all parried.

VI. There is a note to an article upon Greece in the last Xo. of the
Quarterly Review, which stimulates curiosity not a little ; for it men-
tions a "magnificent" work by Demidov on the Remains of Grecian
Architecture, but without specifying anything farther than that the
text is in Russian, unaccompanied by either a French or English
translation of it. Whether it is worth translating in itself, is more
than the writer in the Quarterly can tell, for he confesses his inability
to judge of more than the plates ; yet he might as well have mentioned
the date, and something that would have served as a clue to others,
in making inquiries relative to a work not likely to be met with by
mere accident. It does not follow that because the reviewer himself
could give no account of it, no one else can ; and at any rate he might
have extended his note, and said something of the engravings, since
it is to them, it may be presumed, that the work is mainly indebted
for its "magnificence." As it is now some time since the Quarterly
Review has favoured us with any architectural paper, it would do
well to found one upon M. Demidov's work ; for if there is anything
fresh in the plates, there is in all probability some original matter in
the text — perhaps some original remark also, and if so, it is quite as
deserving of being communicated to the readers of the Quarterly as
Fanny Burney's "small-beer chronicles" about herself and the "sweet
Queen." It is to be hoped that Queen Victoria has no such chroniclers
and diary-keepers about her person. The court newsman gives us
quite enough of "small-beer" doings at the palace.

ON THE STRENGTH OF TRUSSED GIRDERS.

(From the American Journal of the Franklin Institute.)

Details of some Experiments upon the Comparative Strength of Trussed
and plain girders of rvood, made at the Phdadelphia Exchange, dur-
ing the construction of that budding in 1832. By John McClure
and Ellwood Morris, C.E. Reported by the latter.

The experiments which have been made upon the relative strength
of girders, trussed and untrussed, are so few — that the following de-
tails may be found interesting to persons engaged in construction ;
particularly as the mode of trussing by suspension, therein tested, is
becoming more and more extensively used in this country, and is
really susceptible of being made very serviceable in many situations.

These experiments were undertaken with the view of ascertaining
the proximate value of wrought iron suspension trusses for girders,
whicli were about that time brought forward conspicuously here, as a
new and useful improvement in carpentry ; though at least in one in-
stance they had been used many years before in this country; viz., by
Lewis Wernwag, the celebrated carpenter,* who applied suspension

* Mr. Wernwag. a German by liirtli. iniroigraied here in 1788, anil is the
mechanic who designed ami consiruciel ihe famous timber bridge of 340 ft.
span, over the .Schuylkill nver at Pliiladeliiliii. (recently destroyed by fire,)
besides inany other wooden bri.-lges of magnitiale and importance, in various
parts of the United States.

bars, one and quarter inches square, to stiffen the main longitudinal
floor beams of the bridge over the Neshaminy creek, in this state,
which was built by him in the year 1S08. (See the annexed sketch
which represents a side view of the suspension truss used in the
bridge referred to.)

■■?aij

We have taken the pains to ascertain from Mr. Wernwag himself
the date of the construction of the Neshaminy bridge, as it carries the
application of the suspension girder truss somewhat further back into
past time, than has heretofore been expected; though the writer has
lately been informed by a gentleman distinguished for his antiquarian
researches, that such trusses were in use upon the continent of Europe
even antecedent to that time.

The now recorded history of the wrought iron suspension truss for
girders, as far as known to the writer, is as follows: — "In 1821, Mr.
R. Stevenson, of Edinburgh, designed a bridge for the river Almond,
in which the principle of supporting a roadway by iron bars passing
underneath, was first adopted."* In 1 822 the same principle was
recommended by Mr. H. Palmer, to be applied in carrying his rail-
way, of a single line, over streams or vallies.'i' In 1824 Mr. A. Aitiger
submitted a suspension trussed girder to the Society for the encou-
ragement of Arts; to which we shall presently more particularly refer,
and which was successively applied to practice. In 1828 girders
trussed by suspending rods were used with manifest advantage in
several buildings, by Mr. Joseph Conder, who claimed the merit of
their invention, as did also Mr. A. H. Renton, Civil Engineer.j AIL
these gentlemen, however, without their knowledge, had been antici-
pated in this matter by Wernwag, at the Neshaminy bridge, as before
mentioned.

In addition to the above, the writer may state that in 1833 he ex-
amined a wrought iron suspet-sion truss, which had been applied some
years before, on a large scale, to uphold the central parts of Flat Rock
bridge, (of 198 feet span,) over the Schuylkill river; which bridge —
constructed with very slender curved ribs of three inch plank — had at
that time yielded considerably, and since has fallen down. In 1834
he measured a horse bridge (built by Wernwag) upon the Chesapeake
and Ohio Canal, near Harper's Ferry, of ■')2 feet span, which was
trussed like fig. 1, the horizontal bar being 2G inches clear of the un-
derside of the outer floor beams, which rested each upon two inverted
queen posts of iron, diagonally braced against lateral motion, and rising,
as it were, from the angular points 6 and c. This species of truss has,
since that time, been applied to strengthen the girders of a number of
bridges in the United States, to which it is unnecessary bow to refer.^

Returning from this digression, into the recent history of suspension
trussing; we will now repeat, that in the Franklin Journal for 1S32, the
description of a mode of trussing girders with wrought iron rods, act-
ing upon the suspension principle, was extracted from the "Trans-
actions of the Society for the encouragement of Arts," and accom-
panied by two wood engravings.

The plan alluded to was devised by Mr. Alfred Ainger, and siib-

• Civ. Eng. and Arch. Jour., for Oct., 1841. " Description of tlie Foot
Bridge over the river Whitadder, at Abbey St. Bathans. Berwickshire ; by
J. R. Wilsun."

T Palmer's " Description of a railway on a new principle.'' London.

I Reg. of Arts, 2nd series, vol. ii, London.

^ In connection with this branch of the subject, we must not omit to add
tlie following, from the same paiier of Mr. J. R. Wilson, (Civ. Eng. a:i(i .irch.
Jour., Oct. 1811.) already quoted.

•' In 1833 a bridge was erected on the tension bar principle over an arm of
the lake of Geneva. It has 13 openings, of 55 ft. span, and is 25 ft. broad.
The same plan has been adopted for two foot bridges of 138 and 81 ft. span
respectively, erected several years since over the nver Ness, near Inverness :
and also for a bridge over tlie river Whitadder, in Ber«ickshire, at Huttou
Mill, designed hy Mr.Jardine. of Edinburgh, which consists uf three openings
of 50 ft. span. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, has erected a foot bridge of this
kind, 103 ft. span, near Donne ; and has also applied tension rods very
successfully, for supporting the floors of Deanston cotton works, where they
have been in use for many years."

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

mitted to the Society in 1S24, who after investigating tlie merits of
the plan — tryii^g some experiments upon models — and witnessing its
successful application inbuildings— finally testified to Mr. Ainger, their
sense of the merit of his contrivance fur strengthening beams, by
formally awarding to him the thanks of the Society. Mr. Ainger's
truss, as applied to a girder of 34 ft. span, consisted of two sets of iron
rods, (one on each side of a single beam of timber,) secured by screws
and nuts, to abutment plates, notched upon the upptr side at ihe ends ;
these rods descended so low as to admit of two supporting plates being
inserted between them and the beam, and forced up against its under-
side by the end screws, so as to give to the girder two intermediate
points of support; thus dividing the whole span into three bearing
spaces of equal extent ; the side view closely resembling fig. 1. This
girder is described as having answered very well, it is stated to have
carried a leaden flat for two years, without sensibly altering its form.
Mr. Ainger also recommended that notches should be cut in the
upper side of the beam extending to one-third of its depth, and filled
" with thin wedges of hard wood or metal, forcibly driven in," so as
to augment its strength and stiifness, by putting its upper side in a
state of compression before being loaded.*

It was the article above referred to which first drew the attention of
the writer to this particular subject, and induced him, in company with
Mr. McClure, to undertake, in the year 1832, a few experiments upon
model girders.

These models were accurately made under the direction of Mr.
McClure, and were _/? re IK number; each was composed of two parts,
or flitches, so united as to bear a strain together; each side, or flitch,
was 53 inches long, 1-75 inches deep, and 1-16 inches broad, having
together a sectional area of 4-06 superficial inches; and all the models
■were made of clean, straight grained, and well seasoned white pine ;t
numbers 1, 2, and 3, were from the same plank, and Nos. 4 and 5 from
timber of the same lot and quality.

Modd No. 1 : Was trussed in a mode similar to that prescribed by
Mr. Ainger; a single wrought iron rod exactly one-fourth of an inch
square, being secured upon the npper side, at both ends, by quarter
inch square pins, resting horizontally upon abutment plates one -twelfth
of an inch thick, which embraced each end of the girder; this rod de-
scended between the flitches so low as to admit the insertion of two
bearing plates, b and c, fig. 1, which were forced in between it and
the underside of the beams, at equal distances from the ends, and from
each other, so as to give to the girder a small camber. (See plan and
section, fig. 1.) And, in addition, 34 equidistant cuts were made in
this model, to a depth of one-third of the whole, and tightly tilled with
thin pieces of hard oak well driven in.

Model No. 2 : Was similar to No. 1, (fig. 1,) in all respects except
that the hard oak wedges were omitted.

Model A'o. 3: Was a plain stick, formed by nailing the two flitches
together, side by side, with four nails in the centre line, (see fig. 2,
side view.)

Model J\'o. 4: Was a girder trussed exactly like Nos. 1 and 2, esi-
cept that a central bearing plate, one-sixteenth of an inch thick, was
inserted between the beam and truss rod at a, fig. 1.

* This was conformable to the results of some experiments by M. Duhamel.
who show ed that when a bar of soft tvcod, such as willow, was cut one-third
through from the upper side, and this cut filled with a thin piece of hard
wood sluck in pretty tiyht. its ultimate transvasf strength was tlierehij iitcreastd
nhont 10 per cent. (Barlow's Essay on the Strength and Stress of Timber,
3rd. K<lit., 1826.)

t This is the Pinua Strobus of Michaud's North American Sylva (vol. iii,
p. 159), the loftiest tree of the American forest ; it is employed here for an
immense variety of purposes, and is one of the most valuable timbers which
we pi'Ssess. It Is called Weymouth Pine, in Tredgold's Carpentry ; and ive
may here remark that the concurrence of three of our experiments indicates
that the ultimate strength of the white pine, used in our models— which was
of the best quality supplied Ly the liimuer market of Philadelphia — did not
exceed 868 lb. for sticks of the scantlirg, and length of bearing, used by us.
Wherefore the constant quantity c, of the table iu Tredgold's Carpentry^

(2nd Edit., London, 1828, p. 56,) calculated by the formula =--^ would b*

509 instead of 658, as Tredgold has it, which last is certainly too high a num-
ber ; for the breaking weight of our plain stick, (model No. 3,) if calculated
by it, would have been 1122 lb., instead of 868 lb., (as we actually found it
to be,) or tliiriij per cetit more.

Model No. 5 : Was a girder trussed in the common way — vtith one
king bolt, two iron abutments, two hard oak braces let into each flitch
nearly one-eighth of an inch — and keyed up to a slight camber. (See
fig. 3, which shows the girder with one flitch removed.)

df.

3

All of these models were put under strain in the same manner, their
own weight being counterbalanced ; viz., by resting them against two
fixed supports, exactly 50 inches asunder, and applying the straining
force, by a vertical pull upwards, through an iron stirrnp with rounded
edges, slipped over the model — which was turned bottom up — and
attached to the shorter arm of an accurate steelyard, which weighed
up to 1,288 lbs.; and the successive strains were put on by moving
the weight of the steelyard, as in weighing, so as to add usually 56 lbs.
at a time ; the beam of the steelyard being adjusted to a level at each
addition of strain, and the deflections being carefully measured — from
a fine string joining the extremities of the models — by a diagonal scale
to hundredths of inches. (See fig. 4, which gives a general idea of
the experimental apparatus,/ being a girder under trial.)

The subjoined tabular statement exhibits, at one view, the results
of the trials of the strength of the several model girders ; which it will
be recollected, were all of precisely the same scantling and bearing
length.

It must be observed that our steelyard not having sufficient power
to break model No. 4, it was subsequently broken by a lever, in order
to ascertain the position of the neutral axis of fracture.

The five following results were common to all the models when
broken, and though similar to what have been observed by other ex-
perimentalists, they may as well be stated.

1. The neutral axis of fracture, occupied precisely the same place
in all, being at four-sevenths of the whole depth down from the top,
or one-fourteenth below the middle, (Barlow's experiments on fir
beams fixed it at five-eighths of the depth, which is nearly the same.)

Giving, area of fibres crushed, 2-32 square inches.

Ditto torn asunder 1'74 „

Total sectional area in superficial inches 4-06

2. The first indications of fracture, always appeared on the upper
side, by the fibres crushing.

3. The signs of crushing at the time of fracture could be traced
each way from the centre some five or six inches.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

293

4. The deflections within the limit of elasticity, were (very nearly)
equally increased by the addition of equal weights.

5. The place of the neutral axis of fracture, was most distinctly
marked in every case, and the section of fracture, in all the models,
very closely resembled that shown in Plate III of Barlow's Essay on
Timber, 3rd ed : London, 1S2G.

The elaslic strength of Model No. 1, did not exceed 392 lb.

do. No. 2, do. 560

do. No. 3, do. 560

do. No. 4, do. 1120

do. No. 5, do. 840

As indicated by the breaking weights, excepting only No. 4, which
would have borne a few more pounds ; and No. 5, which would have
broken with less, if time bad been allowed.

The ultimate strength of Model No. 1, was
do. No. 2, „

do. No. 3, „

do. No. 4, „

do. No. 5, „

868 lb.

SG8

868
1288+
]176-

c

1
Girder No. 1.

Girder No. 2.

Girder No. 3

Girder No.4.

Girder No. 5.

"C

Trussed with iron rod,

Trussed with iron rod,

Plain stick without trusses.

Trussed like Nos. 1 and 2, but

Trussed with wood in the

wi

4>

and wedged along com-

3ut without the wedges of

See fig. 2.

with the addition of a centre

common way. See. fig. 3.

a

— 2

2" "^

pressed side. See fig. 1.

No. 1. See fig. 1.

plate at a. See fig. 1.

^ m

c ^

O m

_ .

- •!

rrt

'Z

2 S

o S

O 0)

o £

3 i!

i?

Remarks.

Remarks.

a w

<u a

Remarks.

II

Remarks.

tj 'w

Remarks.

■n —

(c: .-^

c —

^.5

c-S

1

56

c-20

Q.5

p.s

S.S

a .2

Original camber -31 in.

c-15

Original camber ^20 in.

•09

Original camber -0 in.

c-14

Original camber ^19 in.

■05

Original camber ■OS in.

2

112

c-06

StoodlevelwithHOlb.

c09

Cambers marked c.

•16

c^09

Cambers marked c.

■10 Stood level with 28 lb.

3

168

•09

•00

Stood level with 1681b.

■27

c-05

•17

4

224

■22

■04

■37

■00

Stood level with 224 lb.

•25

5

280

•40

■12

■47

■04

•32i

6

336

•55

364 lb. remaining on
forlOmin. increased

■19

■57

•08l

j

■41

7

392

•80

thedefl. -12 in.

■28

•65

■14

•47

8

448

•94

At 8 unloaded returned

■37

■75

•21

•55

9

504

1-13

to a camber of -10

■47

At9unloaded returned

■83

At 9 unloaded returned

■29 .\t 9 unloaded returned

•64

10

560

1-40

532 lb. remaining on
5 min. increased the
deH. froml-27tol^3

■64

toacamberof •12in.

•93

Ditto. [to level.

•37 to the original camber.

•71

11

616

1^6S

At 11 unloaded return-

■77

1^07

•46

•79

At 11 unloaded returned

12

672

1-98

ed to a deflection of

■89

Upper fibres begin to

M9

Upper fibres begin to

•53

•93

to level.

13

728

2-21

•18 in.

100

crush.

1^35

crush.

•61

1^02

14

784

2-50

1^20

Appearance of crush-

V51

Crushing fast increased.

•69

1-12

.\t 14 unloaded returned

15

840

2-80

1-50

ing extends rapidly.

1-76

■77

118

to level.

16

868

3-00

Broke with 868 lb. (or

1^75

Broke with 86Slb. (or

2^50

Broke with 8681b. (or

■82

Atl6 unloaded returned

1^'25

17

896

7 cwt. 3 qrs.) ulti-

7 cwt. 3 qrs ) ulti-

7 cwt. 3 qrs.) ultimate

■8!

to a camber of '08 in..

M6

At 1 7 considerable signs

18

952

mate deflection 3

mate deflection IJ

deflection 2^ inches.

■92 no signs of fracture.

1-61

of crushing appear.

19
20
21
22
23

1008

inches.

inches.

1^00 At 19 unloaded returned

1-76

1064
1120
1176
1232

1"10| to a slight camber.

207

At 20, splinters on the

l'21j though signs of crush-

underside.

1 '401 ing begin to appear.

2-50

Weights briskly added,

1^56iSigns of crushing in-

3-00

fracture takes place at

1 crease.

22, ultimate deflection

24

1288

l'75(Rested here for want of

3 in. Breaking weight

weight, and unloaded

= 105 cwt.

returned to a perma-

nent defl. of ■IC in.

K comparison of the tabular residts will show

1. That, contrary to the experiments of Duhamel, wedging the stick upon
the upper side to one-third of the depth, with slips of hard wood— at least
in the extent to which we carried it — neither augmented nor impaired the
ultimate strength of the timber, while it diminished its stiffness.

2. That the suspension tniss, though it added to t)iiistiffness,ha.i\ noeff"ect
whatever, upon the ultimate strength, when only two bearing plates, (as b and
c, Fig. 1,) were used, and the weight applied midway between them.

The reason of this appeared to be, that the deflection between the bearing
plates, when added to the compression of the timber, at these, and at the
abutments, allowed the beams to bend enough to exceed the deflection due
to their elastic strength, before the suspension truss came fairly into action.

3. That the suspension truss, with a centre plate apphed at a. Fig. 1,
doubled the elastic strength of a plain girder of the stated dimensions, and
added near fiftg per cent, to its ultimate strength.

4. That trussing a girder with hard wood, in the usual manner, increased
its elastic strength fifty per cent, and its ultimate strength about thirty-five
per cent.

This last conclusion is nearly the same as that developed by Professor
Barlow, in experimenting upon a similar truss. (See Treatise on the Strength
of Materials : London, 1837, page 165.)

The experiments referred to, and of which we subjoin a synopsis, showed
that though there was no eflicacy at all, in a common girder truss, of three
pieces of hard wood, with queen bolts, — indeed, that it was weaker than an
untrussed stick, — still, the truss of tioo pieces, with a ii>ig bolt, sindlar to
that of Fig. 3, did add considerably to the strength.^

Synopsis of Bartow's Experiments on the Strength of Girders of Wood.

No. of Experiments.

Distance between the Props

Depth of Girder

Breadth of Girder

Ultimate deflection

Ultimate weight in lb

Trussed or untrussed

Broken or not

Inches.

68

2

n

225
500

Trussed.
Not hrok.

Inches. Inches.

68
2

11
L55
500

50
2

n

L50-H
953

Untrussed Trussed.
Not hrok. I Broke.

4.

Inches.

50

2

n

L00->
717 I
Untrussed
Broke.

2 S

294

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

Nos. 1 and 3 were trnssed conformaWy to plate 39 of Nicliolson's Car-
penter's New Guide, the former being a model of a girder of 34, and the
latter of 25 ft. span.

No. 1 was a i/neen bolt truss, of three pieces ; No. 3 was a iinr/ bolt truss
of iii-o pieces, similar to Fig. 3, and the weights were applied in the centre,
or over the angular point of the latter truss, and midway between the queen
bolts of the fornfcr.

Hence it appears that whilst the queen holt truss, No. 1, was actually
weaker than the untrussed stick No. 2, the king bolt truss No. 3 was Z3 per
cent, sfrovger than the untrussed stick No. 4, of the same dimensions, and
similarly strained.

Our experiments on model No. 5, which was trussed nearly in the same
manner ar Barlow's No. 3, display an augmentation of 35 per cent, over that
of an untrussed beam.

The close agreement of our results with those of Barlow, probably justifies
the declaration that — at least whilst they are new — the common wooden king
holt trusses add one-third to the strength of the girders to which they are
applied.

Tredgold, however, in his invaluable treatise upon Carpentry, (2nd. Ed.,
London, 1828, p. 79,) says that " The methods in general adopted (for
trussing girders) have the appearance of much ingenuity, but in reality they
are of very little use." And again—" The defects of ordinary trussed girders
are very apparent in old ones, as it is not simply strength that is required,
but the power of resisting the unceasing concvissions of a straining force,
capable of producing a permanent derangement in a small surface at every
impression."

As the tendency of time is undoubtedly to impair the efficiency of all sorts of
trussing, and especially of those which — like girders trussed within their own

depth have rery obtuse supporting angles; more extended experiments and

farther observations are necessary to settle definitively the question of strength,
between beams trussed within themselves %vith timber, and plain sticks of the
same bearing, and scantling.

In 1828, Mr. J. Conder, soon after applying in practice the suspension
truss of tu'o angular points, (see Fig. 1,) seems to have become satisfied that
it was defective ; for he soon brought forward, as a great improvement, the
idea of forming the truss with but one angular point, like Fig. 3, inverted ;
and it will be remembered, that in our experiments we were unable to procure
any benefit from the suspension truss, until by the central bearing plate at a.
Fig. 1, we had, in effect, reduced that truss to one of a single angular point.
In trussing a girder, the main object is to strengthen the weakest point—
-which is the centre of the beam— and as Barlow's experiments upon direct
gueen bolt trusses, and our own upon inverted or suspension trusses, of two
angular points, indicated that no advantage was derived from either, when
strained in the middle, we are strongly disposed to conclude, that whether
the truss acts by tension or by compression, it should (in most cases) Itave
but one angular point.

In support of this view, the writer may state that he has seen a uumber
of suspension trusses of two angular points— attached to the girders of
bridges— which, on close examination, indicated that they bore but little
strain ; whilst those with but one angular point, which he has had an oppor-
tunity of examining, seemed, in most cases, to be acting with much greater
efficiency ; this matter, therefore, seems to be of sufficient importance to
justify our soliciting to it the attention and consideration of professional
men.

Philadelphia, April 28M, 1842.

St. Rnllox Oi/mnft/.— This chimney is now finished. This e.-ctraordinary
work was construclccl under the superintendence of Mr. Andrew Thomson,
the able engineer. The extreme height, from the ground to the copesfone, is
450 ft. ; and, rising from a base forming the highest t^ble-Iand of the city,
the stalk is seen from a great distance in the surrounding country. In relative
height, indeprndent of the elevation of its base, it is little inferior to the
lofliesi superstructures in the world ; in absolute height, it towers into the
air incomparably higher. The great pyramid, Clieops, rises 498 ft., but this
includes a base of 150. The Strashurgli Cathedral is 474; St. Peter's, in
Eome, from ground to pinnacle, 450, being exactly the aililude of the monstrc
chimney ; St. Paul's, in Lonilon,370. Tlic base of the chimney under ground
is 4G ft. in diameter ; at the ground 40 ; and at the top 13 ft. 6 in.

THE ROYAL ACADEMY'S TREATMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE.

Sir — Neitlier "The Architect" nor "Ego Quoque" is, I suspect,
tlie only one, by a very great many, who have cause to be dissatisfied
with the manner in vvliicli architectural drawings are treated and dis-
posed of by the Hanging Committee of the Royal Academy — to say
nothing of the dissatisfaction given to those who go to look at, as well
as to those who send, subjects of that class. Now, though I do not
pretend to be able to suggest any " reasonable crciisc " for that Com-
mittee or the Academy, their mode of proceeding being in itself
altogether unreasonable and irrationil, I can point out what I conceive
would tend to abate, if not entirely correct, the inconveniences novf
complained of.

It is almost hopeless to suppose that the Royal Academy will reform
any part of its system out of deference to public opinion. Your own
Journal and many others have repeatedly animadverted on the very
preposterous manner in which drawings are put up in the Architectural
Room, many quite insignificant or uninteresting in subject obtaining
comparatively good places, while others, far more worth looking at,
are thrust where they can scarcely be seen at all; which is surely
absurd enough, for if the space allowed to that department of the ex-
hibition is su inadequate at the best, all the greater necessity is there
that it should be turned to the best account— that the drawings ad-
mitted should be chosen with careful regard to their intrinsic merit
and interest, and that since they must needs be comparatively limited
as to number, they should also be select, and also still fewer than at
present, no more being admitted than what can be properly hung up—
that is, than can be properly seen and examined after they have been
hung up. Frequent, however, as have been the complaints and re-
monstrances in regard to the utter want of good management with
respect to architectural drawings, the Academy does not pay the
slightest attention to them, doubtless because they are not brought
before it in such formal manner as would render it impossible for
some notice not to be taken of them. What I would, therefore, sug-
gest is, that the Institute of British Architects should take up the
matter in behalf of the profession, and formally communicate on the
subject with the Royal Academy, urging the necessity for some reform
and improvement in its exhibitions of architecture, and devising mea-
sures whereby such reform might be secured, as far as circumstances
will at all permit. Let the Institute do this, the Academy would thea
be compelled to return some kind of reply; and however unsatisfac-
tory the result might prove, at any rate the Institute itself would have
shown a disposition to stand up for the interests of architecture and
its professors, whereas the Academy's own professor of architecture
does not seem disposed to interfere at all, but to leave the painters
and the Hanging Committee to have it all their own way. I shall, no
doubt, be told that what I have suggested is pretty much like the
notable receipt for catching birds by putting salt upon their tails. I
have proposed that the Institute should poke up the Academy ; very
good— but then who is first of all to poke up the Institute itself to do
any thing of the kind. It surely cannot be required to be told that
there is occasion for something being done in order to put the annual
exhibitions of architecture upon a much better, and I may add, more
respectable footing than they now are ; and if the Institute has hitherto
not thought fit to interfere in anv way, though for such laudable pur-
pose, is it to be imagined that it will do so now at the suggestion of
any one else? Hardy! no matter; it must at least do one thing, dis-
posed or not, for its silence will be equivalent to a tolerably plain
avowal that it is determined to give itself no trouble, to listen to
nothinc proposed by others, more especially if what is so proposed
does not immediatelv aftect itself; therefore it must, at any rate, let
it be seen with how much or how little public spirit and generosity it
is actuated, and how far anxious to exert what influence it may possess
for the benefit of the public and the profession.

I remain, &c.

Corrector.

THE PROPOSED NEW CHURCH, KENTISH TOWN.

Sir- As Mr. Bartholomew expressed himself in his "Specifications"
in no very measured terms relative to his brother architects, stigma-
tisino- the whole profession en masse, not only for their incompetence,
but for various malpractices amounting to fraud, or what he terms
Faunlkroi/ism, he has no right to look for much indulgence; nor can
he reasonably be surprised if he now finds his own pretensions rather
sharply scrutinized. Possibly he may be the only immaculate member
in a profession in which- if we are to take his word for it— it would

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

295

require the lanthem of Diogenes to discover an honest man in broad
daylight; and so far he maybe an honour-to it. With that amount of
praise, or rather self-praise, he onght, however, to content himself,
for he is not likely to obtain much in addition to it.

Two lithographs have lately appeared, purporting to be an Exterior
and Interior View of the Proposed New Church, Kentish Town, St.
Pancras, inscribed "Alfied Bartholomew, Esq. F.S. A., Architect, War-
wick House, Gray's Inn," which unusually minute piece of information
looks somewhat too much like an advertisement or shop-card, were it
not for the insertion of the "^sg. .' " Still that is merely matter of
taste, though too much a la John Britton, yet hardly in worse taste
than the design itself, which is'one of the strangest jumbles conceiv-
able both as to style (Gothic) and as to the very inequality of character,
for while in some respects it is ostentatiously showy, in others it is
deplorably mean and insignificant. The exterior and interior are
strikingly at variance with each other; the former — at least its front,
looking at first sight more as if intended for that of a cathedral than
of a moderate-sized church, while the interior is homely even to shab-
biness, besides being, in point of design, hardly a degree better than
carpenter's or Strawberry Hill Gothic. There is no unity of principle;
nor does Mr. B. seem to have paid any regard to such economic
management of the funds at his disposal or intended to be raised, as
would have produced a tolerably consistent keeping up of character
throughout. It now looks as if he had found out that nearly all the
money would be required for the front of his building, scarely any being
left for the rest of it ; he would therefore have done well to have re-
trenched from what now seems strange extravagance there, bestowed
some decoration, or even some tolerable finish as to detail, where it is
now evidently wanting, and that in a very disagreeable degree. If instead
of two towers and spires, he had contented himself with one, he would
have been able to bestow some panelling on the fronts of the galleries,
and to pay more attention to detail generally within the building.
Neither would the exterior itself have suffered by such retrenchment,
for at present the front seems too crowded up and overdone ; and the
little projection — apparently intended for a vestry — between the
porches in the lower part of the towers, is a feature that, so far from
agreeing with the rest, either as to style or any thing else, is no
better than an eye-sore, and looks paltry in itself, and throws
the whole out of keeping. As to keeping, however, that seems to
have been scarcely attended to at all ; for as far as the side which is
seen can be made out, thrown so much as it is into perspective, the
front is a mere mask to the rest, the character there aimed at being
carried on no farther. In fact, as shown by the interior view, the side
windows have neither muUions nor tracery, but ai'e mere holes in a
wall, and that none of the thickest. Whether it be owing to bad
drawing or not — and the perspective at least is strangely incorrect —
the whole of the interior has a very disagreeable look, it being not
only very plain, but remarkably poor in character, with at the same
time a good deal which is fantastic — for instance, the small round
windows over the pillars that support the arches. The whole, in
short, has a singular, meagre, starved appearance, altogether different
from that sober style which might excuse or might readily be
excused by economy. If such very rigid economy is thought necessary
for this part of the building, why is there so much tawdry parade and
pretension in the exterior? It is surely not at all in accordance with
what either judicious economy of design, or the commonest rules of
good taste, would dictate.

No doubt my remarks will be thought no more agreeable and liberal
in feeling by Mr. Bartholomew, than were his own wholesale aspersions
of the profession, by his brother architects. Still they are such as he
may profit by, unless he should find, upon further consideration, that he
can really produce nothing better than this lame abortive design. At
all events he will perhaps now learn to speak with a little more re-
serve if not respect of others, since he has certainly not shown himself
to be at ail superior to them in talent.

I remain, &c.

An Architect.

THE INSTITUTE AND ITS TRANSACTIONS.

Sir — Since no notice was taken of it in the review of the "Trans-
actions of the Institute of British Architects," allow me to make some
comments on what struck myself most forcibly, on looking at the
title-page. I mean the appearance of Messrs. Longmans' names as
the publishers. I have nothing whatevi'r to object to that highly
respectable house, and had they been appointed publishers in the first
instance, no exception could have been taken at it; but it does look
like aa exceedingly strange " transaction " on the part of the Institute,

that they should have taken the work out of the hands of its first
publisher, and placed it elsewhere — that publisher being one who is
in a manner identified with the architectural profession, who has done
so much in undertaking and bringing out works that might else never
have appeared, and who is therefore justly entitled to all the coun-
tenance and support the profession as a body can show liim.

Putting aside all reference to that individual, it certainly does seem
— to myself, at least — very ungracious and impolitic in that body which
represents — or would, in the eyes of the public, appear to represent — the
architectural profession and its interests, to withdraw from Jlr. Weale
almost the only compliment they could show him; more especially
after receiving from him as presents, from time to time, books to
which it would have become them to have been subscribers and pur-
chasers ! Call you this backing your friends? Is this the way to
promote enterprise in a branch of publication which, standing as it
does upon a very different footing from that of general literature,
requires more than ordinary encour.igemeut from those whose studies
are aided by it? Probably the Institute may have made a "better bar-
gain ;" by acting as they have done, they may have saved, or else they
hope to get, perhaps, a few shillings extra. Perhaps — for there is room
now for any suspicion — they tried every publisher in town, from Burling-
ton and Great Marlborough Streets to Finch Lane, or farther, if a " far-
ther" there be, before they entered into treaty with the " Row." The
advantage they have gained ought to be great, for great is the paltriness
of having even thought of seeking for it. But though the odium of
the "transaction" falls upon the Institute, I do not imagine it met
with the concurrence of all or even a majority of the members. At
least, I know one or two who look upon it in pretty much the same
light as I do myself.

Dismissing this matter, 1 have to remark that, as far as the volume
itself is concerned, there is very little in it indeed to identify it with
the Institute, or which manifests any of that co-operation to be ex-
pected from a body established, it may be presumed, to effect what
the zeal and study of individuals cannot pretend to accomplish. What
we obtain from it is altogether the result of private study and indi-
vidual diligence ; and one of the most valuable papers in the "Trans-
actions" is a contribution from one who is not a professional architect.
Very far am I from complaining at meeting with papers of that class,
the acceptance of which is rather creditable than otherwise to the
Institute, because it shows liberality of feeling towards amateur
students. What I complain of is, that there is nothing to show either
what the Institute has done, or what has been done in architecture,
during the time it has been established, and since the publication of
tjie first portion of its Transactions. There are no official documents
or records of any kind ; no official report upon the chief of the very
numerous buildings erected or undertaken during that interval, both
in this country and upon the continent; no extracts from the corres-
pondence of foreign members, nor any authentic information so de-
rived ; no notice of foreign publications presented to the Institute — I
do not mean critical notices or reviews of them, but simple statements
explaining their contents. Nay, there is not a single record of the
briefest kind of any of the more eminent men in the profession who
have died within the last five or six years, either British or foreign.
Wilkins, Wyatville, Rickmann, Foulston, Albertolli, Antolini, Schin-
kel — some, if not all, members of the Institute, have within that
period terminated their earthly labours ; yet not one syllable of record
has been bestowed upon their memories or their works, by the Institute
whose "Transactions" are in that respect, and not in that respect
alone, a complete blank. After this let us hear no jnore of the public
indifference to architecture, when even the Royal Institute of British
Architects shows itself to be infected with almost inexcusable apathy.
The members and council of the Institute would do well to recollect,
that though they themselves may choose to shut their eyes to what
ought to be done by them for the advancement of architecture as a
liberal study, they cannot hinder other people from opening theirs,
and keeping awake to them and their proceedings.

I remain.
Yours, &c.

A GREATER ADMIRER OF ARCHITECTURE THAN OF THE InSTITITTE.

REMARKS ON THE CLAIMS OF ARCHITECTS.

Sir— The first two articles in the August No. of your Journal tempt
me to make a few observations; for although the remarks therein are
no doubt generally good and useful, they certainly do appear to me
rather too sweeping and unqualified.

In the first article, the merits of the Threadneedle St. structure (and

2 S 2

296

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL. [September,

1 suppose its novelty is considered as not its least merit,) serves as a
test for enlarging on the demerits of almost every tiling in tlie way of
architecture that has been done of late vears, in the metropolis at least,
and of underrating Grecian architecture in particular, as if it were
Tesponsible for all the abuses of mere builders, decorators, would-be
architects, and, it cannot be denied, of some from w^hom, as architects
of hit'h standing, we might have expected better things ; and I can
only account for Ihiir failure bv supposing them deficient in that
natural taste and feeling for the art which is indispensable to a
successful exercise of the profession.

I must, however, beg to diff'r entirely as to the facilities which
"Stuart's Athens" in particular affords for producing Grecian designs,
as I do not see how this publication can supersede or render unnecessary
study and invention, more than publications in any other style ; and I
think it may be found that Mr. B-.rry himself, who deservedly stands
pre-eminent as an architect, has his book of reference, too, and that
the most prominent features of detail in his best designs might there
be found delineated. It is not, then, the use of this or that style,
this or that order, moulding, or ornament, which constitutes a good or
bad design, but the spirit and mode in which they are applied and
dealt with; and there can be no more good reason for rejecting any
of the materials of design which former ages have produced, especially
-when of acknowledged beaut v, than of sliunning the letters of a lan-
guage because tbev have been used over and over again, and for the
commonest purposes. There clearlv, then, must be materials to work
with ; but I think it cannot be doubted that to natural taste alone,
which can neither he learnt nor unlearnt, is owing those superior
productions in architecture, which so few can boast of the opportunity
of displaying. To afford the facilities for embodying and bringing
before others, those treasures of the mind which one individual pos-
sesses over another, a suitable education is, however, necessary ; and
'tis impossible (I think) to conceive it can be carried to excess.

The orders of architecture, as found in OJreece, (not Rome,) are
indeed beautiful, but they will not bear being trifled with; he, there-
fore, displays most taste and judgment who, instead of endeavouring
to drag them in on all occasions, rejects them altogether, unless he
can place them in a situation belitting their high rank : fur we can
well perceive, by the ancient examjiles, how much sublimity and
grandeur they are capable of producing, not, however, by the Italian
method of first degrading them in detail, and then forming separate
pieces of columnar design, for mere ornament, to doors or windows,
as exemplified at, the Travellers' and Reform Clubhouses, but by
making them primary and useful parts of an edifice.

The remarks in the second article, headed "Spirit of Architecture, '
are, some of them, so extraordinary, that I am rather doubtful whether
to treat them seriously or not. The London architects will, I am sure,
have no reason to be proud of some of them, and if any, or even the
majority, are deserving of them, 'tis hardly fair to include the whole;
it would be much fairer to allude to the particular parties, or at least
their respective works. There are architects, however, elsewhere
than in London; and I think I could point out some examples of
desien in distant parts of England by native architects, that would
induce even the severe author of " Spirit of Architecture" to pause
in his denouncements, especially when contrasted almost side by side
(as in some places they may be) with such productions of eminent
London architects as alone can justify that author's severities.

I never before heard of architects altogether disregarding public
opinion, when not expressed in such absurdities as whited towers and
churches, roughcast sculpture, and reddened plaster fronts. Indeed,
to show that discretion requires to be used in yielding to public
opinion, I myself have heard one of that public (and one, too, who
had travelled) seriouslv suggest as an improvement that a certain
public building should" be painted red, and scored in imitation of
bricks ; and yet the paper quoted seems to say that the umultund
mind is not only a more fitting judge of architecture, but would make
a better architect than such as have spent a life in its study and
exercise. Such remarks, however, are innocent enough, inasmuch as
they overshoot the mark ; but, for the same reason, they must fail of
doing good, which should be the object of all criticism.

hSw an architect can be too architectural, or too strictly educated,
I really cannot conceive ; 'tis, I fear, far too likely, in most instances,
that the fault is that of deficiency ; although, as I said before, educa-
tiun can neither bestow nor take away that natural taste and talent
which enables an architect to excel : and to these gifts of Nature was
perhaps owing that eminence in their day of those interlopers, as they
are called, Michael Angelo and Sir Christopher Wren; to neither of
whom, however, are parties agreed now-a-days in attributing the highest
excellence as architects. The praise, too, bestowed on the latter in
the "Spirit of Architecture" stands in rather awkward juxtaposition
■with the observation iu the former article, where, in alluding to the

ugly churches of London, it does not except " the more admired than
admirable ones by Sir Christopher Wren."

If architects' duties really are passing away from them to civil
engineers and decorators, that surely must be the fault of the employer,
not the employed; and it would be a slur indeed on public taste and
discernment to imagine for a moment that, until they have searched
Great Britain to every corner, they should have recourse to civil
engineers or builders, the former being almost proverbially incapable
of strictly architectural productions ; while, on the contrary, architects,
if educated as they ought to be, must be equal to all an engineer's
duties, which they do and will perforin, when prejudice does not
prevent their being called on. From builders no one, I believe, ever
expects anything like architecture ; and those who do permit them to
unite the offices of architect and builder too not only show themselves
careless of the merits of the production as a work of art, but must
find, too late, that they thereby deprive themselves of that salutary
check on the builder, which it is part of the architect's office to afford.
And as fur decorators, my liltle experience teaches me that they have
happily much less controul than formerly. The Reform Clubhouse is
not the only nor the most decided instance on which I found this
observation"; and, depend upon it, it is almost invariably the employ-
er's fault, either through ignorance or custom, if ever the decorator,
or any other pretender, is allowed to interfere with any part of a
building which has to do with its effect in the minutest particular.
Much more might be said on these subjects, but I leave it to more able
although not more zealous friends to architecture, and merely state, in
conclusion, that, instead of issuing such sweeping denunciations, it
would, I think, be a far more useful plan to bring forward, analyze, and
compare the several examples of architecture separately, with a view
to ascertain their merits and demerits, as such.

Aus- 11, 1842.

An Admirer of Architecture.

[W> are at a loss to understand wherein lies the iniquity of contrasting
the Threadneedle Street structure with other London buildings, and indeed
we do not very well see by what means ils relative merit could have been
estimated, but for some such species of comparison. We have never held
Grecian architecture ansu'erable for the faults ot those i»ho occasionally mis-
apply it, nor is it the use but the abuse of Stuart's Athens we have ventured
to reprehend. Such works we admit may, perhaps, be perused as diligenCy
by Mr. Barry and other men of merited celebrity as by the most notable im-
becile of the confecliunary faction ; bat we suspect that in the one case the
designs are received merely as suggestions, in the other as the responses of
an oracle ; and it is scarcely necessary lo remark, that it is the latter species
of appropriation we have alone reprobated.

We pass over several of our correspondent's observations, and hasten to
state that we have never maintained mental cultivalion to be unfavouvable or
even unimportant to architectural proficiency, provided the cultivation be o/tlie
right descri;,iio„. but that there is a species of cultivation productive only of
weeds, and fatal to every germ of genius, nature may have implanted, it is
a familiar enough remark that wherever schools of art flourish, the arts
themselves decline; and if it be the property of the prevailing system of
architectural instruction to discourage the growth of the natural emotions
and create others that are peculiar and artificial-to superinduce an irrita-
bility of taste respecting petty observances, and a disrelish of the ordinary
beauties of ordinary minds-lo quench all namral sensibibty of heart, and
impose upon the judgment by the authority of a senseless jargon-to eradi-
cate notbingbut taste, imagination, and genius. and ioster nothing but man-
nerism aflectation, and formality ; if this, and more than this, be the
general tendency and general effect, too, of the existing modes of education
—and all because they are t.io technical, stringent, and specific— if is easy to
understand how the education of an architect may be too architectural and •
his taste less true than tastes less systematically perverted. Education can
never create taste, but may ennoble or debase it according as the education is
in a right or wrong direction ; and the prevalent direction in the case of
archileciure is, we'conceive, such as to be generally productive of unfavour-
able inlluences. From such induences the architects of ancient Greece were
in a great measure exempt ; they girded on their armour and went forth with
theirlcllow citizens to the battle— they listened to the discourses of the phi-
losophers, and mingled in the assemblies of the people, and shared in the
anxieties of the cnmmonwealth, and partook of the responsibilities of the
administration ; ihey felt not as architects merely but as men— their asso-
ciations were not the associations of a sect or individual, but of the com-
munity, and their beauties derived not from Egypt nor Phojnicia but from
Nature Had they, like us. been content to be servile copyists of exotic con-
structions or podantic relailcrs of authoritative dogmas— had they, like us,
assumed that another people had, by some happy intuition, found out the
only forms in which beauty could be embodied, and that nothing was left tor
them but to multiply and combine those mysterious proportions— they woud
never have risen b.-vond the limits of mediocrity, andlthe world would have

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

297

been depvive.l of tlie delight, and Ihemselves of the glory, their more adven-
turous career has so hounleously conferred.

The insinuation that it is a distinction of the popular taste to entertain an
affection for rough cast sculpture, is one of those inoperative lihels which
finds its refutation in its own extravagance ; and as regards the other proofs
of the depravity of the public predilections, it is sufficient to say that ne
think them singularly inconclusive. A whitened tower may be a very pic-
turesque object in some situations, and if it be true that a brick wall may be
less displeasing than an architectural abortion, the recommendation to imi-
tate brick in a certain public edifice may, for aught we know, have been far
from injudicious. It is rather a novel doctrine, we think, that if a man's
business passes away, it is necessarily the fault of his employers, and never
of himself; but however consolatory such a conviction may he, we fear it
will be found to be a poor indemnity for so serious and substantial a depri-
vation. We agree with this gentleman in thinking that men excel in archi-
tecture by virtue of a " natural taste and talent," but are unable to reconcile
this with the declaration that engineers and decorators are necessarily in-
capable of architectural productions. It is difficult to imagine that nature
reserves her taste and talent for architects exclusively ; and if a fair propor-
tion be distributed among engineers and decorators, those of them to whom
this qualification falls, ought, by our correspondent's own canon, to be per-
fectly capable of architectural excellence. M'e agree that the architect is a
salutary check ujjon the builder, and the value of this check the public is
well able to estimate. The praise and reprehension of Sir Christopher Wren
may appear to stand awkwardly together in our pages, yet both may we
conceive be perfectly just ; and the awkwardness will ne suspect appear most
conspicuous to those who will not understan.l that an extensive edifice or
multitude of edifices may afford matter for just ridicule and just commenda-
tion, and that the genius of an artist however great, may slill be liable to
some exceptions. It would have been quite foreign to the purpose of the
spirit of architecture to have entered into the details of architectural compo-
sition, or compared one building with another, with a view to ascertain
their merits and defects j and we think the title even of tliat paper is enough
to show that its concern was not with the details and specialities of archi-
tecture, but with its radical and universal principles. Any remarks upon
such a subject must necessarily be sweeping, simply because they are
general; and we think it rather an extraordinary course to object toils
strictures, not because they are unjust, but merely because they are not
personal. — Editor]

BEVIE'WS.

Transactions: of the Royal Institute of British jirc/tiltcts. Vol. I.
Part 2. London ; Longman & Co., 1842.

( Concluded from page 260. J

The paper by Herr Kallmann, of Hanover, on the Greco-Russian
Ecclesiastical Architecture, is a valuable contribution. As an histori-
cal essay, and an exponent of manners and customs relative to the
Greek church, it will be perused with interest by all classes of readers,
while to the professional architect, it affords a new and instructive
study on the great radical principle of his art — the adaptation of the
arrangement and character of an edifice to the especial purpose for
which it is destined. A comparison of the Greek and Romish eccle-
siastical edifices, for which, as regards the former, this essay affords
ample materials, cannot fail to impress strongly upon the mind of the
British architect, that the study of combinations differing from both is
demanded of him by the ritual of the Reformed Catholic Church of
England. It is difficult to conceive anv thing more repugnant to
reason and sound taste, than the recurrence, in these days, to eccle-
siastical arrangements peculiar to the worst form of superstition and
priestcraft that ever degraded the Christian coinmunitv ; and yet such
is tlio style of planning churches loudly called for by ignorance and
intolerance at the present moment, and dignitaries of the establish-
ment are not asliamed to prostitute the influence of their station by
joining in the cry, under a Jesuitical pretence of encouraging archi-
tecture. But to return to our immediate subject. After a prefatory
historical sketch of the progress of ecclesiastical architecture in
Russia from the tenth century, Herr Hallmann proceeds to describe
the plan, arrangement, and decoration of a Greco-Russian church.
To follow this description connectedly would be to transcribe the bulk
ofthepajier; we shall, therefore, be content to extract so much as
relates to the principal feature of the interior — the Iconostasis, or
screen separating tlie sanctuary from the body of the church. It is
probable that many who may have had the opportunity of seeing
Greek churches, may not be awarp, of all the mystical intention of
tlieir ornaments :

" A perfect Iconostasis is the representation of tJie universe, or rather of
the cetestial kingdom. It is composed of four or live different tiers, four of
which are indispensable, as will be presently explained. Each tier is com-
posed of an unequal number of pictures of saints, painted on tablets or long
square surfaces, the position of which is rigorously fixed.

"On the first tier, which rises generally a few steps above the ground, (the
number of steps is indifferent provided they do not exceed seven) are three
doors ; the middle is a folding door, by means of which a view of the altar is
obtained during the ceremony, and is ornamented with the Annunciation of
the Virgin, the Virgin on one of the leaves, and the angel on the other, ac-
companied by the heads or emblems of the four evangelists ; on the right is
the effigy of Christ, on the left that of the Madonna — on the right after that
of Christ, is placed the picture of the saint or of the festival of the church —
then come the smaller doors already mentioned, which are single doors.
Above the central door there are occasionally three angels' heads, as sym-
bolical of the Trinity ; above the smaller doors are placed, on the left the
Greek cross, on the right the cross of Moses, symbols of the new and old
dispensations. Such are the indispensable arrangements of the first tier; if
there be more room, it may be ornamented with other pictures of saints.
Of these principal pictures only the heads, hands and feet are visible, the
body is covered with a metallic clothing or drapery of silver or gold in very
flat relief — the grounil, like that of the whole Iconostasis and often of the
entire church, is gilt. Before each picture a lamp is suspended exactly in
the middle, and the pictures ought not to be higher than to allow of kissing
at least the feet.

" On the second tier Christ is represented in the middle, seated on a throne,
clad in pontifical robes. On the one side is St. John the Baptist, on the
other the Madonna without the child — after that appear on each side two
archangels and six apostles ; the different tablets upon which these effigies
are painted, seem in the ancient churches joined to one another without
ornament — in the more modern they are divided by little gilt columns.

" On the third tier we find the Madonna in the middle seated on a throne,
holding the infant Jesus on her knees ; on each side of her are seen the effi-
gies of the prophets.

" On the fourth tier Cod the Father is represented on his throne in the
centre, with the infant Jesus — on each side are the patriarchs of the church;
on this last tier the effigies are surmounted by small arches, the centre one
being higher than the others. As the figures in the middle are seated, they
are twice the size of the others which are standing. Sometimes there is a
fifth tier, which is placed either between the first and second, or between the
second and third ; and upon the tablets of this tier are representations of
the history of the Saviour, the last supper, the passion, the crucifixion, &c. ;
this tier is generally only half the height of the others.

" It remains yet to be mentioned that on the vault of the great cupola
before the iconostasis is generally painted an enormous head of Christ, and
that a great lustre nearly touching the iconostasis is suspended before it.

" The other parts of the church are ornamented with paintings on a gold
ground ; even the columns are decorated in this manner ; but all these paint-
ings represent miscellaneous subjects. In style they are wretched, and per-
fectly resemble the art of the early Christian ages. The church is lighted
generally by very narrow windows, perforated in the side walls, or in the
drums of the cupolas ; for festivals there is a great display of lustres, made
of plated copper, which hang from the vaulted roof. The general internal
appearance of the Greek churches is on the whole extremely solemn and
imposing on account of their magnificence and mystic aspect."

The Institute showed their sense of the merit of this paper at the
time it was read, by presenting a silver medal to its author. The
editors of the volume have done him less than justice as regards the
illustration of his work. There are two general plans and one ele-
vation, and six specimens of Russian cupolas, crammed into one quarto
plate, and the plans especially are so small as to be nearly useless. A
second plate represents an Iconostasis on a better scale.

The "Report of the Committee appointed to examine the Elgin
Marbles" in order to ascertain whether any evidences remain as to
the employment of colour in the decoration of the architecture or
sculpture, will require little observation, since it was printed entire in
the last No. of the Journal. It is in one sense a most satisfactory
document, since it sets at rest for ever all question as to what traces
of colour may or may not exist upon the marbles subjected to exami-
nation.

This report concludes the first portion of the volume, comprised
under the genera! head of "Antiquities." The first paper of the
second part, coming under the head of "Construction," contains some
very important statistical facts on the cost of certain public buildings
abroad, chiefly at Berlin, communicated by Herr Beutli, of that city,
honorary and corresponding member of the Institute. Many of the
buildings particularized are published in Schinkel's "Architectonische
Entwuerfe," so that the proportionate expense of building in Prussia
and England may be easily deduced from the information furnished by
Herr Beuth. By a schedule of prices for labour and material.^, it appears
that the former may be obtained in Berlin for less than half its cost
in London, measured brickwork fur about two-thirds, and timber for
little more than one-fourth. These rates must be kept iu mind in

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

esfimatins; hy (Iir sums total the scale of liberality on wliich tlie
modern public buildings of Prussia have been erected. It appears
that the sum of£47,S83 has been expemlerl on the new church at
Potsdam, £Of,S10 on the Theatre Royal at Berlin, £30,870 on the
School of Royal Architei'ts, &e.

Mr. GwilCs "Observations on the Weight of Entablatures" refer
to the proportions between the supports and the mass supported, in
the orders of architecture ; and he shows a jirobabiHty that tlie jiro-
portions assigned by the ancients to their columns and entablatures,
may be founded on a principle of making the area of the mass
supported, taken on the geometrical elevation, equal to tliat of the
supports, and the voids, or intercolumniations, equal to the amount of
both. It is clear at first sight, that these conditions are fulfilled by
any colonnade, where the intervals are systyle, and the entablature
somewhat more than one fourth of the height of the column, propor-
tions which are very nearly observed in the best works of antiquity.
The rules laid down by Vitruvius tend to the same point, and Mr.
Gwilt's position is further strengthened by the actual measurements of
some of the ancient temples which he has compared in a table, though
others are rather wide of the mark. It is impossible to suppose the
coincidences which occur to be accidental, but they will scarcely bear
out a general rule, which, to be worth any thing, ought to be of general
application. The effect of such a law in architecture would be, to in-
crease the load in proportion to the diminution of the support. It is
obvious, that as the height of any series of supports of given diameter
is increased, and their strength consequently diminished, both really
and apparently, the intervals between them increase in area, and so
therefore must the superincumbent mass be increased in order to ful-
fil the conditions. It is true that niihin certain limits this is the actual
practice of the ancients. A Corinthian entablature one-fourth of the
height of the column, is a greater proportionate load than a Tuscan
entablature bearing the same relation to its support, (the intercolum-
niation remaining the same). This apparent anomaly has been very
well explained by Sir \V. Chambers, and we object to Mr. Gwilt's
view of the subject, only because it is too sweeping, and because we
think he ought to have taken the limits of the ancient practice into
the account.

We do not understand th^ author's mode of dealing with the pedi-
ment. The diagrams on this subject require explanation ; they seem
to represent the entablature diminished in height until the addition of
the pediment makes up the required mass; but we are not aware of
the existence of any such practice either in ancient or modern com-
position. Kor can we discover by what process the voids in the por-
tico of the Panlheon are made cut to be equal to the solids, as stated
in a postscript by Mr. Cresy, especially as these proportions are set
down very accurately in the preceding page as l'S4 to 2-43. It must
be observed that Mr. Gwilt does not by any means insist upon this
part of the theory, but as regards the proportions between the sup-
ports and the weights, he considers that there is every appearance
of its being strictly true.

The next paper in order is on " Lithology," or observations on stone
used for building; by Mr. C. H. Smith. Mr. Smith, it is scarcely
necessary to remind our readers, was a member of the Commission
appointed to survey various quarries throughout the Kingdom, for the
purpose of selecting stone for the new Houses of Parliament. The
information resulting from this inquiry has found its way to the public
in several shapes, but in none more likely to be of general practical
utility than the able and well digested performance before us. The
author treats principally of those extensive and useful classes of stone,
the sandstones and the oolites ; but we must rather call the attention
of our readers to the pertinent remarks which occur on the conse-
quences of want of attention on the part of the architect to the quality
of the, materials offered for his use. The effects of this negligence
are particularly to be noted in the metropolis, where all stone must be
brought from a distance, and where even the most inferior is scarce
and dear. Mr. Smith shows that of Portland stone, so much in request
in London, there are numerous shades of quality, dependent mainly on
the position of the bed from which it is raised, and partly from the
variation in the corresponding beds in different localities, and yet this
circumstance is scarcely ever considered in selecting the material.
Portland stone is Portland stone, and the architect is too ready to
accept it as it comes to market.

" I have carefully looked over," says Mr. Smith, " many specifications for
public and private buildings, anil find the materials usually described to be
of the best quality ; but the general tenour of those parts describing the
•tone to be used rarely amounts to anything more than the mere well-known
name, preceded by an adjective, such as " yood Portland stone," but what
is to constitute that "goodness" is altogether undefined.

" Large quantities of Portland stone of an inferior quality are brought to.
London, not because the island is deficient iu the best kind, hut because all

our large buildings are executed by contracts, at so remarkably low a price,
that the mason's study is not what kind of stone will l)e most durable, but
what stone can be wrouglit by the workmen most expeditiously, and thereby
yield the largest profit ; and of course the proprietor of the quarries will only
send such stone into the market as is likely to suit his customers. St. Paul's
Cathedral, and many of the churches and other large buildings, erected in
the reign of Queen Anne, were constructed with stone very superior, as far
as regards durability, to the greater quantity now used ; and yet the quarries
from whence those sources were derived have been deserted beyond the
memory of any inhabitants now living at Portland ; and the only reason as-
signed is, because the merchants find they cannot sell such stone, on account
of its being a little harder, and thereby more expensive to work."

" Abundant examples of defective Portland stone might be pointed out; but
when we consider tliat the stone brought from the island, good, bad, and in-
different, is all shipped from the same pier, which is a very small one, and
that notwithstanding the blocks are marked in the quarry, so as to denote
from whence they were obtained, it is possible that some of them may he
misplaced, we ought not to be surprised if occasionally a veiy had stone
is conspicuously placed in a building that is otherwise in excellent con-
dition ; and this we find more particularly to be the case in our modern
structures, arising no doubt sometimes from ignorance or inattention, but
often from some trifling interest, such as using a stone because it is just of
the dimensions required."

" There are not fewer than fifty or sixty quarries already opened at the
Isle of Portland, most of them along the north-east and north-west cliffs, at
an elevation of several hundred feet above the sea. The stone from each of
these quarries, and from different beds in the same quarry, almost always
presents some minute particularities, which, on very attentive examination,
will serve to distinguish it from others. In many instances these distinc-
tions are so conspicuous as to be evident on the most casual inspection."

Bath stone is brought to the London market under precisely the
same circumstances.

" The principal quarries are at Box, Coombe Down, and Moncktou Far-
leigh. The stone from each of these districts, and even in the same quarry,
where there are generally a number of beds lying upon one another, is fre-
quently found to differ, in some of the minor characters, from all the rest ;
such as being harder, coarser, more or less durable, &c., all of which are in-
discriminately sold in the markets under the general name of " Bath stone,"
and it rarely happens that an architect specifies what kind of Bath stone is
to be used. It is always understood that the materials are to be good, or of
the best kind ; and it unfortunately too often happens that the stone which
looks best when fresh from the workman's hand, is frequently of a description
most subject to premature decay. If it he left to the mason's choice, he is
sure to select the stone that may he most expeditiously worked."

Bath stone finds little favour with our author, who disposes very
satisfactorily of the common notion that it stands better in its native
air than when exported to a distance.

" The plain matter of fact is," says Mr. Smith in his plain matter-of-fact
style, " that the stone used in the construction of the oldest buildings at
Bath was procured from the Box quarries, which is in the more important
quaUties very superior to and far more durable than such as is now generally
used. The Box quarry stone is still used occasionally in and about Bath, but
the stone merchants in London have long since discovered that the masons
will not buy it on account of its being a httle coarser and harder, and thereby
more expensive to work."

Two other vulgar errors on the same subject are also noticed.
Speaking of the decay which is already manifest in the restorations
of Henry VII.'s chapel, Mr. Smith observes as follows:

" That there are many stones in the building which at present show no
symptoms of decomposition is readily admitted ; and those persons who
advocate the use of Bath stone for such highly decorative purposes, frequently
imagine that sufficient care has not been taken to place the stones on their
natural bed. The importance of such precaution is generally very contide-
rably overrated ; I do not consider it signifies which way a stone is fixed,
unless it presents a decidedly laminated structure, which scarcely ever occurs
amongst tlie oolites. A stone of an open, powdery, and slightly cemented
texture, will, if exposed to the weather, decompose in a comparatively short
space of time, in whatever direction it may be fixed, or whichever surface
may be parallel to the horizon.

" Another generally received fallacy is the opinion that soft stone will be-
come hard and durable by exposure. Although this notion is true to a cer-
tain extent, it is not of sufficient importance to warrant its appreciation in
architectural works. All kinds of stone while in the rock, or when recently
quarried, are somewhat softer and more easUy worked than after they have
been exposed to the atmosphere a few months, owing to the stone in its
original situation being more thoroughly saturated with moisture that can
ever be accomplished after it has been once allowed to get dry. This is a
principle well known to masons, for it is a general practice amongst work-
men to frequently wet a stone, especially if it be rather of a hard quality,
during their operation of working it into mouldings or ornaments, to make
it work, as they term it " more kindly." If the stone be remarkably soft, it
is advisable not to let it dry too fast after it has been taken from the quarry.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AIlCillTECT'S JOURNAL.

2S9

for fear of its cracking;, in consequence of tlie moisture being removed from
the outside before the interior of the block can have had time to evaporate;
hence, while the central part remains of its original size and extremely damp,
the surface will dry, shrink, and thereby cause many invisible cracks, tlie
effect of which will be conspicuous after a sharp frost.

" All free-working limestones and oolites become in some degree harder
on their surface by exposure to weather. This arises from a very slight de-
composition taking place, which will remove most of the softer particles, and
leave the hardest and most durable to act as a protection to the remainder.
In addition to which, the pores and interstices of t;:e surface fet filled with
dust and dirt, washed in by rain assisted by powerful winds ; all which cir-
cumstances help to secure the least protected grains from external violence.
If the stone be naturally compact and durable, a surface of tbis description
■will materially assist its' duration ; but, on the other hand, such material as
the Ileddington stone, near Oxford, or the most peris' able Bath stone, will
in due time" similarly attain a hard crust, which, from tiie general body of the
stone being loose and powdery, is not sufficiently compact to hold on ; water
will soak in behind the crust, cause a swelling and disruption on the surface,
■which ultimately breaks. The crust thus opened gradually bends forward
more and more, until finally the weight of the disintegrated portion causes it
to fall off. In some instances, as in Bath stone, these defective places rarely
exceed an inch or two of surface before the decomposed part falls off;
whereas the crust of the buildings at Oxford is so remarkably tenacious that
it peels off and hangs like rags, often as much as a foot superficial, before it
entirely separates. Upon tlie' whole, I do not consider it a recommendation
to a soft stone to say that it gradually becomes harder on the surface."

We must fake leave of this paper, from which we are tempted to
continue our extracts to a greater leiigtii than might be advisable. It
is illustrated bv a map of the Island of Portland, and a. section of the
strata from which the stone is raised. It concludes with some obser-
vations on M. Brard's process for testing the qualities of building
stone by disintegration, which Mr. Smith holds rather clieap, -as not
being supported by established physical truths, tliat is to say, by the
effects observed to have taken place in the same kinds oi stone by
long exposure in old buildings — Barnack stor.e, for example, which
remains generallv in the highest state of preservation in Peterborough
Cathedral, and other buildings in the neighbourhood of the quarries,
disintegrates rapidlv under the process, while others which stand high
for durability under this test, are found to have suffered severely from
the slow tooth of age.

To Mr. Fowler's paper "On warming and ventilating the long room
of the Custom House, London, upon Dr. Arnott's principle," we have
but little to say. The practical application of a familiar principle is
precisely one of those subjects best calculated to occupy profitably the
time and attention of an evening meeting, and had we experienced
the pleasure of hearing this paper read on such an occasion, we could
have complimented the honorary secretary very sincerely on his pro-
duction. But for its place among the transactions it has probably
been indebted to its illustrations, which exhibit the only specimen of
original design with which the Institute have favoured us. The
composition in the second plate being quite unconnected with the
practical part of the subject, it is to be presumed, from the extra-
ordinary distinction with which it is treated, that the Society are
proud of it. We must confess we would rather the same breadth of
copper had been bestowed upon Herr Kallmann; but this, as the
upholsterers say, is a mere matter of taste, and we hint an opinion
upon it with extreme diffidence.

The concluding paper is a report on the construction of the stone
arch, (or, according to popular designation, " stone beam,") which
exists between the western towers of Lincoln Cathedral, by Mr.
Nicholson, accompanied by an engraving, made from very careful
measurements. This arch, which is an object of curiosity from its
extraordinary flatness and lightness, consists of 23 stones of unequal
lengths. The width of the extrados is barely 1 ft. 9J in. ; the thick-
ness of the arch is uniform throughout, and is II in. ; the span 27 ft.
11 in. between the apparent abutments, but as the walls on both sides
have been cased since the arch was built, the original span is 30 ft.
The arch having settled into a somewhat irregular shape, doubts have
arisen as to the nature of the curve ; but Mr. Nicholson's minute
investigation decides it to be a pointed arch, drawn from two centres,
the chord of the southern arc being 13 ft. ll-6(;4 in., and its versed
sine 2-J-J in. ; and the chord of the northern arc 14 ft. 0-234 in., and
the versed sine 2i in.

The object for which this singular structure was erected is a
mystery, and Mr. Nicholson considers it in vain to orter any
conjecture as to its purpose. Mr. Papworth, however, suggests in a
postscript, that it might have been set up at the time when the vaulting
of the nave was built, as a fixed point from whence levels and mea-
surements might be taken.

We now conclude our lengthened notice of this volume, ■with an
earnest hope that the Institute may speedily be ia condition to lay

before the public another, equally instructive, entertaining, and orna-
mental. We can bestow upon them, at parting, no better wish.

j^j.jxiidix D lo the new edition of Tredgold on the Sleam Engine and
on Sleam Naviaalion. On tlie ^ichimidfan Screff, or Submarine
Proptlltr. By Elijah Galloway, Civil Engineer. London: John
Weale, 59, High Holborn. 1842.

This is a work which does Mr. Galloway great credit, and which,
we venture to predict, will be received by engineers most favourably.
The subject is itself one of great interest, and Mr. G I'loway has
treated it in a very perspicuous and business-like manner. He evidently
understands what he talks about — has studied it deeply and well — and
has the art, moreover, of stating what he knows in clear, concise, and
not inelegant language. Our inquisitorial office would speedily become
a sinecure, if we had none other than such books ss this to deal with.

Mr. Galloway first gives us a short historical account of the Archi-
medean screw as a propeller, from which we extract the following
passages : —

" In a work on the theory of the screw of Archimedes, published
at Paris in 17G8, by M. Paucton, the following passages occur : —

' The oar is an instrument by means of which we are enabled to move a
vessel on the surface of the water. It is a long lever, terminated by a flat
end, by the pressure of which upon the fluid an operation similar to the
action of a wedge upon wood is produced. The imint d'appui of this lever
is the pin to which it is attached ; the moving power is the rower; and the
resistance is the fluid : which is, however, contrary to the opinion of some
writers. I am surprised that no one has thought of changing the form of
the common oar, it being evident that it is not perfection. In effect, besides
that the action of the rower is not calculated to make the vessel advance
equably, because the oars descrihe arcs of circles in their movement, the
Tovtev is obliged at least to employ a moiety of his time and strength to Uft
the oar out of the water, and carry it in advance. To remedy this incon-
venience, it would be necessary to substitute for the ordinary oar an instru-
ment the application of which would be if possible uniform and continuous ;
and this property will, I think, be found in perfection in the pternphore (the
Archimedean screw). We should be able to place two of them horizontally
and parallel to the vessel's length, one on each side, or one only at the fore
part. The pterophore may be entirely immerged, or up to the axis only, as
is desirable. The size of the pterophore will depend on that of the vessel,
and the curvature of the thread on the velocity with wliich it is proposed
to row.' "

This is, perhaps, one of the earliest notices of the screw as aa
instrument of propulsion since tlie revival of learning, but it appears
to have been in use among the Chinese for that purpose from time
immemorial. Some of the schemes of propelling by means of a screw,
which drew the public attention about thirty or forty years ago, were
simply importations from China. Mr. Galloway quotes some certifi-
cates, with tlie view of showing that the screw had been introduced
in some of our Government vessels as an auxiliary means of propulsion
as early as 1802, and that the models of the plans then adopted were
subsequently examined and approved of by Mr. David Napier — than
whom there are few better judges in all such matters. He then reca-
pitulates the statements of Marestier in his work on American steam
navigation; the projects of Brown, the inventor of the gas vacuum
absurdity ; and the speculations of Tredgold, which are shown to be
in many respects erroneous; after v/hich he comes to the era created
by the achievements of Mr. Smith, to whom, we conceive, any success
this mode of propulsion has realized is mainly attributable. The
structure and performance of the Archimedes are next minutely
described : with these details many of our readers are already con-
versant ; and those who are not so we must refer to Mr. Galloway's
work, as no abstract would be useful, and no abridgment would be
right. Of Ericcson's propeller, shown in Figs. 1 and 2, we think
favourably; and Mr. Rennie's modification of the screw, repiesented
in Fig. 3, is certainly very ingenious. Hunt's propeller is also inge-
nious, though in its present state attended with many obvious incoii-
veniencies. Capt. Carpenter's plan is a crudity, and is scarce anything
more than a reproduction of one of Shorter's worst projects.

On the mode of communicating motion from the engine to the
screw, Mr. Galloway makes some very judicious observations. The
instruments for modifying motion are toothed wheels, straps or ropes,
and fiiction surfaces ; and as the screw has to move at a much greater
velocity than the engine, the adoption of one or other of these agents
is indispensable. Toothed wheels are very noisy, occasion consider-
able loss of power from friction, and are very susceptible of injury;
friction straps are liable to stretch and slip, especially when subjected
to the influences of heat, sail water, and steam ; and friction surfaces

Fig. 1.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September,

Fig. 4.

Fisf. 2.

require a degree of pressure to attain the requisite adhesion, which
invariably superinduces a most injurious friction in the bearings.
With the view of obviating this defect of the plan of communicating
motion by friction surfaces, Mr. Galloway submits the following
contrivance of his own : —

"In this arrangement, shown at Fig. 4, it is proposed to use two engines
of the form of which stationary engines are usually constructed, that is to
say, they would have their beams above the cylinders and cranks : d d are the
cranks, which are at a right angle to each other; c c the intermediate shaft;
i a i is a double coned wheel connected by the cyhndric part a. this is all
cast in one piece, and accurately turned on the conical parts b b ; e g and./ h
are two wheels attached to axes i and ;. They are conical at the parts /and
e, and cvlindrical at the parts g and h. The diameters are one-fourth of the
large cones b b. The axis i is the screw axis, and ./ the adjusting axis ; k is
a spring which, by means of screws, can be made to force the cone/ towards
the axis c c. If, therefore, we suppose a given force to be thus communi-
cated it will advance the surfaces of the cones together with four times the
pressure there is exerted at i. In this condition of the parts, if the engmes
be put in motion thev will cause the cones b b to turn the smaller wheels
eg fh, in opposite directions ; but the pressure necessary to produce contact
will be principally exerted between the cylinders ff and h, which, being a
rolling motion, is free from friction, and the power of the engine wdl thus
be transmitted to the screw with only a loss of power entailed by the small
amount of friction at t. It is obvious also in this contrivance that there is
scarcely any friction at the bearings of i andj, which, owing to the cones
having the force communicated at two opposite points in their periphery,
exert no pressure on their bearings, except that of gravity."

FiR. 3.

We question whether this expedient, though a very good one, is
the one wanted. A rotatory engine appears to be the desideratum, in
those cases in which the screw requires to be driven at a great speed;
and in other cases it is the best plan, we think, to employ engines of a
short stroke, and couple them immediately to the shaft from which
the screw derives its motion. This has been done in Mr. Wimshurst s
vessel with verv good effect, and, we believe, will invariably be found
the best mode where the screw is employed merely as an auxiliary,
or occasional impelling power. We find by a note, that Mr. Wim-
shurst's vessel, in which this plan is adopted, had not been constructed
until after Mr. Galloway's book was written; to which circumstance
we must attribute the omission of all notification respecting her. We
therefore feel it right to say, as Mr. Galloway would, we have no
doubt, have said, liad the opportunity been afforded him, that Mr.
Wimshurst's plan of driving the screw is the least exceptionable of
any we have met with.

London as it is. By Thomas Shotter Boys. Folio. 1842.

Mr. Boys' " London as it is" is by no means London as it ought to
be, or ought to be shown. It has, in truth, altogether disappointed us
fo in no one respect is it at all satisfactory, the subjects being, with
merely one or two exceptions, very badly selected, either quite stale,
or otherwise of little interest, and very poorly represented, at least as
views of buildings, for the architecture is very slovenly, loosely, and
incorrectly drawn, and treated as altogether of subordinate interest m
comparison with the figures. As far as buildings are '^""^"■f • X' ^
as eood or even better representations, and those, oo, far less sta e in
noFnt of subiect, are to be met with in some of the penny and two-
^"nv perXals. There are, no doubt, many who wiU prefer Mr
Boys' bustling London street- scenes, with crowds of vehicles of every
description. To far abler executed architectural subjects; but we
ques on whether any of that class of persons are the purchasers of
four-guinra books, unless they be those whom Sir Robert Peel terms

*''TheUu"of''"Londonasitis'' would naturally lead us to suppose
that the work is intended to exhibit more especially the recent archi-
tecture and improved parts of the metropolis, by way of contrast to
London as it was about thirty years ago Yet if -f ..^^^ ''J ^f ^^^^
purpose, he has adopted a most singular mode of following out such
5lan, th«e being comparatively few subjects which might not have
£een shown sixty years ago. Such bui dings as Ten pie bar St.
James's Palace, and the Tower-or rather its mere outs de walls-
have itte to ecommend them for selection; and the views are so

mited as to number, that they ought to have been carefully chon
nor do they possess novelty of any kind, having been ^ep eseite I
before, over^nd over again, and in '"''".vnstances very much beUer.
Nay, as if it was so exceedingly interesting and ^ea'^tiful a sub ec
Una it could not be too much studied, Mr. Boys has given too d ifte ent
V ;ws of Temple Bar; while of Newgate-wh.ch has so much of

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

301

character and picturesque expression to recommencl it to an archi-
tectural pencil— he shows nothing ; of the Bank and its neighbourhood
just as much ; and of New London Bridge, and the new street and
buildings just by it, ditto, not to mention other dittos— for that would
be to make a list of almost everything worth showing. It is true, he
does favour us with a sight of St. Paul's, but then it is only of a mere
bit of it, as seea from Ludgate, where nearly all but the dome is con-
cealed, and that is so drawn as to be so unsightly, that it might as
well have been kept out of sight altogether. There is very little,
indeed, to show what London is at the present day, where its street
architecture has been improved. There is a view of Pall Mall, and
two others of Regent Street, one of them taken from Hanover Chapel,
of which not the front, but merely a single column of its portico is
introduced, and that drawn monstrously out of proportion, — and they
are almost all. Whatever may be his ability in other respects, Mr.
Boys is evidently not a very able architectural draughtsman. In fact,
he seems to have considered the buildings themselves as of very
secondary importance — as nothing more than backgrounds to his
groups of figures ; and he would, therefore, have done better to have
undertaken a work that did not require proficiency in architectural
drawing, and whose title would not have held out the promise which,
far as it is from fulfilling it, it now does. Foreigners, and others who
have not visited Loudon, must form not the most favourable idea of it
from the representations here given of it.

The work is eminently calculated to dissatisfy and disappoint, if
only by its challenging comparison with such works as Nash's " Man-
sions," Haghe's " Belgium," MuUer's " Age of Francis L" &c., which
it rivals in /;r/«, in size, and external appearance, but although in-
tended so, is certainly not worthy of being placed on the same slielf
with them. A similar remark applies to Morison's " Views of Haddon
Hall," for though that also is livened exactly like the publications we
have just mentioned, it is so obviously inferior to tliem in execution
that, even if admitted to the same table, it must be content to sit
"below the salt." In truth, it is very ill-timed ; had it appeared
some half-dozen years ago, it might have been considered a very fair
specimen of its kind, whereas now, coming after Nash's and other
masterly specimens of architectural drawing and lithography, it mani-
fests a very sad falling off. We are aware that the character we have
here given, both of Mr. Boys' and of Mr. Morison's work, differs
greatly from that expressed by other journals, who have spoken of
both in terms of highest commendation — as they would probably do
of anything else, no matter what — were it to come before them in the
same imposing form and array. In fact, there are some journals which
seem to keep blank forms of criticism, requiring merely to be filled
up with the names of the publications sent to them, for the same tone,
the same off-hand remarks, the same complimentary epithets occur
again and again, and perhaps suit one work just as well as another.

On increasing the evaporative power of boilers, icith incidental remarks on
the managtment of furnaces and the prevention of smoke. By Charles
Wye Williams, Esq.

Whatever we may think of Mr. Williams' talents, we must at least
allow that his industry is most exemplary. To an ordinary man the
duties of managing director of a steam company would alone have
afforded abundant occupation ; but so lightly do those duties sit upon
Mr. Williams that he is able to reconcile them with the functions of
an itinerant lecturer, and maintains as great an agitation respecting
his patent projects as if no other subject had a claim upon his serious
attention. We might applaud this diligence if exercised in a proper
spirit or expended on a legitimate object ; but when devoted to the
multiplication of vain and arrogant elucidations of useless and puerile
devices, its only effect is to quicken contempt and provocation into
active resentment. But our anger if raised is immediately softened
into commiseration by the spectacle of a man so possessed with the
passion for popularity, even among withered hopes and in declining
years, as to hold no means unsanctified that will place in his trembling
hand the glittering gaud : — querulous and irritable from the conjunc-
tion of meagre abilities with measureless ambition — and growing old
in dipping buckets into an empty cistern in the visionary idea that he
draws something up.

We entered so fully into the merits of Mr. Williams' projects in
some of our former numbers that it wou'd be superflous now to re-
examine them, especially as there is nothing in the present treatise
capable of weakening in the least degree the furce of our former argu-
ments. We showed, we believe, to the satisfaction of our readers
that the spike boiler was neither original nor etiicacious, and that the
argand furnace was neither more nor less than one of the old smoke

burning projects raised from the dead, and disguised under a new
name, and a few insignificant variations. The proofs of these facts it
is needless to multiply, and would be useless to repeat; and we mean
on the present occasion to limit our remarks to the characteristics of
this gentleman as an author — his merits as an inventor being suffi-
ciently notorious.

Mr. Williams commences by giving us an explanation of the cir-
cumstances which led him to inquire into the defects of boilers, and
which he says " will be a sufficient answer to the assertion that engi-
neers and boilermakers know their business much too well to lack in-
struction from a pack of effervescent chemists and druggists." These
circumstances are, that in 1S23 he established a steam company "and
undertook to have the first steam vessel constructed capable of main-
taining a commercial intercourse across the Irish channel during the
winter months, and which till then had been considered impracticable,"
— that with respect to the perfection to which the hulls of steam ves-
sels have been brought, he begs to refer to the specifications of those
belonging to the City of Dublin Company furnished to the commis-
sioners of steam vessels inquiry — and that with respect to the per-
fection to which bothA!(//s and machinery have been brought, he refers
us to the steam ship Oriental. Our readers will perhaps be puzzled
to discover what all this has to do with the allegation that engineers
and boilermakers are at least likely to know something more of en-
gines and boilers than a parcel of empty and self-sufficient apothecaries;
and indeed v/c are at a loss to discern any purpose in these intima-
tions, unless it be to impress us adequately with Mr. Williams' im-
portance. But we think the illustrations peculiarly unfortunate : the
specifications referred to are very imperfect in many respects, and all
the world knows that the most of the vessels belonging to the City of
Dublin Company are the worst planned and most unsightly tubs afloat.
The Oriental is certainly a fine vessel, though we are not aware of
anything peculiar about her for which particular merit can be claimed :
but nothing can be clearer than if the nature of Mr. Williams' respon-
sibility be such, that to him is due the merit of success, to him should
also be due the demerit of failure if failure arise. Now the Liverpool,
the consort of the Oriental, and also under Mr. Williams' conlroul,
was at first a failure ; yet Mr. Williams declines all participation in
the blame consequent thereupon: so that it would appear to be his
happy prerogative to monopolize all the credit of success, and throw
the odium of failure, as often as it occurs, upon some other person.
Mr. Armstrong states in his treatise on steam boilers that the return
of the Liverpool on her first voyage to New York arose from the in-
troduction of some species of smoke burning scheme — or at least some
tampering with the furnaces of which the makers of the machinery
did not approve; and altfcongh Mr. Williams denies that this was the
cause of the failure, he admits that such interference actually took
place with the view, he says, of relieving, if it could not remove, cer-
tain supposed defects in the construction of the boiler. This admis-
sion settles the question : for if the boilers were taken out of the hands
of the manufacturers, and the furnaces altered to suit the views of
other parties, the manufacturers could not be held accountable for the
result: and as the same boilers, so soon as the furnaces were restored
to their original mode of action, enabled the vessel to make subse-
quent voyages to New York without any failure, it would certainly
appear that the first failure arose not from any inherent defects iu the
boilers themselves, but in consequence of the introduction of some
improvement which when removed or discontinued enabled the boilers
to operate with their proper efficacy.

It had always been our impression that steam communication had
been maintained across the Irish channel during winter antect-dently to
1823; but Mr. Williams assures us that up to that date the mainten-
ance of a commercial steam intercourse during winter was looked upon
as impracticable. Now a commercial steam intercourse could hardly
be held to be impracticable if any kind of steam intercourse had pre-
viously been maintained ; for the doubt was not whether a bale of
muslins could be carried, but whether the voyage could be performed
under adverse circumstances of wind and water; and as this doubt
continued to exist according to Mr. Williams up to 1S23, when he first
built a steamer, and showed it to be without foundation, we must set
him down, as by his own showing, the first person who accoaiplished
regular winter voyages across the Irish channel. Now in a report ot
a Select Committee of the House of Commons of the date of May 2nd,
1822, and another of the date of June 12th, 1822, we find it stated tiiat
a steam commiuiication hail been maintained all the precednig winter
across the Irish channel, and that numerous steam vessels conunercial
and others had maintained a regular winter communication upon the
open sea for some time previously. We confess ourselves unable to
reconcile this statement with that of Mr. Williams, that up to 1S23
when he began operations such an achievement was looked upon as
impracticable ; and we trust that our readers before they arrive at

2 T

09

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

any conclusion, will weigh well tlie testimony on both sides of the
question. On the one side they have the positive assertion of a gen-
tleman of experience and station upon a matter personal to himself,
and in wliich it is hard to suppose he could be mistiken. Upon the
other side they have the declarations of a committee of (he House of
Commons, backed by the evidence of a host of witnesses who it can-
not be supposed had any desire, even if they had the power, to falsify
a matter which must have been abundantly notorious. Every reader
must form a conclusion for himself from the balance of evidence before
bini, and will probably adopt that opinion which involves the least
wonderful supposition.

The general character of the present work is identicid with that of
Mr. Williams' other literary productions : — intolerably prolix — mar-
vellously superficial — and absurdly ostentatious : and indeed these are
among the cardinal specialities of the minute philosophy and the
natural concomitants of imbecile pretension. An author of this class
never knows when to have done — he is unwilling to lose any oppor-
tunity of making the most of his talents and materials— and takes
especial care that nothing of the least moment shall be dismissed till
its merits have been made apparent to the most impenetrable or inat-
tentive. In the idea that anything which has once suggested itself to
him cannot be unimportant to the world in general he gives his readers
' — not a selection of his conceptions — but them all, and dilates and
elaborates the most paltry truism to the consequence of an important
proposition. He does not possess the forbearance to state his views
and arouroents in a popular and concise manner, and cast them upon
the waters of public opinion to sink or swim as their merits deter-
mine ; but must have long speculative introductions and learned mysti-
fications— endless repetitions and digressions — illustrations and de-
ductions— recapitulations of what every body knows, and demonstra-
tions of things nobody ever thinks of doubting— objections anticipated
and answered — and predictions as to the influence of his doctrines
upon the fortunes of all men, and the destinies of all future generations;
and if an idea of more than ordinary value is hit upon, it is exhibited
in so many different lights and reproduced in so many different atti-
tudes, that its whole force and elasticity are extinguished,— the reader
is wearied, perplexed, disgusted,— and turns with aversion or pity
from the perpetual display of such vain ambition and such conspicuous
penury.

But we question whether the operose dullness of Mr. Williatns'
literary perpetrations constitutes their most exceptionable characteris-
tic. There is a vein of disingenuousness running through them which
often excites our shame and provocation, and their uniform tone of
arrogance and pomposity cannot fail we fear to alienate every reader's
affections, and give rise'to associations not by any means favourable,
and nearly, if not altogether indissoluble, hideed this gentleman's
arrogant and emphatic manner operating upon his habitual trick of
overrating all his own conceptions, oecasionallv gives rise to the most
ludicrous combinations. His revelations are preceded by such a note
of preparation, and such precautions to ensure for them a distinguished
reception, that the highest expectations are excited, and when after
having prepared his hearers for something very impressive, he utters,
as is often the case, only an italicised truism or inconceivable stupidity,
the ridicule is irresistible, and its effect scarcely ever to be got over.
Such a failure admits neither of toleration nor apology — it makes
weakness manifest where a display of strength was intended — and
must eventually be fatal to the faith of the most credulous even of his
disciplef.

We regret to find, that Mr. Williams has in the present work
repeated the absurd charges he brought against our mechanical
engineers on a former occasion, of being altogether ignorant of the
chemistry of combustion, and of knowing nothing whatever about
boilers. Our engineers have treated these cliarges with the significant
silence to which, perhaps, they are alone entitled ; but our function
leaves us no such option, and we feel called upon to tell Mr. Williams
articulately and in direct terms, that his charges are unfounded. If
our leading engineers know nothing about engines or boilers, where
is such knowledge to be found? Does Mr. Williams imagine that he
or the most accomplished master of gasconade or falsetto will be set
down as the depositary or originator of that mechanical proficiency
which has made this country the envy and admiration of surrounding
nations — added dignity to lier sceptre, and magic to her name ? Or
shall we conclude that Mr. Field, Mr. Farey, Mr. Miller, Mr. Brown,
and numerous others we could mention — men who would be ornaments
to any profession, and on whom the mantle of Watt has descended —
have spent a life-time of laborious study and experience in achieving
no progress and acquiring no knowledge, and are up to the present
moment ignorant even of those elements of chendstry with which
every school boy is conversaiit? One of two things is clear: either
Mr. Williams makes a statement he does nut himself beUeve, or sup-

poses that to be acquainted with any simple truth it is necessary to
rave and fume, and vociferate respecting it. It appears never to have
occurred to him that true science is a thing which shuns all display
and noise, and that eminent merit is generally united with eminent
modesty.

The Hand-look of Manchenter. By B. Love. Manchester: Love and Barton.

This is a well-illustrated work. It contains a description, with views, of
most of the public buildings of Manchester ; likewise some interesting
statistic information connected with its manufactures. It is a book that
ought to be in the hands of every visitor to that important " Metropolis of
Manufactures."

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS ON THE FINE ARTS.

We, the Commissioners appointed by your Majesty for the purpose
of inquiring whether advantage might not be taken of the rebuilding
of your Majesty's palace at Westminster, wherein your Majesty's
Parliament is wont to assemble, for the purpose of promoting and
encouraging the Fine Arts in your Majesty's United Kingdom, and in
what manner an object of so much importance might be most effectually
promoted, humbly report to your Majesty that we have taken into our
consideration the matters referred to us, and have given due attention
to the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons in 1841
on the Fine Arts, together with the opinions of various other com-
petent persons on questions relating to the special objects for which
the present Commission was appointed, and have consulted the
architect as to the manner in which various kinds of internal decora-
tion would affect his intended architectural arrangements; and we
beg now to report our opinion that it would be expedient that
advantage should be taken of the rebuilding of the Houses of
Parliament for the purpose of promoting and encouraging the Fine
Arts in the United Kingdom.

Having thus come to an opinion on the first point to whicli our
inquiry was directed, we have, in conformity with the instructions
contained in our Commission, proceeded to consider in what manner
the above-mentioned purpose could best be accomplished. With this
view we have, in the first place, directed our attention to the question
whether it would be expedient that Fresco painting should be em-
ployed in the, decoration of the New Houses of Parliament, but we
have not yet been able to satisfy ourselves that the art of Fresco
painting has hitherto been sufficiently cultivated in this country to
justify us in at once recommending that it should be so employed. In
order, however, to assist us in forming a judgment on this matter we
propose that artists should be invited to enter into a competition in
Cartoons, and we have prepared the draught of an announcement on
this subject, offering premiums of public money, to which we request
the sanction of your Majesty.

In framing this announcement we have felt that, although the com-
petition which we at present wish to invite has reference chiefly to
Fresco painting, yet if we were to confine our notice entirely to that
method of painting, an inference might be drawn therefrom that we
intended to recommend its exclusive adoption for the decoration of
the new buildings. We have, therefore, inserted in our announcement
paragraphs intended to explain that the future attention of the Com-
mission will be directed to the best mode of selecting for employment
artists skilled in oil painting and in sculpture, and that due consider-
ation will be given to other methods and departments of Art applicable
to decoration generally.

We humbly subjoin as an Appendix to this Report, some papers

treating in detail various considerations connected with the subject of

our inquiry.

Albert— Lyndhurst— Sutherland— Lansdovrae— Lincoln — Aberdeen

—J. Russell- F. Egerton — Palmerston — Melbourne — Colborne—

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

303

Charles Shaw Lefevre— Robert Peel— J. R. G. Graham— Robert Harry
Inglis— Henry Gaily Knight — B. Hawes, JuD.— Henry Hallam — S.
Rogers — George Vivian — Thomas Wyse.

Gioydyr House, Whitehall,
jSpnl 22, 1842.

APPENDIX.

The general object of the Commission considered in relation to the state
and prospects of the English School of Painting.
As the Commission is understood to take up the present inquiry
where the Committee on the fine arts, appointed bv the House of
Commons in 1841, left it, it will be proper, by way of introduction, to
recapitulate the leading opinions expressed in the Report of that
Committee.

It was there observed that " the chief object aimed at by the ap-
pointment of the Committee," was " the encouragement of the fine
arts of this country ;" that it was " requisite that a plan should be de-
termined upon, and that as soon as practicable, in order that the archi-
tect and the artist or artists to be employed, may work not only in
conjunction with, but in aid of each other; that thus the abilities of
both would be exerted for the decoration of so eminently national a
building ; and at the same time encouragement beyond the means of
private patronage, would be afforded not only to the liigher walks, but
to all branches of art." The report proceeds to recommend the em-
ployment of fresco painting in the decoration of the new Houses of
Parliament, suggesting, however, the necessity of further information
and inquiry.

The appointment of the Commission has fully secured the latter,
and the general objects of the Committee have been recognised in the
notice respecting a competition, already prepared for publication
under the sanction of Her Majesty's Commissioners.

It is here proposed to consider the question of the decoration of the
Houses of Parliament with reference to the state and prospects of the
English school of painting. And first it is to be observed that, although
*' all branches of art" maybe entitled to the consideration of the Com-
mission, historical painting is not only generally fittest for decoration
on a large scale, but is precisely the class of painting which, more than
any other, requires " encouragement beyond the means of private
patronage." The want of such encouragement has long been re-
gretted, not by professors only, but by all who have turned their at-
tention to the state of painting in England; — a proof that the promo-
tion of historic art is an object of interest with a considerable portion
of the public.

The inference is not miimportant; for an already existing estima-
tion of the higher aims of art, is in itself an earnest of their success.
The desire which has been manifested for historical painting would
not be entitled to attention if it could be traced to a passing influence,
or to a disposition to imitate what had been achieved in other coun-
tries, since this could only lead to the adoption of superficial qualities,
betraying, sooner or later, the absence of a vital impulse. Such at-
tempts would be the more likely to be ineffectual, if a different style,
however humble, really corresponding with the national taste, were at
the same time cultivated with marked success. The history of art is
not wanting in examples of schools and of periods, with regard to
which it might be a question whether a sudden demand for historical
painting would have been a boon to the artists or to the lovers of art.
The Dutch school of the seventeenth century might be adduced as a
case in point.

It may here be remarked that, even where the direction of national
taste is favourable to the cultivation of historical painting, the pecu-
liar difficulties of that branch of art must sometimes place it in unfa-
vourable contrast with inferior departments more commonly practised,
and in which a relative perfection is more commonly attained. The
disadvantages resulting from this contrast are peculiar to modem
times : at the revival of art and during its progress to excellence the
efforts in the grander style were not in danger of being undervalued,
or stimulated to injudicious rivalry, by such a comparison. No school
exclusively devoted to indiscriminate imitation then existed. The
present influence of such schools and examples may partly account for
■and excuse the occasional fastidiousness of modern amateurs with re-
gard to efforts in historical painting, and may render a consistency of
style more difficult for the historical artist.

These admissions with regard to the present difficulties of the highest
style of art cannot, however, render it necessary to vindicate its ab-
stract claims ; the sole question for consideration now is, whether in this
country and at this time there exist grounds for hoping that historical
painting could be cultivated with success, and whether it would
awaken a more, general interesti if it were duly encouraged by the
Sute.

That the actual estimation of this department of art has direct re-
ference to the moral wants of our own nation, is further proved by the
repeated exertions of individuals in proposing plans for the promotion
of the higher style of art, by the generous encouragement occasionally
extended to its'votaries by'otlieis, but above all by the efforts of the
artists themselves. For it must always be borne in mind that the aims
of the artists are not to be considered as accidental predilections apart
from the public feeling, but as representing a portion of that feeling.
However variously modified by other influences, the formative arts
must always express the manners, the general taste, and, to a certain
extent, the intellectual habits of the nation in which they are culti-
vated; the chief conditions with regard to the last being, that the
objects of mental interest should be analogous to the pursuits of taste,
and at the same time familiar to that portion of the public to which
the arts are addressed.

But to whatever extent the mind or manners of a nation may be
communicable to its productions in art, the result is to be looked for
rather in general tendencies than in degrees of technical excellence,
and is especially to be sought where controlling influences, even of a
salutary kind, are least likely to interfere with the free expression of
national taste. Thus, the indications in question are not so evident
in religious subjects, in which a common education, and long conse-
crated themes, have tended to elevate to a common standard the taste
of the civilized world ; nor are they so distinctly manifested even m
certain subjects of local interest, such as the acts of illustrious indivi-
duals, and the commemoration of national events ; themes which pa-
triotism has everywhere supplied, and which presuppose a uniformly
ennobling influence. The proper and peculiar tendency, the physiog-
nomy, so to speak, of national taste, is to be detected in more spon-
taneous aims ; in the direction which the arts have taken, when their
course has been unrestrained, save by the ordinary influence of the in-
tellectual and moral habits of society.

It might be interesting to trace the connexion between the arts and
national culture and character under such conditions ; but the general
truth of the view above taken has been so often dwelt on by the his-
torians of art, that it must be unnecessary to adduce examples of such
a connexion where circumstances must render it more than commonly
direct. If it were proposed to compare the English school of paint-
ing (as regards its general tendency) with the schools of other coun-
tries, it would, however, be just to consider the direction of taste in
the latter when art has not been employed in the service of religion
and patriousm, for it is under these circumstances that painting has
been cultivated in England. The result of such a comparison would
lend to vindicate the aim and character of the English school.

But the inference from the above statement, which is more imme-
diately applicable to the present question, is, that the efforts of the
English artists in the higher branches of their profession are to be re-
garded as an evidence of the tendency of taste in a considerable por-
tion of the public, and it remains to observe that both the eflbrts and
the taste may be almost irrespective of the common relation between
demand and supply, since the due encouragement of the higher
branches of art may be "beyond the means of private patronage."
This apparent contradiction of a moral demand, for a particular class
of art, existing independently, in a great measure, of its usual conse-
quences—the actual employment of those who, with due encourage-
ment, might respond to it, is explained by the fact that the decoration
of public buildings, with a view to moral or religious purposes, has
always been necessary for the formation of a school of historical paint-

ing

ii.f.. The history of arts shows that whatever may be the extent ot
genera! education, the service of religion or the protection of the state
is indispensable, at the outset at least, for the full practical develop-
ment of the highest style of painting. Thus formed and thus exer-
cised historic art lives and is progressive, but with the aid, however
liberal, of private patronage alone, either its aim becomes lowered, or
its worthier efforts are not sufficiently numerous to re-act on the gene-
ral taste. ■, f ,1

To many it may appear unnecessary to assert the capacity ot tue
painters or of the public for the cultivation or appreciation of e evated
art. But it must be remembered that while the great stimulus and
support of public employment is wanting, the exertions of the artists
are gradually compelled into other directions ; and some observers,
looking at this result alone, may draw erroneous inferences from it,—
may sometimes hastily conclude that pictures of familiar subjects,
which have been of late years predominant and deservedly attractive,
represent the universal and unalterable taste of the nation.

Such observers might, however, at the same time remark that the
productions in question oftener approach the dignity of history than
the vulgarity of the lowest order of subjects, and either by the choice
of incidents, or by their treatment, still attest the character of the
national taste. The evidence of an intellectual aim in familiar sub-

2 T 2

304

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

jects, may be therefore considered as an additional proof that the
artists of England want only the opportunities which those of other
nations have enjoyed, in order to distinguish themselves in the wor-
thiest undertakings. But to place this question in its proper light, it
will be necessary to take into consideration the peculiar circumstances
under which the English school has been formed.

The great impediments to the cultivation of the higher branches of
art have been alreadv adverted td. With few exceptions, painting in
England has not been admitted into churches, (a subject which it is
not intended here to discuss) nor has it been employed to any extent
in the embellishment of public buildings. Other difficulties have
existed, owing to various accidental circumstances.

The perfection which the great Italian masters arrived at, was the
result, it is true, of slow experience, but happily for them the more
ornamental and fascinating qualities of the art were attained last.
With the English school it was the reverse. Its rise in the last cen-
tury was remarkable for sudden excellence in colouring and chiaro-
scuro, an excellence so great, as to eclipse contemporary efforts in a
severer style, while it gave a bias to the school. The peculiar union
of what are called the ornamental parts of the art, with those essential
to history, which has prevailed in England, not unattended with some
sacrifice of more solid qualities, has been generally attributed to this
influence.

This mixed character became more decided in consequence of the
circumstances under which the school was developed ; namely, the
subsequent introduction and prevalence of a style suited to small di-
mensions. Most of the distinguished English artists in the time of
Reynolds painted the size of lile. The experiment, as regards private
patronage, seems to have been then fairly made, and the gradual
change to reduced dimensions, appears to have been the consequence
of the insufficient demand for large works, arising in a great degree
from the limited size of English dwelling-houses.

Hence the execution of small historical pictures ; a practice recom-
mended by the occasional example of the best masters of every school.
But where the subject is dignified, smallness of dimensions cannot
consistently be accompanied by smallness of treatment. Alinute imi-
tation is not found in Corregio's Gethsemane, nor in Raphael's Vision
of Ezekiel, diminutive as they are. The breadth of manner which is
indispensable in such elevated themes is not, however, essential in
familiar subjects, and hence, when specimens of both styles, similar in
size, but widely different in their technical conditions, are placed
together, the impression produced by so marked a contrast is unsatis-
factory, without reference to the difference of subject.

Thus, partly through the influence of the "ornamental" character
of the school, and partly to prevent this abrupt contrast of treatment
in pictures which are to hang together in galleries, (for under such
circumstances, the more abstract style appears to disadvantage,) the
kind of historic art chiefly followed, is that which admits picturesque
materials, thus combining' the attractions of familiar subjects, with the
dignity of the historic style. Under such influences has been formed
an interesting portion of the more modern English school, distinguished
on the one liand from the Dutcli, and on the other, from the small
works of the Italian masters, embracing a great variety of subjects,
sometimes scarcely removed from the familiar, sometimes approach-
ing the grandest aim.

The circumstances that have led to the general adoption of a small
size are thus it appears, accidental, and the actual practice of our
painters cannot be adduced as a proof of their original choice of such
conditions. The frequent eHbrts on their part, amid various difficul-
ties, to recommend larger dimensions, are a sufficient proof of the real
inclination of the artists. These efforts have not been confined to the
ardour of youthful inexperience ; many of our best artists have re-
turned to, or persevered in such undertakings to the last; with some,
the ambition to encounter the difficulties of this style was first kindled
at an advanced period of their career. In the last century all the
principal English artists, notwithstanding Hogarth's success in small
pictures, were in the habit, as already observed, of painting the size
of life — Reynolds (considered as an historical painter), West, Barry,
Fuseli, Copley, Northcote, Opie, and others.

It cannot therefore be admitted that the artists of England are, by
their ovin choice, confined to small dimensions ; but the questions
now are —

Whether it is possible to aflTord more favourable opportunities than
those which have hitherto existed for the adequate display of historic
art?

Whether such opportunities will be sufficiently numerous ? for
if not, the school, after attaining the excellence which honourable
employment will assuredly call forth, may again languish ; and,
lastly,

Whether such encouragement will be in danger of diverting the

taste and practice of some artists from that domestic art which is now
so successfully cultivated ?

The first of these questions, while it is immediately connected with
the special object of the Commission, involves the consideration of the
abstract relation of dimensions to styles of art. This subject has been
often discussed on grounds independent of technical requisites, and as
very different opinions have been the result, it may here be allowable,
without undervaluing the conclusions derived from other conside-
rations, to refer to the mere physical or external conditions which
must necessarily affect the question.

In comparing the treatment of cabinet pictures with that of works
of tlie largest size — for example, where the figures are colossal — it
may be observed that the small picture, besides being executed with
delicacy, generally exhibits a certain fulness of detail, while the large
work is not only less elaborate, but is composed of fewer parts. Even
assuming the same subject, and one requiring a variety of minute ac-
cessories, to be represented on a colossal and on a small scale, it may
be safely affirmed that the degree of detail which vv'ould be admissible
in the small picture would be objectionable in the larger. In a grander
and more ideal subject, where such detail would be inadmissible under
any circumstances, the comparison could be less fairly made, but a
similar influence would be more or less apparent. Thus, assuming
other conditions to be common, the greater space never allows the
introduction of more detail than the smaller, but generally, if not
always, requires leisi.

Without entering into the examination of this question as connected
with the laws of vision, it may be remarked that although the indis-
tinctness arising from distance may be counteracted, as regards the
most important qualities in art, by increased dimensions, and by ap-
propriate style and treatment, it must still tend to exclude certain
refinements of imitation which are appreciable in pictures requiring
to be seen near— refinements capable of conferring an interest on de-
tails that may be unimportant in themselves. The inference is at
once applicable to the question proposed. The familiar subject, as
fullest of accidental circumstance, must be best displayed in dimensions
fitted for near inspection, and, in an advanced state of art as regards
imitative excellence, must be a consequence of the habitual adoption
of such dimensions. On the other hand, the larger the figures in a
picture, the greater the distance at which the work must be seen; and
as the omission of detail is a consequence of that reduced scale of
gradation which distance supposes — as the absence of minute par-
ticulars is felt to be the attribute of distance without reference to the
size of objects, so the accessories in the larger work of art require to
be few and important. Thus, again, increased dimensions, by involving
the suppression of detail, suggest subjects of corresponding dignity.

Such appears to be the relation of dimensions to style and subject,
considered with reference to technical results ; as regards the question
of taste, it may be observed that the involuntary conclusions derived
from the influence of association agree with the practice of art. The
analogy between grandeur and the absence of detail, and between
minute circumstance and familiar incidents, is sufficiently apparent.
With these analogies, the impressions produced by magnitude and its
attributes, and by the opposite qualities, respectively correspond.

The general relation thus defined has often been reversed in works
of art, but not with equally good results, for it may be remarked that
large works, when elaborate in detail, and lull of accidental circum-
stance, have the unpleasing eft'ect of magnified cabinet pictures ; on
the other hand, diminutive historical works, when treated with that
breadth which belongs to the grandest style, must give the impression
of large works diminished. The last-mentioned inconsistency can
hardly be objected to; grandeur of conception and treatment must
unquestionably be acceptable in any form, but nevertheless the abstract
breadth of imitation which is indispensable in elevated subjects is,
under the circumstances supposed, a kind of contradiction, inasmuch
as the vague generalization of a distant or ideal effect is submitted to
close inspection, and can only be so viewed. The small pictures by
Raphael and Coreggio, before referred to, are of this description; but
the instances of such subjects being treated on so minute a scale are
not frequent.

It is unnecessary to enumerate other exceptions, or to refer to
larger works in which a just adaptation of style may have tended to
obviate an incongruity between subject and dimensions. It may be
sufficient to have dwelt on those plainer principles which result from
the technical and external conditions that have been considered, but
which may afford a criterion with regard to some of the more arbitrary
conventions of wiirks of art.

It may be added that even the extreme conclusions which might be
deduced from the conditions referred to, are strictly conformable to
the authority of the grandest examples of art. The loftier aim of
mitation thus defined, may seldom be literally compatible with the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

30»

usual range of subjects ; but in this instance, again, the criterion, as
such, may be admissible. Thus, assuming the representation to be
dilated to its full measure, details of costume, ilhision, and even the
more delicate varieties of colour are no longer fitted for the dimen-
sions. But in proportion as the subordinate excellences of imitation
are excluded by the nature of the existing technical conditions, the
display of the nobler qualities still attainable becomes more necessary.
As the resources of art become more circumscribed, the artist's aim
becomes elevated. In the highest style of painting, as in sculpture,
the representation of inanimate substances ceases to be satisfactory
when they no longer directly assist impressions of beauty or gran-
deur : and the styles of art in which the living form can be least dis-
pensed with, are precisely those which, by the abstract character of
their imitation, render it least objectionable.

The foregoing considerations may warrant the conclusion that the
grandest style of art is best displayed in large dimensions. It will
also follow that the treatment of subjects fitted for such dimensions,
must tend to ennoble the style and taste of the artist.

Works of such magnitude, cannot be often in demand for ordinary
dwelling-houses: hence, while pictures are excluded from churches,
the places in which it is possible and desirable to employ the higher
branches of art will be the national and municipal public buildings ;
all localities, in a word, where painting can be displayed to the public
in its highest and most didactic form.

But will such opportunities and means of encouragement be suffi-
ciently numerous and enduring? The answer to this important ques-
tion can be best anticipated Ijy the exertions of the artists ; it may be
reasonably expected that the employment of native talent in a great
national building, will serve as an example throughout the country,
and that the style of art which will be thus recommended and pro-
moted, may he even adopted in fit situations for the decoration of the
mansions and villas of affluent individuals.

In answer to the third question proposed, namely, whether the en-
couragement of historical painting, may tend to alter the direction of
the taste and practice of those artists pursuing a hitherto more thriv-
ing and popular branch afart? it may be allowable to observe that
even such a danger would be no just argument against the employment
of deserving candidates for fame in another department. But the
long neglected interests of the historical painters, can, it is believed,
be promoted without interfering in any degree with the prosperity of
the class in question. That school is already formed; and the cause
to which it chiefly owed its rise, — the possibility of its productions
being placed in apartments of ordinary dimensions, must ensure its
duration; added to which, the societies for the encouragement of art
by subscription and lottery, have solely in view the acquisition and
distribution of comparatively small pictures. The object now is to
find opportunities as til, (they cannot possibly be as numerous,) for the
development and dispUiv of historical painting on a large scale.
Whatever may be the influence of the proposed encouragement on the
rising generation of artists, it is at all events desirable that inclination
should be free ; that the inheritors of that enthusiasm which prompted
the best English artists of the last century, to ofter to decorate St.
Paul's Cathedral and other buildings at their own expense, may no
longer ask in vain even for space.

The general tendency of the national talent, has been hitherto con-
sidered in a great measure apart from the question of the actual qua-
lification of the artists. It may be sufficient, in reference to this part
of the subject, to acknowledge that the difficulties of the style of art
which is now proposed, may be peculiarly great in England, owing to
the circumstances before adverted to, and that no common energy
may be necessary to surmount such difficulties. But while the artists
are expected to show themselves worthy of entering on that career
which is now opening to them, it is but just to remind the enlightened
judges of art who refer to the great works of other countries, that
those works were the result of repeated essays, and that considerable
time was necessary for the formution of the taste and practice of those
who produced them. In justice to the artists, the trial should be
as fairh' made in England.

On ordinary occasions the imitative arts may be considered as ad-
ventitious embellishments, but in proposing to adorn an important
national edifice where it is essential that a characteristic unity of
design should be maintained thro\igliout, painting should appear as
the auxiliary of architectiue. It was thus that it wiis employed in the
best ages of Greece and Italy, and it was thus that its highest develop-
ment was ensured. In the present instance the chief decorations in
painting will be required to be on an extensive scale. The difficulty
of keeping large masses of c uivas well sti etched during all changes of
weather. h;is been cunsiderett an objection to the employment of that
material under such circumstances. The evil here alluded to may be
seeu in its worst form, in the ceiling of the chapel at Whitehall, owing

to the surface of the paintings being highly varnished. The fittest
kindsof painting, for the decoration of architecture, are those which
can he applied, when required, to every surface, curved as well as
plain, and for such general decoration, fresco— recommended as it is
by the example of the great masters— appears to be better adapted
than anv other method.

The objections to the employment of fresco in London, on ;iccount
of the smoke, have not been overlooked, and various information re-
specting the mode of cleaning such paintings has been collected. The
opinions of Director Cornelius on the subject will be found in his
statements. Professor Hess, on being consulted on this point,* re-
marked that "if frescos were painted in the open air in London, the
rain would be the best picture cleaner." The observation is so far
important, that it assumes the possibility of washing frescos freely
without injury to the colours. Mr. Thomas Barker, of Bath, who
painted a fresco of considerable extent in that city some years since,
^fites ;•(•—" To clean fresco from smoke, I know of no mode so
simple and efficacious as washing the surface with pure water, using
a soft sponge in the operation." Mr. Barker elsewhere observes :—
" it is now seventeen years since the completion of that work;" (the
fresco he painted)— "if anv change has taken place, it is in the colour-
ing having become much more eft'ective than when first completed."
Mr. Andrew Wilson writes from CTenoaX that frescos there are cleaned
w ith vinegar, so as to look as fresh as when first painted. Carlo Ma-
ratti used wine in washing the Vatican frescos, and succeeded in
restoring the principal paintings notwithstanding the injuries and
neglect of nearly two centnries.i> There seems, therefore, to be no
reasonable ground of apprehension on this account. With regard to
the effect of the English climate, no very accurate conclusions can be
arrived at, as the examples of older frescos in this country are not
numerous. About the middle of the last century some frescos were
executed at West Wvcorabe Park, by Guiseppe Borgnis, a Milanese,
under the auspices of Francis Lord Le Despenser. The paintings are
exposed to the open air, yet those in the east portico and south colon-
nade and loggia, are iii general remarkably well preserved. The
paintings in the west portico, from whatever cause, have suffered con-
siderably. The east portico is an agreeable example of the union of
fresco-painting with architecture; in the soffit is a copy of Guido's
Aurora. Some ceilings in the interior appear to be painted in oil.

As Ion" as any doubt is expressed as to the mode in which the an-
tique paintings which have been preserved were executed, II it may
not be allowed to quote those works as examples of the durability of
fresco painting in particular ; but they afford strong evidence of the
durability of painting on well prepared walls. Sufficient examples,
however, of frescos, properly so called, that have stood for many cen-
turies, exist in Italv. Among them may be mentioned : at Padua the
works of Avanzo, though injured in lately removing the whitewash
with which thev were covered ; in Florence those of Benozzo Gozzoli
in the Palazzo Ricardi, of Angelico da Fiesole, Masaccio, and others;
in Perugia those of Perugino ; in Assisi those of Giotti, (the vows of
St. Francis) ;1I these works belong to the 14th and 15th centuries.
In S. Giacomo, Spello, Orvieto, Pisa, Siena, and Rome, various ex-
amples by the earlier masters are in good preservation, when unhurt
by violence. The works of Luini, at Saronno and Lugano, may be
mentioned as remarkable instances of frescos in perfect preservation
after three centuries.** It has been supposed thst the sea air at
Venice may have affected the few frescos painted in that city ; but in
Genoa, where the influence of the sea air is more immediate, and the
effect of storms more severely felt, frescos have lasted on the external
walls of houses for some centuries.'l"!'

The practice of fresco painting, as far as description can explain
it, is sufficiently detailed in the papers of the Appendix which follow,
but it may be desirable briefly to examine its general qualities as a
means of representation.

Its difficulties are not to be dissembled; they are, however, not the
difficulties of the mere method, but arise from the necessity of an
especial attention to those qualities which rank highest in art; qual-

*■ By Mr. Wdliam Thomas, r February 10, 1842,

:, February 28, 1842, c , at

i Memoir in the secoml eilitiou of Bellori's Life of t, Maratti,
I! According to .Sir Humphrey Davy's experimenis, the anlKiue pauitmg
called the AkloljramliLii Marriage was umiuestionaLily executed m,fresco; no
colours were found in it but such as stand in Iresco, and the w nte pigment
was lime. Other paintings appear, from his description ot the materials,
to have been e.Kecuted in trmpna, though he calls them Iresco ; l)Ut no wax
(tisedin tl>efHca«,rf;c metlKKl)Has ioun.l in ;iny ol the 5|;ecimtus exainmed
bv this great chemist in Komc, (.Sec'lhe Philosophical liansaciions, Iblj,
p. 97), In Pompeii specimens ul encaustic are s.tid to be tiequent,
1i Letter from Professor i'lrnst Deger of Diisseldorf, kh March, 1842,
-* Communication from Mr, Liulnig Giuner,
rr Letter from Mr. Andrew Wilson, Genoa, 28th February, 1842,

306

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

ities which, when not absolutely indispensable, are too often neglected.
Defects in composition, form, action, expression, and the treatment of
drapery may be redeemed in an oil |)aiuling by various merits; not so
in a fresco. A style of art thus circumscribed cannot, therefore, be
recommended for exclusive adoption; but if studied together with
oil painting, its influence can hardly fail to be beneficial. The great
Italian masters, as is well known, practised both methods; hence their
employment, frequent as it was, in fresco, led to no imperfection, but
on the contrary, may be considered to have been mainly conducive to
the vigorous character of Italian design.

The immediate and necessary connexion of this mode of painting
with the highest aims of art, fits it to embody those inventions which
belong essentially to the domain of thought. As a mode of decoration
for public buildings it has peculiar recommeudations : no style of
painting is more clear, distinct, and effective at a distance. This is
partly to be referred to the thorough execution, founded on the intelli-
gence of form, which it requires, and to the brilliancy of the material
employed for tlie lights. But there are otlier causes of this distinct-
ness of effect more directly connected with general design. With
dimersions and distance, and a treatment that depends rather on power
of light than on intensity or quantity of shade for its effect, a style
arises which develops the elements of composition in some measure
distinct from chiaro-scuro. The influence of these conditions is
apparent in the best Italian frescos, which, at the same time that they
exhibit the happiest adaptation of perspective and foreshortening,
and often the most skilful management of gradations of light, are
remarkable for impressive clearness of arrangement.

This style of composition is still more apparent in the celebrated
cartoons of Raphael, in which it is carried to the most emphatic sim-
plicity, still combining the picturesque principle of depth, as opposed
to the flatness of basso-relievo. These works were evidently treated
with reference to the material in which they were to be ultimately
executed, namely, tapestry ; in that material, as wrought in Raphael's
time, powerful effects of light and shade were unattainable — a defect
attempted to be remedied by heightening the relief of some of the
objects with gold. The figures are, however, colossal in size, as the
works were to be seen at a considerable distance, and the great artist
attained distinctness by means of composition almost alone. The
principal figures are rendered important chiefly by the place they
occupy, and the story is comprehended at the first glance ; thus a
skilful arrangement supplies tl.e absence of those modes of relief
which might be resorted to in oil-painting ; indeed the effect of light
and shade, making every allowance for the injuries of time, is far
weaker than that attainable in fresco.

But assuming this general style of composition to be applicable to
fresco, it cannot be objected that, owing to its peculiar fitness in the
case referred to, it would in any degree disqualify the artist for the
practice of composition in oil-painting ; for the cartoons of Raphael
have always been considered to be among the most perfect examples
of arrangement and of masterly clearness iu telling a story, without
any reference to the particular conditions which may have influenced
the painter.

In like manner as regards colouring, the practice of fresco has never
been foinid to have any unfavourable influence on that of oil painting,
but rather the reverse. Without referring tn particular works as
instances of the perfection in both methods which the Italian masters
of different schools— Francia and Raphael, Andrea del .Sarto and
Guido, Guercino and Pordencne* attained, it may be sufficient to
mention the example of Corregio— in the opinion of Reynoldst the
most consummate of painters as regards colour and execution. This
great artist painted more in fresco than in oil, looking to the quantity
of surface covered. In his case it is evident that even the compara-
tive absence of depth and mass of shade in fresco had no unfavourable
influence on his practice as an oil painter ; while the clearness of his
colouring in his oil paintings may not unreasonably be attributed in
some degree to his experience in the other method.^ And here it
may be allowable to express the opinion, that the great skill of the

* For a descriiition of Pordenone's pr:ncipal fresco, the cupola of S. Roeco
at Venice, see Boschini, La Carta del Navcgar Pittoresco, Ven. Ili60,
pp. 90-91.

t Notes on Du Frcsnoy, Note LV.

i The works ot Corregio in fresco are here referred to merely to show that
the practice of that method has no disadvantageous influence on the practice
of oil painting ; but the cupolas of Corregio at Parma are by no means favour-
able examples of the durability of fresco. Their decay appears, however, to
have been owing to the former dilapidated state of the roots and the pene-
tration of damp, as the lower figures are better preserved. The fresco in the
tribune of S. Giovanni was destroyed in enlarging that part of the church ;
part of the principal group, the Coronation, of the Virgin, was fortunately
saved, and was inserted in the wall ot the library at Parma, It is in perfect
preservation, and is one of the noblest works of the master.

English artists in water colours might be the means of introducing
new technical merits and a new perfection in the practice of colouring
in fresco, which might again directly benefit the school of oil painters.
The foregoing are among the considerations which, it is considered,
might induce her Majesty's Commissioners to recommend the promo-
tion and encouragement of historical painting in connection with the
rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament, while a hope may be here
expressed that the example will be followed on other occasions. The
employment of fresco, for a portion at least of the intended works
might be proposed conditionally, since it must necessarily depend on
the evidence of inclination and qualification on the part of the artists,
to work in that method.

C. L. Eastlake, Secretary.

St.itements of Director Fetes Von CcRNBtins,
Hclating to the Proposed Decoration of the Hmtses of Parliament.

The following statements contain the substance of some opinions expressed
by Director Cornelius on the proposed decoration of the Houses of Parliament.
The parliculars relating to the practice of fresco painting are e.slrac.s only
from more copious details freely communicated by bim. For some few allu-
sions to facts, in the history of the arts, connected witli the subjects discuss-
ed, the Secretary of the Commission is responsible. These additions are dis-
tinguished by brackets, or are given as notes.

TIw &"/!(«/ion.— Cornelius, the distinguished artist who has executed so
many wcrks in fresco at Munich and elsewhere, inspected the plans for the
new Houses of Parliament, as well as the site of the buildings, during his
short stay in London in November, 1811. His attention was first directed to
the general situation, with reference to works in fresco. He thinks the situa-
tion unobiectionable. He has no idea that the damp of the river can have
any effect on fresco paintings in rooms elevated as those in question will be
above the actual level of the w^ter. The effects of damp in the atmosphere
are not apprehended by the German painters. Many lailures that might
have been hastily attril.aited to damp, were really owing. Cornelius observes,
to the use of lime in too fresh a state. Of the experimental works painted at
Munich in the open air those only have faded which are known to have been
done without due attention to the materials. Thus, a figure of Bavaria
painted by Kaulbach. which has faded considerably, is known to have been
executed vi ith lime that was fresh. Similar failures in less exposed situations
have been traced to the same cause. The cupola of Val de Grace at Paris,
painted in the 17th century by Mignard, faded soon after it was done, though
sufficiently elevated above damp exhalations, because the lime used was too
new.

The damji which, in the opinion of Coirelius, is really prejudicial to fresco,
is that which is occasioned by the use of unseasoned materials— new timber,
imperfeclly burnt bricks, &c. The nitre which is so destructive to fresco he
supposes to originate from the stones of the wall rather than from the mortar.
Such causes of decay might exist m high and dry situations from want of
care. But Cornelius lays the greatest stress on the necessity of using lime
that has been long kept, since this comes in immediate contact with the
colours, and is a colour itself* When this eminent artist, in conjunction with
others, painted the house of the Chevalier Bartholdy, in Rome, an old mason
who had been employed under Mengs (a not unskilful fresco painter,) directed
their attcniion to'this point, and it so happened that they were then sup-
plied with lime which had been pres-rved twelve years. The works alluded
to, though the first executed by the modern German fresco painters, have
stood perfectly well.

Among other precautions it is des'rable to let the building itself dry well
before painting the walls: yet Cornelius painted intheGlyptothekat Munich,
not long after it was finished, from a confidence in the soundness and dryness
of the materials. Ho however took the precaution to use water that had been
boiled in moistening the surface and in thinning the lime.

The Style of the Architecture.— Wilh respect to the question whether it is
possible to preserve a due congruty between the modern taste in painting and
Gothic architecture, the opinion of Cornelius is unhesitating; but this opinion,
it will appear, is the result of particular views respecting the standard of
pictorial excellence. He thinks the Italian works which the Germans most
approve, and modem German art itself perfectly fit for such a pm-pose. The
works of Heinrich Hess in the Allerheiligcn Kapelle at Munich are, he ob-
serves, in one sense, a case in point, since that chapel is in the Byzantine
style of architecture, the date of which is still earlier than the so-called
Gothic. In tliese frescos the space round the figures is often gilt, and thus
the rude splendour of a remote period is united with a grandeur of design
derived from the purest examples of Italian art.

It is well known that in the middle ages the cathedrals and churches
throughout Europe, however varying in their style of architecture, were more
or less decorated with painted and gilded ornaments and scriptural or legen-
dary subjects. [Vestiges of paintings, even in churches where stained glass
had been used, are often found concealed under whitewash, and every year
brings some to light in our own country.jr Similar works in a ruined state
have lately been discovered in the choir of the cathedral at Cologne. These
are now to be replaced, Cornelius states, by Professor Steinle, and the general

* As the opinion respecting the necessity of using lime that has been long
kept is frequently repeated in this paper, it may be necessary to state that
other German and Italian fresco painters do not consider it essential to keep
the lime longer than ten or twelve months. — See the remaining papers in the
Appendix.

f Preston, Dartford, Rochester, the Chapter-house Westminster, &c.

1842.]

THE CIA^IL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

307

style to be adopted will correspond with the architecture, although the forms
and draperies will be treated with a due refcard to the best examples of art.

Cornelius thinks that Westminster Hall might be decorated ..n the same
principles, with a like attention to the character of the architecture. He
considers that as the walls of such buildings were simelimes hung with
'tapestries, they could be quite as consistently adorned with paintings. It is
to be observed that in the Hall of Constantine in the Vatican, p.iinfed by
Giulio Romano and others from Raphael's designs, the edc;es ot the frescos
are made to imitate the appearance o! tapestry ; this treatment is also ob-
servable in some of the ceiling paintings of the Vatican, though diHeivntly
contrived according to their situation. But Cornelius thinks no such ap-
prcximation to the eflect of hangings necessary, since |>ainlings were quite as
common as tapeslrv in ancient Gothic edifices. He considers the questions
as to the appropriate style of sculpture and painting for Gothic buildings to
rest precisi-ly on the same grounds, and assumes that the artists of the thir-
teenth century would have added better ornaments to the architecture of the
period if they had possessed the skill. He considers it nevertheless essential
that a certain congruity and harmony should be preserved, less dependent on
association than on general principles. He thinks that the style of some
Florentine masters of the fifteenth century would harmt^nize well with Gothic
structures of an earlier date or character.

It is here to be observed that the question of the adaptation of the style of
art to the architecture is connected in the mind of Cornelius with that of the
general expediency of returning to those severer princi|iles of design which,
it is acknowledged, iirst led to excellence in Italian art. With these views
he connects the consideration of the nature and capabilities of fresco, as a
means of ensuring attention to the elements of form and composition. The
founders of the present German school, as is well known, at first proposed
these principles and methods not as an end, but as .a means which it was
hoped would again lead to important results. But the attempt, according to
the eminent artist .so often quoted, was at the outset universally condemned.
When a few individuals (wi'h that arlist himself, Ovcrbeck and Veit at their
head) began the revolution which they have now rendered comparatively
popular, they had to encounter the most violent opposition and the keenest
ridicule from their own countrymen; and even when, after years of uerse-
Terance, they had succeeded in gaining some favour at home, it was long be-
fore foreigui-rs acknowledged their merit. Cornelius dwells on these circum-
stances in recommending the style above alluded to.

There ate other considerations connected with the application of painting
to Gothic architecture particularly, on which Cornelius was consulted, and
which may not be undeserving of attention. The available spaces for paint-
ing in Gothic buildings are supposed to be unfavourable: the pointed arch,
sometimes introduced superficially on wal's, and the acuie fiirms produced by
the simplest groinings in ceilings are, it is remarked, dilTicult to fill satisfac-
torily. It is here necessary to bear in mind that the taste for this style of
architecture declined in Italy much earlier than in the rest of Europe, and
hence the examples of celebrated paintings in Gothic churches are rare ; the
works of Cimabue and other early Italian masters as Assisi,and those ascribed
to Giotto in the church of the Incoronata at Naples are, however, cases in
point, and had Gothic architecture continued to prevail in Italy, higher ex-
amples, it may be assumed, would not have been wanting. Cornelius does
not admit that there is any unusual difticully in adapting painting to the com-
partments of Gothic architeciure. [li may be readily granted that .all ceiling
painting is difficult to contrive and execute, but no Gothic roof, assuming the
groining to be simple, could present such difliculties as Michael Angelo had
to contend « ith, in the angles of the Sistine chapel (the architecture of wdiich
is not Gothic), where the figures are painted on a projecting ridge formed by
the meeting of two curves. The celebrated foreshortened figure of Haman is
painted on such a surface. A portion of the ceiling in one of the .Sianze of
the Vatican, presents similar difficulties.] The more florid style of Gothic
may be acknowledged to be unfit for pictorial decoration on a large scale ;
its surf:.ces being so crowded with ornamental panelling that little space re-
mains for pictures.

Another objection to the application of painting to Gothic architecture, is
the use of stained glass. A decoration so suitable in many instances t i Gothic
windows, is incompatible with ihe due effect of paintings on the walls, the
colours of which require to be displayed by a colourless, and at the same
time a sufficient light. This objection is met by the consideration that stained
glass is not desirable nor usual in all Gothic buildings, to the extent to which
it was employed in those of a sacred character. Its application elsewhere
was generally less profuse, and might be so contrived as not materially to
interfere with the quantity or quality of the light. In answer to a question
on this subject addressed to Cornelius by letter, he replies : " The church 'in
der Aue,' at Munich, which has painted window s, is not adorned with frescos,
but the church of St. Francis, at Assisi, shows how painted windows and
frescos may be combined. The paintings discovered in the cathedral at
Cologne were without doubt executed immediately after the completion of
the choir."*

Fresco as compared with Oil Paintivg. — Cornelius is decidedly of opinion that
fresco should be preferred to oil painting for the decoration of the new Hou.ses
of Parliament. In pronouncing this opinion he is of course not alive to any
of the considerations which would weigh with English judges respecting the
present ignorance of the process of fresco in this country, and the compara-
tive mastery of our oil painters. In no circumstances probably would he
prefer oil pictures to fresco, in which he has for many years been cnnstantly
engaged, and in which bis taste has been formed. He, however, supports his
preference (at least with regaid to certain applications of painting) by argu-

* Without reference to the style of the architecture, the highest authority
for the union of stained glass, to a certain extent, wilti paintings on the walls,
is that of the Stanze of the Vatican, the windows of which were enriched
with figures of angels supporlin'.; the papal arms (those of Julius II., and
Leo X.), by the glass painter, William of^ Marseilles, at the very time when
Raphael was painting the frescos of the same rooms. See Vasari, Vita di
Guglielrao da Marcilla.

ment and example. He m dntains that fresco is on every account fittest for
monnmental, permnnent works in public bull 'ings in which painting is to be
considered as the handmaid of architecture. The Italian masters, he observes,
w-ere always fully impressed with the necessity of adapting their works to
the effect of the architecture, so as to make one harmonious uhole. The
nature of fresco fiis it for such a purpose. It is indeed impossible to produce
that illu.iion which is considered so desirable in oil pictures — the same depth
of shade is not in the artist's power: but this very circumstance, while it
compels attention to composition, colour, and form, renders fresco more
directly appropriate for strictly decnraiive purposes.

On no point is Cornelius more decided, tlian on the neces-ity of placin:r a
given series of frescos umler Ih"^ controul of onedireclin-T ar:ist. This appears
to be quite compatible with theemployment of many sue h directors, by subdi-
viding the works; but he thinks it most desirable that in one complete series
there should be a congruity of style and general e.-iecution. In Munich, where
great experience has now hcen gained in these undertakings, several inde-
pendent masters have formed scholars to work in ibeir style, and these
have been ultimately employed on original works. This sr.adual education
of scholars is observable, if we follow the career of Cornelius himself. For
example, when employed in his first work in Munich (the frescos of the
Glyptothek) the cartoons were all the work of his own hand ; the assistance
he receiv.id v as only in the execution of the paintings. In the Pinakothek
his sketches and small drawings sufficed for his pupils to prepare some of the
cartoons, .and lastlyin the Ludwig-Kirche the invention even of some subjects
was entrusted to a scholar, named Hermann.*

No new modes of cleaning fresco have been devised in Germany. To a
question on this point addressed to Cornelius by letter, he replies :— '■ The
London smoke may. nndonbted'y. have a disadvantageous effect on frescos;
but with a due warm'h— for examp'e, by the introduction of warm air or
warm water in tubes — 1 am of opinion that, in the siluat'on where the new
buildings are. no p.irticular evil etiects are to be apprehended, if. however,
after fiity or a hundred years it should be found that the dirt had accumu-
lated to a great extent, the suriace could be cleaned with bread. The mouldy
appearance which somelimes shows itself is to be removed wi;h a wet sponge.
The mouldy efflorescence which a]ipears in some cases may be owing to salt-
petre in the walls: for this there is no remedy ; but, on the other hand, it
never appears when the walls are built with well- seasoned and dry materials.
In the Munich frescos no saltpetre has shown itself." [An artist of Rome,
Cavaliere Agricola. has been lately employed to clean the old frescos in that
city : he has published the result of his experience, and bis report, which has
been procureil, would be among the documents to be referred to in any future
inquirv relating to the modes of cleaning fresco. The method adopted by
Carlo Maratti. in 1702. as I have elsewhere remarked, is also preserved,]

Time necessary for the execution of works in Fresco. — The w hole scheme and
invention of a series of frescos should not only be settled, but all the Large
drawings made by the time the building is ready ; for the work can then advance
rapiillv. .Supposing the present buildings to be ready in seven years from
this time, Cornelius says it is time to begin the designs. The German artists,
expert as they are in drawing, always take some years to prepare their car-
toons. Cornelius'.s cartoon for the ;iltar-wall of the Ludwig-Kirche at
Munich was executed in Rome : be went there for the purpose. If West-
minster Hall, or any other building already in existence, is to be adorned
with frescos, the wa'll should be prepared with the first rough coat of mortar
at once ; for this ought to be on the wall, if possible, for some years before
it receives the final preparation immediately before painting, unless very old
lime be used in the first instance : but even in that case, six or twelve months
should elapse before painting on it, to give it ample time to harden.

The practice of Fresco paintitig. — The Cartoon.— U may be assumed that it
is impossible to retouch a fresco painting to any extent. The portion of the
work undertaken in the morning must be complete I during the day. The
partial remedies and contrivances in case of unavoidable delay or accidental
defects will be hereafter considered.

Hence every part of the design must be defined in preparatory studies :
the fresco is, in fact, a copy from these, the forms being traced on the wall
from drawings the full size. [Cartoons of the kind prepared lor fresco (that
is. without colours) may be seen in the National Gallery ; namely, those at
the head of the staircase, by Agostino C::racci.T] When the painting is to
be very large, and it is found inconvenient to prepare a cartoon of the same
size, the drawing may be made half the size : or, the whole composition
of the full size may be'divided into two or more cartoons: [thus Raphael's
cartoon for the school of Athens, preserved in the Ambrosian Library at
Milan, contains the figures only, without the architecture.] It is scarcely
necessary to observe that the cartoon itself is, in the first instance, generally
enlarged from small drawings of the whole composition, with the aid of carelul
studies for the separate parts. The following is the mode in which Cornelius
prepares and fixes his cartoons. A strong cloth is stretched on a frame as if
to be prepared for painting ; paper is then firmly glued on the cloth. When
this first layer of paper is quiie dry, a second layer is carefully glued over
it in the same manner. The edges of the separate sheets are a litile scraped,
where they overlap, in order to preserve an even surface. The suriace is then
prepared for drawing with size ;ind alum. The drawing is made with char-
coal, and, when finished, hfxcd by wetting the back (the cloth) with cold
water and thin steaming' the drawing in front. The eflect of this last opera-
tion is to melt the size 'a little, thus fixing the charcoal.

A finished drawing of the full size being thus ready, the outline is traced
from it on oiled (transparent) paper : if the finished drawing is halt the size,

* The public spirit of the German artists is aiiparent ui the circumstance
of Cornelius himself now underlakng to superintend the execiition of
Schinkel's designs in Berlin, with scarcely any addition of his own. His own
first original work in that city is to be the decoration of a Campo Sanlo.

1 Presented by Lord l'"rancis Egerlon. Agostino Caracci assisted in the
frescos of the Farnese Pakice. and ibe two subjects in question were, it
appears, designed and executed entirely him, dee Lauzi, y. 5, p. 74, and
Malvasia, v. 1, p. 439. J

308

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

it is enl.irfjeil by squares to the full <limenslons, portion by portion : in this
case the pnper on u'hicli-if is copied shonlJ l)e iiKMierately tliin. for tlie con-
venience of tracing on the wall. A part of this " working" outline (as much
as can be finished in one painting) is now nailed to the wet v.all. and the
forms are again traced with a sharp point, which makes an indented outline
through the paper on the soft plaster. The " working" drawini; is generally
destroyed in this operation. [The following is another mode : the paper to
be applied to the wall is placed behind, and inclose contact with, the finished
cartoon ; the outlines of the latter are then pricked, and the operation neces-
sarily leaves a similarly pricked outline on the paper behind. The next pro-
cess is to pounce the [iricked outline of the latter, when fastened to the wall,
with a little bag of black or red dust : this leaves a dotted outline on the wall.
This method is sometimes adopted for small works, as the surface of the
plaster thus remains undisturbed.] The first mode — tracing on oiled paper
and then again from it to the wall— is. however, generally preferred, since it
ensures the best .and most decided outline, while the finished cartoon may be
preserved uninjured. In many celebrated Italian frescos the indented outline,
produced by tracing, is apparent.*

It has been already observed that the fresco is a final o|ieration ; any cr;n-
biderable alterations that may suggest themselves when the cartoon is com-
|)leied must be made on the cartoon, or rather on additional pieces of paper
fitted upon it.

[One of the most interesting examples of the nature and extent of the
alterations that may be introduced in a composition prepared for fresco, is
the cartoon, already referred to, of Ranhael's .School of Athens. The changes
are mostly additions. The figure of Epictetu.^, represented in the fresco sit-
ting in the foreground on the left, leaning his head on his hand, is wanting
in the cartoon. This figure was added to fill up a vacant space, .and thus the
charge, though a considerable improvement, involved no inconvenience.
.Some less important alterations in the same fresco, such as covering the head
of Aspasia with drapery instead of showing her flowing tresses (for thus she
appears in the cartooi'i), might have been m.ade on the wall without any
change in the drawing. That this cartoon was ihe identical one which served
for the execution of the fresco is proved by the exact conformity of every
part, except the additions above mentioned, with the painting.]

Beside the Cartoon, in which the forms and general light and .shade are
determined, it is desirable to have a coloured .sketch of the whole composi-
tion, for it is almost as impossible to change colours as forms after Ihe fresco
is done. In general, the German painters are not in the habit of making
complete coloured sketches for this purpose.

The Preparation of the Wall—\iX\\^ wall to be painted is covered with old
mortar, the ingredients of which are unknown, this coat should be entirely
removed till the solid materials are Laid bare. The rough coat then applied
is composed of river sand and lime. The proportions of the sand to the
lime may vary in difierent climates, and the working builder and mason are
sufficiently experienced on this point. In Italy, it appears that two parts of
sand were added to one of lime ; the Germans generally use more sand, viz.,
three parts to one of lime. The thickness of the coat'is such as is generally
useil in preparing the walls of dwelling-houses. The surface of this first
apjilication should be rough, but not unequally so ; and the mason should
avoid leaving cavities in it.

The wall thus prepared should be suffered to harden perfectly ; the longer
it remains in ihis state Ihe safer it w ill be, especially if the lime used was in
the first instance fresh. In that case, two or three years even should elapse
before any subsequent operations are undertaken. Among the essential con-
ditions of fresco painting must be mentioned the preparation .and seasoning
of the lime. At Munich it is made and kept as follows:— A pit is filled with
clean, burnt limestones, which, on being slaked, are stirred continually till
the substauoe is reduced to an impalpable consistence.* The surface having
settled t) a level, clean river sand is spread it over to the depth of a foot or
more, so as to exclude the air, and lastly the whole is covered with earth.
The German painters suffer the lime to remain thus for at least three years
before it is used either for the purposes of painting (for lime is the white pig-
ment) or for Coating the walls. Cornelius prepared the lime for the Ludwig-
Kirche eight years belore he painted there. A great quantity is generally
kept in Munich, and might, perhaps, be had from thence for works in this
country. The late Lord Monson intended to have had lime from Munich for
the works which Cornelius was to have done for him at Gatton. The pits or
vats in which the lime is preserved are not lined with brick nor protected in
any way ; they are dug in the mere earth. The lime thus kept is found
moist, as at first, after many years. Cornelius said that there might per-
haps be no objection to lining the pits, so as to kee|i the lime clean, but that
the usual moue was to slake it and keep it in the mode describeil.f

The ultimate preparation for painting on the dry, hard, well-seasoned
mortar is as follows :— The surface is wetted again and again, with v.ater that
has been boiled, or with rain water, till it ceases to absorb. Then a thin coat
of plaster is spread over that portion only which is to be painted; the sur-
face of this coat should be but, very moderately rough. As suon as it begins
to set (in ten minutes or so according to the season), a second thin coat is
laid on somewhat fatter, that is, with more lime and less sand,— about equal
proportions. Both these layers together are scarcely a quarter of an inch
thick. The plaster is laid on and ihe .surfaces are smoothed with a wooden
trowel— this at least is C'ornel'us's practice. .Some painters like the last sur-
face (which is to rerelve the fresco) to be perfecily smooth ; one of the modes
of rendering it slightly rough is to fasten some beaver nap to the trowel :
another is to pass over the plaster in all directions lightly with a dry brush.

* The outlines of Ilaphael's cartoons are covered with pin-holes. This is
very apparent also in the fragment of the cartoon for the -Murder of the Ju-
nccents now in the National Gallery. Of the cartoons above mentioned, by
Ago3iii'oCaracci,one (the IVium|ih of Galatea) has the pricked outline; the
otiier (the Cefdialus and Aurora) not.

t The Italian mode, described in another paper of the Appendix is some-
what (lideient

I I'rofcssor Hess directs the lime to be kept in pits liued «ilh brick.

The process of Painiiu^. — A portion of the outline is now traced with a
sharp point on the plaster as before described, and tlie painter begins to work
when the surface is in such a state that it will barely receive the impression
of the finger, and not so wet as to be in danger of being stirred up by the
brush ; besides other inconveniences this would fill the brush «ilh sand. If
the wall has been previously well wetted, the plaster w ill not dry too rapidly ;
but if, during the course of a dry summer's day the surface begins to harden
too much and no longer takes the colour well, the painter takes a mouthful
of water from time to time and sprinkles it over the surface, in the same man-
ner as sculptors sometimes wet their clay models. Much evidently depends
on the thorough wetting of the dry mortar, before the last preparatory coats
are applied.

In p.ainting, it will be found that the tints first applied sink in and look
faint, and it is necessary to go over the surface repeatedly before the full
effect appears. But after some time, especially if the surface be not occa-
sionally moistneed, the superadded colour will not unite with what is under-
neath. The change m some of the colours from the wet to the dry state can
be best learned by experience, but it is usual to try the tints at first on a
brick or tile that absorbs moisture.

After having completed the portion allotted to the day, any plaster which
extends beyond the finished part is to be removed, and in cutting it away
care must be taken never to make a division in the middle of a mass of liesh,
or of an unbroken light, but always where drapery, or some oljject, of its
own outline forms a boundary ; for. if this be not attended to, it is almost
impossible, in continuing the work the next day, to match the tints so that
the junction shall be imperceptible ; but by making these junctions correspond
with the outlines of the composition, the patchwork which is unavoidable is
successfully concealed.

In the next day's operation the surface of the old mortar is to be wetted
as before, and care must be taken to wet the angles round the edge of the
portion previously painted. This requires to be done delicately with a brush,
in order to secure the sufficient moistening of every minutest corn r, and also
to avoid wetting or soiling the surface of the finished portion. On this last
account it is better to begin from the upper part of the wall ; for, if the lower
part is first finished, the water constantly runs over the fresh painting.

When the painter is unable to finish a portion at once, or is compelled to
leave it during the day for a considerable lime, the Munich artists have a
contrivance which arrests the drying of the work. A board is padded on
one side, the cushion being covered with waxed cloth ; a wet piece of fine
linen is then spread over the fresh plaster and painting, and pressed to the
surface of the wall by the cushioned side of the board, while the other side
is buttressed firmly by a pole from the ground.

When any defect in the first operation is irretrievable, the spoiled portion
is carefully cut out and the process above described is renewed for that par-
ticular part. The s.ime remedy is possible in reviewing the finished work,
but here again care should be taken that the portion cut out should be bounded
by definite lines, for tiie reason before given. This attention to the nice ad-
justment of the successive portions of the work, so as to make one whole in
the mere execution, is of great importance in fresco [lainting.

In the finished Iresco the <lepth of shadows is often increased, parts are
rounded, subdued and softeneil. by hatching, in lines of the colour required,
with a brush not too wet ; the medium then used being vinegar and white of
egg. Shade is more easily added in this way than light, but some use cray-
ons made of pounded egg-shells to heighten the lights. It is to be observed,,
that such retouchings are useless in frescos painted in the open air, because
the rain w ashes them au ay, w hilst the rain does not alfect frescos painted
w iihout retouchings ; of this the paintings on the Isar-Thor at Munich are a
sufficient proof. [Cavaliere Agricola who, as before observed, has lately
published a report on the Roman fresci s, is of opinion that they were re-
touched with coloured crayons.' V.asari.t however, distinctly says that
frescos wliich were not retouched were least subject to alteration and decay.]
Various methods of this kind have, nevertheless, been resorted to by the
Munich painters, and Cornelius has mentioned some

The Colours and Implements. — These details, communicated with all-sufficient
precision by Cornelius, need not be inserted here, as they are given in other
pa[)ers that follow. The colours are chielly sim[de earths ; no vegetable, and
few mineral, preparations can be used with safety, but there is a mode of
rendering vermilii.n durable. The palette is of tin. with a rim round it to
prevent the colours, which are thinned with water, from running oil. The
colours, mixed or ground in water, are kept at hand in small pots. The
brushes are of the usual materials, but they should all be somewhat longer
in the hair than those used for oil-painting.

T Introducione, c. 19, and Vita di Antonio Veneziano,

(To be continued.)

MARTIN'S PATENT CEMENT.

Upon visiting the Sun Fire Office now erecting under the superintendence
and from the designs of .Mr. Cockerell, we were much gratified by the
superior execution of the internal ornaments, which so far as the unfinished
state of the building would allow us to inspect them, and leaving design out
of the question, were singularly neat and perfect. Indeed we have scarcely
ever seen mouldings present so finished au appearance. The great objection
to panelled walls has hitherto been the very heavy expense consequent upon the
employment of such mode of embellishment. The mouldings are run and
the walls covered with a cement called Martin's Patent Cement, and present
a surface nearly as smooth and hard as glass; it is applied in much the
same way as any other Ci'ment.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

30o

TABLE OF PROPORTIONS OF THE PARTS OF CLYDE MARINE STEAM ENGINES— CYONDERS.
All the figures which are not represented as feet or numbers are inches.

Names of vessels

Makers' names

Diameter of cylinder
Length of stroke
Cylinder made with belt ?
Thickness of metal of belt
Number of steam openings into
Diameter of openings
Diameter over flange
Thickness of flange
Number of bolts in flange
Diameter of bolts
Thickness of metal of cylinder
Thickness of upper flange for

cover
Breadth of flange

Number of beads or rings on
cylinder

Depth of rings

Projection of rings

Bottom of cylinder cast in ?

Thickness of bottom

Number of feathers on bottom

Thickness of feathers

Depth of feathers

Breadth of bottom flange for
bottom

Thickness of ditto

Number of bolts in ditto

Diameter of bolts

Amount of projection of bottom
into cylinder

Kind of joint

Breadth of bearing or fitting ring

Diameter of hole for boring bar

Plug to fill hole put in from
outside ?

Plug bow fixed

Length of bearing, or fitting space

Depth of socket for plug

Thickness of socket

Taper upon plug

Number of keys for fixing

Breadth of keys

Internal depth of cylinder

Height of bottom above sole plate

Kind of joint of cover

Projection of edge ring above
flange

Breadth of edge ring

Piece cast on cylinder supple-
mental to valve casing ?

Thickness of metal of ditto

Bosses cast on for bolts ?

Number of bosses

Thickness of metal of ditto

Depth of ditto

Diameter of bolts tapped in ditto

Screwed at both ends ?

Noz/.les cast on for escape valves "-

Depth of port for escape valve

Breadth of port for escape valve

Breadth of flange over all

Kind of joint

Number of bolts in flange

Diameter of bolts

Escape valves where situated

Breadth of bearing for diagonal
stay

Horizontal length of ditto

Perpendicular depth of ditto

Bosses cast on bottom for hold-
ing-down i)o!ts ?

Depth of bosses

Thickness of metal of bosses

Diameter of hole in boss

British
Queen.

36

U

U
5

2i

1^-
6

6
H

none
rust

none

none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none

8 ft.

3 ft. (
gasket

n

yes

yes
4

M

3

n

6!:

6.V
12
rust
ij

n

in port

12
13
IS

yes

n

3i

Dee and

SOLWAV.

Scott, Sin-
clair & Co.

73
7 ft.

0

no
none
none
none
none
none
none
none

3i

IJ
5

3i

none

rust

1^
none

none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
8 ft. 7
10
gasket

!■-

no
none
none
none
none
none
none
none

no

10

rust

1

in port

lOi

14

24

yes

4
li

2J

Do.v Jdan.

Girdwood
& Co.

68
ti ft. 0

yes

li
2

1 ft. 2

1 ft. 11

H
8

li

H

n

3J

1

8

none
none
none
none

none
none
none
18

no
with keys
"li
94

14

ft.

li

9
10

li-

yes

ves
4

yes
no

4
4

1

in port

11

11.V
10.J

10

IJ-

Hecl.\ and
Hecate.

Scott, Sin-
clair & Co.
60
5 ft. 9
no
none
none
none
none
none
none
none

li

li
3

ves
U
1 circle
1

n

none
none
none
none

none
none
none
14i

no
with keys

n

6
14

i;

' tt.

li-
1

41

gasket

no

none
no
none
none
none
none
none

no

4
4

9i

rust
5

in port

1

10

U

18

3k
IJ

Devonshire

&C'A5IBEIDGF..

Girdwood
& Co.

55J
5 ft. 0

yes

li
2

124
1 ft. 9'
U
6

li
barely IJ-

li
Si-

yes

li

none
none
none
none

none
none
none

18

no
with kevs
H
6*
U
If

6 ft.

li
6i

8f

gasket

li

IJ

no
none
none
none

yes
no

rust
5

4
4
9J

1

in port

Oi

m

15i

yes

8J

Bruges.

Caird & Co.

51i*

no

none
none
none
none
none
none
none
li%

u

3i

30

none
rust

none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
.) ft. I

6i-

gasket

li

li

ves
■3

3

li
yes
yes

4°
9i
metallic
8
1
end of eylin.

8

11?

yes

Observatio.ns.

The sizes of the British Queen given
are the sizes of the engines intended
jto have been put into that vessel by
I Messrs. Girdwood and Co.; but as
they failed before the engines were
finished, they were never finished at
all. These engines were to have had
two slide valves to each cylinder, one
on the side of the cylinder next the
condenser, and the other at the
opposite side of tlie cylinder. The
object of this arrangement was to
enable the engineers to handle the
engines easily and quickly : in start
ing or reversing only one of the
valves would have been used. The
condenser was situated beneath the
cylinder, and that is the reason why
the cylinder bottom is so much above
the sole plate. The space usually
occupied with the condenser was to
have been appropriated to Hall's con
denser, and the condenser beneath
the cylinder was to have been used
in the event of Hall's condenser be-
coming deranged, or not answering
as well as was expected. The main
pillars of the framing were to have
'been of malleable iron, fixed into
strong sockets on the sole plate and
cuttered through.

The whole of tlie joints in th e recent
engines of Messrs. Miller and Raven
hill and .Messrs. ilaudslays and Field
are metallic, with one or two excep-
tions : but in Scotland this ^vstem
has not yet coaie into general use.
Not one of the engines the dimensions
of which are given in the table, is pro-
vided with an expansion joint in the
valve casing. The transverse joint in
some of them I)etween the cylinder
and casing on the level of the cylindet
cover, it is impossible to keep tight
for any consideraiile time, owing 10
the unequal expansion of the cylinder
and casing when the steam is up but
the engi)-,c not working. The grease,
too, that is apt to fall on the cylinder
flange, is unfavourable to a rust joint
in tliis position. The rust is de-oxi-
dized by grease remaining in contact
with it for a considerable time at a
[high temiierature.

I The plan of completing the flat
portion of the valve casing above the
level of the cylinder cover by a sup-
plemental piece cast on the cylinder,
is, we think, the best. .Messrs. Mauds
lays' practice, in some of their recent
engines, is to make the flange of the
Ivalve casing range with the flange
'of the cylinder, ami then bolt to the
top of the valve casing a length of D
shaped pipe. This certainly is not by
any means a neat arrangement, nor
does it, we conceive, art'ord equal
stability to the cylinder faces, as the
mode of casting the flat part of this
supplemental piece upon the evlinder
itself.

2 X

310

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

ON FRESCO PAINTING.

Bv Joseph Severn, of Rome.*

(Continued from page 189.^

On a former occasion (see ante, p. 189), I was not altogether aware of
the difficulties that fresco-painting might possibly have to encounter in its
introduction into England ; perhaps my enthusiasm on the subject had a
little blinded me. Being seriously anxious for the success of the experiment,
I think it better now to review some of those diiTiculties which architecture,
■with painting, hand in hand, may have to surmount. But, to lighten a dis-
agreeable task, I propose also to advert to the bright side of the subject— I
mean the union of architecture and fresco-painting, as regards invention.
It is a melancholy reflection, admiring and loving fresco-painting as I do, for
its high capabmties as appUcable to England, that from mere caprice it may
be spurned by our artists as well as the pul)hc. This may arise from the
singular apathy which prevails in this country with respect to painting as an
intellectual art, as a moral power. Yet when the great simplicity of painting
is considered, its universal language, as addressed alike, without the difficulty
of translation, to all nations— to the leanied and ignorant— to children, to
babes— to all— it must be felt as a great power— and one, in this country,
never fairly exercised ; if indeed it has ever been exercised at aU, which

I doubt.

This English apathy with regard to painting as a moral power is such,

that at this moment I know of nothing but the novelty of fresco-painting

likely to recommend it to my countrymen ; for, unless it can give " good

things and understanding too," it will be regarded merely for its material

interest, and not as the facile means of conveying a new and solid pleasure

in opening the wondrous resources of art, and making painting rank with

poetry and philosophy as a moral agent. More money is spent on the arts

in England from one end of the year to the other than was ever spent before,

or is distributed in any other country, or, perhaps, even in all other countries

put together. But, in converse ratio to the money, is the time given to the

arts This is assuredly less than is devoted to any other intellectual pursuit :

and here I come to the great evil— an evil for which I see no remedy but

state patronage. The generality of English pictm-es are produced by our

artists, without due consideration of the decorum and power of the art, and

are of 'course looked at in the same light by the pubhc ; but when once a

tone and a taste are given, by Governuient protection, and its connection

with architecture, there is then some hope that these vast annual sums will

be properly expended, that our homes will be adorned with instructive orna-

ments, and a new delight experienced by the English people. Without this,

I fear that fresco, with all its capabilities— the good it will do to oil-painting

in the education of the artists— the noble way it wiU call up the splendour

of past English history— the opportunities it will give us to vie with foreign

nations in the higher branches of art— I fear that all these advantages may

be lost, and painting become subordinated to the upholsterer, who will reap

the hard earnings of the artist, and take all the credit of his labours. So

much we have to fear from the apathy of the artists and the ignorance of

the public ; for they may go on as they do now, charging each other with

want of capacity, until the upholsterer steps in, like the lawyer in the oyster

fable, eats up the prize, and gives an empty shell to each '.

To avert this consummation, the first experiment must be made in an entire
-work— in a complete composition, bringing fairly together on a large scale
all the powers of fresco, in which it excels every other manner of painting.
Thus developed, I am certain some fine point of our history would strike
every one bv its simplicity and grandeur, two things unknown in our art
now! I see, even at this moment, " in my mind's eye" young Richard the
Second riding up to the rebellious crowd as their new leader and king, whilst
. "Wat Tyler sinks confounded in death under the heroic blow of the Mayor ;
" then the consternation and doubt in the King's attendants at the result,
contrasted with the panic of the crowd— the action taking place in a large
open space, admitting the crowd, the horses, and even the buildings of the
time. Some such subject, fairly and honestly wrought, would insure the
success of fresco. The English have too much love for dramatic history in
books not to like it equally in painting, but it must be in a picture suited to
them. I cannot but think that the adaptation of fresco to our Enghsh pur-
poses and feelings is the only way to extend the sphere of history painting,

* We are indebted for the continuation of this paper to the Athencemn.-
KniTOR.

as the powers it affords invention are greater than those admitted by oil-
painting, and includes so many things in common with architecture. Nay,
it is not too much to anticipate the creation among us of a new style of art,
since the materials we have to work up and upon seem to be almost un-
touched. I think I am correct in observing that, as a people, we always
search for something like a story in all works of imagination, and appreciate
most of all the things which help to illustrate the story. This is an excellent
groundwork for the British heroic fresco-painter. I think also, as I have been
speaking of our ignorance of high art, I may fairly add, that our love for the
other and lower walks of art has not been fairly noticed or appreciated, cer-
tainly not turned to account. During my absence from home, I was taught to
believe that the Enghsh were dull and careless about the arts in every way,
showing no feeling but the bad one of mutilating statues and scraping pic-
tures ; but my own eyes have taught me that these assertions are untrue.
Consider the paying crowds in the exhiliitions ; is not this a strong example
of love for the arts .' Count the numbers who visit so respectfully Windsor
and Hampton Court ; is not this a genuine sign ? Nay, take the more
humble spectators who congregate and buzz about the print-shops, like "bees
about a honey-crocke," and shall we not find in them symptoms of the most
ardent love and the most elegant taste, if it were cultivated by education ■

Now Fresco is to aid this cultivation, inasmuch as it will extend the art to
history, and connect it with architecture ; thus giving a purpose and a sig-
nificance to painting, since I conclude the object of the building will always
extend to the subject of the pictures. A succession of subjects illustrating
the lives of our heroes will be demanded. The story, for instance, of our
Alfred would thus form a kind of epic poem in painting, when done in
architectural fresco, since the pictures may be united into a series, not only
by the progressive relation of incidents, but by appropriate ornaments still
farther illustrating the period. A suite of rooms in this way may be made
as one, through which the gazer may walk with the same mental profit as he
enjoys in reading history, for they will afford him a kind of animated. reading
at a glance.

Painting represents only one moment of time, but that moment compre-
hends the past and the future, since both must be implied to make the
present action intelligible. Unless the subject admits of this, all the force
of expression and the variety of character, all the costumes, the architecture,
and the landscape are thrown away, for all must be seen at a glance, and
that glance must take in the whole sul)ject. Hence I conceive painting is
the most natural and simple of the arts, and the best suited to convey a
moral. How proud shall we feel to see the noble deeds of our forefathers
warming up the walls of those buildings which are the result of those deeds !
To see our Alfred, when a fugitive, singing to the Danes, and then conquering
them— to see him modelling his little ships, and then building up his empire
—to see him constructing a lantern and a clock— translating the Holy
Scriptures— and compiling the laws of England, which still are standing like
the rock of his own immortal fame, even to our days— the second thousand
years bringing out their value tenfold. What heroic subjects are there to
compare with this ? for, while it has all the abstract beauty and sublimity of
the true heroic, even to the charms of antiquity, it is at the same time about
us- it is the element of the glorious liberty we live in— it is the power which
has extended our empire round the world, in peace and lilierty, in reUgion
and philosophy. What bosom can be insensible to such deeds, when they
are represented on a scale worthy of their grandeur ? but this can only be
accomplished when painting is assisted by architectm-e— when it has the aid
of grand proportions— when its figures are life-size at least— when its back-
grounds are ample— but most of all when the use of the building it adorns
has suggested the choice of subject.

It is true that the art of painting is only to be acquired by years of devoted
attention, but this does not apply so much to the inventive as to the me-
chanical part. The story told by a picture should be intelUgible to all. I
can well remember, when a boy, the strong impression made on me by the
cartoons of Raffaello, which raised an interest and curiosity in my mind that
led me not only to read the particular chapters explaining the important
scripture subjects they present, but also to begin anew the entire reading
of the Bible, with the'first love I felt for it, and certainly the first intelligence
about it. To those who infer that no benefit can come from the fine arts I
would address these remarks, for is it possible that when Ratfaello has given
us those immortal pictures, more than sermons, that we should still look
down on the art as a thing merely sensual ? Is it possible that the dying
Ananias, extended on the ground before the Apostles, who caU down the
vengeance of Heaven on his uncharitable lie— whilst even, when his horror-
struck friends faU back from him, his unconscious wife behind is stiU counting

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

1842.]

the money which is purchasing for her the same fearful doom-can be beheld
by any reUgious man vvithout awe ? If so, I am sure he would sleep over
the best sermon on the subject.

The true object of historical painting is to compress mto one compact
whole all the important points which in books are scattered up and down
through many pages, so that the entire power of the sulyect shall strd.e at a
riance Thi^ is completely done ia Ratfaello's splendid composition of St.
Paul preaching at Athens. Here the whole subject, which in the New
Testament occupies a long chapter, is concentrated in a single look. ..e
enter the picture bv the steps whereon the Apostle is standing with upraised
arms, communicating that divinity which inspires him. We distinguish the
various Athenians congregated about him. Dionysins and Damans m the
foreground are in the moment of conversion to the Christian doctrine of the
resurrection, and the similarity of their attitude to the Apostle himself at
once impUes that they beUeve his doctrine, and receive the Holy Spirit.
Near them is the Stoic, who ponders over the resurrection of the body, more
puzzled how it can be than questioning that it is. The Cynic stands next
eaning on his crutch, and listening with an ironical sneer. The elegant
Epicurean smiles incredulously. Beyond are congregated the disputants of
theacademv, lost in their own opinions, save those of Plato s school, who
show an elevated attention. Contrasted with this is the rankling malice of
the rabbi-the magician's mysterious glance. And all these various persons
are assembled on the Hill of Mars, as described in the lytli chap of the
Acts of the Apostles. Now it must be evident to any one who will be at
the pains to examine this sublime work, that no description can produce the
instantaneous effect of seeing all the persons brought together in one scene.
Is it possible that a work approaching so near to the sacred description
itself, and partaking of its sacred character, should not claim our deepest
attention.' Yet it rarely gets any attention. At Hampton Court maybe
seen crowds passing heedlessly through the room which contains these, the
finest works of Raffaello, who have perhaps bestowed hours of attention on
evervthin.' else. Why is this ? It is the mistaken locality. It is that these
works which are of the most sacred character, should be shown in a sacred
place,' which would inspire a devotional feeling, necessary for the entire
understanding as well as the feeUng of their thoughtful beauty ; for how
few persons are there, even amongst the high and educated, who are abl^ to
abstract themselves so suddenly from the profane so as to . appreciate these
P.CTOKT.^L SEKMOXS, in the midst of art's gay profanities, which on every
side surround them. It is too much to expect that Raffaello s cartoons
should dulv arrest the attention, placed as they are at Hampton Court
remember 'another example of the truth I would express. The la e gifted
historical painter, Hilton, produced a fine work of the Crucifixion which was
admirably painted, designed, expressed, and on a sufficiently arge scale.
This picture was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and excited little or no
attention; it was not even (as I am assured) noticed at the grand annual
banquet, when all the most distinguished personages of the state are present.
This I also find natural and proper; for how was it possible to look in a
right spirit on the agony of our dying Saviour, in the midst of a splendid
and .ocial festival, or even in an exhibition made up of happy smiling ladies
and courteous gentlemen ? Now this brings me to the great good of paint-
ing being united to architecture, in the introduction of fresco where in
becoming part of the waUs it must of necessity partake of the object of the
building. Of this good I will mention one singular and signal ex-ample.
That noble picture by Leonardo da Vinci, in the Milan Convent of San a
Maria della Grazia, representing the " Last Supper," is almost uniiitelhgible
to us as a composition, without due consideration of its locality. This is ad-
mirably pointed out bv Giethe. He saw the refectory, with all its religious
members at their solemn meal. Opposite to the picture stood the prior s
table, the monks sitting down the hall on the right and left ; so that you will
perceive at once that the painter in the composition endeavoured to make
his .'reat work fill up characteristically the other end of the room. No
doubt he made it correspond in everything-the table-cloth with the corners
tied up, the di.hes and the driuking-cups of the time and place. By thi.
interpretation is answered the objection continually made, that the figures are
all sitting on one side of the table, for the monks always sit so in a refec-
tory I cannot bear to allude to this wondrous work without speaking ot
its deep and impressive character. When yon stand before it you almost
hear the tremendous secret which our Lord declares at the supper-' / say
unto you, one of yon which eaMh with me shall betray me .'" Now who
would believe a picture could represent such a moment, unless he had such
a work ' The dreadful accusation falls upon every one save the beloved
disciple John, and at once calls forth the varied expressions of men accuse

311

of such treachery. The gazer may easily make out each Apostle by his indi-
vidual character and expression, as each one endeavours to show his innocence
of the charge. Judas is known by the money bag, and by his knocking over
the salt. What an appropriate subject for a refectory : The well-known
storv told bv Wilkie of a similar picture in Spain, will serve to show the
great moral'of such a work. An aged monk, observing him unusually inte-
rested, said to him, " Ah ! you cannot feel the interest I feel in that picture,
for I have sat before it at my meals some seven and forty years, and such
are the chauses which have taken place in Spain, so many companions have
come and gone in tlie time, everjthing changing but that picture, that when
I look upon it and its solemn company, I almost believe in truth they are
the substance, and we but the shadow." There can be no doubt that Hilton's
picture of the "Crucifixion" lost as much as Leonardo da Vinci's gained,
by the locality and its associations.

Following out the same principle, we may thus have pictiures adapted to
the church, the palace, the theatre, the exchange, the hospital, and even to
the private dwelhng. Each will suggest its own just and proper associatmn
to painting. I am certain that the ait, in its highest destinies, is greatly
dependent on architecture, which best awakens those associations necessary
to its appreciation. ' M

A-ain, are we not dependent on painting for the precise representation of
places which we haNe never seen ? Can anything be dearer to us than paint-
ing in its remembrance of the illustrious dead, or those who were dear to us?
Are we not dependent upon it and sculpture for the very existence of anti-
quity' have we not the most distant climes at our fire-sides, and the people
of the antipodes made our very companions? and yet what I have enume-
rated, are but the limited performances of painting, and in no way to be
compared with its achievements when it raises itself to the representation of
history on historical walls. Is it not wonderful to have realized to our sight
the actual scenes of the past ;-to have the persons of bygone ages alive
again, their proper selves, and in full action, expressing their noblest deeds
Were the art reaUzing such powers, such dehghts, a new discovery, it would
be crowned as the immortal flower of the world-as a supernatural power,
re-creating the world which is past. But, dulled and kept down as it has
been by its servitude to common uses, in a commercial and a political society,
it only now begins to look up for emancipation in the midst of general im-
provement. It begins to spurn the prison walls of an exhibition-room-it
longs, it demands to be free Uke the other arts. We used to be told that
the Wrican slave was an inferior being, and only fitted even for servitude by
blows instead of laws ; bv a like injustice has the art of historical pamtmg
been depreciated in this country to a mechanical level, worthy only to point
out the alehouse and the gin palace.

But are not those who bring forward such charges wilfully mistaken. Can
such works as the cartoons of Raphael be passed over with indifference ? have
they not a claim on our sacred sympathies ? Are we not rejecting in part
our Idessed rehgion, when we reject this powerful resemblance of it ? for
how can our senses receive the impression of the one and not of the other ?
I tremble at mv own rashness in saying this ; for in this country, if there
are works of art in a church, we are not allowed even to look on them. In
our cathedrals rails and men are employed to prevent us from taking more
than a glance even of those monuments erected at the cost of the nation.
We may take a hurried look, in the week days, but are never allowed to read
an inscription, or to linger on our way. Such a system is only worthy a con-
quered people, whom it is feared to inspire with their nationality; such
things are intelligible in Poland, where it is thought expedient to extinguish
even the natice language, but I cannot imagine the object here. I would
fain hope that a pictorial Wilberforce may rise up with fresco painting, and
emancipate us from these slavish customs, by opening the public buildings,
even to the churches, and showing the puldic monuments freely. Here
would be a new and powerful source of education to an inquiring people like
the English ;-the government, tlie church, the laws, and tlie people, would
be thus brought nearer together by the arts; and in showing how many
illustrious individuals have arisen from the lowest ranks, the most powerful
incentive would be offered to the ambition of aU endowed by nature with
genial impulses and generous feelings. .,!.•,.

Another slavish prejudice to be done away with by the union of architec-
ture and painting is, our narrow-minded custom of allowing a man to do. or
to understand, only one single thing, when the services of Professors gene-
rally are required in divers things. Professors may acquire knowledge but
woe betide them if they attempt aught else but the one particular thing
which thev profess! For this I cannot account, as in all ages-save our
own-a man useful to i!ie public has been expected to possess a kind o£

2X2

312

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

universal knowledge to assist him even in liis own particular brancli, so that
he might be at tlie public command on any emergency. It would seem very
odd now, if the State were to call on the Dul;e of M'ellington to take his
brush and commence the fresco painting in the new Houses of Parliament ;
and yet such a call was not uncommon in the fifteenth century. Vfc bear of
Michael Angelo summoned from his labours iu the Sistine chapel, to prepare
■without delay the fortifications of Florence, then expecting a siege. \Ye hear
also of Leonardo da Vijici, on being invited to paint for the Duke of Milan,
beginning his labours by making canals ami bridges ; and yet, I apprehend,
his sublime picture of the Last Supper did not suffer from this abstraction,
for it still remains a miracle of art ; or that Michael Angelo's fortifications
did not help the less to save the city, although he was painting fresco just
before at Rome. This universal knowledge is one of the characteristics of
the fifteentli centurj- all over Europe. Vt'e find similar examples in our own
country in the time of Elizabeth, particularly in the class of soldier-poets,
and such like men, even music being included in the accomplishments of a
complete gentleman. I do not insist now on the necessity of possessing
this variety of power; but I would declare, as regards painting, that our
present slender circumscribed knowledge can never produce historical paint-
l^ers, or even their patrons. It nuist be universal knowledge and love of the
arts, not only as regards itself, but as regards its connexion with all other
arts and sciences. I want to see ray deserving countrymen, the English
painters, ranking with the best, and British painting arm-in-arm with poetry
and philosophy, which it is not now, in place of grubbing among the me-
chanical trades, with an exhibition room here and there, as " a house of call
for painters and glaziers." The liberal encouragement of painting must be
advanced, not by our painters shutting themselves up and prowling about
•with it a secret, save on the temptation of a five-guinea lesson — no; the
casket must be unlocked and the key thrown away, and the public instructed
in the principles of art. There are no secrets in art ; though art is not to be
understood without an effort on the part of the public, and is only to be ac-
quired by artists after long years of ardent and sincere study. The greatness
of painting must be in its difficulty, and not in its secrecy. It must be in its
principles and not in its vehicles ; the public must become, as it were, a
scholar to the painter. And why not .' Why should not the artists them-
selves try to mould and form that love which, I am certain, exists in the
English people, into something like knowledge ?

In the education of painters, fresco will exercise all these good influences,
inasmuch as it tends to raise them to a true sense of the universality of
painting. It must give them, in a pecuniary point of view, the sustained
though moderate reward of years of constant employment, instead of the
intoxicating, lottery, chance system of the present day. We shall now have
the excellent old Italian plan of master and scholar, as in the production of
such extensive works many must be em))loyed, and the result will be advan-
tageous to both ; this we know was the greatness of RaflTaello, whose scholars
partake his fame, and so on down to Rubens, and his scholar Vandyke.

Another great result will he to emancipate the art from the trammels of
booksellers, who, for more than half a century, have made inventive painting
subservient to their speculating purposes as a mere trade. This has kept
historical art back in comparison with the many things in which England
surpasses the rest of the world ; for what can be more servile than the vicious
system of ornamenting hooks, in which the greatest English painters have
exhausted and consumed their minds with little fame and less fortune ? We
have but to point to Stothard as a sad example ; he is said to have produced
some five thousand inventions in this way ! The art has sunk under such
baneful influence, and when pandering to the book trade in Annuals and
such trash, has ceased to be worthy the name of painting. This state of
things does not exist anywhere but in England, and is one of the reasons
■why we have not been able to make another grand age of art. But our
painters must now turn their attention to the ornamenting of buildin"s, and
not books.

The State itself must deal in painting and engraving, and directly reward
the artist, if it desires to have art that shall be worthy the English name.
This may be done with the outlay of comparatively small sums, indeed it can-
not be by the actual money expended, so well as by the direct intercourse of
the highest personages in the country with the artist, by a kind of friendlv
and cheap patronage (if I may so express it,) whereby the artist is drawn
out of his own narrow circle, and paints not only his own mind, but the
mind of his patron. This can only be done effectually in national subjects,
and I know well that the Munich artists have always worked, and prefer to
work, for their intelligent King, at a moderate rate, to being employed at
double the sum by unintelligent persons. Even as regards bis fame, the

artist is content on the score of being employed by his sovereign. It is a
great mistake in this country to suppose that the encouragement of the arts
by the State would be an expensive thing. To get private patronage the
English artist is obliged to make an expensive tradesmaulike figure— this not
only t,akes up half his time, but it takes all his money ; whereas the sim-
plicity of his life, were be publicly employed, would enable him to bestow-
double the time on bis works, give them, of course, more study and per-
fection, and create a higher style of art. No doubt, the true reward of an
artist is the interest his patron takes in the work. Do we not hear of the
restless anxiety of Pope Julius to see Michael Angelo's unfinished paintings ?
Did not the Emperor Charles V. find time, amidst his active life, to caress
Titian, and learn the art from him } And thus it was with Da Vinci and
other great artists, whose inventions were quickened, and whose patience
sustained, by such an honourable sympathy. Eor how can an artist excel in
a work " where dawns the high expression of a mind," if, when complete,
it is to be received into bis patron's house like a chair or a table - Pounds,
shillings, and pence can never stand for painting, sculpture, and architecture;
we must have patronage, study and love. In a country where the historical
plays of Shakspeare are still listened to, and where the people never tire of
hearing Handel's oratorios, there can be no despair of historical painting
being encouraged, when it is properly jiut before the pubhc, for it requires
as great a mental eft'ort to relish the one as the other. English painting is
far behind these. We are in it what the ancients were in geography, when
they believed the earth to be a plane surface. We are afraid to go to the
real boundaries of art, and so we coast it along, like cowards, from place to

place, as though there were no such thing as the loadstone of art as a

painter's compass. Let us look for remedy in enlightenment. Fresco is the
fearless guide, and, with design for our helm, we shall soon be gloriouslv
sailing on the independent sea of art.

MPv. VIGNOLES' LEC:TURE.S ON CIVIL ENGINEERING AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

J.ECTl'RE X.— ON THE CrPER WOHKS OF RAILW.WS.

Tins lecture was on the Upper M'orks of Railways, which term, the Professor
stated, was intended to comprehend everything above the bed or formation
level of the roadway— viz., the gravel, broken stone, or other road material,
technically called the " ballasting;" the stone blocks or wooden cross sleep-
ers, laid thereon ; the chairs and rails, and their fastenings, as attached to
the stone or timber supports ; and ihe boxing or filling up of the rojd
material around these supporis, when the railway is finally laid to the
proper gauge, range, and level— the whole of the materials and a.ijuslment
forming the " upper works' —an expression boixowcd from the German o!),'i-
u-crke. The depth from the road-bed to the level of the rails, of all these
parts, as permanently laid together, is seldom less than two feet, when a
good way is to be insured: the principle to be observed being to have Ihe
ballasting of such a material and nature that water will percolate freelv
through, as clean gravel, cinders, quarry rubbish, coarse sand, &c. The
word "ballast" is a norihern provincial term. Some of the first railwavs
weie introduced into the vicinity of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. .Shields, and the
neighbouring coal shipping ports, and it being found necessary tu have a bed
or layer of some material, to receive the railway track, the same not to be
retentive of water, the gravel brought by the colliers from London .is ballast,
and accumulated in hills or spoil-banks near the sides of the harbours, was
found to answer the purpose very well ; the expression has since become
common for whatever other material was similarly used for laying railroads
Mr. Vignoles observed that a great number of other technical words now in
common use. when treating on railway works, were provincial terms, chieflv
from the north of England. When the bottom of cuttings, or top of em-
bankments, are of soft material, it was recommended to make a kind of
pavement or hard layer, on the forming level, below the ballast. On
embankments, until they became well consolidated, this pavement would not
perhaps be conveniently put in ; still means should be contrived to carry oft'
the vater quickly fnmi the surface, and the Professor irsisted much on the
free introduction of blind, or French drains, of broken stone, anion" or
under the ballast, connected with the open side drains, «hich should never
be omitted in cuttings ; on embankments these cross rubble drains should go
free of the road-bed. uith water channels down the slopes, of sods, or mo're
sulistantially formed if needful.

The bed of the railw,ay having been prepared on the above principles, nest
came the consideration of the railway itself. The substance first used for
this trackway was wood, ami afterwards a metal rail, plated on the wood.;
after 200 years' trial of different systems— for so long was it since the firs.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3i3

colliery wagon-ways were introiluced— the Professor observe-1, we are just
coming back to the original form and material as best ailaptcil for the pur-
poses of a railway— viz. timber laid longitudinally. When blocks of stone
are used to support the chair and rail, weight seems to be sought for as
desirable, and the general cubic contents of such blocks as are considered
proper for a good way are about five cubic feet— viz., 27 inches wide, and a
foot thick. When cross bearers of wood are the supports, each sleeper, as it
is termed, contains about two cub'c feet of timber, being about seven feet
long, with a transverse section of 40 square inches, being full eight inches
broad, and averaging live inches thick. The intervals at which the blocks or
sleepers are placed vary from three to five feet, according to the weight of
the rail or of the load. With these descriptions of supports, it becomes
generally necessary that a chair or saddle be attached thereto to receive the
rail, which is seldom fastened directly either on block or sleeper, without the
intervention of this contrivance of a chair, unless when the rail is made
wide and flat at the base. Such shaped rail is now much used on cross
bearers of wood for temporary railways, by contraclors. while e.xecuimg
works. Mr. Vignoles said liiis iorm of wrought iron rail was first introduced
nearly 12 years since on the St. Helen's Railway, by some contraclors, at his
suggestion, and the same rails were lately in use by the same persons, and
still good and serviceable, after continued use. Of late it had been recom-
mended by many engineers— among which Mr. Vignoles be ieved he was
among the first— to lay down the railway bars on bearings of timber, disposed
lengthways in the direction of the way, and upon which the iron had a j
continuous bearing, instead of having it supported at intervals (either wilh
or without chairs), as was the case when blocks or cross timber bearings vere
used. In describing the diflerent modes of laying rails, the Professor ob-
served that the heavy stone blocks being packed around, or boxed up with
ballast, kept the rails in place— that the cross s'eeper having both rails
attached thereto, the gauge or breadth was preserved ; with the longiiuilinal
system of bearings, the parallelism was retained by cross ties of wood, with
tenons, and sometimes by rods of iron with screw-ends and nuts, and occa-
sionally with both. It was necessary thus to provirle for preserving the
breadth of the railway, for, as the c.irriages and engines work along the
rails with a wriggling motion, there is always a tendency, by the lateraj
action of the fianges of the wheels, to push the road out of gauge. Mr.
Vignoles mentioned the two new lines added on the south side of the London
and Greenwich Railway as the latest examples of longitudinal timber bear-
ings ; but he observed that, as the great point in this system was to insure
that the rail be firmly attached to the wood, to prevent any vertical play, he
rcnsidered a more eflectual meihod might have been there used, so as to have
the iron continually united to the timber, on a plan which he had tried
with success, and to which he would presently advert. When iron was first
introduced for railways, it was for a long time merely a plating of metal on
the edge of the wood rail, on which plan, with iron bars of greater or less
■Height, many of the lines in America had been laid.- Cast iron being ne.xt
introduced, the system of fastenings was necessarily changed, and the ori-
ginal longitudinal timbers abandoned for cross sleepers, or isolated stone
blocks. The rails being cast in lengths of three or four feet, it was found
expedient to prepare some contrivances to receive and fasten the ends to-
gether, and this was the saddle or chair. Some of these iron rails were cast
deeper in the middle, and, from their shape, got to be termed ■' fish-bellied,''
this form being probably adopted with the idea of obtaining uniform strength ;
though, for railway purposes, the position of this increased depth was the
reverse of that given to bearers intended to resist quiescent weights. From
the action of the moving weight, however, upon rails »ith so many joints,
they soon got out of order. Wrought iron was then introduced, to get
greater lengths ; the first of these were rolled at a considerable expense of
useless ingenuity into the same form as the fish-bellied cast iron rails, the
length of 15 to 18 feet being divided into five or six flat ellipses. On most of
the lines where this description of rails was first laid, it has been found
necessary to take them up, and replace them, as they were found to break at
a short distance from the points of support. Mr, Vignoles stated that he
had, from the first, decidedly set his face against this form of rail, and
argued for and introduced rails with the same section throughout their
lengtli — since commonly styled /jariillcl rails, as distinguished from the " fish-
bellied rail," adding 10 lb. to the original weight of 35 lb. to the yard, by
putting on a lower rib or web, on the principle that gave such adilitiona]
stillness to all beams; this lo»erwebwas increased in size from time to
time, until, in a special report to the London and Birmingham Railway, Mr.
Vignoles recommended that the upper and lower webs, or buttons, should be
made precisely alike, to allow the rail to be turned up or down, or in cither
direction. This form was, h(;wevcr. first actually laid down by him on the
North Union Railway, and its advantages in the above respects haNe already
been appreciated and applied : these rails are about G5 lb. to the yard. The
Birmingham Company decided finally on adopting this form, increasing the

• See Jeurnal. No. 1, Vol. I.

weight to 75 lb. ; and. where chairs are used, it is now almost exclusively
employed, the weight being sometimes increased to 78 or 80 lb. per yard.
With the increase in the wei;;ht of the rail, the intervals between the sup-
ports also gradually increased from three to five feet, but with bad efl'ect. as
the expense of keeping a railway in order with the longer bearings (.as the
technical phrase is) was very much augmented ; and, on the London and
Birmingham Railway, intermediate supports had since been introduced,
wdiere the original bearings were five feet. Mr. Vignoles stated it as his
opinion, deduced from considerable experience .and observation, that where
chairs and supports, at intervals, were used, he considered a GO lb. rail, with
a .S-feet bearing, better than a heavier rail with a longer bearing. Blocks,
he observed, were, however, nearly ex [,loded as supports ; the cross sleepers
and chairs were still preferred by many engineers, but it was certain that
the closer the supports— that is, the shorter the bearings — the less the cost
of maintenance, and hence the inlerence, which experience everywdiere con-
firmed, that the continuous supports w ere best of all. In respect of fastening
the chair to the block or sleeper, and the rail to the chair, it was now almost
universally admitted and acted upon, that compressed wood was much
preferable to iron spikes, bolts, or keys. Mr. Vignoles introduced a number
of drawings, and described a variety of diagrams, illustrating the various
shaped rails and chairs, and modes of fastening adopted, and drew com-
parisons as to the advantagts ami cost of each. In reference to what he
had before stated of the disadvantageous method hitherto pursued in fastening
rails with flat bases to continuous timber bearings, by s|iikes or screws, the
Professor said that such a mode seldom continued to hold the rail close
down to the timber, and there ensued a certain quantity of vertical play of
the rail on the wood, often accompanied with a good deal of rattling, and in
the end, the head of the bolt or spike was absolutely jerked oS. Mr. Vignoles
said that the only efi'ective fastening was that used with Evans' patent rails,
which had a slit or groove of a dove-tail shape (in cross section) rolled for
the whole length of the rail in the bottom ; bolls, with similar-shaped heads
to fit, were passed into this groove, and dr.ipped at the necessary intervals,
through holes in the longitudinal timbers ; the bolt terminated in a screw,
and a washer and i:ut being put on, by means of a spanner, the nut drew
down the rail closely to the timber. Mr. Vignoles stated that he had bad a
considerable length of riilnay thus laid, which had been done some time,
and the rail had remained close dow n on the wood w ithout any play, or
getting at all loose. He concluded this lecture by stating that in the next
he would endeavour to draw a comparison between the modern heavy rail
and chair and fastenings, as used wilh cross timbers laid at intervals, and
the rail and fastening, as above described, to be laid on longitudinal timbers,
and having a continuous bearing thereon.

I.ECTfRF. XI.

In resuming the subject of the Upper Works of Railways, the Professor
said he would enter briefly into the consideration of the strongest form of
rail, afler explaining those points applicable alike to cast and wrought iron
bars. First, a certain breadth was required for the bearing surface of the
rail, for the wheel to run upon, and this breadth should be such as not to
be likely to produce improper action or grooving, in the tire or tread of
the wheel, and, at the same time, not to be increased so as to make the rail
needlessly heavy; there must also be a sufficient depth or thickness of that
bearing surface, to make it strong enough to withstand abrasion, and render
the rail sufliciently stitf, and capable fully of sustaining the action of the
driving-wheels of the locomotive engine. Hitherto the establi.shed breadth
seemed to have beeri about tw o and a half inches on the top web, or button,
and Mr. Vignoles thought, from experience, that that breadlli should be
considered the minimum ; however, the strength of this bearing part of the
rail, being as the breadth and square of the depth, a greater breadth than
absolutely necessary to prevent the tire of the wheels being grooved, woulil
add to tlie weight of the rail, without increasing the strength more than in
the direct ratio of the breadth, whilst the same quantity of material, disposed
in terms of the depth, increases the strength in the duplicate ratio. Con-
sidering the great increase of weight in the locomotive engine of late years,
and the continued wear and tear on the rail, from the action of the driving-
wheels, and looking to the state of the iron of the upper works of those
railways which have not very heavy bearing surfaces, it would seem that,
while two and a half inches is a minimum of breadth, the chief attention is
now required to the proper depth, to resist abrasion and exfoliation which
takes place, especially if tlie iron is not perfectly well rolled. Railway bars
are compounded of fagotted iron, and if the pieces are not properly welded
the bearing edge is broken down, and peels ofl ; but. supposing the iron
good, and the manufacture perfect, the heavy efl^ects of the engine must be
provided against, and experience shows that an inch and a half is not too
much for the depth of the top web, or bearing pari of the rail, and two and
a half inches being the breadth, then three and three-quarters— or. say four
■square inches— should conslitute the sectional area of the part that is exposed
in receiving the direct action of the driving-wheels ; this is the section actually
requisite, and the greatest additional strength being to be obtained by in-

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[September,

creasing ihe depth, if possible, this is the point to be attended to. It thus
appears that a Height of 36 lb. per yard is required to sustain the engine,
and all beyond ivill belong to the mode of attaching the rail to the support
below.

In treating of the wear and tear of rails. Mr. Nicholas \Voo'l has given
some curious and interesting results of experience : but the weight of the
locomotive engines used is stated to have been only 10 tons, and of this the
weight on the driving-wheels would probably not e.'iceed si.'; or seven tons.
The result of a v.iriety of experiments on the malleable iron rails of the
Stockton and Darlington Railway gave one-tenth of a pound per yard as
the absolute amount of fair aiirasion ; some statements, liowi'ver, made it
much highi-r. being one-sixth of a pound. On the KiiiingAorih Colliery it
was one-eighih of a pound. On the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, some
years ago, three rails were talien up. carefully cleaned and weighed, relaid.
and taken up again at the end of one, and again at the end of two years •
the wear v^■as found constant, and about one-tenth of a pound per yard per
annum. If we were to take this to be the true wear, and suppose it to arise
vholly on the upper surface of the rail, the result would be but the 84ih
part of an inch m depth, and it might be supposed to take 100 years to wear
away a rail from mere abrasion. But later experience shows that the increased
weight of engines acts very destructively on lails whose upper webs are not
sufficiently strong, and of the best manufacture. We may take 10 tons as
the present average weight on the dviving-i\ heels of a locomotive engine;
and, if this is to be eflectually provided for. the button, or tearing part of
the rail, must not be less than 40 lb. to the yard. Now the form of the
remaining part of the rail will depend upon the manner in which it is to be
fastened down to the support below, either by being fixed in a chair, which
is itself to be again fastened to something else, or by being scre^ved down,
as the rails on the Great Westtrn. Croydon, and the new part of the Green-
wich Railway ; or, finally, secured in the simple manner described in the
last lecture. A comparatively very small addition to the theoretical form of
rail to be sustained in a chair, gives a section which has the advantage nf
being capable of being turned in either direction, or vertical position, and
hence the top and bottom of the rails have, of late, as previously stated,
been made equal and similar, connected by a neck of proportionate dimen-
sions. With the present heavy rails, of nearly SO lb. to the yard, the average
weight of the chairs, including the joint chairs, may be taken at 20 lb. per
yard, reducing the intervals of support to that constant distance. Thus, we
have an aggregate of nearly 100 lb. weight of iron per yard of each single
rail. If, then, we could in any way get rid of the extra weight required to
fasten the rail into the chair, and dispense with the chair altogether, it seemed
to Mr. Vignoles to be desirable to do so, provided the object in view was
equally well attained ; and he contended that such would be the case with a
50 lb rail attached, in the mole before described, to a longitudinal bearing
,of timber; for the whole strength of the upper or bearing part would be
retained, that being as the breadth and the square of the depth ; thus, with
a weight of iron just one-half, would be equally efficacious, and it only
remained to compare the supports in either case. Now. as stone blocks
seemed to be discarded by universal consent, the question of the supports
below is narrowed to that of transverse or of longitudinal wood sleepers.
Sufficient experience had been obtained to warrant the conclusion that, lor
the purposes of this argiunent, the cost of fastening and of laying the rails,
ballasting, drains, Sec., taken as a whole, were nearly the same for both sys-
tems^ and it only remained to contrast the quantities of timber, and, always
considering a locomotive line to be the one to be made, it may be stated that
this cubing was about double for the longitudinal system to that in the
transverse method of laying the sleepers. In short, looking at first cost
only, there was a saving of 100 lb. of iron, and an increase of two cubic feet
of timber in each yiird of single trackway of the former over the latter mode.
so that strictly the longitudinal system was the cheapest ; but to avoid minor
objections, let the cost of each be taken to be the same, which was giving a
decided concession in favour of the transverse system. But this was a very
narrow view to take of the question, which wholly omitted the economical
results from diminished wear and tear of the engines, of the railway, and of
fhecaiTinges.ashad been most especially exemplified on the Dublin and Kings-
'town Railway, where the massy granite blocks originally laid down had been
all replaced by longitudinal sleepers, and though the old light 45 lb. rails and
151b. chairs were retained, the diminution of the annual maintenance was
most remarkable, though there was not a railway in the United Kingdom
where so many passengers were carried daily throughout the year.

The expense of keeping up the double way, now that the system of longi-
tudinal timUrs has been quite carried out, is less than one-third of the
corresponding expense per mile per annum of maintaining the London and
Birmingham Railway. Mr. Vignoles then read a variety of tabular results
of the cost of the three various systems, going through all the details, and
pointing out the exact measures and quantities, and stating the actual expen-
diture on the upper works of various lines of railway. The result seemed
bed of the road was duly prepared, including all the items under that

that, for a double line of railway— upper-works, properly laid after the
head, which were enumerated in a former lecture, and calculating, for the
present heavy and powerful locomotive engine, that no less a sum than
£5000. and, in most cases, £6000, per mile was necessary, and that, in many
instances it had reached nearly £7000 — the market price of iron and timber,
also the quality of the latter, the greater or less facility of obtaining materials
for ballast, &c.. affecting the amount, and these large sums were inJependent
nf the earthwork, masonry, land, fencing, management, stations carrying
establishment, &c. Mr. Vignoles also gave a number of drawings and
diagrams contrasting the three systems, and exhibiting, in a very explanatory
manner, the modes of laying and fastening. He also exhibited the rail, chair,
and fastenings, for the transverse method, wiih all the recent improvements
introduced by Mr. Cubitt on the .South-Eastern Railway, and as manufac-
tured by Messrs. May, of Ipswich, and then produced the rail with the
dove-tailed slot, and the mode of attachment to longitudinal half baulks of
timber. rei>eatedly alluded to in this and the preceding lecture, observing
forcibly, that, if the same effective results were obtainable by the latter
simple method as by the former comphcated one. it H:as not only to be pre-
ferred in this kingdom, but was peculiarly eligible for such countries as
Russia, Poland, Germany, in general, France, and America, where wood is
usually in great abundance, and where iron is comparatively scarce, especially
in the form required for railway bars, and, of course, the prices became in
proportion. Mr. Vignoles quoted largely from the works and reports of
Tredgold. Barlow, and Lecount, and stated a number of mathematical and
empirical rules laid dov\n by those authors, which, he stated, were chiefly
relating to rails supported at intervals, but. though he felt it right to lay
them before the class, he considered that tardier experiments and investiga-
tions were requisite, and particularly in reference to the perfect combination
in one support of the iron and timber in the longitudinal system, as explained
and avocated by him, of which the Professor insisted, the great advantage
and peculiarity was that of obtaining a perfect fastening, independent of
the fibre of the wood, or the tenacity of the screws or bolts therein, and of
obviating the hitherto well-founded objections to the mode of attaching rails
having a continuous bearing, which had not been able to prevent a vertical
play of the iron on the timber.

PUOCEEBISIGS OP SCIENTIFIC SCCIIITXES.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Twelfth Meeting, 1842. — Held at Manchester.

(Continued from paye 277.J

Report on Experiments on the Transverse Strength of hot and
COLD BLAST Iron. By Mr. Fairbairn.

The bars, as described in the former reports, were supported by standards,
4 ft. G ill. apart, and were loaded with different weights ; they were occa-
sionally carefully exaiuined, and showed a very slight progressive deflection.
He had no doubt that they would ultimately break, but the progress was very
slow. He read a table showing the weights laid on, and the deflections
of each bar. — Mr. Hartopp said, that i!r. Fairbairn's former experiments
ou hot and cold blast iron had created a false impression with regard to the
strength of hot blast iron. Jlr. Fairbairn had found very little difference
between the hot and cold blast ; but his experiments, made with great
accuracy, and in which the weights were laid on with great care, were of
little practical advantage, as these were not the circumstances under which
iron was tested in practice : there percussion, violent and sudden impact,
should be expected, and here lay the great deficiency of hot blast iron. Even
in Mr. Fairbairn's experiments, Oldberry No. 2, cold blast, bore twice the
percussion of Oldberry hot blast ; and Milton hot blast was only half the
strength of Elsicar cold blast, made of the same ore and smelted with the
same coal. Experiments had been made in Yorkshire with great care; the
results being. Low Moor cold blast bar iron, 3 in. diameter, broke with 6
blows, ditto Scrap, 3 blows, ditto hot blast, 1 blow ; again. Low Moor cold
blast 18 blows, Bierly ditto, 18, hot blast of as good materials, 3 bio— s;
again, Elsicar cold blast, 21 blows, Milton hot blast, IJ blow ; therefore, ia
iron for axles this ditference of at least five-sixths of the strength was very
important. .\s to scrap iron, it bore too high a character. Scrap, made on
the old plan, was all charcoal iron, but the modern scrap iron was very
inferior, being 32s. 6d. per ton cheaper, so that ironmasters put off as much
of this cheap material as possible. Hot blast iron was rejected now for
water-pipes, &c., and even for cannon balls ; and, in flue, he had been told
by very eminent marine engine makers, that where any percussion took
place, hot blast cast iron was only half the strength, and wrought iron only
one-sixth the strength of cold blast.

Mr. Fairbairn explained, that he had found great difficulty in obtaining
specimens from the ditferent iron-masters, who would of course send, when

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.'il.'i

possible, the liest specimens, but every care had been taken to insure accuracy
in the experiments.

Mr. Hodgkinson said that the average strength of hot blast had been ^h:
■weaker than the cold, but the inferiority was chiefly in the softer irons ; as
the hardness increased, the two kinds approached to eijuality, and in the
hardest irons the hot blast was the best. He thought his experiments, made
without any interest on either side, and with the greatest care, were more to
be depended on than experiments made by those who had an interest in the
result.

Professor Vignoles explained, that the question of hot and cold blast had
nothing to do with the late contract for cannon balls.

Ox THE Form of Ships.

Mr. Scott Russell laid on the table the Rejiori of a Cnmmitlee on the
Form of Ships. It contained upwards of 20,000 observations, the result of
careful experiments on the resistance to models of ships of more than a
hundred different forms and sizes, and extending from small models of 30 in.
long, to vessels of 23 ft., GO ft., and 200 ft. 'lo:ig. and above 1000 tons
burden. These experiments weie under the general superintendence of a
Committee of the Association, consisting originally of Sir John Robison,
Mr. Scott ilussell, and Mr. Smith. Unfortunately, the ill health of Mr.
Smith's family had altogether deprived the committee of his advice and
asssistance, but the observations were personally conducted by Mr. Scott
Russell, who had to acknowledge the pleasure he had derived from conferring
with bis friend Sir John Robison. with whom he had frequent occasion to
consult during the progress of the observations. The smaller experiments
had been made in a reservoir in the ground attached to his (Mr. Russell's)
residence, and the larger ones in tlie open sea. It was probable that these
results, maturely digested, and illustrated by accurate drafts of the forms of
the ships subjected to experiment, would be published in such completeness
as might be practically serviceable to the naval constructor and mercantile
ship-buikler; and he would, therefore, confine the present report to a general
account of the objects contemplated in the experiments, and the method by
which these designs had been carried out. Several series of experiments
have already been made, both by scientific bodies, and by public-spirited men,
for the advancement of naval architecture. These had cost large sums of
money, and consumed much valuable time and talent. To most of them it
had been objected — unhappily not without reason — first, that they had not
been conducted with au adequate knowledge of the wants of the constructor;
secondly, that the forms of bodies submitted to experiment were by no
means such as are used by the ship-budder ; thirdly, that the scale on which
these bodies were constructed was too small to claim for the results, as ap-
plied on a large scale, any considerable degree of confidence ; fourthly, that
it bad not been established by what law the results of experiments on one
scale of magnitude are to be transferred to a different scale, either greater
or less ; and, fifthly that the apparatus formerly used was liable to errors
which it was difticult to eliminate from the results. To ol)viate such objec-
tions was one great object in these experiments. Mr. Russell bad contrived
a new apparatus, which was so simple and convenient, that a uniform
propelling force was obtained, by which vessels of any magnitude might be
drawn by a uniform mechanical force along any given distance. The forms
of the models employed were not confined to mathematical and arbitrary
solids, but were those of such classes of ships as are either actually employed
in navigation, or have been proposed for that purpose. Among these were
some of the highest reputation. It was found that there were otlier circum-
stances besides the form of the vessel which affected the result ; and that
the form and dimensions of tlie channel were as important as those of the
vessel in determining it. Experiments had been instituted on the largest as
well as the smallest scale, to show the law of relation between difi'erent
scales. These various modes of experiment were illustrated by reference to
drawings and tables which were prepared for publication. As an illustration
of the value of giving a proper form to ships, altogether independently of
proportion or dimension, the following remarkable experiments were
adduced: — -Four vessels, of about 25 ft. length, having all the same dimen-
sions of breadth and depth, of the same capacity and weight, and of the same
draught of water, were towed together at the same time, under the same
circumstances, and at the same velocity. Some writers on naval architecture
have asserted that, in such circumstances, vessels would have precisely the same
resistance. The forms of these four vessels were not, to an inexperienced
eye, very dissimilar : they were all good sea boats, and each of them found
its admirers to give its shape a preference over the others. These vessels,
alike in all their principal dimensions, and weight, and area of midship
section, and draught of water, diflered so much in resistance, that the one
had nearly double resistance to another : thus, at 7j miles an hour, the
resistances were as follows : —

No. I. form 56'6 lb. resistance.

No. II : .. .. 138-5

No. Ill 102-7

No. IV 90.2 „

All of these were good sea boats, and it was one of the most valuable of
these results, that No. I., the form of least resistance, was found also the
hest sea boat, the easiest, and the driest. The whole of the observations,
comprising luore than 20,000, were in the course of preparation for pub-
lication, so that the whole body of the observations would be at the disposal
of the Members of the Assocation. It had been the aim of the Committee

to reduce the whole into the form most immediately conducive to the pur-
poses of the naval constructor and mercantile ship-builder, and the drawings
had been made on the scale and with the accuracy of the draughts of ships
of the largest class.

Sir John Robison felt it his duty to state to the section, that although he
had cordially given Mr. Scott Russell his co-operation in forwarding these
experiments, and although Mr. Russell had made frequent use of the plural
pronoun, yet that the whole of the merit, both of contriving and designing,
and carrying out the system of experiment, was due exclusively to Mr.
Russell.

Mr. Rnssell also explained a model shoving tlie waves in a channel arising
from the natuia! channel wave, ai\d the wave resulting from the form of
the boat.

Mr. Williams wished to know how Mr. Russell tested the horse power in
the two boats which he had mentioned, as nominal power was not a fair test ;
and also whether he had paid attention to the difference in draught after
the engines had been put in, the settUng at stern or stem, t^c, as the putting
in the engine might make the vessel which had been slowest, when towed,
fastest when driven by her own power — a vessel quick in slow water might
be slow in a rapid current — in fact, every vessel had its own characteristic,
and, therefore, many circumstances entered into the comparison between
two vessels. — Mr. Russell said, that a reference to the report would show
the steps which had been taken to insure accuracy. Of course in making
experiments he had attended to all the circumstances which could introduce
in-iccuracy. In answer to Mr. Williams, he would say, that when the vessels
were towed, the engines, stores, coals, lic. were exactly the same as when
the engines were working ; in fact, they had merely detached the tow rope
and started the engines, and it so happened that the vessel which had been
fastest in towing was also fastest in saihng with her own engines working,
but he did not consider this as aft'ecting the question.

Prof. Vignoles exhibited some specimens of newly invented carpet tapes-
try. He explained that these works were made on the principle of the
ancient mosaics, being composed of innumerable transverse sections of
woollen threads. No painting, no colouring was used; all the effect was
produced by ends of worsteil about J of an inch long standing vertically, one
end being seen, and the other cemented by India rubber to a cloth. The
exact operation was yet a secret, but he believed that two frames of fine wire
or pen'orated zinc (some with even 4000 perforations in an inch) were
placed over e.ich other exactly vertically, the distance being only regulated
by the height of the room, in the present instance he believed about five
feet. The pictuie to be copied being then traced on the top side of the
upper frame, a workman passed threads of dyed wool through the corres-
ponding holes in the top and bottom frames, of course, as in tapestry,
varying his shades and colours until he is satisfied with the efl'ect ; this he
can judge of by looking down on tl-.e upper ends of the threads, although to
a person looking at the space between the frames, there seems only a con-
fused and compact mass of worsted. When the workman is satisfied, the
ujipcr ends of the threads are covered with India rubber cement, and a
cloth is laid upon them also covered with cement ; the ends of the threads
firmly adhere to this cloth. By means of a sharp cutting instrument, the
entire mass of threads is now cut through transversely at about j of an inch
from the cloth, and this process being repeated, a fresh copy is obtained from
every ^ of an inch : in the present frames, being five feet apart, ISO copies
can be cut, and as thei-e is no limit to the distance, except the height of the
apartment, thousands of copies may be taken of each.. Were this not the
case, the invention, however ingenious, would be too expensive to ))e pur-
chased except in solitary instances as specimens of curious art : but, from
the facility of reproduction, this fabric was likely to come into general use
for carpets, rugs, curtains, table and chair covers, &c. ; for carpets and rugs
it could be made with a longer nap, so as to give any degree of substance.

A Description of the Thames Tunnel. By Sir M. I. Brunei, F.R.S.

Sir M. I. Brunei exhibited a diagram of the exterior elevation of the
Thames tunnel, and also a representation of the machinery by which he
supported its roof and sides during the process of excavation. He said he
had no paper to read, and that his work woidd be very short ; for, altiiough
it might be very difficult to describe a work that was to be accomplished,
there was little' difficulty in speaking of that which had been completed.
All he had to say was simply to point to the representatiorr, and say, that
the tunnel which he had erected was like that. The tunnel was about a
quarter of a mile in lengtli, and was made under the river Thames. The
difficulties were very great, and deemed insurmountable by many learned
and scientific men. ' Indeed, the difficulties were much greater than what he
himself had at first conceived them to be ; for the groitnd to be excavated
was quite difi'erent from that which had been brought up with au augur ia
the prehrainary examination of it. However, he was determined to per-
severe ; and, notwithstanding the m.tny olrstacles that from time to time
presented themselves, he never considered the undertaking impracticable.'
Sir M. I. Brunei then directed attention to the apparatus he had devised for
sustaining the arch during the progress of the works. It was upwards of
60 ft. wide, by 22 ft. high, divided into 12 compartments, each containing
three arches, one above another. The top was horizontal. Each compart-

316

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

inent conUl be moved forward or backward at pleasure, so that, as the
•workmen excavated a few inches, the superincumbent pressure was imme-
diately sustained by the protrusion of that part of the machinery opposite
which the excavation was made. The ground was cleared away in front of
each alternate division of the moveable arches, so that six were always
stationary, sustaining the roof of the tunnel ; while the other six were
employed in making additional progress. Some of the strata overhead was
quite dense, while part of it was in a fluid state. The workmen never
advanced more than six inches at a time, and then the props were imme-
diatelv introduced into the vacant place, and the building-up of buttresses
and arches followed in the rear. During the progress of this extraordinary
undertaking, five eruptions of the river had taken place. One of these
occurred when the tunnel had been half done. This was in consequence of
the men having struck for an advance of wages ; and, during the delay which
■was thus occasioned, a very large hole opened in the top, and the water
came pouring in. When this occurred, said Sir Mark, every one made a
hole for his stopper ; but he could get no one to make a stopper for the hole.
Bv that unfortunate eruption, five men were lost. However, he succeeded
in stopping the leakage, and in pushing forward the works, until he reached
the other side of the river. After surmounting many difficulties, he had
now the pleasure to come before the public for the first time, and say the
■work was done. Many had endeavoured to discourage him, and thwart the
undertaking, but the Government were always exceedingly liberal ; and the
Duke of Wellington, from the first moment that he had seen the plan, con-
ceived a high opinion of its practicability, and forwarded the undertaking as
much as possible. A tower, 290 ft. in diameter, was erected at each side of
the tunnel, and carriages could he admitted through them with the greatest
ease. In answer to a question from Mr. Roberts, Sir M. I. Brunei said, that
the quantity of water percolating at present through the tunnel was about
60 or 70 gallons per minute, .\bout six weeks ago. 480 gallons oozed
through ; the quantity had since been reduced to about 00 or 70 ; and, in a
short time, it would be reduced to nothing.

On the l.MPROVEMENT OF THE SpECULA OF TeLESCOPE.S. By Mt. FoX

Talbot.

The subject occurred to him about two years ago, when the Earl of Rosse
(then Lord Oxmantoun) was making much larger specula for reflecting
telescopes, than had ever been obtained before ; and he thought, if once we
had a very large and perfect speculum, it might be possible to multiply copies
of it by means of the electrotype— by galvanic means taking an electrotype
cast from the existing original at a small expense — which, if not quite so
perfect as the original, should be at least very fine and important instruments.
He had observed, that if an electrotype cast -were taken from a perfectly
polished surface, the cast was also perfectly polished ; so that no defect of
form from this cause could have an injurior.s efi'ect on the speculum. The
great and obvious defect was, that electrotypes being in copper, which
reflected liut little light, a very large speculum of copper would not reflect
more light than a very small one in speculum metal. He mentioned these
ideas to Professor Wheatstone, who said the same had occurred to him, and
he showed him a paper which he had drawn up some few months before, and
which he lent him.

Mr. Talbot read this paper of Professor Wheatstone's, in which he sug-
gested the taking galvanO-phstic casts of specula in platina, palladium,
silver, or nickel, and for especial purposes gilding the copper ; taking care
that the two precipitations adhered well to each other. He suggested that
voltaic electricity might thus enable us to copy large specula (like those of
Lord Oxmantoun), at a slight expense. So that (said Mr. Talbot) the idea
had suggested itself independently to both of them ; but on comparing notes
they found differences. Though it had occurred to him (Mr. Talbot) to
precipitate w'.iite metals, yet he did not think that platina would ha.e a
sufficiently beautiful white metallic polish. Silver he rejected, because easily
oxidated iiy the atmosphere. Nickel he had not tried, but it appeared likely
to answer. Professor Wheatstone bad, however, made choice of platina, and
varying the quantity till he found the required proportion, he obtained a
mirror in platina which appealed to him (Mr. Talbot) to have quite brilliant
polish enough, and to he white enough to answer the purpose; and he con-
sidered, therefore, that Professor Wheatstone had proved that, at least in one
form, the specula of telescopes might be made by voltaic precipitation. His
own idea was, that it might be i)ossible to whiten the surface of the copper
without injuring the form ; and, therefore, having obtained a speculum in
very bright polished copjier, he exposed it to the vapour of the hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia, which had the property of turning copper v.hite ;
and it did so without, so far as he knew, in the least injuring the form of
the metal. A copper speculum was subject two evils; it reflected but little
light, aud it became easily tarnished ; but, when whitened by exposure to
the hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, the surface was transformed into a sul-
phuret of copper, and not only was a white metal obtained, but it was no
iongcr subject to be tarnished by the atmosphere, the sulphuret of copper
being a stronger chemical compound than the oxide of copper, and, con-
sequently, oxygen had no more effeet upon it than on jilatina. Having
obtained' a copper cast from a polished speculum, he, (Mr. Talbot) whitened
it, and transformed it into sulphuret of copper ; and, after having retained
it about a year, he did not percene the smallest alteraticn in any respect.

This, therefore, appeared to him a mode by which such important results
for astronomers could be obtained. For the last year, perhaps, nothing
farther had been done, either by Professor Wheatstone or himself; but the
other day, being at Munich, he "(Mr. Talbot) visited Professor Steinheil, who
showed him his inventions, and told him he had invented a method of making
specula by the electrotype. It so happened, that both Professor Steinheil
and himself had published their respective methods about a month or six
weeks before, the Professor having read a communication on the subject
before the .\cademv of Sciences at Munich, and printed it, and he (Mr.
Talbot) having published his in England. Their modes were, however,
different, as Professor Steinheil precipitated gold upon the speculum of
copper; and, having precipitated a certain thickness of gold, he then pre-
cipitated copper on the back of the gold, to give it sufficient thickness. He
(Mr. Talbot) should have thought beforehand that gold would not reflect
light enough to be available ; but Professor Steinheil informed him he had
fo'und, bv careful experiment, that it reflected more light than polished steel.
He allowed Mr. Talbot to look through a Gregorian reflecting telescope, of
which the speculum was a common one, but gilded, and he found the image
perfectlv clear and well-defined. .\ slight tinge of yellow was thrown over
all the objects, but the image was perfectly clear and defined. Now it was
evident, that if the form of the speculum was not destroyed by gilding it,
much less would it be altered if formed originally of gold. If a film of gold
were precipitated upon a speculum of copper, we must, to a certain extent,
alter its figure ; but that alteration must he very small, because there was no
perceptible defect in the image. Professor Steinheil said, that the astronomers
of Germany were much pleased with his plan, and were greatly engaged in the
subject; and that in the coursi: of a year he should have a very large telescope,
furnished not only with a speculum, but also with other apparatus, voltaically
formed, so that telescopes might be made all from a good model, so as to in-
sure greater accuracy of proportions ; and in this way even very large telescopes
might be constructed at a comparatively trifling expense. With reference to
the precipitating copper on the back of the gold, the Professor had a simple
expedient for securing adhesion. He first precipitated gold from the cyanide
of gold, and he mixed with it cyanide of copper, and kept gradually increasing
the quantity of the latter sort; so that an alloy was precipitated which was
continually" increasing the copper with respect to the gold, till be had a
speculum whose surface was gold, and which then became an alloy, the
quality decreasing, till, at the bottom, it became pure copper. This was
important, because, without such experiments, one would not have known
that such results would have followed ; for some philosophers supposed that,
if we attempt to precipitate the salts of two metals, only one was precipi-
tated ; but Professor Steinheil informed him that they precipitated in union.
He thus obtained a speculum with a face of gold aud a back of copper. But,
supposing the largest, cheapest, and best speculum were obtained, the frame-
work of the telescope would be so gigantic, that few observers would be able
to use the instruinent. With a focariength of 00 to SO ft., it would be quite
unmanageable for any private individual. The idea occurred to him (Mr.
Talbot) to have a tube fixed in an invari.ihle position, and to have a perfectly
true plane mirror, cf a size somewhat larger than the concave speculum,
placed in front of the tube, with an aiierturc in the centre. This plane
reflector should be moveable .about its centre in any direction ; so that
luminous bodies, falling first upon the plane reflector, were then reflected
against the concave reflector, aud passed through the aperture. The only
motion requisite for the plane mirror would be one about its centre. ^ The
mechanical difliculties in the way of this plan would be far less than in the
common method. Professor Steinheil's idea on this point was somewhat
different. He (Mr. Talbot) did not think it important in what direction the
tube of the telescope was directed. Professor Steinheil's idea was, that it
should he pointed directly to the pole of the heavens, aud kept as steady as
possible, and that the plaue mirror shoidd have a simple motion of revolution,
indeed two motions, but aliout a rectangular centre.

Remarks. — Sir William Hamilton expressed his pleasure at hearing this
communication, and said, the want of some such contrivance as the last had
become sensible to those having great command of money and power. The
Eari of Rosse had lately cast a metal speculum, weighing several tons, and
six feet in diameter, which his lordship intended should he moveable only in
or very near t!\e meridian, on account of the great mechanical difficulty of
moving so great a mass, so as to direct it at pleasure to every point of the
heavens, the advantages, therefore, would be great from carrying out the
plan last mentioned. It was clear, that its success and utility must depend
"■reatly on the excellence of the original. Lord Rosse had, hitherto, been
unriva'lled for making specula on a large scale, and for his means of carrying
forward this magnification of the mirror to an unparalleled extent ; aud per-
haps the degree of acquaintance with which that nobleman had honoured
him, and the recollection of what Dr. Robinson had recently said in his lord-
ship's name, warranted liim (Sir William) in s,aying, that Lord Rosse was
disposed to give every facility to persons of science, desirous to make use of
his instruments.

.Mr. Isaac Ilolden said, the late Earl of Stanhope had invented and erected
a telescope on the plan tas to the fixity of the frame-work) which Mr. Talbot
recommended. The instrument was stationary, and he could sit still and
view more than one-half the heavens, taking in even 20" behind his head, by
means of an arrangement of mirrors.

Sir D. Brewster mentioned a similar plan, proposed twenty years ago, by
an American gentleman, to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. There the mir-
ror was not vertical like Lord Stanhope's, but horizontal, consisting of a dish

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

317

of metal m which a quantity of mercury was placed, and a rotatory motion
was given to the disc, so that the mirror assumed a concave form, giving a
paraboUc surface, of the actual form required to reflect bodies ; by which
means a mirror was constructed in one instant of time. This appeared so
impracticable to that society, that thev did not venture to give anv account
of it in their memoirs.

Photographic Discoveries.
Sir David Brewster said, he was requested to communicate an account of
some remarkable facts connected with the theory of photography. A new
process of producing photographic impressions had been discovered bv Dr
Moser, of Konigsberg ; and an account of the discovery had been brought to
this country by Professor Bessel, who received it from the discoverer liimself
The subject was most important, and it would have been a great misfortune
'^, r?, '' ^^'^'''"' '""' ^^'^ "i'liout having been made acquainted with it
The foUowing were the general facts connected with it :— A black plate of
horn, or agate, is placed below a polished surface of silver, at the distance of
one-twentieth of an mch, and remains there for ten minutes. The surface
Of the silver receives an impression of the figures, writing, or crest, which
may be cut upon the agate, or horn. The figures, ice. do not appear on the
silver at the expu-ation of the ten minutes, but are rendered visible by ex-
posing the silver plate to vapour, either of amber, water, mercurv, or any
other fluid. He (Sir David Brewster) had heard Professor Bessel' say, that
the vapours of different fluids were analogous to the different coloured rays
of the spectum; that the different fluids had different effects, corresponding
to those of the spectrum ; and that they could, in consequence of such cor-
respondence, produce a red, blue, or violet colour. The image of the cameo
oiscnra might be projected on any surface— glass, silver, or the smooth
leather cover of the book— without any previous preparation ; and the effects
would be the same as those produced on a silver plate covered with iodine
Frofessor Bessel did not pretend that this discoverv was perfect. He also
mentioned what was far more important than all this, in a scientific point of
view— that Professor Moser had discovered the existence of latent light— of
hght residing in bodies, and exhibiting its action after having lain in those
bodies for we know not how many years. If it were an actual physical fact
that latent light did exist— if light took its residence permanently in a body
—if, having motion, it stood still, and did not shine— if it did not trouble
the ether m any way, was its motion extinguished ? and, if so, how was it to
be put in motion again ? This idea of latent light corresponded with New-
ton s opinion, that light entered the surface of charcoal, and never was
brought out again ; but Moser had discovered a mode of bringins it out
again. ° °

.X. ^^ YH''*"^-"™"'"" " " "*^^ y" *"y account that he has discovered
J', . \-~r^Y. ^^""^ Brewster : " He conceives he can prove the existence
of latent hght.

Professor Bessell said, he scarcely had time to obtain from Professor Moser
aU the particulars of his discovery ; but he (Professor Bessel) had seen a plate
of silver representing the image on a black agate cameo. This photographic
image was very good, and looked as weU as any of those Ukenesses taken bv
Talbot or Daguerre. Professor Moser said he had produced those likenesses
even at midnight, without using any light. The exclusion of hght made no
difference whatever in the phenomena.

Sir David Brewster thought the image thus produced might have been
as perfect probably as the first specimens of daguerreotype. He had alluded
to charcoal absorbing the rays of hght— there was another analogous phe-
nomenon ; if a tube were filled with nitrous acid gas, and rays of light passed
through It by a lens, the fluid would almost lose its yellow colour, and be-
come so white, that every object might be seen through it; but if it were
exposed to a higher temperature, it became gradually vellow, then oranee,
&aa at length it would become of such a deep red colour, that the liRht of
the meridian sun could not pass through it-the gaseous body standing like
a column of charcoal before the spectator. By allowing the gas to cool
down. It gradually becomes transparent, passing backward through the same

tTl y t ?*"'^ f"" ^'■°'° "'^ ^^*'i *"''' 'f ^^"^ be such a thing as
latent hght, it must have acted on the particles of the gas.

On the Pressure of Earth against Walls. By C. W. Buck, C. E.
Mr Buck thought it desirable to investigate the resistance offered by
earth to displacement, when a rigid vertical plane is thrust against it-as
Tn fhtf. r °f ';"''g^\^« '""de, for economy, to depend for stabihty
on the resistance of the earth behind them. In cases of this sort, the ten-
dency of the pressure is manifestly to cause a rupture of the earth, and force
a wedge of It upwards; and it is curious to observe that the angle at which
this rupture takes place (the angle of least resistance) is the same as that
given for the maximum thrust by Provy-that is, half the complement of
^L^fl^ of repose. To estimate the horizontal thrust against the waU
below the spring of the arch, when this arch is sprune Irom the top of the
wa^l, and when he entire height behind the wall is filled up with earth to

h. Inf , }^ ? A'u ' '°°l °^ **" "''■' "'"^ "« t'^" '"''^^es of ^"th to
the ton nf, !,",'*• ^^' r''^' "'^^'"^"^ acting against that portion from
fitrlT?/ t' ^t "'' *,° *'" '°''u"^ ">' "''' ' ""'^^ 2nd, The quadrilateral
ngureleft when this wedge was subtracted from the entire wedge from the

foot of the wall to the top. It is the horizontal thrust of this latter nor-
tion which ,s to be considered; and this horizontal thrust is equal to the
honzontal thrust of the entire wedge ,«m,« the horizontal thL of hi
wedge above the top of the wall m,«,« the friction of the base or line cf
"P r/- ^,^"T "■•^''g'^- This can be found easily for anv part "ul^

twU.h ',1''^"';"''^' '° ^""^ ''"^ P^^P" ''^'g''» f^«°> «l'i'--l^ to spring
the arch, so that the friction of the Hues of rupture of the two wedeef
shall nentrdize the honzontal thrust against the wall below the arch. This

;LTn„f°ih "r"" f'T ^™" ""='^^^' °f'he roof of the arch t»
he top of he wa 1 is equal to the entire depth, from the top of arch to the
foot of wall mult.phed by the square root of the tangent of angle of maxi-
mum thrust. Following out this result for fluids, where the friction is
»«//»«j, he arch should spring from the bottom of the wall ; and this Mr
Buck called the "Tunnelling Equation," because it shows what thickness of
roof IS suflicient to neutralize the pressure of the sides, and points out how-
far It IS necessary to cut the ground open, curb it, and cover it again when
there is not suflicient thickness of roof for ordinarj- tunnelling. It shows
also, how strong to make the side walls, and what form to give them to
resist the lateral thrust. The investigation further proved the douRer of the
conimon practice in sinking shafts, of sinking to a considerable depth before
curbmg, or securing with brick-work, from the supposition tbat the earth
must needs stand of itself; and, therefore, that it will answer as well to
begm the curbing at some inferior point ; whereas the reverse is true— that
If the top be well secured, the part below will not move. These remarks
however, are based on the supposition that the earth is homogeneous Mr'
buck was proceeding to read over the mathematical formula of his investi-
gation, when —

The President thought the subject was too analvtical to be interestine to
the Section.— Professor Moseley stated that Poncelet had lately investigated
all the conditions of subjects tnken up in Mr. Buck's paper, and given for-
mula; and tables for their application, by practical men, except the one for
tunnelling Poncelefs paper was published in the Memoirs of the Academy.

Sir Mark J. Brunei thought it dangerous for engineers to place reliance
upon tormula: which applied only to homogeneous ground. In the Thames
Tunnel he had found ten or twelve different strata in a depth of eight feet • and
from the constant fluctuation of the weight above, and the fluid portion of
some part of the ground, theoretical inquiries would have been useless in
determining the manner of his proceeding.— Mr. Buck observed, in answer,
that even in the case of fluid ground, theorv assisted in determininR the re-
sistance necessary. Taking the London clav as an example, the friction in
the line of maximum thrust was ^ of the weight; and by comparing the
specific gravity of this clay with water, he found that where, bv the infiltra-
tion of water, this friction was reduced to f^, the pressure was equal to
hydrauhc pressure, and when the friction was reduced to 0, it was double
hydraulic pressure.

Sir John Robison made a short communication on the subject of a mode
of making tesselated tiles and other objects hy the compression of dru powder
of clay, by Messrs. Minton cj- Co., of Sroke-upm-Trent. Sir John stated,
that the advantages of the invention were the perfect truth of the tiles. When
formed of wet clay, they almost invariably warped and became crooked In
this invention, a mould was filled with the dry powdered clay, which was
subjected to heavy pressure, which caused it to cohere suflicientlv to bear
being placed in the kiln, where it was burned in the usual manner Some
specimens of tesselated tUes, and also of roofing tiles of a new construction,
much lighter than ordinary tiles, and by which the capiUary action of water
under the edges of the tUes, was prevented, were exhibited. The tiles were'
exceedingly accurate in point of form, and appeared extremely weU adapted
for the purposes for which they were intended.

Mr. Brockedon exhibited specimens of his patmt India rtiiber stoppers for
bottles, explaining the late improvements in the construction of the cores on
which the India rubber is spread. The present cores, he said, were made of
cotton twisted into strands, &c., by means of a machine, which he explained
by a diagram, the cylindrical rope now consisted of several strands of tightly
twisted cotton, lapped with flax thread, and laid together longitudinally,
loose fine cotton rovings being placed between them ; the entire was then
lapped in a cyhndrical form with flax thread, attaining by this method the
advantages of perfect roundness and firmness ; they also gave sufficient hold
to the corkscrew, and bore the heating process well. These stoppers would
slide on glass when wet, but not when dry, (although there was no cohesion
m this latter state,) so that the bottler, by slightly wetting these stoppers
with the liquor which he was botthng, could easily insert them ; and when
this slight film of moisture mas dried up, the stopper required considerable
force to withdraw it.

Mr. Louis Schwabe made a short communication on theformation of arti-
ficial threads of glass, for the manufacture of ornamental damasks, some very
beautiful samples of which he exhibited to the section. Mr. Schwabe stated,
that he had tried various kinds of glass, and found that that which was best
adapted to the purpose was common window glass ; the samples before the
meeting having been made from the broken windows of his own estabUsb-
ment. There was one peculiarity in the matter which was worthy of re-
mark, that the minute fibres of glass drawn from the lamp were always of
the same shape as the bar of glass from which they were drawn. If that
was round, the thread was round, if square or flat, the form of the thread
varied accordingly; and, as a flat thread reflected the light better, and con-

2 Y

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [September,

sequently appeared more lustrous than a round one, the hest form was a nar-
row flat'sHp, such as window glass readily produced. Mr. Schwabe showed
the apparatus used, and the process adopted in spinning the exceedingly
minute threads, of which from one to two liundred were used to form a single
shoot of the weft. He also showed the mode in which the weaving was
performed, which was extremely simple. IMr. Schwahe said that he did not
make this communication on account of any novelty in the use of glass, but
in the hope of drawing attention to the many new materials which might be
used in the manufacture of textile fabrics ; and he produced also some sam-
ples of Manilla flax, the fibre of the pina plant, from which a beautifully
delicate and transparent cloth could be made. The specimens of manufacture
thus produced, though not very perfect at present, seemed to promise more
satisfactry results when matured by experience.

Mr. Hodgkinson explained his apparatus for trying the strength of mate-
rials. He brought his apparatus forward, as he had made many experiments;
and he was desirous to render them as trustworthy as possible, by convincing
the members that every care had been taken to ensure accuracy. Other ex-
periments had been rendered unworthy of reliance, from injudicious methods
of affixing testing apparatus— as those' of Rennie and Captain Brown in iron ;
Girard's experiments, &c. In crushing specimens, it was necessary that both
ends should be well bedded, and the pressure transmitted through the axis.
To this, other experimenters had not always attended, and by using the
pressure of bores directly on the substance to be crushed, they introduced
the different errors arising from the pressure being oblique, transmitted
through the side, or being exerted on mere points, instead of equally exert-
ing its force over the entire top surface : to obviate these objections, he had
devised apparatus by which all these errors were avoided. Mr. Hodgkinson
explained the crushing apparatus by drawings, &c. In experiments on tear-
ing asunder, he had also taken great care, by means of apparatus, which he
exhibited and explained, that the strain should be through the axis, and other-
wise free from causes of error. Mr. Hodgkinson explained his experiments
on torsion, and illustrated his observations throughout by many models and
specimens of the substances on which the experiments had been made.

Professor Moseley asked whether, in the experiments on beams, care had
been taken to obvia'te the effects of the friction of the beams on the supports,
as this would effect the direction of pressure, altering it from vertical to in-
clined, and the neutral line only passed through the centre of gravity of the
beam when the pressure was vertical ; also, if care had been taken in laying
on the weights, as a weight suddenly laid on produced mathematically twice
the effect in deflection. Theoretically, the wtight should be increased by
small additions, even as grains of sand.

Mr. Hodgkinson said he had taken all precautions with regard to the
■weights ; they were added by small portions, and with great care ; the beams
rested on tolerably smooth cast iron, on which he believed the friction would
be of little importance.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
April 5. — The President in the Chair.
Menai Lighthouse.
Desoription. By D. P. Hewett, Grad. Inst. C. E.

The Menai Strait is peculiarly fitted for a harbour of refuge for vessels
entering the rivers Dee and Mersey from the north, and the increasing
number of ships frequenting this navigation, as well as the insufficiency of
its beaconage, rendered it desirable that the entrance should be distinctly
marked ; the Corporation of the Trinity House accordingly decided, in 1834,
to effect this object by the construction of a Lighthouse, to be situated on a
sunken rock about 200 yards from the Anglesey coast on the west side of the
entrance, which is divided by the Puffin Island into two channels, defined by
a beacon and two buoys.

The principal noveltv in the construction of the lighthouse is the base,
which, instead of dim'inishing, like the Eddystone, with a regular curve,
recedes by a series of rectangular offsets ; the oliject of this form of structure
is to break the force of an impinging wave, and prevent the whole effect of
its shock being tljrown upon the uiiper part of the building, as it is when
guided up bv the curved surface.

The building, which was designed by Messrs. Walker and Burges, is a
handsome circular tower 75 ft. high, 40 ft. in diameter at the base, and
20 ft. 6 in. diameter at the top, terminated by a castellated parapet, and
entirelv constructed of Anglesey marble. The base of the building is solid
to the height of 22 ft. 6 in. from the rock, diminishing at intervals of 2 ft.
3 in. bv offsets of 9 in. each, up to 0 ft. 9 in. above high-water mark, where
its diameter is 22 ft. Ou that level is the entrance doorway (which is ac-
cessible bv steps cut in the base stones). The interior contains six floors,
forming rooms for the uses of the light-keepers, stores, &c. Every precaution
has been taken to render the exterior joints of the courses water-tight; each
stone is secured to tliat below it by a slate joggle, and two oak trenails,
passing entirely through it, and entering 8 in. into the lower stone. On the
upper bed of each course of stones is a projecting fillet, which fits into a
corresponding groove in the under side of the course placed upon it, in order
to prevent the water from being forced between the courses. The two upper

courses project internallv and externally, to form a gallery which supports
the parapet and the lantern, the foundation and the framing of which are of
cast iron. The wall diminishes gradually in thickness from 6 ft. 9 in. to 2 ft.
The communication describes minutely the construction of the floors, the
partitions, the stairs, the lanterns, &c., and the proportions of the materials
for the mortar, which consisted of three measures of sand, one of ground
Ume, and one of Italian pozzuolana.

The liglit is a stationarv, red, dioptric light of the first order, without
mirrors. The burner consists of four concentric wicks, of which the largest
is 3i in. diameter ; its ordinary consumption of oil is one pint per hour. The
various bearings are given from which the light is visible at sea. After
deducting all expenses, the surplus revenue derived from the light dues,
during the year 1840, is stated to have been £388 13s. 3d. The lighthouse
is connected with the shore by a foot bridge, which consists of a platform
2 ft. 3 in. wide, supported upon a series of iron columns placed 10 ft. apart,
secured into the rock, and strengthened by stays. This sUght construction
has withstood the violence of the waves for three years.

The paper notices the buildings which have been erected on the shore for
the residence of the light-keepers, and then proceeds to describe the beacon
before alluded to, which points out a dangerous ledge of rocks on the oppo-
site side of the channel. It consists of a cone of masonry, 20 ft. in diameter
at the base, and 37 ft. high, surmounted by a staff and globe rising 13 ft.
above the apex of the cone. The globe, which is 4 ft. diameter, is formed
of copper bands, and is 36 ft. above high-water mark.

The whole amount expended in these different constructions is stated to
have been about .€12,800. The communication was illustrated by a series
of detailed drawings and a chart of the straits.

April 12.— The President in the Chair.
On Breakwaters.
" Observations upon the Sections of Breakwaters as Iieretofore constructed^
with suggestions as to modifications of their forms." By Lieut.-Ool. H. U.
Jones, R. E., Assoc. Inst. C. E.

This communication is the result of several years' observation of the effect
of storms upon the sea faces of breakwaters and piers ; those principally
alluded to, and of which drawings were exhibited, were Plymouth Kings-
town, Howth, Ardglass, and Dunmore ; a section was also given of the sea
wall of the Kingstown Railway, and of the mole of St. Jean de Luz.

The mode of building with " Pierre perdue" appears to have been brought

into notice about the time of Louis XV., when the cones at Cherbourg were

sunk, and filled with stones as a foundation for a wall ; since then the general

method of constructing sea-defences has been to throw down masses of stone,

allowing them to form their own angle, subject to the effect of the sea in

giving them a greater or less slope. In many instances this rough foundation

has been paved down to below the low-water mark with squared blocks of

stone secured with much care, and above tliis a wall is built of solid masonry,

generallv with a considerable slope on the sea face. The author contends

that thesvstem of assimilating the sea face of breakNvaters to the form ot

the shore 'at low water is erroneous, because the sea shore is the line ot least

or non-resistance, not opposing, but yielding to the sea. He asserts that, as

far as he can ascertain, no pier or breakwater constructed with a sea slope

has been found to resist the effects of storms without considerable repairs

and expense being subsequently required. He then gives his observations

upon the several sections, and states tliat the waves have the most violent

effect at about half tide, hence the stones at that line are first disturbed, and

then are carried down into the deep water. To parry this evd nearly

200,000 tons of stone have been deposited on the fore-shore of Kingstown

Eastern Pier, vet more must still be added. Similar additions have been

repeatediv mad'e to Plvmoutli Breakwater, with no better effect. At Dunmore

iron chains have been fixed in the face of the walls to secure them. At

Howth a slope of 3 to 1 has been found insufficient. At Ardglass the pier

head and lighthouse have been waslied away. From these and numerous other

examples, it is argued that piers in exposedsituations with a considerable in-

ciiuafion of the sea face do not resist the violence of the waves, whereas there

are manv instances of upright walls having resisted perfectly. As instances

of this Old Dunlearv Pier is adduced as being nearly perpendicular, yet never

having been injured' during a long series of years, although quite as much

exposed as the New Pier, now called Kingstown; Kilrush Pier, although not

- - ■ • • has resisted all the shocks of the heavy seas which

built of heavy materials

break upon it from the Atlantic. ,,

From these considerations Colonel Jones proposes upon the " Pierre peraue
to rise a perpendicular wall from a little below the level of low-water spring
tides : this form, he contends, would resist the upward pressure of the sea
upon the broad bases of the stones, and prevent their being removed. He
argues that althouch the proposed walls would require to lie built witn
squared stones, ins'tead of "Pierre perdue," that the cost would not t)e_
greater than at present, as the area of the section of his proposed %vaii it
applied at Kingstown would be oiilv 48G0 square ft., whereas the sectional area
of the present pier is 10,085 square ft. The French appear to have partially
adopted this form at the new works at Cherbourg; but he considers this mode
of construction objectionable, inasmuch as it leaves in front of the outer tace
that part of the breakwater which is most subjected to injury. An extensive

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

319

series of drawings, containing the plans and sections of existing breakwaters
and piers, showing the injur)' sustained from storms, accompanied the same.
Colonel Jones explained liy the various sections of breakwaters shown in
the drawings, the changes of form, and the additions to their cubic content
which had been made at different periods, In consequence of the violent
action of storms.

The Plymouth Breakwater has had its form altered three times ; each time
the base has been extended, and the sectional area increased.

At the Hosvth Pier the sections showed three distinct forms assumed by
the mass of materials, in consequence of the varied action of the waves.
The damage done is now so extensive, that the sea threatens to make a clear
breach through the works.

The sections of the Kingstown Pier showed the original form to have been
a slope of 4 to 1 and 5 to 1, covered with heavy pitching, wliich had been
repeatedly torn up, and some of the stones weighing 10 tons were carried
to considerable distances : an external mole of rough work containing nearly
200,000 tons of stone which had been deposited upon the foreshore was
almost all washed away ; while the toe of the work beneath low-water mark,
although at a greater angle than the other parts, remained undisturbed.

.\t Dunmore Harbour, although the long glacis with a slope of 5 to 1 is
protected by pitching composed of square stones of from 2 J to 6 tons weiglit,
and above .t;i2,000 has been expended, it has received very extensive damage.
Many otlier cases of injury to sloped works were mentioned, and it was
stated, that from these examples, coupled with observations upon some
ancient piers in Cornwall and other exposed situations, wbicli, although b\iilt
of rough materials and with a nearly vertical sea face, had resisted the action
of heavy seas, the Shannon Commissioners had determined to iry, at Kilrush,
a sea wall with a very sliglit inclination, and up to the present time it had
sustained no injury, although previously the sloped work had been destroyed.
Colonel Jones, being convinced of the superiority of this form, had de-
voted much time to observations of the action of the waves upon works of
all kinds, as well as to the various modes of using the materials composing
the sea-walls ; and he felt assured that if the stones were of an average size,
square-jointed, and well laid, even without cement, forming an almost vertical
wall of moderate thickness, springing from a point as much below low-water
mark as could he conveniently attained, the work would be more durable.
"Beton" (concrete) was now much used in France for the construotion of
sea defences : it was generally done by building caissons of ashlar, filling
them in solid with " Beton," and then caulking all the ashlar joints with
oakum : this kind of work was very durable.

In answer to a remark by General Pasley, Colonel Jones believed that the
greatest injury was done by the receding waves, particularly if the joints of
the work were not well closed.

Remarks. — Jlr. Itennie took a hasty review of the moles and breakwaters
mentioned by the early writers, as being thrown out for the purpose of
forming harbours; Vitruvius particularly described, among other similar
works, a mole constructed with a kind of concrete composed of pozzuolana.
Mr. Rennie contended that engineers were not in error in taking as their
guide the natural inclination of the sea shore opposite the situation where
the breakwater was intended to be placed. It would be found, in following
the coast of England from the perpendicular primitive clitfs of Cornwall to
the flat shingle beach of Norfolk, between which places is found almost every
variety of geological formation, that the profile of the sea shore differed
according to the material of which it was composed and the peculiar action
of the sea upon it from local circumstances. It had been shown tliat the
force of the waves acted more prejudicially upon the point above low-water
than below it ; that the work would stand at a great inclination at the latter
point, indeed that it was rarely injured even when all above it was carried
away ; that if the water was deep, the action of the waves would extend
deeper : all these and many other points required to be considered in fixing
upon the slope for any sea-wall ; and therefore he could not accord with
Colonel Jones's views in adopting an arbitrary form for all situations, without
considering the exigencies of peculiar localities. He ha<l been particularlv
struck with the regularity of the slope assumed by the materials at the Kings'-
town pier after a storm ; hut in that and all similar positions, the inclination
of the face varied with circumstances, and with the degree of violence of the
action of the waves. Amoug the many arguments against the proposed
perpendicular form, might be mentioned the increased expense; for if built
of squared stones below low-water mark, tlie work must he done from a
diving-hell ; and also that the form is objectionable for a pier, as the wave
is thrown up in a mass, instead of expending its force in rolling over the long
slope of the fore-shore. Mr. Telford had abandoned vertical sea-walls on
these and other accounts.

Mr. Vignoles agreed to a certain extent (but not fully) with the form pro-
posed by Colonel Jones ; he believed that although the construction might
be rather more costly, it would be amply compensated for bv the greater
durability ; and he saw no diflicnlty in doing the work. The proposed plan
he understood to be by commencing the foot of the wall only at snch a depth
below low-water as should prevent the violent action of tlie waves upon it.
At Ardglass the upper portion only of the pier is destroved ; al! that part
below low-water remains perfectly sound : it is of ashlar of large dimensions,
placed from a bell.

Mr. Gordon had seen sections of the works which were commenced for
forming a breakwater at .Madras : the materials reached at the highest point
to within about 10 ft. of low-water, and amidst the violence of the surf of
that coast the work stood undisturbed at an angle of 45° : it was composed

of " pierre perdue." At Algiers the French engineers had used extensively
masses of concrete (blocs de beton), but at first they were displaced and
destroyed by the force of the seas ; the cubic capacity of the masses had
however been increased to the extent of 2 metres square by 3 metres long ;
they were floated out, and allowed to drop into their places from slings ; and
now they succeeded perfectly. The upper part of the work is intended to
be of concrete cast in caissons, the section below low-water is at an angle
of 45", and above it like an ordinary quay wall with a curved "batter."

Sir John Kobison, in allusion to the depth of the wave and the power of
its action at .Madras, said that, during a violent storm, a quantity of pigs of
lead had been cast ashore near the fort, and it was proved tha't they had
come from a vessel which had been wrecked at more than a mile from the
shore, dnring the siege by La Bourdonnaye.

The President observed that at the Plymouth Breakwater the largest blocks
(some of them weighing from 0 to 8 tons) and the greatest number have
been washed from the sea face over into the Sound ; the square stones with
which the fore shore is paved are placed with the utmost care, and Uttle
comparative injury has been done since that method has been adopted.
Engineers now generally recommend a deep paving of squared stone in bond
courses, as the best mode of construction. In order to insure tlie stability
of the lighthouse now erecting at the extremity of the Plymouth Breakwater,
a foundation of squared stones has been carried up from the natural rock,
and an inverted arch turned below the level of the top of the work ; and,
for its farther security, a buttress is now throv™ out upon the foot of the
south slope, in order to prevent the stones from being carried away. It is
evident, that if the materials are deposited at an inclination, any porti»''
being displaced is only carried down to where, although strictly speaking
may not be wanted, it must nevertheless assist in consohdatin'g the mass ;
and the vacant spaces can easily be fliled up. Under similar circumstances
a perpendicular wall would sutler more severely, and probably would have
fallen entirely. He therefore considered that in situations like that of the
Plymouth Breakwater, which was exposed to a heavier sea than Cherbourg, a
long slope for the sea face was essential. Still there were situations where
the form proposed by Colonel Jones would no doubt be available, and the
members were much indebted to him for the suggestion, as also for the
valuable observations shown in the sections accompanying the paper: he
hoped that be would continue them, and that other members, who had equal
opportunities and less arduous duties to perform than the author, would give
the Institution the benefit of their observations.

Mr. Macneill had seen at the mouth of the Ilelder, in North Holland,
banks nearly vertical, constructed of sea-weed and hazel-wood fascines,
backed with clay: they were exposed to a very hea\7 sea, and yet stood
extremely well — there was considerable elasticity in them, for when a wave
struck them, the vibration was felt at a distance along the bank. In other
situations on the coast of Holland, the sea-banks are long slopes of sand at
an inclination of 10 to 1, thatched with straw. In many places groins were
built to break the length of the wave, and diminish its force ; he had adopted
similar groins, and found them answer perfectly.

Mr. H. R. Palmer observed that the form suggested by Colonel Jones for
the faces of breakwaters did not appear sufiiciently justified by observed
facts ; the idea was entirely of a speculative character, and was contrary to
the law of nature, which should be the engineer's chief guide. Manv years
ago Mr. Palmer had occasion to study very carefully the motion of the shingle
beach at the harbour of Folkstone, and at several other places, and the results
of his observations were published in the Transactions of the Royal Society.
He found that the slopes of the surface were always regulated by the force
of the waves, and the angle at which they impinged ; and that when the
forces were at right angles with the line of beach the whole of the pebbles
were brought down below the level of the acting forces. ,\t Folkstone,
when the sand was thus left bare, the surface stood at an angle of 9 to 1,
and that slope resisted the force of very heavy seas. The effect of the action
of the sea upon an upright surface was observable in every clifl" upon the
coast, and the tendency to destruction was everj'where obvious. Shingle
beaches might be considered as adjustable barriers, but in the construction
of piers it was necessary to adopt some jirecise form. When circumstances
required the walls to be nearly vertical, the line of their direction should be
determined with reference to the prevailing winds. Tliose portions of the
piers of Swansea harbour which formed even only a small angle with the
prevalent winds remained firm and substantial, but that part which was
directly opposed, or at right angles to them, has been undermined. la a
design of his for a pier in .Mount's Bay at Penzance, Mr. Palmer had so
arranged that the angle of the main pier should be at 5° with the line of
the greatest forces. Thus, then, a horizontal slope is in fact made as a sub-
stitute for a rising one. He attributed the failures alluded to by Colonel Jones
more to defective workmanship than to faults in the principle of the struc-
ture.— Mr. Palmer exhibited and presented to the Institution jilans of
Kamsgatc, Dover, Folkstone, Swansea, and Penzance harbours.

General Pasley, in his observations of the action of the sea upon various
parts of the coast, liad remarked that the slope of the beach was exactly in
accordance with the materials of which it was composed: if it was shingle
or decomposed rock or soft material, the slope was gradual ; but if the shore
was rocky, the waves had not any serious effect upon the bluff face opposed
to them, except in the case of chalk cliffs. He conceived, therefore, that a
perpendicular w.ill constructed of large ashlar work well cemented, would
assume the character of a rock, and all the prejudicial action of the receding
wave would be avoided.

2 Y 2

320

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

[Skptkmber,

Mr. Bull stated that the banks of the river Calder in Yorkshire had been
effectually secured from damage by means of stone pitching or setting, laid
at an angle of from 45° to 50° with the horizon, and resting on a mass of
stone thrown into the bed of the river below the level of the water in dry
seasons. These loose stones had generally been laid at an inclination of
about 25° or 30° where the depth at low-water was not great, but where the
water was deep the lower part of the slope had been made at about 45°,
returning at the upper part or near the surface of the water to the former
angle of 25° to 30°. The pitching, composed of oblong stones, was laid in
courses, with nearly vertical joints, having the least sectional area exposed to
the action of the flood-waters. The stones were from 15 to 20 inches long,
varying in their widths, and were laid on a bed of gravel, or soil, he preferred
coarse gravel, as it was less liable to be washed out from behind the stones,
which sometimes occurred with soil, unless it was of a strong clayey nature.
Several miles of facing done by him in this manner had now been standing
between seven and nine years without requiring any repairs. In a few
instances, when the loose stones at the foot had been either insufficient in
quantity, or so small as not to resist the action of the floods, and had been
washed away, the pitching has slid down into the bed of the river without
being otherwise disturbed ; after it had settled, the top part had been re-
newed, and the original line restored. The floods in the river Calder
frequently rose from 8 ft. to 12 ft., and flowed with a very rapid current,
consequently the pitching had to resist a powerful action, particularly at the
concave side of a bend in the river, where the action was both directly upon
and along the face of the work. The loose stones below the low-water mark
were seldom disturbed by the floods, and where they had been removed, no
damage had been sustained beyond the sliding down of the pitching as before
described ; such, however, had not been the case where from peculiar cir-
cumstances a perpendicular or nearly perpendicular wall had been built
instead of the pitching ; in such instances a slight disturbance of the loose
stones had frequently caused the destruction of the wall. Where the pitching
had been backed with light soil, which was easily washed out through the
joints, the stone-work had fallen into holes as might be expected, but where
a good strong gravel had been used for the backing, no such instances had
occurred. Mr. Bull differed from Colonel Jones's opinion as to breakwaters
■with a vertical or nearly vertical face, beause any disturbance of the footing,
however slight, must have a tendency to overthrow the wall, and that ten-
dency would be in proportion as the angle of the wall diverged from the
angle of repose ; that is to say, if the wall was quite perpendicular a
comparatively smsll disturbance of the foundation or footing would destroy
the equilibrium, and the superstructure would be overthrown, but the nearer
the face approached the angle of repose, the greater would be the security.
He did not mean to assert that the angle of repose was the best for the face
of a breakwater, or that the same angle should be preserved from below low-
water mark to the top of the structure. On the contrary, he was inclined
to think that a curved section, commencing from a few feet below low-water
mark at an angle of 10° or 15° from the horizon, and terminating at the top
at an angle of 70° or 75° would be found a good form, and if the courses of
face stones were laid nearly vertically, should the footing below low-water
mark be removed by the action of the waves, the consequence woidd be a
Eliding down of the upper face, which could easily be replaced at the
top, as is done with respect to the river pitching. The proper angle for
the loose stones below low-water mark would, he had little doubt, be that of
repose, or nearly so, as Colonel Jones had shown to be the ease in several
existing breakwaters. The face stones shoidd be roughly squared on the beds
and joints, or what is called in the North "scappled" to the form of the
curve, and laid in equal courses not quite perpendicular, but inclining a little
from the direction of the prevailing wind, perhaps about 10° from the
vertical line. Mr. Bull was induced to offer these remarks, for the purpose
of recording a practice he had successfully applied to the protection of river
banks (of which he presented drawings) and his opinion as to its applicability
to the construction of breakwaters.

April 19. — The President in the Chair.

Flushing Apparatus for Sewers.

" On the causes of accumulation of deposit in Seii'ers, and on the hitherto

generally prevalent mode of removing the same ; with a description of a new

Flushing Apparatus used for cteantiing the bewers in the Ilolbom and Finslury

Divisions." By John Roe, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

In the Holborn and Finsbury Divisions there are upwards of 80 miles of
covered sewers, in a large proportion of which there were accumulations of
deposit, which, by choking the side drains and causing effluvia, became
sources of much annoyance. The only remedy resorted to, was to raise the
deposit to the surface of the street and cart it away : this was for many
reasons an objectionable process, and a careful examination of the sewers
was ordered, when it was found that many causes of obstruction existed. In
sewers of the same form and inclination, different degrees of accumulation
existed : this was caused sometimes by a greater run of water in one than in
the other. In other cases, although the flow of water was equal, the deposit
was unequal : in some situations openings having been made to insert side
drains, bricks had been left in the sewer, against which considerable deposits
had formed. The admission of water from collateral sewers at right angles
and at different levels had also caused obstructions to the continuous flow
along the main line. An example is given, where, although the collatera
sewer was 3 ft. above the level of the main line, a deposit of a foot in depth

was formed for several hundred feet up the stream, while below the'point of
junction the sewer was perfectly clear. The insertion of gully-necks fre-
quently caused obstructions, by permitting the access of dirt and rubbish
from the road.

These facts being ascertained, the next consideration was how to remedy
the defects, as the locality would not permit an alteration of level, which
would give a flow through the sewers suflSciently strong to carry off the deposit.
After a long series of experiments (by the author, who is engineer to the
Commissioners) and trials upon several kinds of apparatus, the arrangement
shown by Fig. 1 was decided upon : — it consists of an iron frame set in the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

321

sewer with a hinged door half its height, fitting with a water-tight joint : it
is opened and closed by means of a jointed rod, which is worked from the
level of the street. A liead of water is allowed to collect against the closed
door until it is sufficiently heavj-, when the door being suddenly opened, the
whole mass of deposit is carried forward by the rush of water. The opera-
tion is repeated with a head of 3 ft. of water at intervals of half a mile,
until the whole of the accumulation issues at the outfall, thoroughly cleansing
the sewer. After this arrangement of apparatus had been some time in use,
an improved form with a side entrance, as shown in Fig. 2 was contrived,
and is now generally adopted in situations which admit of it.

By this simplified arrangement the stop-gate can be worked without the
mechanical contrivances of the other method, and an easy access is afforded
to the sewers. This latter mode is generally adopted, and the success of the
plan is stated to be perfect.

All the details of the construction of the stop-gates and the sewers, as
well as of several improvements in the building of the gully-holes and col-
lateral sewers, are given, with the result of the velocities of the currents of
water from heads of various heights. Drawings of all the several kinds of
apparatus invented by the author were presented, and tlie models which
were exhibited were explained by Mr. IJurton, the manufacturer of the
flushing apparatus.

Indicators for Steam Engines.
Mr. Farey exhibited and described one of a set of indicators for steam
engines, made by Mr. Penn of Greenwich, for the French Government, to be
used in trying experiments on the steam vessels in their navy. The con-
struction was the same as those made by Mr. M'Naught of Glasgow ; but
the instruments were larger and better proportioned. Mr. Farey availed
himself of the opportunity of describing the construction, the operation of,
and the quaUties required in a good indicator, and then exhibited a series of
indicator cards, either taken by himself or by friends whose accuracy could
be depended upon. They extended from the year 1817 at short intervals
down to the present time, and showed a great improvement in the applica-
tion of steam in engines : in fact, Mr. Farey was of opinion that the origin
and progress of the modern improvements in engines might be traced by a
series of cards carefully taken at various periods, and he promised to
contribute a more extended communication on the subject during the
ensuing session.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
July 11.

A paper was read giving a •' Description of the Roof suspended over the
Panorama in the Champs Elysees, Paris," by M. Hittorff.

The Hon. Secretary, Mr. Bailey, observed, that although the Germans
attribute the invention of panoramas to Prof. Breisig, of Dantzic, it is gene-
rally admitted that they are of English origin, and that the first was exhibited
in 1793, by Robert Barker, in the city of Edinburgh. The most important
building for such exhibitions, one far surpassing any at that time existing in
foreign countries, was erected in London by Mr. T. Horner, and is known as
the Colosseum, Regent's Park. The plan is a polygon of sixteen compart-
ments, whose interior diameter measures about 1234 ft. The dome is con-
structed of timber, curved and arranged upon the principle of Phillibert de
Lorme, and is covered with copper. In the centre of the building are two
concentrical cylinders supporting three galleries, as well as supporting the
centre of the dome or roof. The rotunda since erected in Paris surpasses in
magnitude even this vast edifice. Among the various designs for embellish-
ing the Champs Elysees, M. Langbois suggested the idea of a rotunda for
the exhibition of panoramas. The ground was granted to him for a term
of 40 years by the Municipal Council on the following conditions : —

1. The diameter of rotunda to be 130 ft.

2. The roof to be conical, and without a central kingpost.

3. The rotunda to be lighted by a cycle of glazed sashes.

4. The intervention of any obstruction between the sashes and the wall of
the rotunda (thereby casting a shadow upon the canvas) to be carefully
avoided.

5. And finally, all these data to be severally complied with at the least
possible expenditure.

Considering the difliculty of constructing a building of such dimensions
without a central kingpost, and the great expense of arched timberwork,
together with the solid structure of the walls indispensably requisite to resist
the thrust of the wooden vault, the artist resolved to apply (in the construc-
tion of the new building) the principle of suspension adopted for bridges, by
means of chain cables. The site of the rotunda not allowing of the adoption
of stays fastened at a distance from the building, it was necessary so to con-
trive the buttresses that they should hold the cables and resist their tension.
Their number, amounting to 12, gives a subdivision of the wall of the rotunda
into arcs ; and it may be considered, at the level of the stone cornice, as a
polygon, whose sides adjacent to one and the same buttresses ofiFered a two-
fold force opposed to the strain of the cables. In this way the resistance
was obtained nearly at the expense of the cornice and the wall ; and by
adopting] two circles vrith the cables passing between these circles, ,the

upholding chains can be strained as required. These cables pass at an angle
upwards, over vertical rods, which rest on pivots on the inner edge of the
cornice wall, which is about SJ ft. in thickness; they then rest on the outer
edge of the cornice wall, and the ends of the cables are carried to the abut-
ment walls and are there fastened. The building was commenced in October
1838, and covered in January 1832. It attains a mean height of nearly
50 ft., occupying a surface of nearly 21,653 square ft., and its circumference
is composed of a mass of building above 16 ft. in depth, having three stories
distributed into apartments over a space of 520 ft, ; and the cost of the
whole was about £13,000.

Mr. T. H. Wyatt directed attention to Forster's Patent Stoneware slabs
for preventing damp rising in walls. He had found from experience, that
slate was not only porous, but too brittle for the purpose, particularly where
bouses or buildings are likely to settle ; whereas this material is not only
impervious to wet, but can be made to any thickness, and sufficiently strong
to resist the greatest pressure.

ON LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

Sir — Having erected several lightning conductors on Mr. John
Murray's principle, a description of them may not be an uninteresting
subject for your Journal.

The head is a copper gilt point, 2 ft. long, lA inch diameter
in the thieki st part, screwea into a \ in. bore copper gas tube,
which is perforated just below the insertion of the head (" to
allow the electric matter to act upon the external and internal
surfaces," as Mr. Murray directs in his Essay on Aerial Elec-
tricity), and must be continued in as straight a line as possible
to the foundation of the building, where it must terminate in a
trough filled with water.

The first erected by me was at Kirkstal church, near Leeds,
the spire having been struck by lightning on the 29th April,
1833; the finial and stones of the upper part were secured by a
wrought iron bar formed as at A, terminating at 5 feet below
the finial, a 4-inch flange being sunk into the finial and bedded
upon the top stone of the spire; at the bottom of the iron bar
was a washer, screw and nut, to tighten the shaft joints, and
add to the security against high winds by the increased weight
of the mass; the finial was fixed on to the bar with Roman
cement. From this nut to the bell was a space of 40 feet, with
no intermediate metal except the chain bar of iron at the base
of the spire on the line of the cornice. The fluid passed
through the north belfry window in a north-easterly direction,
leaving the chain bar and the bell oninjured, but the north-east
face of the octagon spire was burst asunder, the north-east
pinnacle and part of the buttress destroyed, as also the north
lucarne of the spire, and the buttress shaft cut obliquely towards
the lead flashing of the roof of the body,
which was torn up, and the north west
pinnacle thrown from the buttress shaft,
all the corner stones disturbed, and the
slates broken by the stones of the tower
and spire, and considerable damage was
done inside the building ; the finial A and
the lower stone B were so shattered that
had not the molding of A been different
to any other, I should not have discovered
that it had been a portion of it; this was
found 80 yards from the building, and the
fragment did not contain 3 cubic inches;
the stone was 2 ft. 9 in. high, and 2 ft. 3
in. diameter ; the lead appears to have
attracted the electric fluid on its explo-
sion in the spire, yet that on the south
side escaped injury altogether. When
the spire was rebuilt, a cupper gilt cross
was placed on the point of if, the lightning rod extending 2 feet above
and attached to it, a continuous line of tube formed by 9 feet lengths,
screwed together with couplings, which rests upon holdfasts of iron
wrapped with old silk dipped in melted tallow; this plan of coupling
is bad, as no allowance is made for the expansion of the metal, and
consequently during the third summer one of the joints close under the
belfry window broke, but as the lower part of the rod h^is not left
the upper more than 2 inches, I believe it to be of little consequence
as the stream would be alnwai continuous ; this rod terminates under
ground in a stone trough about 2 ft. (1 in. deep, and 18 inches square,
which forms part of the line of drains round the church, made to con-
vey the rain water from the spouts, and so placed below the drains
that it must be always full. I have since this attached one to the

322

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

spire of St. Paul's church at Birkiiishavv, one at Fanilcy, and one to
Trinity church steeple in this town, (the latter 173 feet high), and one
to the new church at Hendingley, 3 miles from hence ; the joints are
made more perfect than in my first, by soldering a portion of smaller
tube about one inch down into the lower tube
and 0 inches long into the upper tubefsee fig.4)
below which part I fix the holdfast of painted
iron, insulated with silk ; the neck of a bottle
would be perhaps still better as more perfectly
insulating the tube, or a block of cast glass the
size of half a brick, with a loop or an eye, would
be more secure (see tig. G); upon the lesser
tube the upper one slides, and allows of ex-
pansion and coutraction without separating
the parts of the tube, which is desirable for
its gravity as were the parts separated, an
explosion would take place at each termina-
S lion though slight, unless there were other
metal nearer.

The advantage of a tube is that a greater
surface is exposed to the action of the elec-
tric fluid, an inch rod presenting little more
than a surface of 3 inches, whereas the | inch
bored tube gives 2i inches inside and 3 out-
side, or from 5i to 5^ inches together, and
the rapidity with which the fluid passes over
it, ensures it from fusion. In all cases the
rod or point should be gilt to prevent oxida-
tion, and were the tube also gilt it might
be more advantageous. .Since the erection
of these conductors, very heavy thunder
storms have passed over all the places
without effecting them, whereas the new
church at Doncaster had its spire partly
destroyed although armed with a glass
globular repeller. .St. Paul's church and

|- s,^ the new Infirmary at Huddersfield which

ISV. \. have conductors erected under Mr. Mur-

t ''jv ^ ray's directions have escaped. .So many

I ' I ^ -^ churches have been struck by lightning in

different parts of the country, that no archi-
tect should attempt to construct a spire
without one of these conductors, especially
as the cost is so trifling, and any village blacksmith or tinman could
make the machine and attach it to either tower or spire ; to ascend
the sjiire, a short ladder may be easily raised against the face of one
plane of the octagon or other figure or plan, the ladder being prepared
by nailing a cross piece of wood at each end ; this will give foot hold,
and the rope fastened to the bottom, tightened round the base of the
spire, and another rope tightened round the top of the ladder, will
give a secure foot hold for raising a longer ladder to be prepared and
secured in the same manner as the first, so that two or more ladders
lashed together, when the height is more than can be reached by an
ordinary ladder, will enable the workmen to get to the summit of any
spire in the kingdom without the necessity of erecting an expensive
scaffolding, should the spire have been left unprovided with a con-
ductor, or in the case of many of our beautiful old spires, several of
■which have been injured. The total cost when put np before scaffold-
ing has been removed, has not in any case exceeded 18rf. per foot
lineal, including 'the tank ; it has been considered in the case of a tower
with pinnacles, that each pinnacle should have a conductor : I think
one would suffice, the other pinnacles being immediately upon their
apex, a glass repeller. Murray observes of the lightning conductor or
paratonnerre, like the paragreie or hail rod, that it protects a surface
around it having a radius equal to double the height of the point from
the surface of the earth, or that 150 feet in height would protect a
circular area 600 feet in diameter. I send you a sketch of Kirkstal
church spire as it appeared after struck by lightning, with a tracing
from a sketch of New Mills churoh, in Derbyshire, which is of the
same form and dimensions as Kirkstal, having no drawing of the
latter.

I am, .Sir, your most obedient servant,

R. Dennis Chantrell.

Leeds, 30/A July, 1842.

' A steam frigate, launched on the 8th ult. at Cherbourg, is the largest
steamer ever built there. Another of the same power is to be launched in
September. Altogether the French Government has, say the French railway
papers, five first class steam frigates in hand.

YORKSHIRE ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

We learn with pleasure that active steps have been taken for tlie esta-
l)lishmeiit of a " Yorkshire Jrchitertural Society," under the patronage
of his Grace the Archbishop of York, and the Lord Bishop of Ripen. At a
preparatory meeting, held in Leeds on the 26th July last, Ur. Hook in the
chair, the following resolutions were adopted : —

" 1. That a Societv be formed, entitled THE YORKSHIRE ARCHITEC-
TURAL SOCIETY.

" 2. That the objects of the Society be, to promote the Study of Ecclesiastical
Architecture, .\ntiquities, and Design, the restoration of mutilated Archi-
tectural Remains, and of Churches or parts of Churches which may have been
desecrated, within the county of York ; and to improve, as far as may he
within its province, the character of Ecclesiastical Edifices to be erected in
future.

" 3. That the Society he composed of Patrons, Presidents, and Vice-Pre-
sidents ; and of ordinary Members to consist of such Clergymen and Lay
Members of the Church as shall he admitted according to the subsequent
rules.

" 4. That His Grace the Lord Archbishop of York, and the Lord Bishop
of Ripon, be requested to extend their patronage to this Society.

" 5. That the Lord Lieutenants of the three Ridings of the County of
Yojk be requested to accept the office of Presidents.

" 6. That the following Noblemen and Gentlemen be requested to accept
the office of Vice-Presidents : —

******

" 7. That new Members be proposed and seconded by Members of the
Society at one of the meetings, and elected at the next, and that Honorary
Members be elected only on the nomination of the Committee.

" 8. That Rural Deans within the County of York be considered on their
signifying their intention to become Members, as ex officio Members of the
Committee.

" 9. That each Member shall pay ten shiUings at his admission, besides an
annual subscription of ten shiUings, to be due on the first of January in each
year; but that the admission fee of those who may become Members before
the 31st December next, be considered as their subscriptions for the current
year.

" 10. That any Member may compound for all future subscriptions by one
payment of five pounds.

" 11. The affairs of the Society shall be conducted by a Committee, com-
posed of the President, Vice-President, and thirty-six ordinary Members, (of
whom five shall be a quorum), who shall be elected at the Annual Meeting,
and of whom twelve at least shall have been Members of the Committee of
the preceding year.

" 12. That the Committee elect out of their own body, a Chairman, and
so many Secretaries as may be rendered necessary by the large extent of the
county.

" 13. That the Society meet for the reading of papers, and the dispatch of
ordinary business, in the spring and autumn of each year : the meeting in
autumn to be considered the public annual Meeting.

" 14. That each Member be allowed to introduce a friend to the ordinary
Meetings of the Society.

" 15. That donations, both of money and of books, plans, casts, and draw-
ings, be solicited, and that the Committee be empowered to make such addi-
tions to the collection of the Society as may be deemed necessary.

" 16. That the library, casts, and portfolios of the Society, he under the
charge of the Secretaries.

"17. When the Committee shall consider any paper worthy of being printed
at the expense of the Society, they shall request the author to furnish a copy,
and shall decide upon the number of copies to be printed ; provided always
that the number be sufficient to supply each member with one copy, and the
author and secretaries with twenty-five copies each ; the remaining copies
may he sold at a price fixed upon by the Committee. All other questions
relating to publishing papers, and illustrating them with engravings, shall he
decided by the Committee.

" 18. That Christopher Beckett, Esq., be requested to accept the office of
Treasurer; that E. J. Teale, Esq., be requested to accept the office of auditor
of the Society's accounts ; and that the Rev. Geo. .\yUfl'e Poole, Rev. Joshua
Fawcett, and Samuel Wilkinson, Esq., be provisional Secretaries, until the
office be filled according to rule 12.

" 19. That the Oxford Architectural Society, the Cambridge Camden So-
ciety, the Exeter and Lichfield Diocesan Societies for Promoting the Study of
Ecclesiastical Architecture, and the Durham Architectural Society, be re-
quested to accept free admission for their Members to all the meetings of
this Society ; and that every attempt be made to reciprocate in all good
offices with Societies of kindred objects and constitution."

CAOUTCHOUC CEMENT.

Specification of a Patent granted to AtFRED Jeffery, of No. 8, Lloyd-
street, Pentoncille, Gent., for a new method of defending the sheathing of
ships, and of protecting their sides and bottoms. — [Sealed 29th April, 1841.]

This invention consists in the production of various solutions and mix-
tures, for preparing oakum for caulking, and paying the seams, and coating

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

323

the sheathing of ships. The solutions are three in number, viz., turpentine
caoutchouc solution, naptha caoutchouc solution, and coal-oil caoutchouc
solution.

The turpentine caoutchouc solution is formed by dissolving one part, by
weight, of caoutchouc, in twelve parts, by weight, of spirits of turpentine.

The naptha caoutchouc solution consists of one part of caoutchouc, dissolved
in twelve parts of rectified coal naptha.

The coal-oil caoutchouc solution is produced by dissolving caoutchouc in
coal-oil, the proportions being the same as in the two former solutions.

The mixtures are asphalte mi.xtures, Nos. 1 and 2, and lac mixtures, Nos.
1 and 2.

The asphalte mixture. No. 1, consists of two parts, by weight, of powdered
asphalte, dissolved in one part of the naptha caoutchouc solution.

The asphalte mixture, No. 2, is composed of two parts, by weight, of
asphalte, dissolved in one part of tlie coal-oil caoutchouc solution, and to
four parts of this mixture, one part of a solution of corrosive sublimate is
added. This solution is prepared l)y dissolving two parts of powdered cor-
rosive sublimate in three parts of white naptha, in a glazed earthenware
vessel, and then adding three parts of coal-oil to it.

The lac mixtures, Nos. 1 and 2, are prepared in a similar manner to the
asphalte mixtures, with this exception, that lac is employed instead of
asplialte.

Oakum is prepared for caulking by soaking it in either the turpentine or
naptha caoutchouc solutions ; the superfluous solution is tlien pressed out,
the tibres separated, and the oakum being dried, is ready for use. The
asphalte mixture. No. 1, or the lac mixture. No. 1, is used for paying the
seams.

The sides and bottoms of ships are protected by a coating of the asphalte
or lac mixtures, one-eighth of an inch thick; either of the mixtures No. 1,
may be applied to the parts above water, or for the first coat of the parts
below water; but one of the mixtures No. 2, must be used for the remaining
coats, which the under parts of the vessels receive. The mixtures are
appUed, when hot, by means of a brush, each coat being allowed to dry
before the following one is laid on, and the surface of the last coat is
smoothed by the application of heat.

The patentee claims, firstly, the method, by the means herein described, of
defending the sheathing of ships, and of protecting their sides and bottoms;
secondly, the appHcation of caoutchouc for the same purpose ; and thirdly,
the application of lac for effecting tlie same object.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

GOVERNMENT STEAMERS.

We are glad to see that Government is beginning to form a fleet of
steamers, on an increased scale. We have the Pmelope, 42-gun frigate, now
having 60 ft. added to her length at Chatham ; she is to have a pair of the
Gorgon engines of 625 h.p., by Messrs. Seaward and Capel. The total cost
of the engines will be £28,000 : this vessel is in a forward state. .Vnother
vessel of 1650 tons burden is to be built under the superintendance and
from the lines of Mr. Oliver Lang, master shipwright of Woolwich dock
yard, and to have a pair of engines of 800 h.p. Another vessel of equal
magnitude is to be built at Chatham dock yard, which was intended to be
called the Dragnn, but we are happy to aimounce that she is to be named
the " James Watt." This is as it ought to be : we have here a name
revered by every engineer, and we may say by every Briton. She is, we un-
derstand, to have the double cylinder direct action engines of Messrs. Maud-
slays and Field. We hope that Government will not stop here ; we must
have at least a dozen of such vessels; we shall then only be just a-head of
the French Government, who, we know, are constructing steam vessels of a
larger magnitude than any of our present class. This must not be allowed ;
we must have the ascendancy of the ocean. We have both the metal and
the men to construct engines upon a large scale, at a short notice. They
only want the support of the Government; and with such aid, we shall be
able to keep Old England a-liead of all the world.

Tlie Queen. — This steam boat, which v\'as engaged last month to convey
the Lords of the Admiralty from London to Woolwich, was l>uilt by .Messrs.
Rennie. Her performance is remarkably good; at her first trial, we are
informed that her speed at the measured mile was equal to nearly 16 statute
miles through the water per hour, with 32 strokes per minute. The vessel
is 160 ft. long, 10 ft. 0 in. beam, and 8 ft. deep; burthen 219 tons: draught
of water 4 ft. ; midship section of immersion 44 f(. Slie has two engines
of 35 H.p. each, or as 1 h.p. to 3 tons. The weight of engines, including
water in boilers, wheels, &c., complete, 35 tons. Nothing can be more
beautiful than the motion of the vessel through the water, which it seeins
to divide without a ripple. Slie is perfectly stable and stilt'; in going down
the river from Long Reach Tavern to Gravesend Church, the distance of 9
miles, with tide, was done in 27 minutes.

The Megm-a steam vessel lias been fitted with tubular boilers by Messrs.
Seaward and Co., being the first man-of-war steam vessel fitted with boilers
of that description.

The Rocket, iron steam vessel, built by Messrs. Fairbairn and Company, at
their establishment in the Isle of Dogs, for the service of Government, has
been taken charge of by the officers of Woolwich Dockyard.

The Meteor steam vessel, Lieutenant-Commander G. Butler, towed down
to Greenhithe at the beginning of last month, a chain lighter with some
buoys and mooring chains, to be laid down in that part of the river under
the direction of Mr. Tinmouth, master-attendant of Woolwich Dockyard, as
it is intended in future that the vessels built, refitted, or otherwise altered
here, be swung at Greenhithe, in order that the variation of their compasses
may be adjusted under the immediate superhitendence of Captain Johnson,
previous to their proceeding to sea.

The Montezuma Steam Frigate. — At a trial voyage of the above-named
magnificent vessel took place from Blackwall to the Lower Hope and back.
It is stated that she steamed at the rate of lO.j miles an hour against tide
both ways, the engines making 21 strokes per minute. The Montezuma,
although of the burden of 1,100 tons, draws no more than nine feet water
when fully equipped, and is built to carry two swivel guns, 68-pounders, on
the upper deck, besides the usual number of small guns. She was constructed
at the yard of Messrs. Wigram and Green, at Blackwall, and her engines,
which are of 300-horse power, and constructed on almost a similar principle
to those on board Her Majesty's steam-frigates Driver, Gorgon, Styx, otc,
were supplied and fitted by the firm of Messrs. Seaward and Capel. These
engines can have the steam cut off at half stroke, so as to act on the expan-
sion principle.

Canada. — An iron steamer, for the use of the royal navy on Lake Ontario,
has lately arrived out from home. It came, of course, in pieces, but the
(iovernment having sent out competent persons, it is to be put up forthwith.
In the same vessel which brought out the iron steamer arrived the magnifi-
cent engines by ilessrs. Boulton, Watt, and Co. of the steam frigate Cherokee,
now almost ready for launching. — Times.

raiSCEIiIiANEA.

AVooLwiCH Dock Yard. — One of the best pieces of granite masonry that
we have ever seen is now executing at this dockyard, in the construction of
the new dry dock, it is built with blocks of granite of large dimensions, laid
in radiating courses, and worked with gieat precision and hammer dressed.
Messrs. Grissell and Peto are the contractors to whom this work is intrusted
under the direction and superintendence of Messrs. Walker and Burgess. A
powerful steam-engine by Boulton, Watt, and Co. has been erected for the
purpose of withdrawing the water within a very limited time when vessels
are docked to be examined. Some idea may be formed of the magnitude
and complete arrangement of the new dock when it is stated that it is suffi-
ciently large to admit, for the purpose of being docked, ships of equal dimen-
sions to the Trafalgar, of 120 guns, and that the volume of water requisite to
float vessels of that size could by the power of the steam engine be com-
pletely withdrawn into the basin at high water or into the river at ebb tide
in about 20 minutes, and in the event of the vessel examined being found
sound and not in want of any repairs she might again enter the river ready
for service without losing a tide. These are improvements in celerity of
movement which cannot fail to prove of great importance to the country in
the event of war with any foreign Power at a future period. The engine
connected with the dry dock has been erected in a handsome and substan-
tially constructed building, and on the top an iron tank has been placed
capable of containing 190 tuns of water, and which will always be kept full
in case of accidents from fire at the end of the yard in which it is situate.

Stucco Paint Cement. — We have examined some specimens of this cement
upon plaster, slate, and wood. It has all the appearance of stone, and forms
a complete impermeable coating, and answers the combined purpose of both
paint and cement ; it is manufactured and sold in a fluid state, like white
lead, and when used it is mixed with sand, in the proportion of 3 of the latter
to 1 of the former, and laid upon brickwork in the usual manner. If used
upon brick, it requires about 7 lb. of the fluid cement, and if upon plaster
about 4 lb. : it is sold at 12s. per cwt. For damp situations, and for walls
exposed to a south-western aspect in the country or on the sea side, it will
be invaluable. Specimens may be seen at the Bernasconi Gallery, Chenies-
street, Bedford-square.

/lereford.— St. Nicholas' New Church was consecrated 11th August last.
This church is beautifully situated at the Friars, a very short distance from
the site on which the old'church stood, leading to the Barton, extending east
to west from Victoria-street to Fiiars-street. The style of architecture is
that of the early English ; the plan is a parallelogram, with a tower at west,
and chancel and vestry at east, projecting beyond each end. The walls are
built of neatly hammer-dressed wall stone, the buttresses and dressings being
tooled. The' sides are divided into compartments by buttresses in two
stages ; the upper part terminating with coping of parapet by weathered
canopies. In each coniiiartmcnt are placed lancet windows, with neat hood-
moulds, terminating on carved bosses. The chancel is flanked by plain
buttresses and octagonal pinnacles with carved finials ; in the gable is an .
open trefoil for ventilation, and below are three lancet windows, united by

324

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Septkmbbb,

their hood-mouldings, terminating upon carved bosses, and glazed with ground
glass, surrounded by a border of rich stained glass, producing a soft and
beautifnl light. The tower is flanked by massive double buttresses, the
lower and upper offsets terminating in weathered canopies ; in the centre of
the tower is the west entrance, the tower forming a vestibule, in which is the
gallery stairs. On the soutli side is a neat porch with inner folding doors.
Down the centre of the church is a very spacious aisle fitted with free seats ;
upon each side is a double row of pews with stall ends and cast heads.
Over the west entrance is an organ loft and gallery with cast iron railings in
front. The pulpit and reading desk are on each side the aisle leading to the
altar, which is approached by two steps, and surrounded by a handsome
raihng. The building is ceiled to the rafter, showing the timbers of the
roof, the trusses of which are filled with tracery. The church is 81 ft. long
and 48 ft. 6 in. %vide in the interior, and contain 800 sittings, 350 of which
are free. The entire edifice is highly creditable to the architect Mr. Duck-
ham. — Hereford Times.

Kentish Town Church. — A view of the exterior and interior of this intended
church, designed by Mr. Bartholomew, has been published, it was chosen out
of a competition of 5. It is to be built from a grant of £800 by the Church
Commissioners, and from private subscriptions, towards which the Queen
Dowager, the Bishop of London, Earls Dartmouth and Mansfield, and many of
the wealthy inhabitants of the neighbourhood contributed largely. The site is
that of the present parochial chapel : the cost is to be, including the materials
of the present chapel, about £6000, and the number of persons to be accom-
modated 1650. The altar, chief entrances, and principal facade, are towards
the east, whence peculiarities of confrmation result. The plan is a parallelo-
gram with two very short transepts. The western of these transepts spreads
out the rear elevation, as seen over the Hampstead fields, to great breadth ;
these are flanked by turret staircases, and the eastern transept being unen-
cumbered by galleries, leaves a free and open chancel. Below the great altar
window a low apsis projects, for the purposes of a vestry, and the altar recess
is flanked by two steeples about 50 ft. high, to contain staircases, beU, clock,
Ac. It is the architect's wish to raise these by an extra fund to upwards
of 130ft. The internal effect and constniction are altogether original:
arches span the fabric in all directions, interchangeably counter-abutting
each other, rising from four iron columns and four piers, containing cores
of iron. The arches which span the nave spring from half length figures of
the four evangelists. Wherever the arches reach the external walls they are
restrained by massy buttresses, detached at bottom from the walling, and
ascending with lofty pinnacles, giving great strength and play of external
effect. The roofing is peculiar : all the rafters are rendered passive by being
laid horizontally ; those to the clerestory bear npon arches about 7 ft. apart,
and the roofs of the aisles, by being gabelled against the clerestory, both
restrain any ulitmate derangement which these arches might suffer, and
increase the picturesqueness of the flanks of the building. All the roof
work is to be stained oak colour ; there is to be no plastering whatever
about it. The body of the church is to be illuminated by six plain lancet
windows, four three-light columnar windows with tracery, and nine orna-
mental rose windows. The altar, besides the great painted window, is to
have four smaller windows to be filled with stained glass containing the
decalogue, creed, &c. with sacramental borders of corn and vines ; and below
these again will run all round the altar recess a series of canopies, supported
upon slender columns with foliagcd capitals of stone (already in existence),
and which are of rare beauty. In the centre, under the altar table, will be
a relief of the Coming to the Holy Sepulchre. The material is to be exter-
nally white brick, and all the canopies, capitals, (except those last-mentioned)
finials, crosses, shields, panels, and most of the other decorations, are to be
of terra cotta or vitrified stone, durablv emblocked into the walling, and not
attached by cramps and pins. The style is the decorated early English, or
early decorated, the combined mass and slenderness of the French cathedrals,
Lincoln cathedral, and other buildings of similar date, being imitated : all
the capitals, of which there are some hundreds, are foliated.

LIST OP tfEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 29th JuLY TO THE 25tH AUGUST, 1842.

Sir Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Thomas Bell, of Saint Anstil, Cornwall, mine agent, for " improvements
in the manufacture of copper." — Sealed July 29.

Jules Lejeune, of Regent's park, engineer, for "improvements in accele-
rating combustion, which improvements may be applied in place of the blow-
ing machines now in me." — July 29.

John Stephen Woolrich, of Birmingham, chemist, for " improvements
in coating with metal the surface of articles formed of metal or metallic
alloys." — August 1.

Alfred John Phipps, of Blackfriars-road, gentleman, for "improvements
in paving streets, roads, and ways." — August 1.

Joseph ^A'HITWORTH, of Manchester, engineer, for " improvements in
machinery or apparatus for cleaning roads, and which machinery is also
applicable to other similar purposes." — August 2.

John Dry, of Beverley, agricultural implement maker, for " improvements
i» thrashing machines." — August 2.

Samuel Carson, of Covent Garden, gentleman, for "improvements lit
purifying and preserving animal substances." — August 3.

Archibald Turner, of Leicester, manufacturer, for " improvements in
the manufacture of muffs, tippets, ruffs, mantillas, cloaks, shawls, capes,
pelerines, boas, cuffs, slippers, and shoes." — August 3.

John Lee, of Bermondsey, gentleman, for " improvements m wheels and
axle-trees to be used on railways, and in machinery for stopping on, or pre-
venting such carriages from running off railways, which improvements may
also be applied to other carriages and machinery." — August 3.

Charles Henri Perrin, of Lombard-street, London, for " improvements
in the construction of certain parts of the mechanism used in watches and
chronometers, which improvements are also applicable to some kinds of clocks."
— August 8.

David Napier, of Millwall, engineer, for " improvements in steam engines
and steam boilers." — August 9.

Thomas M'alker, of Birmingham, stove maker, for " improvements in
stoves." — August 9.

Richard Ford Sturges, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " an improve-
ment in the manufacture of Britannia metal and plated wares." — August 10.

Dominic Frick Albert, of Cadishead, Doctor of Laws, manufacturing
chemist, for " a new combination of materials for the purpose of manufac-
turing a manuring powder." — August 1 0.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's Inn, gentleman, for " improvements in paving
or covering roads and other ways." — August 1 1 .

Joseph Betteley, of the Brunswick Anchor Works, Liverpool, chain
cable manufacturer, for " improvements in windlasses and machinery for
moving weights." — August 1 1 .

John Thomas Betts, of Smithfield Bars, gentleman, for " improvements
in covering and stoppering the necks of bottles." A communication. — Au-
gust II.

George Roberts, of Liverpool Road, miner, for " improvements in the
construction of tamps." — August 15.

William Raybould, of Clerkenwell, brass founder, for " a new or im-
proved soldering iron." — August 1 8.

George John Newbery, of Cripplegate buildings, artist, for •' improve-
ments in producing damask and other surfaces on leather and other fibrous
substances and fabrics." — August 18.

Nathan Defries, of Fitzroy-square, engineer, and Nathaniel Fortescuk
Taylor, of Mile End, engineer, for " improvements in meters for gas and
other fluids." — August 18.

William Ridgtvay, of Staflford, earthenware manufacturer, for " a new
method of conveying and distributing heat in ovens used by manufacturers of
china and earthenware, and brick, tile, and quarry makers." — August 18.

GoLESwoRTHY GuRNEY, of Great George-street, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in apparatus for producing, regulating, and dUipersiny light and heat."
— August 18.

Richard Else, of Gray's Inn, Esq., for " improvements in machinery or
apparatus for forcing and raising water and other fluids." — August 18.

Thomas Hendry, of Glasgow,'mechanic, for " improvements in machinery
for preparing and combing wool, ami other fibrous materials." — August 25.

David Redmund, of City Road, engineer, for " improvements in hinges or
apparatus applicable to suspending or closir^ doors and gates, and other pur-
poses."— August 25.

ERRATA.

In Mr. Hodgkinson's paper, at top of ccl. I, p. 275, injtea'J of the third
column uf the table, read Ratio of mean tensile to crushing strength.
1 to 0 55
I to 6 6
1 to 78

I to 10'5 or 8*9 taking the hardest only.
Soulh-Eastern Railway— line 25, page 262, instead of the pressure being
" increased in the ratio of the square of two to unity," it should be " increased
in the ratio of the square root of two to unity."
Page 251, col. I, line 28, for ^vaca read Cloaca.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

We have received from Mr. Sevrell, C. E., of New York, a drawing and de-
scription of a disconnecting crank for marine steam engines, dated Feb. 1842; we
do not consider it so efficient or so simple as that of Mr. Trewhitt, described in
tiie Journals of last Feb, and June.

" 0. T." — We feel obliged Jor his communications — they shall be inserted next
month.

Mr. Robertson's Paper on Railway Signals we have been obliged to postpone
for want of room.

We have been obliged to postpone our plate until next month, and instead we have
given an extra sheet, with numerous wood engravings.

Books for Review must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (if wilh drawings, earlier ), and advertisements on or before the 25th
instant, addressed to the Editor, Ao. 10, Fludyer Street, Whitehall.

Vols. I, II, III, and IV, may be had, bound in^cloth, price £1 each Volume.

L 1

tt.

tiJ

(UJ

1842.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

325

"TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN.^
With an Engraving, Plate XII.
Karnes of the Public Buildings re/erred to in the annexed Plate.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

".

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

St. Paul's Cathedral.
Chichester Cathedral (repaired).
St. Bride's Church, Fleet Street.
Westminster Abbey (Towers).
St. Vedast, Foster Lane.
Christ's Church, Newgate Street.

j-AU Souls' CoUege, Oxford.

St. Bene't's, Gracechurch Street.

Christ's Hospital.

St. Bartholomew, by the Exchange.

St. Magnus, London Bridge.

St. Peter's, Cornbill.

St. Michael's, Wood Street.

All Hallows', Bread Street.

Tower of St. Michael, Queenhithe.

Marlborough House.

St. Martin's, Ludgate.

Royal Hospital at Greenwich.

Winchester Palace.

St. Dunstau's in the East.

22. St. Lawrence, Jewr\'.

23. St. Stephen's, Walbrook.

24. Tower of ditto.

25. St. Michael, Queenhithe.

26. Buildings in Lawrence Pountuey Hill.

27. St. James's M'estminster.

28. St. Bennet, Paul's M'harf, City.

29. Buckingham House.

30. Hampton Court Palace.

31. St. Nicholas Cole-Abbey, Old Fish Street.

32. Colonnade at Hampton Court.

33. St. Michael Paternoster Royal.

34. Entrance to Doctors' Commons.

35. Temple Bar.

36. St. Margaret Pattens, Rood Lane.

37. St. Mary Aldermary, Watling Street.

38. St. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside.

39. The Monument.

40. Observatory at Greenwich.

41. St. Anthony, Watling Street.

42. St. Albans, Wood Street.

43.
44.
43.
46.
4 7.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.

St. .^.ndrew's, Holborn.

St. Michael's, Cornhill.

St. George's, Botolph Lane.

Morden College.

Old Custom House.

Chelsea Hospital.

St. Margaret's, Lotbbury.

Tower of Christ's Church College, Oxford.

St. Edmund the King, Lombard Street.

College of Physicians.

St. Augustine, Watling Street.

St. Bennet Fink, Threadneedle Street.

Old Mansion House, Cheapside.

St. Matthew's, Friday Street.

St. James's, Garlick iliU.

Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford.

Trinity College Chapel, Oxford.

St. Mary Somerset, Thames Street.

Trinity College Library, Cambridge.

Buildings in Doctor' Commons.

The publication of an engraving from Mr. Cockerell's design, illus-
trating all the principal works of Wren, appears to us a fitting oppor-
tunity for laying before our readers some account of that great man,
and a chronological list of his works. The drawing by Mr. Cockerell,
contains no less than sixty public structures, admirably grouped to-
gether, so as to produce a beautiful picturesqe effect ; it attracted
much attention when exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1838. Now,
by the spirited enterprise of Mr. Hill, of Edinburgh, the publisher,
a splendid line engraving on a large scale has been executed by Mr.
Richardson, in the first style of art, which will place this work at the
command of Wren's numerous admirers in England, on the continent,
and in the new world. We heartily commend it to their patronage.
The key-plate, which we insert in the present number, will, in our
volumes, be always accessible for reference, while the engraving itself
forms an abiding record of the labours of the most distinguished
master in English architecture, and a work so immediately connected
with the sympathies of Englishmen and of English architects, we hope
to see in the studio of every member of the profession.

Christopher Wren was born on 20th Oct, 1632, at East Knoyle,
in Wiltshire, of which parish his father, Christopher Wren, Dean of
Windsor, was rector. In this parent he had the advantage of pos-
sessing a man of learning, by whom his precocious talents were nursed,
and from whom he derived his attachment to mathematical studies.
After studying at Westminster School, one of the most illustrious
seminaries in England, he entered at All Souls' College, Oxford, where
he took the degree of Bachelor and subsequently of Master of Arts,
and afterwards acquired a Fellowship. For success in life he pos-
sessed strong guarantees in the shape of extensive and profound
learning, and powerful connexion. The son of a dignitary who had
rendered good service to the royal cause, he was also the nephew of
Bishop Wren, a most violent Carlist partisan. His sister, too, is
recorded as being in the good graces of Charles II. for curing him of
a wound in the hand by her surgical skill. History sayeth not, but
perhaps like Newtou, Marlborough, and others of his eminent con-
temporaries. Wren might have been indebted for some portion of
advancement to feminine interest. However leagued with the royal
party, he was of too easy a disposition to allow such prepossessions to
stand in his way, for we find him, early in life, commended to the
notice of the Lord Protector Cromwell, and, like Dryden, commencing
Ins career under his patronage. The Protector even offered him to
Vol. V — No. 01.— Octobek, 1842.

allow his uncle Bishop Wren's release from the Tower, but that furious
zealot liked martyrdom too well to accede to the conditions. The,
young Wren must, indeed, have been, as he js represented, of very
unworldly character to charge himself with such a mission ; for instead
cf finding it received as a boon, it was rejected by the Bishop with
the greatest indignation. It was not the fashion of that day to let
party stand in the way of personal advancement, and young Wren
continued his court to the "greatest man" of the day, and pressed
forward into the career of scientific advancement, which was opened
to him. Wren's chief glory is in some degree his misfortune, the
height of his fame in one department has obscured his proficiency in
others, and in becoming the great architect of his day, he has lost the
fame of being one of its greatest philosophers. To his precocity we
have already alluded, and to his inclination for mathematical studies ;
he was placed in a school well calculated to bring forth his ener-
gies ; for in those days, Newton being unborn, Oxford had not yet
ceded to her younger sister mathematical supremacy. Oxford was
also the cradle of the Royal Society, in which Wren was early en-
rolled, and he had thus full scope for the exertion of his talents, and
abundant promise of their being duly appreciated. As a mathema-
tician Wren ranks as one of the first of his day,* and to his last day,
he continued devotedly attached to that favourite pursuit. As his
youth began with that study, and his earliest compositions were di-
rected to it, so the last years of his life were spent in the correction
of the labours and observations of sixty years. It was Wren who suc-
cessfully accepted Pascal's famous challenge to the mathematicians of
England, and returned the defiance with a problem which Wren him-
self was alone able to answer. As a practical and tlieoretical astro-
nomer, he distinguished himself by his observations on the cometary
system, and on the satellites of Jupiter, and by anticipating Huygens
in assigning the theory of Saturn. He suggested the use of a certain
part of the length of a degree as a standard of measure. For the im-
provement of navigation and the instruments used in that art, in sur-
veying and iu the sciences of observations, he gave to the world many-
valuable inventions. He is a claimant for the honour of inventing the
barometer, and many of its practical applications. For the study of
optics he equally exerted himself; he applied himself to perspective
and to the devising of optical instruments. If such was the varied
range of his mathematical pursuits, natural studies did not less occupy

* See Huttou's Mathematical Dictionary, article Wren.

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him. He was an attentive student of physiological plienomena, and
the acknowledged assistant of Scarborough and Willis, to whose works
he contributed anatomical drawings. His biographers claim for him
the invention of the process of injecting liquids into the veins of living
and dead animals : and also, in furtherance of the study of natural
history, the origin of what is called micrography, or the delineations
of objects as seen by the microscope. In these studies he was the
author of many useful experiments, among others, hatching eggs by
artificial heat On meteorology we have a very interesting paper by
Wren, pointing out a course of experiments, similar to those since
carried out by the British Association, with hints for the improvement
of the anemometer and hygrometer. As an artist, his architectural
reputation must speak for him, and we have alluded to bis eminence
in the delineation of objects of natural history, in which he had the
patronage of Charles II. In All Souls' College, Oxford, are preserved
many of his architectural designs, and also some of his working draw-
ings, doing in the early part of liis career everything himself. For
the invention of mezzotinto engraving he is one of the claimants, and
also for that of many instruments used in drawing. We have yet to
speak of his mechanical ingenuity, which was one of his boyish cha-
racteristics, liaving at an early age devised an orrery, which be dedi-
cated to his father, and a double pen, which received the approbation
of the Lord Protector Cromwell. In all kinds of what are called
mathematical and optical instruments, his ingenuity was, as we have
said, prolific, and his skill was ever ready, in the course of the great
works in which he was engaged. In a knowledge of mechanical pro-
cesses, and an acquaintance with the several trades, he had few rivals
in his day ; as a civil engineer he has also left proofs of his ability.
His invention was most ready, like that of Watt too ready ; like that
great man, too, he rarely pursued his ideas to completion, and was too
negligent to put them into a definite form ; the best thing that happened
to his suggestions was to become the spoil of pirates and plagiarists,
to be secretly conveyed to the continent by Oldenburg, or to be appro-
priated by Hooke. In reference to these failings, we are by no means
unwilling to believe, that if Wren were indeed the inventor of mezzo-
tint, that he would be pleased rather than otherwise with its appro-
priation by a patron so powerful as Prince Rupert. We have now to
speak of his literary attainments, for he was the true admirable
Crichton. He made his debut with Latin verses above the youthful
standard, and we find him noted by Sprat, in after years, as translating
Horace into English verse. In Greek, Latin, Italian,* French and
English, he was well versed, and his Latin and English prose, as dis-
played in the few fragments left by him, are far purer than was the
•wont of that day. As an antiquary he has given us specimens of his
labours, and it is deeply to be regretted that, with his love of letters
and good skill in them, we should have so few memorials of what he
was able to do. Such was Wren, a master in every branch of learning,
a contributor to its advancement by his example and exertions on
every occasion, admired by his contemporaries, and presenting one of
the brightest instances of early and diversified talent matured to pro-
duce the most distinguished results.

We have now to trace Wren in his career, to see how his valuable
acquirements were pressed into the public service. He early re-
ceived a Gresham professorship, the Savilian professorship at
Oxford, and the dignity of Doctor of Law, and distinguished himself
in the discharge of his duties. On the return of Charles II., his
connexion could not fail to launch him on the full tide of royal and
ecclesiastical patronage, and from that period we find his progress
rapid. His rooms at Gresham College had become the resort of the
Royal Society, and on the incorporation of that body by that patron
of science, Charles II., be became one of its chartered fellows, and
subsequently for two years its president. In 1G03, he received from
the munificent Archbishop Sheldon, his first architectural employment,
the construction of the theatre at Oxford, for the accommodation of
four thousand persons, an enterprise of which he well acquitted him-
self. He subsequently received a commission from his uncle the

* Birch's History of the Rojal Society, Vol. II, p. 72.

Bishop, to build the chapel of Pembroke College, Cambridge ; and
about the same time was employed to report on the repair of old St.
Paul's, his designs for which were fortunately not carried into effect.
He was now the Deputy (and de facto) Surveyor General to the King,
and in 10G5 made an excursion to Paris, where he employed himself
in examining the progress of the arts, and the wonders of the pros-
perous era of Louis le Grand.

We now come to the epoch of Wren's life, which was to consign
him to architecture as his chief pursuit— this was brought about by
the deplorable fire of London, in 1GG6, and the consequent necessity
for rebuilding the metropolis. Then, as in the recent case of the
fresco painting of the Houses of Parliament, the Government had
recourse to the continent, and Perrault was invited to superintend the
building of the new city, but fortunately could not come. We hope
that the rejection of Cornelius will produce no deeper regret than
the absence of Perault. After the fire, projects poured in upon the
Government for laying out the city upon a regular plan, Hooke and
Evelvn sent in theirs, and Wren sent in his. After-experience has
perhaps taught us that no permanent evil has resulted from the non-
adoption of any one of them. Wren was appointed one of the
Commissioners for rebuilding St. Paul's, Surveyor for rebuilding the
cHy, and in 1069, King's Surveyor General, and a weight of duties
wa's imposed upon him, which he managed to discharge, and at the
same time not to neglect his scientific pursuits. Not only had he to
design nearly all the public buildings, which had been destroyed, but
to build and repair palaces elsewhere, to act as a Commissioner of
arbitrations, to report on public improvements, to check accounts of
all kinds, and to lay out and construct roads and sewers. In laying
out the citv, we have greatly to admire his regard for the health and
cleanliness' of the population, the attention he paid to draining, and
we may record his opinion against the practice of burying in towns.
Ventilation was one of the subjects to which he had turned his atten-
tion ; and the internal economy of his buildings was not neglected. He
it was who aided in the compilation of the rules for the governance of
Chelsea Hospital.

In the midst of these labours, in 1672, Wren received the honour of
knighthood ; and in 1674, married a daughter of Sir John Coghill,
and on her death, a daughter of Viscount Fitzwilliam, in the peerage
of Ireland. By both wives he left issue. In 1G80 and 1681 he was
President of the Royal Society. In 1685, in the revolution parlia-
ment, he served as member forPlympton, in Devon., and subsequently
for New Windsor and Weymouth. Of his parliamentary duties we
have no account, but we suppose he was merely put in as a govern-
ment ofiBcer to supply a fagot vote on ministerial questions. It might
be worth inquiry whether Sir Christopher voted for the ejection of
James IL or not. At any rate, he was a favourite of both William
and Anne, the former of whom made him stand godfather to the
cloisters and other barbarisms at Hampton Court, of which the King
took the responsibility. To testify his obligations to Queen Ann^,
Sir Christopher placed at Windsor, in 1714, a statute of Prince
George of Denmark, the Prince Consort. Among his notabilia, we
must observe that be was grand master of the Freemasons, and is by
many good authorities considered the founder of that order.

Sir Christopher Wren built St. Paul's, several palaces, many public
buildings and works of art, and fifty churches ; and he attained at
home and abroad the renown of a distinguished philosopher and great
artist. In 1718, the Germans having got possession of the English
throne, commenced their career of vandalism, by depriving Wren of
his Surveyor Generalship in the S6th year of liis age, and 49th of his
service, an act which met with the execrations of that age, and the
contempt of the succeeding. His time and his unimpaired faculties
were now devoted to his mathematical works, and his relaxation
was yearly to be conveyed to contemplate his great work. In such
pursuits he died happy, on the 25th February, 1723, and was honoured
with a public funeral, and a sepulchre in his own immortal monument.
Rarely has there been a man, who cared less for the troubles of this
world, or who laboured so hard for such trifling remuneration. His
salary for superintending the rebuilding of St. Paul's, was ^£200,

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327

" and for this," as tlie Duchess of Marlborougli said, " he was con-
tent to be dragged up iu a basket three or four times a week." This
salary was, however, in the eyes of his owlish brother commissioners
too much, so that at one time they stopped half of it, under pretence
of obliging him to hasten the completion of the work. Among other
persecutions, they forced him against his own opinion to alter the de-
sign of his building, to put a balustrade on the outside, and to have the
interior of the dome decorated in perishable painting. Wren, never-
theless, notwithstanding his small allowances, did not die poor, he
accumulated enough to leave an estate behind him.

As a man of science and of varied attainments, we have said
enough to show Wren's greatness ; we have now to consider him as
an artist ; and here we may observe, that of late years there seems as
much disposition to underrate Wren, as formerly the contrary bias
prevailed. Why this should be we do not well see — why Wren
should be tried by another standard than Palladio or Vignola, or
Perault and Mansard. This, however, is part of the fashion, we
may say, part of the errors, of the day. The gentle madness of the
age is to pUice the height of art in the mechanical copying in
milk-and-water colour of some ancient ediBce, and Wren's defect
vias a too g-?ner;il neglect of all rules of art. So far the antipathy
is readily accounted for, but it is not on these grounds tliat the
public will be induced to form its decision as to Wren's merits.
The public, whatever may be its failings as to technical criticism,
whatever may be its lenient tendency to grant magnificence on the
promptings of ignorance, has still some claim to exercise the " vox
dei " in matters of art, and will not sink, for trifling errors, prepon-
derating merits. The fault of Wren, decidedly, was his unacquaintance
with the details of his art, or inattention to them, and in the weighty
labours imposed upon him, there is great reason to fear that he
too often made his design on the promptings of the moment, without
discrimination, and without subsequent correction. His poverty on
many occasions, his misplaced luxuriance in others, his want of
breadth and repose, weakness of proportions, and disregard of styles,
are defects, which, seen unmitigated among bis successors, inspire
disgust, — but Wren had redeeming qualities. He had the eye of an
artist, he had great resources in unrivalled constructive skill, and
■when he chose, knew equally how to unite the novel, the grand and
the picturesque. When, moreover, we consider him in relation to
the age in which he lived, the equally flagrant errors of his prede-
cessors and contemporaries, and that his labours in this country were
unexampled, he must be acknowledged to be a great name in art.
More errors, perhaps, can be detected in a single great work of
Wren, than in all the productions of a modern architect, but his
superiority remains unimpeached. Thus the last number of Black-
wood contains a prodigious mass of nonsense extracted from Macbeth,
and yet the merits of that great work of Shakspeare are still un-
shaken. Many of Wren's faults arise from the attempt after
novelty, a sin not too often committed now-a-days; but still "tine
belle fauie vaut mieux qii'une mediocre heauU':" As to Wren's neglect
of the gothic and defacement of it, however we may regret it, it was
a creed as orthodox in his day as the persecution of papists, and the
concoction of popish plots. Wren was only mad with tlie rest, but at
least he left some specimens of gothic more decent than anything
which appeared from his time to that of Horace Walpole. One of
his characteristics was a hankering after domes and skylights, which
he early manifested in his design for the repair of old St. Paul's. Wren
had at his disposal greater means than perhaps any other architect
ever possessed, and on the whole, he made a noble use of them ; but
we cannot observe without regret, that sums much larger than the
barn-church Commissioners allow in these days, were frequently ex-
pended without producing any eft'ect.

As examples of Wren's most admired works, we may enumerate
St. Paul's Cathedral; the steeples of Dow Church; St. Bride's, and
St. Magnus the Martyr; Greenwich Hospital; and St. Lawrence,
Jewry, Cateaton Street.

Of interiors— St. Stephen, Walbrook; St. Clement's Danes; St.
James's, Piccadilly ; Trinity College library, Cambridge ; St. Mil-

dred's, Bread Street ; St. Bride's ; St. Mary, Abchurch ; and St. Ben-
net's, Threadneedle Street.

Of the pointed style — St. Dunstan's in the East; St. Michael's,
Comhill; St. Mary, Aldermary ; All Souls' College, Oxford; and St.
Alban's, Wood Street.

Of constructions — the dome of St. Paul's; the Monument; the
spire of St. Dunstan's in the East ; the roof of the Sheldonian
Theatre; the rejiair of Chichester Cathedral; the dome of St. An-
tholin's, Watling Street, &c.

For drawing up these notices, we have availed ourselves of several
works, largely of those of Mr. Godwin and Mr. Elmes, but we have
felt that the life of Wren is yet to be written. The Parentalia is
only a chartulary, and Mr. Elmes' work, however copious, not ex-
hausting the subject, and containing much heterogeneous matter. It
is, nevertheless, at present, the only life of Wren, which deserves the
name. Mr. Cockerell has long been understood to have turned his
attention to this subject ; he has in the instance of the engraving
before us, exhibited his zeal ; his qualifications are generally ac-
knowledged, and he could not, therefore, do a greater service than to
execute this long expected task. Among the works to which the
reader may refer, are Wren's Parentalia, Elmes' Life of Wren, God-
win and Britton's Churches of London, Britton and Pugin's Public
Buildings, London, Ward's Gresham Pofessors, the Useful Knowledge
Life of Wren, Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Sn;. Portraits of
Wren are to be found in the Royal Society's Collection, the Sheldo-
nian Theatre, and Salters' Hall, and a bust in All Souls' College,
Oxford.

On the 2Gth of July, 1664, the first stone was laid of the Sheldo-
nian Theatre, at Oxford, (No. 58,) completed 1669, the expense of
which, was £12,470 lis. \d., contributed by the munificent Abp.
Sheldon. This is one of the earliest of Wren's works, and the
ground plan of it was adopted by him from that of the theatre of
Marcellus, at Rome, and so arranged as to receive 4000 persons.
The roof, 80 feet by 70, rests upon the side walls without crossbeams,
and is one of the first and most admired examples of that practice.
In 1800 it was discovered to be in danger of falling, and another
roof substituted (for a description and engravings of the roof, see
Plot's Oxfordshire, Wren's Parentalia, and Elmes' Wren.)

In 1663, he built the chapel of Pembroke College, Cambridge, at
the expense of his uncle Bishop Wren. It is 54 feet long by 24
broad, and 30 feet high. The front is of four Corinthian pilasters.

In 1664, he was employed at Oxford in rebuilding Trinity College.
A new court of three sides is among these works, the north side of
which was completed in 1667, the west side in 1682, and the south
side in 1728. The first stone of the chapel (Xo. 59), was laid on the
0th July, 1691, and the shell completed at the expense of £2000,
contributed by Dr. Bathurst. It is of the Corinthian order.

In 1665, he was called upon to furnish designs for the magnificent
Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, (No. 61,) which cost £20,000,
and is 200 feet long, 40 feet broad, and 38 high, interior measurement.
It has two fronts.

In 1668, he was again employed by Archbishop Sancroft, to build a
chapel for Emanuel College, Cambridge. This chapel, including the
ante-chapel, is 84 feet long, 30 broad, and 27 high; the floor of
marble, and the ceiling richly ornamented in stucco. It was finished
in 1677.

In 1668, Wren built the old Custom House, (No. 47,) which was
burned down in 1718, being the only one of his buildings, as Elmes
remarks, of which, in the course of a long life, he witnessed the
destruction, a fortune not always attendant upon architects.

In the same year, he was called upon to report upon the state of
the spire of Salisbury Cathedral, which he did in an interesting
document.

In 1670, he began Temple Bar, (No. 35,) finished in 1672.

In 1671, he began the Monument, (No. 39,) which was completed
in 1677. Its height from the pavement, is 202 feet, (30 feet higher
than the column of Antoninus,) and stands on a palladian Pedestal, of
2 1 feet square, the plinth being 27 feet. The lower diameter of the

2 Z 2

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shaft is 15 feet, and it coutaius a staircase of black marble of 315
steps.

In 1(570, St. Sepulchre's, opposite Newgate, was rebuilt by Wren,
jiuished IG74 ; but in 1700, it was again repaired, and much of Wren's
work effaced.

The celebrated spire of St. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, (No. 38,)
was begun in 1671, and completed in 1077-8. tt is founded on a
Roman pavement, commences from the ground, and rises nearly plain
to a height above the bouses. The Palladian doric doorways on the
north and west sides, are considered good examples of that kind of
doorway. The tower has a second story, containing on each side a
window between four Corinthian pilasters, and is then surmounted
by a block cornice and balustrade, and each angle relieved
by a pyramidal group of bold scrolls, supporting a vase. Among
these rises a circular stylobate, supporting a temple of the same
figure, and of the Corinthian order, the cell of which serves to sup-
port the lower part of the spire. From the balustrade of the circular
temple proceed a series of carved flying buttresses supporting another
Corinthian temple, with four porticos of two columns each. On the
summit is an obelisk, supporting a large gilt dragon.* The interior of
the church is divided by arcades into a nave and side ailes. Lengtii
65 feet, breadth 62, height 3S.

October 16, 1072, the first stone was laid of St. Stephen's, Wal-
brook, completed in 1679. (No. 23 and 24.) The body of the church
is nearly a parallelogram, divided into ailes. Four rows of Corinthian
columns form five unequal ailes, the centre being the largest, and those
next the walls on either side the smallest. Within one intercolum-
niation from the east end, two columns from each of the two centre
rows are omitted, and the area thus formed, is covered by an enriched
cupola, supported on eight arches, which rise from the entablature of
the columns. The columns are raised on plinths the same height as
the pews. Inner dimensions — length 82 feet 6 inches, width 59 feet
6 inches, height to the flat ceiling of the side ailes 30 feet, and to the
top of the dome 03 feet ; internal di.imeter of the dome 45 feet.
The dome is formed of timber and lead. Ralph observes that this
church is famous all over Europe. Perhaps Italy itself can produce
no modern building that can vie with this in taste and proportion.

St. Michael's, Cornhill, (No. 44,) was begun to be rebuilt in 1072,
and its tower in 1722. The body of the church is in the Italian style,
and is divided into a nave and ailes by Doric columns and arches
supporting a plain groined ceiling. The walls of the church do not
form right angles with one another, whence Mr. Godwin infers that
Wren availed himself of the old foundations. The length of the
church is 87 feet, breadth 60, and height 30. The tower is in the
perpendicular style, in imitation of that of Magdalen College, Oxford,
and rises to the height of 130 feet.

St. Mary-at-Hill, near the Custom House, was rebuilt in 1072. It
is 9G feet long, 60 feet broad, and to the centre of the cupola, within
the church 38 feet high. At the west end is an ambulatory. Four
Italian doric columns placed within the area support an entablature
proceeding from pilasters against the side walls so as to produce a
cruciform arrangement of the ceiling. The centre space is covered
with a cupola.

In 1673, St. Benedict Fink, Threadneedle Street, (No. 54,) was
built. The external walls of this church form a decagon, within
which six composite columns form a parallel aile in the centre, and
support a small elliptical cupola. The spaces between the columns
are arched so as to form a series of recesses round the building,
having a singular effect. It is much admired by some of Wren's
disciples, but its merits are contested by others. Greater inner di-
ameter 63 feet, lesser 48, height 48. The tower and cupola are now
pulled down, and the church is to be refronted as part of the Royal
Exchange improvements.

St. Olave, Jewry, begun in 1673, completed in 1676; the length is
78 feet, width 34, height 30. Height of tower to the top of the
pinnacles 88 feet. The interior has no architectural claims. It eon*
tains the tomb of Alderman Boydell.

.I:.'^j_. J. * See an engraving in the 3rd vol. of this Journal, p. 32J.

St. George, Botolph Lane, (No. 45,) was finished in 1674, and cost
£4509 4s. \Qd. It is plain and unpretending. The interior is divided
by Corinthian columns four on each side, far apart, into a nave and
ailes.

St. Dionis Back Church, Lime Street, built 1674, consists of a nave
and two ailes, formed by Ionic columns, supporting what Mr. Godwin
calls an ugly entablature and arched ceiling.

On the 21st of June, 1075, the first stone of the cathedral of St.
Paul (No. 1) was laid, on December 2nd, 1097, the choir was opened
for divine service, and in 35 years the whole edifice was completed,
under the direction of one architect and during the rule of one bishop
of London. Its cost was £747,954 2s. ')d. The ground plan of the
church is a Latin cross,* having lateral projections at the west end of
the nave, in order to give width and importance to the west front
elevation. The exterior is of two orders, the lower Corinthian, and
the upper composite, between which are generally semicircular-headed
windows in the lower story and decorated niches above, the whole,
except at the east and west ends, crowned with a balustrade, which
was forced upon Wren, by his brother commissioners, in opposition
to his own opinion. The two orders he was compelled to use, contrary
to his first design, being unable to procure Portland stone of more than
four feet diameter. At the west end, above a lofty flight of steps, is
a double portico of coupled Corinthian columns, twelve in number in
the lower, and eight in the upper, terminated by a pediment, in the
tympanum of which is sculptured the conversion of St. Paul. At the
extremities of the front rise two campanile towers, each adorned with
a range of Corinthian columns, and covered with a bell-shaped dome,
crowned with a pine-apple. On the pediment are colossal statues of
the apostles. The projection of the portico is about ]| diameter,
but to ensure depth of shadow, the central portion of the front wall of
the cathedral is set back 25 feet from the inner face of the columns.
The east end of the cathedral is terminated by an apsis, or semi-cir-
cular projection. At the junction formed by the nave and choir with
the transepts, rises a cylindrical wall slightly inclining inwards towards
the top, and from wliich springs the magnificent dome with the lantern
on the summit, surmounted with a gilded ball and cross. The drum
of this dome is surrounded with a peristyle of 32 Corinthian columns,
rising from a plain basement. The entablature of the columns sup-
ports a gallery round the basement of the dome, adorned with a balus-
trade. The basement presents a series of 32 pilasters, each over the
corresponding columns of the peristyle, with windows between them,
and over their entablature ; from a plinth of two steps, begins the ex-
ternal sweep of the dome. At its summit is a second balcony or
gallery, where the lantern commences. The interior contains a nave
and two side aisles, formed throughout by massive piers, dividing
them from the nave and choir, and adorned with composite pilasters,
from the entablature of which spring semicircular pilasters connecting
the piers with each other. On the face of each pier towards the
nave and choir is a single Corinthian pilaster, nearly equal in height
to the under side of the crown of the arches, supporting an entablature
which extends throughout the church. Above the latter is an attic
story, from which, at certain intervals, springs a semicircular arch,
spanning the body of the church, and over each of the spaces which
occur between these, the angles being filled with pendentives, rises a
small flat cupola from an enriched cornice. In the central portion of
the building, over which rises the cupola, are eight solid piers orna-
mented with pilasters similar to the others ; but the openings of the
arches are nearly equa lin height to the ceiling of the nave and choir.
Above the openings and around the dome extends a bold cornice,
forming the floor of the whispering gallery, and bearing an iron railing.
The drum of the cupola is adorned with a range of composite pilasters,
rising from a plain basement above the gallery, and between which
are windows. From the entablature of these pilasters springs the
inner dome, and having an opening in the crown in order that it may

* History and Description of St. Paul's Cathedral, by George Godwin,
Jun., Esq., M.K. S., M.K.I.B.A. London, 1837.

(Note). See engravings in the Journal, Vol. III. pp. 329 and 330, and
Vol. IV. p. 375.

1842.]

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329

receive lights from the lantern above. The inner part of the dome is
decorated with paintings by Sir James Thornhill, although Wren
■wished mosaic to have been employed. The dome of the Pantheon
it is observed,* is no higher within than its diameter ; the dome of
St. Peter's is two diameters, the one appears too high and the other
too low, Wren has taken the mean, showing a concave every way,
and lighted by the windows of the upper order. Above the inner
dome again, in order to carry the lantern with which the cathedral is
adorned, (said to weigh 700 tons,) Wren has introduced a brick cone,
two bricks thick, and having every five feet high a course of bricks
eighteen inches long, bonding it throughout the entire thickness ;
and on which is constructed the exterior of the dome, which is chiefly
of wood. A want of ornament is observable in the interior, and those
introduced are not in good taste, favouring too much of Sir Chris-
topher's studies at Paris. Beneath the whole cathedral is a crypt.

We may observe here, that some doubt may be expressed as to
James IT. having interfered to alter the original plan, for in that plan
the circular walk round the centre provided amplv for processions
and the pomp of worship.

The following are the comparative dimensions of St. Peter's and
St. Paul's.

St. Peter's. St. Paul's,
feet. feet.

Length of church and porch . 729i' 500

Length within . . . 6G9 500

Breadth within the doors of the

porlicos . . . 510 240

Breadth at the entrance . . 226 100

Breadth of the front without . 395 180

Breadth at the cross . . 442 223

External diameter of the cupola . 1S9 145

Inner ditto ... 139 108

Height from the ground without to / 437 ) f 340

to the top of the cross . \ 432 / \ 330

Height of tlie church . . 14G 110

Height of columns in front . 91 40

In 1G75 the Royal Observatory at Greenwich (No. 40) was begun
on the site of an ancient tower, and in 1676 it was finished.

In 1G75, St. Michael's, Wood Street, (No. 14,) was rebuilt. Its
interior forms a large and well lighted parallelogram, with an orna-
mented coved ceiling. The exterior of the east end presents four
Ionic pilasters on a stylobate, supporting an entablature or basement,
and having three circular-headed windows in the intercolumniations.
Length within 63 feet, breadth 42, height 31. Height of tower,
90 feet.

In 1676, Wren built St. Stephen's, Coleman Street, the interior of
which presents nothing remarkable. The length of the church is
75 feet, breadth 35 feet, height 24 feet. Height of tower, 65 feet.

St. Magnus the Martyr, London Bridge, (No. 12,) was built in 1G7G,
and the steeple in 1705. On the top of the square tower, is intro-
duced an octagon lantern, crowned with a cupola and short spire.
The interior is divided into a nave and ailes by Ionic columns. The
ceiling is camerated. The interior is 90 feet long, 59 broad, and
41 high.

St. Michael's, Bassishaw, was begun in 1676, and finished in 1679,
and is a plain, substantial building. The inner dimensions are 70 feet
long, 50 feet broad, and 42 feet high. The interior is divided by
Corinthian columns into two ailes.

St. Mildred's, Poultry, vras built 167G, and presents nothing remark-
able in its interior. It cost .£1564 9s. 7ld. Its length is 56 feet,
•width 42 feet, and height 36 feet. The height of the tower is
75 feet.

St. James's, Garlickhithe, (No. 57), was begun in 1G76 and finished
in 1G83. The interior consists of a nave and side ailes, formed by Ionic
columns on high plinths. The length of the church is 75 feet, breadth

'' Library of Useful Knowledge, Life of Wren.
t See Mr. Godwin's note on this, p. 47.

45, and height 40. The height of the tower, 93 feet. The cost of
the church was £5357 12s. lOi.

St. Nicholas Cole Abbey, (No. 31,) Fish Street Hill, was built in
1677. The interior is well proportioned, with Corinthian pilasters
against the walls, and the ceiling divided into panels. The interior
length is 63 feet, width 43 feet, and height 36 feet. The height of
the steeple is 135 feet.

St. Mildred's, Bread Street, was rebuilt between 1677 and 1683.
The interior is remarkable as being entirely covered with a large and
highly enriched cupola or dome, formed within the external roof by
means of slight deal ribs attached to the principal timbers, and
lathed and plastered. The length is 62 feet, breadth 36 feet, and
height 40 feet.

In 1677, was built St. Mary, Aldermanbury. It is 72 feet long
45 feet broad, and 38 feet high; divided into a nave and ailes, by
composite columns, presenting six intercolumniations, and bearing
an entablature. The ceiling of the nave is wagon-headed.

St. Michael's, Queenhithe, (Nos. 16 and 25.) was built in 1C77,
and is 71 feet long, 40 feet broad, 39 feet high, and the tower and
spire 135 feet high.

St. Bride's, Fleet Street, (No. 3,) was built in 1680, and cost
£11,430. The steeple was completed in 1703, (the first stone having
been laid in 1701.) It is 226 feet high. The two lower stories of
the spire, which rises from a grand tower, are Tuscan, the third Ionic,
and the fourth composite. From this latter springs the tower. The
exterior of the east end of the church is neat, and the dressings of
the great window in a bold style. The interior of the church is ap-
proached by a porch within the tower, and a vestibule beneath the.
organ gallery. An arcade of coupled Tuscan columns on either side
divides the area into nave and ailes. The ceiling is arched. The
recess at the east end forming the chance!, is richly decorated. The
inner length of the church is 99 feet, breadth 58 feet, and height to
the crown of the arch 48 feet 6 inches.*

St. Swithin's, London Stone, was built in IGSO. The ceiling of the
church is formed into an octagon cupola, springing from half columns
against the walls, and one whole column before the organ gallery.
The church is 61 feet long, 42 wide, and 40 high. Tower and spire
150 feet high.

In IGSO, Wren began, and in 1682 finished, the church of St. Cle-
ment Danes in the Strand. He contributed his exertions to this
building gratuitously. The interior, richly decorated, has a camerated
roof, supported with Corinthian columns. The south front of the
building has a circular portico of six Ionic columns. The dimensions
are, length 9G feet, breadth 63 feet, height 48 feet. The height of
the tower is about 116 feet.

St. Anne and St. Agnes, Aldersgate Street, was also built in 1680.
The interior, 53 feet by 53 feet, and 35 feet high, is divided into a
large square in the centre by four Corinthian columns.

St. Mary Aldennary, Bow Lane, (No. 37,) is in the florid style, and
is supposed to be a copy of the old building. It cost £5000, contri-
buted by Henry Rogers, Esq. The interior consists of a nave, two
ailes, and a chancel. The bell tower is divided by string courses into
four stories, and terminates with an open parapet; the octagon turrets
at the four angles are panelled to the whole height, and surmounted
with carved finials. "The length of the church is 100 feet, breadth
63 feet, height 43 feet. The tower is 27 feet square, and 135 feet
high. It was built in 1681.

St. Antholine, Watling Street, (No. 41,) was built in 1632, at an
expense of £5700. The interior is covered with an oval shaped dome,
worthy of observation. The length of the church is 66 feet, breadth
54 feet, and height 44 feet. The steeple is 154 feet high.

St. Augustine's, Watling Street, (No. 5,) was built in 1682, and
finished the 23id Sept., 1GS3; the steeple in 1695. The interior
is small, divided into a nave and ailes by Ionic columns, bearing a
wagon-headed ceiling. The dimensions of the church are 51 feet
long, 45 broad, and 30 high.

Chelsea Hospital (No. 48) was begun in 1682, and finished in 1690.

* See an Engraving in the Journal, vol. 3, p. 329.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

Tt cost ;£r.0,000. The principal buiUling consists of a large quad-
rangle of brick, open on the south side. The east and west wings
are each 3G5 feet in length, measured from the north front. In the
centre of the front and each of the wings are pediments of free stone,
supported hv doric columns. The internal centre is occupied by a
yestibule, terminating in a dome, and the whole length of the prmapal
building, from east to west, is 790 feet.

In 1683, Wren was employed to build a palace at Winchester, for
the bishop! but a great part of it has since been pulled down.

He was also employed to build a palace in the same city for
Charles H., (So. 20,) the foundation stone of which was laid on the
"Srd March, 1'383, by that monarch. This building was never com-
pleted and the remains are now converted into a barrack. The
design' for the original palace, is to be found in Milner's Winchester,

vol. 1, p. 433.

In 16S3, the Ashmolean Museum, at Oxford, was built,
i^t Clement's, Eastcheap, was begun in 16S3, and finished in 16S6,
Its'interior is a parallelogram, with an aile on the south side, sepa-
rated from the body of the church, by two columns, of the composite
order, rising from" very high plinths. The length is 64 feet, breadth
40 height 34. The height of the tower is 88 feet.

in 1683, Wren built the Chapel of Queen's College, Oxford, which
is 100 feet long, and 30 broad. The design of the quadrangle, built
bv Hawksmoor, is also attributed to Wren. Hawksmoor was the pupil
of Wren, and his successor as Surveyor for building the fifty uew
churches 'under Queen Anne's act. Wren also jbuilt at Oxford, the
towers and other buildings at All Souls' College, in the pointed style,
(Xos. 7 and 8,) and the octagonal bell-tower of Christ Church College,
(Xo.oO,) which is also in the later pointed style, with a lantern and
dome, li'ghted by eight windows. . ., u • , ,

St. Bennet's Paul's Wharf, (So. 28,) said to be the burial place
of Ii'iigo Jones, was rebuilt in 1683. The interior, which is unim-
po'tant, is S7 ft. long, 60 feet broad, and 30 feet high.

All-Hallows the Great, Thames Street, was built in 1683. It is
remarkable for a carved oak screen. The length of the church is
Sr feet, breadth 60 feet, and height 33 feet. The height of the tower

is 86 feet. , ,„ „,

St. James's, Westminster, (N'o. 27,) was built in lbS3. The exterior,
of brick, is plain. In the interior Wren made some exertion ; the roof
is arche'd, supported by twelve Corinthian columns, and the ceiling
panelled and decorated. The length of the building is S4 feet, breadth
63 feet, height 42 feet. The height of the steeple 149 feet.

The 'gate of the Temple in Fleet Street was built by Wren in 1684.

St, Martin's, Ludgate, was built in 1684. The tower rises from
the ground in the centre of the front, and is surmounted with a spire.
The length of the church is 57 feet, breadth 66 feet, height 59 feet.
The height of the steeple is 168 feet. The cost of the church,
£5378 ISs. 8d.; the interior is formed into a Greek cross by four
composite columns, standing on high plinths.

All Hallows', Bread-street (So. 15) is called of the Tuscan order.
It is of stone, and was built in 16S4, and the steeple in 1697. The
length of the church is 72 feet, breadth 35 feet, and height 30 feet.
The tower, 86 feet high, is of stone, built square, and decorated ; the
keystones over the windows being carved heads, and between each a

large festoon.

St. Marv Magdalen's, Old Fish Street, was built in 1685. It is a
substantial fabric, with a bell-tower at the north-west corner. The
south-east and east ends display a series of circular-headed windows,
with trusses supporting a continued cornice above. The length of
the church is 60 feet, width 48 feet, height 30 feet. The cost was
£4291. 128. M.

St. Benet's, Gracechurch Street, (So. 9,) was built in 1685. It is
60 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 32 feet high. The height of the
tower and spire is 149 feet. The cost of the building was
£3583 9s. 5d.

St. Matthew's, Friday Street, (No. 56,) was built in 1685. The east
end presents a series of six circular-headed windows on a lofty stylo-
bate, surmounted with a cornice and balustrade. The interior, 60

feet long, 33 feet broad, and 33 ft. high, is plaui with a flat ceiling.
The height of the tower is 74 feet. The cost of the building was
£K8l8s;2(f.

St. Alban's, Wood Street, (Xo. 42,) in the bter pointed style, was
built in 1685, and is a bad restoration of the old building. The length
of the church is 56 feet, breadth 59 feet, height 33 feet, and height
of the tower 92 feet.

St. Marv's, Abchurch Lane, was rebuilt in 168S. Tlie interior is

65 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 51 feet hrgli, covered with a large and

handsome cupcla, supported on a modillion cornice, and decorated

with paintings by Sir James ThomhiU. The height of the tower and

spire is 140 fl.

St. Andrews', Holborn (Xo. 43) was built in 1686. The interior is

large. It is divided into a nave and side ailes by pillars carrying a
wagon-headed ceiling. The length is 105 feet, breadth 63 feet, and
height 43 feet. The height of the tower is 110 feet.

In 1687, Christ Church, Newgate Street, (No. 6,) was begun, and
finished in 1704. The interior is divided into a nave and side ailes
by small Corinthian columns, supporting a wagon-headed ceiling.
The length is 114 feet, breadth 61 feet, and height 38 feet. The
height of the steeple is 153 feet. It is a pleasing object at a distance,
but is a confused composition, although its parts are well propor-
tioned.

St. Lawrence, Jewry (No. 22), the corner of Cateaton-street, was
began 12th April, L67I, and finished 1686. The interior consists of
oue large area, with an aisle on tlie north side, formed by Corinthian
columns carrying an enriched entablature, standing on a plinth, and
supportintr a pediment, the inter-columniation being occupied by two
windows and a niche. The extreme angles of the front are terminated
by pilasters, between which and the columns are other niches. The
steeple is 130 feet high.

St. Margaret Pattens, Fenchurch-street (No. 36), built in 16S7, con-
sists of a nave and aile, and chancel. The walls are decorated with
Corinthian pilasters. The ceiling is flat, having a square of fretwork,
and the arches similarly adorned. The length of the church is 66
feet, breadth 53 feet, height 32, and of the tower and spire 198 feet
2 inches.

St. Margaret's, Lothbury (No. 49), was erected in 1690. Consists of
a nave, an°d decorated with Corinthian pilasters, and an aile formed
by two columns of the same order. The ceiling is coved. The
length is 66 feet, breadth 54 feet, and height 36 feet. The tower and
spire 140 feet high.

The church of St. Edmund the King, Lombard-street (No. 51), was
also built in 1690. In it was buried, in 1563, Edward Shute, author of
a folio called " The First and Chiefe Grounds of Architecture," being
one of the first English works on practical architecture. The interior
of the church is plain, surmounted with a dome or skylight, but it is
well fitted up. The length is 60 feet, width 39 feet, height 33 feet.
The height of the tower and spire, which are much ornamented in
an incongruous manner, is 90 feet.

St. Andrews of the Wardrobe was built in 1672. The interior is
divided by 12 square Tuscan pillars, in two stories, into a nave and
ailes, surmounted with a camerated celling, formed into panels.
The length is 79 feet, breadth 59 feet, and the height 38 feet. The
interior is plain. The height of the tower is 66 feet. The cost of
the building was £7060 168. Ud.

In 1690, the College of Physicians, Newgate-street (No. 52), was
finished. It is now converted into a meat market, and the upper part
of the theatre into a brass foundry. The anatomical theatre, lighted
by a lantern, was well designed for both seeing and hearing.

In 1692 Wren built Morden College at Blackheath (No. 46). It is
ofbrick, with stone quoins and cornices, forming a quadrangle, sur-
rounded with a colonnade. In the interior is a chapel.

In 1694, All Hallows', Lombard-street, was built. The interior is
fine, being subdivided, and is 64 feet long, 52 feet broad, and 30 feet
high. The tower is 85 feet high, and with the rest of the exterior is
quite plain.

St. Mary, Somerset, Thames-street (No. bO), was erected m 1695.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

33!

The interior has a flat ceiling, and is divided into a nave and two
side aile?, is quite plain. It is S3 feet long, 36 feet broad, and 30 feet
high. The tower is square, with barbarous pinnacles, the height to
the top of them being 120 feet.

St. Michael's Paternoster Royal, Thames street (Xo. 33), was built
in 1694, and the spire in 1713. The interior is plain, with a flat ceil-
ing coved at the walls. The length is 86 feet, breadth 43 feet, and
height 40 feet. From the tower rises a pleasing tower of two orders,
the lower story, Ionic, bearing an entablature and vases. The whole
height is OO feet.

His patroness. Queen Mary IT., having died, Wren was employed
by William in 1695, to design the mausoleum in Westminster Abbey.

Wren was employed by Queen Mary II. to enlarge the Royal
Palace at Greenwich (No. 19), which was subsequently converted into
the Marine Hospital. The principal front to the Thames contains the
Royal Court, 300 feet square, having on the west the courts of King
Charles 11. and King William, and on the east that of Queen Anne
and Queen Mary, and on the south the great hall and ctapel. The
court of King Charles II., containing the great end wing, is of Portland
stone, and of the Corinthian order. In the middle is a tetrastyle
portico, with arcades. At each end is a great pavilion, rising into an
attic order, and forming a high tower. The other wing corresponds.
The Royal Court contains two colonnaaes being each 30 feet long,
and consisting of 150 columns and pilasters 20 feet high. The great
hall in King N^'illiam's building is 105 feet long, 56 feet wide, and 50
feet high. The painting of it cost £6,685.

St. Vedast, Foster-lane (No. 5), was begun in 1694, and finished in
1698. The interior is divided into a nave and aile by a range of
Tuscan columns. The ceiling is flat, and formed into one large panel,
enclosing others smaller, and decorated with wreaths of fruit and
flowers. The length is 69 feet, breadth 51 feet, height 36 feet.
The spire and the top of the square tower are by some admired. It
consists of three stories, the lowest presenting four concave faces, with
clustered pilasters and piers at the angles. The centre story has four
convex stories, with plainer piers ; and the third story consists of an
obelisk, with scrolls at the corners of the base.

St. Dunstan's in the East (No. 12), was restored by Wren in the
pointed style ; and in 1698 he built the tower and spire, which are on
the plan of the spire of St. Nicholas at Newcastle. The spire is sup-
ported on a tower 20 feet wide, by four flying arches. Wren's nave
has since been pulled down and rebuilt.

He also repaired the interior of Guildhall.

A theatre built by Wren near Fleet-street, shortly after the restora-
tion, stood upon the site formerly occupied by the New River Com-
pany's offices.

At St. James's Palace Wren was also employed. He designed the
Doric court, the council chamber, the audience-room, and the dining-
room.

Buckingham House, now pulled down was built in 1703 (No. 29).

Marlborough House (No. 17) was begun in 1709.

In 1713, Sir Christopher was employed to repair Westminster
Abbey, when among other works he extended the west front (No. 4),
and carried the towers up to the height of 225 feet. The design is
Incongruous, and is far from a happy specimen of his skill in the
pointed style.

Mercer's Hall, Cheapside, contains a fine set of rooms and a chapel.

Isleworth church is partly built on a plan designed by Wren.

The new buildings at Hampton Court Palace (No. 30 and 32) were
built by Wren in 1690. What are called the king's apartments are
328 feet long, and the queen's apartments, 330.

The house in Cheapside occupied by Mr. Tegg was the Old Man-
sion House, built by Wren (No 55.)

On the south side of Queen-square, Bloomsbury, was a house built
for the Earl of Newcastle.

Near the south-west angle of St. Paul's church-yard is another of
his mansions.

Another was in Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, and also some
buildings in Lawrence Pountney Hill (No. 26).

At Chichester, where he very ingeniously repaired the spire of the
cathedral (No. 2), are two houses of red brick, with stone architraves,
and a Corinthian modillion cornice.

A hunting- palace at Newmarket built for Charles II., was also
among his designs.

The entrance and other buildings in Doctors' Commons (No. 34 and
62) is anothtr work.

The counting-house and court-room in Christ's Hospital (No. 10),
were built by Command of Charles II.

At Windsor Castle Sir Christopher built the Star Building about
120 feet long, now the Stuart Building. In 1676 he enlarged the
North Terrace, and executed other works. A design for an Italian
palace is inserted in Wyatville's Illustrations of Windsor Castle.

He was also employed on the repairs of the Tower and other public
buildings, and in erecting a number of buildings iu the city. It may
be further observed that most of his churches are enriched with altar
pieces, and carved pulpits and fonts executed under his direction.

DR. PAYERNE AND HIS DIVING-BELL EXPERIMENTS.

Am announcement was lately sent forth, with a loud flourish of
trumpets, that a discovery had been made of vast importance in all
sub-aqueous works, by which man would be enabled to surpass the
fishes in their natural element, and to live for an indefinite time with-
out communication with the atmosphere. Dr. Payerne, the alleged
discoverer of the new process for decomposing water in quantities
sufficient to support animal life by the resulting oxygen, exhibited his
prowess in the diving bell at the Polytechnic Institution to the won-
dering company ; and in the presence of several scientific men, re-
mained under water, without any supply of air beyond the contents of
the bell, upwards of three hours. The Doctor took down with him a
bag, supposed to contain the mysterious apparatus by which he was
enabled to generate air for the support of life so long under water,
and having accomplished this feat, he was looked upon by the ad-
miring crowd as a water deity, and the newspapers failed not to pre-
dict the most important consequences from the discoveries of this
modern Neptune. The experiment having been several times repeated
in the diving bell of the Polytechnic Institution, it was determined to
bring Dr. Payerne's discovery to the test of practical utility in the
operations on the wreck of the Royal George at Spithead. Major
General Pasley had promised to afford the opportunity ; accordingly,
on the 2nd ult. the experiment was made, and was subsequently re-
peated, during which six descents were attempted with various results.
A very ample report of the experiments was given in the Times, and
in a manner which led to the belief that the account was from autho-
rity, and had been furnished by some person who took part in the
proceedings. The report is too long to copy entire ; we must, there-
fore, be satisfied with a summary of the two days' adventures at Spit-
head, culling here and there, from the original, passages which evi-
dently show, notwithstanding the care taken to produce an opposite
impression, the failure of Dr. Payerne's mysterious apparatus to afford
facilities in submarine undertakings, so far at least as these experi-
ments may be considered the test of its value.

In the introductory allusion to Dr. Payerne's previous experiments,
it is stated that Major General Pasley, after having witnessed the
Doctor's " performances " at the Polytechnic Institution, still enter-
tained great doubts whether the apparatus would be equally efficient
at Spithead ; " for, " as he told the Doctor," though he was satisfied that
he could produce good air at any depth, the pressure of from 12 to 15
fathoms of water at the bottom of the anchorage at Spithead would
compress the air in a diving bell so much, that though men might
exi t in it, they would not be able to work to advantage, being nearly
up to their necks in water."

We must suppose that the reporter is here in error, for he repre-
sents General Pasley to be egregiously ignorant of the commonest law
of pneumatics, and of notorious facts connected with the use of the

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

diving bell. The General must surely have known that if Dr. Payerne
could generate any gas with his apparatus, it must become, at the
instant of its generation, of the same pressure as the air in the bell,
anil, to the extent of its volume, expel the water as effectually as air
pumped in, or otherwise introduced, under any state of compression.
The difficulty which is represented to have been raised by General
Pasley was, however, a lucky means of relieving the Doctor from an
awkward predicament into which he would otherwise have been placed
as soon as the bell was lowered into deep water. The thought sug-
gested itself, that General Pasley's objection might be removed by
attaching to the bells cylinders of highly compressed air. These cylin-
ders were four in number. Each one was of the capacity of four cubic
feet, and the air was compressed to ten atmospheres. The Doctor
consequentiv was provided with an available supply of air, indepen-
dently of the contents of the bell — and also independently of the
"good air" generated in the mysterious box — equal to lOO cubic feet
at the pressure of the atmosphere. Notwithstanding this ample pro-
vision. General Pasley still had misgivings of the result, the reporter
informs us :

" When the preparations were completed, Dr. Payerne took his
seat in the diving bell accompanied by Major-General Pasley, who,
hating full conjdence in the goodness of the Doctor's air, but less in his
expedient for keeping oat the water from the bottom of the bell, took the
precaution of putting on a water-tight diving dress, offering another to
the Doctor, who rejected it, in the belief that he would be able to
keep the bell completely dry. They had, hoiuever, scarcely descended
more than 10 or 12 ftet below the surface, when the water came in upon
theyn so fast that the Doctor requested that the bell should be hauled up
out of the water, as he said he was sure that it must be leaky."

The fact was as Dr. Payerne suspected. The air escaped from the
top of the bell, in consequence of the cap over the air hole not having
been screwed down tight. During this first attempt to descend, one
of the cylinders of compressed air was exhausted, though the bell had
been lowered only twelve feet. It does not appear whether or not
Dr. Payerne attempted to use his air-generating apparatus in this
experiment. His confidence in his resources was, however, so much
shaken by this first adventure, that, before going dow'n a second time,
he followed General Pasley's prudent example, and put on a diving
dress.

In the second descent they were lowered lOi fathoms, " -when they
were hauled up by mistake of a signal before they had quite reached the
bottom.'" The three remaining cylinders of compressed air were ex-
hausted in this descent ; the effect of it was so far successful that it
kept the water within six inches of the bottom of the bell. Dr. Pay-
erne's assistant and Lieut. Hutchinson next descended, but as they
would not wait to have tlie cylinders refilled, "they were obliged to
make the sij;nal to stop lowering after they had only descended 23 ft.
the bell being at that time nearly half full of water." Thus the ex-
periments of the first day ended without any result. It does not
appear, indeed, (hat Dr. Payerne or his assistant on these occasions
once employed the air-generating apparatus; or if they did, it was
certainly of little use.

On the second day, as on the first, there were three descents ; two
by General Pasley and Doctor Payerne, and one by the Doctor's assis-
tant and Lieutenant Hutchinson. As those were the most important
trials, we will give the account of them in the reporters' words : —

"Dr. Payerne and Major-General Pasley went down twice — first to
the depth of 12* fathoms, when they were pulled up by mistake of a
signal be/ore they reached the bottom, to their great disappointment.
After the four cylinders were filled again with compressed air, which
was done in about an hour, they descended a seconil time, and as the
men above had strict orders not to stop lowering until the diving bell
reached the bottom, and not to haul it up again, unless they pulled
the signal line three or four times, Dr. Payerne had the satisfaction of
getting a small piece of wood from the wreck of the Royal George,
after which they made the signal to ascend. Another experiment, of
still greater interest, was tried at the suggestion of Lieutenant Hutch-
inson, who went down without any air cylinders, accompanied by Mr.

Hardiman, having the end of one of the diver's air-pipes with them,
through which air was forced into the bottom of the diving-bell by
one of the small pumps which usually supplies air for a helmet-diver.
By means of this pump the water was expelled from the lower part
of the diving-bell, and replaced by condensed air, which enabled them
to descend to the very bottom, there being no cylinders to prevent the
bell from taking the ground, as in the former experiment; and Mr.
Hardiman also brought up some small relics from the wreck.

"The result of these experiments is, that both Major-General
Pasley and Lieutenant Hutchinson expressed their high opinion of the
merit of Dr. Payerne's invention, as applied to the diving-bell; for
they considered that the air they breathed in the bell was perfectly
good; and the whole apparatus for purifying it was contained in a
case not larger than a common portable writing-desk, which gives no
trouble but that of turning a small winch or handle occasionally, and.
as, besides water, two very cheap and simple ingredients only are
used, the manipulation requires no science on the part of the person
in charge ; and, when the diving-bell is once filled with compressed
air, either by letting it escape from vessels previously filled with it,
as in the first experiment, or by four men pumping for less than half
hour, as in the second experiment, no more pumping is necessary, as
the air in the bell never requires to be changed."

After carefully perusing the detailed accounts of Dr. Payerne's
operations under water, we entertain a very different opinion of the
merit of his invention from that which is stated to have been ex-
pressed by General Pasley and Lieutenant Hutchinson. We shall
now proceed to state the reasons which induce us to look sceptically
on the Doctor's apparatus, and to show, from well known facts, that
ttdiatever may be its capabilities for generating vital air, he has
hitherto elFected nothing with it which might not have been accom-
plished without any apparatus whatever, or by means that have been
long known.

It has been ascertained that one gallon of air will support the life
of man, when the same air is inspired and expired, about one
minute. In a diving-bell wdiich contained 60 gallons of air, a man
should therefore be able to support life under water, without any ad-
ditional supply of air for one hour. The capacity of the diving-bell
at the Polytechnic Institution, which will hold six persons, is about
110 cubic feet ; which is equal to 870 gallons. This quantity of air
ought therefore to sustain the life of one man for fourteen hours.
The effect of breathing vitiated air for so long a time would, how-
ever, be most probably very injurious, consequently though a person
introduced in such air might continue to live for some time, it might
not be capable of continuing to sustain the life of one who had been
fur hours enduring a gradually vitiating air. But we may safely
assume that a man with a supply of 140 cubic feet of air might con-
tinue under water without much inconvenience for at least four hours.
Here then we have a suflScient solution of Dr. Payerne's mystery,
without seeking to extract the secrets of the " box." Whatever
latent virtue it may contain, it is clear that the Doctor might have
managed well enough without its development in the diving-bell of
the Polytechnic Institution, where he remained under wa:er in his
most successful experiments, three hours and a half. That he did
not accomplish more than could be effected by others was afterwards
proved most conclusively. Two persons, subsequently to the Doctor's
experiments, determined to try how long they could remain in the
bell without additional supply of air ; and without the aid of any
box or any apparatus whatever, they remained under water for an
hour and a half, during a great part of which time they burned a
light. The consumption of oxygen gas by two persons and a burning
candle for one hour and a half, must have been at least equal to Dr.
Payerne's single consumption for three hours and a half. It is clear,
therefore, that whatever advantage he might have derived from the
superior purity of the air (if any) manufactured by his apparatus, he
did not with its aid, and though he had greater inducement to suffer
inconvenience, remain longer under Vfater than any other person
might have done.

Of the experiments at Spithead, viewed as u test of Dr.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

333

Payerne's invention, little need be said. Tliey were, with one ex-
ception, decided failures; and even in tlie experiment which was
most successful, the whole achievement consisted in bringing up a
small piece of the wreck of the Royal George, to prove the divers
had actually reached the bottom. This was the mighty result of the
new discovery which, as announced, was to enable man to dwell with
ease at the bottom of the ocean, and to inhale water for air!

Let us examine the means by which this feat was accomplished, to
gee whether, trifling as it was, any part of it can be reasonably as-
signed to the operations of Dr. Payerne's box and materials. We are
not informed of the size of the bell employed by General Pasley, but
from the circumstance of its being constructed of wrought iron, and
made expressly to carry on the operations against the wreck of the
Royal George, we must conclude that it was at least of the size of
those formerly employed by Dr. Halley and Mr. Smeaton, which con-
tained GO cubic feet of air. The cylinders of compressed air, we
have already stated, would furnish a further supply of 160 cubic feet
of the pressure of the atmosphere. The two divers would, therefore,
have a supply of air equal to 220 cubic feet. With this supply they
might have remained under water, if consuming but one gallon per
minute, for ten hours; but estimating the quantity of air requisite to
sustain life without much inconvenience, from actual experiment at
the Polytechnic Institution, we will take it at two hours and a half.

How long they did remain below each time, the reporter fails to
state, but it would appear that the bell was drawn up nearly as
soon as it reached the bottom ; therefore, we may presume the
longest experiment did not last more than half an hour. Conse-
quently there could not have been occasion for the Doctor to have
generated more air than the supply he took down ; and however
simple and easy the manipulation of the apparatus may be, he might
have saved himself the trouble of turning the handle of the box.
Another question arises, if the Doctor did generate any gas what
became of it ? It is known that the volume of air expired from the
lungs is very nearly equal to the quantity inspired, and we find that
even with the whole supply of air from the cylinders, the water was
still six inches within the bell. This could not have been, had any
quantity of gas been generated, for it must have expelled all the water
and forced itself out of the bell.

The naivete uith which the authorised reporter records the suc-
cess of the last experiment at Spithead, is extremely amusing. Lieu-
tenant Hutchinson and Dr. Payerne's assistant descended with an air-
pipe supplied by a small air-pump, and with this they appear to have
been more successful than was Dr. Payerne with his cylinders of com-
pressed air, and his mysterious box. This mode of descending in the
diving hell, which is called in the report "an experiment of still greater
interest" than any previously attempted, it will be at once perceived
is the plan first adopted by Smeaton, and since generally adopted ;
the only variation being that the pipe was smaller, and was taken
down in the bell instead of being inserted in the top. It thus ap-
pears to be admitted, that so far as the experiments extended, the old
plan is more advantageous and much less troublesome than the new
invention, which was so extravagantly puflTed.

As Dr. Payerne does not disclose the process by which he professes
to be able to decompose water in sufficient quantities to supply
oxygen gas for respiration, it would be useless to speculate on the
practicability, if any snch plan were applied to works under water,
So far as his experiments have gone, they have, we conceive, proved
nothing. The Doctor exhibits u mysterious box ; he professes to
have in it two simple and cheap materials, which are sufficient to
generate air sufficient to support life for an indefinite time ; he tries
its powers, and the effects produced are no greater than if the box
and materials had no existence. Were we to speculate respecting
the contents of such a box we might imagine it to contain highly
compressed oxygen gas. Fifteen cubic feet of gas might be com-
pressed into a case the size of a portable writing desk ; and as one
cubic foot of oxygen would support life nearly five times as long as
atmospheric air, he wou'.d thus carry under his arm a supply equal
to 75 cubic feet of common air. This speculation, however, can

scarcely be correct, or the Doctor's mysterious box would have been
more efficacious than it proved.

Though Dr. Payerne's experiments have, we consider, entirely
failed to show that he possesses any peculiar art of transmuting water
into air, they have been productive of advantages by proving that
operations under water may be conducted with a much smaller supply
of air than has hitherto been considered necessary.

The great publicity which Dr. Payerne has succeeded in giving
to his claims to be the discoverer of an important scientific principle,
challenges examination, and has induced us to bestow this notice on
his experiments. It would be presumptuous to assert that the Doctor
has made no such discovery, but if he have, he has been most unfor-
tunate in his mode of announcing it to the world ; for whilst claiming
to be a philosopher, he assumes the garb of a charlatan.

FIRE-PROOF BUILDINGS.

Sir — The constant danger and frequent loss to merchants, solicitors,
and others, through the destruction by fire of the papers and docu-
ments entrusted to their care, has induced my clients to erect an ex-
tensive range of " fire-proof" chambers and offices in the Old Jewry,
City. At this time some description of the method adopted, viz. of
omitting timber, and of using cast iron girders and brick arches to
carry the floors, whereby each room becomes in a manner an arched
vault, may not be unacceptable to your readers, although the idea is
not new, the more especially as many professional men, engaged, as
they stated, on somewhat similar works, have inspected the buildings
and sketched the details, for the purpose of obtaining information
respecting the construction.

Fis:. 1. Elevation of iron Girder.

Fig. 2 Looking upwards.

r>» C5^

Fig 3. Section of Girder and Arches.

c I, cenlre line.

The walls are built without any bond plates, instead of which, in
the height of each story, according to the height of it, 5 or 6 courses
of wrought iron hooping liXJ in. is laid in the walls; it must be laid
quite flat, and well lapped together or bound round a brick at the
joinings and passings. The hooping was tarred and sanded for better
adhesion to the mortar, and kept in about an inch from the face of the
wall, as the rust would otherwise stain the plastering.

The girders were of various lengths, from 11 ft. up to 18 ft. Gin.
clear bearing; they rested 9 in. at each end on 4 in. York templates,
and were placed 7 ft. apart from centre to centre. The girders ex-

3 A

334

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

plained by the di.igram were for 15 feet bearings, 12 in. deep in tlie
centre, and 8 in. at tlie ends, and 1 J in. thick in the centre ; the forked
or divided parts were each U tl"'^k, and the roll at the top 2i in.
diameter. They were proved to 20 tons by 13 tons in the centre,
although there is not a probability of their having to carry 9 tons, but
the object was to give confidence to the public; the deflexion was an
inch. The skew-backs were cast hollow, having stiffening pieces
about 3 ft. apart, as shown by the plan and section.

Between the girders arches were turned in half a brick in cement,
care being taken in setting out the work to bring in the courses with
very close joints, and so as for the bricks to touch each other at the
lower side ; the 5 or G centre courses were put in without cement, so
as to get jammed in tight, after which they were grouted. The rise
of the arch was 5 inches, the spandrils were not filled in, and the
bricks were well snaked in water.

The centreing was in all cases held up or suspended to the girders
by iron hangers, whereby the weight was gradually placed upon it;
this would not have been the case if the centreing had been put up on
props and afterwards struck in the common way.

About 22,000 feet of these arches have been turned, and not the
slightest appearance of a settlement is to be found in any part of them.
The floors over the arches are formed in the usual manner, with joists
and sleepers. The iiitrados are plastered, and a soffit with papier
mache work is fixed to the underside of the girders to conceal them.

The reliance to be placed on this method of building as a security
against the extension of fire from room to room, has been fully tested
in the following manner ; a large coke fire was made in the centre of
each room on the basement floor (which is only 8 feet high) in order
to dry the plastering, &c., and although the heat was kept up intensely
strong on many successive days, yet it had no worse effect than to
make the floor boards, in only two cases out of eighteen, of the rooms
over, swell a little so as to be barely perceptible, and that was evi-
dently caused by the quantity of steam driven through from the wet
plastering of the arches and walls below.

I am. Sir,

30, Guildford Street, Your obedient servant,

September 2, 1842. Charles Dter.

NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES.
Description of Sunderland Iron Bridge, nilh remarks on its construction, and ishy it has not been more adopted.

In the " Notes on the Construction of Iron Bridges" in your July
number, among other matters noticed, it is contended that no advan-
tage is gained in confining the principal weight of iron in the arch at
the bottom, over the equal distribution of the metal in the arch, the
spandril filling and roadway bearer, and that the great elasticity of
wrought iron renders it inapplicable to the purposes of bridge
building. The former remark is fully confirmed, and the latter obvi-
ated by a combination of the two materials, as in Sunderland Bridge,
a sketch of which accompanies this paper, and which for sake of
brevity, and as distinction of its construction, I will name the
Vertebrated Bridge, the wrought iron bands being like the spinal
chord, and the short portions of the arc of cast iron framework
being the bones. When it is considered that in each of these ribs,
there is a sectional area of 134 superficial inches of wrought iron
employed, whose power of resistance to comjiression is within an
eighth of being twice as much as cast iron, the utility of this mode of
construction over that wholly of cast iron must be self-evident, and
moreover, the time since the erection of the bridge under consider-
ation proves its practical durability.*

Should the system of a combination of the two materials be fully
carried out, by making the bars of wrought iron radiate from the

* 'the use of wrought iron in connexion with bridgenork, is shown in Mr.
Brunei's arch, described iu Journal, vol. 1, 1838, page 119, which contained
no less than 54 pieces of hoop iron, 1 inch broad, by -rj thick, interspersed
between the joints.

crown of the arch so as to fill up the whole of the spandril, as in the
case with the filling in of the spandril of Chepstow Bridge (a plate of
which is given in Weale's Bridges), I have no doubt of the feasibility
of extending an arch of this description to the extent of 500 feet, an
extent proposed by Telford for the bridge over the Menai Straits,
or of 000 feet, as proposed over the Thames by the same engineer.

Mr. Rennie's experiment on Southwark Bridge (see Journal, vol. 3,
1840, page 133) proves that the dilation and contraction of the metal
is no impediment, being in that structure only -^ of an inch for an
alteration of temperature of 1° of Fahrenheit, and the whole contraction
of iron from a fluid to a solid state being yij as stated by Mr.
Edwards, in his account of the Pont du Carrousel in Journal, for
last August, page 279.

I must now return to the subject at the head of the paper, and
commence with its history. So early as 1790, Rowland Burdon Esq.^
conceived the idea of throwing an arch of cast iron over the Wear,
at Sunderland, for whicli purpose an Act of Parliament was obtained
in 1792. The foundation stone was laid September 24th, 1793, and
the bridge opened August, 1796. The quantity of iron in the struc-
ture is 260 tons, of which 46 tons are wrought iron. The novelty of
the plan adopted on the suggestion of Mr. Burdon, consisted in
retaining, with the use of a metallic material, the usual form and
principle of the stone arch, by the subdivision of the iron into blocks,
answering to the stone of the common arch. These blocks. Figs. 1 and 2^
are of cast iron, 5 feet in depth and 4 inches in thickness ; each block haa

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

.335

Fie. 2.

Q i O

Fig. 1.

m

0 X. o

three arms, and forms part of a circle, the middle arm is 2 ft. in length,
the other two in proportion; on each side of the arms are flat grooves 4|
of an inch deep and 3 in. broad, into which are inserted bars of wrought
iron, which connect the blocks with each other ; they are secured
thereto with square bolts driven through the shoulders and arms of
the blocks and the bar iron, and are fastened by coterels or forelocks.
Fig. 3. Section of Roadway and Ribs.

Th« blocks are cast in one piece, but their construction is more easily
explained by supposing them to be formed of bars, each block will
then appear to consist of three horizontal and two vertical bars ; the
former cross the latter at the extremities and in the centre; there is a
perforation left both above and below the centre crossing, and the
vertical pieces cross the horizontal ones at a distance of 5 inches
inwards from their extremities; another perforation occurs when two
blocks are banded together; these perforations diminish the weight
of the fabric very much, when compared with a solid arch. Fig. 4,
is a perspective view showing two of these blocks united, and also a
portion of two of the ribs bolted together with horizontal bolls which
also form stays.

FiR. 5.

The whole structure consists of 6 ribs placed 6 feet apart, each
containing 105 of tliese blocks, built on each other, like the voussoir
of a stone arch. The abutments are of stone 24 feet thick, 42 feet in
breadth at bottom, and 37 feet at top. The span of the arch is

23G feet, with a versed sine or rise of 34 feet. The height to the
soffit from low water mark is 100 feet. The spandrils of the arch
are filled in with iron circles, diminishing from the abutment to the
centre; the superstructure is of timber, planked over, supporting the
carriage road, formed of marl, gravel and limestone. The total
breadth is 32 feet, with footpaths of flogs, and enclosed by an iron
pallisade. The whole structure was put together and thrown over
the river in the short period of 10 days, without interrupting the
navigation, the centre being supported in two places by gearing or
frames of woodwork resting upon piles driven into the bed of the
river. The whole expense was £26,U00, of which £22,000 was sub-
scribed by R. Burdon, Esq., and secured at 5 per cent on the tolls.
In the centre of the pallisade on each side is a cast iron panel, with
the inscription "jV;7 desperandnm, auspice dto." The bridge is free
on entering the town, and id. toll is paid in recrossing or leaving the
town.

Mr. Thomas Wilson, of Bishopwearmouth, was the engineer, who
was also engineer for a bridge at Staines, on the Thames. Mr.
Wilson, in conjunction with Mr. Burdon and Mr. Scarth, took out
a patent for this mode of construction, and erected a bridge at
Yarm, with less success, as the following account will show. The
foundation stone was laid September 3, 1803. The iron was com-
menced to be laid across September 3, 1804, and the arch completed
in 8 days. The arch was cast at the foundry of Messrs. Walker of
Rotherham. The form was a circular segment, 180 feet span, 27 feet
broad between the pallisades, with a 21 feet carriage road ; it was
composed of G ribs, each containing 39 perforated blocks of cast iron
4 feet deep and 4 inches thick. The whole weight, including pallisades»
was 250 tons. The abutments were of stone 30 feet thick, and the
flank walls 50 feet long from back of abutments, 7 feet in thickness at
base, and diminishing by G-inch offsets to 4 feet. The height of
parapet walls including fascia 4if eet. The contractors were, Mr.
Wheldon for the stonework, amount £2440, and Mr. Wilson, the en-
gineer, for the ironwork, amount £J60O. The bridge fell at midnight,
January 12, 180G. It had been open for foot passengers some time
previous to the failing.

Architects were called in by the magistrates of Yorkshire and
Durham to ascertain the cause of the falling, who reported that the
internal masonry of the abutment was insufficient to resist the lateral
pressure of the arch ; they were clearly of opinion that this was the
occasion of its fall; a complaint was made to the same effect by the
surveyor during the progress of the work. The manner of placing
the ribs was not generally approved of, as not being calculated to
take an equal bearing or pressure. The old bridge, which had not
been pulled down, was then repaired, widened, and substituted for
the iron one. These particulars of the Yarm bridge are taken from
Grave's History of Cleveland, pub. 1808, page 68, appendix No. 1^
and of the Sunderland Bridge, Surtees' History of Durham, vol. 1,
page 227, and three plates now very scarce, published at the time
of the erection, but I am sorry to say that no letter-press accompa-
nied them. They were engraved by R. Clarke, drawn by J. Raffield
and designed by G. T. Wilson. The above untoward event of the
falling in of the bridge at Yarm, in ray mind, is the reason why this
mode of construction has not been more frequently employed, and the
distrust of iron as a material for bridge building, as it will be seen
that this bridge was built only 21 years after the introduction of iron
for bridges. In conclusion, I beg to offer to you, at least, the novel
idea of rendering cast iron bridges less brittle by submitting the iron
to the process of annealing or to assimilate it by a gradual reduction
of its temperature, more to the nature of wrought iron, which ap-
pears to me would also increase its capability of resistance to com-
pression. The division of the portions of the arc into short lengths,
as the blocks in Sunderland Bridge, has great advantages in providing
for the expansion, as when so subdivided it is not so much felt, being
divided insensibly among the different joints.

336

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

NOTES ON EARTH-WORK.
Account of a Machine called a Tippler, used on the Southampton
Railuay.
To the most casual observer it must be apparent that the limitation of the
quantity of earth-work capable of being executed in one day, occurs at the
battery or tiphead, and not at the face of the cutting. The excavation he.ng
almost unlimited, whereas the width of embankment limits the teaming, the
greatest number of men that can be employed at one tip, being from 10 to
1" and the maximum quantity teamed in one day, being 800 wagons, and
for the twentv-four hours, 1000 wagons. Side wagons from quitting their
load at the side, are much used to facilitate tipping, and the return of the
empty wagons from the battery to the excavation. Of the many attempts
made to facilitate this operation, one of the first was used on the Carlisle
and the Hartlepool railways, by Mr. Grabamsley; and the following testimony
will shew the importance in which the attempt was held by the profession.
Mr Vignoles sent a man to the Carlisle line, who reported that it was not
worth adopting; Mr. R. Stephenson sent Mr. Copeland and Mr. Noel,
contractors, to the Hartlepool line, for the same purpose; both reported it
would not answer; Mr. Locke said that if found practicable, it must be for
the interest of the contractor to adopt it, finally I believe it was not found
to answer. Mr. Buck tried another plan on the London and Birmingham
Railway at Watford, viz. projecting balks of timber over the tip, and after
the first wagon was learned, it was puihcd forward until a second was tipped,
and both returned together; it became useless on new embankment, and was
abandoned. The ordinarv disposition of temporary ruads is generally as
follows viz. two lines of road are laid down called the empty and full bne,
and where the batterv head is approached, the road diverges into branches
or spurrings to as many teaming places as the breadth of the embankment
will allow : a horse being employed to draw the empty wagons into a sidmg.
until a full set is empty, and to run the full wagons out of the full siding to
the tip head. I have not seen any plan of Grahamslcy's machine, excepting
the account given in evidence on the Southampton Railway in the Appendix
to Brees' Railway Practice. The accompanying sketch is made from a rough
sketch sent me by a frieud who saw the tippler in operation. The frame A

-v^

in front, which is perpendicular and supported on two trucks with iron
wheels, is provided with a screw B, to raise or lower the cross rail c, to suit
the inequalities of the ground. The four balks D are in the direction of the
railway ; one end of the balks rests upon the brackets E and the cross rail o,
the other ends are supported on the embankment already formed ; these
balks are for supporting the rails of the full and empty roads ; the balks D
are tied to the brackets F with wrought iron ties jointed ; the two transverse
balks with rails G are to support a low truck, having rails laid on the top on
a level, and in the same direction as the rails of the two roads, the full and
empty: so by a side motion the low truck tranfers a wagon on the top from
one line of rails to the other parallel to it, thereby avoiding the delay of
horsing as described above. A very similar arrangement is shown in the
Journal, Vol. IV, p. 250, in the description of the Paris and Versailles Rail-
way, for the purpose of saving the expence of a turntable opposite each pair
cf rails, for transferring the carriages from one line of rails to another. I
raav also mention that a precisely similar plan is in use at the Nottingham
station of the Midland Counties Railway. There being no account published
of this machine, perhaps your doing so may elicit further particulars, al-
though there is not much facility given to publish failures.

Yours truly,
St. Anne's, Neit-castle-on-Tyne. 0- "•

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XLL

" I must have liberty
Wilhal, as large a charter as the w nds,
To blow on whom 1 please."

I. If it was the intention of the architect of the Alliance Office to show how
completely an order may be made to lose its character, not by any alteration
of, or 'tampering with' its proportions or details, but by perverse and
tasteless application of it— he must be allowed to have succeeded admirably.
With the Bank immediately facing bis own building, be has ventured to make
use of the very same oider, so introduced, that every point of difference is most
decidedly for the worst. Instead of being placed upon a simple stylobate,
the columns are raised upon a basement, of such exceedingly poor and or-
dinary design in its.lf, that were all the lest perfectly unexceptionable, the
lower part of the building would greatly detract from the general eflTect.
As it is, however, the insignificance and anti-classical taste there displayed, is of
little consequence, for the upper part of the fa?ade is also poor ; therefore, so
far, the whole would be tolerably of a piece, where it not that what is of excel-
lent quality in itself, has been dragged in so as to lose its own value, without
conferring any on the other parts. That the columns have been forcibly
dragged into the design is evident enough, for not only are they introduced
without motive, but quite contrary to it ; and in such manner, as to occasion
glaring and offensive improprieties. It mu.t be confessed, that in the oppo-
site facade of the Bank, columns are employed only for the sake of eflfect ;
but then, there they do produce efTect-eflTect of a more than ordinarily
picturesque and tasteful kind. There is nothing that interferes with them,
or to mar the gracefulness of columnar composition-in which so very
much depends upon that sort of proportion, which is, as often as not, wholly
disregarded by those who afl-ect to be most scrupulous as to proportions of
detail The architect of the Alliance Oflice, for one, has certainly not at-
tended to the proportion alluded to, for he has put his columns so far apart,
that thev serve chieflv to produce a straggling effect; and yet. owing to the
windows' between them, the whole has a very disagreeable, crowded, and
squeezed up appearance. The centre intercolumn, containing two treple
windows, one over the other-an arrageraeut which it is hardly possible by
any means to render tolerable, is so wide, as to amount almost to a gap in the
composition. Of course this was occasioned by the gateway below, which
is in itself so wide, that it also forms a gap, and seems to require columns
to support its lintel or architrave ; therefore, unless intended for carriages
to pass through-wl.ich does not appear to be the case, bad the opening,
been a little contracted by two columns being placed so as just to clear the
piers, the effect would so far have been better, and the passage through the
building would have been just as wiile as at present.

II. Professor llosking is not the only one who has expressed a very con-
temptuous opinion of Vitruvius ; for a writer in the " Aunales des Bat.mens
has spoken of that - venerable authority " in terms that must ■"^^;^» J"^"
mireas absolutely shudder. He does not scruple to apply to the Father of

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.337

Architecture " ami its legislator, the character of " Le plus credule et le plus
ignorant des corapilateurs " ! consequently, if such be his opinion of the idol,
we may take it for granted that he entertains no great respect for the intelli-
gence shown by the worshippers of it — by Vitruvius' translators and com-
mentators, or any of those who look to his writings as oracles. It mav,
however, be suspected that a very great many who have the name of Vitru-
lius always in their mouths, know ver>- little of his writings, and would be
strangely perplexed if asked to explain what they bad learned from them, or
in what way the study of them has conduced to more enlightened views of
the art. Far easier would it be to show how such study has cramped archi-
tecture, and has tended to render it a plodding pedantical system, governed

not by principles and artistical feeling, but by merely conventional rules by

rules which, if implicitly followed, without regard to the circumstances of
the particular case, may operate most injuriously.

HI. In architectural history, it is almost invariably the practice to make
a full stop at the very point where preceding writers have left the suliject,
and from which it is most of all desirable that it should he taken up afresh,
and carried onwards. From the commencement of the 18th century, every-
thing in the shape of a connected history of the art ceases. What informa-
tion relative to it is to be obtained at all, is scattered about in fragments
through numerous publications, either literary or graphic ; nor has any one
yet thought it worth while to collect and arrange, to add to and extend such
materials, and work them up into consistency and shape, .\lmost might it
be supposed that the art was now altogether extinct, and that since the
period above-mentioned, scarcely anything above the feeblest mediocrity has
been produced ; things

'• Toij vile to praise, too decent to lie damned ;''

albeit some of them have been puffed off in their day as first-rate, classical,
and everything else that is excellent.

Even a mere matter-of-fact chronicla would be serviceable in its way
though immeasurably short of a critical history, which, by fearlessly pointing
out the errors of the past, might lead to improvement for the future. So
long as there was no Royal Institute, there was little hope of architecture
receiving that attention to which— whether justly so or not— it is supposed
to be entitled as an artistic, intellectual, and icsthetic pursuit ; and since the
Institute has been established, there is not one ray of hope more ; therefore,
even less hope than ever of such proving the case. Sorry I am to say that
the Institute seems to be quite satisfied with having got the pap of Royal
patronage— whiaii I suspect to he worth about as much as Don Armado's
remuneration.

IV. Putting aside elementary or technical works, there has of late been a
strange dearth of architectural publications in this country, which, to what-
ever else it may be owing, can hardly be attributed to the paucity of build-
ings erected within the present century— many of them of a kind too, which,
let them be what they may, are of considerable pretension, and ought, there-
fore to be well-wortli studying for their design and the taste exhibited in
them. Undoubtedly no immediate, nor very tangible advantage would be
derived from the pubUcation of their works to the actual authors of them.
Those who have sliown the greatest ability, have, least of all, occasion to
advertise themselves and their productions ; and as an affair of pounds,
shilhngs, and pence, they show their prudence bv not doing what they
m.ght m the end be out of pocket by. But then, on the other hand, those
who have done the most and the best, can generally verv well afford so to
tax themselves-if only for the sake of showing that they have aimed at
sometlung more than professional emolument; and that while thev look
back on their productions with the feelings of artists, they also look forward
to extended fame from them, and that not merelv at home, hut wherever
the art is cultivated. Would the names of Schinkel and Klenze have been
already so well known in this country-and, indeed, throughout all Europe,
haa not their designs been published .> Hardly ; at least, had thev not been
so given to the world, comparatively few would be able to judge what thev
really are. or to profit by the studies they afford, and the ideas thev haply
may suggest to other minds. This last circumstance, bv-the-bve, is "one of
greater importance than is generally conceived : collections of' architectural
designs seemed to be looked; upon by>ost persons-not excluding profes-
sional ones, as little better than books of patterns, of no other use than as
something may be copied out of them at once. Hence, not onlv the open
plagiarism which in any other would be stigmatised as disrespe'ctful, but
frequently the vilest botching also. Wide, indeed, is the difference between
taking something out of another man's design, and seizing hold of an idea
suggested by what maylthere be shown, which idea, so far from being bor-

rowed may be altogether so different from anything shown in what gave rise
to it, as to render it impossible for any one to trace it to its pmctum saliens.

MARTIN'S CEMENT.
In our last number we slightly alluded to the above cement ; since then
we have been able to obtain some additional particulars, which we now lay
before our readers.

The common qualities of the cement are noticed in the circiUar in general
terms, and the method of working it for common purposes explicitly laid
down. It is, therefore, only necessary for us to point out here its various
applications.

First, then. Floors. These are formed with the cement laid on a bed of
concrete or arching. The cement is mixed with fine river sand, or with tile
dust or puzzolana, as may be most Hked, and laid on the concrete about
f inch thick. If Portland or Bath stone is wished to be imitated, the grit is
mixed with the cement. After being properly trowelled, it is jointed to
imitate stone. If, however, an ornamental floor is wished, a ground work of
cement and sand is laid upon the concrete about ^ inch thick ; colours are
then mixed (dry) with the cement, and the floor may be laid either to repre-
sent octagonal tiles or alternate squares as may be desired in anv colour and
any pattern. If an inlaid border should be preferred, the pattern is cast in
slabs, and the colours let in the spaces left according to the design. Some
elaborate mosaic in imitation of tiles found in one of the courts of the
Alhambra, the colors of which are blue, white, and burnt sienna, and the size
about eight inches wide, can be executed (as they have been already) at about
2s. 3(f. per foot run. Of course, a more simple pattern with less variety of
colour would cost less.

Stairs. The steps are formed in York stone, rough, and covered with the
cement to imitate Bath, Portland, or any other stone; or simply by itself,
as executed by Mr. T. Cubitt with great success.

JValls generally are worked in the manner described in the directions for
use in the circular. At the New Sun Fire Oflnce, and generally, the panels
are worked in the cement mixed with sand, and the mouldings run in the
pure cement. It is, of course, easy to imitate any stone or colour. At the
Swindon station of the Great M'estern Railway, it is) intended to finish the
walls of the engine house of a light buff colour, rubbed down and stopped, and
fiuish it with slight polish ; the cost of this would be about 4s. 6d. per yard
super.

Architraves, surbases, skirting, and every description of moulding can be
worked in it. It presents a finer face and cleaner aris than wood ; requires
less paint ; neither shrinks nor cracks ; is not so liable to injury ; and while
in the most simple descriptions of work it is cheaper, in the more elaborate
its economy renders it far superior to that material. Chimney-pieces, columns,
pilasters, and every description of work can be executed in this cement
with poUsh and splendour of appearance equal to scagliola in imitation of any
marble ; and while the cost of scagliola varies from 5*. to 8*. Od. per foot,
super., this cement does not exceed 4.v. 6,/. It is equaUy as easy to remove as
marble, and is as readily repaired when injured. Great beauty might be
derived from a judicious employment of mosaic with the imitation marble.
The Grecian fret in white or blue (Prussian), let in imitation sieuna or glaUo
antico in the jambs of chimney pieces, the archivolts of doors, friezes, panels,
&c., can easily be conceived. The cost of such work, if the pattern were not
very elaborate, involving a great variety of colours, would not be so great as
if executed in finished scagliola without mosaic— merely the simple marble.
In cases where polychrome decoration is sought, as in some Gothic cathedrals
and the varieties of the Lombard style, the advantages of this cement is
apparent ; being as hard as marble, and the colours equally as durable. Gothic
pillars can be worked round a core of brick work, and an endless variety of
ornament which is characteristic of the style either cast or moulded in this
cement may be executed at a cost trifling in comparison with either wood or
stone.

3 B

aS"?

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

^REMARKS ON THE LETTER BY "AN ADMIRER OF
' ARCHITECTURE."

SiR_Notwithstanding that you yourself have already replied to
"An Admirer of Architecture," in the pertinent and forcible editorial
note attached to his letter, I could wish, as the writer of one of the
articles he has commented upon, to be allowed to say something fur-
ther, since he appears to have greatly misconceived one or two points.
Misconceive he certainly does, when he supposes that the remarks on
the "Thveadneedle Street structure" were penned chiefly for the
purpose of crying up that building, and decrying almost every other
production of architecture in the metropolis at all similar in style, or
sufficiently so to admit of any comparison. I certainly did bring forward
many instances of buildings— some of them tolerably recent ones— ■
and however unfair or illiberal my estimate of them may be, "Ad-
mirer" seems to acquiesce in it, for he has not attempted to gainsay
it, by pointing out merits in them, or any one of them, to which I had
wilfully shut my eyes. That he objects to my having expressly
named several buildings which I hold to be exceedingly tasteless and
mediocre, I can hardly for a moment suppose; or if he does so he is
most strangely inconsistent, because he himself says it is fairer to
allude to particular parties, or to their respective works, than to deal
in vague and sweeping denouncements which criminate all alike,
without distinction. If, therefore, I erred at all, it was not in naming
any, but in not naming every one of the buildings to which I could
easily have adverted, as striking examples of false taste and the
"pseudo-classical" system.

I am wrong, however, in saying that I could have done so " easily "
for it would have been a tedious task to point out, one by one, all the in-r
stances of the kind that might be enumerated. Still, from those which
I did specify, it will not be very difficult to guess what others I should
include among them : nor is there much danger of any one's fancying
that I should 6.rclude from my list the British Fire Office in the Strand,
or the church in Wyndham Place, both of them the productions of
men who rank high in their profession — men who, it is to be pre-
sumed, are not of " uncultured minds," for they have traveUed, and, it
may be presumed, have studied also, and applied themselves to their
art" with more than ordinary diligence. Advantages they certainly
have had that do not fall to the lot of every one in the profession, for
they have had opportunities both ample and frequent put in their way,
—one of them especially ; yet how far they have turned them to
account, or what particular'talent or taste they have manifested, may
be judged from the above-mentioned specimens of it: not from them
alone, but their works generally.

Vndtr-ratt their buildings, and many others which enjoy no small
degree of credit with the public, I most certainly do, because I rate
them at a very much lower value than they have hitherto passed at,
and of course, as I myself conceive, at a much juster one, and more
corresponding to their actual worth as productions of architecture.
Sooner or later, things which have been greatly over-rated sink to their
proper level ; although the first attempt to correct public opinion in
regard to them may appear invidious, if not malevolent, especially in
those cases where an imposing reputation has been acquired, that
carries with it a degree of authority which persons in general are
unable to dispute, and which those who are able do not care to oppose.
In matters of literature and art, and not least of all in architecture,
the influence of names is exceedingly great, to a degree that is not
only magical, but positively injurious, for it causes that which requires
to be assayed to be set up' as a standard of excellence — an authority
to which all ought to bow down. A reputation may stand very high
upon the whole, and not undeservedly so, and yet be no pledge what-
ever for excellence in many productions that may be sheltered by it,
as being productions of the same mind. Such I conceive to be the
case with regard to Sir Christopher Wren: as the author of St. Paul's,
he is fully entitled to all the honour that has been heaped upon his
name, but all his other works are so immeasurably inferior— some of
them, indeed, so utterly unworthy of being considered productions of
intellect or art— that it is with difficulty we can persuade ourselves
that they were concei)tions of the same mind. The fact, indeed, of
their being by him admits not of doubt or dispute; but internal evi-
dence uttbrded by the things themselves is wanting altogether.
Nevertheless, because such is the fact, and for no other reason, our
admiration is claimed for everything that passes under his name,
■without reference to intrinsic merit, or without the least suspicion that
what is by the author of one of the noblest monuments of English
architecture can be other than truly excellent in itself. Thus is a
name converted into a positive standard of merit ; criticism is merged
in mere prejudice or else hypocrisy ; admiration is aftected where it
is not felt ; the expression of opinion is reprobated as flying in the

face of unquestionable authority; and uninquiring deference to and
superstitious veneration of great names are inculcated, which operate
in reality injuriously to the real interests of art, and impede its ad-
vancement. We bow down to names, and make them our idols. It
is expected that those of Vitruvius, Michael Angelo, and Palladio,
should be worshipped by us : to doubt, to call in question, or even to
inquire into the real merits of those who have been so pinnacled aloft,
is regarded as a species of actual profaneness ;— which may, after all,
be very right and jirudent, for some reputations of the kind are by no
means' of a description that will bear being handled and closely
inspected ; and most unpleasant must it be to their admirers to have
unsightly flaws and defects pointed out in their idols, and tohear
objectio'ns started which they know not how to refute or ward oft'.

'But I am now wandering very wide astray, and must therefore
skip back at once to "Admirer" and his remarks. Among them is
one from which it might be inferred that I had deprecated, or at-
tempted to dissuade from, the study of Stuart's " Athens," and other
works of that class. Now what I complain of is precisely the reverse ;
that they are learnt by rote, and copied without being studied scarcely
at all ; for were they studied, their spirit would be caught, and in-
fused into modern works, which would nevertheless be marked by
original feeling, some novelty of treatment, and some freshness of
ideas. Instead of this being done, the works alluded to are made use
of as little more than mere books of patterns; and wherever they are
deviated from at all, it is more frequently than not entirely for the
worse, it being done not with any attempt to advance a step farther
than the originals, but rather to retrograde a step or two back. Thus
while we have Grecian-Doric porticos professedly after that of the
Parthenon, or the Theseion, the resemblance extends to no more than
the columns themselves ; for although they may be copied with fac-
simile accuracy, as if fidelity in that respect was in itself all-sufficient,
so very greatly are the original buildings departed from in almost
every other circumstance, that almost all in them that amounts to
design, or contributes to eftect, is entirely obliterated. Inner columns
and depth of pronaos behind them are omitted, and metopes and pedi-
ments are left blank, as if those were altogether matters of perfect
indifference and no moment, although to vary ever so little from exact-
ness in the minutest details in the columns and mouldings of the en-
tablature would be deemed a great license. Now were Grecian
architecture really studied in a liberal and artist-like spirit, such
would not be the case. Its orders and other features would be looked
to as standard types of the style, as models upon which our taste in
that style is to be formed; not— as is now the case— as stereotype
copies' which admit of no modification nor any diversity of expression,
be they applied ever so differently from what they are in the structures
from which they are derived. Of course the junior student must begin by
copying from " Stuart, in order to familiarize himself with those
models perfectly, and as preparatory to farther study of their
character. But the misfortune is that very few indeed ever think
of getting beyond that first step ; with copying they begin, and
with copying thev end. But the ancient orders, we are told,
will not ' bear being trifled or tampered with. Yet, surely, to
make use of them with artist-like intelligence and freedom, and to
treat them with congenial taste, is quite a different thing from tam-
pering with them ; and that it is more than every one is able to do, may
be taken for granted, because it is not every architect who is an artist ;
but to maintain that it is more than any one is able to do, would almost
be equivalent to saying that no architect is an artist, or can be trusted
for a moment if he attempts to innovate in matters where others are
content implicitly to follow those who have preceded them. So much
for the difference between studying Stuart, and merely tearing a leaf
out of his book, as may serve immediate occasion.

But, it is said, " Mr. Barry has his book of reference, too" ; no doubt,
otherwise he would hardly have made himself so familiar with the genius

and capabilities of the style in which he has shown mastery ; but then
he has evidently turned it to a very diff"erent account than those do
their " Stuart," who do little more than merely take from it the exte-
rior or fayade of a portico, to stick up where it shows itself to be
merely borrowed, and perhaps most tastelessly misapphed. Many
details and some entire features in some of Mr. Barry's most suc-
cessful Italian, designs may certainly be traced to previous examples
that have been delineated; yet that hardly amounts to copying, for they
are frequently so very greatly improved upon, and recombined with
so much taste as to acquire a heightened charm. Of many the merit
hardly shows itself in the original compositions, where there is ge-
nerally together with much to please, almost always something to
off'end more or less, whereas our English architect's productions are
stamped by a refined elegance difi'used over the whole, and kept up
throughout. But if, as would seem intended to be insinuated, any one
else might, by pursuing the same method, accomplish with .equal

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'SPOURNAL.

339

facility quite as much as Mr. Barry, why then, in the name of common
sense, do they not do so at once, and deliver us from such specimens
of Italian, as the City Club-house ? And why do they not adopt the
same with regard to Grecian architecture, and deliver us from the
mawkish and spiritless schoolboy copies of it that are now served up
to us ad nmtseam ? The reason why what is apparently so easy is
not done, is perhaps that the taste requisite for accomplishing it is want-
ing. And I fully agree with "Admirer," when he ascribes so much to
that natural taste which can neither be learnt nor unlearnt; cordially, also,
do I assent to his opinion, that quite as much depends upon the spirit
and taste with which a style is treated, as upon the style itself. — But
it is time to conclude this long letter, and I will, therefore, merely add
that I wish "Admirer" bad distinctly speci6ed the particular parties or
their works, to whom he alludes with so much approbation as "examples
of design in distant parts of England." And as this letter will, no
doubt, meet his eye, I hope it will induce him to do so now, for most
happy shall I be to leain that there are productions of very great
merit, which are as yet hardly known even by reputation in this part
of the kingdom.

I remain, &c.,

THE AUTHOR OF THE ARTICLE ON THE

THREADNEEDLE STREET STRUCTURE.

REVIE^VS.

Architectural Illustrations of Windsor Castle, By Michael Gakby
and Benjamin Baud, Architects, inih a Concise Historical and
Jlrchteclural Account, by John Brittox, F.S.A., author of ^^Archi-
tectural and Cathedral Antiquilies," "Dictionary of Architecture,"
Sfc. Folio, 40 plates. London, lS-12.

Now that it is completed, or rather brought to a conclusion — a very
great deal that would have been the most interesting of all as graphic
illustration, and perfectly new to the public, being left altogether un-
touched— and now that we have the letter-press before us, we can speak
of this second work on Windsor Castle more decidedly than when our
notice was confined to some of the plates during its progress. What-
ever be its deficiencies in other respects in regard to illustrations, it
gives us one which was neither promised, nor is even now mentioned
in the list of engravings, one for which we were so totally unprepared
that it made us stare ; and no doubt our readers will stare too when
told that it is no other than au illustration of — "Benjamin Baud, ar-
chitect " — and as it would seem, Hit architect of Windsor Castle, a large
view of the building being introduced at his elbow. This is certainly
original — perhaps «»j5£« /or/, and what most people may consider a
piece of puppyism; at any rate it is calculated to call forth comments
and remarks, not very likely to be altogether agreeable to the gentle-
man who has hit upon a notable method of advertising himself. If
there was to be the portrait of any one at all, it should most assuredly
have been that of Sir Jeffry Wyatville — of the individual who
remodelled the Castle, and gave it its present form and character— of
the architectural composer and performer, not of his "bellows-blower" !
Or is there something more in the matter than meets the eye ? — is it preg-
nant with a meaning that might not be expressed otherwise than thus
hieroglyphically ? Can it be intended as a delicate insinuation to the
effect that the designs for the alteration of the Castle, hitherto attributed
solely to Sir Jeffry, emanated from Mr. Baud, and that it was he who
furnished his employer with ideas for his grand work? It is possible,
because such things have happened ere now; for, as his friend Mr.
Britton can tell him, works have been given to the public under the
names of parties who were only their ostensible authors, the real
authors being kept out of sight,'behind the scenes along with other
lumber. In the literary world, it is no very uncommon practice for
tnose who have a name worth borrowing, to lend it — or rather to sell
it to publications they never wrote— probably never read. There are
tricks in all trades; why not then in architecture as well as in author-
ship ? why may not "the truly estimable Sir Jettry Wyatville," as Mr.
Britton here calls him, have, if not sold his name to, have purchased
of Mr. Baud, services very far more important than those usually ex-
pected from an architect's assistant? Strange and ugly suspicions come
across us ; and so far from being removed, they are rather confirmed
by another circumstance in this very remarkable portrait, which,
though not exactly an architectural illustration, may be intended to
throw some light upon a matter in regard to which the public has
hitherto been kept entirely in the dark. What we allude to is the
plan of the "West of London and Westminster Cemetery," which is
also introduced as one of the accessories or "by-play" touches in the
portrait. Now that is avowedly the production of Mr. Baud— one

which few in the profession will envy him the creait of,however they
may envy him the job — therefore the juxtaposition of the two subjects,
the Cemetery and the Castle, expresses as clearly as can be done in
painting, that both are productions of the same genius.

If such be not the meaning, what meaning at all can there be ? Is
it merely a piece of waggish mystification on the part of Benjamin
and his painter? or shall we say that the thrusting in his portrait at
all into the work has no other signification than as a sign of Benjamin's
conceit? Be that as it may, ice have no particular cause to object to
its appearance, since it has served in lieu of other proem; and al-
though it has detained us rather long, it is quite as pertinent, quite as
much to the point, as introductions to articles of criticism generally
are ; not very much more rigmarole, not altogether so hackneyed, and
probably a degree or two less dull. Possibly, too, what we have said
may lead some one to take up his pen, and favour us with a volume,
or at least an essay, of "Historic Doubts" as to whether Windsor
Castle was the work of Jeft'ry Wyatville or Benjamin Baud.

We DOW turn at once to the architectural illustrations themselves,
which are certainly very satisfactory as far as they go, and of a more
popular character than those in Mr. Ashton's work, because a great
many of them are pictorial and perspective views, consequently pos-
sess greater interest for persons in general than geometrical drawings,
to which the other work is confined, and which, to those who perfectly
understand them and properly value them, are in themselves most
indispensable and important of all, but do not always convey sufficient
idea of the effect of a building so represented; more especially when,
like Windsor Castle, it happens to be a complex and extensive pile, com-
posed of parts and masses receding from or advancing before each
other, in a manner intelligible enough from the ground plan, but never-
theless requiring to be distinctly expressed to the eye, perspectively.
While the want of delineations of the last-mentioned kind as accom-
paniments to the strictly architectural drawings has rendered many
publications wholly unattractive except for those who make use of them
as studies ; many graphic works — of first-rate merit as such — are by no
means so valuable as they would be, were some geometrical explanations
of the subjects they contain, introduced into them. In this respect these
illustrations of Windsor Castle are got up in a judicious manner, for
not only is there a series of elevations showing the whole of the
exterior, but also several plates of details and parts at large. But
then, there is one most unaccountable omission, which detracts very
materially indeed from the serviceableness of the work, there being
not a single ground plan, not even of the principal floor, consequently
the book is strangely incomplete, since no information whatever is
now to be obtained from it relative to the internal arrangement of the
building, the accommodations provided in it, the disposition, form, or
size of the various apartments, their respective names and purposes,
and the manner in which they are either connected and made to com-
municate with, or cut off from each other — particulars highly im-
portant to be understood, and which, in this case, would hardly be
passed over with indifference even by those who would bestow scarcely
any attention upon plans in general.

If the omission was entirely owing to oversight, it was very strange ;
if on the contrary, an intentional one stranger still, and utterly inex-
plicable ; nor is such omission rendered at all less glaring by the
thrusting into the work such a very superflous "illustration" as is the
portrait — of one, too, who is not the most illustrious in his profession.
Gladly would we, and most others also, we suspect, give that, and
not that alone, but one or two of the other subjects in exchange for a
plan of the castle, more especially as there are one or two subjects of
comparatively very little value. There, is, it is true, what is well
enough in its way, and very acceptable in itself, namely an oittline
block, or situation's plan of the castle and the buildings immediately
connected with if, yet that shows only the external arrangement, and
what might be tolerably well comprehended from the views. If
therefore we wish to ascertain how the interior of the castle is laid
out, and what alterations and improvements Sir Jeftry introduced into
it, so as to render it more habitable than it was before, we must have
recourse to Mr. Ashton's work, which gives not only detailed plans of
the whole of it in its present state, but others showing what it was
previously to the late alterations and additions. It is evident from
them that the architect had neither few nor small difficulties to con-
tend with, and it was, perhaps, rather fortunate than otherwise, upon
the whole that such was the case, since had it not been for them, he
would probably have missed some of the very best points in the plan, to
which he was driven in order to get over those obstacles. There certainly
are not only some novel, but some striking and happily-contrived
parts within the Castle ; nor is it in the least degree unreasonable,
therefore, if we make it a complaint against both the publications
which are devoted to the subject, and against the present one more
particularly, that they have done nothing to gratify our curiosity

|3 B 2

340

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

relative to its internal architecture. To say that such " illustration"
formed no part of their plan, is anything but a satisfactory excuse
for the omission, the very thing complained of, being, that what was
very essential to its completeness has been purposely excluded from it,
and' that no cure has been taken to guard against disappointment by
making their titles announce that both works confined architectural
illustration to the mere exterior of the edifice. Not very much more
satisfactory is to be told, as we are by one of them, that if further
illustration has not been attempted, it is because Sir Jeffry himself
considered the interior to be comparatively — a failure, shall we call
it, or merely say, comparatively unworthy of attention ? and ac-
knowledged, virtually at least, if not expressly, that instead of being
left to his own judgment, he had been controlled by, and com-
pelled to give way to, the false taste and the caprices of his royal
patron, so far, therefore, in a manner disowning it as his own work, or
a work at all worthy of him. It is alleged, in excuse for not showing
the interior, that many parts of it, and much of its present decoration,
are likely to be altered and fitted up afresh, some time or other. No
doubt, for what structure of the kind escapes retouches from time to
time ; but it is not at all likely that alterations to any extent will take
place within the castle for a very long while to come ; nor whenever
made, would such alterations in any way diminish the interest and
value of illustrations which in such case would become faithful
records of what the interior of Windsor Castle is in its present state.
Whatever, too, may be the case with respect to the strictly private
apartments, or to those intended for the accommodation of visitors,
there must, at any rate, be some if not several which are more or less
worth being architecturally explained, or graphically described, on
account of their importance, their character, and their effect. Or are
we to conclude after all, that as far as architecture is concerned, there
is absolutely nothing within the castle that merits attention, nothing
in any degree worth studying, nothing to repay curiosity ? Are we
now to suppose that the" " Grand corridor" itself, which has been
spoken of as something quite extraordinary and superlative, is in
reality "no better than it should be " — of but very so-sois/i character —
perhaps somewhat too Strawberry-Hill gothic in style ? And then the
Waterloo chamber, St. George's hall, the state entrance and staircase,
— are not they worth showing either in views, or by particular sections
of them ? It is true these last-mentioned parts of the interior can be
seen by the jjublic; but if that be any good reason for no illustrations
of either kind, being given of them, the same reason might be made
use of as an argument to prove that there was no occasion for either of
the publications, which are now entirely devoted to the exterior of
the castle, since the latter is, by far, more open to public in-
spection, and that freelv, which is certainly not the case as regards
any part of the interior, where no time is allowed for examining,
much less for studying or deliberately taking note of what we are
permitted merely to view, and of which, therefore, only the general
effect can be judged. In order properly to understand the anatomy, if
we may so term it, of Windsor Castle, 'full as many plans and sections
(both general ones, and particular ones on a larger scale,) besides
views, would be required, as there now are engravings of the exterior
both in the work before us, and its predecessor. Though this is no
exaggeration, as any one who understands the subject may convince
himself, by examining the plan in Mr. Ashton's work, it would, we
admit, be unreasonable to look for illustration to anything like that
extent, except, perhaps, in a work published by government — and for
that being ever done in this country, we might as well look for a
miracle, or look for Windsor Castle's being swallowed up by an
earthquake.

Because it could not be done after that extravagant fashion — as, no
doubt, what we liave above hinted at will be considered— is no reason,
however, wdiy nothing of the kind should have been attempted. Thank-
ful should we have been for something, had it amounted to no more than
three or four judiciously chosen sections, through some of the prin-
cipal and most interesting parts of the interior; ior the sake of which
we would willingly give up double that number of the present illustra-
tions, since some of the latter are hardly required at all, there being
little in them besides what is shown in other portions of the general
elevation to which they belong. With the exception of a single
section, and that not through the upper floors of the building, no part
of the interior was shown in that one of the two works which was first
completed, it was therefore to be expected that Messrs. G. & B.
would have taken advantage of that circumstance by introducing into
their own publication what would have formed a new and highly in-
teresting feature in it. Instead, however, of doing more in that respect,
they have, as we have already observed, done less, for their work
contains not even a plan, so that the interior of the castle is left to-
tally unexplained bv it. However well, therefore, they may have
manoeuvred in other respects, they have certainly shown no very

great tact in thus flinging awav the very best trump-card of all that
was in their hand. The oulv p'erson who has turned the rival publi-
cation to his own advantage is their editor, and after what fashion he
has done so, we shall presently say.

Admitting that it would have been too expensive to employ the
pencil for describing the interior of the castle or any part of it, what
was not attempted to be done by the pencil, might have been accom-
plished by the ;;£«— at least, as far as accurate and intelligent de-
scription can supply the place of drawings, without the aid of which
last, the best written description cannot be thoroughly satisfactory as
explanation, however interesting it may be in itself, and however in-
structive it may have been rendered, by the criticism mingled with
it. For such description, however, a very different pen is required
from that wielded.

Mr. Britton, in the preface, boasts of his long acquaintance witU
Windsor Castle, and of having repeatedly written and pronounced
various historical, descriptive, and critical remarks on it. If so, he
must quite have exhausted his powers of description and criticism
before he wrote the present account of it, for it contains nothing that
amounts to either the one or the other.

Ancienl and Modern Architecture. Edited by M. Jules GAiLHABAnn.
London, Dido ,

We have received trom the enterprising firm of Didot and Co. of Loiiaon
and Paris, the first, or specimen number of a serial work intended to Ulub-
trate the several stvles of architecture and their application to various
classes of buildings. ' Commencing with the Celtic and Pelasgic, the rude
heaps of barbarous ages, the architecture of the east and the west, ot tne
Pharaohs of the present dav, is to be exhibited from authentic examples.
Thus the present number contains three engravings of the Specs, dedicates
to Athor at Ebsamboul in Nubia, and two of the Kailasa at EUora, accom-
panied with descriptive letter-press from the pen of M. Jules Gai habaud, an
eminent archaiological writer, and translated and extended by Mr. 1. Arun-
dale. It is evident that the field is wide, and the mode in which it is to be
entered is sketched in the prospectus. Thus we find the temple of Edfou
in Egypt, that of Theseus at Athens, ihe temple of Segesta, the Basilicas of
Const'antine, St. Clement at Rome, and Torcello near Venice, the Chnrch ot
St. Vital at Ravenna, the Mosque of Elm Touloim at Cairo, the Certosa ot
Pavia, and the Cathedrals of Bonn, Frihourg and Pans, from part of tlie in-
tended course. ■ ^^ ^ -t
The first and most essential recommendation of the present plan is, that it
is cheap, the number before us containing four plates costing no more than
four shillings ; then we may remark that the engravings are admirably exe-
cuted, and 'that no expense has been spared in rendermg them worthy o a
work of such importance ; the letter-press is also exceedingly good, the list
of proposed contributors includes Messrs. Goraard, ChampoUion, Figeac,
Langlois, .\lbert Lenoir, and Radii Rochette; while the English translation
and illustration is undertaken by Mr. Arundale. All these advantages arc
sufficient to recommend it to the public patronage.

ON DRAINAGE.
Lecture by Mr. Smith of DeansUm, delivered before the Members of the Roval
Agricultmal Society, at Bristol : JVednesdai/, July 13, 1842.
(From the Bristol Mercury.)
I need not, before such an audience, say that to the agriculturist the
dryness of land is of great importance-that, in fact the dry condition ot
tlie soil is the foundation of all good husbandry. It is beneficial, in the hrst
place, to the working of the soil ; it is beneficial also, to the after-growth of
the plants, and there is scarcely anv labour connected with agriculture which
is rot facihtated by the dryness of the soil. If we look on the face of nature
we may i?ather instruction on this subject; for if «e find a tree stronger
than its 'neighbour, we shall find that there the soil is deep and in a dry
condition. If we see a stronger and darker coloured herbage growing on the
hill side, there the soil will again be found deep, and in a dry condition.
There is not one ofl he various soils on the surface of the United Kingdom
which will not be much improved by being placed in a dry condition, if they
are not so by nature. I would say that even on a subsoil of gravel or sand
the inlroductiou of the thorough-drain system would be highly beneficial ;
but as there is only a small portion of that sort of soil in this country, the
oreater part being superimposed upon a wet soil, it becomes of the very
first importance to the progress of improvement in agriculture that means be
taken to render the condition of the soil dry. Many attempts have been
made with that view, but they have generally failed, in consequence ot not
having been done on a proper principle. The first system introduced into
this country, was to excavate deep drains, for the purpose of catching the
water that rose from below in the form of spring water. These were, to a
certain extent, effectual, and no doubt removed a great deal of the diftculty
which agriculturists had to contend with, on land partially wet and partially
dry ; but until the introduction of the thorough drain system, there was not

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

341

he puHcr of Jiainirg laml, on whatever sub-soil, resting, and rendering it
thoroughly and completely dry. The purpose of this lecture is to illustrate,
first, the principle on which this system acts; then, to show the advantages
which would arise to the agriculturist in carrying on the diflerent processes
with respect to the various crops ; and then to explain the modes employed
to render this drainage effective, both as to the cutting of them, and to the
preservation of the openings made for the escape of the water.

[Mr. Smith here illustrated by a diagram, his method of thorough drain-
ing; the soil, the subsoil, the drains, &c. being represented.]

In referring to two lines, representing the directions of drains, he stated
that he had drawn one at a greater inclination than the other, to show the
advantage of making the drains deeper than they generally were. The pre-
vailing practice was to make the drains two feet deep, but he preferred an
additional six inches — for this reason — that it was of great importance to
allow the water to go off as quickly as possible, and this advantage was
secured by cutting the drain to a greater declination. People were apt to
suppose that at a great depth water would not go off at all, but this w,is
a mistake. Another advantage arising from a deep drain was that it allowed
the whole bank of soil to become completely dry. and it consequently re-
quired a very heavy rain to wet it. The action of the atmosphere, too, re-
quired to be taken into account. He would not enter upon the chemical
question, but it was well known that soils were much improved by the
action of the air, and this advantage could only be secured after the water
was withdrawn.

To render the field completely dry, it was necessary that a great number
of drains should be cut, and that they should be laid off in parallel lines
beginning at the highest side of the field. This secures a thorough dryiiicr.
and it has been found that when the lines run parallel, much greater effect is
produced than when they are drawn across. When drawn across, the draiUj
may catch the water, but experience has shown that it does not run of! so
readily.

With regard to the distance at which the drains should be placed, that wil'
depend on the nature of the soil. If the field has been subsoiled, it is o*
less importance ; because the plough will form artificial channels in the soil
below. If it is a stifl' soil, it will keep long upon the surface ; and the more
free the soil is. the greater tendency it has to allow the water to pass ; so
that you will find that, on a stiff soil, such as the stiffer clays, taking into
account the nature of the subsoil and the soil itself, about the same drain
will serve on all soils. The distances in use are generally from 1.5 to 20 feet ;
in some soils individuals have been induced to put in the drains at 12 feet ;
but I conceive that that is, in some degree, throwing away money. From ob-
servations which I have made myself on all sorts of soil, in diflerent parts of
the country, I am inclined to recommend about IS to 20 feet as the distance
from one drain to the other.

The way in which I usually proceed in draining, is, first to find a good
bottom-level to run the drain into. And here I may remark, that in some
parts of the country there is sometimes difficulty in getting an open level to
carry off the whole water of the district ; but I think that by a proper ap-
plication of the principles of engineering, it may be accomplished in most
situations ; because it is found that if proper channels are executed, a larger
quantity of water will be di>:charged with a very small fall. In an instance
in which I was engaged in the endeavour to carry off water, I found that in
a drop of four inches in a mile, thirty feet wide and six feet deep, I could
discharge 300 tons of water per minute; which is much more than would
fall in a very extensive district indeed. So that I have no doubt, it means
be taken to carry off the main level, that a fall mav be had.

With regard to the fall of the great main, the receiving drain, I should
make that drain if possible about four feet deep— three feet six inches will
do ; but in order to have a drop from the one drain into the other, I usua'ly
make the main drain four feet deep, the receiving drain three feet deep, and
the parallel drains two ftet six inches. When there is any rise in the ground,
or any hollows over which the water can very well flow, it is necessary to
make a cad's drain That should be made about six inches deeper than the
other drains which fall into it ; then running on. it discharges itself into the
main drain.

With regard to the manner of executing the drains, there are various
modes recummende.l, and I have found, on looking to land which has been
drained a great many years, that when the draining has been performed
carefully, all the different modes employed for the purpose of keeping the
drains open have been quite effective. Indeed, a great deal of the want of
effect in the duration of drains has been owing to the bad execution. In
some instances faggots have been introduced for the purpose of preserving the
openings of the drain, an.| these have been found to continue and to preserve
the openings in a perfect stale for nine years— in some instances I have as-
certained for twenty years.

In Scotland the peat-top is frequently used to form the tiles for drains.
It does pretty well in clays which are pretty stiff, but does not do so well in
softer soils; in the same way, in some of the sandy soils, the sides not being

sufficient to resist the pressure of the top. the tile gradually sinks down and
closes up the drain.

Another mode of filling drains is by stones broken into the usual size for
making roads : and, although much has been said against the use of this sort
of filling, I have found from experience that when properly executed the
work is as durable as can be requireil. In most instances where stones can
be had, and where tiles are expensive, I should very much prefer them to the
tiles; and there is this advantage connected with it, that it prevents any
virmin from travelling in the openings of the drain, such as rats and mice,
which do a great deal of mischief. The great point is, to be very careful in
covering over at the top. As soon as wet comes, the sand and other mate-
rials silt down into the stones, and they are completely choked up. I have
'ound that drains not carefully executed, were completely destroyed in the
course of a cr,uple of years. On the contrary, if drains are so packed that
the water falls down on both sides, (the parts over-lapping each otherj there
is no opening whatever for the sand to find its way down. If drains are
carefully cleared in this manner, I will warrant their duration for almost any
period of time. I have executed myself about 1.30 miles of drains in this
way, and have had them all filled with stones; many of them have been
done 15 years, and there has not been a single instance of failure.

Many persons who have visited my farm have asked whetlier or not the
drains ivould be choked up in particular positions. I liave always asked them
what positions they referred to. and have opened it that they may see ; and
in no instance have I found a single drain choked up. I have the drains of
100 acres all discharged into one pond, provided for the purpose of seeing
how much deposit came from the drain ; and although we have had heavy
rain, I have never seen the water in the pond tinged as if there was much
soil in it. I can, therefore, safely recommend stones as a very sufficient
drainage ; and in many parts of the country it is much cheaper than tiles.

The next filling which has been used for preserving the openings of drains
is the drain tile. These are usually made of clay, and burnt. They are
found to be very handy and very useful : and where stones are not to be had
they are to be preferred. But there are districts where the clay tile cannot
be procured at any reasonable price ; they are usually 30s. a thousand, but in
some districts they are not lo be had at all. Lord James Hay has recently
discovered a method of making them of concrete stones cemented by lime ;
and so far as I have made any calculation of the expence, I think that in
most instances they » ill come considerably cheaper than the brick tile, and.
If executed on the ground, where they will not have to be carried far, the
breakage will be found to be very little, and they will be found to le exceed-
ingly durable. We know that the cement made of lime is more lasting when
covered up than if exposed to the atmosphere ; instances of this may be
found in the lime frequently discovered in old buildings, which has been found
to be perfect after hundreds of years.

There are two other modes of making drains— peat earth has been cut into
a shape somewhat like a hollow wedge ; and a sort of instrument has been
made for the purpose of cutting peat earth into the form of the tile, so as to
produce an opening not liable to the objection of the wedge, which frequently
sinks and fills up the opening. A stone is frequently used to lay the concrete
tile upon, and prevent its sinking. It is also made of concrete.

Much has been said with regard to the application of this system to diffe-
rent soils ; and many persons have expressed the opinion that, in some of the
very stiff' clays, drains of this sort would not be eflScacious, and that the
application of the subsoil plough after the draining would have no good
effect. With the view of showing the beneficial results, both of draining and
subsoiling, I have brought some specimens of different clays, in order to show
what improvement can be made. Here is a piece from the Pass of Stirlin"-.
This kind of soil has been cultivated from a subsoil, and has been known to
produce excellent crops of Swedish turnips. Here is another very hard clay
from Yorkshire.

A gentleman inijuired how long after the subsoiling the land cssumed a
different character.

Mr. Smith— Almost immediately— in the very first year. It requires some
years before it becomes adapted for a turnip soil. I have a specimen of some
soil w hich twenty years ago was so extremely stiff from the alluvial deposit
in the Pass of Stirling, that it required to be broken with large mallets, to
reduce, mechanically, the great lumps of soil. Thorough draining or sub-
soiling w as never thought of till about twenty years ago, w hen this land was
first drained; and now they get from it very splendid crops of turnips, and
in almost any season. Here is a piece of the improved subsoil before having
been drained by the subsoiling, the same as the other. While we are on this
point, I will produce the two specimens of subsoil from my own farm.

A gentleman wished to be informed of the nature of the soil in Mr. Smith's
farm.

Mr. Smith — It varies. In some parts it is sandy clay, and in otiiers, clay
perfectly impervious to water. When 1 first began to subsoil there was not
more than three or four inches of active soil, properly so called, for growing
plants; after a labour of about fifteen years 1 have nowanactive soil of six-
teen inches, and can turn over that in any part of the farm.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October.

A Genlleman.— How near are the drains in order to produce that result?
jjr g„,xn_T»enty feet. Having thus described the various modes in
which the drains have been formed, and having stated that, so far as my ex-
perience antl observation go, I think a distance of about eighteen or twenty
feet from drain to drain is a proper distance for almost any subsoil, I shall
now proceed to detail the application of the subsoil plough.

AVhen I first began to cultivate my own farm, although I had put in the
drains, I found they were not so efficacious as I at first ixpected, and I then
began to think of stirring up the subsoil, which gave rise to the idea of a
subsoil plough. I thought I must construct an instrument which would
execute the work with the least possible power. 1 made my plough very
strong, and of that form to which the least resistance would be opposed, at
the same time taking care to have sufiicient power fairly to stir up the soil.

I will here explain the principle of the subsoil plough, because 1 have
found that many persons, although seemingly acquainted with it, have Inot
the proper notion of the principle on which it is based. The great principle
is, that there are many subsoils, which, though capable of being converted
into a good soil, yet if brought up and mixed with the active soil, will so
far deteriorate it as to make it fur some time sterile. It therefore occurred to
me that the great point would be to stir up the subsoil, still retaining the
good soil on the surface. Stirring up the subsoil would, in the first place.
very much facilitate the escape of the water into the drains; and secondly
in consequence of the passage of the wafer through the stirred up subsoil'
and the attendant admission of air, it would be so acted upon as to be con-
verted into good Eoil, while at the same time I was having all the advantages
of working tlie active soil as before.

Upon the application of this principle, I found that which I had supposed
before was right, and I have been .successful in every instance in which I
have tried it. The process of applying the subsoil plough is this ; a common
plough goes along first, and removes a furrow of the active soil. After tha
the subsoil plough passes along below, and scarifies the soil to the depth of
from twelve to sixteen inches, in some instances eighteen inches. This is
continued furrow after furrow, the plough going first to lay the active soil on
the part already opened up ; then the plough comes a second time and takes
off a furrow from another part of the soil, and places it on that part which
:s already scarified.

Much 'has been said with regard to the proper period for applying the
subsoil plough, some conceiving that it should be appUed immediately, and
others, at some period after the drains have been out. I think that in places
where ihe drains have much effect, the subsoil plough maybe applied the
following year ; but in clay soils it is of great importance to give the clay
sufficient time to dry, and to have it in a sort of friable state ; because, in
the application of the subsoil plough, when clay subsoil has been recently
drained, and it IS not sufficiently dry, more harm is done than good; the
clay being worked in a wet state is almost prepared for making bricks ; and
if we once w ork it in that state it is a long period before it recovers its friable
property again. Therefore, I should say that in soils rather free, the subsoil
plough may be used the second year after the drainage.

The proper time to execute drains is in the summer season, because you can
then get it much more tidily done, and the drainsara prevented from running;
because in many places there are little sandy veins and portions of running
sand, which are very apt to fall in before the drains are covered up. In the
•winter season this is almost sure to be so ; and another disadvantage is, that
you may be taken with frost, which draws off the adhesion of the earth, so
that it falls down, and fills up the drain. It is best also to execute them in
grass land before it is broken up for cropping, because otherwise it is much
too soft. Executing it therefore in the summer season on the lee produces
very little loss indeed, because you find that the growth of the grass in the
after part of the season will be so much increased by the execution of the
drains, that you will he repaid for the time lost for ihe use of the pasture
durin" the time the drains were in process of execution. After the drains
have been completed, I would recommend you to take a crop from the land,
and if the land has been pretty good, it will, perhaps, afford two crops; at
all events, one crop should be taken ; and that will pass over one summer
before the subsoil is to be ploughed. During this season the earth between
the tHO surfaces has time to dry ; it is much more friable, and the subsoij
plough will be much more efficacious in stirring it up. Besides, it often hap-
pens that there are stones in the soil, which of course, must be removed
before you can proceed with good husbandry ; and it will be found that, in
consequence of the contraction of the soil, they have become in some degree
loose, and will be turned out very easily by the sub.soil plough. In many
instances we have stones exceeding 2001b. weight, which are turned out very
easily by the subsoil plough with four horses.

With regard to the direction in which the subsoiling ought to be carried, I
should say decidedly at right angles with the drains, because you thereby
form channels, from the centre to the side, in all directions. In that manne
vou form artificial ihannels from the very centre cf the ridge into the drain

and. although these may partially close up, still there is an openness given
to Ihe subsoil, which will permit the water to pass freely.

Having thus applied the subsoil plough to stir up the subsoil, the after cul-
tivation may be the common rotation of the country, such as the farmer
thinks suitable to the soil. But one thing which 1 would very much recom-
mend is, that when agriculturists have subsoiled their land, they should
follow the practice of laying down the land flat on the surface, without any
ridges or furrows. There is nothing more injurious to the land than ridging
it up. In the old modes of draining, it was quite necessary to have ridges
and furrows ; but now, when land is thoroughly drained, there is no occasion
for it, and indeed it is hurtful ; because when water falls on a rounded off
surface, it immediately begins to sink away to the lower level, and the water
which has fallen on the tops and middle parts of the ridges is added to the
water on the side, which thus has to bear a great deal more than its own
proportion of the water; the water carries portions of the soil along with it,
and the cracks are constantly filling up by the running of the sand from the
higher part of the ridge to the lower part. It must be obvious to everyone
that when a field is laid down with ridges and furrows, especially on stiff
land, a great part of the very best of the land runs down into those furrows,
and is deposited in large quantities at the bottom of the ridge, thereby doing
a great quantity of materi.al mischief. If it is laid in a flat form, you get
rid of this great evil, and obtain this advantage— that if the water is bene-
ficial to the soil, which it certainly is, you have that benefit equally distri-
buted ; every part receives its own water, and receives the benefit which the
water can give.

It is the suggestion of scientific gentlemen who have turned their attention
to the subject of agricultural chemistry, that the rain in falling from the
atmosphere absorbs a considerable quantity of ammonia ; and if there is any
affinity in the soil for ammonia, if the sod wants ammonia, the affinity will
extract the ammonia from the water, the ammonia remaining in the soil for
the nourishment of plants. It is also known, that where artificial manure is
put into the soil, some of the fibrous parts of it will be carried away with
the water, and be carried down to the region to which it belongs ; and al-
though not so near the surface as it was before, it is near enough for the
plants to reach it when they put down their roots.

A very peculiar change takes place in any subsoil— it does not matter what
composed of— after it is ploughed. This change begins to take place imme-
diately, and the soil gradually goes from the state in which it was before to
tliat of a mould. If you examine as oil which has become mould, it is of a
very peculiar structure. It appears as if all ihe particles were connected
together, and it seems to have some sort of attractive property by gathering
together in that way. Vacuities for the air are thus formed, and there is a
great tendency to absorb and retain as much moisture as is useful to the
plant. If it is filled entirely with moisture it is injurious to the plant, but if
there is a certain quantity, it becomes beneficial ; and when a great depth of
soil is attained, there is great advantage indeed, in anticipation of either
a wet season or a dry one. In a wet season the water tlows auay, leaving
the soil in a dry state ; but in consequence of the mouldering slate in which
the soil is, it is very retentive of moisture, and there is a great magazine of
water preserved in soil for a dry season. Being covered by the active soil,
the drought may penetrate a few inches, but in consequence of the lower part
of the soil being covered with this upper stratum, it is defer;ded from the ex-
treme action of the rain and a very dry atmosi^herc ; consequently it will be
found that in soil so treated and converted into this mouldy condition, in
very dry seasons a sufficient quantity of moisture will be retained lor the use
of the plants, which will grow vigorously when land in the same neighbour-
hood is completely dry. , • , ,
A notion has prevailed with some people, that it is possible to dram land
too much. I do not think so, from the fact that the mould becomes an ex-
cellent magazine for the retention of moisture. A circumstance took place
in regard to this in my own district, in 1826, a very dry saason. In that
year there was such a long period of dry w eatlier that the pond was dried up,
and there was a great deficiency of crops. I had a field which had been
treated in the way I have explained, and 1 had a crop of hay on it. The
hay in the country round was very poor indeed, producing not above half a
crop. On this field, which I had deepened to 10 inches, I had a very splen-
did crop. A proprietor of land in the neighbourhood, one of the old school,
resisted to the utmost of his conviction with regard to the result of thorough
draining and subsoil ploughing. A person occasionally employed by me
was also engaged in doing work for him. He had asked about thi hay, and
the old genlleman was rather puzzled at the state of the crop, and exclaimed
that he really thought I had drained the land so much that 1 should have no
crop at all. He was immediately after this completely wedded to the system,
and from that day has been vigorously engaged in introducing thorough
draining and subsoiling all over his estate ; and he is now having a great
deal of poor soil, on a very rich and productive' estate, treated in the same
way. Taking the average of that gentleman's estate, I should say that he
now produces double ihe qusntity of [corn that he used to obtain. He now

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grows potatoes where lie could not grow them before,, and on the old clay
he produces regular and large crops of turnips.

A Gentleman inquii ed « hethcr there was any land where subsoil-ploughing
would be successful without tliurough draining.

Mr. Smith— I am much obliged for that hint. Many persons have thought
that ploughing the subsod might do without draining, but there are few
instances indeed in which that application of the plough will not be hurtful
instead of being beneficial. If you liave a retentive bottom which will not
allow the moisture to pass away, it must remain till absorbed by the atmos-
phere ; therefore the greater the chambers for receiving rain, so much the
longer will the land beliept in a wet state. The practice which now prevails
in the English clay districts of ploughing with a shallow harrow, has arisen
from the experience of ages, which has taught them that on such soils you
cannot cultivate wheat if you plough a deep furrow, because you make just
so much the larger chambers to receive water. Even m open soils I would
not recommend the application of the subsoil plough till the thorough
draining has been executed.

A gentleman atked if it was necessary to repeat the subsoil ploughing.
Mr. Smith — It may not be essentially necessary to repeat it, but it is very
beneficial. The practice I have adopted is to repeat the ploughing at every
shift, every time I break up my fallow.
Another gentleman inquired if it was always done in the same line.
Mr. Smith— Generally ; sometimes I have done it obliquely.
Did you ever try it diagonally ?

Mr. Smith — Yes ; and perhaps it is better to do it in that « ay according to
the drop of the land. The first idea I had was to use the subsoil plough ;
then I thought 1 might use the trench plough, and that I might, the next
shift, turn up the whole soil, so as to have a complete mixture. In some
fields, where the soil was of better quality, and there was more vegetable
matter, I had excellent crops ; but, on the poorer soils, I found that by
bringing up the subsoil to mix with the active soil, after the first shift, I did
a great deal of mischief. I found, especially with regard to grass, that I
could not get that growth of plants which I had before! and immediately
on observing that, I resolved a third time to go over those fields, and that I
■would again use the subsoil plough : I liave now fallen into the practice of
doing so every time I turn. I took up at the first shift, perhaps about three
inches, even in the poorest field ; the next time three inches more ; and by
that means I gradually attained a thorough depth of soil to the extent of
sixteen inches. On my own farm I have mentioned that I have a thorough
depth of sixteen inches, but that is in consequence of using a trench plough
on the second shift ; and in some fields that was unsuccessful. If I had had
then the experience I now have, I would from the beginning use the subsoil
plough at each shift ; and instead of going down the whole [sixteen inches, I
vould only take up perhaps three inches the first time and three the next,
till I had completed the depth of sixteen inches.
The lecturer was asked if he had ever used lumps of burnt clay.
Mr. Smith — I have seen it done, and it has been pretty successful, but
there'is considerable difficnlty in the manufacture.

A Gentleman— As regards draining in the summer season, how do you get
the level ?
Mr. Smith — By the spirit-level, of course.

A Gentleman— The great object would be to get it done cheap; but it
would be much more expensive if done in the summer.

Mr. Smith— No doubt ; but if I had the choice of executing drains during
the winter, at an expense of 50 per cent less than the summer, I would prefer
doing it in summer. The efficiency is of far more importance than the
expense.
A Gentleman objected, th^t in summer sometimes the land was too hard.
Mr. Smith- That maybe the case in some places, but the great bulk of
the land will retain as much moisture as will enable you to get through it
with the plough. Of course that will be subject to variation in different
parts of the country. In some places it had better be done when the ground
is more moist. Still, I would recommend it to be done, not in the winter,
but in the spring or autumn.

A Gentleman— I may perhaps be allowed to say that there are cases where
subsoil ploughing is efleclive without thorough draining — as, for instance, in
the soils of the moorlands. I have tried it myself in the moorlands, and
have found that by simply breaking up that pan which holds up the water
which made the lands dry in summer, and wet in winter, all the water es-
caped ; and land before not worth 5s. an acre, let for 20s. after it was done.
That was certainly a peculiar case.

A gentleman inquired whether the rocks under the stratification were hori-
zontal or perpendicular.

Mr. Smith— There was very little stratification ;at all. I am perfectly
aware of what has been stated with regard to destroying the pans, such as
are placed upon gravel ; and though in the giavel the opening must be at a
considerable distance, and consequently the water will be long in finding its
way out, if it gets into tlie channel it will go off easily. These dry soils

retain moisture a great deal too long Jfor agricultural purposes. A neigh-
bour of mine was draining his land— a sort of irregular subsoil — and in some
places had very considerable ruts or rising ground, with sandy or gravel bot-
tom : he instructed his steward to stop the drain when he came to those
holes. This was done, and two winters after the gentleman w as coursing,
one day, and all at once his horse sank over the fetlocks in the soft ground.
He called out to his steward to show the cause, and his steward explained
that this was the portion of land on which he had desired the drain to be
stopped. 1 mention this fact to illustrate what I have said, that when
agriculturists determine on draining a field, they should resolve to drain it
wholly, otherwise they are only throwing the expense away. I have seen
Instances where persons have drained wet parts, and left what they consi-
dered dry undrained. They very soon found that the land which was formerly
the wettest, was then driest, and that when the part which had been drained
was ready to receive the seed, they were delayed a few days till the other
portion was sufficiently dry. In a country such as ours, where we have much
changeable weather, all agriculturists know the advantage of a single day.
Now, if a field is uniformly drained all over, you will perhaps be able to sow
your seed one, two, three, or four days earlier than if it were not drained ;
sometimes now you lose the opportunity altogether, because it frequently
happens that two or three days intervene; very newly-dried will be ready
for being sown, whereas other land which was not drained would require a
week or fortnight before you could sow it.

With regard to the application of thorough draining on porous bottoms,
no doubt much good will be effected without subsoil ploughing. 1 have
found it most efficacious on sandy and gravel bottom. Many persons think
that by so doing mischief would result; but I have known instances of land
of that nature being very greatly improved after being stirred up by the ap-
plication of the subsoil plough.

A Gentleman — Your observations apply to thorough draining ; many peo-
ple call It furrow draining. I wish to know whether you have any reference,
to deep draining, and how, as in the case of a spring lying deep, you meet
the difficulty occasioned by the water. Two feet and a half drains would not
touch a spring such as that described on the diagram. How do you get
away the spring water,

Mr. Smith — They are called furrow drains, because they ate made in the
furrows. I call it the mode of thorough draining. I use the term to express
the result. They are called sometimes wedge drains, top drains, and tile
drains ; but the principle is, that you have the drains sufficiently close toge-
ther to carry off the water quickly ; and then, that the best mode of laying
them off for that purpose is to arrange them in parallel lines, and carry them
as much as possible in the sloping direction of the land.

With regard to springs, the spring water can do no harm till it enters the
subsoil ; so long as it keeps below that, you need not care about it. The mo-
ment it reaches the bottom of the drain, it finds its way into it, and will be
carried off by it. I have found it necessary, sometimes, to carry a drain
through the eye of the spring. Springs sometimes come in little cbaunels, at
other times in a sheet, according to the nature of the subsoil. When they
come in a sheet, the cross cutting completely scarifies them. If a spring
comes out at a round opening and happens to fall in between two drains, I
have found it necessary to cut the drain into the eye of the S[ ring. But in
every instance where the water flows between two beds, I have found that, by
cutting the drain across, it was completely cut off'.

I will now describe to you the mode of constructing the draining tile of
Lord James Hay. One way of doing it is to construct the tile on the ground ,
and then carefully place it in the drain. The other is to execute it in the
drain as you go along, and immediately to cover it up. The composition of
the tile may be varied considerably, but the proportions which I have foi;nd
to do very well are —

Lime. ... 1 part Blackened cinders i part

Sharp fine sand . - 3 parts Gravel .... 3 parts
making altogether TJ parts, or 1 measure of lime to Gi of sand and gravel ;
the cinders may either be used or not. The gravel selected should not be of
a large size.

[Mr. Smith then exhibited the manner of forming the tiles on the ground
near the spot where they are to be used. The machine consisted simply of a
large box, in the ^bottom of which were placed the moulds and cores, the
box having at each end holes corresponding with the size of the cores at which
to draw them out. The moulds being placed in the box, the box was closely
filled with the concrete, which was firmly beaten down, and then the sub-
stance to form each tile was compressed by instruments adapted to the
length of the tile. The cores were then drawn, the moulds and box lifted,
and the tiles left behind, requiring only drying in order to be fit for use,]
Mr. Smith continued —

344

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October-

In our -listrict lime is very dear ; it costs about XI per ton in tliesliell.

The cost will be- ^, „ „

One ton of lime . . . il U u
Half ton of cinders . . 0 10
Four tons of sand . . 0 4 0
Two tons of gravel . . 0 5 6
Grinding . . , • 0 2 6
Workmanship . • • 0 10 P
£2 3 0
These quantities will make 2880 tiles, which will be about the rate of 15s.
per thousand. I would recommend in all cases that the gravel and the sand
should be ground together, as thereby the lime goes much farther. By
grinding them, also, in a wet state, they are better prepared to make the mi.^;-
ture which forms the concrete.

A question has heen handed to me, as follows :-" What efiect have
thorough draining and subsoil ploughing on the habit of throwing out the
wheat plant by frost ?" There is no difficulty in answering this ; because it
is well known' to be owing to the moisture that the wheat plant is thrown
out, and whatever removes the moisture, will have the favourable tendency
required I have known manv places where almost every winter the greater
part of the plants were thrown out. Now. the result of thorough draining
and subsoil ploughing is, that they retain the plant perfectly well, and have
very abundant crops.

The best of the t«o modes which 1 mentioned of forming the tiles, is to
make them just where the drain is wanted, and in a few days they will become
so dry that they can be placed in the drain. One disadvantage is, that these
tiles will not stand carting for a length of time. They requirerseveral months
before they will admit of being laid one over the other. But, in most in-
stances, the making of the tiles can be accomplished on the spot, and in the
course of a few days they may be put into the drain. It is, then, of great
importance to cover them immediately with some light soil, free from stones,
and to beat them down so as to preserve it from injury. If there are any
stones in the soil, they may get down to the tile and seriously injure it.
This is an instnimeut with which to form the tile in the drains.
[The lecturer then exhibited the method of forming the tiles in the drains,
which is done by p'acing the mould in the place in the drain to be occupied
by the tile, then laying upon it the concrete, and after pressure by an in-
strument similar to that used in the former process, drawing out the mould
by means of a long handle attached to it for that purpose.]

Mr. Smith-With reference to the tiles, I would remark that it is better to
make them in moist weather than in dry.

A gentleman inquired how long it would be before the drain could be

filled in. , j • t

Mr Smith-l consider it completed when the soil is put over the drain. In
an experiment which I made in Forfarshire, as soon as the core had been
withdrawn, when the soft soil had been beaten over the concrete, it was fia
to be walked over in two days after. Having no greater covering than that
on it, 1 jumped myself on the tile from the surface, without doing any in-
jury, so that I consider beating the earth over the tile perfectly secures it
from injury, and the moment it is completed it is beyond any danger-one
day, at least, after the core is withdrawn.

A Gentleman-If I understood Lord James Hay right, he said it is better
not to let the water run through immediately.

Mr. Smith— I should say that precaution was quite necessary ; there would
be some risk of the lower part being washed and injured. Mr. Littledale, of
Cheshire, has also made experiments on the system. I cannot catch his eye,
and therefore do not suppose he is here, or he would bear testimony to the
advantages of it. The old mode is to have narrow ridges not more than
three yanls broad, because otherwise there would be no crop at all. There is
generally a fringe like a bristle at the top of the ridge, and there is nothing
Tn the furrow below. There is a gentleman who has followed the plan of
thorough draining and subsoil ploughing, .and has laid down his land flat ;
and he\as succeeded in converting a very sterile clay into a clay which has
borne a very splendid crop of potatoes, which he has sold this season for

40/. an acre.

I have an interesting communication to day from Scotland, which, though
not immediately connected with the subject before us, bears intimately upon
it. There are great doubts respecting the propriety of putting seed deep into
the soil, or covering it very lightly. Experiments have been made on that
subject, but none so conclusively as that which I huve now before me, which
relates to the springing up of the more tender seeds, the grass seeds ; and it
shows the great importance of having a shallow covering over them. This
experiment was made by the Messrs. Drummond, of Stirling, the individuals
who first introduced the agricultural museums.

This experiment tends to show the great importance of a light covering to
grass seeds. I have made a harrow of peculiar construction, which reduces
the surface soil very much without tearing up the ground. It has no teeth,
but acts by little sharp discs, closely set together, which curve very slightly
1 have found this instrument also very efficacious if used as a brush harrow.
A great many questions have been put to me in the course of the lecture,
which I have endeavoured to answer as satisfactorily as I could. I now take
the liberty of referring to two gentleman, who have had opportunities of
seeing what has been done by the application of thorough draining and sub-
soil ploughing. One of these gentlemen is well known as an eminently
scientific man, who has visited my farm, and has obtained information as to
what it was in its original state, and to what it has attained by cultivation ;
I mean Dr. Buckland.

Dr. BucKL..\Nn— Gentlemen, I am one, I believe, of the few individuals
present who have had the opportunity of visiting the scene of these most
interesting experiments. I believe the term Dean-stoning has been applied
to the process, but "thorough draining" is the designation given to it by
Mr. Smith. Every word uttered by Mr. Smith I can verify from my own
personal inspection of his farm. I went there disposed to criticise, and there
is but one attempt at criticism that I can offer on all I have heard or seen of
Mr. Smith; and that is, that he talked just now of making straight lines
round the hill. There may be a rule for doing that in Scotland, but it is at
present unknown in this part of the empire. I can find no other fault, and I
think that what I have said is the greatest compliment 1 can pay Mr. Smith.
I examined the pond which has been spoken of, and I could find nothing
there which indicated the presence of earth. Tlierefore it is quite clear that
there is no tendency by any natural process to fill up those drains. A most
important point is the total absence of furrows-an advantage which was not
so fully pointed out as it might have been. The wetting which you have m
the gutter, and the too great dryness which you have on the upper part of
the furrow which you have in an ordinarv field are avoided, and a healthy
condition is assumed over the whole field, whether one or one hundred acres.
One fact is better than any criticism which 1 can ofler. On my return I
visited Sir Robert Peel, and was conducted by him to see the worst farm on
his estate. One of the fields which should have had grass upon it consisted
in three-fourths of it of burnt clay, and one half was full of little plashes,
which the tenant had covered with rotten dung. It was impossible that the
mnisture flowing from this could go down ; it therefore began to dry, and its
whole virtue was going to the wind. Sir Robert admitted the badness of the
tenant, and promised to adopt the system I had recommended in one of my
pamphlets. I heard no more of the matter till about the end of last autumn,
and then I received a letter, which stated that Sir Robert bad obtained pos-
session of the farm, and was proceeding to drain it in the manner recom-
mended by Mr. Smith. I hold it very important to get another experiment
made in the west of England. I saw— and this shows the connexion of
<»eolo>^y with agriculture— what the original condition of the soil was, as
There "is a small fragment of it over the hedge. Mr. Smith's soil is more
than a foot deep, while over the hedge it is not more than three or four
inches of the coarsest soil, not worth more than half-a-crown an acre ; the
value of Mr. Smith's I will not mention, but perhaps 3;. or 4;. an acre would
be a fair guess. Now, Sir Robert Peel has in one year wholly changed this
by improving the subsoil ; and you shall hear the result sent to Sir Robert by
his bailiff, to be transmitted to Mr. Smith. After the land had been drained
on Mr Smith's plan, it was limed with four tons of good lime per acre ; it
was then ridged up. the ridges afterwards split, and rotten dimg put between.
It was immediately moulded up. and the seed drilled on the ridge over the
dung, so that the seed had the benefit of the dung at the first stage of vege-
tation The first crop of turnips produced was four times greater than any
crop produced on the same field at any previous time. The manure was
^ood farm-made stable manure and farm-yard dung mixed ; the proportion
was 12 tons an acre ; the best crop was 27 tons an acre ; the seed (the Here-
fordshire white) was sown the 21st of June. The second best (26 tons) was
red "iant, sown the 23rd of June ; the next was red top, sown the 24th ot
June" and the next the white globe, sown the 25th of June. The whole of
the seed was from Skirviug's, of Liverpool, and 2*lb. per acre was sown ; the
ridges were 24 inches distant from each other. That document was signed
by Thomas Hill, Sir Robert Peel's bailiff. This is the result of twelve months
experience only, for Sir Robert Peel wrote to me, and said he sowed under
unfavourable circumstances, and his neighbours were laughing him to scorn.
Whether or not 26 or 27 tons of turnips an acre is a failure, on land winch
never before produced 0 tons an acre, it is for you to judge. Here is the
whole expense repaid in the first year, and the land for ever worth forty

shillings an acre. r d i *

A gentleman from Berkshire, who had cultivated a portion of Bagsliot
Heath, spoke highly in favour of Mr. Smith's system, and alluded to that
.gentleman as having al nosl taught him the rudiments of agriculture.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

345

MR. VIGNOLES' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

SECOND COURSE — LECTURE XII. — R.\1LWAY ESTIMATES.

Tms lecture had reference to the consideration of estimates, as applied to
raihvays — that is, to ascertain lineal dimensions, superficies, and cubic con-
tents, and, affixing the proper rateable prices, to work out the monied results.
The Professor said, that, probably, the most ready way to give a general idea
on this subject would be to go briefly over the several heads to be considered
in framing an estimate. It was assumed that proper plans and sections of
the work had been prepared in a skilful manner beforehand, Mr. Vignoles
strongly insisting on the necessity and importance of having all such docu-
ments furnished on a much larger scale, and with vastly more attention to
accuracy and detail, than had often hitherto been the case, particularly for
Parliamentary estimates, observing, that erroneous data and calculations
could not but result from a neglect of this rule : and. he stated, that, al-
though many of the standing orders of Parliament were annoying in some
respects, yet the principle on which they were framed, went to compel a
compliance with forms, in doing which, greater previous investigation and
accuracy of plans and sections, became absolutely indispensable.

The quantiiij of land required formed naturally the first item of an estimate.
It was but seldom, indeed, that the very small economy of taking land for
one line of railway only was adopted. To a given breadth, therefore, for a
double line — say, from eight to ten yards — must be added the necessary
allowance for fencing and ditching — say, three yards on each side — making a
constant breadth of fourteen to sixteen yards of land throughout, indepen-
dent of the necessary slopes in excavations and embankments ; the additional
quantity for these, depends, of course, on the depth of the cutting, or height
of the bank, in the various places, and on the ratio of the slopes of the
earthwork. Suppose, in a cutting or banking of ten feet, this ratio to be one
horizontal to one perpendicular, then, such slopes of one to one require ten
feet additional breadth of land on each side — together, tw'enty feet — viz.,
twice the depth or height to be added as a further breadth, beyond the
constant one for the railway and fencing. In like manner, for slopes of one
and a half, two, two and a half, or three to one respectively, multiply the
varying depths or heights of cutting or embanking by three, four, five or six,
as the case may be, for the necessary augmented breadth of land due to the
slopes, along their several extents; and thus, from the lengths measured,
and the heights figured, on the section, the varying quantities of land are
obtained, multiplying length by breadth, and reducing the areas to acres and
parts for agricultural districts, and to square yards for land in towns and
their immediate vicinities. For the prices to be assigned to these superficial
quantities, the engineer must depend on the land valuer, who is also to judge
of the amount of contingent damages. On an average, the actual quantity
of land for a double line of railway, including the slopes of earthwork, may
be taken at ten acres to the mile, but the precise areas must be ascertained in
detail in the way explained. The cost of land for many of the leading lines
of railway had been as much as £5000 per mile for the whole of their
length. The cost of land for lines at a greater distance from the metropolis
was less— still, from the numerous contingent after-charges, in respect of
land, the sums were large, and had often far exceeded the original estimates.

The fencing of the land comes within the province of the engineer, though
it is sometimes comprised in the item of land. The mode of fencing must
always be regulated upon the custom and materials of the country. Dry-
stone walls, earth mounds with furze hedges, posts and rails, quickset
hedges, and broad side-ditches or drains, are the principal kinds of fencing
through agricultural lands ; walls of brick or masonry, set in mortar, are
generally called for through towns or building land. The several lengths of
each of these are ascertained from the plans ; the prices are obtained in the
localities. Including farm gates, the cost of fencing varies from Is. tid. to
3s. per yard lineal in the country. In the vicinity of towns, for stations. Sec.
the price will vary from 5s. up to 10s. per yard, according to circumstances,
■vhich it must be the business of the engineer to ascertain.

The third item is usually that of Earthwork— thui is, to reduce the undu-
lating natural surface of the ground to the railway level or gradient, by
cutting through hills, and filling across valleys. Mr. Vignoles having, in
the first course, entered at large into the consideration of earthwork, thought
It unnecessary to say much here. The price of the earthwork depends ab-
stractedly on the average work that an able-bodied man can perform in a
day, in various soils— this it should be the study of the engineer to deter-
mine. The mere price to the workman, for getting and filling, may be taken
at from 2d. to 5d. per cubic yard, for the various kinds of sands, gravels,
or clays ; and from 6d. to 2s. for harder materials, rock, &c., but, in addition,
various other matters are to be provided — barrows, planks, wagons, tempo-
rary railways, &c. — the present modern practice in moving large quantities
of earlh is vastly different to what it was in this country thirty years ago.

or to what it still is on the continent, more particularly in the greater dis-
tance to which the material is carried ; these several distances between the
excavations and the points of depositing them, either into embank-ment or to
spoil, must be ascertained from the longitudinal section, and a careful exami-
nation on the ground— these distances are technically called the lead; for
distances under a quarter of a mile, the prices are higher, in proportion,
than for longer distances. Taking the average description of soils, and the
average distances. Is. per cubic yard may be taken as a covering first esti-
mate, upon the whole number of cubic yards of excavation or of embank-
ment, whichever may be the larger quantity shown upon the section. The
quantities of earthwork in a railway, on an average per mile throughout the
whole distance, might be taken as a characteristic of its cost, so far as mere
construction went, independent of carrying establishments, stations, and
land, over which items the engineers seldom had control. Mr. Vignoles
said it would be very interesting to have an abstract of the quantities and
cost of the earthwork, distances carried, &c., on all the railways, and indeed,
of all the other items of the works, as actually executed ; they would be-
come valuable precedents for future estimates, particularly if accompanied
by explanations of the circumstances under which the operations were car-
ried on. The great haste with which many of the railways were executed,
while the late powerful excitement lasted, had added greatly to the cost, by
raising the price of labour. Mr. Vignoles stated that he had already given
some such abstracts of the railways that had been executed by him, or under
his directions, and he was prepared to give more, and he hoped that other
engineers would follow his example, as it could not but be very satisfactory
to the proprietors of the different concerns, as well as a justification to the
engineers themselves, and to the directors, that they could go into the mi-
nutest detail of expenditure. The Professor then gave abstracts, in round
numbers, of the quantities of earthwork on many of the principal lines of
railway, as well as could be ascertained from the sections. He mentioned
the North Union Railway, twenty-one miles long, with 125,000 cubic yards
of earthwork per mile, at an average cost of lOjd. per yard, including all
extras and contingencies. The Midland Counties, 57| miles, with 100,000
cubic yards of earth per mile, at an average cost of 13d. per yard, including
slips and all charges, the soils nearly the same in each, and the average lead
nearly alike— viz., one mile— attributing the difference to the great haste and
great demand for labour in the latter. The mean of these would be now a
fair estimate.

Having estimated for the cost of obtaining the artificial bed of the rail-
way, the next item would be the Bridging and 3/asonry— that is, to restore
the previously existing communications of roads, canals, or other railways,
the passage of rivers, watercourses, &c., &c., by viaducts, aqueducts, ordinary
bridges, culverts, drains, Stc, and often by heavy retaining and breast walls.
Under this head came the bridges of brick, timber, or iron ;— in very marshy
countries, where the foundations are likely to be bad, and the drainings
liable to be affected, timber may be resorted to, and used in the shape of
piling, with cross beams to sustain the rails across the openings, avoiding
thus the cost of arches, abutments, and wing walls. The ascertainment of
the several superficial or cubic quantities in each of these different construc-
tions, is a matter of simple mensuration from the working drawings. The
attachment of prices to these, in all their various details, with sufficient
accuracy, depends on the mature judgment and experience of the engi.
neer; and it is by a long course of careful study and observation that the
young student, in his employer's office, and on his works, can alone hope to
acquire this knowledge. It was but too common, in making estimates, to
fall short in this item, particularly in the number of occupation bridges,
which, owing to the complicated holdings, improvements, &c., had to be
provided for to a vexatious extent, or bought off. The masonry is generally
in proportion to the earthw ork, and in many cases has happened to be of
nearly the same amount of cost. The average number of bridges on a main
line of railway might be taken at five for two miles. Diversions and em-
banked approaches of roads, gravelling or metalling the new surfaces, and
the contingent operations, 'should be separately calculated. They are in-
cluded under the head of fencing,; of earthwork, or of bridging, or kept as a
distinct item, according to the practice of the engineer, but they form a
large sum, varying from lOOl. to 500/. per mile, according to circumstances,
and, in preliminary estimates, are too often omitted, or are put into that
refuge for all deficient items — contingencies.

The item of Upper-Works in general, or permanent way, had been gone into
so fully in the recent lectures, that it was not necessary here to do more than
mention it, as forming a leading point in considering estimates. It is usua|
to add 10 per cent, upon all the items of the estimate, properly belonging to
the engineer. Besides these were the preliminary expenses of surveys and
Act of Parliament. The management, including cost of conveying, &c..
and all salaries and expenses of direction, office, engineers, soliiitors, &c„ Jitc.
Then came the expenditure on the stations, engines, carriages, repairing and
building shops, fittings, and .all the carrying establishment necessary for
passengers, also for goods and for warehouses, wharfs, and other accommo-
dation. It was in them the heavy extra expenditure of railway capital

3 C

346

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OCTOBBR.

mostly went, and which, in the early stages of the railway system, could no
be properly judged of. By way of summary, Mr. Vignoles said he would
give, in his next lecture, the actual cost of one or two hues of railway which
had come under his direction, and which might be useful by way of reference
in making out estimates on other occasions, thout;h the construction and
working of railways must be regulated on much more economical principles
than had hitherto been the case, or no more of them would be undertaken.

LECTBRE XIII.

In continuation of the observations on Railway Eslimates, w hich had been
commenced in the last lecture, Mr. Vignoles observed that, having therein
gone fully into the items of construction of railways, he had only glanced at
the very necessary provision to be made for the efficient working of them —
viz., the Stations and Carrying-establishment, upon which he would say a few
more words, for it was mostly under this head th«it the chief causes — or,
rather, the chief excuses — for extra expenditure, or excess of estimates, had
arisen. Properly speaking, this item, so costly, and yet so indispensable,
should be taken as falling on a railway company, not as proprietors of the
road, but as carriers — the distinction being, that if the railway was let on
lease, as canals have been, or if everybody could carry on the railnays, as
they do on the canals — if, in short, public safety and public convenience, and
generally necessary arrangements, did not make it imperative, or. at least,
highly desirable, that the railway companies should be carriers (of passen-
gers, at all events), the expense of stations and carrying establishment
would not fall on them, though they must still be incurred by some parties,
hefore the railway can be brought into profitable operation; nevertheless,
the public, who are to use and be benefitted by the road, having, after all,
to pay in one shape or another, are greatly interested in a proper expenditure,
any excess of which is sure to be felt in increased charges or in diminished
accommodation, until the grievous expenditure of a rival line is introduced.
In analysing the cost of Stations it is obvious that the land always forms a
prominent item, for, being near towns and populous places, it is to be bought
by the yard, and not by the acre— building land, villa land, &C., &c., instead
of mere fields. Hence, it will not be surprising, if it is found that the cost
of the land, for the stations only, on many of the great lines, has amounted
to as much as one-third of the whole cost of land for the railway. The
buHdings erected at stations may be divided into three classes — those for the
accommodation of the passenger traffic — those for the goods, minerals, &c. —
and those for the repair and maintenance of the engines, carriages, &c.
At principal towns, therefore, large and distinct establishments must be
erected ; and, on long lines, a principal central depot for the engines, is
often required in addition. At the minor and road stations the whole may
be grouped together under one roof. In no department of expenditure
have so many diilerences. and so much useless extravagance in construction
and arrangement, been displayed, as in the buildings at stations ; and
hundreds of thousands of pounds have been absolutely thrown away from
want of sufficient forethought and consideration, and by erecting enormous
masses of buildings, either at the wrong places or in an Injudicious manner.
It was better to wait until the character of the traffic was ascertained, before
making such expensive permanent establishments, and then to increase the
accommodation by degrees. As an example of a moderate expenditure under
this head, Mr. Vignoles mentioned some particular instances, and went
somewhat into detail. At the terminus of a railway in a manufacturing
town, with 80,000 inhabitants, there had been an expenditure of £9, .500. for
the passenger buddings, sheds, &c., &c. ; £5,500. for goods' warehouses ;
about £2000. fur the mineral traffic ; and about £3000. for fixtures, tum-
plales, &c.— say, in all, about £20,000. exclusive of the land, which had
amounted to a very large sum, upwards of £13,000., including a good deal of
spare space, existing buildings, &c., Sec. At a smaller town on the line, but
with some extent of goods' traffic, the cost for passenger buildings, sheds,
Stc, was £2500.; for merchandise accommodation, £3500.; turn-plates,
fixtures, tools, SiC, &c., £1000. ; land about £3000. On the same railway
the cost of six or seven various minor road stations, including water tanks
coke and engine sheds, tools, &c., was £3500. ; land about £1500. ; sundries
on the whole line about £1000.— being a gross expenditure of £50,000. on
station, land, and buildings, for a line of about twenty -two miles, which is at
the rate af £2273. per mile ; and the corresponding carrying establishment
of engines, tenders, &c. (for passenger traffic only), was about £19,000. ; for
passenger carriages of three classes, horse-boxes, trucks, &c., &c., about
£13,000. (the wagons for merchandise, coal, &c., as well as the engines, &c.,
being provided by carriers on the line, who provided their own carrying
stock) ; and the necessary buildings for repair and maintenance of engines,
carriages, &c., with tools, fixtures, &c. &c., about £12,000.— making a gross
cost of £44,000., or £2000. per mile. The whole of this concern having been
arranged «ith the strictest regard to economy, may be taken as a fair ave-
rage, and it will be safe to say, that £4000. per mile for an eflectivc carrying
establishment, with the necessary stations, is a moderate sum. For lines of
less traffic, if of considerable extent— as, for instance, say for some of the
long lines from the present railway termini in the north of England, to

either of the principal towns in Scotland, a smaller amount might be suffi-
cient; but Mr. Vignoles considered that it would be unwise to estimate a
smaller expenditure than that of £3000. per mile for Stations and Carrying-
estahlisliment, on a line to be worked by locomotive engines, and it would be
much safer to take £4000. ; on either of these sums, £1500. per mile for the
locomotive stock and buildings must always be estimated, and almut £500..
per mile for the carriage department — leaving from £1000. to £2000. per
mile fur the stations, according to the extent of accommodation ; keeping
the instances of the extraordinary outlay on some of the principal railway
lines as examples to be avoided, and not to be imitated, or referred to, as
necessary.

Under the last'head of Management, came all the various and miscellaneous
items of expenditure, between the first concoction of the project, to the
closing of the capital account. The preliminary expenses of examining the
ground, levelling, surveying, maps, 8tc., and all the formalities in the en-
gineer's department, to enable application to be made to Parliament ; the
ascertainment of the traffic, revenue, travelling, and other expenses of
various kinds, &c., &c., generally undertaken by tlie secretary ; the valuation
of land, &c., by the surveyor; the collections of the names of owners and
occupiers, notices to them, applications for their assents, &c., and the ma-
nagement of the Bill throughout all its stages, fading to the charge of the
solicitor. All these must be incurred before a spade was put into the ground,
and had heretofore varied from £500. to £1000. per mile, according to the
facilities afforded, the opposition encountered, the length of the line, &;c. In
future estimates, it was to he hoped this item might fairly be put, as not ex-
ceeding the smaller of these sums. Then came the setting out of the line,
the detailed levels and surveys, and all the office work of the engineer, until
the works are put into the hands of the contractor. The minute valuations
of the property to be taken, and the juries, references, conveyancing, stamps,
and all the various legal steps until the company are put into full possession.
Then the office establishment for regulating all the financial and ministerial
affairs, and the temporary arrangements, police, lawsuits, and legal and
illegal charges of all kinds, ta.xes and rates, interest and commission to
agents and brokers, travelling expenses, salaries, and a great variety of dis-
bursements of a miscellaneous kind, which, in the aggregate amount to a
large sum. The whole of the outlay thus coming under the head of Ma-
nagement has varied from 5 to 10 per cent, on the gross cost of the railways
hitherto executed, according to their extent, and the amount of capital em-
barked, and especially according to the degree of vigilance exercised to keep
down expenses, which depends chiefly on the director or secretary, or under
whatever name the acting manager of the company may superintend.
Judging from the examples past, and the deep impression which has been
made on the public mind of the necessity of economy in every department,
Mr. Vigmdes thought 5 per cent, might be estimated hereafter, unless the
lines were very short, and the capital small.

In recapitulation, the Profes.sor observed, that the young engineer should
always keep in view, for his estimates, the preceding great divisions of the
cost — viz,, land, including the damages, and fencing — earthwork — works of art
(bridging, masonry, &c.) — upper works (the permanent railway proper) —
stations and carrying establishment — management — and having, in his first es-
timates, allowed amply for each of those items under their several heads,
he should add at least 10 per cent, for unforeseen contingencies. .Some of
the preceding items would be common to almost all railways, and others, of
course, would vary greatly, according to local circumstances, chiefly regu-
lated by the amount of earthwork ; for, as that is heavy, so the works of art
become costly, since the works of art are merely to restore the existing com-
munications of the country, and the natural or artificial water-courses and
drainage to their state before disturbed, or as near as may be, and that to an
extent in exact proportion to the civilisation and improvement of the coun-
try, to enforce all which stringent clauses are inserted in the Acts of Par-
liament, and plenty of persons are alwa)'^ on the watch to enforce them.
Mr. Vignoles observed, that the land, levelling of the ground, and restoring
of communications, might, on the average, including contingencies, extra
land, &c., be taken as forming about 50 per cent, on the total outlay of
railways hitherto executed. But, referring to the items the Professor had
gone over in detail in previous lectures, it appeared that, when proper
economy and circumspection was used, the necessary cost of the railway
proper — that is, the necessary quantity of land for the road only, a good
substantial set of upper works for a double way, and a complete and elTective
carrying establishment — might, and had been, obtained for £10.000. per
mile. All beyond is expenditure to obtain gradients, more or less perfect,
and Mr. Vignoles thought that the great error all engineers had hitherto
committed, the cardinal mistake — of which he himself was far from guilt-
less— was, seeking to make railways, intended, as they were, chiefly for
passengers, ioo per/fc<— that is, of cutting down hills, and filling up valleys
to too great an extent, on the erroneous supposition that the engines were
always to carry maximum loads, which was very seldom the case, and never
would be so on lines at a distance from the metropolis, particularly such as
the hnes into .Scotland, previously mentioned. In short, the Professor in-

1842.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

347

sisted that the engineer should, in such instances, and for the cross railways,
which he yet hoped might be introduced, make the gradients and carves
ranch less theoretically perfect ; and that the amount of expenditure, beyond
the above stated necessary one of £10,000. per mile, should be reduced to
the very minimum ; and lie considered that henceforth an average ot £15,000.
or £16.000. per mile, and a maximum of £20.000.. or, in very extraordinary
cases, indeed, of £25,000., should be looked to for the construction of double
lines of railway in any country, but that in most cases, of light traffic, and
consequent adaptation of gradients, for single lines, a sum of from £7000. to
£12,000. per mile would be the limit of total expenditure. Mr. Vignoles
concluded by observing, that the preceding abstracts were deduced from very
detailed accounts, which had been arranged on a uniform system, and kept
from the very commencement of each undertaking, so as to be available, at
any time during the progress of the works, to show the exact state of the
expenditure ; and had been finally worked out to the nearest thousand

pounds, as above. And the Professor expressed his great hope and expecta-
tion that this example would be followed, and that similar accounts would
shortly be forthcoming, of the corresponding items of cost on all the prin-
cipal railways in this and in other countries, more especially where com-
plaints of improper excess of expenditure over estimates (well or ill-founded)
had been charged, for the publication of such accounts— and the more in
detail the belter— would be the most complete defence of the directors, and
the most satisfactory explanation from the engineer, and alike valuable, as
statistical information, to the country — as salutary guidance to the capitalist
and speculator— and as valuable information and naming to the old as wel
as to the young practitioner.

The preceding is a very brief outline of this interesting lecture, and the
following, we believe, is a correct abstract of the cost of the two railways
quoted by Mr. Vignoles.

Comparatiee Abstract of the Cost of two Principal Lines of Railway, under the general heads of Expenditure, as deduced from the very latest accounts

of Actual Expenditure, brought out to the nearest ro»nd numbers :

MIDLAND COUNTIES RAILWAY.

[57f MILES.]

— —

NORTH UNION R.4.ILWAY

[25 MILES.]

Pr.cent

whole
cost.

Costpr.

Mile.

£

Total Cost.
£

— — —

Heads of expenditure.

_ _ _

Total Cost.

Costpr.

Mile.

£

Pr.cent
whole
cost.

12

34

15

23

7

3463
1004
5455
4364

6822

6147
2182

200,000

58,000

315,000

252,000

394,000

355,000
126,000

(790 acres)

(5,700,000 cubic yards)

[tons

/ Upper r£215,000— (17,670)

1 Works! 179,000

r C-. .■ , ~l •£ 51,000
. Stations and ^^'

< carrying S .,' „„
estabUshment. fil'oOO

Railway land, and damages . .

Fencing, gates, roads, &c

Earth work

(320 acres) . .

(2,900,000 cubic yards)

(6885 tons) £68,000 / Upper "I

62,000 I works ]"

£ 18,000 r „, ,. , ~|

48,000 J Stations and 1
90 000 1 cafying >
14000 establishment.

50,000

20,000

125,000

125,000'

130,000

100,000
60,000

2000

800

5000

5000

5200

4000
2400

8

3i
20i
204

21

164
10

Works of art, of all kinds

Iron rails and chairs

All other materials, and labour
Station land, and damages ..
Buildings, tittings-up, &.C

Carriage, &c. stock

Management, law, interest, &c.

100

29,437

1,700,000

_ _ _

: .. Totals

_ _ _

610,000

24,400

100

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

June 20. — A paper by M. Vicat was read, " On the nature of Poxtzzo-
lanes." — M. Vicat, having discovered the nature of the substance, has been
able to compose a substitute with pure clay, calcined whilst exposed to a
dead heat, so as to get rid of eight or nine-tenths of the water combined
with it. The best clay for the purpose, says this gentleman, is pipe-clay ;
and in proportion with the admixture of iron, manganese, carbonate of lime
or sand, is the defect of quahty.

M. Degousue gave an account of some recent results in the making of
Artesian wells. He states that he has bored for water in the plateau which
extends from Lagny to the forest of Arminvilliers, at the height of 110
metres above the Marne. In one spot an abundant supply of water rushed
out, although he had gone to a depth of only nine metres. With M. De-
gousee's report he forwarded to the Academy a letter which he had received
from Aime-Bey, the director of the mines of Egypt, who announces his in-
tention of re-opening some of the bored wells of the ancients, at the foot of
the Libyan chain, and requests that the necessary instruments may be sent
out to him for that purpose.

June 27. — A paper on the effect of oil in calming the waves of the sea.
By M. Van Beck. — M. Van Beck thinks, with Franklin, that the pheno-
menon may be explained by admitting that there exists between air and
water a certain natural affinity or adhesion. Water, he says, takes in with
avidity the air with which it comes in contact, so that it is with diihculty
expelled. It results that, whilst a current of air passes over the surface of
the water, the air attaches itself to the liquid, and creates small waves,
which, as the wind increases, become large and dangerous. As soon as these
waves are covered with a membrane of oil, the adiiesion of the air upon the
water ceases to exist, and the surface is no longer disturbed.

A communication was read from M. Combes, on the thermal springs of
Mamant-Escoution, on the Banks of the Raz-el-Akbar, in Algeria, about

thirty leagues from Bona. The waters of these springs, which rise in the
midst of a plaia from Utile conical domes formed by themselves, are sulphu-
reous, and of the high temperature of 80° of Reaumur.

July 4. — A paper was read " On the Geological State of the southern part
of Brazil, and on the Heavings-up of the Earth, which have at imrious periods
changed the appearance of the country," by JI. Pissis. The ground examined
is situated between the 12th and 27th degrees of central latitude, and com-
prehends the space between Parana, San Francisco, and the sea. Three
periods of rising or heaving up are perceptible in Brazil, the last belonging
to the end of the tertiary period. The immersion of certain strata placed at
the bottom of the province of Bahia, and a sUght elevation of the table lands,
found between the sea and San Francisco, have been the results of it.

" On the action exercised on the surface of various Liquids, hy the influence
of the Vapour of certain Substances, and by their immediate contact." By
M. Dutrochet. Light bodies placed on the surface of the water are repelled
to a certain distance by the vapour of camphor, of ether, or even of alcohol,'
and the essential oils. M. Dutrochet's experiments op|)Ose the opinion
hitherto received, that this phenomenon is due to the impulsion which re-
sults from the rapid expansion of the vapour, which, striking on those light
bodies, produces the removal of all the liquids subjected to the experiments.
Ether is the one which produces the most vigorous movement of light bodies
placed on water, mercury, and several acids and alkalies, but the movement
is not always a repulsion, and is subject to great variation. Thus the vapour
of ether attracts flour of sulphur placed on the surface of sulphuric acid, and
produces a repulsion on the surface of nitric acid. If water be added to
these acids, the movement is weakened in proportion as the quantity of
water is increased. M. Dutrochet attributes tiiese different movements to a
modification of capillary attraction. He observes that, in reahty, there is
neither attraction nor repulsion in the floating bodies, that tlieir displacement
impedes the current, of which the surface of the liquid is the seat, and which
has its origin in the heaving up or depression below the liquid, which may be
reduced to steam.

July 18. — .V paper was read by M. Rameaux, of Strasburg, on the vital
heat of plants. M. Rameaux has ascertained that the heat varies materially,

3 C 2

348

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

not only according to the external temperature, but also in the different por-
tions of the plants. This he attributes to the flow of the sap, which, having
received the vital heat from the direct action of the sun's rays, carries it as
it flows ; consequently, the portions immediately under the influence of the
sap have a higher degree of temperature than those which are most distant.

Another report was made to the Academy, on the cjiirass of cotton felt, as
a means of defence in war. In the first report to the Academy, the con-
clusions of the commission were not altogether favourable ; for, although it
was admitted that the cuirass resisted the action of pistol balls, it bore traces
of injury from the concussion to which it was exposed. In the present
instance, it appears that the cuirass was exposed to a severe test, by being
fired at with cavalry pistols, at the distance of a few paces, and that it
effectually resisted the balls.

July 25. — A paper was read by M. Vallee, " On ttie mode of rendering tfie
Lake of Geneva subsidiary to tlie Rhone." Amongst the phenomena pre-
sented by the Lake of Geneva is one which has particularly attracted the
attention of M. Vallee, viz. the sudden changes of level which in the country
are called se'ches. He attempts to account for this phenomenon by supposing
the existence of a subterranean lake, communicating on the one side with the
Leman, and on the other with the high valleys by means of natural wells,
which are nearly vertical. In this way he endeavours to explain the rising
and falling of the waters at Geneva, which have been frequently noticed to
vary as much as two metres at a time, and to account for the rapid and ex-
tensive changes which occur in the temperature of the lake.

August 1. — M. Bessel, of Kocnigsberg, and Professor Erman, of Berlin,
were present. Each read in French a communication to the Academy.
The paper by M. Bessel was on the laws of atmospheric refraction as con-
nected with astronomical observations. The paper by Prof. Erman was a
report on a meteorological voyage of circumnavigation. In the course of
M. Erman's expedition round the world, the vessel in which he was, passed
four times from latitude 50' north to 58' south, and during this transition
M. Erman made observations with the barometer six times a- day. He states
from them that, in general, the pressure on the barometer goes on
diminishing very slowly from the equator to the poles, and what proves that
this depends on the general constitution of the atmosphere, is the fact that
the diminution is constant and regular. Thus in the waters of Cape Horn,
as well as on the coasts of Kamscbatka, the mean height of the barometer
is twelve millimetres lower than the mean height of the great equinoctial
ocean. Hence it follows, says M. Erman, that the pressure of the air is not
the same on basins of the same level in vast seas. M. Erman concludes,
from the result of his observations, that a hope may now be reasonably en-
tertained of becoming fully acquainted with the general law of the distri-
bution of the air over the surface of the globe, so far as that law may appear
to depend on pressure.

A report was read by M. Dufrenoy, on a coniniunieation from M. Araedee
Burat, respecting the position of the coal veins in the basin of the Saone-et-
Loire. The veins are not in strata, and they exceed in thickness all others
known, but the veins are less continuous than in other coal districts in their
direction and inclination, are mLxed with clay, and he concludes that they
have been formed by a vegetation on the spot, periodically destroyed by the
rising of the neighbouring waters beyond their ordinary level.

Aug. 8. — M. Arago gave an analysis of a paper by M. de Ruolz, on the
means of f. ring one metal upon another by the galvanic process. When the
first paper of M. de Ruolz, on this subject, was read, the practical use of the
discovery had gone no further than the precipitation of pure metals, and it
remained to be ascertained whether mixed metals could be precipitated.
This M. de Ruolz has done, and several specimens covered with a precipitate
of copper and tin, in the proportions which constitute bronze, were submitted
to the Academy. The red tint of copper, so offensive to the eye in objects
of art produced by the galvanic process, has given place to the more delicate
and pleasing appearance of bronze. The various advantages of the galvanic
system are fully shown in the paper of M. de Ruolz. A precipitated coating
must always be more regular and uniform than one laid on by hand. It can
be made to any degree of thickness, and cannot be detached from the mate-
rial to which it is appUed. Iron roofs, for instance, both as to frame-work
and sheet-iron, may be coated so as to resist the action of the atmosphere,
and this without any great augmentation of cost, for the coating may he
thin, and the iron work itself, not being exposed to atmospheric action, may
be made much lighter. For domestic purposes, the galvanic process as regards
a leaden envelope, may be advantageously employed in various ways, and M.
de Ruolz suggests that it would be well to employ it for iron shot, which
undergoes great deterioration from exposure to the atmosphere.

A letter was read from M. Agassiz, who has been for some time encamped
on the summit of the Aar, for the purpose of studying the phenomena of
the glaciers. He writes that the mass of ice in that part advances towards
the valley at the rate of 220 feet annually, and the surface loses 7 feet of ice
every year, which loss, however, finds its compensation in the infiltrations
which become frozen, and raise the base.

Aug. 15. — M. Dumas placed before the Academy some specimens of the
power of the newly-invented roller, by M. Schatteamann, which, according
to a former report, has been used with great effect in compressing together
into one solid mass the fractured portions of the stones used for macadamizing
roads. The specimens now submitted to the Academy are of two kinds. In

the one the interstices of stone are filled with sand, so compressed as to be-
come as solid as the stone itself; in the other, fragments of stone are rolled
together, and form the most complete cohesion.

Aug. 29. — A further communication was read from M. Agassiz. M. Agas-
siz informs the Academy that he has ascertained that the glacier is throughout
mined and sapped by watercourses, as he was convinced, from experiments
which he had before performed, and of which he had given an account, that
ice is porous in a high degree, and that the motion of glaciers is due in part
to the infiltrations of water through the mass, thus imdermining the base ;
and that the experiments on the glacier of the Aar have established the truth
of this theory. M. Agassiz also mentions a fact which tends to corroborate
what has been stated as to the phosphorescence of clouds. He mentions
that it is more easy, on the glaciers at night, to distinguish the hands of a
watch when the sky is covered with clouds, than when it is cloudless and
the light of the stars is seen. He also states that the appearance of a peculiar
snow, well known to all visitors of the glaciers, is not a snow that falls, but
merely a modification of the frozen surface.

In a paper lately read on some remarkable circumstances connected with
the Daguerreotype, it was stated that a cameo having been suspended so as
to hang near, but not to touch, a polished plate in a box from which all
light was excluded, the engraving of the cameo was clearly and distinctly
marked on the plate. M. Breguet,the celebrated watchmaker, has addressed
a letter to the Academy, in which he states that he has frequently seen, on
the polished inner surface of the gold cases of his flat watches, the name of
his house plainly and legibly marked, the impression having been received
from the engraved letters of the covering of the works, which did not touch
the case.

Sept. 5. — A communication was read from M. Valle, a colour-maker, on
the employment of a solution of caoutchouc for canvas used by painters. M.
Valle was led to the researches which have terminated in the invention which
he has submitted to the Academy, by observing the injury caused to the
works of some of the greatest masters by the influence of the atmosphere
upon the canvas. M. Valle's method of preparing the solution is at present
a secret. Although applied to both sides of the canvas, it leaves it sufficiently
elastic to prevent cracking, and secures it against the action of the atmos-
phere. To this discovery he adds that of a peculiar kind of varnish for the
painting, and thus he defies the ravages of time.

The subject of the meteors commonly called sliooting or falling stars, was
alluded to. According to the last communications from M. Arago, the period
between the 10th and 12th of August still retains a marked superiority for
this phenomenon, which is still so little understood. M. Littrow, of Vienna,
counted, on the night of the 10th of August, 129 of these meteors per hour.
On the same night M. Bonard, of Rennes, counted 44 per hour ; at Tours,
and in the department of the Doubs, M. Laugier and M. Mauvais witnessed
a shower of these meteors. At Paris and at Toulouse the observations of
M. Eugene Bouvard and M. Petit were attended with less marked results,
but still they were sufiicient to prove that the period of the year above named
is that in which the phenomenon abounds. In a commuuication to the
Academy, M. Bourdot, of Grand-Lemps, in the Isere, states that he watched
with great attention the passage of these meteors on the night of the llth
ult. In no instance, when they exploded, did he hear any noise, but the
explosion was, in several instances, followed bv a long train of phosphoric
light.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Aiml 26. — The President in the Chair.

" A description of a netv arrangement for raising S/iips of all classes out
of water for repair, proposed to replace the Graving Dock or tlie Patent
Slip in certain situations ; with observations upon tlie other metliods used al
different periods for t Ids purpose." By Robert Mallet, M. Inst. C. E.

This communication describes an apparatus proposed by the author as a
substitute for the graving dock or the patent shp, in situations where such
constructions would be too expensive, or an inappropriate locality prevents
their adoption. It reviews the principal methods hitherto in use— such as
stranding by bilge-ways, careening or beeUng over, lifting by the camel, the
graving dock, the floating dock or caissoou, the screw and the hydraulic
docks (both American inventions), and Morton's patent slip ; it euumerates
the localities for which each of these inventions is most applicable, and then
gives the objections to them. The author then describes the general prin-
ciple of his invention to be, the diffusion of the load or strain over the great-
est possible number of fixed points, avoiding casual and unequal strains ; that
there should be uniform motion, with a power proportioned to the resistance.
In providing for this, the joggle-joint is used throughout. The machine con-
sists of a platform, supported upon a series of frames with joints at each end,
attached at the lower extremities to fixed points in the foundation, and at
the upper ends to the under side of the platform, which is traversed by a
series of beams, to the ends of which are fastened rods coimected with rollers,
working in grooves along a suspended railway on the cantilevers of two

, 1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

349

jetties, which are huilt to form the sides of the apparatus. A chain connected
with all these rollers traverses in each suspended railway groove, and the
power of a steam-engine and wheel-work, being applied after the vessel is
floated on the platform and made fast, the frames raise the platform and
vessel together gradually out of the water, permitting free access all round
the ship ; and when the repairs are completed, the whole is again lowered
into the water. It is contended that many practical advantages would arise
from this system — that the ship would not be strained, that time would be
gained, and that it is superior to the ordinary methods now practised. The
calculations of the leverage, the division of the load over the fixed points,
&c., are given in detail, and the paper is illustrated by a series of elaborate
drawings and a complete model of the apparatus.

Remm-ks. — Mr. Rendel thought that credit was due to Mr. Mallet for the
science and the practical skill combined in the production of the contrivance
under discussion ; it was perhaps imperfect in some of the details, but he was
inclined to beUeve that, in certain situations, and for vessels of moderate
size, it might be adopted. Its construction would certainly be more expen-
sive than that of a patent slip, but it would be less costly than a graving
dock, and not liable to injury from hydrostatic pressure, to guard against
which frequently constituted a main portion of the expense of a graving
dock. The foundation of this structure might be simple, as the weight was
distributed over so many points ; he conceived, however, that unless it was
established where the rise of tide was considerable, the foundations must be
laid at a depth of 5 or 6 feet under low-water mark, to allow for the thick-
ness of the frames and tlie platform beneath the ship's bottom. He was of
opinion that a modificatian of the plan might be advantageously employed
for canal lifts.

Mr. Hawkins agreed with Mr. Mallet that a ship must be strained while
on a patent slip, because the timbers were all bearing a weight at an angle ;
but more particularly when leaving the slip, as the stern floated whilst the
stem was still on the cradle of the slip.

Mr. Palmer did not admit the advantages of the proposed plan over grav-
ing docks, for, as they are now constructed, they possess every requisite con-
venience for examining and repairing vessels ; the gates are made to exclude
the water perfectly, and the machinery for pumping is so effective, that a
very short time suflices to lay the dock dry. The plan might possess some
advantage over Morton's slip in retaining the vessel in a vertical position,
but it would be more expensive to construct, and he was not at all convinced
that the objections urged against the patent slip were well founded.

Mr. Gordon observed that the position of a ship upon a patent slip was
exactly that in which it was built ; he could not therefore understand why it
should be so very injurious ; besides, if the stern cradles were elevated, as
was the case on some of the slips proposed by Captain Brown, the vessel re-
mained nearly on an even keel. Another improvement introduced by Captain
Brown was, substituting solid rollers for the wheels of Morton's slip, the
axles of which frequently twisted and prevented the progress of the vessel.
Among the modes of examining the bottoms of vessels enumerated by Mr.
Mallet, he had omitted the " gridiron," which consisted of a strong frame of
horizontal timbers resting upon the heads of piles a Uttle above low-water
mark ; over this frame the vessel was moored, and on the tide receding was
shored up, resting upon chocks. When it was dry the bottom could be ex-
amined, and any slight repair made before the returning tide floated the ship
off. " Gridirons " existed at Liverpool, at Havre, and at many other ports.

The President observed, that, like the form of breakwaters, much depended
upon locality. Where timber was cheap, and the rise of tide considerable,
the plan might be applicable ; at Liverpool, where the tide rose 30 feet, and
in the Channel Islands, where the rise was 40 feet, the platform might be 10
feet above low-water mark, and still accommodate any ordinary vessel. It
certainly appeared to avoid some of the main expences of the graving dock,
in which so many precautions must be taken for preventing the springs rising
and blowing up the bottom. The Institution was much indebted to Mr.
Mallet for the great pains he had bestowed on the communication, for the
complete drawings and model illustrating it (which were presented to the
Institution), and he deserved credit for the ingenuity displayed in the con-
trivance.

*' Account of the Machinery and Apparatus /or compressing and using Gas
for Artificial Illumination at the Portable Gas Works of London, Edinburgh,
Manchester, and Paris." By Charles Denroche, Grad. Inst. C. E.

This paper gives an account of the improvements introduced by Mr. David
Gordon into the syphon forcing-pumps, reservoirs, &c., whereby the requisite
degree of compression was obtained for rendering gas portable for the pur-
poses of illumination, and of the arrangements adopted in the works at Edin-
burgh, Manchester, London, and Paris. A description is given of the various
kinds of apparatus which were tried before a pressure could be obtained of
30 atmospheres, or 450 lb. per square inch. The portable lamps, with their
ingeniously contrived graduated cocks are also described, with the several
parts composing the apparatus. It appears that, owing to the cost of com-
pression, which was 3s. 6(/. per thousand cul)ic feet, and that of delivery,
which amounted to lO.v. per thousand cubic feet, the speculation was unsuc-
cessful in a mercantile point of view, although most of the mechanical difti-
culties were overcome. The paper was accompanied by a series of detailed
drawings of every part of the apparatus.

Mag 3.

" Description of the Tunnels, situated between Bristol and Bath, on the
Great Western Kailwag, with the methods adopted for executing the works."
By Charles Nixon, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The works described in this paper comprised a large quantity of heavy
earth-work in tunnels, &c. ; they were commenced in the spring of the year
1836, and terminated in the year 1840. The whole of the tunnels are 30 ft.
in height from the hue of rails, and 30 feet in width ; they are curved to
a radius of about 120 chains ; the gradient of that part of the' line is 4 ft. per
mile. The strata through which they were driven consisted generally of
hard gray sandstone and shale, with the gray and dnn shiver, &c. ; in a few
places only, the new red sandstone and red marl were traversed. Every pre-
caution was taken for securing the roofs, by lining them with masonry where
the nature of the strata demanded it, and in some places invert arches were
turned beneath. Driftways were driven before the tunnels were commenced,
and shafts were sunk to enable the work to proceed at several points simul-
taneously. The modes of conducting the works by these means are fully
described, with all the difliculties that were encountered. The construction
of the centres is given, with the manner of lining the arches with masonry,
which is stated to be what was termed " coursed rubble ; " but was of a very
superior description, and in every respect similar to ashlar-work. The author
offers some remarks with regard to the expense of working tunnels by means
of centre driftways. He states this plan to be costly, and in many instances
without corresponding advantages, on account of the difliculty of keeping the
road clear for the wagons. He recommends that when driftways are used,
they should be on the lower side of the dip of the strata, as the excavation
would be facihtated, and the road would be kept clearer. In long tunnels
he has found the cheapest and most expeditious mode of working to be by
excavating the centre part from shafts, and both the ends (together if pos-
sible) from the extremities after the open cuttings are made. The drawing
accompanying the paper gave a longitudinal section of all the tunnels, and
showed to an enlarged scale several transverse sections of them, where the
variations of the strata rendered either partial or entire lining necessary.

Remarks. — In answer to questions from Mr. Vignoles and other members,
Mr. Nixon explained that the extra number of shafts had been required in
order to enable the woiks to be completed within a given time ; there had
not been any accidents during his superintendence, but subsequently one of
the shafts had collapsed. The cost of driving the driftways, the dimensions
of which were 7 feet wide by 8 feet high, was ten guineas per yard lineal.
He then described more fully his proposed plan of cutting the driftways on
the lower side, instead of the centre of the tunnel, and stated the advantages
chiefly to consist of a saving in labour and gunpowder, as a small charge
sufficed to hft a considerable mass of rock when acting from the dip ; the
road was also less Uable to be closed by the materials falling into it when the
enlarged excavation proceeded from one side instead of upon both sides.

Dr. Buckland, after returning thanks for his election as an honorary mem-
ber of the Institution, expressed his gratification at the prospect of a more
intimate union between engineering and geology, which could not fail to he
mutually beneficial, and cited examples of this useful co-operation in the
cases of railway sections, and models that had recently been furnished by
engineers to the Museum of Economic Geology. He then proceeded to re-
mark upon the geological features of the Soutb-Western Coal Field near
Bristol and Bath, which had been described by Mr. Conybeare and himself,
in the Transactions of the Geological Society of London (1824). Some of
the tunnels near Bristol are driven in the Pennant Grit of the coal formation,
where it is thrown up at a considerable angle, and composed of strata yield-
ing slabs and blocks of hard sandstone used extensively for pavement. Iii
traversing such inclined and dislocated strata, the engineer's attention should,
he conceived, be especially directed to the original joints that intersect the
beds neatly at right angles to their planes of stratification, and also to the
fractures produced during the movements they have undergone. These natu-
ral divisions and partings render such inclined stratified rocks unworthy of
confidence in the roof of any large tunnel, and liable to have masses sud-
denly detached. Inclined strata of a similar sandstone are ])erforated by
many tunnels on the railway near Liege, in nearly all of which the roofs are-
supported by brick arches. It has been found impossible to make the tunnels
through Lias and Red Marl without continuous arches of masonry. In any
of the tunnels which have been carried through strata of the great oolite, the
parts left unsupported by masonry would, in his opinion, be peculiarly liable
to danger, because even the most compact beds of oolite are intersected at
irregular intervals by loose joints at right angles to the planes of the strata,
and occasionally by open cracks ; and it is to be feared that the vibration
caused by the railway carriages would tend eventually to loosen and detach
these masses of stone. He apprehended still greater danger would exist in
tunnels cut through the loosely jointed strata of chalk, unless they are lined
throughout with strong masonry ; and even that, in a recent case, had been
burst through by the weight of the incumbent loose chalk coming suddenly
upon the arch. In open cuttings through chalk, where the numerous inter-
stices and the absence of alternating clay beds prevent any accumulation of
water, there is little chance of such frequent landslips as occur where beds of
stone, gravel, or sand rest on beds of clay ; but until the side walls of chalk
are reduced to a slope at which grass will grow, they will be subject to con-
tinual crumblings and the falling down of small fragments, severed by the
continual expansion and contraction of the chalk, under the destructive force
of atmospheric agents, and chiefly of frost. In open cuttings, where the

350

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

inclination of the strata is towards tlie line of rails, the slope should be made
at a Rreater angle than if tlie strata inclined from the rails ; if this be done,
fewer landslips will occur from accunuilatious of water between the strata
thus inclined towards the rails ; and such slips may lie further guarded against
bv minute and careful observation of the nature of tlie individual strata, and
a'scientific application of subterranean drains at the contact of each permeable
stratum with a subjacent bed of clay. Tunnels can be safely formed without
masonry in unstratified rocks of hard granite, porphyry, trap, &c., and in
compact slate rocks ; also in masses of tufa, such as cover llerculaneum, and
are pierced by the grotto of Pausilippo near Naples ; but in his opinion, wide
tunnels driven in stratified rock could not be considered secure unless they
were supported bv arches.

Mr. Sopwith confirmed the remarks ou the importance to the civd engi-
neer of a knowledge of tlie geological character of the strata through which
tunnels or open cuttings were to be made ; the cost was materially affected,
as well as the stability of tlie works. The angle of inclination and the lines
of cleavage should be carefully studied ; on one side of a cutting the slope
might be left steep, and all would be firm and dry ; whilst ui the other, if
the same slope was adopted, all would appear disintegrated and wet, and a
series of accidents would be the necessary consequence. He could not sufS-
ciently urge the importance of a more intimate connexion between the geolo-
gist and the engineer. ,

In answer to a remark by Mr Farey on the apparent advantages of Frazer s
centres for tunnelling, Mr.' Bull promised to procure for the Institution an
account of the execution of some work with them.

" An account of the Railroad constructing between Liege and Verviers,
Belgium" By Lieutenant Oldfield, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The materials for this communication were drawn from the memoranda
made during a tour by the author, who is an engineer officer in the service
of the East India Company. It describes the general course of the railway,
descending by the long inclined planes, from the height above Liege to the
valley of the Meuse, its progress along the hanks of the Vesdre, through tun-
nels, and over almost innumerable bridges and viaducts, to Chaudfontaine,
and thence onward through the town of Verviers, in the direction of Aix-la-
Chapelle, to the frontiers'of Germany. The modes of excavating the tunnels,
and the materials used in the other works on the line, are accurately de-
scribed ; the general acclivities and curves of the road, the rails, chairs, and
methods of fastening them to the sleepers, and the prices of labour and ma-
terials, are all given in detail, and the whole was illustrated by enlarged dia-
grams from the author's sketches.

May 10. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of a Fla.r Mill recently erected by Messrs. Marshall and Co.
at Leeds." By James Combe, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The mill described in this communication consists of one room, 396 feet
long by 216 feet wide, covering nearly two acres of ground. The roof is
formed of brick groined arches 21 feet high by 36 feet span, upon cast-iion
pillars : an impermeable covering of coal-tar and lime is laid on a coating of
rough plaster over the arches, and upon that is a layer of earth 8 inches
thick, sown with pr.iss. This immense room is lighted and ventilated by a
series of skylights 13 feet 6 inches diameter ; one at the centre of each arch.
A vaulted cellar with brick pillars extends under the whole of the building,
and contains the shafts for communicating the motion from a pair of engines
of 100 horses' power, to the machinery in the mill ; the flues and steam
cases for warming and ventilating ; the revolving fan for urging the air into
the room, with the gas and water pipes, and the remainder of the space is
appropriated for warehouses.

The heating and ventilating arc effected by a large fan, which forces the
air through the pipes of two steam chests, each 10 feet long, and containing
together 364 pipes of 3^ inches bore : the temperature can be regulated by
the quantity of steam which is admitted into the chests, or by allowing a
portion of cold air to pass by without traversing the pipes ; valves and doors
in the flues permit any temperature which is desired to be obtained, or that
degree of moisture which is essential for some part of the process of work-
ing flax. The general details of the construction of the building are given
with the dimensions of the brick and stone work ; the cast-iron pillars and
caps, the wrought-iron tie-bars, with the reasons for adding a second set
after the accident occurred to the first set ; the mode of drainage from the
roof; and the striking the centres of the arches, &c.

The total cost of the mill including the ornamental stone front was £27,443,
which is stated to be about the same cost as that of a good fire-proof mill
on the common plan ; but as this mode of construction was novel to the
workmen, it is probable that a second building of the kind would be less
expensive. The advantages resulting from the plan are, convenience of
supervision, facility of access to tlie machines, the power of sustaining uni-
formity of temperature and moisture, the absence of currents of air which
are so objectionable in other mills, the simplicity of the driving gear, and
the excellent ventilation which is so desirable for the health of the work-
people.

The paper was illustrated by two drawings with a sheet of reference, and

an appendix contained the result of some experiments upon the strain on
the tie-bolts, the pressure on the arches, and the deflexion of the bolts, &c.

Remarks. — Mr. Smith, of Deanston, was much pleased to find this des-
cription brought before the Institution, as he was the first to adopt it for a
weaving shed of the extent of half an acre ; the columns for carrying the
arches were 30 feet six inches apart, and the skylights were 8 feet in dia-
meter ; some of the arches were of brick, with stone springers ; others were
entirely built with rubble stone well grouted, which latter mode of con-
stniction he found succeeded quite as well as brick : the settlement of the
arches on striking the centres after standing four days was only ifths of an
inch : The arches were thickly plastered with common mortar and at first
were only covered with a coating of boiled coal-tar pitch, and lime fths of
an inch thick, but as the wet penetrated, the thickness of coal-tar pitch was
increased to fths of an inch, with a mixture of sharp sand, which had
proved perfectly water-tight : for some months there was an appearance of
moisture, which proceeded from the interior of the brickwork, as it could
not escape outwards ou account of the impermeable covering ; after some
time the copious ventilation carried off this moisture and the building be-
came perfectly dry. Over the coal-tar a thickness of earth is laid, which is
cultivated, and has proved a prolific garden : in severe weather the frost has
not reached above lA inch deep in the soil, while it has penetrated to the
extent of 12 inches in other situations. The construction of the floor is
peculiar : it is desirable in such weaving sheds to have a boarded floor, to
prevent the small parts of the machinery from being broken by falls, and
also on account of the health of the persons employed ; but the vibration of
an ordinary wood floor is objectionable. In order to meet these views, a bed
of concrete was laid throughout the building, a series of small deal spars 1^
inch deep by one inch wide were set flush into the concrete whilst it was
wet, and the whole surface was smooth plastered : upon this bed, when it
was perfectly dry, a floor of boards Uth inch thick was nailed to the spars :
it was found' to combine the solidity of pavement with all the advantages of
a wood floor, and there had not been any symptoms of dry rot : which might
be attributed to there being no cavities left beneath the boards, the whole
being firmly bedded down. The ventilation was eft'ected by tunnels beneath
the floor, the covers of which were pierced with a number of small holes to
spread the air. The warming was accomplished by means of hot water cir-
culating under the pressure of the atmosphere only, in " tubeS of tin plate"
4 inches diameter ; the temperature was very regular and perfectly under
control. With one ton of coal per week the shed could be kept up to 70°
during the winter. The cost of this building was 30 shillings per square
yard of area covered, which was less than the cost of Messrs. Marshall's
mill, but building materials were much cheaper at Deanston than at Leeds.
He expected that this mode of building would become more general as it
combined many advantages, and whatever might be the first outlay in pur-
chasing ground, the cost of which was the only inducement for constructing
buildings of several stories in height, it would be fully compensated by the
facility of superintendence alone, as in manufactories this was of the utmost
importance. These buildings would, he believed, be eventually used for ag-
ricultural purposes, and when engineering knowledge was more directed to
the processes of agriculture, good results might be anticipated : his attention
had been particularly directed to the subject, and he was convinced of the
necessity of concentrated superintendence which is not at present possible in
the separate farm-steadings as they are now constructed : this might be ap-
parently foreign to the subject before the meeting, hut the range of engi-
neering was so wide that it was difficult to say where it should stop.

Mr. Lindsay Carnegie as a landed proprietor could bear testimony to the
importance of' the connexion of engineering with agriculture, and to the ad-
vantages already derived from the improvements which had been introduced
by Mr. Smith, who might be justly termed the father of the improved system
of agriculture in Scotland.

Mr. Marshall explained that he was indebted to Mr. Smith for the sug-
gestion of this mode of construction, which he had not hesitated to adopt
although all the plans had been prepared for mills of several stories in
height — he had been convinced of the superiority of the present plan and
his expectations had been fully realized. There were of course some diffi-
culties to be overcome and some experiments to try, all of which had not
been successful, but in all the essential points this kind of building was su-
perior to any other. An equality of temperature and a facility of imparting
a certain degree of moisture to the air which was indispensable for spinning
yarn had been perfectly attained.

Mr. Braithwaite inquired whether the arches were found to be perfectly
water-tight ? On some of the railways which were laid upon arches it
had been found that asjihalte had faile'd in rendering them impervious, and
they were consequently useless, even for store-houses.

Mr. Marshall explained that a few leaks had occuiTed, particularly near
the skylight-frames, hut they had been easily repaired and were now water-
tight. .

Mr. Combe found that a mixture of finely-sifted engine ashes with the
coal-tar pitch was better than lime. The depth of soil above the arches
should be sufficieut to prevent the heat of the sun from penetrating through
the cracks to the pitch and forcing it up. He hatl recently examined the
roof carefully and could only discover six indications of moisture penetrating;
these had been easily repaired and all was now perfectly sound.

Mr. Field agreed' with Mr. Smith in his estimation of the advantages of
carrying on all manufacturing processes as much as possible under one roof
and'on one floor— great economy of time and labour would result, especially

1842.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.351

where heavy masses such as parts of machinery required to l)e moved about
— he would always adopt the system in constructing a manufactory.

Mr. Smith observed that an arched roof would be found as cheap as one
of wood and slates, and in the relative dural)ility there could be no com-
parison.

Mr. Marshall desired it to be home in mind that the cut stone front of
the mill had greatly enhanced the cost, and that being the first building of
the kind erected in the neighbourhood of Leeds, it had naturally been more
expensive than others would be.

" Account of the Explosion of a Steam Boiler at the Penydarran Iron
Works, South Wales." By Adrian Stephens.

The boiler, the explosion of which is described in the paper, was one of a
pair for furnishing steam to a high-pressure engine, with a cylinder of 26
inches diameter, working expansively, tlifi steam being cut otf at half the
stroke ; each of these boilers was 4 1 feet long, and 7 feet diameter, with a
centre tube flue of 4 feet 2 inches diameter ; the thickness of the plates
throughout was J inch ; the ends were flat, with rings of angle-iron, and
the pressure of the steam to wliich the safety valves were weighted was
501h. on the square inch. From appearances after the explosion, it was con-
jectured that the tube, which was collapsed in a remarkable manner in its
entire length, had been softened by the heat, having probably been left dry
along the upper side. No opinion is given as to the cause of the explosion,
but it is particularly mentioned that the supply of feed-water depended upon
the regular attention of the engineer, and that the feed-pipe was placed so
that the water fell directly upon the hottest part of the tube flue, and it is
remarkable that the tube is most extensively fractured at that spot. All
the appearances presented by the boiler botji'before and after the explosion
and the injury done by the event are accurately detailed, and the paper was
illustrated by a drawing of the boiler and the setting.

STONE BORING MACHINE.

Mr. Carnegie presented one of Hunter's Stone Boring Machines to the
Institution, and explained its action to the meeting.

The raachuie is composed of two parallel bars of steel, supporting a
traversing carriage, through the centre of which passes a spiral auger at-
tached to a screwed bar ; this bar (its into a female screw clamp above the
carnage, and on the upper end is a winch with four handles. When the
ins rument is in use it is fixed by two cramps ui)on the stone to be pierced,
and the auger being made to revolve by means of the winch, scoops out at
each revolution as great a depth of stone as is equal to the distance which
the screw descends ; the chips ascending through the spiral channel of the
auger, are thrown off- at the top. The peculiar shape of the point of the
auger prevents its being abraded, as it operates by chipping the stone, and
not by grinding It away. This, with the means of forcing it down by the
screw, IS the chief novelty of the machine. It has been extensively used at

the works of the new Harbour of Arbroath, by Mr. Leslie, who speaks of it
in the following terms : —

" Mr. Hunter's Boring Machine has been advantageouslv emploved for
above a year, in boring trenail holes in the stones used at the new Harbour
of Arbroath. The holes are )} inch diameter, and from 9 inches to 2
feet in depth : the aggregate of the holes already bored amounts to upwards
of 30,000 linear feet. The macliine may be adopted for boring holes of
any dimensions. It does the work considerablv cheaper than the "jumper,"
and much more correctly, as it makes the holes perfectly straight, cvlindri-
cal, and equal throughout, instead of the irregular form made bv tlie com-
mon jumper. This machine is very well adapted for boring railway blocks,
and has been much used in this quarter for that purpose. I consider it to
be more especially valuable from the facility which it atfords of boring and
trenailing down the stones used in sea buildings in any exposed situation, as I
have found that trenailing is a great security to such building while in pro-
gress, when the upper courses are much exposed and liable to be washed off
unless they be held down by other means than their own absolute weight.
The expense of boring the old red sandstone rodi, here, is about three half-
pence per hnear foot.

Remarks. — Mr. Vignoles bore testimony to the advantages of the machine :
he was now employing it for piercing holes in stones going from Arbroath to
the West Indies for the construction of a patent slip — there was great eco-
nomy of cost and time by its use in addition to the superior manner in
wliich the holes were made.

Mr. Smith, of Deanston, was convinced of the advantage of the machine
in working almost all kinds of stone, but more especially for those resem-
bling the Arbroath stones, which were from a bed beneath the old red sand-
stone : they were of fine grit mingled with schistose debris. The action of
the tool was like that of the stone-planing machine, to burst cliips off in-
stead of grinding down the surface by small portions and destroying the
edge of the tool at the same time. With the planing machine it was common
to take off a thickness of 3 inches at one passage of the tool — it acted hke
a '- pick ;" and being fixed in a frame weighing about Ij ton, the power was
great ; at the same time there was little abrasion of the tool and it never
became heated or softened. It was probable that with other qualities of
stone a screw with another pitch of thread might be required to force the auger
forward, but with the thread now used in boring stones from the Arbroath
quarries, the economy of time and cost appeared very great. In each of the
blocks for the Arbroath railway it was requisite to bore two trenail holes
li inch diameter and 6 inches deep— and to level a space 9 inches diameter
to receive the cast-iron chair : this had been contracted for at twopence
halfpenny per block, which was a material diminution of the usual cost.
He was convmced that the instrument only required to be known to be
extensively used.

Mr. F. Braithwaite had for some years used Hunter's stone-planing ma-
chines, for dressing up slate and other stones, and was well qualified to give
a favourable opinion of the principle of its action : he believed that the
machine under discussion being upon tlie same priuciple must he verv useful.

May 24. — The President in the Chair.
" On the machinery used for working the Diving Bell at Kingstown Har-
hour, Dublin." By Peter Henderson, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

After referring for the details of the machinery to the two drawings which
accompany the paper, the author describes the foundations of the pier bead
to have been laid in a depth of 20 feet at low water on rock and firm sand.
For 14 feet from the bottom, the wall is formed of Runcorn sandstone of fine
quality, each stone containing about 50 cubic feet and thoroughly squared.
This has been preferred to granite on account of its cheapness and the fa-
ciUty with which it is worked under water. After the foundation course is
secured, from 300 to 350 cubic feet of this walling are frequently set in a
perfect manner by the diving-bell during a fair working day of eight hours.
The first stone was set on the 5th of August, and by the 1st of January
16,000 cubic feet had been laid. From 6 feet below low water to the coping,
it is proposed to make use of granite in blocks of 50 cubic feet each, which
is procured cheaply and in abundance in the immediate neighbourhood. The
piers are finished in the interior by walling of rubble stone carefully laid.
For the purpose of forming this excellent harbour, an area of 251 acres has
been inclosed between two substantial stone piers ot 8,340 feet in length,
affording clear anchorage in a depth of water from 15 to 2" feet at low spring
tides. The interior shows no natural tendency to collect deposiis likely to
reduce the depth of water, nor do any of the works exhibit symptoms of de-
terioration, while its continual occupation by vessels of every description,
together with the comparative freedom from accident in Dubhn Bay, afford
convincing proof of its great utility.

" Description of a S/eam Dredging Engine used upon the Caledonian Canal."
By Walter Elliot.

The machine described in this communication is not remarkable as being
of the most perfect description, hut as it is stated to be among the earliest
which were brought into use in this country, a certain degree of interest is
attached to it. It was constructed in the year 1814 expressly for the for-

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

352

mation of the Caledonian Canal, and it was also used for deepening the
channels through the shoals in Loch Dochfour and Loch Ness. The length
of the vessel is 80 feet by 23 feet in width ; the bucket frame is -12 feet long,
with ''5 buckets, worked bv a condensing steam engine of 6 h. p. The di-
mensions of all the principal parts of the machinery are given minutely, with
accounts of several experiments for extending the use of the dredger. On
one occasion, as it was found that the buckets had much difficulty in pene-
tratioK the hard mountain clay, every alternate bucket was removed and a
pair of steel cutters substituted for each, in the expectation that the clay
would be loosened and the succeeding bucket would take it up more easily.
They did not, however, act satisfactorily, and a risk of fracture was incurred
which induced the abandonment of the plan. On another occasion, in form-
ing a portion of the canal between Loch Ness, and the lochs at Fort Augustus,
where the height of the ground above the water averaged from 20 to 30 feet,
and the excavation was required to be about 16 feet beneath it ; that part of
the cutting above the water level was commenced by manual labour, while
the dredging machine did the excavation under water ; it was soon found,
however, that the engine having completed its share of the task, continued
to undermine the upper portion, which, being of a loose nature, fell into the
water, and was raised by the buckets so rapidly that the manual labour could
not compete with the machine, and it was then used to complete the under-
taking which it did in eight months, having in that time excavated about
170 000 cubic yards of material. When working in favourable situations the
qnantitv generally raised equals 90 tons per hour: 1' of the buckets are
discharged per minute, with an expenditure of coal of about 15 cwt. per day
The communication was illustrated by two detaUed drawings of the boat and
its machinery.

[October,

" Description of the Maplin Sand Lighthouse at the mouth of the River
Thames." By John Baldry Redman, Grad. Inst. C. E.

The paper commences with an enumeration of the various channels and
sandbanks at the mouth of the Thames, with the floating lights, beacons, and
buoys marking the entrances of the Channel, and gives the objections to
floating lights, and the reasons for selecting the Maplin Sand as the position
for a fixed lighthouse. „ ,,_ ■ . ii,„

In the year 1837 a survey was made by Mr. Walker, the engineer to the
Trinity House, and by boring it was ascertained that the first six feet of the
sand was close and compact, but below that for 20 feet the bonng rod went
more easily as it descended, and it was found that it became mingled with
arRillaceous earth as the depth increased.

It was then decided to use for the foundations Mr. Mitchell s screw moor-
ings and in 1838 the patentee, under Mr. Walker's directions, commenced
fixing nine cast-iron screws of 4 feet diameter so as to form an octagon with
one screw in the centre ; attached to each of these screws was a cast iron
pile 5 inches in diameter and 26 feet long, which was inserted into the sand
21 feet below low-water mark. On account of the constant shifting of the
sand from around the piles it was determined to place a raft or grating of
timber around and between them ; the surface of the raft was covered with
faggots of brushwood well fastened to the timbers, and upon them was de-
posited 120 tons of rough Kentish ragstone, by which the raft was secured in
its situation, and after a time no farther changes occurred in the level of the
surface of the sand. In the summer of 1840 the superstructure was com-
menced ; it consisted of nine hollow iron columns or pipes curved at the top
to a radius of 21 feet towards the centre ; they were secured upon the piles,
and two series of continuous circular horizontal ties bound them together,
while they were connected with the centre column by diagonal braces— all of
wrought iron. Upon these columns is built a wooden dwelUng for the light-
keepers, in the upper part of which is placed a French dioptric light of the
second order, its centre being 45 feet above the mean level of the sea, and at
that elevation can be seen from a ship's deck at a distance of nine or ten
miles ; a bell is fixed on the gallery which is sounded by machinery at inter-
vals during dark and foggy nights. :, ,, j
The communication gives all the details of the dimensions and the mode
of fixing the cast iron screws and piles made by Messrs. Rennie's— the iron
work by Messrs. Gordon's of Deptford— the wood work by Messrs. Gates and
Home of Poplar, and the lanthorn by Messrs. Wilkins— and the whole is
illustrated by a series of drawings which fully describe this useful construe
lion, which has hitherto withstood the most violent attacks of the sea to
which it is exposed. .

Jtemarks.—lu answer to questions from the President, Mr. Wdkins stated
that he had been in the Eddystone and the Maplin Sand lighthouses during
severe gales of wind ; that as might be conceived from the nature of the con-
struction, the latter building was more affected than the former by the strik-
ing of heavy seas; the motion appeared to be more like torsion than simple
vibration, which he attributed to the waves striking the ladder and its pro-
jecting stage, and thus tending to twist the upper part. S^U the motion
was not such as would cause injury to the budding.

The President pointed out two diagonal braces extending downward from
ihe end of the ladder stage to the piles on either side, which had been intro-
duced in order to counteract the twisting described by Mr. Wilkins. In con-
structions of this nature it was of importance to oppose as little resistance as
possilile to the seas, especially in the upper part of the budding, a system of
bracing had therefore been adopted, which consisted principally of two series
of continuous circular horizontal ties between the piles at the several heights

of 6 feet and 15 feet above low-water mark of spring tides. From the ex-
ternal ring of piles two sets of diagonal stays extended to the centre pillar,
forming strong triangular trusses in the direction of each pile, and two sets
of horizontal stays stretched between the piles and the centre pillar at the
levels of the circular bands. The amount of direct vibration was very small,
and he did not conceive that the twisting motion which had been described
was snflicient to warrant the introduction of diagonal braces, which would
materially augment the surface upon which the waves would act.

Mr. Vi'gnoles directed the attention of the meeting to the system of di-
agonal bracing between the piles which had been adopted at the Port Fleet-
wood lighthouse ; he apprehended that as the principal force of the waves
would be exerted against that part of the structure which was above the
high-water level, the diagonal braces extending between the upper part of
the piles and the level of low-water were preferable to the horizontal con-
tinuous bands of the Maplin Sand Ughthouse, although assisted by the system
of radiating central truss braces which it possessed : he conceived that both
buildings weie strong enough for the purposes for which they were con-
structed, but he preferred the mode of bracing adopted in the Port Fleetwood
house, the vibration of which he knew to be very small, although situated m
an exposed position where the rise of the tide is 30 feet. _

Mr. Donkin observed that there could not exist a doubt of the introduction
of diagonal braces rendering the building stronger ; how far they were neces-
«arv, or might be prejudicial in offering additional resistance to the passage
of the waves, should be well examined before adopting them. He considered
the position of the suspended ladder decidedly objectionable, as any torsion
caused by the waves striking it must tend to dislocate the fibre of the ma-
terial of the piles and to fracture them.

Mr. Farcy believed the construction of the Maplin Sand house to be better
adapted than the Fleetwood liouse for resisting the direct action of waves,
but the diagonal bracing of the latter enabled it to withstand torsion better
than the hoop bracing of the former. He inquired why the lower part ot
the light-keeper's house was made conical, as he apprehended that it would
receive a heavier blow from a wave than if it had been flat.

The President replied that the main body of the waves seldom or never
rose so high as the bottom of the house, and that the conical form allowed
the air and sprav to rise up and be guided off without affecting the b>"l<i"ig
as it would do if the bottom was flat. With regard to the torsion, that had
only been felt at first, when the ladder extended too low down and received
a constant succession of blows from every wave, which naturally communi-
cated a vibration to the whole structure ; the ladder was now shortened, and
nothing of the kind was felt : the waves scarcely, even in the roughest wea-
ther, struck the suspension stage or the boat. He preferred the continuous
horizontal bracing, which bound all the piles firmly together like the staves
of a barrel ; and from observations he had made, he believed the amount of
vibration to be greater in the Port Fleetwood lighthouse than in that at the

"inTnswer'to a question from Mr. G. H. Palmer, the President said that at
present there was not any indication of a change in the condition of the cast
iron from its contact with the salt water.

Professor Brande was unable to give any additional evidence on the oD-
served facts connected with the change suffered by cast iron exposed to the
action of salt water, or in mines and in various other positions— from experi-
ments which he had made, he was led to beUeve that many of the appear-
ances observed in the changes of cast iron arose rather from a peculiar me-
chanical combination of the molecules, than from a difference in the chemical
constitution of the metal ; no difference could be detected by analysis in the
metal which had undergone change and that which had not. It should be
remarked that the contact of two metals was not essential to cause galvamc
action : a film of oxide upon the surface of the body of metal formed a very
active galvanic pile : hence arose the necessity for preventing oxidation by
proper paints or varnish before using pieces of cast iron in exposed situ-

"''Mr-'Parey observed that in the early engines constructed by Woolf in
CornwaU, in which the packing segments were of gun-metal and the body ot
the piston was of cast iron, wherever the two metals were in contact the iron
was turned to plumbago; this had been particularly observed where high-
pressure steam was used : it might be a question whether the temperature of
the steam, and the quantity of mineral water carried over with the steam by
the large amount of priming of the engines in that day, had not materially
contributed to produce the effect.

Mr P Taylor believed that the temperature of the steam had not any
connexion with the subject; in the metallic packing of steam pistons of low-
pressure marine engines, which he had constantly under repair at Marseilles,
wherever the wedge pieces were of gun metal, the backs of the cast iron seg-
ments were converted into plumbago, while those surfaces of cast iron which
were ground together and worked against each other remained unchanged ;
the same might be said of the rubbing surfaces of cast iron against gun-metal ;
it appeared, therefore, that the formation of an oxide was necessary to com-
mence the change. He repudiated the use of cast iron in situations where
these changes were to be apprehended ; he would employ ^"""S'^* '™''',^'
although that did become oxidized, it retained its relative strength to the
last, whereas cast iron, when changed into plumbago, retained its bulk out
lost nearly all power of cohesion. „,rnn«pd to

Mr. John Taylor said that in Cornwall the cast >™n P'""P:''"'„'''P?Zgh
the action of niine water were very speedily destroyed; and even aHhough
li inch thick, they could be cut to pieces with a knife when first taken out

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

353

of tlie pit. Tlio air-pump buckets of steam engines, in which the body was
of cast iron and the valves of gun-metal, formed the most perfect kind of
galvanic apparatus ; they should be made entirely of gun-metal. In manu-
factories of vinegar and pyroligiieous acid the decay of cast iron was very
rapid.

Mr. Glynn attributed in a great degree the rapid decay of cast iron in coal
mines to the presence of sulphuric acid evolved from the pyrites. Mr. Philip
Taylor agreed with Mr. Glynn; even copper pipes were rapidly destroyed in
the bilge water of vessels, which always contained much sulphuretted hydro-
gen— he recommended the use of stout lead pipes in such situations ; they
would be found much more durable.

Mr. Davidson had found it necessary to substitute gun-metal gratings for
the cast iron ones at Messrs. Hanbury's brewery, as althongh they were f in.
thick, they bad been entirely destroyed in four years.

The President gave a short account of the construction of a light-house
now making by Messrs. Gordon & Co. at Deptford under his directions for
the Point of Air. The lanthorn for it would be cast from a gun which had
been raised from the wreck of the Royal George.

Sight-tube for Marine Boilers.

Mr. C. W. Williams exhibited and explained the sight-tubes which he now
used for the marine boilers of the City of Dublin Steam Packet Companv's
vessels. •

The instrument consists of a wrought iron welded tube 2 inches diameter
with a screw thread cut upon the exterior; it is inserted across the wafer
spaces of the boilers, and secured by means of nuts in such positions behind
and opposite the furuace, as enables the engineer to see all that goes on
intenorily, particularly the degree of perfection or imperfection in which the
gaseous matter enters into combustion, and the effect of admitting or ex-
cluding the air.

The instrument had been found very useful, not onlv in experiments, but
in practice on the large scale, and he deposited it in the Gallery of the Insti-
tution in order that it might serve as a model for those who were inclined to
adopt it in marine boilers.

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic

Variation.

Dip

at 9 A. M.

Dip
at 3 P.M.

1842. June

23 14 5

During the month of June, 1842, the dipping needle n as out of repair.
REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS ON THE FINE ARTS.

(Continued from page 308.^

VARIOUS COMMUNICATIONS ON FRESCO PAINTING.

The follow ing papers contain further information respecting the practice of
fresco-painting, or point out the sources where the subject is more fully
treated. In inserting these communications and extracts, it has not been
possible to avoid occasional repetition, but in some cases coincident testimony
may be necessary to establish or recommend particular methods. While the
qnesfion respecting the adoption of fresco remains, for the reasons before
stated, undecided, it may appear premature to describe its methods so fully,
but it IS precisely because so little is generally known of the process, in this
country, that it has been thought desirable to take this means of putting the
artists and the public in possession of the information that has been col-
lected.

A communication on fresco by Professor Hess, of Munich, (to Mr. William
Thomas) need not be given at length, as it agrees generally with the fore-
gomg statements by Director Cornelius. In speaking of the preparation of
the wall Professor Hess recommends " bricks well dried, and of equal hard-
ness" as the groundwork of the mortar and plaster. Jlr. Thomas observes,
" all the frescos in Munich are painted on the (plastered) brick wall : laths
with wattling and copper nails are not approved of, as the risk of bulging is
thus increased. The use of lafhs is sometimes necessary for certain surfaces,
but the professors in Munich are decided that a brick ground is to be pre-
ferred wherever it is practicable, not only on account of its soUdity, but also
because it is better adapted for the execution of the painting. The brick
ground absorbs superfluous water and k-eeps the plaster longer in a fit state
for painting upon. The painting ground dries much quicker on laths as two
surfaces are presented for evaporation. The walls ought to be thoroughly
dry. A wall of a brick, or a brick ai.d a half, in thickness, is preferable to
paint upon. Professor Hess once observed to me that where the walls in the
lower portions of buildings were five or six feet thick, the liability of saline

ick

matter making its appearance was much increased, as the mass of wall remains
onger i n a humid state."

Mr. C. H. Wilson, professor of ornamental design in the Royal Edinburgh
Institution, has contributed much useful information on the subject of fresco
derived from his own observation in Italy, and from recent communications
from his father Mr. Andrew Wilson, now at Genoa. He observes : " In Italy
the practice of lathing walls is unknown, but many of the finest Italian ceiL
mg frescos are on lath, and are in perfect condition. Most vaulted ceilines
in what IS termed the „iano nobile, or principal floor of every pilace, are con-
structed of wood. The lathing in this case is not attached to single thiu
pieces of timber, cut to the shape of the ceiling, but to a strong gratin- ■
some cases the ribs and transverse pieces of this grating are four inches "th
each way. The lathing in Italy is a very peculiar process. The material is
the reed, which is cultivated so exfensivelv in that country, and used in so
inany ways. It grows to the length of about 18 feet, and is rather more
than one inch and a quarter diameter at the base. When these reeds are
used for lathing they are split, and not being strong enough for the purpose
in this state, they are wattled upon the grating. The result of this somewhat
complicated contrivance is a framework of great strength."

Mr. Hamilton, a distinguished architect of Edinburgh, observes- "In the
preparation of walls and ceilings for fresco-painting, no expense should be
spared ; battens and lath are obviously perishable materials, and therefore
ought to be avoided. The damp from exterior stone walls may be guarded
against by lining them with brick, and now ihat the use of cast-iron is so well
understood, the girders or joisting of houses where fresco-painting is con-
templated should be of iron arched with brick between, and thus a perfectly
level ceiling may be formed of the most durable kind." For the more effectual
prevention of damp, Mr. Hamilton recommends that the lining of brick should
be somewhat detached, leaving a small space between it, and the stone wa'I,
to which it could be bound at intervals. Mr. C. Wilson in communicating
this opmion, remarks, that as the brick lining, added to walls of sufficient
solidity for the support of the ceiling here described, would diminish the size
of the rooms, tiles placed edgewise might be used instead of bricks. These
should, however, be of sufiicient strength to be in no danger of fracture from
any ordinary accident. To guard against damp from roofs or even occasional
washing of upper floors, it is also suggested that a coating of asphalte might
be applied on the upper sides of the arches of the ceiling. In some cases
asphalte might be necessary in walls: Mr. C. Wilson observes, that a French
architect, M. Polonceau, eftectnally checked the progress of damp from a
humid soil in several instances, by covering the horizontal surface of the
masonry a few inches above the level of the soil with a coating of liquid
asphalte, applied with a brush ; when this w.as drv it was covered with a
layer of coarse dry sand, and the building then proceeded. An external joint
of hard asphalte at the same level is necessary eftectuallv to cut off all com-
munication of damp. (See the " Revue Generale de I'Architecture, September,
1841). These and other remarks on the construction of walls and ceilings
have been communicated with all deference to the judgment and experience
of the architect of the new buildings at Westminster.

In considering the question respecting the comparative fitness of laths and
bricks, as a groundwork for fresco, it is not to be forgotten that the battened
wall sooner adaps itself to the temperature of the atmosphere, and is there-
fore less likely to be aflected by external damp ; while the coldness of the
more solid wall causes the rapid condensation of moisture in humid weather.
This evil might perhaps be guarded against by due precautions with rcard
to temperature and ventilation. °

Mr. C. Wilson next describes the mode of preparing the lime at Genoa: —
" The lime having been slaked is mixed in a trough about six feet in length,
and 20 inches in width ; at the bottom it is somewhat narrower. The in-
strument used in mixing it is similar to that used by our masons. The lime
is worked with this, and water is thrown in till the substance is of the con-
sistence of cream. At the end of the trough there is a little sluice, the open-
ing of which however comes only to within an inch and half of the bottom
of the trough. On being drawn up, the sluice allows the lime to escape, but
small stones or impurities which may have sunk to the bottom are prevented
from passing by the ledge under the opening. The lime is received in a
pit dug in the mere earth (not hned) to the depth of several feet, and of any-
convenient size. The process of mixing in the trough is repeated till the pit
is well filled, the trough being washed out with clean water every third or
fourth mixing."

" The lime being thus prepared is left in the pit from eight to Iwetoe
months* according to its ascertained strength. The lime for the first rough
coat need not be kept more than two months : this is allowed to drv per-
fectly, before the next coats are put on. The proportion of sand to lime is
the same as with us, viz. two of sand and one of lime. No hair is used by
the Italian plasterers. The lime of which the inlonaco or coat of fine plaster
is composed, is however to be subjected to a much more careful jircparation
than that used for the first coat. .Uter it has been kept the requisite time,
it is taken out with a spade, the greatest care being necessary not to come
too near the edges, sides, or bottom of the pit, lest any clay or earth should
be taken up with the lime. It is now thrown again into the troughs, and is
again thoroughly mixed with water, till it is not thicker than milk ; it is thea
allowed to escape us before through the opened sluice, but this time it passes

In Florence, where fresco-painting is now occasionally practised, artist
are of opinion that. •' the lime slrould be kept in the moist state from .ie/i

kept .

(0 tweh'e months, olliernise ii will burn both colours and brushes.

3 D

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

354

through a fine hair sieve into an earthenware jar; a number of these jars are
reoS and eaeh is filled to within a third of the top. The hme is allowed
to settle and when the water which rises over its surface is clear, it is poured
off This is repeated till there is no nihre water to pour off, and the Ume
remains in the jar of the consistence of the white paint commonly used and
[s ouite as smooth. It is now ready to be mixed for the in/onaco, which
consists as usual of two parts sand and one of lime Great pains are «ken m
Italy to find a suitable sand: it must be perfectly clean, sharp sand, the
erains of eoual size, and its colour favourable, as the mtonaco should not be
too dark 'the presence of any earthy particles in the plaster would mevit-
ably ruin the fresco : this accounts for the very careful preparation which all
the materials used undergo." , , , t t).,-=

Professor Hess recommends avoiding the intermixture of plaster of 1 ans
in the mortar for the first rough coat (in the finer coats it is never emploj-ed
as a preparation for fresco) and advises o modcri-te use of small fliut pebbles.
The rough coat should not be too compactly laid on, as its porousness is
essential to the convenience of fresco painting. In like manner the last fiiier
coats should be lightly floated on to ensure their power of absorption. He
Droceeds • " The plaster for painting ou is composed of lime not in too caustic
a state and pure quartz sand. With regard to the Ume it should be wdl and
uniformly lianipulated, and should be entirely free from any small hard
lumps The sand should be very carefully washed to cleanse it from clayey
or saline particles, and should be afterwards dried in the open air. Sand
that is course or unequal m grain should be sifted ; thus tbe plaster will be
uniform in its texture. The proportion of sand to the lime is best learned
from experience, and must depend on the nature of the hme. If the plaster
contaius too much lime it becomes incrusted too soon, is too smooth m sur-
face and easily cracks ; if it contains too little it is not easily floated, the suc-
cessive patches (as the fresco proceeds) are not to be spread conveniently in
difficult situations, and the plaster is not so lasting. ,,.,,,

" Before laying on the plaster, the dry rough coat is wetted with a large
brush again and again, till it will absorb no more. Particular circum-
stances, such as spongy bricks in the wall, humid or very dry weather
&c dictate the modes in which this operation is to be regulated. The plaster
should be laid on lightly and freely with a wooden hand-float ; in connecting
the successive patches some portions require however to be finished with an
iron trowel ; in this case care must be taken not to press too strongly, otlier-
wise rust spots might appear in the lime, and even cause portions of the
superadded painting to become detached. [A glass float seems to be prefer-
able where a wooden instrument is unfit.] The plaster should be about a
quarter of an inch in thickness. The surface of the last coat is then slightly
roughened to render it fitter for painting on. The wall thus prepared is to
be left a quarter or half an hour before beginning to paint.

The colours enumerated by Professor Hess are the following. White :
lime "hich has either been long kept, or by repeated manipulations aud dry-
ing is rendered less caustic. Yellow : all kinds of ochres, terra di Sienna,
Red all kinds of burnt ochres, burnt terra di Sienna, [the brightest particles
selected at different stages of the process of buruing, furnish, according to
Director Cornelius, very brilliant reds,] oxides of iron, and lake-coloured
burnt vitriol. Brown ; umber, raw and burnt, and burnt terra vert. Black :
burnt Cologne earth, which when thus freed from its vegetable ingredients,
affords a pure black. Purple : burnt vitriol, cobalt blue, and lake-coloured
burnt vitriol. Green : Verona green (terra vert), cobalt green, and chrome
ereen Blue : ultramarine, cobalt, and tbe imitation of ultra-marme ; the last
h most safely used for flat tints, but does not always mix well with other
colours. These colours have been well tested, and for the most part admit
of being mixed in any way. Other more brilliant colours, such as chrome
yellow, vermilion, &c., have been tried in various ways, but have not yet in
every case, been found to stand. Colours prepared from animal and vegetable
substances cannot be used at all as the lime destroys them." Fresco-painters
observe that " great attention is necessary in the due preparation of tints on
the palette, for if tints are mixed as the work proceeds, the pamting when
dry will appear streaky ; when the colours are wet the differences are not so
perceptible."

In additions to hog's hair tools, which, as before observed, are longer than
those used in oil painting, " small pencils of otter hair in quills are used. No
other hair resists the Ume, but becomes either burnt or curled. The palette
of the material and form before described, is covered with a light coloured
varnish to protect the tin from rust. Rain water (that has not passed
through an iron tube,) boiled or distilled water should be used from first to
last in all the operations of fresco-painting."

Professor Hess continues :— " After tbe painter has laid in his general
colour, he should wait half an hour or an hour, accordingly as the colour
sets, before ho proceeds to more delicate modelUng. In these first opera-
tions he should avoid warm or powerful tints, as these can be added with
better effect as the work advances. After the second painting and another
shorter pause, the work is finished with thin glazings and washings. In this
mode the requisite degree of completion can be attained, provided the day-
light and the absorbing power of the plaster last. But if the touches of the
pencil remain wet on the surface, and are no longer sucked in instantane-
ously, the painter must cease to work, for henceforth the colour no longer
unites with the plaster, hut when dry will exhibit chalky spots. As this
moment of time approaches, the absorbing power increases, the wet brush
is sucked dry by mere contact with the wall, and the operation of painting
becomes more difiicult. It is therefore advisable to cease as soon as these
indications appear. . ia-ntuMt^-

[October.

" If the wall begins to show these symptoms too soon, for example in the
second painting, some time may be gained by moistening the surface with a
large brush, and trying to remove the crust or setting that has already begun
to take place ; but 'this remedv affords but a short respite. In the additions
to the painting on successive days, it is desirable to add the new plaster to
that part of the work which is not quite dry, for if added to dry portions the
edges sometimes exhibit spots. Various other effects sometimes take place
from causes that cannot be foreseen, and the remedies must be provided by
the ingenuity of the artist, as the case may require."

The following extract from a letter addressed by Mr. Andrew WUson to
his son (in March last) will render the process of painting in fresco more in-
telligible ; but it is almost needless to observe, that in such details, the
practice of painters may vary considerably. .

" I lately went to tbe royal palace (Genoa) to see the Signor Pasciano
paint a ceiling in fresco, llis tints had all been prepared before my amval ;
he had only two in pots, viz. pure lime and a very pale flesh tint. He had
no palette, but a table with a large slate for the top : on it he set round,
1. Terra vert. 2. Smalt. 3. VcrmiUon. 4. Yellow ochre. 5. Roman
ochre. 6. Darker ochre. 7. Venetian red. 8. Umber. 9. Burnt umber.
10 Black These colours were all pure, mixed only with water and rather
stiff put down with a palette knife, perhaps about an ounce, or two at most,
of each He mixed each tint as he wanted it, adding to each from the pot
of flesh tint or that of white. Near him lay a lump of umber, and on taking
up a brushful of colour he touched this with it ; the earth instantly absorbed
the water, and he was thus enabled to judge of the appearance which the
tint would present when dry. The painter used a resting stick with cotton
ou the top to prevent injury to the intonaco. The mtonaco being prepared
in the manner which I have described, the moment it would bear touching,
he set to work. The head was that of the Virgin ; he began with a pale
tint of yellow round the head for the glory, (the colour of the ground,
owing to the mixture of sand with the lime, it is to be remembered is a cool
middle tint,) he then laid in the head and neck with a pale flesh colour, and
the masses of drapery round the head and shoulders with a middle tint, and
with brown and black in the shadows. He next, with terra vert and white,
threw in the cool tints of the face j then with a pale tint of umber and
white modelled in the features, covered with the same tint where the hait
was to be seen, and with it also indicated the folds of the white veil. AU
this time he used the colours as thin as we do in water colours ; he touched
the mtonaco with great tenderness, and aUowed ten minutes to elapse before
touching the same spot a second time. He now brought his coloured study,
which stood on an easel, near him, and began to model the features, and to
throw in the shades with greater accuracy. He put colour in the cheeks and
put in the mouth slightly, then shaded the hair and drapery, deepening al-
ways with the same colours, which become darker and darker every time ■
they are applied, as would be the esse on paper for instance. Having worked
for half an hour, he made a halt for ten minutes, during which time he oc-
cupied himself in mixing darker tints, and then began finishing, loading the
lights and using the colours much stiffer, and putting down his touches with
precision and firmness : he softened with a brush with a Uttle water in it.
Another rest of ten minutes : but by this time be had nearly fimshed the
head and shoulders of his figure, which being uniformly wet, looked exactly
like a picture in oil, and the colours seemed blended with equal facility.
Referring again to his oil study, he put in some few light touches in the
hair, again heightened generaUy in the lights, touched too into the darks,
threw a little white into the yeUow round the head, and this portion ot his
composition was finished, all in about an hour and a half. This was rapid
work, but you will obserAc that the artist rested four times so as to aUow
the wet to be sufficiently absorbed into the wall to aUow bun to repass over

his work. , . xi_ . •

" The artist now-required an addition to the mtonaco ; the tracing was
again lifted up to the ceiUng, and the space to be covered being niarked by
the painter, the process was repeated, and the body and arms of the Ma-
donna were finished before I left him at one o'clock."

The following is an extract from a second letter. " Yesterday 1 went
again to see Pasciano, and I found that he had cut away from his tracing or
cartoon those parts which he had finished upon the ceiUng: in fact I now
found it cut into several portions, but always carefuUy divided by the outline
of figures, clouds or other objects. These pieces were in some instances a
good deal detached from each other, and were naUed to the plaster so as to
fold inwards or outwards for pouncing the outUnes. The intonaco had just
been fresh laid for the upper half of an angel supportmg the feet of the
Madonna: this was one of a group much larger than those surrounding the
glory and therefore requiring more colour and finish ; more than halt ol tne
figure too was in shadow, with a strong ray of light on the face and on one
of the arms : this was a good opportunity of observing the painter s ma-
nagement of shadow. Having gone over the outUne carefully with a steel
point, he waited till the intonaco became a little harder, and in the mean
time mixed up a few tints, he then commenced with a large brush and went
over the whole of the flesh : he next worked with a tint which served for
the general mass of sliadow, for the hair, and a slight marking out ot tne
features. He now put a little colour into the cheeks, mouth, nose and
hands, and all this time he touched as lightly as he possibly could, not to
wash up the intonaco. He then halted for ten minutes, looking at his oU
study, and watching the absorbtion of the moisture, and he called my at-
tention to his outline : none of it was effaced by this washing.

" The intonaco would now bear the gentle pressure of his fingers, and

1842.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.355

with the same large brush, but with water only, he began to soften and
unite the colours already laid on. Observe, he had not as yet used any tint
thicker than a wash of water colour, and be continued to darken in the
shndows without increasing the force or depth of colour. This I before
noted to you, that you can strengthen by the simple repetition of tint, but
if the day be very dry, after an hour or two this process of repeating with
the same tint produces an opposite effect, and instead of drying darker, it
actually dries lighter. [See this explanation in the conimunieation by Pro-
fessor Hess.] I now observed that the painter had increased the number of
his tints, and that they were of a much thicker consistence, and he now
began to paint in the lights with a greater body of colour, softening them
into the shades with a dry brush, or with one a little wet as he required.
In drying, the water comes to the surface, and actually falls off in drops,
but this does no harm whatever to the work although it sometimes looks
alarming."

Mr. C. Wilson observes that the Aurora of Guido in the Rospigliosi pa-
lace in Rome was painted on a copper trellis, and afterwards fi.xed on the
ceiling where it still exists. He adds that this fresco was offered for sale
about fifteen years since, and that its safe removal was guaranteed. Mr. W.
Thomas states that some small (landscape) frescos by Professor Rottman, in
the Hofgarten in Munich, were painted on an iron fjame and wire-work, and
fixed in their situation afterwards. The example of Guido's Aurora, the
figures of which are larger than life, shows that it would be possible to
prepare movable frescos for situations where this might be thought neces-
sary ; for example, before flues or tubes in walls. But it is to be remarked
that flues behind frescos have generally injured them. Mr. Aglio, who
painted some frescos at Manchester some years since, attributes the great
alteration of the colours in them partly to this circumstonce ; but also to
his having been supplied with lime that was much too fresh. Cavaliere Ag-
ricola, in examining the frescos of the Vatican, found that the " Heliodorus "
had suffered considerably from a flue behind it. The plaster had been de-
tached from the wall, and projected in some places nearly four inches : it
had been secured with nails, and the cracks had been filled with some com-
position by Carlo Marotti in 1702. The fresco of the "Defeat of the
Saracens at Ostia " has been injured in like manner by a chimney behind it.

Detaching frescos from the wall — In connexion with the subject of move-
able frescos it may be observed that the operation of detaching the mere
painting from the wall, almost independently of the plaster, has been often
practised with success. Although less immediately connected with the pre-
sent inquiry, it is desirable to make this process known, as, in repairing
churches and other buildings in England, many ancient paintings on plaster
have been destroyed, from ignorance as to the means of removing them.
Mr. Ludwig Gruner gives the following account of the mode in which he
detached some frescos at Brescia in 1829. The convent of St. Eufemia in
that city was then undergoing repair, and the excellent frescos it contained,
painted by Lattanzio Gambara in the 16th century, would have been de-
stroyed, when Mr. Gruner succeeded, with the assistance of some expert
Italians, in removing them from the walls. The mode they adopted was
first to clean the wall perfectly : then to pass a strong glue over the surface,
and by this means to fasten a sheet of fine ealico on it. The caUco, after
having been rivited to the irregularities of the wall, was afterwards covered
with glue in like manner, and on it was fastened common strong linen. In
this state heat was applied, which caused the glue even on the fresco to
sweat through the clothes, and to incorporate the whole. After this a third
layer of strong cloth was applied on a new coat of glue. The whole re-
mained in this state two or three days, (the time required may vary according
to the heat of the weather). The superflous cloth extending beyond the
painting was now cut off so as to leave a sharp edge : the operation of
stripping or rolUng off the cloth began at the corners above and below, till
at last the mere weight of the cloth and what adhered to it assisted to de-
tach the whole, and the wall behind appeared white, while every particle of
colour remained attached to the cloth. This operation shows that the
colours in fresco do not penetrate very deeply : the layer of pigment and
lime which was detached in this instance was extremely thin, the outlines
and even the colours of masses were visible at the back of the cloth. It is
the opinion of some of the Munich professors that frescos thinly painted are
least liable to change ; the example just given, exemplifying as it does the
practice of a skilful Italian fresco painter, seems to confirm this, but in
many instances the surface of frescos even by the older masters is solidly
painted. To transfer the painting again to cloth, in completing the ope-
ration above described, a stronger glue is used which resists moisture, it
being necessary to detach the cloths first used, by tepid water, after the back
of the painting is fastened to its new bed.

The frescos by Paul Veronese, in the Morosini Villa, near Castel Franco,
were removed by Count Balbi of Venice, a few years since : he fastened
cloth to the wall with a paste composed of beer and flour, and rivetted it to
the irregularities of the surface by means of a hammer composed of
bristles. Several of these works when re-transferred to canvass were sold in
England in 1838. The operation of removing frescos has been lately per-
formed with success in Florence and elsewhere.*

* The following publications may be consulted tor further information on
this subject: Leopoldo Cicognara, Del dislacco delle pitturea fresco. Arti-
colo cstratto dall' Aetologia di Firenze, 182-3, Vol. 18, num. 52.— Girolamo
Baruffaldi. Vita di Antonio Conlri, pittore e rilevatore di pitture dal muro.
Venczia, 1834.— Cenni sopra diverse pitture staccate dal muro e trasportate
sutella, &c. Bologna, 1840. . ,.i S.-.-:

LAST DAY OF WILKIE'S EXHIBITION AT THE BRITISH
GALLERY.

Sm— Do you admit gossip as a relief to Science? if so, the fol-
lowing reminiscences may amuse your readers.

B. R. H.

An exhibition of the best works of a great artist after he is dead,
at our British Gallery, is the last tolling of his funeral bell ; — the last
etTort of those who respected liis character, and wish to put the seal
upon his fame — before leaving both to the unbiassed and sifting deci-
sion of a future generation. How must the artist and the public have
been indebted to the British Gallery .'—how much the public taste has
been solidly advanced by its various exhibitions of fine works ! — what
good has been done — what knowledge has been indirectly inculcated;
how greatly the standard of excellence in the country has been raised,
since these May displays began: what a study it is to look forward
to ; — now we have the majestic cartoons, then the crimson splendour,
and golden tones of Titian ; now the pearly glitter of Veronese, then
the startling dash of Tintoretto : at one time the gorgeous glory of
Rubens, and mysterious depth of Rembrandt, at another the sunny
loveliness of Claude, and savage poetry of Salvator; sometimes we
are enchanted by Corregio, or instructed by Poussin ; and then came
the modern school ; Reynolds who might fear comparison with none
for grace, for character, for taste, for touch, for gemmy surface, in
portrait, for the quivering sweetness of children, and who was equal
to all and often superior to all, in the splendid depth and keeping of
a back ground.

Gainsborough, with his sketchy richness, followed Hogarth with his
blunt touch and bitter satire, and this year we have had David Wilkie,
with his sound sense, his perspicuous conception, his beautiful compo-
sition, his natural expression, and his unafTected drawing ; the founder
of our domestic school.

In musing on the whole of Wilkie's works, from the earliest to the
latest, there is the same sterling sagacity, and sense ; the story, the
expression, the composition, never vary in intelligence or power.

His incessant changes of practice, had something approaching to a
feeble hallucination of intellectual power; why a man so consistent,
and persevering, so unalterable and honest in one mode of conduct,
morally which founded his domestic fortune, should be so vacillating
and uncertain, so childish and changing, so furious in the morning at
the discovery of the previous evening, and so disgusted the next day
at what he thought such a philosopher's stone the day before, is not
to be accounted for, but from some inherent imbecility.

The gem of this collection, without prejudice to others, is the card
players, and here his practice was perfect — this is a work, in point of
vigour, depth, daylight, tone, strength, touch, expression, finish, com-
pleteness, and life, no picture of the Dutch school, by Teniers, ever
surpassed it in execution, whilst in point of story and sense, no picture
by Teniers ever approached it.

I can tell the artist why this work is so extraordinary in power.

1st, It is the only picture he prepared for ultimate glazing.

Glazing softens and flattens, and if a picture to be glazed be not
painted sharper in touch than nature, it will be flatter than nature
when glazed.

2nd. He never lost sight of his ground in his deepest shadows, and
finished his darks under the table and elsewhere by repeated thin
glazings over each other — the ground always showing through.

Thus, in very early life, he bit on the system of Teniers, he hit on
the principle of the Venetian, Flemish and Dutch schools, though
scumbling is more applicable to the two latter, as an ultimate re-
source, and nothing could be so self-evident as the superiority of the
picture or vigour, in spite of his greatest work, (the Duke's Chelsea
Pensioners) and his Murray Group in Knox, one of tlie finest groups
for everything in art the world can show.

In his early work, he ruined all color, by a heavy intermixture of a
heavy and hot yellow tint in every portion of his work — with the
single exception of a little picture he painted in Edinburgh, belonging
to Dr. Darling, of the Village Politicians ; at the repeated entreaty of
the late Sir George Beaumont, of Jackson and myself, he tried flesh
without it, and the right hand of the Blind-fiddler was his first at-
tempt ; yet it must be acknowledged he had no eye for colour, if he
had had, he would have known when he had produced a fine tint,
which he certainly did not, for after producing a fine tone, you are as
likely to find it ruined the next day ; not like Sir Joshua, because he
was longing for something richer, but because Wilkie's eye was never
satisfied till he got some other tone, not so rich.

The nonsense which has been written about him this season, is

3 D 2

350

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

melaiiHioIy ; one man s;iys lie had no imuginalivn, because lie painted
his bottles and pans from nature! — another, he had no genius, because
he took so much trouble and made so many drawings of one thing,
hand or foot I — a third, that he painted circumstance and not clia-
racter '. — what has imagination to do with a brass pan ? — what is wanted
in a brass pan or a bottle, is, the reality of a brass pan and a bottle ;
now, that painting tliose things from the realities, instead of trusting to
his memory, argues no imagination, is rather refined. Again, as to his
taking trouble, who took more trouble than Raphael? had he no
genius because he took trouble to be perfect in comprehending tlie
objects to convey his thoughts? "Draw the naked figure first," said a
connoiseur to a young artist, " as Raphael did." "Oh," said the young
man, " Ma/ wouid be losing tinif" no, my young friend, it would be
gaining lime and not losing, and when fresco begins you will find
it out.

The Breakfast is another of his best works, and perhaps The Servant
Girl pouring out the Water, is more like a woman, than any other he
ever painted of that beautiful sex.

Thus then for ever ends the exhibition of a collection of this extra-
ordinary man's works; his genius first startled the school from its
slavish imitation of Reynolds ; and though a great sra is commencing,
that oera I have always foretold and laboured hard to produce, I can
imagine no period of excellence that may hereafter arise, wherein the
works of David Wilkie may not be studied, with benefit and in-
struction, either for fresco or oil.

Poor Sir David! — how many days we have passed in early life!—
after painting all day, we met at dinner, and hurried to the Academy
from li to 8 — then went home to each other's rooms to criticize and
advise on our mutual labours, animating each other with fresh hopes,
and parted for the night with ardent aspirations for fame and dis-
tinction. Lord Mulgrave was our employer and kind friend, at his
table we used to meet the first men of the time; Lord Mulgrave was
a noble cliaracler, and had great delight in the society of artists and
connoiseurs — after the fatigues of office, nothing pleased him so
roucli. What reminiscences I could write — what a guide book for
students would our mutual lives be, our mutual hopes, our mutual
anxieties, our mutual fears, our mutual victories, our mutual defeats.
A frequent guest was George Colman, whose wit and fun were per-
petual sources of sparkle; Lord Mulgrave's brother had attempted
to discover the North Pole ; a series of pictures relating to the at-
tempt hung round the dining parlour; before leaving the room, long
discussions used to take place on art, the whole party walking round ;
in Captain Phipp's hand was a boat-hook ; Sir George Beaumont once
said "What has he got in his hand?" "Why," said Colman in his
burly joking voice, "/ take it to be the North Pole.'" — At another
time, after dinner everybody at table seemed sullen and indigestible —
we had been painting ail day, and were exhausted — Lord Mulgrave was
exhausted and said nothing — and there was silence so long, that all of
a sudden the whole circle made a sort of spasmodic etlbrt to say
something; Sir George in a lazy sort of a way observed "Theodore
Hook is a delightful fellow." "Is he," said Lord Mulgrave, with a
look at us all, "/ n-ish to God he ivas here now ;" this 'pnt everybody
laughing, and the nhole evening was delightful.

The going to the Academy every night, we always considered a
necessary winding up of a days' study, but the theatres Covent Gar-
den and Drury Lane were sources of dispute — when Mrs. Siddons
acted I used to appeal to Wilkie, and when it was Mother Goose he
used to dwell on the bill, and insist on it, \\e v/imted to study the ex-
pressions in the. pit .' — sometimes he saved me from temptation, and
sometimes I saved him! Once in going home through the Piazzas
there was a show, a man in a thundering voice was explaining its
wonders; as if by instinct we squeezed in, and getting up in a dark
corner, hoped not to be seen ; at last in dropped one after the other
16 students — long before they were all in recognition took place, so
that a hearty shout welcomed every new face to its utter dismay ;
many of them are now living, the most distinguislied artists of the
day; the show was the Baker and the Devil, and it is impossible for
people who are never worn out by 10 or 12 hours' painting, to com-
prehend the relish of students for such absurdities.

To travel with Wilkie was entertaining; in 1814, we went to Paris,
and saw the town in its glory; we were joined by a Lincolnshire
gentleman, who added much to our pleasure, and the only time I ever
saw Sir David yield to a true " abandon," was coming out of Rouen ;
champaigne had got to his heart, and opened its natural sources ; we
we were in an open carriage, and 1 proposed we should sing " God
save the King," as we left the city. Wilkie joined most heartily, and
on passing into the road, an elegant Frenchman and two graceful
women stopped to look at ns with pleasure and astonishment! — as we
concluded the last line, he turned from us smiling, and said "./?/(.'
trois milords,"

But enough — when a dear old friend goes first in the maturity of
life, one is apt to dwell too long on days which are passed for ever.

B. R. HAYDON.

PROTECTING CHURCHES FROM THE EFFECTS OF
LIGHTNING.

[The foUovking communication appeared in the Times, we believe it
to be from the pen of Mr. Hood, whose scientific attainments entitle
the paper to the especial notice of architects.]

Many persons are of opinion that fatal effects from thunder
storms are more frequent now than they were formerly. I should my-
self be of that opinion if I trusted merely to the records of memory,
but I find that, for more than half a century, the same opinion has been
held; while at the same time observdtions made at different periods
certainly negative this conclusion. Although it would beattented with
much labour to collate all the accounts of accidents of this description,
we may gather from the tone of the writers of former days what was
the general impression on this subject. The Pluloaophical Transac-
tions of the Royal Society, as well as many of the scientific periodicals
published at the close of the last and the beginning of the present cen*
tury, contain numerous interesting accounts of the effects of lightning;
and a writer in the year 1811 states that he has made calculations of
the average amount of damage by lightning in England, which he finds
amounts to aboutiiJO,000 in money, and from 20 to 30 human lives, as
the annual sacrifice by this destructive agent.

But it is extraordinary that, notwithstanding this acknowledged loss
and destruction, scarcely anything is done to mitigate its effects.
Science is certainly able to mitigate these destructive effects, if it
were put in requisition for tliis purpose. The vast number of churches
which have been damaged by lightning within the last three or four
years — of which the last instance is St. Martin's Church, the damage
"to which is estimated at £3,000 — suggests the necessity for adopting
some mode of protecting this description of buildings, for it is
certainly most extraordinary that buildings which from their height
and general form are more liable than any others to suffer from
lightning should so very seldom have any means of protection. With
the exception of St. Paul's Cathedral, I believe very few churches in
England, either in the metropolis or elsewhere, are furnished with
lightning conductors, wdiile many, or indeed most of them, are so con-
structed as almost to invite the electric fluid without the means of
afterwards allowing its escape, except by the destruction of some part
of the building. It is singular how nearly identical are the records of
all the accidents of this kind which have hitherto occurred. In 11)74
St. Bride's Church, Fleet-street, was struck witli lightning; the electric
fluid entered at the top of the spire by the gilded vane, from which it
descended as far as any metallic conductors extended, and then burst
through the resisting medium of the stonework, shattering the steeple
and throwing down several stones, one of whicli, weighing 701b., was
carried a distance of 50 yards, and fell through the roof of a neighbour-
ing house. With slight variations this would describe most of the
accidents to chnrches from lightning; the force of the discharge of
course depending upon circumstances. Nearly all writers on this sub-
ject are agreed, that if churches and other similar lofty buildings were
provided with proper conductors, not only would they be protected
from the lightning, but they would, in most cases, also defend the
neighbourhood from its effects, by silently and imperceptibly drawing
off the electricity from the clouds, and thus preventing the violence of
the Ihnnderstorm. In fact, this mode of preventing thunderstorms has
been often proposed for adoption on a large scale : and it is somewhere
narrated (though I cannot now recollect the precise authority^ that a
village in France, which from some local cause had been repeatedly
devastated during a series of years by storms of lightning and hail, was
afterwards completely protected by the erection of a number of ele-
vated conductors. It is true that it has never yet been clearly ascer-
tained the greatest extent of surface which a lightning conductor will
protect, and, therefore, the precise degree of protection to the neigh-
bourhood may be questioned, except within a certain limited distance
— the protecting power ol a conductor having been ascertained to be
at least sufficient for an area represented by a circle whose radius is
twice the lengtli of the conductor.

The best practical instructions for the erection of lightning conduc-
tors is the report made to the French Government by M. Gay-Lussac,
on behalf of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, published in the .An-
nates de Chimie, and also in the 24th volume of the Annuls of Philoso-
phy for 1824 ; but, as these volumes are not often in the hands of prac-
tical men, it would be most desirable if the Royal Society would pub-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

357

lish, in some form applicable to the intended purpose, instructions on
this subject, combining the improvements which science h^s suggested
since the period of M. Gay-Lussnc's report. It is by no means impro-
bable that many parishes might be induced to erect conductors on their
churches, but the subject is so little understood that no one ventures to
propose it ; and unless these conductors are properly erected they are
more likely to do harm than good.

The old cathedral of St. Paul's was twice struck with lightning, and
both times seriously damaged. In 1444 the lightning destroyed the
tower of the cliurch, and in 15til it set the church on fire and nearly
burned it to the ground. In 1769 the Dean and Chapter applied to
the Royal Society for their advice as to the best means of securing the
present cathedral from the effects of lightning, and a short description
of the mode adopted in this immense edifice may be interesting.

The ball and cross are supported by seven iron rods; these rods are
then connected with other rods (used merely as conductors) which
iniite them with several large bars descending obliquely to the stone
work of the lantern. A ring made of iron, one inch square, connects
all these bars, and four iron bars, one inch square, connect this ring
with the lead covering of the great cupola, a distance of 48 feet; and
from thence the communication is continued by means of the pipes
which discharge the water on to the floor of the stone gallery.
From these pipes large strips of lead connect them with the pipes
which discharge the water on to the roof of the building. This roof
is entirely covered with lead, and from thence the communication is
continued to the ground by means of the lead water pipes, which pass
into the earth, tbus completing the entire commuiiicntion from the
cross to the ground, partly through iron, and partly through lead. On
the clock tower a bar of iron, one inch and a quarter square, connects
the pine apple at the top with the iron staircase, and from thence with
the lead on the roof of the church. The other tower has a bar of iron
of the same size extending 88 feet from the pine apple to the roof of
the church. By these means the metal used in the building is rendered
available for the purpose of the conductors, the metal employed
merely for the conductors being exceedingly small in quantity.

The general neglect of the use of lightning conductors probably
arises from the belief of their insufficiency and ignorance of their pro-
per construction. But it can be satisfactorily shown that wherever
they have failed to afford protection it has arisen from either defective
construction or subsequent derangement.

Earl-sinet, Sept. G.

H. C.

GREAT BRITAIN STEAM SHIP (LATE MAMMOTH).

The Mechanic's Magazine, No. 99G, gives an account of the con-
struction and dimensions of this ship, together vi'ith drawings
of her machinery and its arrangement, explanatory, ulthongh necessa-
rily drawn to a very small scale ; and useful, could we depend upon
their accuracy; but the author (Mr. Hill) tells us " his rough dimen-
sions were obtained by pacing, otliers by a graduated walking stick,"
a system of mensuration somewhat unusual among engineers of the
present day. From the materials there furnished we form the follow-
ing calculations: —

The diameter of each cylinder is said to be 88 inches, the stroke G
feet, which at 19 strokes per minute, or 228 feet, is equal to 295
horses each, or of four cylinders to 1180 horses, and not of lOUO, as

88 X 7x 2*^8
stated by the author. Th\is, area — — — _ " i=294.15 horses or

^ 33,UUU

117G.G0 for _/bur e)!^/nes, doubtless intended to be of the collective
power of 1200 liorses, which in fact an additional 1 of a stroke per
minute would produce. The air pumps at 3' 9 "diameter and G'U" stroke
have a content of GG.24 cubic feet; one pump and condenser being
apportioned to ttvo cylinders. The cylinders have a content of 253.38

cubic feet; both =506. 7G cubic feet, we have therefore — =-1 .1

G6.24
times, or about the proportions of our best engineers. The condensers

are 12.0x8.6X5.0. content = 510 cubic feet, liere we liave =

66.24
7.65 times, or nearly thrice as much as experience shows to be neces-
sary. If any dependence is to be placed on the boiler sketches, the
Bristolians have yet much to learn in that department of marine
engineering. We are inclined to doubt their authenticity, for having
so good an example as the boilers of the Great Western before them they
ought to have certainly produced something nearer perfection, but of
course we can only reason on what is before us. For example, we have 24
fires, each 6 feet long by 2 feet wide, a total grate surface of 288 feet
for 1200 horse |iower, or about 1 of a foot per horse power (nominal)

0): le»s than half the proper quanliiy. This fact, coupled with the in-
different arrangement of the flues, are plain indications that the con-
sumption of coals will be the reverse of economical.

We make this analysis with reference to an article on "The Great .
Britain, the largest vessel in the world," published in the Tinus
last month, wherein it isolated she has stowage for 1000 tons of coals
and 1200 tons of measurement goods. The former amount seems in-
adequate for the purpose intended, viz., a voyage from Bristol or
Liverpool to New York.

If we take the consumption at the moderate computation of S lb. per
H.p. nominal per hour, we have 1200 x 8 z= OlJOO, or per day = 103
tons ; and supposing an average passage 12 days, the consumption
would in that time be 1236 tons of coals without any surplus for the
contingency of bad weather and prolongation of voyage. We think
the consumption of coals will be nearer 10 than S lb. per horse per
hour ; and if we are correct in this opinion, we have 1200 lb. per hour,
or, 129 tons per day, or 1548 for a voyage of 12 days — and mind,
no surplus.

But, will she make the passage in less than 12 days ? Tiie same
authority informs us that her load line is at 16 feet; at this, her im-
mersed section is about 600 feet. Taking the powers as the cubes of
the velocities, and using the factor 1400 (which experience shews to

be correct for this class of vessel) we have i- - L-' :=2S00=

600 section.
14 miles per hour in still water, presuming her to be propelled by pad-
dle wheels ; but according to the Great Western experiments, as stated
in Mech. Mag. p. 255, the screw is inferior to the wheel in the propor-
tion of 12 to 10, or one fifth, so that instead of 14 miles her true velo-
city will probably be 1 1.65 miles, in still water, as aforesaid.

Now, Cunard's packets attained a greater velocity than 11.65 miles
when tried experimentally, and yet their average passages, show a sea
speed of about 8-i miles only, the average length of passage being 13
days 16 hours out, and 11 days 5 hours home. The passage out gives
7.86 miles per hour, while that home influenced by prevailing wind
and current gives 9.3 miles, in this case the mean sea rate is 8.58 miles
per hour.

We take these facts from the Nautical Blagazine, subsequently
published in the Times, it appears to be a compilation from registered
results, and therefore entitled to the highest credit. It states the pas-
sages of Cunard's line to be outwards, from 10 days 19 hours to 16
days 12 hours, and one reached 20 days 17 hours; the home passage
from 9 days 17 hours to 12 days 18 hours, and this between Liverpool
and Halifax only.

We draw two conclusions from these data: the first, there is no
reason to suppose the Great Britain will make quicker passages than
the present vessels ; the second, that provision should be made for 20
days consumption of fuel, for we need not point out to our nautical
readers the position of such a vessel in the broad Atlantic, minus her
steam power, rigged as she is. What then becomes of the 1800 tons
space for measurement goods? Supposing this vessel bulfetted about
for upwards of 20 days (as one of Cunard's superb vessels has been),
she would require stowage for 103 tons X 20 days = 2060 tons of
coals at the moderate computation of 8 lb. per horse per hour; if we
reduce it to the minimum of safety, say 16 days stowage, we require
1648 tons, at 8 lb. per horse only; which we may say is the general
average of the best and most economical boilers. We know enough of
marine engineering to state confidently that the boilers of the Great
Britain will not reach this point.

We hope we may not be misunderstood, and our remarks considered
inimical ; our desire is simply to correct what we believe to be erro-
neous conclusions and to put the proprietors on their guard, that they
may be moderate in their expectations. It would conduce to our ut-
most pleasure if their most sanguine expectations become realized,
not in the narrow spirit of pecuniary gain, but as a national triumph
and convincing proof that Great Britain is, and ever shall be, mistress
of the seas.

"THE LIGHT OF ALL NATIONS."

The laudable attempt of Mr. Bush to construct a light-house on the
Goodwin Sands, is now occupying public attention, we have, there-
fore, obtained the following particulars of the construction of the cais-
son and its progress, which we hope to he able to follow up in next
month's Journal, with a drawing, and an account of the works as they
progress. We are happy to liear that up to the present period, not-
witbstanding some severe gales and squally weather, Mr. Bush has
proceeded very successfully, and fully equal to his most sanguine ex-
pectations. We sincerely hope that his praiseworthy efforts will be
\ rowned with success.

358

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

The caisson, which is of cast iron, is 30 feet in diameter at the base,
and is of a conical form, diminishing upwards 1 in 5. It is formed of a
series of plates, with flinches at the joints 3 inches in width, and con-
nected together by 4 inch wrought iron bolts. Each tier of plates is
6 feet in height ; the lower tier is U in thickness, the circumference
is divided into 24 plates as are the other (3burses above, which are
respectively arranged so as to break joint. Within the lower tier the
working chamber is constructed, in which the process of excavation
will be carried on as in a diving bell, and the spoil discharged through
a 4-feet aperture in the centre of its domed top into the second cham-
ber. The chamber above is fitted with air-pumps, gauges, and appa-
ratus for regulating the supply of air to the workmen in the working-
chamber; and from the second chamber proceeds a 4-feet cylinder
extending upwards through the centre of the caisson for the further
discharge of spoil. The height of the chamber above will be regu-
lated by the depth to which it may be necessary to proceed before the
chalk is arrived at, plates being added to the caisson as its descent is
effected through the sand. By means of valves and man-holes, &c.,
the two lower chambers communicate with each other as far as it is
necessary for the supply of air for the workmen, and the discharge
of the sand during the process of excavation, which will be carried on
from within, similar to the sinking of a shaft or the kibt of a well, the
lower chamber acting in this respect as a diving bell, by which the
work is carried on under water, and through the cylinder at stated
periods, when external communication is cut off' from the lower cham-
ber, the spoil will be discharged into the sea. The caisson has now
descended 24 or 25 feet in the sand, or about 30 feet below low water
mark ; the tide rises about eighteen feet, and from various indications
combined with the general stability of the machine, it is presumed to
rest at present near the solid chalk. When the caisson shall have been
brought upon a level bed, and the sand excavated, the interior will be
filled up with solid masonry and concrete, upon which foundation the
light-house is proposed to be erected.

PATENT RELIEVO LEATHER HANGINGS.

We feel much pleasure in directing architects to the veiy great improve-
ments made iu Messrs. Leake aud Co.'s Patent Relievo Leather hangings,
panels, imitation oak carvings, Ac, of which they have an endless variety at
their offices, 52, Regent-street. Her Majesty and H.R.H Prince Albert have
more than once had a large variety of patterns sent to Buckingham Palace
and Windsor Castle for their inspection ; aud have shown their excellent
taste in selecting many beautiful examples, for decorating step of the state
apartments hotli at Windsor and Buckingham Palace. The designs are very
beautiful ; indeed it is difficult to discover that some of the patterns are not
carvings in xoood — so closely imitated are the chisel marks, the grain of the
wood, the undercutting, and its assimilation of colour to the best oak and
walnut carving of the middle ages. The hangings, friezes, heads, fruits, &c.,
in the various rich and elaborate styles of decoration prevalent in Spain,
Italy, France, and Germany, as well as our own Eliazbethan, are here
brought to their greatest perfection, and will bring about a decided improve-
ment in our present mode of decorating public buddings, the baronial resi-
deuces of our nobility, churches, &c. The cost of these ornaments is about
half the price of carvings in wood.

IMPROVEMENT IN COATING OR COVERING METALS.

Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, of Laycock Abbey, Wilts, has obtained a patent
for improvements in coating or covering metals with other metals, and in co-
louring metallic surfaces. — They are four iu number. The first consists in
adding gallic acid to the metallic solutions intended to be preciptated. Any
convenient solution of sdver, gold, or platina is taken ; and to each of them
is added a solution of gallic acid, in water, ether or alcohol, (the last being
preferred.) Into any one of these mixtures a clean bright plate of metal is
immersed until it becomes coated with silver, gold, or platina, as the case
may he. A weak or dilute solution is recommended to commence with, and
afterwards a stronger one. The acid need not be pure. The second is a
method of silvering metallic surfaces. Freshly precipitated chloride of silver
ir dissolved in hyposulphite. Into this solution a clean bright plate of metal
is immersed, and becomes very quickly coated with a bright sUver coating.
To obtain thicker coats of metal, a gilvauic battery is employed, using one
of the liquids before described, and lakingfor one of the poles a piece of
metal of the same kind as that intended to be precipitated. The third is a
method of ornamenting surfaces of brass or copper, by first gilding them par-
tially, according to some pattern, and then washing them over with a solution
of chloride of platina, which gives a dead black appearance to the rest of the
surface, and enhances the brilliancy of the parts gilt. The fourth is a method
of colouring polished surfaces of copper, by exposing them to the vapour of
sulphuretted hydrogen, or any of the liquid hydrosulphurets, or to the vapours

of sulphur, iodine, bromine, or chlorine, or by dipping the metals into liquids
containing them. The claim is to the use of the galhc acid, or any liquid
containing it, or any analagous vegetable substance for facilitating the preci-
pitation of metals \ipon other metallic surfaces, and coating them therewith
— to the use of bydrosulphate of soda for the silvering of metals, and the
employing a galvanic battery for obtaining thicker deposits of silver, gold, or
platina, but only when used iu conjunction with one of the liquids so de-
scribed : and to the colouring of copper surfaces by exposing them to the
chemical action of the above-named substances.

IMPROVEMENTS IN DAUGUERREOTYPE.

M. Claudet, of High Holborn, and Adelaide Gallery, has obtained a patent
for improvements in the process for obtaining images or representations of
nature or art. They are five in number. The first consists in making in the
front of the camera obscura an aperture large enough to admit object glasses
of various foci, so as to have either large or small plates, and obtain images
of near or distant objects. The second consists in substituting for the de-
tached mercury box ordinarily employed, a cup of mercury placed within the
camera, and heated by a spirit lamp till the mercurial vapours rise and fill the
camera. The light and mercury are made thus to act simultaneously on the
plate, whereby a more intense and perfect image is obtained. In the side of
the camera there is an eye- hole, covered with red or orange-coloured glass,
through which the operator may watch the process, and be thus enabled to
withdraw the plate the instant the proper effect is produced. The third con-
sists iu placing immediately behind the sitter for a portrait, painted back
grounds or scenes, representing landscapes, interiors of apartments, &c., which,
being thus brought within the range of the Dauguerreotype apparatus, are
transferred to the plate, as well as the portrait of the sitter. The fourth con-
sists in the employment, in the absence of daylight, of an artificial light, pro-
duced either from the combustion of coal, promoted by a jet of oxygen gas, or
from combustible gases aud carbureted liquids burning together with oxygen :
or from a solid refractory body suspended iu a jet of inflammable gas, &c.
Care must be taken that the burner is fixed exactly in the axis of the reflect-
ing minor, or that the greatest Ught falls on the centre of the curve. The
fifth and last improvement consists in performing the whole process in a
lighted room instead of in the dark, as has been hitherto the case. A white
light must, however, be avoided, and screens of red, orange, green, or yellow,
are therefore employed. Of these colours red is preferred, as having the
least injurious effect on the plates.

A New Forging Machine. — This machine for the working or forg-
ing of iron, steel, &c., is quite portable, occupying only a space of 3 feet by 4
feet, and cannot be deemed other, even by the most crit cal judges than one
as purely original in principle, as well as practical in its application. It may
he worked by steam or water power, and when moved by the former at an
exhibition it made C50 blows or impressions per minute ; but from their
very quick succession, and the work being efl'ccted by an eccentric pressing
down, not striking the hammer or swage, not the least noise was heard.
There are five or six sets of what may be called anvils and swages in the
machine, each varying in size. The speed and correctness with which the
machine completes its work, is perfectly astonishing, and must be seen in
order that its capabilities in this respect may be duly appreciated : for in-
stance, when it was put into motion for the purpose of producing what is
known as a roller, with a coupling square upon it, (and which had to be
afterwards turned and fluted,) the thing was accomplished in fifty seconds !
of course at one heat, to the astonishment of the bystanders. But what ap-
peared as the most extraordinary part of the afl'air, was, that the coupling
square was produced dbect from the machine, so mathematically correct,
that no labour can make it more so ! The machine will perform the labour
of three men and their assistants or strikers, and not only so, but complete its
work in a vastly superior manner to that executed by manual labour. For
engineers, machine makers, smiths in general, file makers, bolt and screw
makers, or for any description of work parallel or taper, it is most specially
adapted ; and for what is technically known as reducing, it cannot possibly
have a successful competitor — in proof of which it may be stated, that a
piece of round iron 1 j inch in diameter, was reduced to a square of % in., 2
ft. 5 in. long, at one heat. The merit of this invention belongs, it is said, to
a gentleman at Bulton, of the name of Ryder. — Leed's Mercury.

Improveo Door Knobs. — A patent has been obtained bv Mr. Daniel
Greenfield of Birmingham for improvements in manufacturing hollow metal
knobs for the handles of door and other locks ; the essential character of the
improvement being that of forming an interior lining of stamped iron-plate
to the hollow-ball part of the knob, and (in case it is preferred) an interior
of cast-iron to the neck part of the knob, in order, by means of such
stamped-iron and such cast-iron (if the latter be used) to give support to the
brass, German silver, or other metal, whereof the exterior surface of such
knob is or may be composed."

1842.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

359

ENGINESRXNG V^ORKS.

SUSPENSION BRIDGE OVER THE DANUBE.

Oa the 2-lth of August, the ceremony of laying tlie foundation-stone of the
suspension bridge now being erected across the Danube, to unite the cities of
Pesth and Buda, was enacted. Of the gigantic work now in progress, two coffer
dams, unequalled in cubical dimensions by any ever yet constructed, are now
completed and water tight, being those on the Pesth side, whilst those on the
Buda side are in an advanced stage. That destined for the sustaining pier on the
Pesth shore was the scene of the display : it was fitted up as a vast saloon, with
graduated seats all round it, to acommodate 2,000 people, with a " loge^' or
box, for the royal party. Shortly after 5 o'clock p. m. a discharge of artillery
announced the departure of the Royal cortege from the Palatine's Palace at
Buda, and in due time the Archduke Charles, descended the spacious stairs
made in the framework of the dam, accompanied by the Palatine, bis Arch-
duchess, and their two children, the flower of Hungary's nobles, the magis-
trates and officials of the cities, aides-de-camp, and, amongst others, Mr. W.
Tiemey Clark, the engineer of this gigantic work. Their highnesses having
reached their places, remained there to hear read, and to sign with others
the inscription, in Hungarian, to be placed beneath the foundation-stone ;
which being done, it was. with the coins of the realm, placed by the engineer
in its destined bed, and on a signal being given by him, the "traveller" (the
machine for raising, lowering, and setting the ponderous masses of stone in
such works) was moved forward from the other end of the dam, bringing
with it a block of granite of about 90 cubic feet in size, and which, being
lowered and fixed in its berth, the Archduke Charles was presented by the
Baron Sina with a gorgeous and elaborately-worked gold and silver trowel
(executed by Messrs. Mortimer and Hunt, of London) and mallet, and there-
upon the usual ceremony of applying both to the stone was gone through by
his Royal Highness, and then by the Palatine, his wife and children, the
Primate, the magistrates of the city, the Baron Sina, the Count Stephen
Izchenyi, and the engineer, which being communicated by the hoisting of a
flag to those without, a response was given by a discharge of 25 cannon, and
thus closed this interesting and splendid ceremonial. It is not the least in-
teresting part to know, that this great work, is from the designs, and under
the direction, of our distinguished countryman Mr. W. Tierney Clark, F.R.S.,
civil engineer, to whom the Archduke Charles on this occasion, in the name of
the Emperor, presented a gold snuff box, with the cypher of the imperial
donor emblazoned on it in magnificent and large brilliants. To Mr. Adam
Clark, the resident superintendent of the work, his Highness presented a gold
box, set in briUiants, and gave 100 ducats (£50) to be distributed amongst
the men employed. The trowel, on which is a representation of the proposed
work in basso relievo, with the mallet, has been handed over by the Archduke
to the national Museum, as a memorial of the day and undertaking.

" As soon as it is raised a few inches from the bed where it now lies,
cable chains, worked by powerful capstans on shore, will be attached to it,
and the wreck slowly dragged toward the quay into a position where it will
be high and dry at low water.

THE TELEMAQUE TREASURE SHIP.

The following extracts from a private letter in the Times will be found to
contain much interesting inteUigence respecting the raising of the Telemaque,
which was sunk in the Seine, near Quilleboeuf, about 50 years ago.

" My attention was attracted by a pile of timbers rising out of the river, at
a short distance from the quay at Quilleboeuf, on which a number of men,
whom by the silent energy of their movements I recognized as EngUsh, were
hard at work. These were the preparation for raising the treasure-ship, I
was politely received by Captain Taylor, one of the chief adventurers in this
speculation, and the conductor of the operations, who during my stay took
pains to give me every possible information on the subject in which I was
interested.

" It appears from minute examination by soundings and by divers, that the
Telemaque is lying on her side on a bed of sand and rock, in about eight feet
water at ebb tide, a drift of mud sloping the height of her deck, but on the
Other side half of her bottom above her keel is entirely clear. The parties
who have hitherto attempted to raise her have proceeded on a plan which
has often succeeded in tolerably smooth tidal waters. They have passed
chains round the vessel at low water, carried the ends of these chains into
two large barges moored at the head and stern of the Telemaque, and then
expected that as the tide rose the barges would raise the sunken brig by the
chains. But as the tide in the Seine rushes up in a sudden and lofty wave or
bore, the barges were dashed up suddenly, and the chains were either disar-
ranged, or, being unequally strained, broke.

" Captain Taylor has moored a barge near the wreck, and upon it he has
established his head quarters. Thirty picked English workmen live there
night and day, taking advantage of every favourable hour of the tide. In the
barge they have their workshop, their forge, and berths, and kitchen, all
quite man-of-war fashion. The first operations of this last undertaking were
commenced by driving wooden piles pointed with iron, and on these piles
a stage has been erected so as to form a solid superstructure or bridge resting
over the Telemaque. Iron harpoons with barbed points were then driven
right through the vessel, and chain cables were passed round the bow and
the stern, and longitudinally from the stem to stern of the vessel. The
next process will be to fix powerful screw-jacks, and then by them, slowly
and evenly worked, to raise the brig.

Opening of the Southampton Docks. — The tidal dock of this great na-
tional commercial undertaking was opened in the afternoon of Aug. 29th.
The dock is said to be the largest in England, the inside, from wall to wall,
covering an area of sixteen acres. It is excavated to that extent, that there
will be always eighteen feet water at low water spring tides. The opening
is 150 feet in width, thus admitting vessels of almost any tonnage. A shed
is now building on the north-east side, 360 feet in length, and fifty feet wide
in the floors, for the storage of goods, from which a tram-way leads to the rail-
way station, distant about 300 yards. This dock was commenced three years
ago (this month), at a cost of about £140,000., and, had it not been for un-
foreseen causes, would have been opened for traffic some time since. The
vessels belonging to the Peninsular and Oriental and the Royal West India
Mail Company, will henceforth make use of it ; and no doubt every vessel of
consequence will take advantage of the facilities thus offered for landing and
shipping goods. The latter company have contracted for the use of a portion
of the dock for the sum of £2,000 per annum. There is another dock,
now in progress, called the inner or wet dock. It is impossible to state
when this will be finished. Want of funds prevents that accomplishment for
the present. This dock covers an extent of fourteen acres, and is the nearest
to the town.

Boulogne Harbour. — We understand it is definitively settled that our
jetties are to advance 600 yards further into the sea, so that vessels drawing 12
feet water, will be enabled to enter them at all hours of the day and night.
When they will be commenced is one question — but when finished is
another. Our English readers must not imagine that we^no, not we, but
the Fonts et Chausse'es — have yet to learn how to go ahead by steam, as our
unfortunate harbour too plaiuly demonstrates. — Boulogne Gazette.

Colchester Navigation. — The plan for constructing a ship canal
from Wivenhoe to the Hythe, as laid before the public in Mr. Bruff's plan
and report has, we undstand, met with a very favourable reception among our
trading community, who are of course the best judges of the merits of
such a plan, and of the benefits derivable therefrom. The possibility of con-
structing such a work for a very moderate sum (Mr. BrufF states £56,000,
exclusive of the land) gives it a powerful claim to public attention, and the
advantages Colchester would derive from its establishment are obvious. —
Essex Standard.

Netccastle.upon-Tyne. — The banks of the Tyne at Newcastle are very
abrupt, and the breadth of the river about 620 ft., over which a timber
bridge is projected on the plan of the viaducts on the Shields railway, the
centre arch of which is intended to be 280 ft. span, and 100 ft. above high
water at spring tides. The estimated cost is £100,000, proposed to be raised
in 5000 20;. shares. The number of passengers per week traversing the pre-
sent bridge is 170,000, one-third of which, it is expected, would pay toll:
but the project does not progress. What a splendid opportunity here pre-
sents itself to adopt the use of iron to its fullest extent, especially as the
price of that material is so unprecedentedly low, and the facilities of casting
large pieces and quantities has so much increased. — 0. T.

Whitby Pier. — This pier has been lengthened, and is now about half a
mile long. In a very short time it will be open to the public, and we have
no reason to doubt but that it will equal most of the pieis in England. — Hull
Advertiser.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

East India Steam Navigation.— The steamer India having performed her
last voyage from Suez to Bombay against the height of the monsoon, a cir-
cumstance unprecedented in the annals of navigation, it may be intert-sting
to compare a statement of that steamer's performance on her last two voy-
ages, the first having been made in the fair season, and the second against
the strength of the monsoon. On her first voyage the India left Calcutta on
the 10th of January last, and steamed to Suez in 25 days and 14 hours, run-
ning 4,849 miles, or 182J miles per day, consuming 680 tons of coal, or
7-6 lb. per horse power per hour. On her second voyage she left Calcutta
on the 9th of May, and steamed in 34 days 4,658 miles against the wind,
averaging 137 miles per day, and under sail four days ; total distance 5,089
miles, consuming 900 tons of coals, or 74 lb. per horse power per hour.
This result is most important, as showing that the communication by steam
can be kept up with the eastern side of India at all seasons of the year. On
the first voyage the Calcutta letters reached London in 46 days; the second
voyage her letters were detained 24 days in Egypt waiting a conveyance. —
Hants Independent.

The James Watt. — Messr> Maudslays and Pield have received orders from
Government to proceed immediately with the engines of 800 H. p.

Cherokee. — The engines sent out to Canada for this vessel are from, the
manufactory of Messrs. Maudslays and Field.

360

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

FRENCH STEAMERS.

The following list of vessels is from the Railway Moniteur, with the ports
at which they are being built, and the names of the engineers who are making
the enjines. They are 14 in number, of 450 H.y. each; the UUoa, Colum-
bus, and Labrador have been already launched, and it is expected that they
will all be ready for sea in the course of next year.

Name. Port. Engineer.

Darien

Ulloa

Christopher Columbus

Ma ellan

Cacique

Eldorado

Carib

Canada

Labrador

Orinoco

Albatross

Greenland

Montezuma

Panama

Espador

Caimar

Phoque

Glan

Cuvier

M. Cave, of Paris.

Government Steam Factory at Indret

M. Schneider, of Creuzot.

Cherbourgh
Ditto
Brest
Ditto
L'Orient
Ditto
Ditto
Brest
Toulon
Ditto
Ditto
Rochefort
Ditto
Ditto

Five War Steamers of 220 h. p. are also being built.
Indret "1

\ M. Stehelin.

Ditto
Bichwiller
Ditto
L'Orient

M. Ilallette, of Arras.

M. Pauwels.

Miller, Ravenhill & Co. of London.

American Mail Steam Ships. — The British and North American Royal
Mail Steam Company's new steam ship Hibernia was launched at Greenock
on Thursday 8th Sept. The Hibernia is about 200 tons larger and of
greater power than the present mail steam ships. Captain Edward C. Miller,
formerly of the Acadia, will now command the Columbia. If the new ship
only equal, in general efficiency and speed, the four vessels composing the
line, she will be a steamer of the first class . That she will equal, if she do
not exceed them in those indispensable qualities, the skill and judgment of
the managers of the company are sufficient guarantees. — Liverpool Albion.

The Ilindostan. — This splendid vessel started from the Southampton Docks
on the 24th ult. for Calcutta ; she is destined for the navigation of the Indian
Seas, between Calcutta, Ceylon, and Suez, and forms part of the intended
fleet of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company for establish-
ing a communication between England (from the Port of Southampton) and
our Indian possessions, via Alexandria and Suez ; between these two points
the communication will be as heretofore, overland. This vessel was built by
Messrs. Wilson, of Liverpool ; her length of keel is 220 feet, length over all
250 feet, beam inside the paddle-boxes 39 feet, depth 30-J- feet, burden 1,800
tons ; engines, 550 h. p. constructed by Messrs. Fawcett & Co., the eminent
engineers of Liverpool. She is fitted with Captain Smith's safety paddle-box
boats, which are so large that the whole of the crew and passengers could be
taken in them in any sea. She has also four large quarter boats and stern
boat. She is divided by wrought-iron water-tight bulkheads into five com-
partments. In our next number we sliall give some further particulars of
this splendid vessel.

Gloucester and Ledbury Canal. — The feeder at Canon Froome, for supply-
ing the canal with water, has now been put in operation It is expected that
in two months boats will be able to come up to Castle Yroovae.— Hereford
Journal.

Portsmouth. — A new steam-frigate called the Firebrand, was launched at
this dock-yard on the 5th inst. She was immediately taken into dock to be
coppered, and will, as soon as fitted with her engines, be commissioned. Her
original name was the Beelzebub, but when the Firebrand, after bringing over
the King of Prussia to this country, had her name altered and was called the
Black Eagle, the Beelzebub was changed to the Firebrand. Two other first
class steamers are building at this dock-yard called the Scourge and Centaur.

I.IST OF ti-ErW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM THE 31ST AUGUST, TO 22nD SEPTEMBER, 18 2.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Charles Frederick Guitard, of Birchin-lanc, notary public, for " im-
procements in the construction of railways." — Sealed August 31.

Charles Thatcher, of Midsomer Norton, Somerset, brewer, and Thomas
Thatcher, of Kilmersdon, in the said county, builder, for " improvements
in drays or breaks to be applied to the wheels of carriages generally." — Au-
gust 31.

Rouert Hazard, of Clifton, near Bristol, for " improvements in ventilating
carriages and cabins of steamboats." — September 3.

William Roche, of Prince's-end, Stafford, mechanic and engineer, for
" improvements in the manufacture of mineral colours." — September 3.

William Warburton, of Oxford-street, gentleman, for " improvements
in the construction of carriages and apparatus for retarding tlie progress of
the same." — September 8.

John Wordsworth Robson, of Jamaica-terrace, Commercial-road, engi-
neer, for '* improvements in machinery and apparatus for raising, forcing,
conveying, and drawing off liquids." — September 8.

James Insole, of Birmingham, saddlers' ironmonger, for " improvements
in the manufacture of brushes." — September 8.

Joseph Henry Tuck, of Francis-place, New North-road, engineer, for
" improvements in machinery or apparatus for making or manufacturing
candles." — September 8.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for "im-
provements in machine}^ or apparatus for making or manufacturing screws,
screw-blanks, and rivets." (A communication.) — September 8.

Herbert George James, of Great Tower-street, merchant, for "improve-
ments in machines or apparatus for weighing various kinds of articles or
goods." (A communication) — September 8.

William Fotiiergill Cooke, of Copthall-buildings, Esq., for " improve-
ments in apparatus for transmitting electricity between distant places, which
improvements can be applied, amongst other purposes, to apparatus for giving
signals and sounding alarums at distant places by means of electric currents."
—September 8.

Thomas Thirlwall, of Low Felhng, Durham, engine-builder, for " im-
provements in lubricating the piston-rods of steam engines, and of other ma-
chinery."— September 8.

WiLLi.\M Crofts, of New Radford, Nottingham, lace machine maker, for
"improvements in the manufacture of figured or ornamental lace." — Sep-
tember 8.

Thomas Marsden, of Salford, Lancaster, machine maker, and Solomon
Robinson of the same place, flax dresser, for " improvements in machinery
for dressing or hackling flax and hemp." — September 8.

James Wake, jun., of Goole, York, coal factor, for " improvements in
propelling vessels." — September 9.

John Rolt, of Great Cumberland-place, colonel in IJer Majesty's army,
for ** improvements in saddles." — September 15.

Frederick Bowles, of Moorgate-street, London, for "a new method by
machinery of preparing fiour from all kinds of grain and potatoes, for ynaking
starch, bread, biscuits, and pastry. (A communication.) — September 15.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, and Caleb
Bedells, of Leicester, manufacturer, for " improvements in fabrics produced
by lace machinery.

William Henry James, of Martin's-lane, London, civil engineer, for
" improvements in railways and carriage ways, railway and other carriages,
and in the mode of propelling the said carriages, parts of which improvements
are applicable to the reduction of fi-iction in other machines." — September
16.

John Sanders, William Williams, Samuel Lawrence Taylor, and
William Armstrong, all of Bedford, agricultural implement makers, and
Ev.iN William David, of Cardiff, for " improvements in machinery for
ploughing, harrowing, and raking land, and for cutting food for animals." —
September 22.

Patrick Stead, of Halesworth, Suffolk, malster, for " improvements in
the manufacture of malt." — September 22.

John Juckes, of Putney, gentleman, for ** improvements in furnaces." —
September 22.

Mr Peter Ewart. — We very much regret to announce the death of Mr.
Peter Ewart, of Woolwich Dockyard, many years chief engineer in the
Government service, to whom was entrusted the direction of the marine and
mechanical engineering establishment at Woolwich"; his death was occasioned
by a serious accident on the 8th ultimo. Mr. Ewart was present at the
testing of a chain cable in the proof-house, when the cable suddenly broke,
and a portion of it flying back struck him a violent blow on the body, by
which he was driven with great force against the wall of the proof house.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Communications received from 0. T. on earthwork and suspension bridgt:s. —
J. W, S. of New York.— Mr. Hartop.— Mr. W. Gartland.— Mr, E. B. Rowley,
and Mr. Pring .

.i correspondent is desirous of liuowing the maker's name of iron houses.

l^hctnis. — IVe arc collecting maicriats for forming a table of lite proportions
of alt our large steam ships and boilers, pressure of steam, S)C., and will thank
him, or any other correspondent if they wilt favour us with any information they
may possess upon the subject.

Books for Rivicw must be sent early in the month, communications on or before
the 20/// (if irith drawings, earlier), and advertlstments on or before the 25th
instant, addressed to the Editor, No. 10, Flndyer Street, Whitehall.

No. 2 has been reprinted and may now be had of the Publishers.

Vols. I, II, HI, and IV, may be had, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

J.K Jribbma Warwick C^HoUi"

J 843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

361

THE PENNSYLVANIA CANAL AQUEDUCT,
(With an Engraving, Plate XIII.)

(FROM THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE.)

Description of the Jl'ooden J(jueihwt carrying the Pennsylvania Canal across
the rieer Alleghany, at Pittsburg ; from actual meamrement. With
remarlcs by JohnC.Trautwine, Civil Engineer, of Athens, Tennessee, U.S.

This aqueduct was built in the year 1829, by Mr. Lotlirop, of Pitts-
burg, at an expense to the State of 101,000 dollars. It has two abut-
ments and six piers of stone, and seven arches of timber of 130 feet clear
span each ; the whole length of the aqueduct between the abutments
being 1092 feet. The masonry is of cut ashlar, in large courses, with
rubble filling. The material is a gray sandstone, rather too soft, in
my opinion, for such parts of a structure as are exposed to rapid cur-
rents, bringing down heavy fields of ice and drift wood, as is the case
with the Alleghany. The piers are 7 feet thick on top ; they batter
one inch to a foot on the sides, are semi-circular at their down-stream
ends, and are provided with break-water starlings. The average
height of the piers is about 40 feet.

The timber of the aqueduct is white pine, with the exception of
the chords and the pier-posts, which are of white oak, as being better
calculated to resist the great strains that come upon them. I conceive,
however, that any precaution of this kind would apply with more force
to the pole plates, or cap- pieces, as it is well known that t!ie resist-
ance of timber to compression is much less than that to extension.
Therefore, if extra precautions are requisite for the chords, they are
doubly so for the poles.

The width of the aqueduct, from out to out of weather boarding, is
about 34 feet. The height of the trusses, from bottom of chords to
top of poles, 16 feet. The canal trunk has a top width of 1(5 feel, a
bottom width of 15 feet, and a depth of 5 feet. The depth of water
is generally 4 ft., sometimes 4 ft. 3 in. There are four trusses to each
span. These particulars, however, with the other principal dimen-
sions, are so plainly indicated by the drawings as to require no farther
explanation. Throughout the drawings, the same letters refer to the
same parts.

Scantlings of the Principal Timbers and Irons.

Arch pieces, 7x 14 in., L, six to each truss, or composing each rib.

Pole plate or cap, J, of inner trusses, 10 X 15 in.

Ditto, F, of outer trusses, 10 x 12 in.

Chords, C, of both inner and outer trusses, each in two pieces, each
piece 7 X 15 in.

Queen posts, Q, in body, 9 x 10 in.

Ditto, in heads and feet, 10 X 14 in.

Main braces, S, 8 X 10 in.

Counter braces, X, 8 X 4-1 in.

Butting pieces, P, at heads of queen posts of outer trusses, 5x 7 in.

Ditto, T, or straining pieces at heads of queen posts of inner
trusses, 5 x 7 in.

Diagonal braces, U, in roof, and under canal truck, G X 7 in.

Extra braces, M, on outer trusses only, 0 X 12 in.

Straining sills to ditto, it, 6 X 10 in.

Straining pieces to ditto,y, 0 X 12 in.

Straining sills to pier posts,_;', G x 10 in.

Fishing pieces to poles, b, over piers, G x 12 in.

Roof tie beams, E, 7 X 12 in.

Floor girders, G & H, 9 x 18 in.

Additional pieces, A, under girders marked G only, 9x15 in.

Plank, of footway, towpath, and canal trunk, thickness 3 in.

Weather boarding, N, thickness 3 in.

Iron suspending rods, R, IJ in. diam.

Screw bolts, 1 in. square; spikes for planking of canal trunk, i incli
square ; spikes at heads and feet of braces, % in. square.

Vol. v.— No. C2.— November, 1842.

In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the tops of the lower girders are not
all in the same horizontal line, but that every other one, H, is raised
about one foot above the intermediate ones, G. When the aqueduct
was first built, only one of these sets of girders was employed, being
supposed sufficient to sustain the weight of water in the trunk. Their
distance apart was about ten feet in the clear. But when the water
was let into the trunk, the girders began to yield under a head of about
three feet, and it was found necessary to double their number, and
moreover to bolt, or rather stirrup, to every alternate one, viz. those
marked G, an additional under girder. A, Figs. 2, 3, and 4.

The reason for thus alternately raising and depressing these lower
girders was, to permit the passage of the two courses of lower diago-
nal braces from one H to another, over G, (see Fig. 9, and also the
dotted lines a, a, a, in Fig. 3). Where the H's cross the inner chords,
(which are lower than the outer ones,) they are made to bear on them,
by means of the blocks /(, li, Fig. 3. These blocks are not shown in
the transverse section, it being supposed to be taken near one of the
girders, G. Over the girders, G, are seen (Fig. 3,) blocks O, O,
marked in dotted lines ; there are transverse timbers, resting on G,
and helping to support the flooring plank of the canal trunk, as there
are no longitudinal joists in the aqueduct. The pieces O, do not in-
terfere with the diagonal braces, merely running from each inner
chord to the braces.

The floor of the trunk rests only on the upper course of diagonal
braces, on the transverse pieces, O, and on the raised girders H.

Each girder, H and G, is sustained by the two inner chords, and by
four suspending rods of iron, li in. in diameter, of which two are
shown in Fig. 4, by R,R. In the outer trusses, the tops of these rods
bear on the tops of the arches, or curved ribs, (see Fig. 1,) by means
of wooden saddle pieces, D, Figs. 3 and 4. In the inner trusses, they
bear upon the tops of the poles, or caps, and are covered by a
longitudinal capping piece, of 3 in. thickness {m, Fig. 4); this
capping is rounded otTat top, so as to prevent the chafing of the tow-
rope.

To bring the bearing of the suspending rods more equally on all
the arch-pieces, blocks are inserted between the arch-pieces, ver-
tically, at the place of each rod, as shown in Fig. 3. M, M, in Fig. 1,
are extra braces, employed only in the outer trusses; A, A, are their
straining sills. At their upper ends they abut against short pieces of
G X 12 (/,/,) firmly bolted to the poles. These extra braces are in
pairs, being on both sides of the poles.

j,j, Fig. 1, are the straining sills for the pier braces, S, S, serving to
stiflTen the pier posts ; see Fig. G, which also shows the cast iron abut-
ment plates, g, g, for receiving the feet of the curved ribs. They are
merely flat plates, 3 ft. 8 in. deep, 2 ft. wide, 2 in. thick, and without
any flaunches. The recess in the pieces, for receiving the feet of the
ribs, and pier posts, is but eight inches deep. See also Fig. 2.

P, Figs. 3 and 4 are the short butting-pieces for relieving the heads
of the queen posts from the action of the main braces. In the inner
trusses, instead of these short butting-pieces, long straining-pieces,
reaching from one post to another, are used, T, Figs. 3 and 4. T is
represented in Fig. 3, to save the trouble of another engraving.

The suspending rods are about 5 feet apart; but it is seen in Fig. 1
that these rods stop short within some fifteen feet of the piers, because
the curve of the ribs in that interval would not allow of the passage of
girders past them. In this interval, therefore, the ends of the giiders
are supported by pieces, K, Fig. 7, bolted to the ribs.

s, s. Figs. 2 and 4, are uprights, placed 4 ft. apart, for spiking the
sideplankingof the canal trunk to; at their heads they tenon into a
continuous cap-piece, r, and at their feet they tenon between the
strings e and n. v, and the blocks /, being supported by the queens,
prevent s from spreading outwards.

Where the curve of the arches comes below the line of /, the latter
is dispensed with, and v rests against the arches themselves.

r, r, are two pieces, of 3 X 6 in- spiked to the queens, for receiving

3 £

362

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

the floor plank of the tow-path, on one side, and of the footway for
ordinary purposes, on the other.
The roof is boarded and shingled.

Where the tops of the inner arches get below the line of the tow-
path floor, a piece of plank on edge resting on the floor is nailed
against the queens, to prevent horses from slipping into the canal
trunk.

Fig. 5 shows an excellent device for counteracting, to some extent,
the tendency which trusses always have to settle in the centre. The
poles or caps of the adjoining arches are here connected by fishing
splices, each composed of two pieces of 4 x 12 in. well bolted, and
trenailed together, through the caps ; and as a further security, two
blocks, 5, «■, of hard wood, about 4 inches square, are driven through
from side to side. By the introduction of these splices, it is obvious
that the inward draw of two adjoining trusses is mutually counter-
acted to a considerable extent. This arrangement, together with the
extra braces, serves very much to stiffen the trusses, and something of
the kind should always be resorted to in large spans.

Fig. 8 shows the mode of scarfing the pieces composing the curved
ribs. These pieces break joint where the ribs pass the queens, so
that the bolts of tlie scarfs pass entirely through the queens, and the
rib pieces on each side of them. The scarf of the poles is shown in
Fig. 3 ; that of the chords is the same as that of the poles, only that
•which constitutes the side view of the pole scarf, forms the top, or
plan, of that of the chord.

Fig. 11. As it is always a matter of importance in a bridge erected
over a stream liable to freshets, to secure each span as soon as pos-
sible, so as to stand in case the scaffold should happen to be carried
away, the introduction of the secondary timbers is generally deferred
until those essential to the support of the bridge, in such an event,
are put together. Therefore, the diagonal braces are not inserted
imtil after the girders are put into their places.

As these braces are tenoned into the girders at both ends, they
could not be inserted into the mortises in the girders, unless some play
were allowed at one end ; this play is afterwards filled up by a pair of
double wedges, as shown in Fig. 11.

Where the counterbraces of the trusses intersect the main braces,
the former are merely tenoned into the latter, as shown in Fig. 3, at Y.
Where the chords and queens intersect, they are notched equally into
each other, so as to bring the two pieces composing the chords within
about an inch of each other. Figs. 2 and 4.

The planking of the canal trunk is single, and well caulked. The
courses of plank are from six to fifteen inches wide.

Remarks. — This aqueduct evinces, more strikingly than any other
structure I know of, the capability of timber for the purpose of bridge
building. The weight of water in the canal trunk on a single span,
when 4 ft. 3 in. deep, amounts to 275 tons, of 2240 lb. ; and we may
safely say that that weight is frequently increased to at least 300
tons, during the passage of boats; for although a boat, of course, dis-
places a bulk of water of equal weight with herself, yet it may rea-
dily be conceived that the water so displaced does not instantaneously
leave the span, on her entrance ; and 1 think we may assume that at
least 25 tons of it are frequently on a span at the same moment with
the boat. Yet on a most critical examination, made with that view, I
could not detect in any part of the timbers the slightest symptom of
what might with propriety be called crushing. Slight compressions,
(if I may be allowed to draw such a distinction,) were visible at the
heads of the queen-posts, but not to a greater extent, apparently, than
invariably attends all trusses of this kind in common bridges of large
sjtans, after having been some time in use. In all bridges there is a
tendency to settle, or sag, in the centre ; and this tendency, of course,
brings a heavy compressing strain upon the pole plates ; but beside
this compression, incident to the truss considered as a whole, there is
another, acting at the several points at which the heads of the posts
tenon into the poles. This compound compression explains a fact for

which I was for some time at a loss to assign a satisfactory reason. I
have already stated that in the inner trusses of this aqueduct, a
strainiug-piece, like that shown at T, fig. 3, was inserted between the
heads of the posts, in preference to the short butting piece, P, figs.
3, 6, employed in the outer trusses. This was evidently done under
the impression that it opposed a more perfect resistance to the com-
pressions alluded to, than the shorter pieces; and, at first sight, it
will probably strike most of my readers in the same manner. But it
is of great importance to know, that although the long piece is almost
invariably introduced, both by engineers and bridge builders, whenever
extraordinary compression of the pole is anticipated, it is in fact en-
tirely ineffective ; whereas the short butting pieces perform the duty
assigned them perfectly,

I shall endeavour to point out the cause of this.

The compression of the poles evidently increases from the piers
towards the centre of the span, in the same manner as in a single long
piece of timber, supported at two ends, when it sags in the middle:
consequently, when the bridge settles, as it always will, more or less,
the head of any one post is moved a greater distance towards the
centre of the span than the post behind it, that is, between it and a
pier. Therefore, the opening,/'', behind the post, Q', must be a little
wider than the opening/;, behind the post Q ; and, consequently, the
inner end of the straining- piece, T, cannot be forced up into contact
with the head of the post Q, but must remain distant from it an amount
equal to the difference of the compression which takes place in that
part of the pole between Q' and the centre of the span, and that part
which extends fromy top. This difference in the amount of com-
pression between any two consecutive posts, is very perceptible in all
large bridges, being generally about i of an inch, that is if there be
7 spaces in the truss, between a pier and a king post, the opening at
the inner one will generally be about | of an inch, at the next one
f, at the next I, and so on to the queen post near the pier, where it
will diminish to nothing. In some bridges, and those excellent ones,
I have seen the openings behind the queen posts much greater than
this, at least double ; but, I believe, only in such bridges as have no
chords to confine the feet of the ribs. Of course some portion of
these openings, in every case, is due to the compression which takes
place in the heads of the posts themselves. This is frequently very
perceptible. I could just detect it in a few of the queen posts of the
aqueduct.

But it may be objected that if the explanation I have given be cor-
rect, then even the short butting piece, P, should also be ineffective ;
because, if the compression of the pole increases so perceptibly to-
wards the centre, then supposing the length of the butting piece to be
i of the distance between two queens, the inner end of the butting
piece should not come into contact with the pole, by an amount equal
to i of the opening which occurs between these two queens. Plausi-
ble as this deduction would seem, it is, nevertheless, incorrect, for as
I have before remarked, the short butting pieces act admirably, and,
as I conceive, for this reason, that although the entire length of ^that
portion of a pole, or cap, between two adjacent posts, is in a state of
compression, which, considering the whole truss as one great beam,
gradually increases towards the centre, still the action of the main
braces against the back part of the head of each post, tends to bring
an additional strain upon the portion of the pole next adjoining the
inside of the post head. This additional strain produces a compression
of its own, which, unlike that operating on the truss considered as a
whole, decreases towards the centre. Therefore, that part of the
pole into which the head of any post tenons, is more compressed than
the part at the end of the butting piece, and, consequently, the latter
is brought into full action.

This matter is a very important one, and my remarks on it were
suggested by seeing that in tiiis aqueduct the long straining'piece had
superseded the short butting piece, evidently in expectation of its
greater efficiency. In the Market street bridge, at Philadelphia, the

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

36.3

•finest ill existence, the same defect exists ; also in the viaduct of the
Columbia and Philadelphia Railroad, near Philadelphia, and many-
others, built by the most talented and experienced bridge builders in
the country.

-But in all these bridges, as well as in this aqueduct, the inner ends
of none of these long straining pieces are in contact with the heads of
the adjoining posts, against which they were intended to exert a pow-
erful compression. Consequently, they are not only useless, but posi-
tively injurious, as they add unnecessarily to the weight of the truss,
and thus absolutely increase that tendency to settle, which they are
intended to prevent.

I noticed a splintering, or spalling off", of the stones supporting the
feet of some of the arches. The stones in this part of a bridge, as
well as those forming the facing of the starlings, should always be of
good quality ; and, in the former case especially, attention should be
paid to their toughness; soft sandstone should never be admitted.

In an extreme case like this, of such an immense weight and so
soft a stone, or indeed with stone of the best quality, I should cer-
tainly prefer to have the recesses in the top of the pier for receiving
the feet of the curved ribs and pier posts, somewhat deeper than in
this instance, where they are but 8 in. deep, figs. 1, 2, and 6. The
pressure on the piers and abutments, so long as the bridge maintains
itself, is almost altogether vertical, and as it sometimes happens that
the bearing is not very fair, every precaution should be used to pre-
vent spalling. One of the spans, at the time I saw the aqueduct,
■was (in my opinion,) in imminent danger of falling, in consequence of
this.

I am confident that 2 trusses, instead of 4, would have been suffi-
cient to support the trunk of this aqueduct, especially if another
arch-piece had been added to the depth of the curved ribs, and the
height of the trusses made a little greater. This additional height
would, moreover, have added to the convenience of passengers on the
roofs of the boats, who are now obliged to stoop in passing through
the aqueduct. As the use of but two trusses would, of course, in-
crease the clear width between them, to admit the tow-path, the gir-
ders might be trussed by a heavy arch-piece, which would insure
abundant strength. A considerable diminution of expense would at-
tend such an arrangement.

As to the piers of this aqueduct, they are, as before stated, but 7
ft. thick on top, or -rrr'Ta P^f' °^ the span ; or not quite i as great as
the proportion of those used in the Trenton bridge, which is the
boldest one cited by Tredgold, in his table of stone piers for wooden
bridges.

The foundations of the piers of the aqueduct do not appear to have
settled in the least, or to have undergone any derangement ; still, even
in the face of this precedent, I should certainly prefer the foundation
to be laid at the depth of a few feet below the bottom, in structures
so important as this. There are, however, several bridges across the
Alleghany, in the vicinity of the aqueduct, and all their piers are
founded in this manner, (some of them, indeed, having but one course
of timbers in their platforms,) which is strong evidence of the suffi-
ciency of the plan, on a gravel bottom, even when exposed to tremen-
dous freshets.

Viewed as a whole, this aqueduct, for which, I am under the im-
pression, there was no precedent, certainly reflects the highest credit
on Mr. Lothrop, for boldness and mechanical skill.* There are others,

* We think it proper to remark here, that in the 6th volume of the London
Repertory of Arts, p. 220, is detailed at length, the sijecification of a patent
taken out in England, in 1796, by Mr. James Jordan, for constriicliiig aque-
ducts and bridges, with curved ribs of timber, or iron, and suspending there-
frum, by iron rods, the floor or trunk, as the case may be. The colebrated
bridge over the Delavvaic, at Trenton, commenced in 1804, is, in its general
outline, almost a precise copy of the plate illustrating Jordan's patent, in
the Repertory of Arts, and is, in principle, unquestionably an infringement
of that patent. Mr. Jordan also gives a plate of a projected aqueduct, pre-
cisely the same in its essential principles as that which forms the subject of
the'abovc paper.

of much the same kind, on the canal ; all, I believe, designed by him.
The general arrangement of the timbers is not original with him,
having been long before practised, in very many instances, in common
bridges; but the application of it to the purposes of so extensive an
aqueduct, was certainly a very bold step ; aud its entire success is
proof of an intimate knowledge of what he undertook.

I look upon this arrangement of timbers as the best yet devised for
large spans. It certainly admits of many improvements in its details,
and frotn some experiments of my own on the subject, I am under
the impression that considerable modifications in some of the more
important parts, might be made with advantage. I may take occa-
sion, in some future paper, to allude to them.

The curved rib, it is well known, is stronger in the centre than at
any other point; or, in other words, a load, which, applied between
the centre and one of the piers, would destroy the rib, might be sup-
ported, with perfect safety, in its centre. But the truss which is con-
nected with the ribs, is weaker in the centre than at any other point ;
its resistance to a load acting at any point, being, as in the case of a
single piece of timber, proportional to the rectangle of the distances
from the point at which the load is applied to the points of support.
Therefore, the combination of the curved rib with the truss, secures a
more uniform degree of strength throughout the whole span, than
could be attained by either one, used separately.

But besides this, another very important consideration attends the
combination of the curved rib with the truss, viz : that each not only
contributes its own share to the support of the load, but actually in-
creases the power of resistance of the other — that is, the two com-
bined will support a greater load than they could separately, were the
load divided between them. A curved rib, when employed by itself,
is very weak at the haunches, and readily yields to a load applied
there ; but if proper means be adopted for preventing the rib from
changing its form, its strength is wonderfully increased, indeed to such
an extent that actual crushing of the timber must take place before
the rib will yield to its load. Without this precaution, its flexibility
will permit it to bend, and fall through between its abutments, under
a load many times less than that necessary to crush it. Such a change
of form, or bending, is prevented by the truss, and thereby so great an
accession of strength is imparted to the rib, that if we could con-
ceive the truss acting only in this capacity of a stiffener to the
rib, without itself sustaining any portion of the load, still the strength
of the bridge would be increased many fold. I have seen curved
ribs of 200 ft. span, bend, and fall into the river, between their abut-
ments.

The highest known freshet of the Alleghany, rose to about the floor
line of the canal trunk; the weather boarding of the outside formed
a kind of dam, against which, trees, barns, houses, &c., accumulated,
until they formed a wide field of drift on its upper side. A large
concourse of people stood on the banks of the river, expecting to see
the whole structure lifted oflT from its piers, and floated away; but it
stood perfectly firm, and I believe sustained no injury whatever.

Engineermg Science. — The tunnel on the line of the Slieflield and Man-
chester Railway will be 3 miles in length, upwards of 600 ft. below the sur-
face or summit of the hill at its greatest height, and in rock formation
throughout its entire length. The works were projected and commr-nced
upwards of 2 years ago, under the direction of Charles Vignoles, Esq. Five
shafts were opened, at about half a mile distant from each other, for the pur-
pose of proving the formation, of facilitating the driving of the drift-ways,
and ultimately, of ventilating the tunnel. Whilst these were in progress,
the drift-w ays were carried on from each side, or face, of the mountain : the
distance, or length, driven, on the eastern side, extending to nearly 1,000
yards, and from the next shaft 180 yards. The junction between these two
portions of the drift-way was etfectcd on the 17th Sept., and the levels, w hen
checked, on a tie-bench, at the point of meeting, had varied but i) decimals,
or 1 in. nearly, and the range was within less than 2 in. of being geometri-
cally true*:- IVeekhj Papers.

3 E 2

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

364

A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLY-WHEEL, AND ITS
APPLICATION TO THE STEAM ENGINE.
Till- admirable collector and distributer of power, is so important
1 feature of the steam engine, that too much attention cannot be given
to determine the proportion best calculated, to insure a sufficent de-
gree of regularity in its motion, to answer general purposes; it is at
the same time equally important to avoid all superfluous weight in its
rim, because this imperfection not only creates unnecessary expense
in tiie construction, but also occasions a portion of the etTectiye power
of the engine to be sacrificed, to keep the useless mass in motion.

In order to obtain the degree of regularity of motion which is in
most cases requisite, the energy of the rim of the fly-wheel must be
so proportioned to the power exerted by the piston, as to prevent the
constantly varying effect of the power of the steam communicated
through the crank, from sensibly affecting the regularity of the motion
of the fly-wheel.

The same amount of regularity is not always required, and tre-
quently, steam engines are applied to drive machinery of such a de-
scription, as will to a certain extent, equalize the irregular action of
the steam through the crank ; a corn-mill for instance, requires much
less fly-wheel than would be imlispensable for a cotton, or flax mill,
because the energy of the mill stones, produces the same kind of
effect as is produced by the fly-wheel itself, and in some cases, when
flv-wheels are directly attached to the machinery driven, they might
be made sufficiently powerful to dispense with the engine fly-wheel
altogether, in as far as regularity of motion is concerned ; but if ad-
vantage were taken of this circumstance, very great strain would be
thrown upon all the mechanism between the crank and the fly-wheel
of the machinery driven, which being frequently considerable, would
be rapidly destroyed. A fly-wheel may therefore be considered in
most cases indispensable in, or very near the engine-room.

Having had considerable experience in the construction of steam
engines, under circumstances which enabled me to establish a regular
scale of proportions, between the length of stroke and the relative
diameter, speed, and energy of the rim of the flywheel, aud the fol-
lowing rules having been put to the test of many trials, I am induced
to submit this paper for insertion in the Journal.

The following table will show the length of stroke, the speed of
the piston, the number of double strokes per minute, the diameter,
circumference, and speed of the fly-wheel, which I have adopted, and
upon which many of the following rules have been established.
TABLE A.

[November,

H.P.

Length of

Stroke

= S.

Speed of

piston per

minute

Number of

dble. strokes

of engine

Diameter of
fly-wheel

= Sx3-82. !

1

Circumf.
of fly-
wheel

Speed of the

rim of the j

fly-wheel

per sec.

= AV.

per minute.

= S X 12.

W

10

ft. in.

ft.

No.

feet

ft.

ft.

2

2 0

150

37-50

7-640

24

15-

4

2 4

157

33-64

8-913

28

15-7

6

2 8

164

30-75

10-186

32

16-4

8

3 0

171

28-50

11-460

36

171

10

3 4

178

26-70

12-733

40

17-3

12

3 8

185

25-22

14-006

44

18-5

14

4 0

192

24-00

15-280

43

19-2

16

4 4

199

22-96

16-553

52

19-9

18

4 8

206

22-07

17-826

5G

20-6

20

5 0

213

21-30

19100

60

21-3

25

5 4

220

20-62-

20-373

64

22-

30

5 8

225

19-85

21-646

68

22-5

35

6 0

230

19-16

22-920

72

23-

40

6 4

235

18-55

24-193

76

23-5

45

6 8

240

18-00

25-466

80

24-

50

7 0

245

17-50

26-740

84

24-5

60

7 4

248

16-91

28013

88

24-8

70

7 8

251

16-37

29-286

92

25-1

80

8 0

254

15-87

30-560

96

25-4

90

8 4

257

15-42

31-833

100

25-7

100

8 8

260

15-00

33106

104

26-

The dimensions and weight of the rim of the fly-wheel, may be
determined by the following rules; (note— in the calculation of the
energy of fly-wheels, the boss and arms are not taken into considera-
tion, they should be made as light as prudence will permit.)

Rule 1. To determine the mean diameter of the fly-wheel, mea-
sured in the middle of the breadth of the rim.

Miilliply the length of stroke of the engine by 3-82, the product mill be
the diameter cf the rvheel, measured in the middle of the breadth of the
rim.

The above proportion being adopted, will determine the following
relative conditions.

1st. The rim of the fywheel will run 20 ftet per second, nhen the
piston travels 3i feet per second; or in other terms,

•2nd. The speed of the rim of the fywheel, will be to the speed of the
piston as G : 1 ; (note— this is not mathematically correct, because for
the mean speed of the piston to be 1, when the speed of the middle
of the rim of the fly-wheel is (5, it would be requisite that the half
circumference of the fly-wheel should be G, when the radius of the
crank is 0-5, in which case the circumference of the fly-wheel being
12, the piston for one revolution of the wheel would make a double
stroke — 2 feet, or twice the length of stroke, so that when the
stroke = 1, the circumference of the wheel should be 12, and its

diameter necessarily _ ,\,^ = 3-8197, &c., which should be the

constant multiplier, instead of 3-82 that, with a view of avoiding
useless decimals, I have adopted, the difference resulting therefrom
being of no practical importance, since the multiplier 3-&2 gives
0'OU04 to 1 instead of G to 1.)

3rd. The circumference in feel of the flymhed, will be equal to the
length of stroke of the piston in inches.

4th. The speed in feet per second of the middle of the rim, will be
exactly one tenth of the speed of the piston in feet per minute.

Area of cross section of the rim of the fywheel. Ten square inches
area of cross section of rim, will answer very well when the peri-
phery of the rim of the wheel travels at the rate of 10 feet per
second, and could be adopted as a constant area for that speed, if the
effective load per h. p. on the piston, was a constant load for every
engine; this would be the case if the stroke for every power was the
same, but the speed increases with the power of the engine, and the
load on the piston varies inversely as the speed, so that the above
proportion being determined for an effectual load per h. p. of 155 lb.
on the piston, when travelling at the rate of 213 feet per minute,
which load and speed are those of a 20 horse engine— then the ef-
fective load or the speed at which it travels, must be taken into
consideration in the calculation, for, with an uniform load and
speed as above determined, the section of the rim in square inches
per H. P., would be found by multiplying the square of 10 feet per
second, or 100 by 10 square inches, and dividing the product by the
square of the true velocity of the rim, the cross section of which is
to be found, or in more simple terms, by dividing the constant number
1000, by the square of the true velocity per second, of the rim, the
cross section of which is required.

But as the load and speed vary with the power of the engine, it
will be requisite to multiply the above quotient by 21-3, the standard
velocity of the rim in feet per second, and to divide the product by
the true speed in feet per second of the rim, the cross section of
which is required, the quotient will be its area in square inches-
per H. P.
Therefore when V = True speed of the rim in feet per second.
V- = Square of ditto.

A =: Area of the cross section of the rim in
square inches per H. P., we shall have

Formula 1.
21-3 _ 10- X 10X21-3

io=xio

X

^^^ = A, from which

V2
results,
Rule 2. To find the area in square inches per h. p. of the cross

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

36b

section of the rim of a fly wheel, its diameter and velocity being

determined by Rule 1.

Divide the constant mimber 21300 by iJie cube of the relocily in feet

per second, the quotient will be the area in square inches per h. p.

Example. What will be the area in square inches per H. p. of the

rim of the fly-wheel of a 20 H. E., the velocity of which taken in the

middle of the rim is 21'3 feet per second ?

When V =21-3

V» = %(53-597

21300 21300 „, . . ,

then J — =; , = 2-2 = area per h. p. ni square inches.

For corn mills, saw mills, and other machinery not requiring great
regularity of motion, or which by its own peculiar character tends to
equalize the effect of the steam, 7 square inches of cross section may
be allowed instead of 10, and will be found to answer very well ; on
such occasions the constant mimber 21300, will be reduced to

10-X7X21-3= 14910, and the formula No. 1 would be

14910

= A

= Area of cross section of rim in square inches per h. p.

The area of the cross section of the rim of the fly-wheel being
obtained as above, the total weight of the rim per H. P. will be found
by multiplying the area in square inches by the circumference of the
wheel in inches ; the product will represent the number of cubic
inches of metal in the rim per H. P. ; and this number divided by
1728, will give tlie number of cubic feet of metal, which multiplied by
450, (the weight in lb. of a cubic foot of cast iron,) will give the
weight of the rim in lb. per H. P.

Therefore when V" = cube of velocity of rim of fly-wheel in feet
per second, t = circumference of ditto in feet, we shall find

Formula 2.

Formula 4.

21300

V3

Xl2n

1728

450 = weight of rim in lb. per h. p., and by reducing

the constant numbers to a simple denominator, we shall obtain,

Formula 3.

6651J2-5

ir = weight of the rim per h. p. in lb. For corn mills, this

constant number would be reduced to 53250, and formula 3 would be

46593'8 • ui !• XI • • 7i_

— ir =: weight of the nm in lb. per h. p.

Rule 3. To find the weight in lb. of the rim of a fly-wheel, its
velocity in feet per second, and circumference in feet, being given by
Rule 1st.

Divide the constant number 66562'5 by the cube of the velocity of the
rim of the fy-mheel in feet per second, and multiply the quotient by the
circumference of the rim in feet, measured in the middle of its breadth,
the product will be the weight of the rim in lb. per h. p.

Example. What should be the weight in lb. per h. p. of the rim
of a fly-wheel of a 20 h. e., the circumference of the rim being 60
feet, and its speed 21-3 feet per second, (the stroke of the engine
being tJO inches) ?

when V =: 21-3
V3 = 9663-597
IT = 60-

then

66o62'5

66562-5
9663-597

X 60 = 413-22 = lb. weight of

per H.p.

By the rule to find the area, the cross section of the rim of the fly-
wheel per H. p. would be 2-2x20 ^ 44 square inches, and

By the rule to find the weight, it is shown that the weight of the
rim of the fly-wheel of a 20 h. e., would be 4 13-22 X 20 = 8264 lb.

In formula No. 3, ir is the product of the length of stroke in feet,
multiplied by 3-82x3-1416 = 12, so that by multiplying the constant
number 66562-5 by 1-2, we shall obtain a new constant number
798750, which will admit of the following construction.

798750

S =r lb. vreight of the rim per h. p.

In formula 4, S = the length of stroke in feet, this formula gives
Rule 4. To find the weight of the rim of the fly-wheel in lb. per H.P.,
the length of stroke of the engine, and the velocity of the rim of the
fly-wheel, being determined by Rule 1.

Divide the constant number 798750 by the cube of the velocity of {he
middle of the rim of the fy-whetl in feet per second, and multiply the
quotient by the length of the stroke in feet, the product Kill be the proper
freight of the rim in lb. per h. p.

Example. What should be the weight in lb. per h. p. of the rim of
the fly-wheel of a 20 h. e., the speed of the middle of the rim being
21-3 feet per second, and the length of the stroke 5 feet (see column
2 and 7 of table A) ?

when V = 21-3
V^ = 0663-597
S = 5-
798750
"966"-'97 ^ ~ 413-25 = lb. weight of rim per h.p-

giving the same result as obtained by formula 3.

For corn mills, &c. the constant number 79S750, will be reduced to

559125, so that for such purposes the formula would be

559125

'3 S =: lb. weight of rim per h.p.

The following table has been constructed according to the foregoing
rules, and column 7 has been added for formula 5.

TABLE B.

798750,.
then — 77— S =

Relative load

on piston per

Area of the

Weight of

H.p. that of a

cross section

Total area

the rim

Total

20 H.E being

of the rim

of ditto

per H.p.=

weight

one repre-

per H.p. =

a X H.p.

798750 ^

of the rim

sented bv

H.P.

\3

21300

ys S

213

v "■

sq. in.

sq. in.

lb.

lb.

2

3375-

6-31

12-62

473-32

946

1-42

4

3869893

5-5

22-

481-6

1926

1-356

6

4410-914

4-82

28-97

482-88

2897

1-298

8

5000-211

4-25

34-05

479-22

3833

1-245

10

5639-752

3-77

37-76

472-06

4720

1-196

12

6331-625

3-30

40-35

462-55

5550

1-151

14

7077-888

3-

42-

451-40

6319

1-109

16

7880-599

2-69

43-14

439-18

7026

1070

18

8741-816

2-43

43-82

426-39

7675

1-034

20 : 9663-597

2-2

44-

413-25

8265

1-000

25 10648-

2-

50-

40005

10001

0-96S

30

11390-625

1-86

56-

397-35

11920

0-946

35

12167-

1-75

61-25

393-84

13784

092C

40

12977-875

1-64

65-6

389-75

15590

0-906

45

13824-

1-54

69-3

385-2

17J34

0-887

50

14706-125

1-44

72-38

380-17

19008

0-869

60 15252-992

1-39

83-7

383-97

23038

0-858

70 1 15813-251

1-34

94-23

387-24

27176

0-84S

80 '10387-064

1-29

103-92

389-92

31193

0-838

90 1 16974-593

1-25

11 •2-87

392-08

35287

0-828

100 17576-

1-21

121-11

393-81

39381

0-819

The precedent Rules 2, 3, and 4, will suflSce when the proportions
laid down by Rule 1 are adopted, but will not answer for general pur-
poses; I have given them because, having for several years adhered to
the length of stroke, and other dimensions shown in Table A, these
rules have answered perfectly so far as the regulation of the motion
of the engine itself is concerned, when exerting her full power.

The following Rules 5, 6, and 7, may be employed in all cases for
the same purpose, let the stroke of the engine, the diameter and
speed of the wheel be what they may.

Rule 5. To find the weight in lb. per h. p. of the rim of the fly-
wheel, the length of stroke, the mean diameter, and speed of the

366

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[NoVKMBSa,

rim of the wheel, and the relative load per h. p. on the piston, (the
load of a 20 H. E. being 1,) having been given.

Divide the constant number 37500 by the square of the mean velocity
of tne rim o/ the Jly-nheel in fett per second, and multiply the quotient
by the product of the length of stroke in feet, multiplied by the tabular
number P (see col. 7, table B.), (P representing the relative effective
load per h. p. on the piston, that of a 20 n. e. being ^,) the last product
rtill be the weight of the rim in lb. per h. p.

Example 1. What will be the weight of the rim of the fly-wheel
of a 10 H. E., when the length of the stroke is 4 feet, the diameter of
the wheel in the middle of the rim 12 feet, and intended to make 48i
revolutions per minute ?

when V= = 928-4

P = 1-196 (see col. 7, table B.)
S = 4-

therefore

37500

V-
37500

928-4
Formula 5 is thus composed

~^^^ \.r. 1000
450 = -^

Formula 5.
P S = weight of rim in lb. per h.p.

4-784 = 193-2 = weight of rim in lb. per h.p.

*^^ 144

450 =

1000
V2

P 37-5 S =

37500

V-

P S = weight of rim in lb. per h.p.

Example 2. What will be the weight of the rim of the fly-wheel
of a 10 H. E., its diameter in the middle of the rim being 12-733 feet,
and making 26-7 turns per minute, the stroke being 3i feet.

Observation ; this example corresponds with the proportion given
by Rule 1, as shown in the precedent table A.
then V= = 316-84

P = 1-196 (see col. 7, table B)
S = 3i

therefore -^^ P S = wt-tk-. 3-98G = 472 = weight of rim in lb.

per H.P.

For corn mills the constant number 37500 will be reduced to

10=XZp19S

700 „ ..„„„„ „^ . , , .

P S = weight of rim

Va

450 =

V=

P 37-5 S =

26250

V-

144
in lb. per h.p.

Rule 5, requires a series of tabular numbers, representing the
relative effective load per H. p. on the piston, the load per h. p. on a
20 H. E. piston being considered as unity — this relative load varies
inversely as the speed of the piston, and will be obtained (considering
the speed of the piston of the 20 h. e., viz. 213 feet per minute as
the standard speed,) by dividing 213 by the effective speed of the
piston of the engine to be calculated ; the quotient will be the rela -
tive value P required : column 7 of table B has been calculated so
as to simplify the operation.

Admitting 213 to be generally allowed for the speed of the piston
of a 20 H. e. in feet per minute, the calculation may be still farther
simplified, because a new constant number can be obtained by multi-
plying the constant number 37500 (given in formula 5) by 213, which
would create

Formida 6.

37500

213

"W

37500 X 213

s =

7987500
V= W

S = weight of the

rim in lb. per h.p.

when V2 = square of the velocity of the rim in feet per second.

W = speed of the piston in feet per minute of the engine to be
calculated, ^i.'v-,.- ;;-

S =' length ofthe'stroke in feet of the engine to be calculated,

which gives us, '-y^^^fSi^i^t;:-. ' ~

Rule 6. To determine the weight in lb. per h. p. of the rim of a

fly-wheel, its speed in feet per second, the speed of the piston in
feet per minute, and the length of stroke in feet being given.

Divide the constant number 7,987,500 hy the product of tite sijuare of the
velocity in feet per second, of the rim of the fly-wheel, mulliplied iy the
speed of the piston in feet per minute, and the qnotient multiplied by the
length of the stroke in feet, will give the weight in lb, per h. r., of the rim
of the fly-wheel.

Example. What will be the weight in lb. per h. p. of the rim of
a fly-wheel of a 10 h. e., its diameter in the middle of the rim being
12-733 feet, and making 2G-7 revolutions per minute, the length of
stroke being 3i feet?
then V= = 316-84
W = 178-
S = 3i

■,987,500 3^ _ 4-2 = weight of rim in lb.

therefore ^-S^S =

V^ W " 56,397-52

per H.P.

For corn mills, &c. the formula would stand thus:

5 591 250
' „ ' S = weight of the rim in lb. per h.p.

the constant number 7,987,500, being reduced to 5,591,250.

To avoid misunderstanding it may be proper to repeat in this
place, that Rules 2, 3, and 4, are applicable only when the length of
the stroke and diameter of the rim of the fly-wheel, are made to cor*
respond with columns 2 and 5 of table A, according to Rule 1,
and when the fly-wheel makes the same number of revolutions as the
crank ; whereas the Rules 5 and 6 may be made use of on all occa-
sions, be the length of stroke, diameter of the wheel and its speed
what they may.

It is occasionally desirable to make use of a fly-wheel, that has not
been expressly made for the engine to which it is intended to apply
it, and it is then requisite to determine the speed at which the rim
should travel to produce the usual effect on the motion of the engine;
the following rule will determine that speed ; the weight of the rim
in lb., and the circumference of the rim in feet being given.

Rule 7. \st. Divide the total weight of the rim in lb. by tlie number of n.v. of
the engine, the quotient will be the weight of the rim in lb. per h. p., divide
this weight per h. p. by the length ofstroie of the engine in feet, and reserve
the quotient for a divisor.

2nd. Divide the constant number 7,987,500, by the divisor found above, and
divide the quotient by the speed of the piston in feet per minute, which will
give the square of the velocity of the rim of the fly-wheel in feet per second,
and extract the square root thereof for the velocity of the rim in feet per
second.

3rd. Divide the velocity of the rim in feet per second by the mean circum-
ference of the rim in feet, multiply the quotient by GO, and the product will
be the number of revolutions the fly-wheel should make per minute.

This rule gives

Formula 7.

Vr, ,^r,M ,.,^n /total Weight of rim in lb. . , ., r . , . j... \
7,987,500 -r- ( ^3— r length ofstrokeinft. 1

speed of piston in feet per minute
V =: velocity of the rim of the fly-wheel in feet per second.
V

circumference of rim in feet
wheel per minute, or

X 60 =; number of revolutions of

Formula 8.

V

- „«- „„ /^total weight of rim in lb. „ 1 r • .

7,987,500 -~( „ „ ^ . ■ — r -■ , X speed of piston in
' ' V H.P. X stroke in feet

60 V

I number of revo-

feet per minute I ^ V, and -: — . . ,. ,

/ circumference in leet

lutions of wheel per minute.

Example. If a fly-wheel 15 feet in diameter, measured in the
middle of the rim, and weighing (the rim only) 5000 lb., is to be ap-
plied to a 20 H. E., what number of turns should this wheel make per
minute, the length of stroke of the engine being 5 feet, and the speed
of the piston 213 feet per minute?

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

367

Length of stroke of engine in feet = 5-
Speed of the piston in feet per minute = 213-
Total weight of rim in lb. = 5000-

Mean circumference of the rim in feet = 47'1
Then by formula 8.

/^ 7,987,500-;- (^^^ X 213) = 27-4 = speed of the rim in

feet per second, and ^-~~ = 34-90 = nearly 35 revolutions
per minute.

For corn-mills, &c., this formula would only vary by reducing the
constant number 7987500 as stated above to 5591250.

therefore ^5591250 -^(g|_X 213) = 22-9 = speed of rim

in feet per second, and ^Hl^GO ^ ^^ ,e^„,„ti„„^ p^^ ^j^^^^^

That IS to say, that for machinery requiring regularity, the fly-
wheel applied to a 20 h. e. should make 35 revolutions per minute,
but if required to drive machinery for which regularity is not neces-
sary, the same wheel need not make more than 20 revolutions per
mmute. "^

Formula 7 and 8 are obtained by reversing formula 6.

London, Ochber IIM, 1842. H. H. Edwards.

NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

The management ef the furnaces. —It is a common practice in steam
vessels to pile the coal much too abundantly on the fire grate, the
stratum of incandescent fuel is too thick, and the generation of car-
bonic oxide is the consequence, to the manifest diminution of calorific
effect. The coals should be strewn upon the grate bars evenly and
equally ; the depth of the stratum should be about three inches, but
this is a point dependent in a great measure upon the intensity of the
draught ; the stronger the draught the thicker should be the stratum
of incandescent fuel. The bars should never exceed 7 feet in length,
and should be as much less as possible ; 6 feet is a good length, and
not an uncommon length in the best boilers. It is impossible to fire
long furnaces properly, especially in a sea way. We have known the
length of the fire bars to be reduced from 8 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. G in. with
a great accession to the steam-producing powers of the boiler. The
bars should always have a considerable inclination, both to facilitate
the transmission of the fuel from their foremost to their aftermost
extremity, and to diffuse the air more equably over their lower surface.
The skill of firemen varies greatly, and due attention should be paid
to their selection. A dead plate at the mouth of the furnace is a
good thing, and combined with a slow combustion will obviate smoke
and save fuel. These are the true secrets of combustion on chemical
principles.

Boilers, near and /car.— The wear of boilers is not unfrequently
chiefly from the outside round the steam chest, from the dripping of
-water from the decks, in the ash-pits from the wetting of the ashes,
and on the bottom of the boiler from the action of the bilge water.
This last source of wear is now almost altogether obviated in some of
the best steam vessels, by placing the boiler upon an eflicient caulked
platform, bedding it in putty— not an incorporated mass of lime and
oil, but really sound substantial putty, such exactly as glaziers use.
A cooming of timber is attached to this platform, encircling each
boiler, and the interstices between the timber of the cooming and the
iron of the boiler are filled in with roman cement, and sloped off on
the upper side, so that no water can lie on the cement or cooming. It
Might be expected that these coomings would be disturbed by the ex-
pansion of the boiler when heated, but we find that the expansion is
so inappreciable in practice as not to be productive of any visible
derangement. The upper parts of boilers should be covered with felt

and sheet lead, soldered wherever there is a joining ; the practice of
covering boilers with felt and sheet lead is now almost universal
among the best engineers.

Blom-off cocks are a perpetual source of annoyance if they be not
well made at first. The metal of which they are composed should be
hard and tough, without any lead in it. The plugs of the cocks, if
made with too little taper, will be very apt to jam, and after having
been ground a few times, will sink so far into the socket as to come
in contact with the bottom, if there be one, and diminish materially
the effective area of the water way. If the taper be too little on the
other hand, a great strain will be thrown on the gland, which keeps
the plug in its place, and if they give way it will be driven out with
great force. This did occur in the Great Western, and the engineer
was scalded to death.

The durability of brasses is dependent upon a variety of circum-
stances, but chiefly upon the quantity of rubbing surface and the
quality of the metal. We have seen a brass of Boulton & Watt's
which had worked for thirty years, and was at the end of that time in
good preservation, whilst we liave seen other brasses which, in the
course of a couple of years, were quite worn out.

De omnibus rebus et quibmdam aliis. — Should the engineers be sub-
ject to the captains ? Ingenerals, YES— in particulars, NO. The Ad-
miralty regulations in reference to engineers are just as preposterous
as might be expected, inasmuch as the Admiralty is invariably a cen-
tury behind the merchant service, but in their regulations respecting
engiueers, they have out-Admiraltied themselves and earned a title
to a squabash with our tomahawk, with which we may probably
honour them on an early occasion. The Admiralty desires to have
young men of education as engineers, and yet with Admiralty consis-
tency rates the engineer beneath the ship's carpenter— and what engi-
neer of talent and education would place himself in so abject a situ-
ation, or submit to be snubbed and brow-beaten by every whiffling
lieutenant or embryo midshipman who does not know the garboard
streak from the log line ? As to your amateur mechanics, we always
shun them as carefully as we would do a rabid dog; their bite is dan-
gerous, and their bark— why that of Cerberus was heavenly music to
it. We have never recovered from the alarm we once experienced
from the spectacle of one of these cognescenli with blackened fustians
and white kid gloves, crawling daily, for the space of a whole week,
through the labyrinths of an oily steam engine, to vindicate his title
to engineering proficiency. We bethought ourselves of Nebuchad-
nezzar, and betook ourselves out of reach of the saliva. When we
take upon ourselves the administration of the Admiralty, which, be-
tween this and 1942, we may perhaps be prevailed upon to do, our
first operation will be to get a leviathan besom constructed to sweep
away all such incurables preparatory to placing engineers in their
proper position.

Ventilation is a thing greatly neglected in steam vessels, although
so many facilities exist for establishing an effectual system. Every
vessel should be fitted with one or more fans, or Day's patent Archi-
medean Screw ventilator, worked by the engine for exhausting the
air from the different cabins, gratings being left above the doors and
in other suitable places for the admission of fresh air from without.
The same mechanism might be made to draw air from the holds and
other parts of the ship, so that any bad smell from bilge water, &c.
would be entirely obviated. In tropical climates, in particular, no
steam vessel of any considerable size ought to be unprovided with a
ventilating apparatus.

The rolling of steam vessels in a sea way gives a lateral impulse to
several parts of the machinery, which it is often not well calculated
to resist, without a considerable jolting. Thus the side levers will,
when the vessel rolls heavily, slip in and out upon the main centres,
and the shafts will move endways. It is true there are collars to pre-
vent this, and in new engines no great movement of this kind can take
place ; but the collars are in most cases much too small — they are
deficient in rubbing surface, and they consequently wear, in a short
time, considerably into the brass, leaving a lateral play upon the jour-
nal which admits of no adjustment. To obviate this evil, Messrs.

SOS

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

Maudsbys & Co. are in the habit of making their journals with very
large fillets in the corners, so as, in fact, to make eacli end of the
journal a short frustrum of a cone. This has the desired effect, but
occasions a wasteful expenditure of the oil. Mr. Robert Napier
makes his cranks to bear against the flanges of his brasses. This plan
obviates the rapid wear, but still leaves any wear that has taken place
unsusceptible of re-adjustment. The best plan, it appears to us,
would be to make each journal bulge out in the middle, so as to con-
stitute, in fact, a portion of a spheroid, and recess each brass corres-
pondingly. The act of tightening the top screws of the journal would
then have the effect of preventing the shafts from moving on end, as
well as of preventing them from moving up and down. The outer
bearing of the paddle shaft should be always so made as to admit of
easy adjustment. A common plummer block with the top constructed
for holding tallow, placed upon a good stout carriage bolted to the
fore and aft bearers, is, in our judgment, the best arrangement. The
plummer block bolts should be so made that they may be dropped
down to admit a piece of plate iron between the sole and the carriage
at any time the shafts may require re-adjustment. A brass in the
upper part of the plummer block at the outer end of the shaft is un-
necessary, as there is no upward strain, and the cover bolts should be
merely sufficient for holding it on in a sea way. This journal always
wears forwards as well as downwards, and the brass should be so
made as to admit of the aftermost side being turned before. The
sides of the brass should also be thicker than in journals where this
action does not exist.

Pisston Rods. — The best mode of attaching the piston rod to the
cross head is by means of a cone and cutter and gib, and a screw
above the cone; this cone should have considerable taper both to
obviate any injurious expanding action which a cone of little taper
would occasion, and to facilitate the disengagement of the rod when
it requires to be taken out. Some of Boulton and Watt's cross heads
are made close over the piston rod, except that a little hole is left in
the top to admit the introduction of a drift to start the piston rod
when it requires to be disengaged. This we think is a very objec-
tionable plan, and we have known it in practice to be productive of
the most serious inconvenience ; for a small drift will not start a rod
on which the taper is not considerable, and which is rusted into its
place. The drift may indeed be assisted by a cutter driven into the
cutter-hole, and so contrived as to force the rod down instead of
keeping it up; but even with this aid we have known the largest drift
that could be introduced through the top hole to be quite ineffectual
in starting the rod. It is a bad practice too to make the upper part
of the rod that fits in the cross head eye parallel ; a blow or two upon
this parallel part will stand and swell it so as to rivet the rod into the
socket.

Iron Ships have been much cried up of late by iron ship builders.
We admit their claims to favourable consideration, but at the same
time maintain that they are attended by many serious disadvantages.
In the first place the accumulation of sea weeds and barnacles is a
formidable objection. We have seen indeed a scheme of a scraper for
removing these accumulations whilst the vessel was under weigh, but
it is in our mind puerile aud impracticable. Again, the iron of which
vessels is composed has been found to become brittle in the course of
years, so that although tough at first, it will in the course of time star
like glass when struck by a hard and sharp body. The action appears
analagous to that which takes place in railway axles. Mr. Nasmyth,
indeed, has shown that railway axles are rendered brittle by cold
hammering, and maybe toughened again by annealing; but he has
not shown that axles are not rendered brittle also by continued wear,
or that this species of brittleness admits of the same remedy.

Bilge Pipes are best of lead, both because lead resists the action of
the bilge water better than any other metal and because it is much
cheaper than copper, but the blow off pipes should never be of
lead ; lead blow off pipes bulge and burst from the continued heat and
fragrance to whicl: they are subjected. We find that Mr. P. Taylor
at the Institution of Civil Engineers, a short time ago recommended
all the pipes exposed to the action of the bilge water in any measure

to be of lead, and his recommendation was allowed to pass without
comment. We therefore think it expedient to say that we altogether
differ from Mr. Taylor in this particular. Neither the blow off or
deck pump pipes should ever be of lead though they are always more
or less exposed to the action of the bilge water. No engineer in this
country ever thinks of making blow off deck pump, or injection, pipes
of anything but copper.

jraslc Sltam Pipe shou'.d be as high as the funnel, especially if
situated before the funnel. When the waste steam pipe is shorter
than the funnel, the action of the steam on the iron of the funnel
rapidly oxidizes it and speedily makes the funnel very thin in that
part of the ascent to the mouth of the waste steam pipe. When the
pipe is made as taunt as the funnel the steam is carried clear of the
funnel altogether.

Slop ralvts bebceen the boilers should be permitted always to act of
their own accord, and should never be opened and kept open by
drawing up the spindle and keeping it up. Unless the stop valves be
allowed to act spontaneously like the safety valves, they will soon
become so fixed by corrosion that they cannot be shut at all, and are
consequently of no avail. If the increased pressure incident to the
weight of the valve be objected to, that weight may easily be ba-
lanced by a weight and lever attached to the spindle, where it emerges
from the stuffing bos of the valve box cover.

Rudder. It is a judicious practice to make the rudder rather
shorter than is requisite to reach the keel— the rudder will thus be
unaffected if the vessel takes the ground. The keel should always
project a little beyond the rudder joint so as to prevent warps or
ropes of any kind from catching in the joint as the vessel passes over
them. The rule joint is the best species of joint for a steam packet
rudder, and bv far the neatest : the rudder head should be round and
should fit accurately in the rudder trunk, which of course should be a

cylinder.

" Paddle box boals of Capt. Smith are we think inconvenient— un-
sightly and ineligible. It would be greatly preferable to have a dozen
boats stowed inside one another like the nests of pill boxes of the
apothecary. In a heavy sea the paddle box boats could not be raised
without great difficulty, and when raised could scarcely be ap-
proached. Their proximity to the paddle when launched is dan-
gerous, and the waves would fly up through the paddle box in a sea
way with great force, and cut off all communication between the boat
and the ship. We regret that Capt. Smith has not found a better
vehicle for his ingenuity than this cumbrous, ineffectual and unsailor-
like contrivance.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS XLII.

" I must have liberty
M^itlial, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom ] please."

I. Mr. G. R. Lewis' notions in regard to " intelligence of design"
and symbolical expression in ecclesiastical architectures, are too tran-
scendental, not to say, whimsical, to be adopted by our modern church
builders, and perhaps it is well that such is the case, since the fanciful
myiiticism which he recommends might lead to conceits that had
better be avoided, ambiguous at the best, and occasionally susceptible
of very sinister interpretations. A very great deal of symbolical
meaning, whether intended or not, shows itself, for instance, in the
design of Bernini's celebrated bronze baldachino in St. Peter's, al-
though critics who look no further than their noses have never detected
it. Many of them have reproached the artist for his bad taste in
making the shafts of the columns tmsled, and as far as mere external
form goes, they are right ; but then they quite overlook the mystic
meaning couched under that form. Those columns wind themselves
in folds like so many huge serpents, rearing their heads aloft, and
thereby typify, in the most expressive manner, both the sfrpenl-like

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

369

mihtktij and the crooked policy of the Romish church. This instance,
however, is not even alkuled to by Mr. Lewis ; so far from giving
modern architects and artists credit for any ideas half so ingenious, he
complains that they have not only abandoned all " intelligence of de-
sign," but more or less paganized our churches, and made them com-
pounds of " classical heathenism." In his horror of heathenism he is,
in fact, a second Welby Piigin, .ind perhaps the more consistent
writer of the two. Yes, he is consistent and he is honest, wliich, as
the world goes, are two especially rare merits, although his honesty is
not of a kind at all likely to recommend him, because he blurts out
sundry highly disagreeable remarks against many of our architectural
idols — " tiine-liallowed " and "book-hallowed " structures, for which
our implicit and uninquiring admiration is claimed as matter of course,
or rather as matter of faith. So far from sparing the " wonderful "
Sir Christopher Wren, Mr. Lewis treats that " illustrious architect "
very cavalierly indeed, calling him, in all but direct terms, an igno-
ramus and a bungler ; for which he will, no doubt, now get a sound
drubbing from Professor Cockerell. But it is not merely particular
buildings or architects that Mr. Lewis attacks, he goes much further,
and loudly reprobates the whole of the present system of our archi-
tectural doctrine and taste, urging us to "shake olFtlie trumpery tram-
mels that have been placed upon us by unnatural education"! This
is, indeed, startling, and most awfully so ! What is, in such case, to
become of such venerable authorities as the great Vitruvius and the
great Palladio ? — what of the Professors who look up to them for in-
spiration? The former would be damned, the others "unfrocked."
Neither is this all ; for Mr. Lewis is such an ultra-reformer, and so
obstinately consistent that he is not disposed to tolerate heathenism in
our literary education. The man is so blind tliat he does not perceive
how highly proper it is that our youth should be early initiated into
the mysteries of heathen mythology, become familiar with the lewd
amours of Jupiter ana the other Olympian scoundrels ; or with revolt-
ing and unutterable impurities in the classic poets, which elder
school-boys translate for the edification of their juniors. He is for
tolerating nothing of the kind ; on the contrary, he would fain cleanse
the Augean stable of classical art, and ruthlessly despoil our galleries
of their most valued treasures, — even of such innocent subjects as
combats between Centaurs and Lapithae, and Greeks and Amazons.
With reference to these, "Who would suppose," he asks, "that such
disgraceful acts should be considered as fit and proper subjects of
study for our youth in this Christian country ? Is the act of one man
chopping down another worthy of imitation, or the monstrous brute in
human form running his sword through the body of an Amazon an idea
sufficiently refined to place before our youth — for their improvement ?
Perhaps we shall be told, that as they have been considered by com-
mittees of art to be most exalted works, that they are perfection, and
therefore placed in the Museum and National Gallery, that the public
may learn how to admire acts of cruelty, and our youth to become
skilled in murderous and artificial attitudes, that they may be enabled
to produce such sublime and beautiful works as will tend to the en-
lightenment of the irreligious and immoral. Such are some of the
absurdities that are established for the improvement of the rising
generation. Need we wonder, then, at our inability to produce origi-
nal designs? Can it be otherwise ? Certainly it will not be while
Pagan, Greek, and Roman works of art are to be considered the foun-
dation on which our youth are to be instructed. No style should be
held up for imitation, however sublime it may be. Every work of
art should be purely an invention; and whether it is to be a church
or a picture, the designs for either should arise out of the subject."
This will serve as a specimen, though but a mere specimen, of Mr.
Lewis' doctrine — singular, perhaps offensive, nor the less so because
it is impossible to gainsay it without touching upon very dangerous
ground, and attempting formally to defend a very great deal that our
convenient hypocrisy now winks at.

II. The " Institute," it may be presumed, are very little aware what
a dreadful architectural heretic they have admitted among them as
one of their foreign members, in the person of Alexander Brnilov or
Brinlov of St. Petersburg. In a letter of his dated from Naples,

April ilst, 1S25, and published shortly afterwards in a Russian jour-
nal, he expresses himself not a little contemptuously in regard to the
manner in which architects who go thither for study and improvement
occupy themselves in Italy. " It may appear," he says, " exceedingly
strange and even absurd to many — more especially to i\io%e. fanatics in
architecturt who have no notion of, nor care for any thing beyond their
compasses and rule — that an architect should employ himself with
painting brushes and palette ; but without attempting to justify my-
self, or to point out what does and what does not belong to au archi-
tect's studies, I will only say that the more variml thev are by being
extended to other branches of art, the more likely are architects to
become ai/isfx, and to give evidence of being such, in their immediate
profession. Therefore, although I am very far from reckoning my-
self among those who are gifted with a variety of talents, I do not
scruple to take up with other pursuits besides those which more di-
rectly belong to me as an architect. Is it not far better, in fact, to
occupy one's-self with what will improve one's taste and imagination,
than to pore over a shapeless mass of stones and rubbish, idly con-
jecturing to what edifice they once belonged, or as idly pronouncing
what such edifice originally was ? — yet, after such fashion it is that
many of those who visit Italy pursue their architectural studies. I
do not, however, go so far as some do, and say that the architect can
learn nothing in Italy that he might not equally well do at home, but I
will say, that if, after wandering through the Vatican, and among the
temples and other ruins of ancient Rome, an architect does not feel
that he has caught something like inspiration from them — does not feel
elevated by the idea that he also is called to be an artist — the only, at
least the best thing he can do, is to fling away his compasses, and
betake himself to any other calling." How far Bruilov himself de-
serves to rank as an artist in his profession, I am unable to say, nor
does Nagler afford me any assistance, for he merely mentions a single
work of his, viz., the new Observatory at St. Petersburg; it may
therefore be a welcome though small addition to that meagre piece of
information to state that among other buildings by him are the fol-
lowing ones : The Mikhailovsky Theatre, opened in 1S38 ; the Lu-
theran Church, St. Petersburg (Gothic) ; several of the apartments in
the new Winter Palace ; and a Gothic Church at Pargalova.

III. A writer upon architectural subjects in the Spectator, who, upon
the whole, exhibits both cleverness and smartness, is occasionally sadly
at fault, .and most assuredly so when he expresses somewhat like sur-
prise that bow windows should not be thrown out " in front of almost
every London dwelling." No doubt a bow window is very agreeable
in a room, but then it is so only so long as it is a privilege. Were
every house in a street to have such windows, instead of being able
" to see up and down the street," people would only see that their
neighbour's bows on each side of them were very great bores — posi-
tive nuisances, not only as intercepting their prospect, but destroying
their privacy, rendering it impossible for them to pass to and fro
that part of the room without being subjected to the importinent gaze
of the " peojde at the next door." A single bow-fronted house in a
spacious street or square may be a luxury to the fortunate occupier ot
it ; neither would there be much inconvenience attending the making
a bow to every house, provided every house had a frontage equal to
that of the National Gallery ; but for our scanty and narrow-fronted
London houses, they are out of the question. A series of bows would
cut up the side of a street into a series of awkward projections, sepa-
rated from each other only by narrow strips of flat wall. So far,
therefore, our street architecture would not be at all imjiroved. In
fact, unless a "bow " be of such extent as to be, not a mere feature in
it, but a portion of the entire front, it would be exceedingly difficult
to make any thing tolerable of it externally, in either the Grecian or
Italian style. After all, too, the sitting at a window merely to look
up and down the street is very melancholy work.

J congress of nrcltiucts at Lcipsic— ihe first assemblage of arti.sts ever held
in Germany— met on the 14th Sept., U) the number of 517. nini> of whom
were Englislnncn. The town cf Biimlirrg, in Bavaria, has been fi^eJ on .is
the place ul' llieir meetiiiiT next year.

3 r

370

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEMI-ARCH WITH THE
FUTURE ADVANCEMENT OF ARCHITECTURAL ART.

By Robert Carey Long, Architect, Baltimore, Maryland.
In au article which appeared in the Franklin Journal some months
back, we attempted to show that the charge of degeneracy was laid
against modern architecture, and that this charge could be sustained,
inasmuch as in architecture the law of imitation was substituted for
that of originalities, the copying of the external forms of the archi-
tectural remains of the past for living principles of composition, so
that now instead of an architectural work being an organized body,
where the external features were the natural result of its internal ar-
rangements and uses, it was, in fact, a mere mass, the parts of vyhich
were held together by the arbitrary laws of external form.

We took occasion to say, that the merely changing the style, or
fashion of architecture, would in no way effect its regeneration, for, as
long as we follow the law of imitation, it makes little difference whe-
ther Grecian or Gothic be our model— and yet, we caimot but think the
art capable of being roused from its present prostrate condition. For
although its forms lie shattered and almost in decay, yet there are
living principles of construction from which these very forms have
originated, which, if properly understood, and infused into these ap-
parently dead elements, would effect a reorganization, and architecture
would once more exist, in newness of life, and perfectness of beauty.
In this all architectural critics agree. No one who knows anything
of the subject but admits, that, ever since the downfall of the gothic,
architectural art has been in an unprecedented state of degeneracy,
that not only has no new architectural style been formed, but not a
single element of construction, wall, column, arch or buttress has been
developed beyond the condition in which the 15th century left it.

Deplorable as this condition is, it is not yet hopeless. We may
even discern in the fact of the growing dissatisfaction manifested
towards almost all the modern specimens of architectural design, the
dawn of a better era. When the architect looks back into the past,
and reflects upon the progress of architecture in all time, observes the
sublimity of its forms, and the stately solemnity of its measured foot-
steps among the Egyptians— sees its aspect of grace, proportion, de-
licacy, and consummate beauty among the Greeks — notices, among
the Romans, the change that takes place in its forms and expres-
sions, its massive piers, its overhanging domes, the triumphal arches,
and the fantastic and luxuriant character of its decorations, mingling
like the slern battle cry, and the shouts of victory and dominion with
the dulcet notes of love and revelry— when he observes also, how this
architectural system is broken up before its discordant elements have
formed themselves into a consistent whole, now, while a constant
struggle is still going on amognst them, the Roman empire falls, and
from its fragments new nations arise, and a new arc.liitecture comes
forth, built as it were upon the wrecks of the whole of the past, rising
lieavenward, and like an organ symphony, combining majesty with
grace, solemnity with fancy, with a dim mysterious connecting melody
running through all its changes. When he again beholds how even
this form of art endureth not, but changes, and as tiie master spirit
abandons the keys of the instrument, (to continue the simile), sees
fancy overpowering dignity, harmony becoming wild and rapid, till at
length the connecting melody is lost and universal discord reigns su-
preme ; when the architect views all this, can he help feeling that his
individual genius can do but little in his art, that the spiril of the age
must be manifested in its architecture, and that he must be inevitably
overruled in his efforts towards a regeneration of the art, unless the
community can be made to understand and feel this state of degene-
racy, so as to call for and second any movement that shall be made to-
Vfards the formation of a style of architecture peculiar, characteristic
of the age, suited to its wants, its desires, its demands.

Since it is the sincere wish of every lover of architecture to see
this art leave the trammels in which, at present, it seems bound hand
and foot, and take once more that rank among the arts of design
which it held among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the architects of

the early Christian church, it becomes all such to look around and en-
deavour to discover some means of effectuating this important result.
It is granted by all who know anything of the subject, that archi-
tecture is not now even what it was during the development of any
particular stvle, that the law of imitation instead of originaltty having
become the rule of design, precedent must be quoted for every indi-
vidual feature, in short, that the architect is bound down to a pattern
—a isliile ; and that the best he is expected to do is to produce some-
thing similar to what has been produced, only sufficiently common and
cheap to be built at the present day, all departures from this pattern
being considered necessary or accidental faults.

None can feel so deeplv this degraded state of this art as the pro-
fessor of it, when called 'upon for a design for a building, to be con-
secrated to the service of his country, or of his religion. Wherefore,
he says within himself, should I study the principles of architectural
construction? Wherefore should I know that no beauty can be pro-
duced without truth of design ? Wherefore should I feel all this love
of the beautiful in my art, this perception of its capacity for perpetual
rejuvenescence and perfection, if I am still obliged to grope on and
produce something so far, so very far, behind all that has been done
in the days that are gone ?

Yet what can be done? Can the architect be before the age in
which he lives ? Can he do anything to counteract the law, that the
peculiar genius of every people must be impressed on their archi-
tectural works ? How little evidence of individual genius is ever pre-
sented in architecture I Look at all the great works cf the past ; no
feature in any style but must have had a beginning, and that too in
the mind of man, and yet style after style has arisen and departed,
without bearing witness to the genius, or perpetuating the name of the
individual minds producing it.

Though these reflections are chilling to the heart of one who is an
ambitious struggler after perfection in his art, tliey should not yet
paralyze all endeavour after progress, for, although the architect
cannot be in advance of his age, he can at least diligently observe and
faithfully interpret its tendencies. To that which in the community
already exists as a feeling, he can give a body in thought, and make
visible to the senses in form.

Now who has not observed in this day not only a growing dissatis-
faction towards all the productions of modern architecture, but also a
spirit of hope, a desire after progression and improvement. Let the
architect make his building Greek in all its parts and proportions, ob-
jection at once is made that it wants originality, or that it is not equal
in ornament or richness to the model from which it is copied. If he
should choose the Gothic as the mould in which his ideas are to be
cast, his production is laid side by side with a magnificent old cathe-
dral, on whose construction and decoration were lavished the wealth
of a monarch, the piety of a whole people, the genius of almost in-
spired artists, and in the consummation and perfecting of which, the
most powerful hierarchy that the world ever knew spent century after
century. What comparison can be drawn between the meagre pro-
duction of a single brain, and the manifestations of the maturely de-
veloped combination of such elements of greatness? But let the
architect be so unfortunate as to design a building in what is called
the Roman style, that absurd conglomeration of arches, pediments,
columns, piers and pedestals, domes and porticos, and, although he
may cite a precedent for every abomination he may commit, though
he mav by line and rule perpetrate the greatest violations of every
principle of truth and beautv, and cry out to every objection raised,
that his design is Roman and must be judged by Roman law, the day
is past that the declaration can avail him anything; he too must be
brought before the bar of universal criticism, and be made to answer
before the tribunal of taste.

Now the question is, where is improvement to commence, from
what point must progression take place? Can the architect invent a
new style ? What architect ever has done it? Can he even improve
on what is alreadv invented? Let him try to alter one jot or tittle
the law of Grecian proportion, and witness what a mis-shapen abor-
tion is the result. Let him add but one more to the number of the

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three orders, and order is changed into confusion. Let him attempt
to combine the purity and perfectness of the Grecian features of de-
sign, with those of any other style of architecture, and he will be
made at once to acknowledge that the beauty of Greek design de-
pends upon its purity, the perfect consistency of all its parts, and their
unity of expression. A Grecian building is one thought, one full har-
mony: to catch its expression, it must be unmodulated, unaltered, un-
alterable. To effectuate this, the architect cannot dare to depart from
the known proportions used by the Greeks themselves, until he has
discovered tlie law from which those proportions originate. Until he
makes this discovery, the Greek models he must continue to copy,
line for line, he must measure every moulding with the most slavish
accuracy. Let his design differ in the least particular, the charge of
ignorance or presumption may be raised at once against him, and that
too, his own good sense will acknowledge with perfect justice.

What too can the modern architect do with the Gothic \ Can he
improve upon this style as manifested in some of the old cathedrals
of the middle ages ? As well might he attempt to revive the feudal
tenure, to raise another crusade, or re-establish the institution of
chivalry. He can do little in the Gothic except to study the won-
derful science of its construction, the exquisite beauty and melody of
its details, the picturesque effect of its arrangements, and beneath the
vault of its o'erhanging roof, or looking round at the clustered co-
lumns, the glowing windows, and the saintly shrines, bow down in
mute wonder at the genius that could project, and the science and
skill that could execute such a miracle of beauty.

The utmost perfection to which an architect can now attain in the
Gothic style falls immeasurably short of the excellence of the olden
time, neither can rce ever expect to see the day in which such struc-
tures as the cathedrals, castles and mansions of the middle ages shall
be needed. Modern gothie, or the manner in which Gothic architec-
ture has been latterly revived and applied to the uses of modem
times, has brought upon the profession such merited derision and
contempt, that we need not fear an universal adoption of this style at
the present day, however much it has been denuded and brought
down to a bare-bone state, to suit the economical display-loving spirit
of the age. Still the architect who wishes to bring about a new era
in architecture must study the remains of this last great style, in order
to see manifested in it, those universal principles of truth which are
the tests of the excellence of all styles, principles which are discon-
nected with that idiosyncracy which constitutes a style, principles
by which the architect must be governed in the formation of any new
one.

Since, then, Grecian and Gothic architecture as styles exist, in an
unimprovable condition, so that perfection in them depends upon
accuracy in copying existing forms and details, which copying can
never raise architecture from its present state of degeneracy, seeing
that this same copying has been tried for 300 years, the architect
must now take some other method of resuscitating it. He must infuse
some principle of organization into the very elements of its being,
the ultimate atoms (if we may so express it), of architecture niust be
transfused into some medium where they may arrange themselves
according to some law of affinity which must exist among them.

Among the different modes of architecture that are at present in
use, it appears to us, that there is but one in which an architect, to be
great, must use the principles of its comtruction only, without adhering
to the details of any model. This is what is called the Roman style,
that which is distinguished by the use of the semi-circular arch and
the dome. The people to whom the invention of these modes of build-
ing is generally attributed, were prevented, by many reasons, from
formin g them into an architectural style, notwithstanding the fact of
their great capability of being so formed. Possessing little artistic
genius themselves, the Romans had the good sense to reverence its
manifestations among other nations. They acknowledged the supre-
macy of Grecian taste, and admitted the unrivalled excellence of
Grecian architecture. The Greeks were then their teachers in this
art, but unfortunately, at a period when tlie life and liberty of Grecian
art was but a name ; the consequence of ail this was, that instead of

the Roman arch being used as a legitimate architectural feature,
bearing the same relation in a building to the part it supports as a
Grecian column does to its entablature, it was used as a mere clement
of construction, or as a fanciful form for an opening in a facade, while
in that same fayade v>'ere placed the horizontal lines of a Grecian
entablature, with its own appropriate columns. Thus, two forms of
support were used in the same building, to perform the same office,
and an architectural pleonasm engendered, whose progeny exists even
to this day. That Grecian columns and entablatures could not long
preserve their character in such association was soon made evident.
The Romans wanted to increase the height of their buildings beyond
Grecian proportions, the use of the arch permitted them to build
story upon story, and in so doing, every story was accommodated with
its own string of entablature, and its own columns. When the story
was too high and the space between the arches too small for the due
proportion of a Grecian column, by the invention of pedestals, the
columns were mounted upon stilts to stretch them out sufficiently,
and we thus see Grecian architecture entirely passed away and
nothing worthy of the name of a new style substituted in its place,
where nevertheless an architecture could have risen, for the germ of
a glorious architecture is there.

It seems to have been the peculiar fate of the semi-circular arch,
in its different development as a constructive feature, to have failed
entirely in creating a distinctive style of architecture, founded upon
its use, and characterized by individual features, resulting from its
use alone. Kot only did this principle of construction fail of a per-
fect development among the Romans, by whom it was first, as far as
we know, extensively used, but at a later period, when, in what is
called the Norman style, it seems just arousing itself and coming
forth with a freshness and vigor that shows the promise of a new and
appropriate style, its progress, by some fatality, was cut short, and all
the energy manifested in it turned into a new channel opened by the
introduction of the pointed arch. Had this latter never been invented,
and had the same genius which produced such a wonderful architec-
ture from this modification of the arch brought its powers to bear upon
the semi-circular form of construction, may we not with propriety be-
lieve that a style would have arisen out of this latter curve as magni-
ficent and sublime as the Gothic, and when we look at what has been
produced in this case, is there not something in the fact to tempt tlie
aspiring architect to study out, and aid the more perfect development
of the semi-circular arch.

A style of architecture in which the semi-circular ar(Ji shall be
used may combine in perfect harmony with every element of con-
struction which has been developed, in all ages past. It may call into
use the wall, the column, and the buttress ; columns not necessarily
Grecian, walls no longer Egyptian, buttresses not of necessity Gothie
— a mode of architecture, which, while it may admit the utmost gor-
geousness of ornament, expensiveness of material, solidity and dura-
bility of construction, with vastness of magnitude, may yet be beau-
tiful in its simplicity, and by the manifest use of all its parts, be satis-
factory to the mind which desires sense, with utility and unpretend-
ingness — a unique mode of architecture, suitable alike for the palace
and the cottage, the church and the theatre, the villa and the home of
the citizen, the light pavilion of pleasure, and the gloomy portal of a
prison — in short an architecture which will take its character from the
use to which it is applied, and which can be judged by no rules but
those arising from common sense, perfected judgment, and refined
taste.

In such a style the arch must have its own place in a building as
the support of the shelter, and to the shelter, as its appropriate form,
must be given the shape of the dome, so as to appear to have, and to
have indeed, some relation to that on which it rests. A foundation
too must be provided on which the supports sh,.ll stand, of some just
proportion ; the entrances and openings must all be arranged in sym-
metry with the whole ; an architectural beau ideal, in fine, must be
formed, for the realization of which we shall search Rome in vain.

In using thus the semi-circular arch, that is, in combining it with
other elements of construction, it will be necessary that it should hold

3 F 2

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

the supremacy, and tliat these other elements should be made subser-
vient there, the wall— the column— the buttress, all can be employed
as accessories, and this latter with especial propriety, as having far
more use to perform in a building in which the semi-circular arch is
used than one in which the pointed arch prevails ; for the form of the
latter is such that it seems almost fully adapted to dispense with such
assistance, and though we would not use Gothic-shaped buttresses
and pinnacles with the semi-circular arch, yet why may we not rea-
dily use the thing itself, letting peculiar forms arise from its new as-
sociation and adaptation ?

A mode of architecture would thus be formed which would be ca-
pable of every variety of use, and which would give scope to the
highest flights of genius and originality, borrowing even its decora-
tions from no arbitrary model, but creating them out of the very ne-
cessities of the case — an architecture whose primitive form could be
traced neither in wicker work, (according to Sir James Hall's theory
of the Gothic,) nor in log huts, (according to the Vitruvian account of
the Greek orders,) cotemporary tents, like the Chinese style, nor sub-
terranean excavations, the supposed prototype of the Egyptian, but
as essentially a creation of the art of building as when that art was
best understood. Such an architecture the world has been on the eve
of beholding twice, and yet it has never attained to the blessedness of
seeino- it accomplished ; the early Christian before the Gothic style
was formed, evincing, as we have just said, a decided tendency to the
formation of a perfect style of architecture, on the semi-circular
model, and the taste of the age, after the Gothic fell from its "high
estate," the age of the reformation, seeking out again the Roman
arch, but falling into the error of imitating Roman architecture, as it
is called, the architecture of Palladio and others, with all its absurdi-
ties, which unfortunately it look for a model, instead of developing
still further what previously had been attempted in the Norman style.
The formation of an architecture such as we have here imperfectly
sketched out is the work of all succeeding ages, it is what this age is
asking for, but without obtaining it, for false taste, the laws of prece-
dent, the idea of orders and styles (which never prevailed during the
formation of any real architecture) in fact the very reason which pre-
vented the Romans from creating an architecture, out of the very
principle of construction we have been considering, still prevail, and
are preventing us from producing anything in this art which we can
call our own.

The architect who shall be bold enough to commence the innova-
tions necessary as preludes to such a state of art must stand in an im-
minent deadly breach. He cannot answer the question "In what
style is your design?" He cannot call it Roman, for it must violate
none of those principles of taste which they who have studied the
architecture of all nations — the well-informed — know to be true: it is
not Greek; it is not Gothic ; it is not Egyptian. The sentence will
be " away with it, we know not what it is I"

But should there be found men sufficiently unprejudiced to suffer
such a style to be formed, one will arise admitting of all the excel-
lence of Roman construction, Grecian beauty, Gothic grandeur, and
Egyptian sublimity, with propriety of plan, purity of design, simpli-
city and utility in all its details; the days of small things shall have
passed away, and geniua will be no longer considered a supernumerary
qualification in an architect.
BaUimore, Maruland,
Ang. 26, 1842.

MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN GOLDICUTT, ESQ, F.R. I. B. A., &c.

It is with deep regret that we have to announce the decease of John Gol-
dicutt, Esq., artliitect, of Clarges Street, Piccadilly, who died on the Srd of
October, aged 40. His father was, for many years, the chief cashier and
confidential clerk at the banking house of Herries, I'arquhar & Co. ; and
observing in his son an early predilection for drawing, he placed him in the
office of the late Mr. Ilakewill, who executed considerable works at Kugby
School, and built St. Peter's church, Pimlico. Mr. Goldicutt soon acquired
considerable skill in drawing, and evinced a happj disposition for colours, a

most important branch in the education of the architect. He soon joined an
association called the Architectural Students' Society, consisting of young
men, who met every fortnight in order to make sketches from given subjects,
.md thus acquire a facility of design. He on two occasions was a competitor
for the silver medal at the Royal .\cademy, and with this view measured and
drew out the facades of the India House and the Mansion House in successive
years, and was successful in carrying ofl" the prize for the latter subject. Mr.
Goldicutt throughout his life evinced the same ambition of distinction, and
on all public occasions was sure to enter the lists in any competition with his
professional brethren, which seemed to offer the prospect of a fair and
honourable adjudication. After avaiUng himself of the experience to he
acquired in the office of Mr. Hakewill, Mr. Goldicutt was sent by his father
abroad, and went first to Paris, where he entered the school of Monsieur
Achille Leclere, a distinguished pupil of Monsieur Percier, whose reputation
he sustained by tlie brilliant fruits of his studies as Pensioner of the French
Academy at Rome. Mr. Goldicutt completed, under this master, his studies
as a draughtsman, and regularly competed with his fellow students for the
monthly prizes in the Academic des Beaux Arts. He then went to Rome,
where he carried out his predilections for decorative architecture by making
a rich collection of sketches from the most valuable fragments of the ancient
monuments, llis most remarkable work, while residing in this capital of the
tiuc arts, was a splendid transverse section of St. Peter's church, which he
most elaborately worked up, representing the splendours of that remarkable
edifice, with all its sumptuous decoration of gold and colour, and splendid
pictures hy the first masters. This production, which is the hajipiest effort
at drawing of the English school of architecture, excited so much admiration
that he was prevailed upo'.i to submit it to the inspection of the Pope, who
presented him with a large gold medallion as a mark of his gracious approval.
After an absence of 3 or 4 years, Mr. Goldicutt returned to England, and
commenced his professional career of practice as an architect ; and soon his
refined taste, lively imagination, and facility of drawing, introduced him into
considerable private practise, and he severally carried off prizes in compe-
tition for the Post Ofhce, for the Limalic Asylum, and other buildings. Mr.
Goldicutt always entertained a most active and generous enthusiasm for his
art, and was ever one of the foremost to join in any proposition which he
thought would honour it and raise the profession in the estimation of the
public. He was one of the original foundtrs of the Royal Institute of Bri-
tish Architects, of which he was one of the first Honorary Secretaries ; and
in his own house originated the proposal of the Soane testimonial, in carrying
out which he devoted much time. The whole arrangements of decorating
Freemasons' Hall on the occasion of presenting Sir John Soanc with the
medal struck in his honour, devolved upon him ; and the taste and skill with
which he arranged the embellishments, excited the admiration of all present
on that venerable night. Mr. Goldicutt was elected Member of the Academy
of St. Luke's at Rome, and of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Naples. He
was a competitor for the Nelson monument, and sent in a design consisting
of a colossal figure of Nelson, standing on an immense globe, which reposed
upon a pedestal in the centre of a large basin, which served as a fountain.
The novelty of the design excited great attention at the time, hut so little
prepared is the public mind for any new conception at variance with its old
establishcii notions, that exception was taken to the daring project in many
of the public criticisms of the day. But we cannot but concur with the re-
mark of a distinguished amateur, who observed to us recently, that if such
a design had been executed in Germany to one of her great men, within 50
miles of the banks of the Rhine, there would not be a traveller on the waters
of that river who would not have made a point of going to see it.

Mr. Goldicutt and Mr. Gutch were appointed by the vestry of Paddington
to carrv out a design which they bad submitted for the new church now in
course of erection in the Grand Junction Road. The style is Gothic, and the
accommodation is calculated for 1650 persons, 600 of the sittings being free,
and reserved for the poor. He had lived long enough to cover in the body
of the church, and had just commenced the steeple, to which he purposed
devoting great attention, in order to render it a masterpiece of taste iu design
and skill in execution ; hut like the lamented architect of St. Dunstan's new
church in Fleet Street, the late Mr. Shaw, his fate was not to live to see the
completion of a work in which he took the most intense interest up to the
moment of his decease. In fact, there never was an architect who felt a
more generous and devoted enthusiasm for his art, as all his feelings were
sure to be absorbed in any interesting subject which presented itself in con-
nexion with architecture ; and if he bad a drawing in hand, the midnight
hour and the earhest dawn of the morning found him unremitting iu his
application, until he had completed the pleasing task. His knowledge of

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

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the works of tlie ancients and moderns was extensive, and he was so feelingly
alive to pro|iortion of parts and the effects of light and shade, and of contrast
and barmony in colour, that he was continually studying the difterent parts
of his buildings up to the moment of their completion, not being satisfied
until he had tried every modification which could tend to improve them.
Mr. Goldicutt published some ^^ews in Rome, and a series of etchings of
views in Italy and Sicily. He was the author of an elegant work on the
paintings in the Pompeian buildings, and of ^n interesting small volume in
illustration of Ileriot's Hospital at Edinburgh, the plates of which he etched
bimself.

He has left a widow and 5 sons to lament his irreparable loss, and lies
buried in the New Cemetery at Kensal Green. The death of such an artist
is a loss to bis family, to his friends, and the public. Mr. Goldicutt was
Surveyor for the District of St. Clement's Danes, and St. Mary le Strand, and
one of the Justices and Commissioners of Sewers for Westminster and Mid-
dlesex.

PATENT GUIDE SCREW STOCK,
Manufactured by Joseph Whitworth & Co. of Uonchesler

A. the top plate, fastened Ly screws, a, a, n. B, a stationary die. C, C.
moving dies. D, a sliding piece with inclined sides for moving the dies. E, a
nut for drawing up the piece D.

The guide stock is entirely new in principle, and will cut a screw scarcely
inferior to that obtained in a slide lathe from a true guide. The name,has
been chosen from this circumstance, as expressing the peculiar feature^of the
invention. The thread produced is not only true and of the exact pitch
required, but perfectly formed throughout, being cut clean without distortion
of the metal.

Iq all these respects the advantage of the guide over the common stock is
remarkable. The latter, it is well known, will not cut a screw in any degree
perfect. The thread, besides being irregular, is never of the right pitch. It
is also more or less swollen by the violence done to the metal, so that the
diameter of the screw is often considerably greater than that of the blank
shaft on which it is cut. These defects are attended with the most serious
practical inconvenience. They often render it extremely ditlicult to obtain a
fit between the screw and nut, and consequently occasion a considerable
sacrifice of time and labour. They necessarily impair, in a very great degree,
the efficiency of the screw bolt, which cannot possess either the strength or
mechanical power which it would have if the thread were cut true and clean.
The defects in question are variously modified according to the size of the
master tap used in cutting the dies. If they have been cut by a master tap
double the depth of the thread larger in diameter than the shaft to be
screwed, they will act very well at first, and the thread will he started true ;
but as the operation proceeds, they become altogether unsteady and uncertain
in their action. If, on the other hand, they have been cut by a master tap
of the same size as the shaft to be screwed, the thread is made untrue in its

origin. They first touch the shaft
only on the extreme points of their
outer edges, as shown in the annexed
sketch. They have neither sufficient
guide, nor steady abutment, till the
operation is on the point of being
completed. It is not unusual to em-
ploy a master tap of an intermediate
s/ze. In this case, however, it is ob-

vious, the dies will combine, in a modified degree, the defects peculiar to
each of the cases before mentioned.

In the guide stock this perplexity is entirely obviated, and the dies act
with full advantage from the commencement of the operation to its conclu-
sion. They are cut by a master tap double the depth of the thread larger in
diameter than the screw blank; while their general form, and the direction
in which they are moved forward, are such as to preserve their cutting power
and steadiness of action undiminished to the full depth of the thread.

The plan of the guide stock will be easily understood from the sketch
prefixed. The interior of the stock is shown in dotted lines through the top
plate A. B is a stationary die ; C C arc moving dies, brought up by a piece
D, sliding in a recess in the stock, and bearing with a distinct incline against
the back of each die. The piece D is drawn up by a nut E, on the outside
of the stock.

The dies having been cut by a full-sized master tap, as before mentioned,
the curve made by their outer edges is that of the blank shaft they are in-
tended to screw. Hence in starting the thread, they bear at all points of
the common curve, and the impression made by indentation is the exact copy
of the thread of the die. The parts indented serve as a steady guide to the
dies in cutting round the blank shaft. A groove in the stationary die facili-
tates the operation. Four cutting edges are brought into action at points of
the circumference nearly equidistant, so that by little more than a quarter
turn the thread is completely started round the shaft. The difficulty involved
in the operation by the common stock is entirely removed.

After starting the thread, the stationary die serves principally as a guide
and abutment for the others. The moving dies are peculiar in their form
and direction, both peculiarities depending on the position of the arc in the
shank of the die. The tn o sides have each a different inclination to the arc.
As the dies move forward, one side becomes prominent towards the screw
shaft, and its cutting edge continues in contact with the thread, till it is
formed to the full depth required. The prominent sides of the moving dies
are those turned towards each other.

The direction of the common die is necessarily towards the axis of the
screw shaft. In the guide stock the direction of the moving dies is that of
two planes, meeting beyond the centre of the stock, in a line parallel to the
a.xis of the screw shaft, and considerably behind it. This direction is deter-
mined by reference to the change which takes place in the relative position
of the screw shaft, as the thread is cut deeper. One of the three dies being
stationary, there must necessarily be a constant change in the position of
the screw shaft in relation to the two others, the ttfect of which, if not coun-
teracted, would be to deprive the cutting edges of the requisite prominence.
By giving them the direction before mentioned, the proper degree of promi-
nence is secured, notwithstanding the change of position. The latter, when
combined with the eccentricity of the dies, so far from being any impediment
to their action, materially assists it. The neniy formed thread is thereby
kept in contact with the dies for some distance behind their cutting edges,
affording them the same kind of support throughout the operation which
they have at its commencement, when, as before observed, the curve made
by their outer edges is coincident with that of the screw blank. This con-
tinued support, which is necessary to steady their action, could not he ob-
tained without a change in the position of the screw shaft. They would
otherwise acquire too much clearance, as they form the thread deeper, and
their cutting edges would be apt to dig.

The steadiness of the guide stock, and its easy action in screwing, are
equally remarkable. In using it, not one half the force consumed by the
common stock is required. The inner edges of the moving dies (which
principally act in cutting out the metal,) are filed oft" to an acute angle. This
enables them to cut with extreme ease, and without in any degree distorting
the thread, while they take off shavings similar to those cut in a lathe. Their
action in cutting is in effect the same as that of a chasing tool, to which they
bear an obvious resemblance in form. They may aha be sharpened or. a
grindstone in the same manner.

A practical difficulty has hitherto attended the use of the screw stock,
arising from the wear of the taps and dies. The tap becomes less in diameter
and consequently taps the hole too small, while the opposite effect takes
place with the dies, which, being unable to cut a full-sized thread, leave the
screw too large. The only mode of counteracting this two-fold error, so as
to obtain a fit between the screw and nut, is by forcing the dies forward, fill
they have reduced the diameter of the screw a proportionate quantity. From
what has been before observed, it is evident that this cannot be done in the
case of common dies without injury to the thread. In using the guide stock,
on the contrary, it is attended with no disadvantage. Lest the diiiaeter of

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[November,

the screw should be inadvertently reduced more than necessary, figures are
stamped on the sides of the set nut E, to indicate when the thread is full.

HEREFORD CATHEDRAL.

Report on Ihe present stale of the Catliedral at Hereford, and on the causes
which have led to it. By Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S., of Caius College,
Cambridge, and Jacksouian Professor of that University.

(IJ'ith Two Enyravinrjs, Plates XIV and XV.)

Every part of the building exhibits settlements and consequent distortions
to a much greater degree than is generally the case with buildings of the
same age. Thus, the eastern gable of the choir inclines considerably to the
east, and the south wall of the Lady Chapel to the south ; the walls of the
north transept incline northwards and outwards in all directions, and the
buttresses of its western wall are also thrust northwards. The north porch,
commonly attributed to Bishop Booth, is also considerably inclined to the
nortli, and the piers of the nave to the west; in short there is scarcely a
vertical wall or pier in the whole building, with the exception perhaps of the
Audley Chapel.

When these several settlements are carefully examined, they appear to be
of such a nature as would arise more from compression of the ground or
oundation upon which they stand, than from weakness of the walls them-
selves, for these walls and piers are not bent into a convex form, as they
■would be if they had given way from constructive weakness, but are thrust
bodily over, sinking into the ground on the yielding side. This may, for
example, be observed in the piers of the nave, near the great tower, both on
the north and south sides.

The greater part of these settlements however, cau be shown to be of
great antiquity, having as might be expected, taken place very soon after the
building was finished, and there is no fear of their going any further, except
in those cases in which the original settlements may have so weakened the
walls, by fracturing and displacing their materials as to allow them to sink
under their own weight or that of the subsequent additions.

For the purpose of examining the nature of the foundations, excavations
have been made by Mr. Cottingham, at the bases of the piers on the south
side of the nave, aud about that of the northern piers of the tower. From
these, as well as from an excavation in the centre of the nave, it appears
that at a depth of about seven feet below the present pavement, there is a
firm bed of gravel, wliich, from deeper sinkings in the neighbourhood of the
Cathedral, is ascertained to extend to a great depth, forming what must be
considered to be an unexceptionable foundation ; and since the new work of
ilr. Wyatt, as well as the Audley chapel, remains perfectly upright, it is thus
shown that the ground when properly treated admits of a solid bearing.
Again, as the settlements might have been supposed to have arisen from
springs of water immediately under the building, search and inquiry has
been directed to this point without discovering any. Immediately upon the
surface of the bed of gravel, a wall fh, k, Fig. ij about 5 ft. high, is placed.
The stones of which it is built are rough from the quarry and are in seven
courses ; they are from 15 to 18 inches long at the lower part, and rather less
at tlie upper, and the breadth of the wall is about 4 ft. greater than the
bases of the piers which stand upon it ; two of these walls appear to ex-
tend from one end of the Cathedral to the other — from west to east — the
one receiving the northern and the other the southern range of piers as well
as the piers of the central tower. The squared masonry of the bases of the
piers fP, E, G, &c.) rests upon the upper surface of these walls. Of course
the rough structure of the walls prevents the detection of any settlement or
displacement ; but I am of opinion that it is rather this basement wall, than
the gravel below, which has given way, and allowed the piers to sink down
and lean over as they do at present.

The walls of the Audley Chapel are, as already stated, perfectly upright,
but the south wall of the Lady Chapel, against which it is erected, and into
-which its masonry is bonded, declines very considerably to the south;
plainly, therefore, this settlement must have existed before the Audley
Chapel was erected, and cannot have increased since the year 1500 ; on the
other hand, the eastern gable of the Lady Chapel is in a state of ruinous
disintegration, and requu-es immediate repair to save it from the fate of the
west end of the Cathedral. The inclination of the walls and buttresses of
the north transept, and of Booth's Torch, are original settlements, and
nothing is to be apprehended from them or from that of the eastern gable
of the choir, the entire ponderous Korman wall of which, has evidently

gone to the east, and possibly its upper gable may have been reduced to
such a ruinous condition as to have justified the rebuilding of it by Mr,
Wyatt.

But my attention has been more particularly du-ected to the state of the
tower, and to make the result of my observations intelligible, it will be
necessary to say somewhat of the history of its erection.

It is clear that the piers and the four great arches that rest upon them are
of Norman work, and that at some subsequent period, the present tower,
which rises above the roofs, was added. Whether a Norman tower was ever
carried above the roof, and consequently taken down to make way for the
present erection, is uncertain; I am inclined to think not. The line of de-
marcation between the Norman wall and that of the added tower is easily
traced. The upper limit of the Norman work is marked by a string course,
(A, B, Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5,) ornamented with a double row of little arch-heads, aud
the additional work commences just above this, in a manner that will be
described below. The erection of this tower is not recorded, but from the
style of its ornaments, may be fixed at the beginning of the fourteenth
century. The date usually assigned to it is a century earlier— it being
supposed the work of Bishop de Braos ; but this date, repeated by every
successive historian, merely rests on a passage of Godwin, who in his bio-
graphy of this Bishop,* says, " That his effigy has a model of a tower in
its hand, whence he conjectures that he must have been the builder of the
central tower." This date is thus founded upon no document, and being
contradicted by the now well-understood architectural style of the tower,
may be dismissed as possessing no authority. It is much to be regretted
that tliB period of erection of no one part of this Cathedral has been re-
corded, with the exception of its first foundation. It is established, how-
ever, that Bishop Cautilupe died in 1282, and was buried in the Lady Chapel,
that his reputed sanctity and the miracles which were said to have been
wrought at his tomb, brought considerable sums to the church, and that
his body was removed to the north transept in 1287; also that he was
canonized in 1307.

The style of the north transept agrees with the supposition that it was
erected for the reception of the shrine of Cantilupe, between his death and
the translation of his body ; and the superior magnificence of the design
bespeaks the increase of riches and consequence which this event had
brought to the Cathedral. To the same source and the same circum-
stances may be attributed the new tower, of which, if we place the date
at about 1300, or a little later, it will appear to have been undertakea
immediately after the completion of the north transept, and probably from
the funds which still arose from the same profitable source. And this may-
account for the omission of any recorded founder or benefactor in con-
nexion with either the work of the north transept or of this tower ; for it
may be generally observed, with respect to the buildings of the middle
ages, that when they were carried on by their monasteries, no record is
preserved of the work, but only when some considerable portion of it, as
a tower, a transept, or the vaulting of an aisle, was undertaken at the
expense of an individual. Thus it happens in the present instance, that
the building of the Lady Chapel and its Testil)ule, the clerestory and vault
of the choir and nave, all of them works of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, are not recorded. To be sure Leiand has recorded of Bishop de
Vere, who died in 1109, that he constructed many remarkable edifices (on
the authority of his epitaph), and we may assign some of these works to him
if we please.

To return, however, to the tower ; it is evident that at the time of the
addition of the present tower, the piers and the four great Norman arches,
upon which it was placed, were in a state of great dislocation and settlement.
If the south-east pier (H, fig. 3,) be examined in connexion with the east
Norman wall, E, F, G, of the south transept, it will be seen that the masonry
of the latter wall near this pier has been dragged downwards by the settle-
ment of the pier. This is very visible on the inside of the building above the
vault, at E K, as weU as on the outside of the clerestory. It is also shown
by the bending downwards of the string mouldings in the interior of this
transept, at F, and also by the difference of level of the opposite impost
mouldings of the small Norman arch, at G, which opens between this south
transept and the south aisle of the choir ; for we may assume that all these
things, namely, the courses of the masonry, the string mouldings, and the
two imposts of the arch, were originally respectively level. But when the
respective downward dislocations of these three things are carefully measured,
they are found to be exactly the same, namely, 34 inches ; and as they are
situated at different altitudes, we may conclude that this pier has sunk bodily

> Ue PrKSulibu'-, 1616, p. 536.

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downwards into the foundation thrtnigh the vertical space of SJ inches with
respect to tlie wall of the south trausept, which is of the same age as itself;
but as the foundation is thus shown to he compressible, it must be supposed
that the wall itself must have sunk, although in a less degree than the pier,
and therefore that the actual sinking of the pier must have been greater than
3J inches. In fact, by levelling the courses of masonry in the clerestory
wall of this transept, immediately above tlie vault, from E to K, I find a
difference of level of about 10 in. between the southern and northern extre-
mities, which is manifestly due to sinking, and not to inaccurate workman-
ship, because the courses run nearly level over the piers, and sink in stages
over the window heads.

A great settlement or subsidence is thus shown to have taken place be-
tween the Norman pier and the Norman wall in connexion with it, as well as
a positive sinking of each into the foundation. The Norman wall of the
choir has also sunk to the same extent, and as the Early English string
moulding of its clerestory exhibits the same depression, we must either sup-
pose that the depression happened after the clerestory was added, or that
this string moulding was laid upon the Norman wall without levelling it, a
supposition which is not inconsistent with the known roughness of the work
of that age. The settlement of the south wall of the south transept cannot
now be measured, because a large Perpendicular window was inserted on this
side, and the wall over it entiiely rebuilt during the fifteenth century; most
likely because this part of the wall bad been entirely shattered by the sub-
sidence of the tower. Neither can the settlements of the tower piers, with
respect to the walls of the nave, be ascertained, in consequence of the entire
rebuilding of the clerestory and triforium by Mr. Wyatt.

The two southern piers of the tower being in immediate connexion with
walls of their own age, their subsidence is thus as it were recorded for our
information. But the two northern piers, as R, Fig. 3, are now connected with
the northern orCantilupe transept, which was built more than two centuries
later, and probably replaced a Norman transept similar to the southern.

The eastern clerestory wall of this north transept, is. however, not at all dis-
turbed by dragging downwards with the pier, and we may therefore conclude
that the subsidence of the piers had ceased before the year 1300, for it will be
shown, from other symptoms, that the two northern piers had in themselves suf-
fered quite as much, if not more, from settlements than the southern ones-
If then, their junction with walls two centuries later, exhibits no signs of rela-
tive motion, we may plainly infer that all the subsidence of the piers had taken
place before these walls were connecteii to them. It is true that the western
wall of the north transept exhibits a great dislocation of form ; the entire
mass of masonry which forms the southern side of the lofty window, forty
feet high, has shrunk and slipped away from its junction with the Norman
■wall, and settled downwards and northwards, bulging out and bending the
iron bars of the window, and rendering an immediate repair necessary. But
this is a local settlement, unconnected with that of the Norman pier, and
occasioned by the difiiculty of establishing a lirm bond between new work
and old, for the clerestory and the upper part of this wall between the roofs
exhibit no signs of having been dragged downwards by the tower pier.

■When the great piers themselves are examined below, especially the two
western, it is evident that they have suffered great disturbances. The
greater part of the original Norman ashlering is now either covered by sub-
sequent casing, or has been removed and rebuilt ; nevertheless, the Norman
capitals, from which the four tower arches spring, remain, and on several
faces of the piers, the position of the corresponding shafts can be ascertained.
This is the case with the southern face of the north-western pier, POT,
Fig. 2. The lower portion of the pair of Norman shafts, L M, remains with
the bases, and one of them, M, still exists to the height of 33 feet. These
shafts are still vertical, but the capitals, II K, which undoubtedly were ori-
ginally placed immediately over them, are now removed by settlements,
together with the entire western arch of the tower, through the enormous
space of lOi in. to the west. Also two cylindrical piers, E,F, of the nave on
each side, and contiguous to the piers of the tower, are pushed bodily over
so that their impost mouldings are now 4.j inches to the west of their true
position ; in fact every pier of the nave has gone to the west in a slight
degree.

The Norman nave-arches which rest upon them have suffered a corres-
ponding distortion of form, which is the most evident in that arch which
connects the first cylindrical pier E on the north side, with the half column
G that projects from the tower pier ; for the half column has remained up-
right while the cylindrical pier has been pushed over as already described.

The Norman triforium and clerestory which once surmounted these piers,
were destroyed by Mr. Wyatt, but the nature of the settlements just de- I

scribed — niamely, that the capitals of the tower piers have gone so consider-
ably to the west, while the lower half of the same pier remains vertical, and
yet that all the piers of the nave are also driven to the west — demonstrates
that the upper part P Oof the pier must have separated itself from the
lower, G, by a diagonal fissure extending from tlie upper eastern portion to the
lower western, and that the western half of the mass so separated must have
slipped downwards, and by pressing against the walls and columns of the
nave, have produced their present change of position.

And that the upper part of this pier with the entire western tower arch,
sank in this manner downwards and westwards, will also be shown from the
present state of the Norman string course, A B, over the great tower arches.
I should also mention that the capitals of the shafts on the western face of
the north-eastern pier, Q R, have been similarly driven to the north about
four inches, and that the south-western pier has undergone nearly the same
settlement as the north-western. Now the upper extremities of the great
piers having thus moved from their true position, the four great Norman
tower arches which rest upon them, are necessarily distorted in a verv great
degree.

Two of these arches, the north and south, are smaller than the east and
west, the respective spans being about 10 and 31 feet. Immediately above
these arches, the Norman string course, A B, projects from the wall ; this was
of course horizontal when first executed, and its deviations from horizontality
serve to mark the extent of the dislocations of the arches below it. The
western arch appears to have preserved its form tolerably well, and in fact,
as the two piers upon which it rests have gone together towards the west,
without diverging, this arch appears to have settled bodily with them without
change of form. The other three arches have suffered great disturbance ;
their original semicircular outline being now converted into an ellipse by the
sinking of the crowns, occasioned by the divergence of the piers ; for since
the capitals of the north-west and south-west piers have each moved 10 in.
to the west, and that of the north-east 4 in. to the north, it follows that all
the four arches, except the west, have spread at the feet, and therefore must
have sunk at the crown.

I have levelled and examined tbe present state of the Norman string
course, and I find that its north-west extremity, A. Fig. 2, is 7 in. lower than
its north-east, B, showing the sinking of the north-west pier, which has
been already detected from other appearances. Also the north-east end, A,
Fig. 3, is 2 in. higher than the south-east end, B, and on this side the string
course has sagged in the middle so as to fall about C in. lower in the centre
than at the two ends, this is produced by the sinking of the crown of the
eastern arch; again, the south-east angle is \}, in. higher than the south-
west, and the string sags about 4 in. in the middle; over the western arch
the string course has been removed, but the south-western angle is 3^ in.
higher than the north-western. These differences are too great to be attri-
buted to bad workmanship, and they all point to the same facts that have been
attested by the other appearances described, namely, that the piers have all
subsided and that the north-western has suffered the most ; besides these
appearances, the masonry of the spandrils — that is, of the walls included be-
tween the Norman arches below, and the string course above, is in a frightful
state of dislocation ; for the change of form in the arches has twisted and
fractured the stones in all directions, besides drawing them asunder so as to
open the joints in many places to the extent of 2 in. or more. The rubble
work in tbe heart of the wall has lost all cohesion.

Upon these arches, however, and in this state of ruin or very nearly so,
did the architect of the tower in 1300 proceed to erect his work. That this
was the case is shown by the following evidence : — The masonry of the new
tower begins at the level of the Norman string, A, B, or a little above it,
the junction of the two works being very easily traced. About 4 feet above
tbe Norman string, a second or Gothic string course, C, D, Figj. 2, 3, 4, 5,
is placed at the same level as the passage or gallerv' which runs in the thick-
ness of the wall all round tbe tower, and upon this string course is sup-
ported the singular row of piers, W, W, Figs. 2 and 3, or P, Q, R, Fig. 4,
which constitute the interior lining of tbe tower.

Now the Norman string course has been shown to be completely out of
level at the corners, besides sagging in the middles. But this gothic string
course on the contrary, is now so nearly level with respect to the corners,
that the diiftrence may be attributed to errors of workmanship, and it has
only sagged in the centre about half an inch on the east and north, and not
at all on the other two sides. Also the lower bed of the first course of
gothic masonry which rests upon the Norman wall, is eTnctly shapcil to ac-
comodate, the sagging already described, but its upper bed is straight and
level, proving decidedly that the entire present settlement of the Norman

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

work had taken place before the tower was added, with the exception of a
slight subsequent disturbance, of which I shall speak presently.

On the north and south walls, immediii'ely above the Norman string
course, may be traced a regular series of apertures, a, b, c, d, e, Fig. 2, in the
face of the wall about 11 inches square, in which were evidently once in-
serted the beams of a floor or ceiling. These apertures follow the sinking
line of the Norman work, and not the level line of the tower work ; conse-
quently they indicate the position of the original Norman ceiling, which is
now replaced by a vault of the fifteenth centurj'. As the lines of this vault
cut through the level of the floor, this last was necessarily removed to make
way for it. These holes on the north side, have been rudely stopped up with
blocks of tufa — the light substance used in vaulting — from which, we may
suppose that the beams were removed and the holes stopped when tlie vault
was in progress, and consequently this material at hand.

At all events, the jointing of the masonry shows very clearly that the floor
beams were not removed at the time the walls were carried up ; for it is
evident that the new masonry was built round and about the beams, in a way
that it is not easy to describe, but which plainly shows that the beams were
left undisturbed. (Vide Figs, t and 5, and the explanation of them at the
end of the Report.)

At each angle of the tower, as at g andy, and at the same level as these
beam holes, is a diagonal aperture higher than they are, and exteuding nearly
through the wall; now the purpose of the beam holes cannot be mistaken,
and we have seen that the new masonry was built round them without dis-
turbing them, and 1 conclude that these diagonal holes also received some
timber work, which in like manner was allowed to remain undisturbed.

The interior walls of the tower are of a very singular construction: 12 piers,
W, Fig. '2, on each side, of compact masonry, beside angle piers, are carried
up to the height of 20 ft., and connected half-way up by a horizontal course
of stone, X, X, in long pieces, and by an iron bar, which runs all round im-
mediately under this bonding course. Upon these gigantic stone gratings, if
I may be allowed the expression, the interior wall of the tower rests ; and
they also carry the entire weight of the bell-chamber and bells. I believe
this construction was entirely adopted for the sake of lightness.

It is clear that it was never intended to be seen from below, for there are
no means provided to illuminate the chamber so formed, which at present
derives all its light from the apertures in the floor of the bell-chamber above
it. The external walls of the tower were at the time of its erection buried
in the roof, of which the pitch was much higher than at present ; and if
windows be now inserted in these walls, I am of opinion, that besides weak-
ening the tower in a manner, which considering its antiquity and shattered
state, cannot be recommended, they will prove wholly inadequate to supply
sufiicient light to the chamber in question ; for the piers of the grating are
only 4i-in. asun.ler, with the exception of the middle interval, which is 18 in.
Moreover the piers of the grating are of different widths, and their bases ir-
regular, (Figs. 4 and 5,) and the whole has no decorative character; and in
addition to the fact that no light was supplied to this room in its original
state, which plainly shows that it was never intended to be seen from below,
1 have shown good reason for supposing that the ceiling which concealed
it was only removed to make way for the vault, so that in fact it never was
seen from below.

I have now shown, that notwithstanding the shattered state of the piers
and arches, the architect of the tower imagined that they might be trusted
with the support of his new work. We may at least infer from this, that the
settlement had ceased to increase long before the year 1300, for it does not
even appear that any attempts were made to repair or fortify the piers for
the reception of the new load, with the exception of the north-western. The
arch which connects this with the first pier of the nave had a new arch, Z,
Fig. 2, inserted uniler it, and the arches which connected tliis pier with the north
transept, both on the ground, at (/, Fig. 1, and at the triforium, were tilled
up, leaving only a small doorway below. The ball-flower ornament, which
is given to this new pier arch and to a string course on the west wall over
this small doorway, serves to show that this work was done at the same
time as the tower, which is covered with a profusion of the same ball-flowers.
However, the confidence of the architect in his old piers and arches was
unhappily misplaced ; the new walls which have been described as resting on
the Norman string, exhibit settlements and fractures not nearly so great as
those of the Norman work immediately below them, but still of a very alarming
character. In the interior of the tower it is evident that the worst of them
IS due to the fractures of the stones over the apertures, which as already
described, were occupied originally by the beams and ancient wood work_
At thCi^ngles ejpecially, the corner piers of the gratings are carried by large

stones which cover the diagonal apertures, and are thus unsupported in the
middle, and these stones have fractured in every instance, allowing the piers
to descend more or less. Also the great eastern arch, the crown of which
had sunk so considerably before the tower was added, appears to have sunk
about an inch subsequently, which has allowed the stone grating on that side
to descend, and has produced rents and fractures at its junction with the
walls. The outer surface of the tower walls exhibits similar symptoms to
those already described of the interior. .\t the junction of the Norman and
Gothic masonry, the same sagging of the old work over the arches, and the
same shaping of the new course of masonry to accommodate this sagging,
may be observed, and it will also be seen, that the worst and most alarming
settlements are in the old work.

Nevertheless it is evident that the dislocations of this old work had pro-
ceeded so far as to destroy the cohesion of the walls, and allow crushing of
the stone work to begin, which has proceeded, and probably continued from
time to time up to the present, and has now reached to such an extent as to
make a thorough repair and renewal of tlie ashlering of this portion of the
walls necessary to prevent the entire ruin of the tower. The upper part of
the tower was originally so substantially built, that when the older portion
has been reinstated, this will need comparatively little repair to make it per-
fectly sound.

Having now disposed of the tower, I will return to its piers in the church
below. These piers have evidently been subjected from time to time to a
series of repairs and casings which it is not very easy to understand.

I may here refer to a curious document preserved in the archives of the
Cathedral which will throw some light upon their history. In this is a bull
of Pope John XXII., dated 1319, by which the churches of Shenyngfeld and
Swalefeld are assigned to the uses of the fabric of the church of Hereford
in the usual form. But the preamble recites that whereas sometime since
the dean and chapter of Hereford did, upon an ancient foundation which in
the opinion of skilful masons was held to be firm and solid, erect a sump-
tuous budding upon which more than 20,000 marks were expended ; that
now from the weakness of the foundation, this building so threatens ruin,
that the entire fabric must be completely repaired from the foimdations up-
wards ; which they are unable to undertake, being also burthened with debts
incurred in the procuring of the canonization of Thomas of Cantilupe, &c.

This document must allude to the tower and north transept, which were
both of them built upon or in connexion with Norman work, the "funda-
mentum antiquum " here mentioned. It is important, as showing that the
settlements in the new work, consequent upon its erection on so shattered a
substructure, must have begun to show themselves immediately after its
completion. But as the repairs which were intended to avert this threatened
ruin, appear to have been confined to the piers below, and not to have been
extended to the great arches and their ruined spandrils, we may conclude
that the settlements were imputed to the failure of the piers alone ;
and it may be presumed that the movement was arrested, since we find
that the present vault was substituted for the wooden ceiling sometime
in the fifteenth century, to judge by its mouldings and fashion, and probably
at the same time that the similar vault of the south transept was erected ;
for if the tower were then in a threatening state, it would hardly have been
tampered with by such an alteration. It must be confessed, however, that
the ribs of this vault are remarkably thin and light, and that it stands com-
pletely free of the walls on all sides, resting merely upon the four corbels.
This vault must be taken down to obtain proper access to the spandrel walls
in the course of the proposed repairs, but it may be replaced.

I will now describe the present state of the four piers in order : —
I have already shown that the south face of the north-west pier was ori-
ginally traversed by a fissure, which allowed the upper western portion to
descend ; and it is easy to see that the whole of the Norman ashlering to the
west of the fissure has been removed and entirely rebuilt. At the upper
part, where the shattering and dislocation was the greatest, the face of this
new work is brought forwards a few inches ; but the remaining portion has
the same face as the Norman work, which shows that this repair was not a mere
casing like some of the others, but an actual renewal of the original ashlar.
This repair is crowned by a Gothic string moidding which lies immediately
under the Norman capitals ; one of these capitals, K, Fig. 2, having been, as
I suppose, crushed, has been replaced by a plain block of stone, and the
whole of the capitals on the eastern face of this pier have been also removed
and the new masonry carried much higher than on the southern face. This
work, or at least the southern face of it, is probably an ancient repair con-
sequent on the threatened ruin mentioned in the bull of 1319 ; but the re-
maining Norman face of this pier seems in course of time to have again

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

37:

exhibited threatening symptoms ; for it has been fortified in a very singular and
unsightly fashion by cramping against its face a shell of masonry, T, 9 in.
thick. This masonry is composed of very long and narrovp stones set end-
long, but is traversed in the middle and terminated at the height of 33 ft. by
horizontal courses which serve to bind the work, and probably contain iron
bands for the purpose of assisting in keeping the pier together. This casing
extends round three sides of the pier, occupying portions of the north and
south faces, n, p. Fig. 1, and the whole of the east face, o, o ; but the original
Norman shafts still remain upon this latter face to the height of 23 ft., and the
surface of the Norman wall, beneath the casing, does not appear to have been
broken into. The whole work is apparently the contrivance of a country mason,
and as such, its efficacy is not much to be depended upon. The object of the
vertical beds may have been to reduce the number of horizontal joints, and
thus to avoid or diminish the shrinking of the work, which is always a source
of difficulty when new work is united with old. But more probably the evil
to be remedied, was a bulging out of the Norman asblering, like that which
now appears on the north face of the south-western pier, and on the spandrils
of the great arches, and these long stones were intended to act like the
splinters applied to a broken leg.

The north-east pier, A, Fig. 1, is repaired in a totally different manner,
being completely cased or enveloped in a coating of solid masonry, Q, R, Fig. 2
laid in the usual manner in horizontal courses, which have thickened out the
pier upon the plan 9 in. in every direction, as shown at a, b, z, :, d, e, Fig. 1.
Whether this masonry is also a mere shell cramped against the undisturbed
Norman face of the pier, or whether the Norman asblering has been re-
moved and the additional work properly bonded into this pier, I cannot tell,
but it is very desirable that this fact should be ascertained, as its present effi-
ciency depends very much upon that circumstance. However this may be, it
is the work of two different periods. The southern face of the pier shows a
nearly vertical fissure or separation of the masonry, and the lines of the beds
will be found on examination to be at dilferent levels on the two sides of
the fissure which at the bottom and near the top is a mere vertical straight
joint. The westein half, Q, Fig. 2, of this casing is the more recent of the
two, and their line of juncture at present exhibits the appearance of a dan-
gerous crack. This is occasioned by the inevitable shrinking of the late
work from the earher ; and as the pier shows no symptoms of giving way
in other respects, it does not appear to impair its stability.

The south-eastern pier, B, Fig. 1, retains its Norman face, on a portion of
the southern side, /(, g, but the western and northern faces, as well as the rest
of the southern face, have been entirely and substantially rebuilt ; for although
the present face advances a few inches beyond that of the original Norman
pier, it is evident that the Norman asblering was in this case removed. This
pier is in excellent condition, and appears to need no repair or alteration
whatever. This work may be attributed to the period immediately succeeding
the bull of 1319. The corbel which sustains the tower vault, and which rests
upon the string moulding which caps this new asblering, is formed in such a
manner as to show that it was intended to rest upon this string course, and
consequently must have been inserted after the string course was completed ;
the repair therefore in question, must have taken place before the tower vault
was inserted in the fifteenth century ; but the western face of this pier seems
to have been subsequently under-pinned.

The south-western pier, D, Fig. 1, retains on its northern face, r,s, a por-
tion of the Norman asblering, with about 1 1 ft. of the shafts ; above, and to the
east of these, from s to /, the Norman asblering has been removed and rebuilt,
probably in the 14th century, when the other piers were repaired. A long
corbel is advanced near the upper part, which carries a projecting pier of ma-
sonry, for the purpose of supporting the original Norman capitals, which have
been respected and preserved as much as possible throughout all these repairs
and alterations. This pier, has at some subsequent period undergone a second
repair upon its eastern face, which has been underpinned and brought for-
ward al)0ut 10 in. to the east. This work, t, v, which is also carried round
the southern part of the pier, only extends to 20 ft. in height, and then falls
back with a chamfer to the original face. It exhibits no signs of settlement,
and appears to have been firmly and substantially executed ; but the junction
of these three different works upon the plain northern face of this pier,
greatly increases the shattered appearance of its masonry, for each boundary
line, at first sight, looks like a fissure. Also the half round pier, r, w, which
received the first arch of the nave, has been rudely cut into for the insertion
of the pier of a pointed arch, which has been substituted for the Norman
arch on this side of the nave ; for as the tower pier in question had declined
to the west, as already explained, exactly as the opposite pier had done, the
Norman arch, on this side, must have been distorted and shattered in the

same manner as the opposite one, Z, Fig. 2, and probably in so great a degree
as to render it necessary to replace it entirely.

In addition to the various repairs of the piers thus detailed, most of the
Norman arches in connexion with these piers have been filled up with solid
masonry, leaving only doorways. The only one in fact which remains un-
touched, is the arch which opens between the south transept and the side
aisle of the choir. At what period these and the other repairs were exe-
cuted, it is not easy to determine. However, these fillings up, as well as the.
piers of the ox-eye masonry, are shown in the plan of Hereford Cathedral
given by Browne Willis, in 1727. This is, I believe, the oldest plan extant,
for the Monasticon contains no plan of this Cathedral. Perhaps some of
these works are due to Bishop Bisse, who is recorded in the former work a^
having caused the whole fabric to be repaired, and the choir new beautifieil
throughout. He occupied the see from 1712 to 1721. The ox-eye mnsonri.'
is so termed, because the centre of it is pierced by an opening in the form of
the ancient vesica piscis, called by workmen, an ox-eye.

This masonry, W, Fig. 2, completely fills up the two smaller arches of the
tower, namely, the north and south, and is itself supported by two segmental
arches branching from an octangular central column. It was, of course, in-
tended to support the arches and tower in their evident state of dilapidation,
but it is impossible to conceive a more injudicious or useless work than it
presents ; in fact, the masonry is so absurdly arranged, that it is unable even
to support itself. Its mass has settled in two parts upon its two segmental
arches, straightening them and descending and abandoning the arch it was
intended to support. The settlements and fissures which now appear in this
masonry, are merely the effects of this change of form, and as I do not be-
lieve it has had the slightest influence, either for good or evil, upon the build-
ing— it may be with safety entirely removed.

I have thus attempted to develop the causes which have brought the
buihling to its present state ; and have endeavoured to show that the settle-
ments are of great antiquity, and that many of them are of such a nature,
that no apprehensions need be entertained from them, they having taken
place immediately after the completion of the work, and not having yielded
since ; also that many of them have arisen from the injudicious junction f
the new work with old. But when the facts of the fall of the west end in
178G, and the evidently impending ruin of the eastern gable of the Lady
Chapel are considered, there is too much reason to fear that some of these
early settlements may have extended so far, in the first instance, as to weak :n
and destroy the integrity of the walls, so as to allow them to sink and lie
crushed under the weight of the subsequent additions. This is evidently lie
case with the four great Norman arches, the masonry of which and of the
spandrel walls above, is in such a state of ruin as to make an immediate
repair absolutely necessary for the preservation of the tower. The piers
upon which these arches rest, have been, as we have seen, subjected to a
series of repairs, many of which have been so substantially executed as to
make them perfectly safe. This is especially the case with the south-eastern
pier, which is in excellent order, and with the north-eastern, which exhibits
only an original vertical fissure, from which nothing need now be apprehended.
The two westerly piers are not in such good condition, and these, as we have
seen, did, in the first instance, snfter much more from settlement than the
others. The mode in which the north-western pier has been repaired or
bolstered is unsightly, and may conceal a state of ruin which it is inadequate
to prevent. Also the north-western portion of this pier exhibits some frac-
tures, from which there is too much reason to suppose that the heart of tlie
work is in a very unsound condition. For which reasons it would lie de-
sirable to remove this casing, and subject this pier to a thorough repair, in
the course of which the real state of the internal parts will become evident,
and an opinion may be formed of the necessity for a similar operation upon
the south-western pier, of which the northern face exhibits in some parts
signs of weakness, which may be merely superficial, but which at all events
call for examination and repair.

I do not think it necessary or expedient to restore the original form of the
Norman piers. The repairs, which are, as I have shown, themselves of a
sufficient antiquity to claim respect, have so far advanced the faces of these
piers in many places, and removed the Norman shafts in others, and the set-
tlements have so disturbed the capitals from their true positions, that any
attempt to restore the original form and to replace the shafts must be at-
tended with very great expense. The existing mode of capping the restored asb-
lering with a Gothic string, immediately under the Norman capitals, answers
every purpose of uniting the two works, with a due regard to appearance.
To the very Itcv. Uoukrt Willis.

The Dean and Chapter of Hereford, Cambridrje, Oct. 12, IS-1 1.

3 G

HEREFOffl) C^AT3IE3WAI

JR.Jobbuis UXhoWixrwidcC*

380

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Novembkr,

Additional Remarks.

Fig$. 4 and 5 (Plate XIV) represent on a scale of J inch to a foot, the
portions of masonry above the vaults of the tower, for the purpose of ex-
hibiting more clearly the nature of the dislocations and the union of the
Gothic masonry with the Norman. In these drawings the separate stones
are laid down with great precision from actual measurement to a scale of a
i of an inch to a foot.

Fig. 4 corresponds to the upper part of Fig. 2, and shows the state of the
masonry of the portions of walls marked r and s, in Fig. 2, as well as the
bases of the tower grating.

The surface of the wall below the vault at E and F, (Fig. 4), was covered
with paint so that the joints of the masonry could not be seen, but the sur-
face above was easily accessible, and had never been painted or stopped with
cement.
Fig. 5 represents the portion of east wall marked t in Fig. 3.
In both these drawings A B is the Norman string course, and C D the
Gothic string course.

As Fig. 5 is the simplest case I will explain that in the first instance. The
Norman string course A B is 3^ in. lower at b than it is at a, and is besides
dislocated ; the masonry beneath it is also dislocated and exhibits two great
fissures, ce, df, of which the first is 2^ in. wide at e, and the second IJ at/.
The north wall of the tower, shown in section at X, is also thrust back very
considerably from its proper place. The masonry above the Norman string
course is on the contrary close jointed, its beds remain very nearly level, the
Gothic string course C, D having only sunk about i. an inch in the centre.
There is a slight fissure or dislocation at g, and in some of the other joints,
but not at all of the dangerous character of those in the Norman work below
A B. There is also a settlement accompanied by fractures at the angle i,
but this is occasioned by the sinking of the angle pier M, of the super-
structure.

The diagonal aperture N, which extends into the heart cf the wall, and m
my opinion formerly contained some timber work, was allowed to remain
open when the tower was carried up, and the stone k, which covered it
having fractured, has allowed the angle pier to descend, dragging with it and
fracturing the other stones in its neighbourhood, but producing more dislo-
cation in the northern wall, Fig. 4, than in this. In this east wall there can be
no doubt that the whole of the Norman work was taken down as far as the
level of the string course. A, B, when the tower was carried up, and that the
Norman spandrils were at that time in very nearly the same state of settle-
ment as they are now, for the first course of Gothic stones, a, b, that lie upon
the Norman string are cut below to fit the sag of the latter, and their upper
bed, m, n, now is level. I

It wtll also be observed that the next course of stones upon m, n, has been
laid in long thin pieces to give more cohesion to the wall. The smaller fis.
snres at g shew that the rotten substructure had sunk subsequently to the
erection of the tower.

In Fig. 4 the appearances are more complicated.

In this northern wall there is a row of apertures, G, H, I, K, L. that
plainly once received the beams of a floor or ceiling. Now on this side of
the tower the Norman string course, A B, is 7 in. lower at A than at B,
while the Gothic string course, C D, is level. But the beam holes are equi-
distant from the Norman string course, and are raised about 5^ in. above it.
Plainly, therefore, they belong to the Norman structure and not to the
Gothic, for they have sunk together with the Norman work, while the Gothic
remains level. When the Gothic work was raised the Norman masonry could
not have been taken down on this side completely to the string course. A, B,
but the Norman stones beneath the beams must have been at least left un-
disturbed. That this was the case is clearly seen at K and L, for the stones
i, m, that laid under these beams, are 5J in. thick, but the stones of the
same course n,p, q, are of different thicknesses, n being 7 in. and q G in. so
as to restore the level for the upper beds. The little square stones which are
packed in at the corners of these holes, and the correspondence of the ge-
neral level of the intermediate masonry with that of the Gothic string course,
all show plainly that although at this end of the wall the beams were undis.
turned, yet that the whole of the masonry was removed above them, and on
their sides with the exception of the stoues, k and m, that supported them.

At the other end the Norman masonry between the beams, G, H, I, ap-
pears to have been quite undisturbed ; r, «, and (, are in this case the upper
remaining Norman stones, and this is also shown by the fact that the plane
of the whole Norman wall, including these stones, is 4 in. in advance of the

Gothic wall above. At the other end, B, (as already mentioned and shown
in Fig. 5 at E,) the Norman is driven behind the Gothic wall. Upon ex-
amining the wall below the vault at E, the projection just mentioned may be
seen to die away to nothing in the middle.

On this face the dislocations of the Norman wall are again much greater
than those of the Gothic wall. But it will be seen that the stones of the
latter have fractured over every one of the beam apertures. The sinking of
the angle pier, M, has also produced a set of crushings in the masonry below.

These figures also show the dissimilarity between the piers of the grating,
their difterent bases and the different widths of their chamfers, some of
which again are plain, and some swelled with the usual moulding. Compare
for example P, Q. R, Fig. 4.

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS' MONOPOLY AND CRUSADE
AGAINST THE EMPLOYMENT OF ARCHITECTS.

Sir There are no very cheering prospects held out to the architects of this

day , if the intentions of the " Ecclesiastical Commissioners " as regards
" houses of residence for the Clergy," and of the " Education Commis-
sioners " as regards schools and houses be carried out to the letter. Amongst
the regulations adopted by the former Board is the following ;— " Every
house proposed to be purchased must be surveyed by the architect of the
Commissioners ; and every new house be built according to his designs, and
under 'his exclusive superintendence." Now in cases of this kind, wherein
an outlay of £900, the Commissioners require to have advanced t/iem from
X45U to £540, this monopoly of patronage is somewhat startling. Is it to
be argued that there are not many architects whom the Clergymen would
prefer to employ, whose taste and local knowledge of cost and material would
be quite as valuable as that of the London architect to the Commissioners ?
Surely it would be sufticient that he should exercise controul as to their cost
and construction. There would be as much reason in the metropolitan and
Diocesan Church Building Societies refusing grants to all applications, but
those in which their own architects were employed in the erection or altera-
tion of the churches.

In the case of the Education Commissioners, independently of their having
pubbshed " cut and dried " plans, elevations, and sections (of very question-
able merit) for school houses of every size; apphcants are advised, " If their
j.lans do not exactly suit to point out such alterations as may be desired, and
the architect of the Commissioners will send down careful drawings of the
ground plan and elevation ; " and clergymen are advised " not to avail them-
selves of the services of the local architect until this stage of the proceed-
ings," when he may be " requested to prepare specification and working
drawings for the execution of the work." Really this is too impudent !
Men of taste and education are not to be supposed capable of properly ar-
ranging a trumpery little parish school, and yet are to be called upon to
prepare a specification and working drawings to carry out another man's
design ! I trust no respectable architect wdl so far forget what is due to his
profession as to comply with such proposals.

I must leave to more experienced beads the suggestion of a remedy for
these barefaced joljs, (for really they deserve no milder terra) ; I could not
refrain from calling attention to them.

Your obedient servant,
London, Oct. 1842. T. II. W.

[We are sorry to say that there is a strong desire to adopt this centralizing
system, not only by the above Commissioners, but also by other public boards,
which requires the active perseverance of both professions, the architect and
engineer, to counteract. We shall be happy to receive any information on
so unjust an encroachment, that we may grapple with such a formidable
enemy, and endeavour to put a stop to the system at the onset.— Editor.]

Wood Pavemf.nt.— The first wood pavement that was put down in London,
at Ibe east end of ONford Street, four years since, is now being reversed and
relaid. and causes much surprise by ils great durability, many of Ibe blocks
nut being reduced hair an inch of their origmal length, which was one foot,
though exposed to all the trallic of Oxford Street.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

381

MR. V1GN0LE3' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

SECOND COURSE — LECTDRE XIV. — WORKING EXPE.NSES OF R.VILW.VYS.

Mr. Vignoles commenced by reminding the class, what he hoped they duly
felt, that Ihe great object he had had in view during the present course was
to consider, in every bearing, the proportion between the cost and expendi-
ture upon any work, as compared with the probable profitable returns. Al-
though this consideration, and that of the good result of any such specula-
lions, might be tliought not to C(ime strictly within the duties of an cngiueer,
and until of very late years had Ijeen neglected, and, in some striking cases,
absolutely repudiated, by eminent men, yet Mr. Vignoles was of opinion that
it must ever be kept in view, and should absolutely form a branch of the en-
gineer's study, for he ought to feel that any works he may be called on to
construct should not only be such as will reflect credit on him, as a profes-
sional man, for design, arrangement, and execution, but, as the Professor
had often urged, such as, in this commercial country, where private enter-
prise and speculation attempts and elfects so much, will, by their success,
prove the accuracy of his judgment, and his capacity, as an adviser, to lead
spirited undertakers into future operations of Ihe same kind. In short, that
the success of an engineer depends, perhaps, more on the beneficial results of
liis works to the proprietors, as commercial speculations, than on his own
masterly conquest by art over natural difficulties. But the engineer should
further look at this subject in a higher point of view, and consider that all
unprofitable expenditure is so much waste of the resources of a country, and
that, of all professions in society, his is the one most called upon to direct
the laying out of large sums on what may truly be considered national ob-
jects, for the judicious and beneficial results whereof he is responsible, and,
consequently, whereon his reputation must ultimately depend. Referring to
an expression in a late lecture, the ProfeESor observed, that he by no means
intended to represent that it was not necessary, in the construction of rail-
ways, to reduce the natural undulations of a country to uniform inclinations,
but that it was to be maturely considered at what cost such advantage is to
be acquired, keeping constantly in view a cumparison of this cost with the
working expenses of a line more or less perfect. It was the investigation of
these worKing expenses that Mas now to be entered on. In proceeding to do
this, Mr. Vignoles observed that he considered it by far the best way to re-
duce to a mileage not only their gross sum, but also each of the items, these
being again subdivided as far as possible. By a "mileage" he understooil
the result arisiug from dividing the periodical amount of the expenses by the
total number of miles run by locomotive engines wltli Imins after them. The
Professor insisted that th's was the proper way, and gave a number of rea-
sons for his opinion, and for not at all considering the expenses with refe-
rence to any proportion they might form of the gross receipts — the two
sources of income and expenditure being perfectly independent of each
other; and Mr. Vignoles further thought this mileage comparison was the
only one from which correct results coul 1 be drawn, and wiiereby materials
and experience might be collected, so as to result in the practical benefit of
companies being able, before long, to enter into contracts for most of the
items of expenditure at given rates. Some companies had already contracted
with each other for the supply of locomotive power, carriages, &c. at a mile-
age ; the maintenance of the way was now almost universally I'aid for by the
hneal mile of rail, and he had no doubt but that, after a little more e;^peri-
ence. other of the working expenses of railways would form subjects of such
a kind of contr.act.

Mr. Vigiioles then proceeded to enumerate the general heads of these ex-
penses, viz. 1, loeomotiec power, subdivided into drivers' wages, fuel, oil, hemp,
&c. ordinary repairs, water and iuel stations, reserve fund; 2, eurrlages ;
3, ma'uttenaucc of line ; 4, police ; 5, condtictUig trafic and stations : 6, rates and
taxes: 7. Gooernment duty; B, miscellaneous charges; 9, management. These
were the proper items, exclusive of interest on loans, which, altliougli to be
deducted before a dividend could be made, of course formed no [^art of the
positive working expenses of a r.uUvay. The Professor then went into a
minute analysis of tliese several items, as actually disbursed on certain rail-
ways of various lengths, and particularly of various gradients, explaming
the reasons of excess or of diminution in one or other item on ihe respective
lines, exhibiting als.t comparative tables, and making many valuable oljser-
vations upon obtaining the best attention and greatest economy from the
servants of a public company, by instituting premiums graduated in propor-
tion to the diminution of annual working expenses.

Loeomotiec poivcr. — In considering this item. Mr, Vignoles showed, from an
average of a number of lines, where the arrangements were properly esia-
blishc'd, and the railway hail been long enough at work to have got all mat-
ters systematically arranged, the subdivision per mile per train might be
taken as folluws^viz. wages, 2d. ; fuel, id. ; oil, hemp, &c., Irf. ; making T(/.
per mile as the mere cost of motion, exclusive of repairs of any kind. This
might be considered as applicable to an average of six or eight carriages per
train. Heavier trains only came occasionally in the course of the 2-1 hours,

and unless upon linos having exceedingly favourable gradients, auxiliary en-
gines were then applied, the cost and mileage of which being included in the
annual accounts, the above rate of calculation would still apply. On railways
not having a very considerable traflic, the number of carriages, on the ave-
rage, were fewer than above slated, and the engine and tender might be fairly
taken as constituting half the gross load of each train. The items of wages
and oil, hemp, fcc. would not materially vary on different lines, except, per-
haps, the first, or on short lines wi!h very great traffic, with quarter or half-
hour trains, such as Ihe London and Greenwich Railway, the Dublin and
Kingstown, Sec. The fuel would be a variable quantity, but it would rarely
exceed Gd. Next must be taken the ordinary repairs, and the Professor stated
that in no case was the old adage of " a stitch in time " so applicable as in
a constant vigil.ince and daily inspection and remedy of the smallest defect
in locomotive engines. A plentiful stock of engines of t!ie very best ma-
terials and workmanship, and an efficient and roomy repairing establishment,
though somewhat costly at first, would be found to be the means of keeping
don n the expense of repairs to a low figure. The amount of this item spread
over a year's working appeared to average, on well-regulated lines, about
Id. to 8rf. per mile; some instances had been as low as Gd. The expense of
water and fuel stations varied from \d. to hd. per mile. The reserve fund
was an arbitrary charge ; Mr. Vignoles assumed that about 10 to Ij per
cent, on the ordinary repairs would be sufficient— say Urf. Thus it would
seem that the total cost of locomotive power ought to be about lad. or IGrf.
per mile per tram. In some instances it had been reduced so low as Is. ; in
others this amount had swelled to 18rf. and even up to 2s.

Mr. Vignoles then analysed the other heads of the working expenses — viz.
carriages, which he seemed to consider an expensive item, varying from IJ.
to 6if. per mile per train— say from irf. to Irf. per carriage per mile, including
the various descriptions of vehicles for passenger traffic. The maintenance of
the railway varied most remarkably, from 2rf. per mile per train (which had
been the cost on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, and was now even
lower, and Mr. Vignoles believed that on the Greenwich Railway this was
also a small item, since they had replaced their stone blocks by timber sup-
ports), up to \s. per mile per train, which was the cost on several lines ; but,
on a railway with Ihe upper works properly constructed, he thought that 6rf.
to 8rf. per mile per train ought to keep a double road in good order, including
a reserve or dcpreciati :n fund for reneiving the iron rails — a contingency
that should by no means be lost sight of. The Professor here made a long
digression on this item, as to how much of Ihe cost should be assigned to
atmospheric causes, and all collateral and contingent circumstances ; how
much to the mere dislocation of Ihe upper works ; and how much to the
positive wear and tear of the iron; and pointed out some remarkable in-
stances of saving in maintenance, where the lungituJinil limber hearings had
been adopted. The charge of police varied from Irf. to Grf. per mile per train,
according to the vigilance exercised ; in placing 2rf. per mile as an average it
was to be considered only as an approximation. Conducting the traffic and
stations was an item that did not seem to differ much on Ihe various lines ;
for the passenger department it appeared to he about 5rf. Local rales and
taxes woul.l, of course, vary materially; the poor rate formed a serious
charge on all railways; this item was inJircctly contingent on the actual
profits of the company ; it appeared, however, to be seldom less than 3rf. per
mile per tr in. Government duty had heretoi'ore be^n computed at |rf. per
passenger per mile — henceforth it was to be calculated at .3 per cent, on the
gross receipts for passengers only. This would, of course, make greater dis-
crepancies ; still, as tlie new duty on the gross was estimated to be equiva-
lent to the old duty, an account might be obtained if the number of passengers
per train were known. Assuming this number to average forty, taking all
the railways of the United Kingdom, Ihe Government duty might be esti-
mated at 5rf, per mile per train. Taking a mean of four or five railways, the
miscellaneous expenses were found to be about 2rf. and the management
about 3rf. per mile per train. Now, to make a summary of all these, which
was, however, to be taken generally, and, of course, liable to be affected in
the details, but was still interesting to be submitted in a popular form, and
might be useful as giving a comprehensive view of the system ;

Abstract of the average working e.Ypenses of a railiuaij per mile per train.

Locomotive power — viz. wages, 2rf. ; fuel, 'Irf. ; oil, hemp.

ordinary repairs. Id. ; water and fuel stations, Irf. ;

fund, Urf.
Carriages
Maintenance of line .. .. ..

Police

Conducting traffic and stations

Local rates and taxes

Government duty on passengers

Miscellaneous expenses

Management

ic.lrf.;

reserve

s.

d

I

4

0

4

0

8

0

2

0

5

0

3

0

J

0

2

0

3

Total

4 0

3 H

382

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

Mr Vignolcs did not, by any means, pretend that this was other than a pro-
bable anproximation. Some lines had been worked at a lo.ver rate per mile
per train. incUuling all the above expenses ; for example, the latest accounts
of the North Union Railway show the co,st to have been only 3s. id., not
including any funds for reserve. The Professor himself thought that 3s. was
a fair sum, exclusive of taxes and duty, which, however, together forma
large proportion of the expense. On the other hand, there were instances m
which the expenses had gone up to 5s. per mile per tra n. He consdered it
would be a great public benefit if all railway companies, in their reports,
would give fuller details of the working expenses, and state the niiniber ot
miles run b,/ trains. Some few boards set a very good example in this re-
spect. This was sometimes done for locomotive power, but the miles should
only be computed as actually run with the trains, and not to include the
various extra distances passed over in manoeuvres, piloting, signals, &c.,
which, though necessary, were not part of the actual mileage of trains.

The Professor then dre.v the attention of the class to the fact, that the
locomotive power formed about one-third of the gross expense, and of that
one-half only is likely to be aflected Ijy the gradient or load, being only
one-si.-cth of the whole of the working expenses, which was but a small item
upon which a saving was to be made, to justify a railway being con-
structed theoretically perfect, unless the traffic was likely to be continued,
regular, and very heavy. He further observed, that though he had proposed,
for the sake of an easier comparison, to reduce all the items of the working
expenses of a railway to a mileage per train, it was manifest that a consider-
able addition to the number of trains daily, and, of course, to the number of
miles run, would very materially aflect the locomotive power only. The
taxes would he contingent on the receipts ; and all the other items would be
increased but in a very small degree, on the annual totals, by an increase in
the number of the trains, with a carriage or two less at a time. It was im-
portant to remember this, as it aftected greatly the question of laying out
railways. Mr. Vignoles insisted that the extension of railways in England,
especially in remote districts, wotdd not be carried into effect until this sub-
ject had been more closely analy.sed, and had become better understood.
Looking at the practical working of the Newcastle and Carlisle, the North
Union, the Manchester and Leeds, the Sheffield and Manchester, as far as
opened, and flther lines, all having very heavy gradients, and contrasting
their working expenses with those of lines whose inclinations were much
more favourable, the average cost per train per mile did not vary greatly.
Lines which had been formed at a cost of from £50,000 to £60,000 per mile,
a large portion of which was to obtain perfect gradients, seemed to require
little less to work them than lines costing only from one-third to one-half
that sum. It is true they might be able to carry heavier trains, and did so
carry them occasionally, but the average was very nearly what had been
stated, and, besides, the public were best accommodated by lighter trains
going more frequently. The Professor said, he could only hope that his
arguments would draw attention to the subject, and that when, after the
analysis of the cost of all the railways had been brought out in the way
shown in his last lecture, and that of the working expenses, as in the present
one, materials would be obtained for the solution of the problem, of what
must be the rule for constructing hnes of passenger railways hereafter.

LECTUBE XV. — WORKING EXPENCES OF RAILWAYS (continued J.

Having, in the last lecture, analysed the working expenses of railways, in
reference to the train— that is, reduced to a rate per train per mile, with an
average l^ad at the usual velocity, the Professor considered it might be well
lo consider the same subject in another light. In the preceding mode of cal-
culation no regard was paid to the amount of what might be called the useful
weight carried. It seemed to the Professor, that the proportion between the
dead weight of theengine, tender, and carriages, and the wei,-;ht of the pas-
sengers and their luggage— in short, between the unprofitable and the profit-
able load— formed an important element for consideration, even if it did not
affect the principle on which railways ought to be worked. In the common
omnibus, with a full complement of passengers, the proportion was one to
one— taking the average load, about five to three— or including the weight
of the horses (the moving power which has also to carry itself) about three
to one, or, with a full load of passengers, something less than two to one.
But, on the railway, owing to the far greater weight of the carriages, and
general arrangement on most lines, the proportion of dead weight is much
greater. In a first class carriage, as adapted for long lines, and fully loaded
with passengers and their luggage, the proportion is two and a half to one,
hut, taking the average load, it is about lour to one, and, when but little
luggage is taken, four and a half and five to one. On short lines, where the
trains run often, with many carriages, the proportion is sometimes as high
as eight to one, or, including engine and tender, as twelve to one. In an
ordinary train of about seven carriages, their weight, and that of the engine
and tender, may be taken at about filty tons ; the average number of pas-
sengers has, on a former occasion, been shown to be about sixty per train, or
four tons without, and, periiaps, five tons with, their ordinary weight of
luggage, and say one or two tons of packages and parcels paying freight,

being a proportion of six or seven of unprofitable to one of profitable load";
and if the carriages were all full, about four and a half or five to one, as
above, and on the average, the proportion might very fairiy be taken as at
least five to one. It appeared to the Professor that there was some radical
error here, and that some arrangements were wanting to reduce this propor-
tion as far as the carriages were concerned, for of course, as long as the
locomotive engine was used, its weight would always form a large proportion
of the load, particularly with light trains-though the carriages certainly
required to be made strong and heavy on this system-and this seemed an
inherent defect on this principle of locomotion, perhaps quite irremediable.
Yet at all events, on many lines the proportion of dead weight of carriages
was'much too great, and might be remedied. Of late this had lieen done on
the Greenwich Railway, where, by combining two classes of seats in the
same vehicle, much fewer carriages sufficed. There was a great contrast to
this on tlie Blackwall Railway, where, from Iiaving a separate carriage for
each station, according to the peculiar mode of working that line, the pro-
portion of dead carriage weight was generally about three, and often tour,
times as much as on the Greenwich, though the carriages were of the same
buil.l 0»ing to this and to other causes, extra guards, rope, &c., notwith-
standing the generally admitted economy of stationary power, the expense
of working the Blackball Railway, per train per mile, was double what the
Professor found was the average for the working on several locomotive lines,
and quite as high, if not higher, than the present rate of working on the
Brighton Railway, which was the highest of any that had yet come under
his connisance. Although, abstractedly, this over proportion ot dead weight
carried was not always connected with the moving power, yet an engmeer
ou^ht to point out, and. when within his control, to remedy such an evil, as
the^loss consequent on carrying useless weight is equivalent to that arising
from increased resistance of gravity in surmounting an unnecessary ascent—
a case which every engineer is naturally anxious to avoid.

In the mode of reducing railway expenses to a mileage, adopted in the last
lecture, the number of passengers, and their proportion to dead weight ot
carriaoes, had not been considered, for it was clear that the arrangement ot
carriages in any train being supposed to be duly proportioned to the average
traffic, any addition to the average assumed load would be pure profit, and
would not cause any sensible addition to the cost of the transit of the regular
load for which all the necessary arrangements of engines, tenders, carriages,
guards, stations, and the whole working and carrying establishment of the
railway was already provided and paid for. But, suppose another mode of
considering the working expenses be adopted, viz. from the number of pas-
sengers in a train, deduced from an average of many lines for several years,
or from any assumed number per train, let the cost per passenger per mile be
worked out. and this will lead to the consideration of the true policy tor
attracting the greatest number of persons, and trying lo fill the trains up, as
they must go, at any rate.

The Professor then went through the various items of railway expenses
stated in the former lecture, and brought them out in decimals of a penny
per passenger per mile-the result being, that, taking account ot experience
»ained and applied, and economical arrangements duly introduced, the ex-
pense of locomotive i.ower might be taken at id. per passenger per mi e,
which was coming back to the original estimate made for the working of the
London and Birmingham Railway. Other expenses, including Government
duty, would bring the total up to two-thirds of a penny, and, under favour-
able circumstances, of well filled carriages, this might sometimes be brought
down to id., but taking the average of lines as now worked, the cost was
about W'per passenger per mile. On many of the American railways the
cost was as low as id., and for long lines on the continent, m India, &c.
where wages were low, and coal or wood might be got very cheap for loco-
motive fuel, and no rates or taxes on profits and passengers were laid, the
charge nf carrying passengers per mile might he fairly taken at id. only.
Now, if the propi^rtion between the unprofitable and the profitable parts of
the load were reduced to three to one, as regarded carriages only, and six to-
one as regards the whole weight of the train, the expense of carrying pas-
sengers, taken by weight, will be still at least three times as expensive as.
carrying goods only at the same velocity, the proportion being of wagons to
goods as two to three, and of the whole train, including engine and lender,
at less than two to one, and with heavy trains, of go. ds only, about one to
one, and for coal and mineral traffic, at diminished rates of travelling, still
less The Professor observed, that the cost of conveying merchandise might
be taken at about Irf. per ton per mile for railway expenses only, exclusive ot
collection and distriljution at the termini of lines, and that of coal and mine-
rals at about id. per ton per mile. With these elements, therefore, of the
expense of working railways either per train, or per passenger, or per ton, it
is for the politic manager of a public concern to consider what should be the
rate of charges above these cost prices to make to the public, so as to induce
the greatest amount of traffic Mr. Vignoles then observed, that tliere was.
a third way of considering the subject of the working expenses ot rai »ays,
in reference to the number of engines employed, which was the mode adopted
by the Irish Railway Commissioners, and which was, perhaps, tlie piopec

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

383

way of calculating the annual cost on lines of little intercourse, on which,
however small the traffic might turn out to be, yet a certain number of en-
gines must be kept to do any worlv at all. The commissioners, in following
out this inquiry, endeavoured to determine the proportion the cost of loco-
motive power bore to the total working cost of a railway. For the Liverpool
and Manchester line it was found that this proportion was only one-fourth
the gross annual charges on that line, including much town carriage of
goods collected and delivered ; but on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway
the proportion was, at that time, nearly one-half. It was observed Ly the
Professor, in a digression, that for the average of railways it was now deter-
mined to be about one-third. The commissioners finally assumed the cost of
locomotive power to be one-third of the total expense of working a line of
mixed traflic, and that to run a given number of trains per day, a certain
number of engines must be provided ; it was then calculated that £1750
a year would be the cost of each engine to work about from 25,000 to 30.000
miles annually, and then they computed the amount of gross receipts neces-
sary to cover those expenses and interest of capital. This was working back-
wards, to ascertain whether it is justifiable to make a railway at all in cer-
tain districts. The result of the commissioners' calculations were, that, sup-
posing there went only two trains daily throughout a given line, the average
load of each train ought to consist of either fifty tons of goods or eighty
passengers, or a mixed load of twenty-five tons of goods and forty passengers,
or in that proportion, in order to justify a line being made — the average
charge for passengers being assumed each IJrf. or for goods 2d. per ton per
mile, which, it may be observed, is scarcely th: half of the average rates of
charge on the principal English railways. Mr. Vignoles observed, in con-
clusion, that having shown that the cost of conveyance of passengers, mer-
chandise, minerals, &c., could be nicely calculated from the experience
gained, and could be brought to the definite mileage rates before mentioned,
he thought the proper raiiway charge should be, double the cost for working;
which, when the railways had been judiciously constructed, and without
extravagance, would sufficiently remunerate the undertakers, as such mode-
rate principle of charging would bring the most traffic.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

May 31. — The President in the Chair.

On the cons/ruction of Model Maps, as a better mode than Sectioplam-
graphy for delineating the Drainage and Agricultural Improvements of a
Country, or projected lines of Railways, Canals, Sfc." By John Bailey
Denton, Assoc. lost. C. E.

This communication was accompanied by a map in relief of an estate, as
a specimen of the method which the author recommends. The subject of
mapping in relief is not new, and the author had previously published a
treatise on the subject, but having made extensive experiments, he was ena-
bled to bring the subject before the Institution in a more defined form,
showing that the construction of the models had been reduced to a simple
and cheap method. These models are pecuharly recommended for pointing
out the capabilities of a district for drainage either for agricultural purposes,
or for collecting waters together for manufacturing power. They are superior
to maps, as they show at a glance the relative heights of the various points,
display the geological phenomena, and may be made to delineate the state of
cultivation of the districts. The lines of railways, of roads, or of canals,
can be more clearly defined upon them, and they'are stated to be peculiarly
adapted for parish surveys. The expense of making a model ot an estate
of compact form is stated to be from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per acre.

" Observations on the Periodical Drainage and Replenishment of the Sub-
terraneous Reservoir in the Chalk Basin of London." By the Rev James
Clutterbuck.

This paper, which formed the substance of a letter to the Reverend Dr.
Buckland, and was by him communicated to the Institution, consists of a
series of observations on the periodical drainage and replenishment of the
subterranean reservoir of the chalk basin of London, especially that part of
it which lies in a N. \V. direction between London and the Chiltern Hills.

The author divides the district into two portions, that to the north and
that to the south of the river Colne.

The northern portion is mostly covered only with a bed of gravel, through
which the rain water percolates to the chalk, in which, being upheld by the
retentive strata helow, it accumulates until it finds vent by several deep
Yalleys which incline southward, and carry off a large quantity of water by
the streams Ver, Gade, Belbourne, and Chess, into the river Colne, which
runs in a S. W. direction under the escarpment formed by the outcrop of
the London and plastic clays.

The surface of this reservoir on the water level, regulated by these vents,
dipping towards the south at an average inclination of nearly 300 feet ia
fourteen miles, may be represented by a line drawn from the upper district
at an angle, and terminating at the river Colne.

The southern portion is almost entirely covered by the London and plastic
clays, from the surface of which the rain water flows in open drains and
water-courses. A considerable portion of that which flows towards the
Colne, sinks into the subjacent chalk, when it arrives at the outcrop of the
sand of the plastic clay formation, and assists in the replenishment of that
portion of the reservoir that underlies the London and plastic clays. Here
the water level, or the height to which it would rise through perforations in
these clays, where its continuity is interrupted by them, would be repre-
sented by a line drawn from the Colne to mean tide level in the Thames
below London, the only apparent vent for their waters. In the upper dis-
trict during the replenishment of the reservoir, which usually occurs be-
tween December and March inclusive, the water accumulates in a proportion
increasing with the distance from the river or vent, and falls off in a cor-
responding ratio during its periodical exhaustion, which usually takes place
between April and November. This alternation of level, which'in the upper
districts exceeds 50 feet in perpendicular height, would be represented by a
Une fixed at the river or vent, and rising at an angle proportionate with the
increase furthest from it, the extent of its rise or fall being determined by
the quantity of rain percolating the chalk. The ratio between these ex-
treme points is so exactly maintained, that if the difference of rise or fall in
two wells, one near, and another at a distance from the vent be ascertained,
the alternation in the intermediate wells will be determined with consider-
able accuracy.

The progressive rise of the water level is apparent at the sources of the
streams which break out at higher levels in the valleys in which they run, or
when brooks or burns burst forth and run during a certain period, when the
surface of the reservoir attains a certain level, previously to which, the water
rises in every depression till it reaches the height at which it can flow away ;
the converse of the effects which preceded their bursting may be seen as
they cease to flow.

When no water percolates the surface of the upper district, the flooding
of the Colne by heavy rains, together with the sinking of the water into the
chalk at the outcrop of the sand of the plastic clay formation, raises the
level in that locality, and by checking the drainage retards the exhaustion of
the reservoir. When this occurs during the replenishment, and from con-
tinued rain the level near the river maintains an increased elevation, the
water checked in its course towards its vent accumulates in a ratio increasing
with its distance from it, a process of adjustment to be traced throughout
the district during the replenishment, and conversely during the exhaustion
of the reservoir.

The geological condition of the lower portion of the district, together
with the paucity of wells, make it difl5cult to ascertain the extent of the
natural alternations of that part of the water level which underiies the
London and plastic clays ; the difficulty is increased by an unnatural depres-
sion caused by the exhaustion of water under London, which is said to in-
crease yearly, and indicates that the rapidity of the demand exceeds that of
the supply : the alternation at that point may be from 2 to 4 feet, and is
coincident with the rising and falling of the levels in the upper district.

If water be discharged from a shaft in the chalk by a power not capable
of exhausting it entirely, the rapidity of the reduction of the level wUl
gradually decrease until it is exactly balanced by that of the supply ; when
the exhaustion ceases, the level will rise in the inverted ratio of its reduction ;
if the level be measured in a line from the point of exhaustion, a similar re-
duction will be found, faUing off at an angle decreasing with the distance
from it.

The aggregate discharge of water from under London produces a similar
effect : daily measurements in one well, confirmed by some coincident mea-
surements in another more than a mile distant, show that beginning on
Monday, the level is gradually reduced during the week; the cessation of
pumping on Sunday is marked by the rising of the level by Monday morning;
if any great quantity of rain falls, a sudden rise or check in the periodical
fall takes place ; the resumption of any extensive or continued discharge of
water may be traced ; a general coincidence of rise and fall in different wells
is apparent ; holiday times, such as Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, may
be distinguished. Thus, the measurement of a chalk well in London, would
show the days of the week and the great festivals, by the daily variations ;
the seasons would be indicated by the average difference in the height of the
level at different periods of the year ; and the changes of the weather by the
falling of the rain, would also be shown.

The chalk under London is of a much closer nature than that in the upper
districts ; it yields the water sparingly but steadily from orifices beneath
those beds or bands of flint which are the most unbroken and the strongest,
and from faults and cracks which are frequently met with. The constant
and increasing demand not only depresses the level under London, but must
accelerate the exhaustion of the reservoir above. When the water level
near the Colne is suddenly raised by heavy rains, a simultaneous effect is
produced on the chalk wells in London. This suggests the possibility of
connecting a periodical defalcation of water observed in that stream, and
the river Lea on Monday, at those seasons when the water is short, with the
exhaustion of water under London. The courses of both these streams is
somewhat similar with reference to that place, though they flow in opposite
directions. There is some evidence in favour of this supposition, which may

3 II 2

384

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

be cotablishcd when more information is obtained, wiiieli will be best effected
bv keeping registers of the daily variations of wells in different localities,
aiid determining the height at which the water stands with reference to
Trinity high-water mark. Such ir^formation, if brought together, would well
repay the labour bestowed on its collection.

The author's views were illustrated by a number of sketches and enlarged
diagrams of the geological formation of the district, &c.

Jfemaris. — Dr. Bucklaud was desirous to bring the subject of Mr. Clut-
terbuck's paper before the Institution, because he was impressed with the
value of a systematic series of observations upon a matter so intimately con-
nected with' engineering as the tbeor)- of the causes of the supply of water
to springs and rivers, and the rise of water in Artesian wells.

In his Bridgewater treatise, pi. C8 and pi. 69, he had illustrated by dia-
grams the causes of the accumulation of a subterranean reservoir consisting
of sheets of water diffused through strata of gravel, sand, and chalk within
the basin of London, and of the rise of water in wells and small perfora-
tions through the London clay, under the influence of hydrostatic pressure.

Mr. Clutterbuek's observations and experiments confirmed the general
opinion as to the existence of these subterranean sheets of water in the
chalk basin, and indicated a connexion between their distant parts, by the
svmpathy he had observed between the sudden floods at Watford and certain
wells in London, the level of which had been carefully observed and found
to rise a few hours after the occurrence of the floods at M'atford. In London
also, he had confirmed observations already made upon deep wells at con-
siderable distances from one another, and found that any large quantity of
wafer taken from one well reduced the level of those adjacent.

It had been questioned whether the communication between wells of this
kind took place solely through the medium of large cracks and fissures, or
whether the entire masses of the permeable strata, beneath the level of the
lowest springs which flowed from them, had all their pores and minutest in-
terstices so entirely filled with water, that any abstraction of this fluid from
one well was more or less rapidly replaced by a general flow towards it from
every part of the water-logged stratum of sand or gravel or stone in which
it was excavated ; on the latter hypothesis during such a flow the surrounding
wells would be affected in the direct ratio of their proximity to that from
which large quantities of water were taken.

It had been found at Brentford fliat, as the number of Artesian wells in-
creased, the force and quantity of each became diminished ; a similar effect
followed in the case of adjacent wells in Lnndon ; the inference he would
draw therefore was that a very extensive supply for the metropolis could not
be obtained from deep wells of this kind, although a few wells might he sup-
plied abundantly.

The district called the London Basin is made up of a contimious seam of
chalk from 300 feet to 500 feet in thickness, which on the S.E. of the Colue
is covered with beds of sand and gravel, alternating with plastic clay, and
over all these, a thick covering of London clay : whdst the country N. and
K.W. of the Colne is for the most part composed of naked chalk. Beneath
the whole chalk basin lies a sub stratum of clay or gault which is imper-
meable by water, and upholds the reservoir in question. Tlie valleys in this
chalk are traversed by the rivers Ver, Gade, and Chess, whose chief perennial
supply of water is from springs that issue out of the chalk ; in one of these
valleys Mr. Dickinson had proved by experiments made with Dalton's rain-
gauge (which, being buried 3 feet beneath the surface, received only such
water as descended more than that depth) that during about two-thirds of
the year the rain which fell rarely sank 3 feet into the earth ; but in No-
vember, December, January, and February it passed down into the subjacent
chalk, in proportions which accorded so constantly with the greater or less
amount of rain falling in these four wet months, that he had been accustomed
to regulate the amount of orders undertaken to be executed in his paper-
mills during the following spring and summer, by the indications on this
rain-gauge, of the quantity of water that descended more tlian 3 feet in the
preceding winter.

The Colne is often flooded by the effect of sudden rain which is retained
upon the surface of the London clay ; but that portion of its water which
is derived from perennial springs is supplied from the overflowings of the
natural reservoirs, or subterranean sheets of water which fill the interstices
of the chalk, and also of the sand and gravel beds of the plastic clay for-
mation. The surface of this reservoir is marked by the outbreak of a suc-
cession of springs, at levels gradually rising as they are nearer to the upper
regions of the chalk; and as the entire supply of this subterranean stock of
water is derived from rain that falls on the surface of permeable strata within
the London basin, the abstraction of water from any part of this reservoir
would. Dr. Buckland conceived, diminish the quantity remaining to he dis-
charged by springs into the rivers in the vicinity of such abstraction, by the
total amount of water so transferred to any other than its natural channels.

It was asserted that the surface of the water in this subterranean reservoir
did not maintain a horizontal level, but that it rose nearly 300 feet in four-
teen miles, between the town of Watford and the highest spring that issued
from the neighbouring chalk hills. The molecular attraction of the particles
of chalk tlirough which this sheet of water is diffused, and the obstruction
presented by friction to its descent through the numerous pores and miinife
crevices by which it has to pass in adjusting the line of its upper surface,
might account for this deviation from the level line which fluids assume, if
left to act freely in open spaces, or in large and continuous conduits; Mr.
Clutterbuek's repeated observations upon wells along the line in question

must be considered to have proved the existence of this inclined level. His^
observations were also very important, as to the floods at Watford raising in
a few hours the level of the water in deep wells in London, and as to the
eflfect of a steam-engine erected to pump water from a large experimental
well near \Yatford in lowering the water in smaller wells in that town and
the country adjacent to it.

Mr. Dickinson had made very accurate observations upon the absorption
of water by the chalk, and was convinced of its being always in a wet state
almost amounting to saturation ; but few cre\ices and fissures exist in the
chalk of the district under notice, the rain therefore occupies a considerable
time in overcoming the molecular attraction of the pariicles through which
it passes. Wherever fissures exist at a certain depth below the chalk, they
become channels which collect and facilitate the flow of water to maintain
the springs ; the accumtdations of the winter rain sink slowly down in sum-
mer, and by a series of vents or springs furnish a supply for the rivers which
run in the deepest valleys of the chalk district ; a long cessation of rain
lowers the level of the water in the rivers, at an interval of some months
after the drought, and any extraordinary demand by pumping from the wells
in the chalk, would lower the water in the wells around, even at a consider-
able distance.

From experiments with the rain-gauge buried 3 feet below the surface, he
found that but little rain penetrated to that depth until the months of No-
vember, December, January, and February — the total quantity per annum
was shown to vary between 17 inches and 6 inches, which latter amount
sufficed to fill the principal springs. He was induced to believe that if a
large supply of water was drawn from the chalk it would eventually have a
prejudicial effect in diminishing the water in the rivers of the district.

Mr. Clutterbuck said that the sphere of his observations extended over a
line of wells 20 miles in length, and in the whole of them there was the most
perfect accordance between the alterations of level of the water and the indi-
cations of the rain-gauge, allowing the time necessary for the rain to sink
into the chalk ; as also there was between the fall and replenishment of the
wells at Watford and those in London, whence large quantities of water were
obtained by pumping ; he could always tell, by measuring the height of
water in one well of the series, what would be that of any other well along
the line ; he therefore was satisfied of the accuracy of the observations in
his paper.

Mr. Dickinson observed, that he corld not satisfactorily account for the
greater amount of variation in the wells at the higher part of the district,
when compared with those of the lower part ; the alternations of the former
amounting frequently to 30 feet, while those of the latter were only 10 feet
iu the same time.

Dr. Buckland believed this fact to arise from the hydrostatic pressure
being less interfered with by friction and capillary attraction, in the lower
part of the district than in the upper part.

Mr. Clutterbuck accounted for the alternations of level in the sand springs,
being greater than in the chalk springs, by the relative degrees of opposition
the water met with, from the friction in passing through the two kinds of
strata.

Mr. F. Braithwaite had made many borings and sunk several deep wells
into the chalk — he would instance particularly the wells at Messrs. Meux's
and Messrs. Reid's breweries, and that at Greenwich Hospital ; in these wells
he had used cylinders of iron to shut out the sand springs. He did not find
the chalk so spongy or saturated witli water as had been stated ; he imagined
that the supply of wafer was derived from tlie crevices in the chalk, and in
many instances water had not been arrived at, because one of these crevices
had been missed, whilst in a well of less depth nearly adjoining, in which
they had fortunately hit upon the crevice, a plentiful supply of v.-ater was
obtained. In the first and second beds of flints under London there was
very little water; from the third to the fifth bed the quantity increased, and
at 30 feet lower down a continuous fault or crevice was generally found
which conveyed a good supply of water — the rise and fall of water in wells
in the chalk did not accord with those of wells in the sand beds above the
chalk ; the alternations in the former amounting to only a few inches in a
given time, while those of the latter were as many feet. He placed great
confidence in the observations made by Mr. Clutterbuck. That gentleman
had told him accurately, from the variations of the well in the llampstead
Road, all the difl'erences of the quantity of water drawn from iMessrs. Reid's
well, arising either from an extra demand or from cessation in the pumping.
The brewers of London could be supplied by the water companies at a
cheaper rate than by pumping ; but as a large quantity was used for refri-
gerating the wort, it was important to have the wafer at a low temperature,
they therefore were obliged to pump it up at a great expense. The quantity
raised at Messrs. Reid's well was about 7,700 barrels of 36 gallons each per
day, which was calculated to be a suflicicnt supply for 5,000 families ; there
was already a decided diminution manifested in the supply from the sand
springs, and an extension of these eflfects might be anticipated from the
sinking of any large number of wells into the chalk.

Dr. Buckland ascribed the difference of the supply of water in sand
springs, and in those originating in chalk, to the relative extent of surface of
the sandy and cretaceous strata in Hertfordshire, by which alone they receive
their respective supplies of rain water, the amount of sandy surface being to
that of naked chalk about as one to twelve.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

385

The rain filters more rapidly thro'.igh the sand than through the chalk.
In beds of hard and compact 'chalk at great depths, the water sometimes
finds no passage except through occasional fissures, but where the chalk is
soft, loose and fragmentary, it percolates rapidly.

In the deep well now sinking near Southampton, through London and
plastic clay into hard and solid chalk, it would probably be necessary to con-
tinue the boring or excavation down into some loose and more permeable
stratum below the chalk, before any very large supply of water would be
obtained.

Mr. Palmer directed the attention of the meeting to the account of the
wells in the London Basin, given in Conybeare and Phillips's Geology (book
1, chap. iv. sect. 11.) It is there stated that at Tottenham, which is about
ro feet above high-water mark, after boring through 123 feet of clay and
2 feet of calcareous sandstone rock, the water rose to within a short distance
of the surface in a few hours. At Epping, where the summit of the well is
340 feet above high-water mark, the extreme depth of the bore was 420 feet,
but it was abandoned because no water was found ; at tlie end of five months
the water rose to within 26 feet of the surface and it has so continued, at
314 feet above high-water mark.

These recorded facts induced him to receive with much caution the state-
ments in Mr. Clutterbuck's paper, especially since he doubted the ready flow
of water through the chalk by which the sympathy between the various
wells was demonstrated ; he had found that chalk might be used as a good
puddle for holding water, and therefore as it was certainly more compact
when in sifu than when it bad been worked, unless the water flowed along
the faults and the beds of flint, he could not understand how it passed so
rapidly as had been stated. The chalk no doubt contained some water, but
if it was saturated why did not the water in all the wells assume one uniform
level instead of heights varving between 20 feet and 314 feet above high-
water mark ?

Mr. Clutterbuck contended that the main points of bis statement were
borne out by Mr. Braithwaite's experience at Messrs. Keid's well. A clear
distinction must be drawn between the water derived from strata above the
clay and that from the chalk ; in some elevated spots near London, situated
like Hampstead, the clay is capped with gravel, which on being tapped,
yielded a supply of water ; at Stanmore the water from the gravel at the top
of the hill is u^ed ; and in a well sunk through the clay at the bottom of the
hill, the water stood at 140 feet below the surface, lie could not under-
stand why at Epping there should exist any variation from the usual observed
facts; the case deserved very careful examination, as it might arise from
some local cause. In the course of his observations upon the levels of the
wells in London, he found on one occasion that no depression occurred on
the Thursday which had hitherto always been the case ; he therefore sought
for the cause, and found that the Elstree reservoir had been opened on Wed-
nesday, June 1st, which satisfactorily accounted for what had occurred, as
from the diT state of the water-course not more than half the quantity of
water which passed from the reservoir, reached the river Colne, the rest sank
through swallow holes down into the chalk ; this showed the attention to
collateral circumstances, which was demanded in investigations of this kind.

Mr. Frederick Traithwaite presented and explained a model of a well sunk
by him in the year 1841 at Messrs. lleid's brewery, in order to obtain water
from the chalk, which had become indispensable, in consequence of the
decrease of the supply of water from the sand spring.

On examining the lower part of the well, whicii had collapsed in 1814, he
found that the dimensions of the cast-iron cylinder to be introduced, must be
limited to 5 ft. 3 in. by 3 ft. 2 in. ; it was commenced at the depth of 87 ft.
from the surface, and carried down 135 feet, to within 1 ft. 6 in. of the face
of the first bed of flints in the chalk.

Being desirous of retaining all the water from the sand spring, he inserted
an internal cylinder which was sunk into the chalk at a depth of 138 feet
from the surface, thus eflfectually shutting out the sand spring from that of
the chalk, but permitting the former to flow to its accustomed level in the
space between the two cylinders; and to make this supply available in case
of need, cocks were inserted in the internal cylinders at convenient depths.

He then proceeded with the excavation in the chalk, increasing the dimen-
sions at every foot in depth, until at 178 feet from the surface, the diameter
was 16 feet 6 inches ; the excavation was continued at that diameter to a
depth of 202 feet from the surface.

In the progress of the work, water was found under the second, sixth,
eighth, and tenth beds of flints, and the total supply at this period was two
thousand barrels or seventy-two thousand gallons per day of twenty-four
hours.

At 19G ft. from the surface the first tunnel was driven 91 ft. N. W. in the
direction of another well, which only increased the supply 400 barrels or
14,400 gallons in 24 hours.

The eighth bed of flints, at 154 ft. from the surface yielding the largest
quantity of water, (300 barrels or 10,800 gallons per day,) he drove a second
tunnel 6 ft. high by 5 ft. wide, for 16 ft. E. to \V. and then N. and S. for
108 ft., by which he obtained an increase of 1500 barrels or 54,000 gallons,
per day.

Having ascertained by boring, that a further supply of water could be ob-
tained at 20 ft. below, he continued the excavation 22 ft. deeper by 7 ft. di-
ameter, when be found water flowing from two horizontal fissures in the
chalk without flints ; at that depth he drove 2 tunnels, one N. W. connected

with the first tunnel 91 ft. long, by which he obtained an increase of 3100
barrels or 121,600 gallons per day, the second tunnel in a S. E. direction
was driven for 24 ft., when he obtained a further increase of 800 barrels or
28,800 gallons per day.

The total quantity of water thus obtained from the chalk, was 7700
barrels or 277,200 gallons per day of 24 hours, or 192 gallons per minute,
forming at the same time a reservoir in the chalk which could contain
100,800 gallon.

lie stated the total expense to be under £7000 including the hire and
repair of temporary pumps, and the cost of two new sets of permanent
pumps.

June 7. — The President in the Chair.

" An Account oftlte Alieralians to Tullow Bridge." By Charles Forth.

The old bridge at Tullow, over the river Slaney, was very dangerous from
its steepness, its narrow roadway (only 18 feet wide) and the awkward ap-
proaches to it ; alterations were therefore determined upon, for which the
author submitted a plan and also superintended the execution of it. The
floods forbade any diminution of the water-way, and it would have been in-
convenient to have raised the approaches on the low banks on either side,
flat arches of the following proportions were therefore decided upon.

Span.

Versed Sine.

Proportion

of Versed

Sine to

Span.

Diameter of

Circle of which

the Arch is a

Segment.

Feet.

Ft. In.

Feet.

Land Arch . . .

17

0 7

^

120

Second Arch . .

22

1 6

Vi

110

Centre Arch . .

28

2 3

1%

110

The inclination of the roadway was thus reduced from one in seven to one
in forty, wliile at the same time by adding to the abutments on the up-steam
side, the width of the roadway was increased from 17 feet to 23 feet, and by
completing a portion at a time, the thoroughfare over the bridge was not at
any time stopped. For the sake of economy, the work was done in un-
dressed rubble granite with an ashlar face, taking care that the stones abutted
well against each other, and on removing the centres, no settlement of any
importance took place, and the traffic of loaded cars weighing 35 cwt. each,
was carried on without any danger, within a week from the time the arches
were keyed. The expense of the alteration was only .€485, and it has stood
well although it has been subject to some heavy floods.

A detailed drawing of the bridge, before and after the alterations, accom-
panied the paper, and Mr. Vignoles sent with it an enlarged plan, section,
and elevation for the purpose of more fully illustrating what he considered a
successful work.

" On the Introduction of Letter-Press Printing for numbering and
dating the Notes of the Bank of England." By Thomas Oldham, Assoc.
Inst. C. E.

The author commences by noticing the numbering press invented by Mr.
Bramah, and adopted in the Bank of England in the year 1809, by which
the expense and uncertainty of finishing annually a large number of bank
notes, with the pen, was materially diminished, and forgery was rendered
more difficult, although the machine was so far incomplete, that it produced
only units, the tens and hundreds requiring to be brought forward by hand.

In that year (1809) the late Mr. John Oldham, (the father of the author,)
offered unsuccessfully to the Bank of Newry, a machine similar in principle
to that of Mr. Bramah, but with the additional power of efl'ecting numerical
progression, from one to one hundred thousand by its own operation. In
1813, these machines were adopted at the Bank of Ireland, and one of them
was subsequently attached to each press for printing the body of the notes,
in order to register and check the number of notes passing through the
press.

In the year 1819, Mr. Bryan Donkin invented a counting machine, which
is described in vol. 37 of the Transactions of the Society of .Vrts ; it is called
" a machine applicable wherever it may be desirable to keep an account of
the number of revolutions or strokes, which may be made by the wheels or
levers of any other machine, in a given time or space ; as for instance, the
number of revolutions made by a mill wheel, or of the strokes of a steam-
engine beam in a given time, or the number of revolutions made by the
wheel of a carriage or perambulator on passing over a certain space." This
machine, like all the others used for a similar purpose, depended upon the
relative motion of a series of ratchet wheels with projecting rims, having

as6

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECFS JOURNAL.

[November,

notches cut in them, so that when the first wheel counted units, the second
wheel indicated tens and so on progressively.

The principle of these machines was carried out in a complex manner
which required very neat adjustment to prevent their being deranged while
working; the author after he succeeded liis lather as engineer to the Bank
of England turned his attention to this point, and the result has been the
production of the machine described in the paper.

Four wheels, each divided by 10 notches, leaving a facet between each,
engraved with constructive numbers from 1 to 0, are placed upon a shaft, a
portion of their breadth being turned down .about one-half of their depth,
having a boss or collar between each ; upon these bosses and tilling up the
spaces, rest latches, and over each wheel is a pall, the width of the first
being equ.!] to that of the unit wheel, and the breadth of the others equal-
ling that of the wheel and latch ; — the palls are driven by a crank, by each
revolution of which, the first wheel is moved tliroiigh a space equal to one-
tenth of its entire circumference, bringing regularly forward the numbers
from I to 0, at which point, the latch of the second wheel is depressed, and
the wheel moves forward one division, marking the tens ; the same process
is repeated with regard to the other wheels, and thus any amount of num-
bers can be registered, by simply increasing the number of the wheels in
proportion.

Machines on this plan are now generally adopted in the Bank of England
with perfect success, and in some cases they are added to the Bramah num-
bering machines; and as the author believed that they might be adapted to
other purposes than Bank-note printing, he presented the drawings and des-
cription of them to the Institution.

June 14. — The President in the Chair.

" On Iron Sheathing, broad-headed Nails, and Inner Sheathing for Ships."
By J. J. Wilkinson.

These three papers complete the subject which the author commenced in
the year 1841, and continued during the present session.*

The first treats of the use of beaten iron, and iron nails, even in Ycry an-
cient vessels, their corrosion, and consequent abandonment ; the attempted
introduction of rolled iron for the purpose of sheathing. It touches hghtly
on the construction of iron vessels, and on various atteraps to protect them,
which experience has now shown to be unnecessary, as the first iron steamer
built by Mr. A. Manby in 1821, at the Horseley iron-works, has been in con-
stant use on the river Seine up to the present period, without showing any
symptoms of oxidation, although the only precautions taken, have been to
apply a coat of pitch, as often as to a wooden vessel. Extracts are then
made from Mr. Grantham's treatise on " Iron as a material for Ship-
building."t A list is then given of the patents connected with iron sheathing

» Minutes of Proceedings, 1841, pp. 318, 357, and 360, Vol. IV, and 1842,

p K9.

+ Iron ns a Material for Ship-luilding. By John Grantham. .Simpkin and
Co., 1842. Pages 6, 7,' 8. and 9.

" The first iron steam-vessel, and the first that ever put to sea, was built
at the Horsiley Iron Works, for the IliTer Seine, and called the ' Aaron
Manby,' after the name of the projector and builder. I have lately been
favoured by Mr. Manby viith the parliculars relating to this vessel, which
are very interestins; as recording the origin of iron steam-vessels. He slates
in his communication, dated 19th February. 1842, that under a patent «hich
he took out in France for iron steam-boats, in 1820, he, with his friend
Captain (now Admiral Mr Charles) Napier, formed a society, and immedi-
ately be^an to construct the first boat at Horseley, but owing to some cir-
cumstances connected with the parties at Pari.';, she was not completed till
the fnd of 1821. .She was then sent to London in parts, and put together in
the .Surrey Canal Dock. She took in a cargo of linseed and iron castings
and Captain Napier took charge of her, and navigated her from London
direct to Havre, and thence to Paris, withoutunloading any part of the cargo,
she being the first and only vessel of any description that ever went direct
from London lo Paris. Mr. Manby continues, 'Some time after, I built
another iron steam-vessel of the same description, with a few alterations, at
Horseley; bit, owing lo the navigation laws in France, she could not be
admitted, and w."S obliged to be shipped in parts, anil 1 put her together at
Charenton. near Paris, w here I had then established iron-works, and where I
subsequently ronslructed two olher iron steam-boals, the whole for the navi-
galion of the .Seine. They continued prosperously at work till 18.30, when,
owing to the Revolution, and some disputes among the shareholders, they
were sold to a new society. In this new society I had no further interest,
but they continued navigating up to the period of my quitting France, and I
believe" are all at work at the present time. From 1822 to 1830 the hull of
the ' Aaron Manby " never required any repairs, although she had been re-
peatedly aground, with her cargo on b ard.'

'• The next iron steam-vessel with which I am acquainted was one built by
the Horseley Company, under my father's (Mr. Grantham, sen.) superintend-
ence. This vessel was commenced about the year 1824; was put together in
this port (Liverpool^, and after a series of delays, crossed the Channel in
182.5, and proceeded to her destination. Lough Derg, on the river Shannon.
.Since then she has been constantly at work, and is now in good condition.

".Shortly after this time, Mr. John Laird of Nnrlh Birkenhead, com-
menced building them on a large scale, and has since been extensively and
successively engaged in this pursuit. Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, also
very early took an interest in iron-vessels, and was a party to a series of
experiments made at Glasgow, in which iron vessels were employed.

•' The ' Ironsides ' was the first iron sailing vessel of any magnitude that

and the various modes of preserving it from corrosion, alluding particularly
to the valuable labours of Mr. Mallet (of Dublin) on this subject in the
archives of the Institution.*

The next division treats of metallic sheathing or a coating of metallie
o.xide, formed by driving broad-headed nails nearly in contact with each
other, into the sheathing board ; this process is called filling. The nails
used for this purpose by the Romans, were of the same form as those of the
present day. There are autlientic records of " filling " being generally ia
use in this country in 1660 — but it is conjected that it was practised much.
antecedent to that time, and it has continued in use until recently in Swedish
and Danish ships. This mode of protecting the piles of harbours and piers
from the ravages of the worm is then treated of, and examples are given of
its success in various situations.

The third division treats of the inner coating or sheathing, which it has
been found necessary to use, independently of the external metallic sheathing.
It is stated, that some of the stronger and more adhesive kinds of inner
sheathing, have proved mainly instrumental in preserving vessels from sink-
ing, when the outer sheathing has failed or been destroyed.

Hair is noticed as among the earliest materials used for inner sheathing ;
it was usually applied in a loose state and fixed by pitch or other resinous
substances; it was subsequently woven into and used as a cloth — the coarse
part of flax was in the time of the Romans bruised and driven between the
seams of their galleys. A vessel was discovered in the Mediterranean Sea
(between the years 1458 and 1464) in a depth of water of 12 fathoms,
where it is supposed to have lain for nearly 1400 years; the deck and sides
were covered with paper, linen, and leaden plates. In all the oldest vessels
which have been discovered the hair was perfectly fresh, although the timber
was in a state of decay, and it is stated that the worm never penetrates
through an inner sheathing of hair. In the year 1701, when copper
sheathing was introduced, experiments were tried upon dift'erent kinds of
paper for lining, and after trying white-lead and other substances, thick
brown paper dipped in tar was found to be the best.

A list is then given of the patents for different kinds of "felt" now used
for inner sheathing — noticing particularly that of Messrs. Borrodaile and
Co. which appears to be that wliich is most generally approved. Cocoa-nut
fibre and cork, and many other substances, which have been tried at different
times, are noticed, and the paper concludes with a copious list of the ex-
periments upon the subject, which the author has compiled from various
sources.

" On the Sinking and Tut>l/ing, or Coffering of Pits, as practised in the
Coal Districts of the North of England." By Robert Thomas Atkinson,
M. Inst. C. E.

This communication describes the means usually adopted in the Northern
coal districts, for effecting the " winning" of those valuable mines, and the
author expresses the obligation he is under to his uncle Mr. Buddie, to whose
valuable documents he had free access during the progress of liis labours.

It commences with noticing the early periods of mining, before the intro-
duction of steam power for pumping, when the extraction of coal was almost
wholly confined to such tracts as could be drained by free water-courses,
" adits," or levels ; the chain and bucket pumps, and other limited and ex-
pensive means, are then explained, with the principles of free drainage,
showing that it was generally only applicable to districts of small extent,
and that the best mines were left untouched.

Steam-engines upon Newcomen's principle, were first used in the New-
castle district in the beginning of the last century, and they underwent many
modifications, before they were superseded by the Boulton and Watt engines
now generally used. The consequence of this introduction of steam power
for raising coal, instead of accomplishing it by means of horse gins and
other rude contrivances, is that the capability of supply appears only limited
by the demand.

Over and above the weight of coal raised, it is necessary to draw immense
quantities of water for the purpose of draining the mines. In some col-
lieries the weight of water pumped up, amounts to as much as four times
that of the coal raised. At the Percy Main colliery (which is rather an ex-
treme instance) 3922 tons of water are pumped up daily, while only 636
tons of coal are raised in the same time. At the Benwell colliery, which is
an average case, the weight of water amounts to 2020 tons per day, and the
coals raised to 768 tons or 38 per cent, of the weight of water.

The principal technical mining terms in use in the northern districts, are
then explained, and the author proceeds to describe the methods of sinking
the shafts, noticing the difficulties which occur in traversing strata of various
kinds, and the modes of overcoming them — the temporary timbering with
" cribs " and " deals " pievious to walling — and the diflferent kinds of " tub-
was employed for sea voyages, and she has been highly successful. She has
made three trips to and from South America, and fully realizes all the ad-
vantages proposed in her construction."

In a letter from Cliarles Wye Williams, Esq., dated Dublin, August 21,
1842, he says, " The old iron steamer called the ' Marquess Wellesley.' built
for Mr. Grantham at the Horseley Works, is sliU working and in good order.
I went in her recently through Lough Ree and some of the tributary streams
that run into the Shannon,'"— (Sec. Inst. C. E.)

» Minutes of Proceedings, 1840, p. 387,Vol. IIL

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

387

bing or coffering" of wood, stone, or cast-iron, used in passing wet portions
of the strata or perishable rocks ; this part of the subject is treated of very
fully, with all the details of the construction of the different kinds and the
methods of using them. The cast-iron tubbing, wliich was first introduced
by the late Mr. Huddle, is particularly noticed, as is also its use in segments
at the Percy pit in the year 1779; some instances are given of the decom-
position of cast-iron tubbing and pumps, when exposed to the smoke of
underground furnaces and the action of mineral water, the combined action
of which has been found to reduce the metal to the consistency of plum-
bago.

The construction of the pumps, buckets, clacks, rods, &c. composing the
apparatus for raising the water from the mines, is then fully described, with
the " off-take joints " and the " fish-head " for drawing a " drowned clack."
The " hanging sets " or columns of pumps, with their " ground spears " used
in sinking the shafts, are also described, with the method of fixing the cis-
terns at interrals in the shafts, for the different sets of pumps, which are all
of the " lifting" kind.

Accounts are then given of the sinking of Percy pit, Flatworth colliery,
commenced in 1799 — of Howden pit, Percy Main colliery, in 1804 — and of
a pit at the Barrow Field coUierj' ia 1822, in all of which, great difficulties
were encountered.

An explanation is then given of the extensive and complete set of sections
of pits, drawings of the machinery, and of the models which accompanied
the paper, and the author promises to extend the subject on a future occa-
sion, as this communication is less comprehensive than was intended and
has been sent in its present state for the purpose of complying during the
session, with the usual condition of election.

June 21. — James Simpson in the Chair.

" The History of the Canal of Kalmyk, CHolland,) with a Description of
ihe principal Works." By the ChevaUer F. W. Conrad, translated by Charles
Manhy, Secretary, Inst. C. E.

This communication is divided into three parts: — 1, The introduction;
2, The history of the Canal of Katwyk ; and 3, A description of the prin-
cipal works.

1. The introduction gives the general outline of the locality of this canal,
which is probably one of the most useful and extensive works undertaken in
Holland, for the purpose of draining the low lands and rendering them
capable of cultivation ; it is carried in a north-east direction from the village
of Katwyk-binnen through the sand-banks to the North Sea, where it is
terminated by five sea locks : it was undertaken for the purpose of draining
the district called " Khynland," a succinct account of which is given, with
details of the early attempts at draining, such as the embankments of Ma-
rendyk, those of Spaarndam, &c., tracing them up to the time of Count
WiUiam the Second, king of the Romans, in the year 1253 ; at which period
the level of the district was identical with that of medium tide, and each
" Polder " (or spot of cultivated land) was separately protected from the
spring tides by an embankment ; a change has occunred in the relative levels,
whether by the sinking of the land or the elevation of the sea is, it appears,
a subject of dispute, but it is certain that the level of the river Y and of the
Zuyder Zee is now much above that of the Rhynland district. The natural
consequence of this change, has been to increase the demand for artificial
drainage by canals, and of windmills for pumping, and also the establish-
ment of local boards of direction, whose duty is the superintendence of the
works for the protection of the lowlands.

The district of Rhynland contains 127,000 bonniers or 317,500 English
acres, which is thus divided : —

Bonniers. English Acres.

1. Polders, or Districts embanked audi

drained by windmills J

2. Lakes and Peat-bog already laid dry

3. Land without mills and sandbanks onl

the borders of the North Sea . . . J

4. Lakes, Canals, Ditches, Peat-bogs aban-1

doned, &c j

54,831
15,262
32,630

24,277 ="""60,692-5

= 137,077-5
= 38,155-0
= 81,575-0

127,000 = 317,5000

The drainage is efifected by 268 windmills, working scoop wheels or Archi-
medean screws.

Within this district, is included the Lake of Haarlem, which alone extends
over 18,000 bonniers or 45,000 English acres; the drainage of it is now
commenced and will restore a tract of very valuable land.

The enumeration of the original locks at Spaarndam and other places, is
given, showing their incapacity for carrying off the waters, particularly when
unfavourable winds prevented their free current into the Y, and hence the
necessity for the canal of Katwyk and the choice of that particular spot,
which is not aflfected by the prevailing winds.

2. The historical portion of the memoir, treats of the naturally unfavour-
able position of the district for drainage ; it mentions a project for a canal

at Katwyk in the year 1404, as related by Professor Lulofs,* on the authority
of the historian Van Mieiis; and enumerates all the various examinations of
the levels, the projects of tunnels, canals, lic., the appoijitmcut of numerous
committees, the local opposition to the several plans, the repairs of the em-
bankments, which had become so expensive that the landholders abandoned
their estates, rather than pay the cost of preserving them ; the attempt to
form a small canal through the sandbanks, which was either closed by a
heavy storm or was suffered to fall to decay; the eflect of the siege of
Leyden by the Spaniards in 1573-4, when instead of draining the country,
every attempt was made to cause an influx of the waters to annoy the in-
vading army. It appears that subsequently the expense of renewing the
hydraulic works would have been so considerable, that they were in a great
measure abandoned for a time. In 1627, attention was again given to the
subject, and Katwyk was pointed out as the only spot for an effectual svstem
of drainage. The map by Bolstra, which the author promises to send, shows
all the plans with great precision.

The reports are then given of all the various engineers and scientific men,
on the drainage of the Lake of Haarlem, in all of which the Canal of
Katwyk is a principal feature. The very able tract by Mr. Twent on the
state of the drainage of Rhynland, and the necessity for a canal at Katwvk,
is mentioned as one of the principal causes for its final construction. After
the publication of this tract, Mr. Brunings, in the year 1802, caused the
nomination of Mr. Conrad (the father of the author) and Messrs. Blanken,
jnu. and Kros, to report upon the project ; which they did with such effect,
that in May 1804, it was ordered to be executed by the reporters, under the
superintendence of Mr. Brunings, the director-general of the " AVatersfaat ;"
the plan selected being that which was laid down by Mr. Conrad. In
August of the same year, the works were commenced, and in 1805 were so
far advanced, that in June the first stone of the inner lock was laid : Mr.
Conrad, who in consequence of the decease of .Mr. Brunings had assumed
the chief direction, carried on the works with such activity, that they were
entirely finished by the month of October 1807, without the occurrence of
any accident, although they had to support several very severe storms during
their progress. On one occasion just as the masonry of the locks was
finished the level of the tide was raised by a storm 2-36 metres (2-5 4 yards)
higher than usual, carrying away the external cofferdam, but such was the
solidity of the masonry that it resisted perfectly.

A steam-engine was fixed for pumping up a head of water for scouring
the sand from the exterior canal ; and the final opening of the canal took
place with great ceremony on the 21st October, 1807, when a medal was
struck to commemorate the event, a copy of whicli is given by the author to
the Institution.

Mr. Conrad made a series of experiments which completely proved the ef-
ficacy of the works, and then was carried off within the short space of three
months from the termination of his successful labours, which will hand
down his name to posterity, as the projector and executor of one of the
most useful engineering works on record.

A slight sketch is then given of the origin of the Lake of Haarlem, the
causes of its extension, and the works already executed in anticipation of its
eventual drainage.

The third part consists of a detailed description of the principal works at
Katwyk, with their dimensions, and the necessary references to the drawings
which accompany the paper.

The length of the canal from the Rhine to the sand-banks near the lock,
is 2260 metres (2471-53 yards) of an average depth of 2-20 metres (2-40
yards) beneath the conventional height of tide for the kingdom of Holland,
from which all tidal measures are taken ; it corresponds with the average
tides of the river Y; the common tide at Katwyk falls 0-60 metres (0-65
yards) below and rises 1-02 metres (1-115 yards) above that standard.

From that lock to the next, is 490 metres (535-86 yards) of the same
depth; the additional canal is 1108 metres (1211-70 yards) long, the widths
at the standard level vary between 13 and 40 metres, (14-21 and 43-74
yards) and the side slopes, which are all puddled and covered with turf, vary
between 1 to 1 and 3 to 1.

The outer canal which has been made chiefly by scouring, is 151 metres
(165-13 yards) long, to low-water mark, at a depth of 0-47 metres (0 5139
yards); below that point, it is 37-67 metres (4119 yards) wide and the
sides are constructed of fascines covered with stone.
The principal works enumerated are —
1st. The sea locks (buiten sluis.)
2nd. The interior lock (binnen sluis.)

3rd. A bridge of three arches at the sea locks, with balance gates and
rising sluices.

4th. A bridge of two arches over the canal in the Noordwykcrweg.
The five sea locks are each 19-78 metres (21-63 yards) long and 3-77
metres (4-12 yards) wide; with the mouths of the out-fall culverts 1-88
metres (205 yards) below the standard tide level. They are founded upon
piles of red and white deal, with sleepers, and the whole faced and covered
with deal plank sheathing.

The masonry of the foundations and of the principal part of the con-
struction, is of blue limestone from Escosine, squared and well bedded. A

• Lulofs' Treatise on the Elevation of the Sea and the Depress ion of the
Land on the coasts of Holland, Transactions of the Society of Haarlem
p. 1, f. 88.

388

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

hard stone called " klinkers " is also niucli used for ashlar work, and an in-
ferior quality of stone for rubble-work, with bricks.

The mortar used up to a short distance above the standard tide level, vfas
ni;:de from stone lime, and above that, of lime made from sea-shells ; cement
was alao used in several parts.

The modes of constructing these various works are given in minute detail ;
many of them, ditt'ering materially from the English method of construction,
possess great interest ; particularly those v/hich relate to the embankments
and the fascine work.

A description is then given of the Canal of Oegstgeest, which is a pro-
longation of the Canal of Katwyk for the purpose of bringing into the
latter, the waters from the Lake of Haarlem ; as well as a means of carrying
off the waters of a portion of Rhynland, during and after the drainage of
the lake.

In consequence of the establishment of this canal, the Canal of Katwyk
required to be enlarged, which was done to the extent of rendering it 52
metres (50'S6 yards) wide, with an average depth of 2'20 metres (2'40
yards) below the standard level. The bridges were also enlarged, and it is
now contemiilated to add two openings to the inner lock, those of the sea
locks being already of sullicient capacity.

Having described the works in detail, the author enters into some general
remarks upon the effuct produced by the canal, one of the principal being its
beneficial use in determining the possibility of draining the Lake of Haarlem.
Thirty-five years of experience, have demonstrated that this canal is the
surest remedy for the peculiar position of the district of Rhynland with
regard to drainage ; the constant action of the North Sea has made no im-
pression upon the simple but solid masonry of the sea locks, in fact, the
Canal of Katwyk appears to be one of the most remarkable hydraulic works
ever constructed for the protection of Holland.

The author concludes the paper by stating, that although he could with
difficulty spare the time from his professional labours on the Amsterdam
railway, of which he is the engineer, he was induced to undertake the labour
of drawing up this memoir, by the subject being one of those proposed by
the Institution of Civil Engineers, in the list for Telford and Walker Pre-
miums for 1842, and by the desire of doing justice to the memory of his
father, whose early decease alone prevented his name from becoming as ex-
tensively known ps his talents deserved.

The paper is illustrated by nine comprehensive drawings and charts, with
some lithographic views, a portrait of Mr. Conrad, sen., and the medal which
was struck on the occasion of the first opening of the sluices.

" On the Construction of the Bridges on the Bolton and Preston Railway."
By A. J. Adie.

This paper, which was written at the request of General Pasley, and by
him communicated to the Institution, contains a description of the bridges
over the Cowlin firook, the Lancaster Canal, and the Chorley Road, which
alone possess any peculiarities of construction, and they formed the types
upon which the other bridges were built.

In Colonel Sir F. Smith's report upon the Cowlin Brook bridge, he advised
great attention being paid to the bridge on account of its " unusual slight-
uess, and the badness of tb.e ground upon which it was founded." The
author states, that the latter circumstance induced him to design the present
proportions of the work as he' wished to reduce the weight of the piers as
much as jossible; he therefore ventured to deviate from the original design
given by Mr. Rastrick. The result has justified his anticipations, as " after
the mo^ careful inspection not a single crack nor a splnitered stone can be
detected."

The ground where this bridge was to be placed, was found to be a rotten
and compressible mixture of moss, decayed wood, and sand, ^\ith a few large
stones; a foundation was made for each pier by driving in piles 20 feet long
by 12 irches square; upon these were placed the footing courses of Lim-
erick stone 8 inches thick ; the piers were built hollow, so that the utmost
weight placed upon each superficial foot should not exceed 5-2- tons, which
the author states to be a light load for ashlar work : — " In Edinburgh there
are old rubble walls 34 in. thick and above 100 f(. high, which in addition
to all their proportion of eight floors, and a roof, have 6J tons on each su-
perficial foot of the bottom courses, and there is a brick chimney in Bolton,
the bottom courses of which support 8. J tons on the superficial foot."

The bridge consists of eight arches, each of 30 ft. span ; the arch stoues
are 18 in. thick, of hard sandstone from the Whittle hills, except seven
courses at the crown, which are from a better quarry at .\ckrington, near
Blackburn.

The author then mentions, as a precedent for such dimensions, some arches
constructed under Mr. Jardine's direction on the Edinburgh and Dalkeith
Railway ; they were of Craigleith stone, semi-elliptical in form, of 24 ft.
span, with a rise of 4 ft., or ^th of the span; the stones for these arches
were 12 in. deep at the springing, and 9 in. deep at the crown; the abut-
ments of one of them are founded on platforms of timber, without piles,
resting upon soft plastic blue clay ; they have been standing for upwards of
ten years, and exhibit no signs of failure. Another arch is also mentioned,
constructed by the same engineer, over the South Esk, near Dalkeith, the
span of which is 55 ft., and the versed sine 12 ft.; the keystone is 18 in.
deep, and the springers 21 in. in depth.

The author objects to placing a mass of earth upon the haunches of the
arch, as, from the tremour caused by the passing of the railway trains, the
eaith has always a tendency to be wedged in between the side walls and to
force them out ; he therefore left voids above the arch stones, allowing only
sufficient weight of masonry upon the haunches, and thus securing the rapid
hardening of the mortar ; for this latter reason also the walls of rnbblc-work
never much exceed 3 feet in thickness, and they have been found much
stronger in consequence.

The railway is carried over this viaduct on longitudinal bearers, 13 inches
deep by 6 inches thick, laid on planks 3 inches thick ; the bearers and
planks are not fixed together with a view to diminish the vibration of the
passing trains : this method of laying is stated to be very effective in tills
respect.

The Lancaster Canal Bridge was originally intended to have been a direct
span of 00 feet, constructed of iron, but the directors subsequently decided
on building a skewed stone arch of 25 feet span on the riglit angle. The
arch is semi-elliptical on the square, with a transverse axis of 41 feet 2 inches
and a semi-conjugate axis of 8 feet 9 inches ; the arch stones are 2 feet
3 inches on the square at the springing, and 1 foot 6 inches at the key-stone ;
the bed joints intersect at right angles all the lines of sections of the intrados,
made by vertical planes, parallel to the elevation; and it is that property
that causes the chamfer lines of the beds of the stones to diverge from the
springing to the crown. These lines of the curved joints are easily laid down
on the sheeting of the centres from a full-sized development, and by lines
drawn at different heights, parallel to the springing of the arch. The lines
of the radiating bed joints are always perpendicular to the tangent of aa
ellipse of the same form as the elevation of the bridge, the moulds used to
form this being applied in the plane of the elevation. The twist on the
length of the beds of the courses was taken from full-sized skeleton moulds
of the form of the oblique elli|)se or elevation. The five courses running
parallel to the abutments are all of the same form and have the same amount
of tv(ist on the beds of each stone, except the end stones of the courses,
which are varied in length to suit the general breaking of the joints of the
courses resting together. The centre pait of the arch is plain square
work.

This mechanical method of finding the lines, and the twist of the radiating
beds for an elliptical skewed arch, is destitute of the scientific accuracy of
the mode by which Mr. Buck calculates his spiral lines for oblique bridges,
of which the section at right angles to the abutment is an arc of a circle ;
but the workmen had no difficulty in putting it in practice, and the author
states that he would have had more trouble in constructing trussed centres
for a flatter curve of a circular arc, and at the same time keeping the towing
path of the canal open. He states that he has not met with any description
of an arch executed in this manner, but he considers it the only true prin-
ciple. Every very thin section par.iUel to the elevation is a proper elliptical
arch, and there is a very great saving of stone from the smallness of the
twist on the curved beds as compared to the common method of working
them.

The Chorley Road Bridge is a compound of the common and skewed
arches, which the author finds convenient and economical. He has executed
several upon this plan ; they are as perfect as the best common arches, and
free from skirting of the soffits of the stones. The section of this bridge at
right angles shows a rise of 5 feet, with a span of 25 feet. The springers at
this part are 15 inches deep, and the key-stone is 13 inches deep; on the
oblique section, or the elevation, the span is 37 feet 9 inches, and the rise
5 feet ; the springers are 24 inches deep, and the key-stone is 17 inches
deep.

The straight part of the arch is formed vfith courses about 10 inches on
the soffit, and these are turned round in curved lines which are portions of
circles, the straight parts of the courses being then tangents, and they cut
the lines of the elevations at right angles, so that there is no more tendency
of the arch to sink at the elevation than would be the case with any elliptical
segment of similar dimensions worked in the ordinary way. The part of the
acute angle of the arch is formed with courses which converge from the ele-
vation to the abutments, on account of being arcs cutting the elevations at
right angles, and then becoming nearly taugential at the springing. The
curves for these courses were transferred from the development to the sheet-
ing, iu the same way as those for the Lancaster Canal Bridge, and the twist
of the beds was taken off full-sized sections of the arch, made in the direc-
tions of the converging lines of the extremities, so that at each of these
places the beds were worked as if for part of a true eUiptical arch, and the
beds between the points thus formed were worked off with curved rules found
from the development. After the masons got into the way of working this
kind of arch, they of their own accord preferred it to the complete skewed
arch. In brick work built in this way, it would be very easy to skew the
ends of a long arclnvay by having the bricks moulded to the curvature of
the key-course, as with a very little alteration they would fit any part of the
concentric courses, and a few tapered bricks would facilitate the fiUing up
of the fan-shaped part of the haunch of the acute angle.

The communication was illustrated by several detailed drawings and a
model of the bridge, with schedules of the prices and cost of the woiks.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECrS JOURNAL.

389

DR. PAYERNE'S PURIFICATION OF FOUL AIR.

The notice taken of Dr. Payerne and liis diving-bell experiments in
the last number of tbs Journal, bas elicited a long article in the
Times, evidently from the same pen which recorded the performances
of Dr. Payerne at Spithead. The tone of the article is, however,
altogether ditierent from the preceding ones, being rather apologetic
than laudatory. Though the writer deprecates the manner in which
we analysed the Doctor's performances, he tacitly admits that the
result of our analysis is correct ; — that nothing, in short, had been
accomplished by the apparatus which might not have befn done
without it. This admission of Dr. Payerne's apologist formed the
sum and substance of our remarks, the object being to guard against
the adoption of any plans founded on such an unsatisfactory basis.
We did not deny Dr. Payerne's power to purify air; we merely as-
serted that if he possessed such power, he had afTorded no sufHcient
proof of its agency. The insinuation of charlatanry is censured by
the writer in the Times, but he, at tlie same time, admits
that such an accusation is partly justified by the foolish and absurd
paragraphs published in tlie papers respecting the wonderful powers
of a sub-marine boat proposed by Dr. Payerne for navigating the
bottom of the ocean ; and the writer seems particularly anxious to ex-
plain, that Major-General Pasley never sanctioned that peculiar plan
of navigation.

Since our former article on this subject was written, we understand
that some trials have been made of Dr. Payerne's apparatus in the
puriiication of the air of mines. The experiments are briefly and
unsatisfactorily recorded, but they are represented to have fully
answered. If the invention be applicable to the purification of foul
air in mines, the apparatus will be far more valuable than it could
have been in its first proposed application for sub-marine operations;
and the Doctor will deserve well of this country for his invention.
We confess, liowever, to have misgivings of such a desirable result,
and wait for further proofs. In the mean time, the secrets of the
" box" begin to ooze out. The French Academy of Sciences, at some
of their recent sittings, have had inventions submitted to them for the
purification of air in diving-bells ; and though Dr. Payerne's name
does not appear in the reports, we imagine that the plans proposed and
his are the same. It may be remembered that we before hinted the
box might contain highly compressed oxygen gas. This seems ac-
tually to form part of the plan submitted to the French Academy of
Sciences, but the ingenious inventors propose to use oxygenated
water instead of oxygen gas alone. Absorption of gas, as well
as its generation, is likewise contemplated ; for it is proposed to
absorb the carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs by caustic lime.
If this constitute the whole of Dr. Payerne's secret, we conceive it
will avail him nothing. The absorption of carbonic acid gas by caustic
lirae might possibly be effected on a scale sufficiently great to produce
practical results ; but unless there be invented some more ready and
more economical mode of obtaining oxygenated water than at present
known, no real advantage could be derived from the application of
any such plan, either for the purification of the air in mines, or for
sub-marine explorations.

We subjoin abstracts of the reports read to the French Academy of
Sciences to which we have alluded : —

Sept. 2(5. — A communication was made by M. Thi-nard, on the
means for remaining for a long period in a limited quantity of air, by
the absorption of the carbonic acid gas exhr.led, and the renewal of
oxygen in proportion to its consumption. That the carbonic acid gas
exhaled, luul which, in excess, ln'comes fatal, miy be absorbed by
lime is a well-known fact, but as it is necessary, in the purification of air,
to replace the oxygen, which is the vital principle, as well as to get
rid of the excess ot^ what is injurious, the great object to be attained
in cases where, as in diving bells, it is important to make the same
limited volume of air serve fur several hours, is to produce oxygen
with ease and certainty. M. Tluiiard proposes to employ oxygenated
water, and has shown that not less than 47o times the volume of water
of oxygen-gas may be compressed in this vehicle, and subsequently
liberated as required. But to produce this result, great care and
expense are necessary, and, when obtained, the ditliculty of prevent-
ing the escape of the oxygen, when not wanted for immediate use, is
also very great.

Oct. 3. A communication from M. Sondalo was read, on the means of
purifying the air which has been already taken into the lungs from the
carbonic acid gas with which it is charged. This gentleman informs
the Academy that be remained under water an hour, clothed with a
waterproof dross, and having with him, in a small vessel, the prepara-
tion of lime required for the absorption of the carbonic acid and the
oxygenated water, in order to renew the oxygen of which the air

already breathed had been deprived. With the aid of this small
apparatus, contained within his dress, he was able, during the time
above stated, to purify the air which he took down with him.

[Since the above was in type and as we were closing tlie Journal
we received a communication from Dr. Payerne, commenting on our
strictures of last month ; we regret that it arrived too late for inser-
tion in the present number, it shall however appear next month.]

THE ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSION.

[In another part of the Journal we have inserted a letter from a
Correspondent respecting the conduct of the above commission to-
wards the architects; since then we have procured a copy of the A
report from which we give the following extracts.] "

The commissioners have agreed to certain regulations respect-
ing grants towards providing houses of residence. They are as
follow : —

Grants towards purchasing or erecting houses of residence will, for
the present, be made only to meet benefactions from other sources,
except in cases coming within the third class, and under other special
circumstances.

All benefactions must be paid to the commissioners before they
can enter into any arrangement either for purchase or for rebuilding.

Every house proposcd'to b-T purcliaaed must be surveyed by the archi-
tect of the commissioners, and every new house must be built according
to his designs and under his exclusive superintendence, the commission-
ers entering into the necessary contracts.

Plans approved by the commissioners have been transmitted to the
several archdeacons, diocesan registrars, bishop's secretaries, and
chapter clerks, with a request that they will allow them to be in-
spected by the clergy; and the plans may also be seen at the office of
the commissioners.

Before a contract for building is entered into, reasonable variations
in these plans may be allovved, to meet local or other peculiarities ;
but no extensive deviation from the general design of the commis-
sioners will be permitted, uor any alteration which is calculated to en-
tail additional expense upon succeeding incumbents.

In meeting benefactions towards providing a house, a general rule
of proportion will be observed, by which a house built according to
the plans of the commissioners (painted, papered, and fitted with
grates, bells, &c.), being about £900, the benefaction required will be
about £450 in cases of public patronage, and about £540 in cases of
private patronage.

"BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF ARCHITECTURAL
DRAUGHTSMEN."
The formation of an institution for aflfording relief to distressed
architectural draughtsmen, and for ameliorating the conditions of that
class of artists generally is an object which would comniand our best
wishes, and particularly when we see so laudable an eftbrt as the for-
mation of an annual exhibition of architectural drawings conjoined
with it; but we are not prepared to admit that the plan now proposed
is the best for carrying the object into effect. The rules are too much
on the trades-union system to agree with the respectability ot the
body in question. An annual dinner is doubtless a very good thing,
but we do not approve of one levied by fines on the members at large;
neither do we think that a dinner is the most appropriate time for our
artistic exhibitions. We should, therefore, recommend the abandon-
ment of the whole penal code, the adoption of a more suitable pe-
riod than August for an exhibition, and an extension of the plan so as
to include engineering draughtsmen. The whole system of manage-
ment must also be revised, and the names of the managers published,
and with such amendments, we have no doubt that the plan being well
meant will meet with the strong support it highly merits.

/JWi'mH Kmlron.ls.-llnisitU, Oct. 21.-M. NucI, Inspector ot brid-es and
highways, bas visileJ the whole sfclicin of the railway from Omirlray to
Tovu-nay. 'l liougl. llie buililinj;s are not laiishod, the road miy be opened
to Hie public on the 23i-.l <-f Ociobcr. Tlie Minisler of Public W orks «ill be
iiiesent at the (.peiiing. For ibe present there will be only two trains m .a.
(lay from Tournay to Brussels, and vice I'crsa. With respect to the section oi
Turco ns. it seems iha; a trial will be made on the first KUlaysot Noveinjer,
and that the inausuratiou will be on the lath, when the Kins has niMmiscd
to be present. The Fivneli trains have arrived at Lille ; there is therelore
nothinc to prevent the liains trom immediately be(;iimins to run ; but the
French train at present takes only p:isscn;;ers, aiul no r. mis. lliesecuon
ot St. Saulye will probably bo opened about I he same time.

3 1

390

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[NOVEMBKR,

REVIS'WS.

Arlick "Theatre," Penny Cyclopaidia.

Since our last notice of tliis publication, one or two other inter-
esting arcliifectiiral articles liave appeared in if, and among tlieni,
tliat of "Temiile," wliicli, if it does not contain much upon the
subject that can be said to be new, treats it so as to give it con-
siderable freshness, and brings forward many remarks that we meet
with for the first time. Were it only on account of the table which
accompanies it, that article conveys a good deal of inforraulion not to
be obtained elsewhere. What architectural articles of this class are
introduced at all into other encyclopffidias, are for the most p^irt ex-
ceedingly meagre, and little better than mere compilations— taken at
once from the most accessible source that first presents itself, ap-
parently without any further research, and with very little previous
study of the subject itself. As to the general execution of the Penny
Cyclopedia in its other deparlraenis, we do not pretend to offer an
opinion, but we will sav— and that without fear of contradiction, that
its architectural article's are both more numerous, and more instructive
than those in similar works— a remark which is, perhaps, almost super-
fluous, after the extracts we h.ave given from those on " Portico,"
"Spiie," "Staircase," &c. iNIany articles of architectural biography
have likeuise been introduced, which are not to be met with in any
other Enolish publication— not even in those which are professedly
biograplncal ones— such as Rodriguez, Quaglio, Temanza, Tessin, &c.
Were there nothing else to stamp the articles in the Penny Cyclo-
padia, many of them are rendered more than ordinarily valuable and
useful bv communicating a great deal of information in a condensed
tabular 'form, which is'an exceedingly convenient one for reference
and comparison. And although such tables amount to little more
than compilation, it is such as requires considerable research and di-
ligence, and shows that no trouble has been spared to render the ar-
ticles as complete as may be, by collecting together into the briefest
possible compass what is scattered about in fragments, and through a
great number of volumes.

The article Theatke is certainly not one of the least interesting of
tliose relative to architecture which have appeared in this Cyclopedia,
for it affords a clearer insight into the subject than has been done any-
where else ; and sets in a very forcible light the vast difterence be-
tween the system of the ancient and that ot the modern theatre and
stage, in favour of which last the writer most expressly decides, llie
arguments for so doing are tolerably cogent ones, and must, we think,
carrv conviction to all who are not thoroughly Winded by their clas-
sical prejudices ; at any rate it will be for those who dislike what he
savs as to the defects of the dramatic performances of the ancients, to
refute it by proofs to the contrary. The very circumstance of their
taking place in the open air, and by daylight, must, as he observes,
have proved more or less injurious to scenic illusion, as ar as sucli
illusion was at all attempted, fur at the utmost there could have been
no very great degree of it. The permanent architectural scena or
facade at the back of the stage, is tolerably satisfactory proof t^liat
there could have been no iccncry ; and even what is said in regard to
the magnificence there displayed, chiefly shows how extravagant and
prepcsterous such decoration must have been. In fact 1 liny s ctes-
cription-if description it maybe called-of the scena of hcaurus
theatre is hardly credible: when he tells us that it was ornamen ed
with no fewer than 3GU columns, and 3000 statues, we think that
either he himself MmicUav.umscs very cutvageously, or tliat some
such small mistake as that of turning tens into hundreds and thou-
sands, has been committed by the copyists of manuscripts. Besides,
as that theatre was merely a temporary one, and was taken down
again long before Plinv's time, he could speak of it only from hearsay,
nor does he appear to'huve been at all deficient in credulity, and an
appetite for the marvellous. Could the matter be sifted, it won d
nribably turn out to be just such another story as that of bt. L-rsula
and the"da'£nrfo«Sf-«d>irgins-a little inaccuracy arising from mis-
luking the name Undtamilta for a numeral to that amount. Not
content with drawing upon our belief so largely in regard to his
forest of columns and mob of statues, Pliny further assures us that the
middle part or second order of the scena was of glass ! His words
are " ima pars scena: e marmore fuit, media e vitro, maudito etiara
postea genere luxuriffi, summa e tabulis aurstis." \yonder ul, how-
ever, as it is, he neither doubts, nor allows any one else to doubt tins
strange statement. He neither gives us the slightest authority tor it,
nor aueinpls to offer any explanation, but relates it in the most aconic
manner possible, just as if it were a self-evident fact. \\ hat kind ot
authority then, we ask, is Pliny himself, for he seems to liave swal-

lowed with greedy gullabilitv all the incredible stories he could pick
up ? Scaurus' theatre was after all merely a temporary structure, how
then came Plinv to be so well informed as to the exact number of
columns and statues? or knowing so much, how happened it that he
knew no more, and could not explain how they were disposed, or how
room could possibly be found for that enormous number ; or again,
what was to be understood, or what he himself understood by the ex-
pression " media i vitro ?" Does nirum here mean glass at all ?— or
had not Plinv himself taken a glass too much when he was writing
that passage'? And how comes it that the name of the architect who
contrived such a truly astonishing work has been nowhere recorded ?
Admitting Pliny's account, however, to be true, it is not very credible,
because so exceedingly vague and obscure, that it is impossible to
understand or make anything out of it. Nevertheless, it is from such
vague hints and surmis'es, that modern antiquaries have formed their
ideas of the magnificence of the ancient theatres, and that not only in
regard to the edifices themselves, but the stage itself and its appar-
atus, and whatever enters into the system of dramatic representation.
Not so the writer in the Penny Cyclopaedia; since so far from af-
fecting to admire the ancient theatre, he dwells at some length upon
its great and numerous defects, and upon those of the stage itself.
For what he savs on that head, however, we must refer to the article
itself, from which we quote nothing relative to the ancient theatre
than the following list of some of the principal ones now known.

Ancnuirium
Aspendus

(scena Ionic and Corinth.)
Athens, Tlieatrc of Bacchus

,, Odeion
Cnidus
llelos

Dramyssus, or Joaunina
Ephesus
Epidaurus
Herculaneum
HierEpolis

'aodicea, Great Tlieatre
Limyra
Mantineia
Miletus
Myra

Xicopohs (in Epirus)
Orange (scena only remaining, 336 ft.
Patara
Pcrga

Phellus

Pola, about

(destroyed 1636, but plan preserved
Pompeii
Pompeiopolis
Rome, theatre Marcellus
Sardes

Sollnus (in Cilicia)
Sicvon

Side

Sparta
Stratonicca
Syracuse
Tauromenium

Tecs

Tralles

Dlam. Orchestra.

197 feet.

400 25 rows of seats.

250
90
400
175
440
660
370

180 IGrow
346
304
19.)
227
474
360
360
wide, 114 ft. high.)
255

72 ft.
36

78

240

55

of seats.

100

136

not known

not known

224

120

120

400
200
bv Scamozzi)

190

96

25 rows of seats.
Scena 150.
68

62
138
172
162

212

517

395

114

313 100

390 120

453 217

390 106

440

330 width of scena 132

285 70

540 150

" Of some of these theatres scarcely anything remains, little more than their
general shape and extent being now distinguishable; accordingly the state-
ments of their dimensions are not to he strictly relied upon, though they are
siifKcient to enable us to estimate their comparative size."

In what is said on the subject of modern theatres we meet
with many useful hints, and other information, and shall therefore
venture to borrow pretty largely from that part of the article, where
after specifying many fa'ults and disadvantages in olden structures ot
the kind the writer proceeds to say — ■

Very great reforms have now taken place, yet there is still room for fur-
ther improvements, obvious, though not likely to be adopted so long as it is
considered a matter of course that the space before the curtain must be made
to contain as manv persons as can possibly be packed into it, and tliat an
audience must be 'piled np around the whole house to the very ceiling. We
do not say that modern theatres are too lofty ; the error does not ho there
hut in carrying up the boxes, tier after tier, to such apropos erous height
that the uppermost box is several feet above the top of the curtain or stage-
openings, and the back scats of the upper-gallery are actually on a level with

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

391

the ceiling over the pit. Such accumulation of diminutive stories gives a
crowded appearance to the wliole, and leaves no space for architectural de-
coration around the upper part. No doubt a very striking appearance of a
ditFerent kind presents itself from the pit and from the stage, when the
house is entirely filled to the very top ; and if we consider merely the coup-
d'ceil from such points, it may he allowed to be imposing. But then, as re-
gards that part of the audience who occupy the upper part of the house, tlie
arrangemeut is bad. From the seats which are at all above the level of the
top of the curtain, there is only a bird's-eye view of the stage and the sce-
nery, and that only from the front seats, and also facing the stage, for from
those on the side of it it is impossible at that height to obtain a sight of the
scene or even the actors, unless when they come forward tov.ai ds the foot-
lights. There should be no seats at a greater height than midway that of
the curtain, or the level of what is now the second tier of boxes in our large
theatres; for, as the sealery can be painted only to one horizon — generally
that of the stage itself — its perspective effect is more or less impaired when
it is seen from either very much above or below that level. No less pre-
posterous is the practice of continuing the side-boxes up to the proscenium,
and sometimes (as in the Opera-house at London) quite up to the very cur-
tain, so that there is no proscenium tt all, unless the space on the floor of
the stage, between the curtain and foot-lights can be so called. While those
■so seated lose the scenery altogether, they have the disadvantage of seeing
between the wings on the side opposite them; and although the positive
inconvenience resulting from such arrangement is felt only by a portion of
the audience, the bad eft'ect occasioned by it extends to the whole theatre.
Not only ought there to be a distinct proscenium, serving as an architectural
frame to the stage and its scenery, dividing that part of the theatre from the
rest, but it ought to be of much ampler proportions than are now given it.
It should extend so far as to leave some interval — a sort of neutral ground-
between the curtain and the boxes, so as to remove the nearest spectator in
them to a tolerable distance for properly viewing the stage as a picture ; for
it is possible to be as inconveniently near the stage as distant from it.
Where, in order to contract the stage, or to render the pit and general dia-
meter of the house considerably greater than what is required for the width
of the curtain, the plan is made to approach a circle (as is the ease in nearly
every theatre built within the last 20 years), the boxes should be contiued to
the semicircle facing the stage ; and, so far from being a blank, the curved
space on each side between them and the curtain might be matle to contri-
bute very much to the architectural appearance of the whole house. This
would not take away any thing from the pit, and if it materially diminished
ihe number of the boxes and seats in them, it would be only where there
aught to be nothing of the kind. The banishing of boxes from such situ-
ations, and making also no more than two tiers, would certainly greatly
abridge the present capacities of theatres ; a house of the same size would
not contain the same number of persons as at present, when a large part of
the audience are put where they cannot well see the performance. It is
likely, therefore, to be objected that such a system would be too expensive,
since a large house would be requisite for a comparatively moderate au-
dience ; but curtailments might very well be made elsewhere, tor at present
the whole building is frequently very much larger and more costly than
actual necessity requires, the " house " itself, be its dimensions what they

i may, taking up a comparatively small area of the entire plan, while th; rest
is occupied by stately approaches and saloons, which, where economv ren-
dered it expedient, might be greatly abridged, and much plainer in style, and
some of them omitted altogether as superfluous appendages.

In some of the modern continental theatres, the pomp displayed in such
accessory parts of the building far exceeds anything of the kind in this
country. In that at }5erliu, besides several other spacious apartments, is a
music-saloon 38 ft. high, -14 wide, and lOS ft. in length in its upper part,
wh-re there is a screen of C Ionic columns at each end; the whole highly
decorated, and forming one of Schinkel's richest pieces of interior arcbitec-
tuiv. The theatre of Miinieh has two staircases to the boxes, witli flights nf
marble stops 1.3 ft. wide; and besides two saloons for the public" (each
82 X 31 ft), there is a very magnificent one communicating with the royal
box — not a mere ante-room, but what would be termed a noble room even
in a palace, its dimensions being 4ij x 44 ft., and 25 in height. In both these
theatres, and in that of Genoa, the royal or state box is itself a room of
some size, about l.j by 18 ft., more or less ; and according to the general
custom of the continental theatres, this box (which occupies the height of
two tiers, and is adorned with caryatides in front) is directly in the centre of
tlie house, facing the stage, consequently in the very best situation of all ;
whereas the situation assigned to royal visitors in our theatres is almost the
very worst, as far as seeing the stage and the performance is concerned.

In regard to the form of the " house," a decided im irovement has taken
place of late years; and the circular plan, or one approaching to it (either
extended by the curtain being a tangent to the circle or somewhat beyond if,
or reduced by the curtain intersecting and forming a chord to the segment),
may now be considered the one established as being the most pleasing and
commodious — that which is best adapted for affording a distinct view of the
stage to the majority of the audience. But there is considerable difference
of opinion .is to its being the best form in regard to hearing. In fact, the
science of acoustics is not yet brought to exactness as regards practical pur-
poses in building : it is easy enough to ascertain beforehand how much of
the stage will be visible from different parts of tlie theatre, but not so what
will be the result as to soimd, since that will depend upon a variety of cir-
cumstances, some of them connteraeting each other, and not every one of
them to be guarded against or foresee. The shape of the house is but one
of them out of many: much will also depend upon size, much upon the
depth of the boxes and galkries, and also upon accidental and such trivial
matters, that any defect of advantage so occasioned is not likely to be traced
to them. Here the chief guide is experience ; and experience seems at pre-
sent to be in favour of, at least not at all against, tire circular form ; for the
new theatres at Mayence, Dresden, and other places where it has been
adopted, are said to be perfectly satisfactory in regard to the actors being
distinctly heard in every part.

The article concludes with a table of modern thealres, dntvvii up on
the same |>laii as some of the other very useful tabular synopses at-
tached to previous architectural articles in this Cyclopajdia, and from
which we have occasionally borrowed. In the pi-esent instance we
must content oursel"-es with a small portion, namely that section of
(he table which relates to Germany and Belgium.

Germany .\nd Belghjm.

.\rchitecf.

Date.

From
Curtain
to Back
of Pit.

= • Stage.

CO

Berlin, Opera-house

„ Great Theatre
Dresden

Hamburg

Mannheim . .
Mayence

Miiiiich

WoUenbiittel, in the
palace

Ghent . . . .

Voa Knohelsdorf 1 740-3

Schinkel
Semper

Scbinlcel

Ant. G. Bibbiena
Moller

K. von Fischer

Ottmer
Roelandt

1816

1837-

1841

1826-7

Fin 1833

Open
1818

1836-7

1837-9

26
43

40

30
54

39

64

42 1

62

1

69 to

50 !

back of

boxes

46

74

78

62

44

29

including

boxes

1

59

1 1

42

58 j

44 I

i

56

I

60 I

i
64

1
I
1

27

50 deep
52 wide
66 deep
86 wide

60 deep
80 wide

71 deep
56 deep
80 wide
91 deep
94 wide

36 deep

56 wide

60 deep
78 wide

An insulated building, 214 x 78 feet. Principal front, Corintnian
portico, hexastyle raonoprostyle, on low basement.

.\ magnificent structure, with Grecian Ionic hexastyle portico on
a lofty flight of steps.

Plan of auditory nearly circular, i.e. a circle of C6 feet diameter,
to which the curtain is a tangent. Four tiers of boxes, aiul
amphitheatre formed by a colonnade of 22 pillars.

Insulated, about 250 x 140 feet, with semicircidar projectioi, 140

feet diameter on one of longer tides or facade.
Burnt Jan. 14, 1823; restored 1824-25. Octastyle Corinthian

portico, inohuling boxes, the auditory, a circle 72 feet diameter,

between which aud curtain is a space of 9 feet. Five tiers of

boxes.
Private theatre, fitted up in Gothic style, but detail in poor taste.

Fayadc 300 feet. Oval saloon 91 x 59, making, with smaller
saloon and concert room, an cxtnr.t of 270 feet.

3 4 2

392

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

Electrotype Manipulalion, Parts I and II. By Charles V. Walker.
Tenth edition.

This little manual, published by Messrs. Knight and Sons, contains
a most complete account of the whole process of electrotype manipu-
lation, so that by its instructions any novice may become a proficient
in this interesting art. The first part is devoted more particularly to
the reproduction of medals, it enters largely into the consideration
of those difficuUies which may be expected to present themselves to
the unexperienced, and states clearly the modes by which they may
be avoided. The second part of the work relates to the more general
applications of electrotype in the arts, particularly those of iilating,
gilding and etching. The directions are given minntely and clearly,
and with a view to conduct the experiments by the most economical
means. We have seldom, indeed, met with a work professing to
give instructions in the manipulation of any art or process of manu-
facture so pratically useful as tliis small volume.

Gas Meters — tlteir Unfairnest
London : G. Mann, 1S42.

Demonstrated. By Henry Fi.owek.

This pamphlet explains the construction of the gas meter, and in what
manner it may be affected so as to show a false register of the quantity
of gas consumed, to the great loss of the consumer.

"An undue quantity of water in a meter will make a difference of
about 20 per cent, in the amount registered over the quantity actually
consumed, but let the water in a meter be ever so nicely apportioned,
still the consumer will sustain a loss of something like 10 per cent.

"Blame, therefore, attaches both to the consumer and to the Com-
panies, but more especially to the latter. It is not to be supposed
that the consumer can enter into the niceties of a complex machine
like a meter. The Gas Companies take good heed that the meters
shall not and cannot give more than a nominal thousand feet for tlie
thousand feet registered, which my experience shows to be not nine
hundred feet for "the thousand," but they leave theirtenants to run
the risk of defrauding themselves out of from 1 to 20 per cent, of gas
as well. If, as the companies construct their meters, that too little
water in them will occasion an impossibility of obtaining a supply of
»as, wdiy should they not be so gauged as to declare to the consumer,
that if he has above a certain quantity of water in his meter, that he is
registering water as well as gas ?"

At the conclusion, Mr. Flower explains Mr. Lowe's ingenious plan
for napthalising coal gas, which appears to be an invention of great
importance.

A Series of Diagrams Itlustraliee of Mechanical and Practical Philosophy
and their Practical Application. London, Chapman and Hall, Part III.
(Published under the superintendence of the Useful Knowledge Society.)

The present number, which illustrates the wheel's axle, has shown several
practical applications of that power. For instance, we have toothed gear,
the crane, friction bands, and a circular saw. Thus, a more mechanical turn
has been given to the work, and we can anticipate that it will in its progress
form a portfolio of working drawings of all the principal machinery and
mechanical applications, suitable for the mechanics' institutions and the work-
shops, and for instruction in all our colleges and academies ; for such views
its value is much increased.

Professor Jfoshi/ig, of King's College, is preparing for publication " Pro-
fesbional Notes on some of the Flem sh and Rhenish Cliurchrs, made during
a recent tour in Flanders and Germany, wilh notices of llie ficlgian and
Prussian Railways, and of the railway works now in progress between Liege
and Aix-lH-Chapelle'' — and he has in ihe press, a work "On llic Princi[)les
and Practice of Archilcclurc, with Remarks on the modern practice of Com-
petition."

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic

Declination.

Dip at 9 A.M.

Dip at 3 P.M.

1842. July .. ..

Of//

23 17 14

68 34

68 39

THE TEMPLE CHURCH.

TuE restoration and repair of the Temple church, at once the most beau-
tiful and perfect memorial of the Order of Kniglits Templars now in existence,
cannot fail to be a subject of congratulation to the country at large. It is
pleasant to reflect that beneath the surface of this bustling and money-loving
world there is a strong mulercurrent of enlightened feeling respecting the
care of our national edifices. The ancient abbey of St. Alban's, Crosby Pa-
lace, and Our Ladye's Chapel, Southwark, are among the more recent struc-
tures preserved from decay by the honourable and ready contributions of
subscribers from all ranks of society. The expense and magnificence of the
repairs in the Temple Church promise to surpass any similar attempt in this
country, the whole of the enormous outlay required being jointly borne by
the two societies of the Inner and Middle Temple.

Those persons to whom the Temple Church wastHimiliar in its late dress
of plaster and whitewash will scarcely recognize the ancient structure in the
gorgeously decorated appearance it now presents. The repairs were com-
menced in 1840. The dilapidated state of the building, in great measure
owing to the reckless manner in which the walls and pillais had been over-
laid with heavy monuments, rendered these works necessary, and, in accord-
ance with the improved taste now prevalent in the public mind, tlic benchers
were led to extend the mere repair into a restoration of the building as nearly
as possible to its original state. The architect. who commenced these works
was Mr. Savage, but owing to some differences between that gentleman and
the building committee of benchers, the charge was transferred to Mr. S.
Smirke on the part of the Inner Temple, and Mr. K. Burton, on that of the
Middle Temple. It is, however, due to Mr. Savage to state, that the plans
prepared by himself have been in a great measure carried out by Ids suc-
cessors.

The Entrance Porch is for the most part new, the e.xcessively orna-
mented old doorway having been partly renewed, and the remainder reworked
.and restored.

The Circular Nave. — The six clusters of old Purbeck marble columns,
which formerly supported the whole superstructure, have been removed and
new columns of the same material substituted. The ceiling of the centre
part (a trnncafed dome of comparatively modern erection) has been taken
down, and a new oak vaulted and grained ceiling substituted, painted by Mr.
^A'ilIement, strictly in accordance with the style of the period. The whole
of the walls, arches, and aisle vaults have been reworked, and new polished
marble shafts substituted for the old columns. The sculptural figures of the
Knights Templars have been restored in the most perfect manner, and will
again occupy their former positions.

The TriI'Orium of the Nave has been converted into a depository for
nearly all the monuments which formerly disfigured the walls of the church.
This gallery, common in all cathedral edifices, now" forms a handsome pro-
menade of 12 feet wide and 15 feet high round the circle, the mural tablets
of most of the eminent lawyers of the last two centuries being carefully
arranged on either side. They are much better seen than formerly, and form
an interesting collection of monumental sculpture.

The SaoARE Chancel. — This part of tlie church, hitherto filled with
pews, which concealed the bases of the marble columns (themselves hidden
by a tliick coating of plaster and paint, through the over-anxious desire to
efface all emblems of the Popish faith on the part of the Protestant lawyers
shortly after the reformation), and encumbered to a height of eight feet from
the ground with oak wainscoting, shutting out the view of the elegant marble
piscina on the south side of the budding, has been entirely cleared of these
unsightly additions. The huge pulpit and organ screen are also removed,
and a new and elegant gallery for the reception of that instrnment has been
erected on the north side, occupying one hay, with a vestry beneath. The
walls of the latter small apartment are studded with monuments, among
which the most conspicuous are those of Lord Eldon, Lord Stowell, and
Oliver Goldsmith. The north and side aisles are eacli divided into five com-
partments ; the eastern division will be occupied by the benchers ladies,
and tliat adjoining by the benchers themselves, every seat having distinct
and elaborately carved elbows. The two next are occupied by the barristers,
and the remaining division by the barristers' ladies. The members of the
Inner Temple will occupy the south, and those of the Middle Temple the
northern side of the church. The whole of the centre is fitted up with
sittings for the students, in the cathedral style of arrangement. The most
prominent object on entering the chancel from the western porch is the
triple-lancet window over the altar. This beautiful specimen of stained
glass, executed by Mr. Willemcnt, F.S.A., is intended to represent the prin-
cipal events in the life of our Saviour.

The prevailing colours used for the decoration of the walls and roof of
the chancel are blue and red. The ceiling is divided into compartments,
alternately ornamented with the armorial bearings of the two Inns. Figures
of several of the early kings of England arc emblazoned on the western
wall, and the shield of the holy cross worn by the Knights Templars is fre-
quently introduced. The altar is entirely new, from the design of Mr.
Smirke. The creed and commandments are painted black, on a gold ground,
with illuminated initials, producing a remarkable richness of effect. The
whole of the designs for the stall-ends and elbows, consisting of grotesque
heais and foliage of the most elaborate description, have been furnished hy
Mr. Cottingham, of the Waterloo-road.

The floor is paved with glazed encaustic tiles, copied exactly from ancient
examples.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3!)3

The bell, v\hicli was formerly in the roof of the circular nave (although
that vas not its original place), has been removed, and hung in a new stone
helfrv turret erected over the Newell staircase on the north side.

THE NEW ROYAL STABLES AND RIDING-HOUSE AT WINDSOR.

These extensive buildings have just been completed (the sum expended
having been brought within the amount of the Parliamentary grant of
f 70,000), according to the original designs of the late Sir Jeffrey M'yatville,
under the immediate superintendence of Mr. Ashton, his successor. Messrs.
Grissell & Peto were the builders employed.

The buildj(^s (the architectural style of which is in perfect keeping with
tliat of the Castle) are on the south side of, and about ITjO yards from, tlie
Royal residence. The whole frontage, towards the Home Parle, extends to
upwards of 300 feet. The stabling and coach-house department occupies
three large quadrangles, quite distinct from each other being divided by
high stone walls. ♦

Accommodation is alTorded, in the aggregate, for 102 horses (exclusive of
13 loose boxes) and 36 carriages.

In the angles of each quadrangle are extensive forage lofts, constructed
with every regard to convenience. Each quadrangle contains extensive sad-
dle and harness-rooms, cleaning-rooms, and other appropriate and necessary
offices, with water laid on throughout, large coppers for heating water, ex-
tensive dung-pits, and other appurtenances. The harness-rooms, which are
heated by stoves, are about 20 feet square. The cleaning-rooms are of rather
larger dimensions. The coachhouses, which are very lofty, are heated by
means of hot air. Some idea may be formed of their dimensions, when it is
stated that the extent of room appropriated for each carriage is 8 feet in the
width, and 20 feet in lengtli. An apparatus for heating water for the use of
the men, and for warming the coach-houses, iXC is attached to each quad-
rangle and situated in the basement, with pipes communieatiiig to every part
of the building where it will be required.

The width of each stable, from the back of the manger to the opposite
wall, is 22 feet — thus allowing plenty of space for the men behind the heels
of the horses. Each of the stables, which are ventilated by means of an
admirable contrivance, through an aperture leading to the roof (and which
can be opened or closed at pleasure), will be lighted at night by gas. The
whole of the flooring is composed of Dutch clinkers. In the centre of each
stall are iron gratings, communicating with cross drains which run into the
heel drains, under the flooring of Dutch clinkers, and through these, by
merely turning a tap at the upper end of the stable, a strong course of water
is forced, cleaning every accumulation away from the under drains into the
common sewer to the river.

The poney stalls, the partitions of which are exceedingly massive, and con-
structed of highly polished oak, are 13 feet long and 6 feet wide. The stalls
(the same material being used for the partitions throughout the stabling de-
partment) for the carriage and riding-horses are a little larger. The fronts
of the mangers, and also the walls at their backs, extending 4 feet in height,
to the top of the hay-racks, are of slate. The front upper edges of the
mangers consist of a revolving cast iron roller, about 3 inches in diameter,
extending their whole length ; thus offering an insuperable bar to the practice
of crib-biting.

The new riding-school, as has been before observed, divides the upper or
northern quadrangle from the centre one. This spacious building is 170
feet in length, 52 feet in width, and nearly 40 feet in height. At niglit
three splendid gas chandeliers along the centre of the building diffuse a clear
and steady light throughout the interior. Over the riding-school are most
convenient dormitories for the use of the single men connected with the
stables ; these consist of 30 apartments.

ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL ROYAL.

This beautiful chapel was re-opened for divine service on Sunday morning,
23d ult., after having been closed for some days to enable the workmen to
complete the large west window, and another of stained glass in the choir.
The following description of the former window will enable the reader to
appreciate more justly the alterations : —

In the year 1774, the Kev. Dr. Lockman, canon of Windsor, collected, from
various part! of the chapel, a great namber of detached figures in stained
glass. These were placed in the compartments of the great west window, on
a ground of plain white glass. The number of figures not being sufficient,
however, to fdl the whole of the openings, the glazier ingeniously composed
some trelllce patterns, which were formed in colours of the most discordant
kind, to fill the remainder. The ramifications of the arched head were occu-
pied by plain surfaces, chiefly of glaring orange and purple-stained glass ;
yet, with all these violations of good taste, perpetrated at the expense of the
then chapter of 6001., there was a certain degree of effect produced, par-
ticularly at sunset, which g.ive great brilliancy to the architecture.

In the new arrangement by Mr. Willcment, the whole of the ancient
figures have been repaired, and instead of the crude ground of white glass,
on which they were placed, each compartment has a dispered ground of a
warm yet quiet tint, with an architectural frame to each, formed by a base.

columns, and eniiched canopy, corresponding in design with the style of the
chapel. Ten ancient figures, and as many entirely new, have superseded the
formal and patterns of the glazier. The lowest range of openings being con-
siderably higher than the others, that space is now occupied most appro-
jiriately by a long label inscribed with the prayer, " God save our gracious
Sovereign, and all the Companions of the Most Hon. and Noble Order of the
Garter "

Within the arched head of the window the four principal compartments are
filled by the initials, crown, and badges of King Edward III., the founder of
Order of the Garter; of King Edv,-ard IV., who began the erection of the
present chapel; of King Henry VIII.. who complefcl it; and of Queen
Elizabeth, in whose reign so many additions were made to the Castle. The
smaller openings are strewn with the Tudor devices on rich grounds of ruby
and garter blue ; in the centre, above a sfiulptured panel of the Pvoyal arms,
are placed in stained glass the arms of the patron saint, with the initials of
Sanctus Georgius ; and above these, in the extreme apex, the sacred mono-
gram I. II. S. By tlicse judicious .alterations, the whole surface of the
window has become replete wi^the richest tints, suflieiently varied to obviate
any monotony, and producin|Brith the greatest fullness of tore, an entire
absence of that unseemly gla^\vhieh too often pervades almost all modern
attempts in this class of art. The arrangement conduces essentially to
develop the great beauty of the stonework — a point most sadly neglected in
most cases.

D!>!-selsliir<\.—The roof of St. Mary's Church, Wareham, having been fjund
about two years ago (o be in a very decayed condition, and the accommo-
dalion being inconvenient, and the pews cold and damp, the rector and
cluirchwarJens had it survtyed by Mr. Donaldson, who ultimately furnished
drauinss for rebuilding the liody of the church, providing accommodation
for 1000 persons, 600 being devoted to the poor. 'I he to'.ver and chancel,
w hich are fine specimens of simple ecclesiastical Gothic, still remain, and the
church has been executed in the same style to accord willi them. The new
body consists of a nave separated from the lateral aisles Ijv three octagonal
piers on each side, surmounted by lofty arches, above which lises the cleres-
tory with its ceilings to the height of 40 feet above the pavement of the nave.
The church was re-opened for public worship on Michaelmas-day, the Bishop
of Salisbury and a numerous body of the c'etgy assisting on the occasion.
Some very curious fragments of a very old date, possibly as remote as the
Saxon times, were dug up or discovered worked up in the old walls, and have
been carefully preserved as memorials of the antiquity of the sacred edifice,
width must have been built and rebuilt three or four times.

Archileclure on the Continent. — In speaking of Cologne Cathedral, the
j-llhenieum observes that something of the same spirit of reparation and
restoration and completion of ancient monuments, which has set these vast
works in progress, is diffusing itself very generally over the Continent. Our
readers have learnt how actively this taste for the renewal and perfection of
historical monuments has been engaged in France ; and Belgium lias not
been behindhand in the work of restoration. The two towers of Sainte-Gu-
dule, at Brussels, have been carefully repaired, and all tlie delicate tracery
which time had injured has been renewed, stone by stone. The chureli of
Notre Dame de Finisterre is surrounded by seafloldings, which announce
extensive repairs. So with the light and graceful spire of the Cathedral at
Antwerp, " whose 622 steps" it is said, "may now be ascended, and the upper
gallery reached, without ihe adventurer fearing to be carried away by the
wind, in ci mpany with some decaj ed and tottering pinnacle." In the same
structure, M. Geerst is still labouring at the Gothic stalls, which are said to
be master-pieees of their kind. At Ghent, the Cathedral of Saint-Bavon is
in course (f complete restoration. At Bruges, the churches of Saint Salvador,
of Notr.'-Dome, and the chapel of Saint Basil, have been repaired ; anil the
venerable Cathedral of Tournai, the most ancient religi ,us m nument in Bel-
gium, has, for upwards of a year, been the subject of important works in-
tended at once to strengthen it and restore its ancient character. The Ilotel-
de-Ville, of Louvain, unequalled for the delicacy of its fretwork and tracery
— a gem without rival in llie florid-Gothic style, has also been carefully re-
stored— and the Kotel-de-Vil!e of Brus.sels is now in course of restoration.

St. Martin's Church. — The steeple of this church, which was struck by
lightning about three months ago, and suftered such extensive damage as to
render it necessary to be taken down, has just been rebuilt, and was on Tues-
day, the lOtli ult.. finally completed. The conlract wa? undertaken liy
Mr. Hemming, of Regent Street, for the sum of £101)0 . w hich included the
taking down of the Old steeple and the building of Ihe new i ne, and wliich
sum will be paid by the Phcenix and .Sun insurance- ofliees, by whom the
church was insured about four years ago. The ball and vane on the summit
have been regilt, and present a very showy appearance.

BoLOOXA. — Academy of Fine Arts. — The programme has been published by
the Academy of Fine Arts for the competition for 1843. We merely give the
subject proposed for Architecture. Designs for a Cu.stom-hou.«e on a great
scale, for a large city. Besides the elevaiions of the building, lliere must be
given, on a larger scale, separate drawings of the princii al parts, and a clear
account of the artist's viiws as to the disposition of the whole.

Rentals of Metropolitan Commissioners of Setcers, North of the Thames. — West-
minstcr, &'c., commission, 4:2,788,1!I0 ; 'llolLorn and lln.,l)iirv, £1.316,013;
Tower Hamlets. £888,596; Citv of London. 792.S04; Poplar, £78.411 ; St.
Katharine's, £12,964. Total, £5,877.078. The city of London having sent
in no return, the above amount is taken frtm their return to the llou.se of
Commons in August 1834.

BrieKs lighter than U'oter.—Some bricks m-.dc of a clay of a porlicii of the
soil of Berlin, which, on acctunt of the quantity of fossil intiisoria contained
in it, will float in water.

394

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

ELFXTRO-MAGNETIC RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVE.

A trial of lliis very ingenious machine, constructed by Mr. Daviilson, was
made last montli on 'the Blinliur-li and Gla.'gow Railway, in [iresence of a
miniher of genllemen. mariy of whom were eminent for ihoir scientific knov-
lerige. The cunslriiction of ihe carriage is the first atlemrt which has been
made in Ih's country to apply the powers of electro-magnetism to railway
Iraflic, and from Ihe success which attended this trial, sanguine hopes may
be entertained that lh« period is not distant when it will eitlur supersede, in
many cases, the employment of steam, or lend a powerful aid to tliis mighty
instrument in all the operations in which it is at pre.-ent employe. I. Tlie
carriage was impelled along the railway about a mile and a half, and travelled
at Ihe rate of U|)Hards of four niiUsan hour, a rate whicb might be increased
by tiving greater power to the batteries, and enlarging the diameter of the
wheels. We understand that the carriage was built :.t the e.\pense of the
Railway Company, ami we cannot but congratulate them in having the dis-
cernment to emjiloy Mr. Davidson, a gentleman of mucli priactica! knowledge
and talent, to whose genius great discoveries have been made in electro-
magnetism, by whom the carriage was projected, and to whose unwearied
exprlions the practicability of the sclieme isalmost placed beyond a doubt.

The dimensions of the carriage are IG fee^Kg by 7 feel wide, and is pro-
pelled by 8 powerful electro-magnets. Tl^tarriage is supported by lour
wheels of 3 feet diameter. On each of ihe two axles tbere is a wooden cylin-
der, on which are fastened three bars of iron at equal distances from each
other, and extending from cnil to end (jf the cylinder. On e.ach side of the
cylinder, and resting on the carriage, (there arc two powerful electro-magnets
When Ihe first bar on the cylinder has passed tli(|.faces of two of these mag-
nets, the current of galvanism is then let on to the other two magnets. They
immediately pull the second bar until it comes opposite Ihem. The current
is then cut otf'from tliese two magnets, and is let on to the other two. Again
they pull the third bar until it comes opposite, and so on — the current of
galvanism being always cut ofl from the one pair of magnets when it is let
on to the other.

The manner in whicli the current is cut off and let on is simply Ihus ■ — At
each end of the axles there is a small wooden cylinder, one-half of which is
covered by a hoop of copper ; the oth^r is divided alternately with copper
and wood (three parts of wood and three of copper). One end of the coil of
wire which surrounds the four electro-magnets, presses on one of these
i-ylinders, on the part w hich is divided with copper and wood ; the other end
of the coil presies on the other cylinder in the same manner. One end of the
wires or conductors which comes from the battery, presses constantly on the
undivided part of Ihe copper on each cylinder. When one of Ihe inn bars on
the wooden cylinder has passed Ihe faces of two magnets, the current of gal-
vanism is let on to the other two magnets, by one end of the coil « hich sur-
rounds the m.ngnets, passing from the wood to the copper, and ihereby form-
ing a connexion with the battery. This wire continues to press on the cop-
per until the iron bar has come opposite the faces of the two magnets, which
were thus charged with magnetism. On its coming into that position, the
current is cut off from these two magnets, by the wire or rod of copper pass-
ing from Ihe copper to the wood, and ihereby breaking Ihe connexion willi
the baltery. But when the wire or rod of copper leaves the copper on the
one cylinder, it leaves the wood, and passes to the copper on the other cylin-
der at the other end of the axle, and in so doing connecis the other two
magnets with the baltery, ami they pull the next iron bar in the same man-
ner. At tlic oilier end of the carriage there are otiier four magnets and
Kooden cylinder, with iron bars arranged in ihe same manner.

The battery which is used tor propelling the machine is composed of iron
and zinc plates immersed in dilute sulj Iiuric acid, tlie iron plates being fluted
so as to expose greater surface in the same space. The weight propelled was
about six Ions. — EdiubiiraJi Ecmiina Jcunml.

.IMPROVEMKNT IN SlilP BUILDING FOR .STEAM NAVIGATION.

A most ingenious model has fallen under our observation, of which Captain
Drew (the destroyer of the piratical Caroline) is ihe inventor, /or strength-
ening ships of war, so as to make il all but impossible they shall become
hogged. To steam-vessels of the larger class Ihe adoption of this simple
and comparatively inexpensive machinery will prove of most vital impor-
tance. The immense weight of the engines requ'site for a steam-ship render
her more than ordinarily liable to break amirlsliips. C'a(itain Drew's plan
was, we are told, suggested by the ingenious and admirably effective opera-
tion lately performed on the Penelope.

The grand feature of his project is to relieve a steam-vessel from the vast
weight of machinery amidships, and to throw it upon two distant parts of
the ship, n,uch more capable of sustaining it ; and if there be any one vessel
to which such an adjunct will be more especially necessary than another, it
is Ihe Penelope, whose maeliinery will be placed exactly in the space occupied
by the 60 ft. of timber which remains to be added to its length. Captain
Drew's plan consists of two longitudinal pieces of limber firmly trussed to-
gether, constiucteil on something like the principle of llie arch of a bridge,
which will be capable of bearing an immense weight. These bearers are to
be covered by a platform for the machinery of four-inch plank ; so that tlie
strongest part of the vessel will, in future, be that which has hitherto proved
the weakest. It is well known that Ihe unlbrtunate President was broken-
backed before she loft the British Ch inr.el on her last trip, irom the immense
weight of her machinery amidships — ;lie undoubted cause of her melancholy
catastroj he. The owners of the British Queen are, we are told, about to cut
her intotwo, for ihe purposeofavoiiling a similar catastrophe. And it is well
known that ihe loni; steam-vessels running in Canada seldom last more than
5 or (i years, from the same cause. If, Iherefnre, Captain Drew's plan should
realiiie the expectations we have formeil of it, it cannot fail of proving of
most vital iinijurtance lo Ihe navy at large, and to steam ships in particular.
VVc h.ad almost forgotten to notice another important advantase that will

be gained by Captain Drew's plan. The circumstance of the machinery
being placed upon a iilalform that will be, to a certain extent, ekislic, will
obviate in a great degree that constant jar which is so trying to the timbers
of a steam-ship, and so inconvenient to iis occupants.

We have tiie greatest pleasure in speaking of this invention .as we think it
deserves, inasmuch as we have understood that Captain Drciv has no inter-
ested motives in [dacing it before the public, lie seeks no patent, and de-
sires no reward beyond the credit of being instrumental in preserving not
only valuable properly, but human life, from destruction.— - t.'/ij(erf Sen-ice
Gaze/te.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The Itiunch of the *' Prince Albert " Iron Steitm Ship took place on Friilay,
the 30th ."'ept., at Mr. Coutts's yard, at Newcastle. The following are her
proportions; — Length between per]iendiculars l."« ft., length over all 180
ft., main breadth 19 ft. 6 in., depth of hold 9 ft.^G in., draught of water
when light with machinery 3 ft. 6 in., and when loaded with passengers
4 ft. 6 in. The ribs or frames of this vessel are formed of angle iron, 4 in.
broad on the web, placed 2 ft. apart, and Ihe tliickness of her plates are
three-eights, five-sixteenths, and one-fourth in. respectively. She lias four
longitudinal kelsons 14 in. deep, \ in. tliick, with 8 cross kelsons of the same
size of plate ; the whole of these kelsons have strong angle iron fixe 1 on
their upper edge and riveted lo the ribs and plates of the vessel, thus forming
tlie bottom into a level platform of great strength, on which the engines anj
boilers are placed. There are other parts of the Prince Albert novel in their
construction, such as the iron deck beams and gunwdiale stringer, the former
is formed of plate J in. thick and 8 or 9 in. deep, with a piece of angle iron
on each side to which the deck deals are attached by screw bolts; these
beams form a diagonal knee at the sides of the vessel, and are attached to
every alternate rib, forming one of Ihe strongest and lightest beams yet con-
structed. 'Ihe iron gunwale stringer is formed of plate J in. thick, and from
9 to 11 in. broad, wilh a flange turned downwards, and covering the plates of
the vessel to which it is riveted, and another flange on its inner edge, tur.ieJ
upwards and let into the waterway or covering board ; this stringer is fixej
down to the ribs and beams of the boat, and will form one continuous hori-
zontal knee from stem lo stern. The covering board is of pitch pine, 3 in.
thick and 14 in. broad, bolted down to the gunwale stringer, and forming
wilh it a very strong protection from accidents or damage by collision with
vessels or otherwise. The deck deals are only 4 in. wide, and are tongued
w ith iron hoop let in, with white lead in the grooves so as to preclude th«
necessity of caulking or pitching the joints. There are two iron (vater-tight
bulk-heads, forming the vessel into three distinct compartments. The lines or
model of the boat are considered by judges to be laid down on the most
scientific principles ; and altogether she forms one of the finest specimens of
scientific skill and mechanical arrangement of marine architecture that we
have witnessed. And should her machinery prove equally complete and effi-
cient, which, from the m.anner Mr. Coutts speaks of it, we believe will be the
case, tlie Prince Albert will be one of the fastest boats yet started on the
Thames. The Prince Albert will be towed to London to receive the engines
which are made liy the owners, Messrs. Brailhwaile, Milner & Co. The
boilers are of Spider's patent tubular, somewhat like locomotive boilers, with
this dillerence, that the water circulates through the tubes instead of the
fire. They were made and put on board Ihe boat here by Mr. Coutts, and
are said to be capable of generating sufficient steam for 130 lo 140 h. p. in a
space of about 7 ft. in the length of ilie vessel.— .Vt'!«cas(/c Paper.

Naval Experiments on Ihe Defences of Steam Boilers. — A highly interesting
experiment was tried at Portsmouth last month, on board the Excellent gun-
nery-ship. Captain Sir Thom.as Hastings, to test the efficacy of the defences
of the boilers in steam-ships of war. One of the greatest difficulties lo sur-
mount in order to render the steam navy of greater efficiency in action, is
to afford adequate protection to the boilers ag.iinst the shot of the tnemy,
as a ball perforating Ihem would at once pla;e the vessel hors de combat.
With Ihe view of aHording this protection to the boilers, several war steamers
have been fitted up with extra defences at the parts where the boilers are
fixed. 'These defences consist of 15 plates or layers of metal, e.ich ^ inch
thick. The object of the experiment on board the Excellent was to ascertain
« bat resistance these defences of boilers would offer to a cannonade at point
blank distance, which is 400 yards. An iron target was prepared, made ex-
actly of the material wdiich constitutes the protection of ihe hoilers of a
steamer, and placed at the distance of 400 yards from the slii|i, from which
guns at difleient calibre were fired at it. Admirals Sir E Codrington and
Parker, and a great number of naval ollicers, including those from the Aus-
trian irigate, were present to witness the experiment. The first shot that was
fired was an eight-inch hollow shot, and was projected from a ti8-pouniler,
medium gun. It s'ruck the bull's-eye, or centre of the target, and, slightly
indenting it to the depth of about ,') in., rebounded therefrom, and was split
into several pieces by the concussion. The second shot was a solid 32-
pounder, and was fired from a gun of 9 ft. 6 in. ; it struck the edge of the
target, glanced oil', and was split into two pieces. The third shot hit the
centre of the target, where it lodged, having peneir ited several plates. The
fourth shot struck Ihe third, and sent it clean through all parts of the iron,
splitting it into numberless pieces, which were found on the off-side of the
V, ooilen stage on which the target was fixed. The fifth and .sixth shots went
through the perforation made by the third and fourth. About 10 oilier shots
were fired, all striking the target in various parts, and completely destroying
it. The residt of this experiment has shown how totally inadequate are the
present defences of the boilers of war ster.mers to protect them from the as-
savilts of the enemy where a precision of fire had been atlained. — Times.

Sale of the Great Western Steam Sliip.—On Monday afternoon, the Utli
October, at two o'clock, the steam ship Great Western was oflcred for saU

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3^

by public auction in Bristol. The bidding was verv spiritc^I, but sbe «as
ultimately bought in at £40,000.

Ro}iai Navy. — The launch of the " Crimhcrlnnd " 70-;T"« altip took place last
month on the .anniversary of the glorious victory of Trafalgar, at Chatham
dockyard. Her dimensions are as folloivs : — Length on pun-deck, 180 ft.;
for tonnage, 143 ft. 51 in. ; extreme breadth, 51 ft .3 in. ; for tonna^u;e, 53 ft.
G in. ; moulded, 52 ft. 9 in. ; depth in hold, 22 ft. 4 in. Hir tonnage is as
follows— burden by the old rule, 2,244 tons 40 II). ; ne-.v rule, 2,055 tons 88 lb.
Her armament — louer-deek, 4 guns, 8 in. in diameter, 65 c«t., length 9 ft.;
ditto, 22 guns, 32-pounders, .'6 c»-t.. lenuth, 9 ft. (i in. ; mid He-deck, 2 guns,
8 in. in diameter, 65 ewt., length, 9 ft. ; ditto, 26 guns, 32-l)uunders 50 cwt.,
length, 9 ft. : quarter-deck, 10 guns, 32-pounders. 39 cnt., length, 7 ft. 6 in.i
and poop. Tlie light drauglit of water of the Cumberland is, afore, 13 ft.
4 in., and abai't. 17 ft. 9 in. tihe broke (as it is technically termed) in launch-
ing 1| in. She is not a particularly elegant craft, but is well calculated for
the shallow water of the north seas.

MISCEI.^AKEA.

lirmeihj for Broken Axles. — M. Huan submitted to the Academy of Sciences
his invention for preventing accidents on rail May.s by tli- breaking of the
axle, which consists of a modification of the Hlieel c f tbe locomotive, that if
the axle should break, the wheel itself becomes an axle! and prevents further
accident. *

E!ectriclt!) of mirheinds. — M. Arago, in allusion to the opinion expressed
by several persons in this subject mentionei! to the Acadeinie des Sc'ences,
some observations, made by M. Horlol.a on a storm, on the 2ith ult., in the
department of the Aude. This gentleman relates ih.at on the occasion re-
ferred to, the iron bars of windows, the gutters of sheet iron, the plates of
insurance companies, and other metallic objects were carried away by flie
wiiirhvind, thus indicating the presence of electricity.

OsciUatonj Movement of the Sea. — The Academy of Sciences of Naples hav-
ing charged M. A. Nobi'i [0 inquire into tlie circumstances connected with
the oscillatory movement of the sea in the Gulph of Naples, it appears that
he has stuilieil the variations of the mean level according to the direction of
the wind, and has found that the greatest elevation of the mean level takes
place in the west-south-^\'est winds, ami the smallest in those of the north-
nortli-east. This is also the case on the western coast of Sicily. M. Cha-
zallon has also taken some observations on the tide at Toulon, from which it
results, that the full tide of the evening is much higher than that of the
morning.

Improved Fowling-piece. — M. Matthieu, a Frenchman, has invented a gun
which, immediately after it is discharged, recocks itself, and a new charge
is conveyed in the direction of the barrel. This is repeated five or six limes.
and with such rapidity, that the gun can be discharged five times in three
seconds. If the sportsman does not wish to fire with this rapidity, he can
stop the action, and wait any time he pleases between each discharge. The
combinations of tlie mechanism are such as to prevent accidental explosion.
This invention is not new. Baron Heurteloup, more than two years ago, pro-
duced a fowling-piece and a musket on this principle, and, according to
report, he has made such improvements that double the number of charges
of M. Matthieu's gun may be fired in almost the same sptiee of time.

The Gahnno- plastic Process. — A proposition has been made by M. Corney
to employ this process after embalmment, for the preservation of the human
body after death. The idea, however extravagant it may appear, is said not
to be original, and that beautiful specimens are to be seen of small animals,
birds, insects, &c. which have been thus preserved by. M. Soyez, of the Place
Vcndome.

the Green Park. — The site of the house and grounils of the late ranger
has been levelled, new foot-paths laid out, and the whole thrown into the
park, and it is now open to the public. The projected widening of Piccadilly
from Devonshire House to Hyde Park Corner, is deferred for the present, as
an act of parliament is said to be required.

5/. Piinl's Cathedral, w hich has been closed for some months, has been
thoroughly cleansed, and is now re-opened. The old oak panellings and
carvings ol the choir have been varnished, the seats and pulpiL covered with
new clulh. the monuments purified, and the interior generally cleared of the
accumulated soot and dust of years, so that the whole has a comparatively
cheerful apjiearance.

Tlie Artesian Well at Grcnelle. — The new tube is now comiileted to the sur-
face. M. Arago is of opinion that when the tube, beyond the opening of the
well, shall have been carried to the proposed height of 33 metres, (108 feet),
and the force oi' the rush of water have bten thus diminished, it will become
quite dear. It appears that the new tube, iihich has been introduced into
tlic well, does not reach to the bottom ; a portion of the former tube, which
couhl not be extracted, has forced its way transver^'ely, and prevented llie
end of the tiew tube Irom penetrating as fur as was intended.

Mr. Jeffrnj's Cement.— Some further experiments have been made in the
marshes at Woolwich. A block of wood submitted by Mr. JrfTrey was l;ored
to the centre, exactly in the middle of the joining, and a 51 inch shell in-
serted, for the purpose of tearing it to pieces. On a port-fire being ignited,
the shell soon exploded, tearing the solid wood in ail directions, and into nu-
merous fragments, but in no part separating the pieces where the joining
witli the cement was made.

Caoutchouc Cement. — M. Valle, a colour maker, observing the injury caused
to the works of some of the greatest masters by the intluence of the atmos-
phere upon the canvas, has invented a solution (said to be of caoutchouc)
which, although applied to both sides of the canvass, leaves it sufTicienily

elastic to prevent cracking, and secures it against the action of the afmoa-
phere. To this he adds a peculiar kind of varnish for the painting, which is
said to defy the ravages of time.

Survejj of the Skies. — A survey of the skies was made on Monday, the II th
inst. in all parts of Ihe kingdom, on a plan arranged at the last "meeting of
the British Royal Society of Agriculture, for the purpose of ascertaining the
form and positiun of the clouds in the mor;ting. at noon, and in the evening,
together with a great variety of other facts respecting the force and direction
of the wind, Ihe state of the thermometer and barometer, and otl'.er meteoro-
logical appearances and phenomena. The object of this extensive survey was
to collect .acts respecting the weather, for the guidance of practicil agricul-
turists.—C/oie.

National Museum of ylrtilleni, Madrid. — This museum lias been removed to
the Palace of Buen Ketirn. It is now under the active direction of Don
Leon Gil de Pal cios, a distinguished artist and antiquary. The wrought
iron cannon made by the C'arlists in Bisctiy are described as' of great merit.
.Some r.ncient cannon from Andalusia are to be added. Among tlie objects
of curiosity are th ■ armour of Garcia Paredes, the lance of the Km|>ecinado,
the sabre of T. rrigos, the knife of JIanzanares, the uniform of Morelas, the
founder of American independence, an 1 the lance of Leon. It has been sug-
gested that the Museum of the engineers and the Royal Armory be united
10 the Museum of Artillery.

Electrical Experiment — In tlie course of experiments instituted by Messrs;
AVright and Gain for ihe improvement of their electrical telegraph, iliey
discovered that the elctric circuit of a galvanic battery is as ell'ectuilly
comideted through a large body of water as through an insulited wire. They
have applied this curious discovery so elTectually as to be now able to dis-
pense with two of the wires heretofore thought necesr.ry for the acticn of
their printing telegra])h ; and they are thus enabled to piint all communica-
tions, either verbal or symbolical, at any distance, by ihe use of a single wire.
"We understand they are now in treaty with 'the government to construct a
telegraph < n this principle lu-t'^een the admirtilty and Portsmi uth. One in-
sulated wire would be laid down between the two points, to connect the gal-
vanic battery of the oulport "ith the printing apparatus of the Admiralty,
and the return current woulil be sent through the earth, in lieu of u.sing a
second wire to c mplote the circuit. Should the moisture in the ground not
prove sufficient to conduct the electricity, the inventors propose to transmit
the return current by water ; making it pass diwn the Tliames to the German
Ocean, and thence along the Channel to Portsmouh ; this roundabout voy-
age to be performed instantaneously. By thus simplifying, and consequently
greatly reducing the cost of the elecirical printing telegraph, the inventors
havegtne far towards rendering it generally available ; another step in ad-
vance will dispense with all iq^Wic coiinexion whatever. — Spectator.

Extraordinanj Excavator. — "Wankec Geologist.'' — The following is a des-
cription of the'wonderful machine, called the " Yankee Geologist, which has
recently obtained great celebrity in the United States, for performances,
which, for their extraordinary nature, and the peculiar manner in which
they are described, will give them almost an air of romance ; but, neverthe-
less, having reason to believe the " Yankee Geologist" to be an extraordinary
invention, and capable of astonishing deeds, if not of all that is here set
forth, I consider a notice of it sufliciently interesting to be deserving a place
in your columns t^" We paid a (lying visit on Saturday last to Otis' steam-
excavator, in Brooklyn, where it'is at work digging down the hill formerly
known as Fort Green, and filling up the shallow inlet and quagmire, entitled
the Wallabout, or so mucli of it as lies above the old road to Flushing. The
' Yankee Geologist ' is surely a great curiosity. He walks right into a moun-
tain as though it were a plate of hot cakes, and dips up a cartload at a
shovelfull, as fast as you please. He cuts right and left a path some six rods
wide through a hill, and then takes a new swath. He is locomotive, and .ad-
vances by his own steam- power, whenever the earth has receded before liim,
grades aiid stakes down for himself, and only requires one man to shovel and
another to look after the fire and engine. thou:4h one or two others are ge-
nenally requiretl to smooth the track before him, &c., besides tet.ding the
carts, which approach to be filled on one rail track, and go off loadeJ by
another. If he comes to a stone weighing only a ton .or such a matter, the
' Geologist' ' makes no bones ' of it. but pitches it into the cart like a peck
of gravel ; if he comes to a stone weighing some 4 or 5 tons, he takes him
up more carefully, and lays him out on the side of his path. AU lliis is ef-
fected by an immense shovel wiih a sliding bottom, at the end of an immense
and complicated arm, worked by much ingenious and novel machinery. The
inventor is now dead ; the company have spent 30,000 dolLars upon the in-
vention before the first machine «as made, and much more afterwards. The
patent, which is now secured throughout Europe, is jirobably worth 1.000.000
dollars. An excavator complete costs about 6000 dollars, and will dig and
load 1000 cubic yards of earth per day— equal to the labour of 150 men.—
Mining Journal.

The Manufacture of Watches bi/ Machinery.— A gentleman, wdio has devoted
20 years of his lile to the subject, has made a variety of machines by which
an incredible num'ier of watciies, of every variety of size, may be made in a
day. By one of the machines 300 perfect plates can be prorluced in a-day,
by another the same quin'ity of barrels; by five machines the requisite
number of centre, thirl, and fourth wheels (crossed, pulished, and cut) with
balances for 300 movements. By another 200 pinons can be cut and rounded ;
by another the holes are lirilleil. the tapping, the screw-holes, the various
parts in the plate are sunk, planting Ihe depths .and escapement, itc. and all
with such exactness as cannot be excelled, another for the making and polish-
ing of pivots, S:c. Four other machines will lie sufficient for making pivots
for 50 movements a-d.ay ; and to add to these, there are 20 other machines
for every description of work connected with the wach-making. and which
altogellur constitute a set. The inventor has submitted these machines to
he scrutinizing inspection of the most experienced makers of chronometers
nil watches in Ixmdnn, and not one has expressed a doubt of the work so
reduced being incomparably superior to tliat done in the usual way. Among

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

other (listinguislifd names in the trade we have observed those of Mr. B.ir-
wise, Mr. Karnshaw, Mr. Hewctt, Mr. Vieyre.s, Messrs. Frod.-ham and Co.,
with about a IiiMi'lred walchmakers mi the country. «)io. «illi tlie Duke of
Hamilton aud Mr. llowell (of the firm of ilowell and .lames) at tlicir head,
are engaged in carrying out the great and national oliject of restoring this
lost and important inanufaeture to England by means that wlnlc they greatly
lessen the price, will improve the quality, and entirely undersell our foreign
rivals, and be very largely profitable to all parlies concerned.

,1n Astronomical Phenomena. — Mr. Glaisher, of the Cambridge Observatory,
reports the following nmarkable appearance on the 4ih October : — " At mid-
night the sky had become perfectly clear and the air frosty. At 21 minutes
after twelve! was much startled by what seemed to be a vivid flash of light-
ning, but on turning to discover its direction I saw a bright streak of light
in Orion, about 20" in length at the moment of discovery ; its centre was as
bright as Jupiter, and the light plainly emanated from it in quick flickering
waves on each side simultaneously, and at each wave the length an(I bright-
ness decreased. Tliis part of the (ilienomenon lasted 10 seconds ; I therefore
had time to recover my surprise and perceive the w orking of it. When the
waving ceased there appeared to be a bright star in the place where I liail
seen the centre line of the streak, but whilst considering what star it could
be, that I might note with accuracy the place of the phenomenon, 1 perceived
that it gradually faded, and in the course of about two niinuies it entirely
disappeared, having, unlike the generality of meteors, maintained the same
position all this time. The line of direction of the streak made, with Orion's
belt to the south-east, an angle of about 40°, the centre light being 3" north
of the upper star of the bell, and in the same strai"ht Imc with the three
stars in it. I liope this very s ngular meteor may nave been observed by
others, that this account of it may be verified.'' — Noneirh Mercury.

Astronomical Clod: at Sliashur^. — An astronomical clock of remarkable in-
genuity has lately been constructed at Strasburg by a M. .Schwilguc. It is
composed of three parts, respectively indicating the time of the day. the day
of the month and year, and the movements of the constellations. The cen-
tral moving power, which is another and very exact timepiece, shows on the
face the hour and its subdivisions, strikes the hours and the quarters, and
puts in motion several curious allegorical figures. The cock-crow, which had
been mute since 1789, has been reproduced, and a procession of the apostles
takes place daily at noon. The calendar shows the months, the days, and
the dominical letter, as well as the Catholic calendar, showing every Saint's
day in the year. The plate or face on which these figures and signs appear
makes one revolution in 36-J days for the commun, and 3fi:> for the liissexlile
year, always reproducing the irregularity which takes place three times in
every four secular yeais. The moving fasts and feasts are shown by an ex-
tremely ingenious process. On the 31st (ABecember, at midnight, Easter
day and the other moving feasts for the yealRjpear on the calendar. The
third division is the triumph of the artist's skill. A complete orrery after the
Copernican system is produced. The movements of all the planets visible to the
naked eye are represented. The earth is shown accompanied by her satellite,
the moon, which accomplishes her revolution in one month. The dilierent
phases of the m. on are represented on a dilfercnt and separate globe. Ano-
ther globe represents the ap|iarenl movement of the heavens, making one
revolution in the sideral day. This movement is subjected to that almost
imperceptible jiower, known by the name of the procession of the equinoxes.
The mechanism, besides many other things, shows the apparent movements
of the sun and moon with worderlul precision, and for an indefinite period,
50 that the rising and setting of the sun. its passage to the meridian, the
eclipses of the sun and moon. See., are all represented on the face of the ap-
parent time in a most ingenious manner.

Dreilgc's Suspension Bridge. — A new iron su;pen;ion biidgc on Mr. Dredge'^
principle has just been completed, at Wrayhury, in Buckinghamshire, abou
20 miles west of London. It is stated to be a very light and powerful siruc
ture, and is net half so expensive as is the timber centreing for a commo
stone bridge of the same magnitude. It is 17 ft. wide. 100 It. span, and in
intended for every description of traffic. It is perfectly level from end tos
end. It was completed in three weeks after tlie foiuidation stone was laid.

The New River Head. — A number of labourers have been emplo ed for
some days past in cleansing the immense reservoir belonging to the New
River Company, in Clarcmoiit Square, Pentonville. 1'he seillment has been
allowed to accumulate for 11 years, until at length the present measure be-
came necessary. In some pl.aees there are 11 ft. of mni\.— Times.

LIST OF N-EW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM 29tH SEPTEMBER TO 27tH OCTOBER, 1842.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Edward Cell, of the College of Civil Engineers, Putney, professor of
practical mechanics, for " improrements in applying heal in the manufacture
uf artificial fuel, which improveviienis are applicable to the preparation of
iisphalte, and for other purposes." — Sealed September 29.

Samuel IIensox, of New City Chambers, Bishopsg.ite-street, engineer,
for " improvements in locomotive apparatus, and in machinery for conceying
tellers, goods, and passengers, from place to place throngh the air, part of
which improvements are applicable to locomotive and other machinery to be
used on water or on land." — Sep. 29.

■William Smith, of Crosvenor-street, Camberwell, gentleman, for " im-
provements in treating certain animal matUrs, to obtain products applicable
to the manufacture of candles, and other purposes." — Sep. 29.

John Uand, of Howdand-street, Fitzroy-square, artist, for "improvements
in making and closing metallic collapsible vessels." — Sep. 29.

James Hyde, of Duckenfield, Cheihire, machine-maker, and Jonx Hyde,

of the same place, cotton-spinner, and manufacturer, for " an improvement
or improvements in the machinery used for preparing cotton, wool, silk, lla.v,
and similar fibrous materials for spinning." — Sep. 29.

John Ridsdale, of Leeds, for " improvements in preparing fibrous ma.
terialsfor u-eaving, and in si::ing warps." — Sep. 29.

John Fry Wilkey, of Mount Vernon, Exeter, commission .agent, for
" improvements in carriages." — Sep. 29.

John George Shipley, of Bruton-street, Berkeley-square, s.iddler, for
" certain improvements in saddles." — Oct. 6.

John Oliver York, of Upper ColeshiU-street, Eaton-square, for "im-
provements in the manufacture of axles for railway wheels." — Oct. 8.

Wilton George Turner, of Gateshead, Durham, doctor in philosophy,
for "improvements in the manufacture of alum." — Oct. 8.

Claude Edward Deutsche, of Fricour's Hotel, St. Martin's-Iane, gen-
tleman, for " improvements in combining materials to be used for cementing
purposes, and for preventing the passage of fluids, and also for forming or
constructing articles from such compositions of materials." — Oct. 8.

Samuel Dotchin, of Myrtle-street, Hoxton, jeweller, for "improvements
in paving, or covering, and constructing roads, ways, and other surfaces."
(A communication.) — Oct. 13.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, pateut agent, for "cer-
tain improeements in the manufacture of artificial fuel." (A communica-
tion.)—Oct. 13.

Charles Thomas Hoi.combe, of Valentines, near Ilford, Essex, Esq.,
for " an improved mode of rising certain materials as fuel; also an apparatus
or method for collecting the smohe or soot arising from the combu.^tion of
such fuel : which o/iparatus or method is applicable to collecting the smoke or
soot arising from the ordinary combustion of fuel, and also the application
of the products arising from the combustion of the first mentioned materials,
ns a manure, and for other useful purposes." — Oct. 13.

Robert William Sievier, of Henrietta-street, Cavendish-aquare, gen-
tleinan, for " certain improvements in looms for weaving, and in the mode or
method of producing plain or figured goods or fairies." — Oct. 13.

Peter Karenbusch, of Lyth, in the county of York, dyer, for "certain
improvements in the treatment of the alum rock, or schist, and in the manu-
facture aud application of the products derived therefrom." — Oct. 13.

Henry- Brown, of Selkirk, manufacturer, and Thomas Walkiui, of the
same place, manufacturer, for " improvements on woollen carding engines. —

Oct. 13.

Thomas Seville, of Royton, Lancaster, cotton spinner, for " certain im-
provements in machinery used in the preparing and spinning of cotton, fia.v,
and other fibrous substances." — Oct. 20.

James Palmer Budd, of Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea, inerchaiit, for
" improvements in the manufacture of iron." — Oct. 20.

William Longmaid, of Plymouth, accountant, for " improvements in
treating ores and other minerals, and in obtaining various products therefrom,
certain parts of which improvements are applicable to the manufacture of
alkali."— Oct. 20.

James Statham, of West-street, St. Giles's, Venetian lock maker, for
" improvements in the construction of locks, for Venetian blinds used in car-
riages." — Oct. 29.

Gilbert Claude Alz\rd, of Tichborne-strect, gentleman, for "certain
improvements in bread, biscuits, macaroni, vermicelli, and paslrif, and the
mode of making the same." — Oct. 20.

George Hazeldine, of Lant-street, Southwark, coach manufacturer, for
" certain improvements in omnibtises." — Oct. 27.

James Gardner, of Banbury, ironmonger, for " improvements in cutting
hay, straw, and other vegetable matters for the food of animals." — Oct. 27.

John Mullins, of Battersea, surgeon, fiir "improvements in making
oxides of metals in separating silver and other metals from their compounds,
with other metals, and in making white lead, sugar of lead, and other salts of
lead, and salts of other metals." — Oct. 27.

Rowland Williams, of Manchester, fustian shearer, for " certa'n im-
provements in machinery, or apparatus for raising, shearing, and finishing
velvets, or other piled goods by power." — Oct. 27.

TO CORRSSFONDENTS.

L. K. — If'c cannot inform itini.

\\.— Sometimes ; if he will call at our office, he can consult the Editor.

W. WWWams.— Address ' The Secretary of the Society of Arts," Sfc. Adclphi,
London. .

T. B., Self-actini; river talve—A paper by Mr. Haydon on the Schools of Design
—Notice of Mr. Shuttleworth' s Hydraulic Railway— V. W. S. " Improvement in
the process of Sugar-mnkinj; — will appear next month.

O. T. — We have received his last communication on Railway Curves.

Mr. Jnmcs Ji'hites' " elistic friction driver" in the Mech. Mag. No. 1002,
Oct. 22, is a ilceiiled infringement on Mr. Trcwhitt's patent, described in the
Journal for last February and April.

JSool(s for -Review tnust be S'nt early in the month, communications on or before
the 20th (If with drawings, earlier), and advcrlistmenls on or before the 25tU
instant, addressed to the Editor, No. 10, Flndyer Street, Whitehall.

No. 2 has betn reprinted and may now be had of the Publishers.

Vols. I, II, HI, and IV, may be ha 1, bound in cloth, price £1 each Volume.

FU 1

SCOTSWOOD SUSPENSION BRIDGE OVER THETVNE.

JOHNCREEN. ENGINEER tl^ u.

ELEVATION OF SUSPENSION TOWEB.

SIDE VIEW.

J.K Jot^tm. i.WarwiA C*

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3P7

SCOTSWOOD SUSPENSION BRIDGE,

Erected over the Tyne, near Newcastle. — Engineer, John Green.

( With an Engraving, Plate XVI.)

We are indebted for the accompanying drawing and description of
tlie above bridge, to our valuable correspondent O. T. of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, who has favoured us with several practical papers of
great utility, part of which have appeared in the Journal.

Sootswood Bridge is erected over the Tyne, in a very picturesque
situation, 3 miles west of Newcastle; it was commenced in August
1829, and opened on 12th April 1S31. The two suspension towers
in design approach tlie Norman style of architecture, and have a very
noble appearance when viewed from the water; they are, together
with the land abutments, constructed of solid masonry. The distance
between the points of suspension of the centre opening is370fi.;
the two half arcs 130 ft. span each, which with the two towers make
a total length of G70 ft. There are four suspension chains, two on
each side, one over the other; each chain is 742 ft. long, the chord line
of the centre span 370 feet, and versed sine or deflection 2ti ft. t> in.;
the links of the chains consist of four flat wrought iron bars 10 ft.
long, i in. deep, and 1 in. thick, placed parallel to each other,
terminated with an eye at each end, and coupled together with live
■wrought iron plates o in. deep in the centre, and 9 in. across the
widest part, and 1 in. thick, connected by bolts 2i- in. diameter, with
octagon nuts 44 in. diameter and 2 in. thick ; the bolt holes of the long
links are 9 ft. 14 in. from centre to centre (see Figs. .5, G, and 7.) The
links above the suspension towers have bars 7 in. deep and 1 in. thick
and 20 in. long from centre to centre, and connecting plates lO^-g in.
long from centre to centre ; the roadway is suspended by bars li in.
square to the centre coupling bar, which has a lug on the underside
with an eye, through which and the forked end of the suspending bar
passes a screw bolt ; the lower end of the suspending bar is attached
to a stirrup iron grasping each side of the longitudinal string piece,
■which is carried by the iron wedges, as shown in fig. 4. The suspen-
sion bars are alternately suspended to the upper and lower chains.
Each bar was proved to 40 tons. The suspension towers are 78 ft.
high from the bottom of the footings to the top, and at the base 42 ft.
long by 20 ft. li in., and above 37 f(. by l(j ft. tj in., the footings
are surrounded with sheet piling. The roadway is 23 ft. broad^
■which is constructed of Meniel timber placed 8 in. apart, the ends
resting upon and bolted to the longitudinal string piece on each side,
as sliown in tig. 4, and the top overlaid with planks covered with a
composition of tar and gravel.

The masonry was executed by Messrs. Welch and Son of Gates-
head, and the ironwork by Messrs. Walker and Yates of Birmingham.
The estimated expense was £12,900, but from unforeseen difficulties
in the foundation requiring extra work both in masonry and coffer-
dam, the total expenditure was £15,000. At the completion of the
bridge the committee for the construction, in order to testify their
high approbation of the masterly manner in which Mr. Green dis-
charged his duties as engineer, presented him with a handsome silver
claret jug.

Reference to Plate.

Fig. 1, Elevation of suspension tower. Fig. 2, Side view, and Fig.
3, Plan of footings, and the piers of the arch. Fig. 4, Enlarged view
of the timbers of the roadway. Fig. 5, Side view of the main
■chain, coupling links and suspension bars. Fig. G, Cross section of
ditto, and Fig. 7, Plan of top of ditto.

GrK'enhitlir Pier.— On Monday, Oct. 31, the retired and beautiful village of
•Greenhitlie assumed a most animated scene, upon the occasion of the
opening of this Pier. On the •irri\al uf the first steam-boat at the Pier,
wnicli con-.eyed several of the Directors and Shareholders of the Pier Com-
pany, they were received by a muneroiis assemblage of their friends.

The Pitr is constructed of timber, and is remarkable for durability, chastc-
ness, and elegance, and. reflects great crclit on Messrs. Birch, the engineers
and designers.

No. 63.— Vol. V.— Decembek, 1842.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS XLIII.

" ] must have liberty
Witlinl, as large a charter as the iv mis,
To blow un ttliom 1 please."

I. "Barry's Book" seems likely to become a by-word, and many
are now endeavouring to pick a leaf out of it, some with very fair
success, others with none. Rarely can imitators discern the dlBerence,
■wide as it is, between mamitr and manmr-iam .• they just catch hold
of some of the more prominent characteristics of the former, and then
apply them at hap-ha-^ard and on all occasions. There is almost
always something to betray that they do not enter into the spirit of
what they evidently propose to themselves as a model. .So long as
they have some express model to go by, and adhere to that, they may
get on well enough, but no sooner do they begin to deviate from it,
than they render manifest how very different their own unguided t-aste
is from that which they have assumed, but which sits upon them most
awkwardly and ungainly. It may be said that Barry himself is but an
imitator, and that most of his ideas may be traced to direct authorities
for them. Still, if this may seem to detract from him in some degree
as an inventor-, it also shows how very differently from his prede-
cessors he looked at Italian architecture. How happens it that that
particular mode which he introduced, and has brought into vogue,
should, till then, hardly have been known in this country? The same
sources fi-om which he derived his taste had been open to others for
at least two centuries, without their benefitting by them, or being able
to perceive their value. Neither has he followed his models impli-
citly, even where he is most open to the charge of dir-ect imitation :
on the contrary, he has discriminated between their beauties and their
defects, of which latter some are glaring enough, even in works that
are stamped by no ordinary merits. Those singular inequalities of
taste which mar or disfigure some of the finest, and what may be
called the purest, examples of the Italian style, he has happily
avoided, giving us, as it were, the very cream of that style. It has
been remarked before now — probably by myself also— that one very
great, and, I am sorry to say, uncommon merit in Barry's designs is,
that thev are all of a piece, and all carefully finished up. In others
there may be very happy ideas, and great merits in parts ; but then it
is gener-ally only in parts, and in many instances the faults preponde-
rate over the beairties ; at least neutralize them, jarr-ing most harshly,
like so many false notes in music.

II. Jlr. Barry's example and that of others, who, in re-adopting
Italian architecture, have gone to what may be distinguished by the
name of the Ante -Palladian style, may be taken as a tacit confession
on their part, that the Palladian itself is greatly inferior to the other;
and however disposed they may be to join with those who cry up the
Palladian school — for the sake, perhaps, of quietness — their practice
unequivocally condemns it. Iirdependently of its intrin^ic merit, one
thing wdiich at present recommends the species of Italian introduced
among us is its novelty; but as that attraction can be of no very long
duration, it could be wished that an attempt were made to throw more
variety into it, instead of invariably aiming at the same or nearly the
same character, not only as regards the general mass, but also the
individual features and members. The same style would admit of
great diversity of treatment in regard to windows, a source of variety
all the more worth being turned to as much account as possible, be-
cause little scope for variety is afforded in regard to the general com-
position. Fortunately, Bari-y himself has furnished me with an illus-
tration of what I could wish to see pursued and carried much further,
—in the south facade of the Travellers' Club-house, where the win-
dows are of more ornate character and more original design than
usual, and the whole is more playful, yet the style is not at all violated;
its breadth and repose are preserved, and there is simplicity combined
with richness, and what is more, that richness is combined with grace-
fulness. That front is also a happy instance of what miiy be done by
merely having recourse to rustication as a means of embellishment.

398

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

III. Ill continuation of the remarks on tlie styl? above spoken of, one
thing that is not lo be lost sight of is, that justice cannot be done to
it, nor its cliaracter kept up even tolerably well, if the proportions be
neglected— proportions all the more deserving of notice, because little
mention is made of them, and little attention paid to them; namely,
the proportion of solid wall to the apertures, both as regnrds breadth
of piers between windows, and breadth of horizontal surface between
the separate floors and their windows. If sufficient space cannot be
allowed for these proportions, very much that is essentia! to character
is forfeited, althougli the composition and all its details may be just
the same as where the due proportions are observed. All grandeur
of manner is lost, and is replaced by a certain littleness and offensive
"squeeziness,"— a term, by the bye, that may very well be allowed
to pass current, as it is sufficiently expressive ; nor is exception to be
taken to it, when the fault itself which it describes is tolerated much
more than it ought to be. It is this "squeeziness," among other
things, that causes those long slips ycleped Terraces, in tlie Regent's

Park, to look like so many barracks flashily bedizened out with all
sorts of Brummagem architectural tinery— sham pediments, columns,
(crammed in between windows;! pilasters, fluted in order to make
amends for hole-in-the-wall doors, and here and there a jjamfed sham
window— to say nothing of garrets peeping over balustrades, and
chevaux-de-frize of chimneys, bristling like so many porcupines on
the roofs. Compare Chester or Cumberland Terrace with the Reform
Club-house ; the first are all bloated littleness, made up of would-be
finery, and without the least refinement. On looking at them, you
long to block up every other window, to take away their columns and
starved entablatures, and to give them a cornice where a cornice ought
to be, above and not below the uppermost windows.

IV. If a memorial of nothing else, the column in— or rather poked
out of— Trafalgar Square, will serve to keep in recollection the extra-
ordinary fact, that after two competitions, and from among nearly
200 designs, some of them by our chief architects and sculptors, no
greater effort of genius could be selected, nothing better worthy of
being carried into execution, than the hackneyed common-place idea
of a huge column, which any one who can draw can design. It will
now stand as a monument either of the utter incompetence of British
artists to accomplish anything superior, or of the utter incompetence
of the Committee to form any opinion; and of their sulky obstinacy
in persisting to adhere to their unfortunate choice, after the extreme
dissatisfaction expressed at it, and after they had ac'ually held out .
the hope of abandoning it, by allowing a second competition to take
place, thereby affording themselves an opportunity for correcting their
former mistake. Far more creditable, because far less impudent,
would it have been on the part of the committee, to have at once
refused all further competition, contenting themselves with disap-
pointing our expectations once. If they were determined to stick up
a long pole, there was at least no occasion to make of it two baulks.
One baulk was quite enough, in all reason; the second might, in de-
cency, have been spared us. The only excuse is that they seem to
have taken Nelson's own motto for their guidance, but construed it
most unluckily, supposing " Palmum qui meruit, &c." to mean " Any-
thing may be palmed upon poor John Bull." They may have honoured
Nelson, though very equivocally, but they have most unequivocally
disgraced themselves by erecting what will be an object of contempt
and derision to all persons of taste.

V. Common as it is, it is a very lame and shuffling excuse when those
who profess to give us historical and critical remarks on architecture,
break off as sooo as they approach their own period, under the pre-
tence of being restrained by " delicacy " from speaking of their con-
temporaries. In most cases the real truth would be, that they have
no opinions of their own to offer, and can get no ready-made ones out
of books, as they can respecting persons and things that have been
spoken of repeatedly. A nice man. Swift has told us, is a man of
nasty ideas ; and so, in the delicacy of these over-scrupulous writers,
there is something the reverse of complimentary. The inference to
be drawn from their silence is, that were they to offer any opinions at
all, they would be highly prejudicial and offensive ones. They are

too good natured to censure, and are by far too scrupulous to com-
men'd, against their critical conscience. Delicate souls! but then why
do they meddle with what requires a firmness of purpose which they
do not possess? why do they undertake an office so highly disagree-
able to their feelings, and so much at variance with their notions of
propriety and discretion?

VI. I have often observed that those who affect to attach little or
no importance to " matters of mere taste," are apt to be excessively
sore if you venture to find fault with their own taste. After telling
vou that what they have done makes no pretensions to merit of de-
sign in any respect, after assuring you that there is nothing to admire
in it, such persons will look confoundedly nettled at you if you point
out faults that might easily have been avoided. While with mock
humilitv they disclaim your admiration, they not only expect you to
express it, but are sulky if you do not. While they profess to have
built merely to please themselves, they are angry if every one else
does not profess to be. equally well pleased also. I well remember one
captious individual of the kind, who was so excessively indignant at
some comments on the taste shown in the front of his house, which
had a large bird-cage-looking viranda on Ionic columns, that he blus-
tered most terribly, and talked of bringing his action against the pub-
lisher of the periodical wherein they had appeared ! Most uuques-
tionablv everv one who builds has a right to please himself— to erect
a row of brickbat battlements on the top of a cockney-looking sash-
windowed house, and call it a castle; or to commit any other absur-
dity. Yet while he in that manner avails himself of the Mium side
of the privilege, let him not forget the Timm one, but bear in mind
that people are just as much privileged to laugh at him, as he is to
make a fool of himself, and have just as much right to ridicule his
bad taste as he has to display it.

VII. Not much dependence is to' be put upon Naglev's "Kiinstler-
Lexicon ;" at least not for its notices of English artists. The article
on the late Augustus Pugin, is little more than a tissue of blunders
from beginning to end. Although he died at the end of 1832, he is
spoken of as still living ; and although he was about G3 at that time,
he is said to have been born in 17S0, and to have been a native of
London! For a long time, we are told, he devoted his attention to
the public buildings of the English metropolis, before he began to
direct it to the study of Gothic architecture, travelling through his
native country for that purpose ! In the year 1839, it seems, he
began the Roman Catholic church at Manchester, one of the finest
specimens of Gothic in this country ! It is a pity that Nagler did not
mention the " Contrasts " as one of his publications ; more especially
as he has not scrupled to attribute to him the illustrations in Britton's
Cassiobury— or as he spells it, Castuobimj. Nagler, it is to be hoped,
does not blunder quite so much by wholesale, in his notices of Con-
tinental artists, because he is perpetually quoted as the authority for
articles of that kind, in the new "Biographical Dictionary."

VIII. Whatever the reviewers may say of Mr. Gwilt's new work,
they will hardly accuse him of servile adulation to the powers that
be! When speaking of palaces— instead of sliding in a graceful
compliment to Windsor Castle as being the bright particular gem
which redeems this country from the reproacli of having no worthy
abode for its sovereign, he damns it with faint praise, uttered in a
very sneering tone. Windsor Castle, he gives us to understand, is
very far from being a model for a palace, and that its attractions lie
more in its site and scenery than in its architecture. He has taken
care, however, that posterity shall not learn from him the name of the
architect employed upon it, for no where does he mention Sir JeffVy
Wyatville, whom he has excluded from his list of architects— as he
has, likewise, James Wyatt, although he has given a place in it to
some individuals of far less note. Of course the omission must have
been intentional, since it is not for a moment to be supposed that
either Mr. Gwilt or anv one else at all acquainted with the history of
modern English architecture, should not know of, or forget, such per-
sons. Surely James Wvatt might have been admitted into the com-
pany of Isaac Ware and James Payne, neither of whom were very
brilliant luminaries in the art; although the first of them edited Pal-

1S42.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

399

ladio — a very great merit indeed in ]\Ir. Gvviit's eyes. Whatever his
real abilities, Wyatt was incontestibly a celebrated architect, and eu-
titled to notice, if only as forming an epoch in the art, by being the
first to revive in practice, with any tolerable sncc^^ss, the pointed
style. If such omissions are to be understood as tacit condemnations
of the parties so excluded, they are not on that account tiie more
warrantable. Mr. Gwilt holds his St. Peter's keys rather too tightly :
since he passes over the name of Borromini in his list of architects,
he would probably exclude that of Cromwell from a history of Eng-
land, or Nero from that of Rome. Were biograpliical works to be
drawn up on the same principle of exclusiveness, were the names of
only the pre-eminently great and worthy to be admitted into them, the
70 volumes of the Biographie Universelle, would shrink down to seven.
After seeing Mr. Gwilt's Paradisto, we should like to take a peep at
\i\s Inferno ; and as we do not meet with Cngnola, Schinkel, Wilkins
and VVyatville in the former place, we shall, no doubt, find them
stowed away in the latter.

THE ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSION AND THE ARCHI-
TECTURAL SOCIETIES.

Otii present number aftbrds much matter for meditation, and par-
ticularly to those who think these are times to set the public and the
march of intellect at defiance. To the unprejudiced observer it will
be pretty evident, that if the architects neglect their public duty,
there are others who will do it for them. The profession must, there-
fore, be up and stirring, or the Architectural Societies will play the
JVIairea da Palais to iheir fainrantisnx. Wliile the Royal Institute
of British Architects can scarcely find matter for its papers or for its
transactions, or any thing to do, lay architectural societies are spring-
ing up over the country, which find plenty to do, and seriously threaten
the prerogatives of architects. With the progress of these societies
we are much pleased; they are a good sign of the times, they promise
to educate the public, to employ the architect, and to preserve our
ancient monuments. But here we must stop — we cannot allow the
societies to be supreme judges of architectural merit and the dis-
pensers of patronage ; we think that they cannot become so without
injury to the art and its professors : it must take away the responsi-
bility from the architect and tend to patronize show instead of soli-
dity. As an instance showing some of the fruits of the proposed
system, we call attention to an advertisement from the Yorkshire
Architectural Society in our present number, calling on architects to
send in designs, without stating whether they are to receive either
premium or employment. We also invite attention to the outrageous
proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Commission, by which all the
parsonage houses of the country are to be put under one architect ;
and the same steryotyped designs universally distributed. Now is
the time, therefore, for the Institute to exert itself, to show regard in
its proceedings, to defend manfully the rights of the profession, and
to keep pace v.ith the spirited exertions of the architectural societies.

DIRECT ACTION ENGINES,

As it has been our good fortune to have published drawings and
descriptive letter-press of various engines of this class — the pro-
ductions of some well known tirms, it is now our intention to give an
analysis of the same, as it relates to their general proportions and
arrangements, strictly adhering to information derived from the pub-
lished statements, making t'ew comments, detailing facts, believing
the same will be interesting to our readers. We began with Mr.
Field's 2 cylinder engine in March IS-lU, Mr. Joseph Maudshiy's an-
nular engine followed in October 1841, which was succeeded by the
l^irago engine of Boulton and Watt, in its turn followed by the In-
Jernat's engine of Miller and Co., ending with a design for a pair of
engines by Borrie and Co. of Dundee. We now propose to analyze
these in the order jf their pablication.

Mr. Field's doalle cylinder e7ig:ne, publiaied March 1S40,
p. 73, Tol. 3.

Eac/t cylinder 35 in. diameter and 3 ft. 9 in. stroke, regular speed

say 21) strokes per minute, or 105 ft. Then

35 inches diameter = 962'115 inches area X 2 = 1924-23 inches and

19:^4-23 X 195 X 7

-^ — .,„ . ' =^ 79-593 horses for both cylinders, or in round

Co JUO

numbers, say 80 u.p., for which they were probably intended.

Piston Rods 3i in. diameter = 10-21 in. area, less than^ diameter
of cylinder.

Connecting Rod r>g in. diameters 23-75 in. area, a little more than
both piston rods.

Air Pumps 24 in. diameter and 2 it. 4 in. stroke. The area =
452 X 28 in. stroke =: 12'ju6 cubic inches contents, and the cubical
contents of both cylinders, (area 1924-23 X 45 in. long) = Si)5'J0-35
cubic inches ^= Ij-S5 times the contents of air pumps.

Condenser 3 ft. 10 in. across, 1 ft. deep, by 7 ft. G in. long = 28 ft.
9 in., say with convexity of cylinder bottom = 30 ft. cube.

30
We have -— = -375 of a foot per horse, or for air pump (contents

SO

30

= 7-318 cubic feet) ,-;-— = 4-1 times.
^•olS

Shafts. Centre of shafts 12 ft. 0 in. above bottom of condenser,
or top of vessels floor timbers, adapted to a ship of 8 ft. 3 in. draff,
wheel being IG ft. 3 in. diameter, x 5-3 long and 21 in. breadth of
paddle, necks 9A in. diameter and 8 in. long, same as annular engine.

Slide opeuinga, or ports. Hi in. long X 3 in. wide for each cylinder
r= 69 in. area. Slide va'.ve round, 15 in. diameter and 7 in. motion.

Space required. Fore and aft r= 10 ft. 9 in.
Over all athwart = 12 ft. 9 in.
or say a superficial space of = 132 feet.

Mr. Joseph Maudslaifs annular engine, puh. .Vor. 1841,

p. 369, vol. 4.

Cylinder, 54 in. diameter := 2290 in. area, and diameter of internal

tube = 25 in. = 491 in. area, and 2-230 — 491 = 1799 in. the area

of the working piston. Stroke 4 ft. =: 200 ft. per minute at 25

1799 X 200 X 71b.

strokes. We have

70-3 H.p,

33001)

Piston Rods. Two in each cylinder, each = SJ in. diam. =: 11-044
area X 2 = 22-088 or 5i in. diam. if in o:ie, rather less than -^ diam.
of cylinder.

Connecting Rod, = 5 in. diam. =z 19-ij3 area, or less than both
piston rods.

Shafts, necks 9^ in. diam. by 8 in. long, same as in the two-cylinder
engine.

..^ir Pumps, 2o in. diam. = 531 in. area x 2 ft. stroke = 7-372

cubic ft. content. Cylinder 12-5 ft. area x 4 ft. stroke = 50 ft. cube

50
contents, and -— — ^ C-75 times the air pump.
/ -3.' 2

Condenser, „(is near as can be obtained from drawing,) is i ft. X

325
6 ft. 6 in. X 12 in. = 32-5 cu. ft. content. Then i^-^ = •125 of

76.3 H.p.

32-5

a foot per horse, or for air pumps v-^, = 4-4 times air pump.

t ''oi'2

Slide openings, 19 in. long by 3i in. wide = 66-5 in. area, or smaller

in proportion than the two cylinder engine.

Space nquircd, is fore and aft, 8 ft. 6 in.

Athwart, with 3 ft. passage between, 16 ft. 3 in.

Say a superficial space of 138 ft.

Virago Engine by Boulton, ll'att and Co., pub. Feb. 1S4-2,

p. 65, vol. 5.
Cylinder, 64^ in. diam. = 3292-8 in. area, 5 ft. stroke, and 21i strokes

3292-8 X 7 X 215

per minute, or 215 ft. = 150 horses each. Thus •
= 150 B.r.

33U00
3 K 2

400

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

Piston Rodi, (i in. diam. = 2S'27 in. area, say about -^ of cylin-
der's area.

Connecting Rods, (ij in. diam. ends, and 7i middle, say GJ. m 33" 18
area, or about an J^ more, than piston rods.

Length of Rod, is S ft. 2 in. Shaft being 19 ft. ;> in. from top of
floor timbers of slup.

.,1tr pumps, section not shown on drawing, but appear to be 37 in.
diam. = 7'4Glj ft. area X 2-5 stroke = iS-60 cubic ft. content per
stroke.

Cylinders 643 diam. = 22.70 ft. area x 5 ft. =r 113-5 cu. ft. con-

tents, and

113-5

18Mi6

:= six times the air pump.

CowrfCTSfO-s, each engine separate, 10ft. 10 long X Oft. 3 X 2 ft. 8 deep
= 180 cu. ft., but deducting slides, air pumps, foot valves, &c., the con-
tent is 100 cu. ft., or 50 for each engine, or ^ of a ft. per horse, and

for air pump, — = 3-7 times its contents.

Shafts are 1 lA in. diam. at necks, and bearing 13 in. long, the
centre, bearing a crank to work air pump, is 15 in. diam. by 6 in. long.

Slide Valves. Thoroughfares or ports, 5 in. X 24 in. ^ 120 in.
area.

Hot Water Cistern, is 2 ft. 10 in. wide, 3 ft. 11 in. long, and 4 ft.
1 in. high, contents 45-3 cu. ft. less exhausting passages = 35-7 ft.

true contents. Air pump contents 18-6G ft. we have :r^~ ^ 1-92

times, say twice the contents of air pump.

Waste Water Pipes, 9 in. diam., the hot water cisterns acting as an
air vessel.

ColunDis, wrought iron 7 in. diam. at bottom and 5 in. at top.
Lower columns, cast iron, 10 in. diameter. Space occupied is IS-G
athwart, and li- 1 fore and aft, the width of cylinders. Air pumps
being in centre line of ship, thus,

IS-Gby G-4 = 117-2 sq.ft.
Air pumps 4 ft. 8 in. X G-6 = 30-4 „

147-G sq. ft.

Mr. Joseph Miller's Direct Action Engine, published June 1842,
p. 177, vol. 5.

Cylinder, G5 in. diam. (331S-31 in. area) 5 ft. stroke, 21g strokes or
215 ft. per minute, power 151-33 horses.

thus

3318-31 X 7 X215

= 151-33 X 2 = 302-GG h.p.

33000

Piston Rods, 6 in. diam. = 28-27 area, less than -^ of cylinder.

Connecting Rods, 6(j in. diam. at end, and 7^ in. at middle, say Gi,
=: 33-18 in. area, or about J more than piston rod. Length of rods,
8 ft. 6 in. Shaft, 19 ft. G in. from floor timbers.

^lir Pumps, 30 in. diam., (70680 in. area, or 4-90 ft.) and 2 ft. G in.
stroke ; 4-90 ft. X 2-5 = 12-25 cu. ft. contents. Cylinder = 23-04

sq.ft.X j'O = )15-20c.ft. contents, and "^^9-4 times the air pump.

Condenser, each engine separate, 3 ft. 2 in. wide x 2 ft. 6 in. fore
and aft, and 4 ft. G in. high contents := 35 cu. ft. for each engine,

35 35

and -— = -233 of a foot per horse, and -r; ,. = 2-S5 times the

contents of air pump.

Shafts (as far as drawing shows) are 12 in. diam. by 14 in. bearing.

Slide openings, 24 in. long, depth not shown, hollow slide, exhaust-
ing between the two faces, steam given at top and bottom.

Hot Water Cistern, 2 ft. 3 in. wide, 1 ft. 4 in. fore and aft by 1 ft.
8 in. deep. Contents = 5 cu. ft., or half air pump's content.

Waste Water Pipes, 12 inches diam. =: 113 in. area, say —

1 lO

= -r-T part of air pump's area.

Hot Water Pumps, 6 in. or Gi in. diam. and about 21 in. stroke.

Columns of wrought iron, 5 in. diaui. bolted to the top flange of
cylinder, and not proceeding to their bases.

Space occupied is marked S ft. by 18 ft. G in., but over the feeding
pumps and slides it measures 9 ft. 3 in., and athwart over tlie steam
pipes and expansion valves it is 19 ft. G in., according to tlie di-
mensions marked 8 ft. X 18 ft. G in. ^= 148 ft. superficial.

Mr. Peter Borries Engines, Diinda, designed Nov. \&\\ , puhUslud
July 1^42,;;. 213, vol. 5.

Cylinder 71 in. diam. (3959-2 in. area) and 5-G stroke, 22 li ft. or
19i strokes per minute =: 186 horses each, or 372 H.P. for bot : en-

,, 3959-2x7x221-5 ,^,, ^. „.,

gines, thus ^ = ISG h.p. X 2 ^ 3*2 h p.

^ 33,000

Mr. Borrie calls the collective power of the two engines 352 H.p.,
at 210 ft. per minute, and 71b. pressure; and further says, supposing
pressure 8-51b. and 210 ft. = 426 h.p. We suspect these data to be
taken from the government contracts, probably coined at the Wool-
wich mint ; as we prefer the authority of the late James Watt, we
have followed his system, his proportions and pressure.

Piston Rods. 7 in. diam. or about -^ the cylinder's diameter.

Connecting Rods, 7 in. diam. at end, and 9 in. in the middle, say 7 in.
area = 38-48 or same as the piston rod.

Length of t/ie Rod, is 8 ft. 4 in. only, shaft being 21 ft. 3 in. from
floor.

./lir Pump, is peculiar and novel in its application only, being De-
sagulier's double action pump, ' solid piston, valves and side pipes.
Its diameter is 48 in. and 2 ft. stroke. We liave 48 in. = 12-56 area

151-195

X 2 = 25-12 contents, and —- — - = f contents of the cvliuder.

2o-12

Condenser, one for both engines, as well as one air pump; it is 7 ft.

wide, by 7 ft. long, and 7-5 high = 367-5 total contents. Deducting

225

air pipes and valves, &c., its true contents is 225 cu. ft., and ;

=: -GO of a foot per

225

372

horse, and x^--,=: 9 times the air pump, and
2.'5-12

- ^= 4-5 times, supposing two air pumps, or one half to each engine.

Shafts, bearings are shown 15.5 in. diam., and 22 in. long, or 1 to
1-4 of the diam., or about 3 in. larger in diam. than the proportions
of the engines before detailed.

Slide Valves, are circular, 19 in. diam., ports 30 in. long, by 7 in.
deep, =: 225 in area.

Expansion Slidts, are very simple and effective, its motion very
small, and worked without noise.

Hot JFater Cistern, is 12 in. fore and aft, 6 ft. high, and 4 ft. G in.
wide, = 27-0 cu. ft., or for each engine = 13-5 cu. ft. or about half
the air pump.

Waste Water Pipes, and hot water pipes, not clearly shown.

Columns, lower, of cast iron like J'lrago engine, and same diam. :=
10 in., top part is a cast iron framing of tolerable design, heavy,
though firm. We observe a good arrangement — the means of re-
moving and replacing tlie steel strips in the cylinder guides, which
soon wear from the great pressure. All engines of this class (with
guides) should be so made.

Space occupied, is 10 ft. G in. from back of cylinder to face of ex-
pansion slide, and 12 ft. 3 in. over the steam pipes, and 22-6 from out
to out transversely, being a rectangle of that size, or say 236-25 ft.

We have now analysed each of the five engines separately w ithout
drawing any comparison between them, or oflfering any comment or
observation on their construction, or the adaptation of the direct
action engines for vessels of the tirst rate class, such as are now being
constructed by Governnjent. Our only object fcr the present was
sim; ly to ascertain their relative proportions, and which we now pro-
pose to give in a tabular form.

' To be seen ai the 8oiiihwark Water Works and S:. Katharine's Docks ;
particularly the fitter, there ueing six pumps of this i escriplion worked by
tHu aU horse enyu.es, ereclcil t^j Boullou :.ud Walt m IS28.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

401

Table

OK PROPOaTIONS OF DiRECT ACTION'

Engines.

2-Cylinder Engine.

Annular Engine.

Virago.

Miller's.

Borrie's.

Horse power

'

80

76

150

151

186

Cylinder, indies diameter

35 each

54

64|

65

71

,, length of stroke

ft. in.

3 9

4 0

5 8

5 0

5 6

„ speed per minute

feet

195

200 0

215 0

215 0

221 5

Piston rod, inclies diameter

3i-

2 of 3J

0

6

7

Proportion of ditto to cylinder . .

Vu

Va

-LU

tV

tV .

Connecting rod, indies diameter

5i

5

6;

6i

7

Length of ditto

ft. in.

8 2

8 6

8 4

Air pump, diameter

inches

24

26

37

30

one 48

„ length of stroke

ft. in.

2 4

2 0

2 6

2 6

2 0

„ contents

. cubic ft.

7-348

7-372

18-G6

12-25

25 12

„ proportion to cylinder 1 to

6-S4

6-75

60

9-4

6 0

Condenser

. cubic ft.

30 0

32-6

50 0

350

225 6 (one)

„ space per h. p.

. cubic ft.

•375

•425

•3

-231

•6

,, times larger than air pump .

41

4-4

3-7

2-85

45

Shafts diameter . .

inches

H

9,V

in

12

15i

*' length

inches

8

8

13

14

22

I Slide opening

inches

3x114

3i X 19

5x24

x24

7^x30

Hot water cistern

. cubic ft.

none

none

35 7

5 0

13 5

Waste water pipes

inches

square

square

9

12

Hot water pump diameter

inches

7

6,'.

Stroke length of

ft. in.

2 G

1 9

Space occupied hy engines.

area ft. in.

131 8

138 10

147 6

148 0

236 25

" fore and aft

feet

10 9

8 6

6 4

9 3

10 6

" athwart

feet

12 3

16 4

18 G

19 6

12 3

THE LIGHT OF ALL NATIONS.

In our Journal for October last, we gave a description of the
vrorks then being carried on of the lighthouse proposed to be erected
on the Goodwin Sands, and promised to give a drawing showing the
construction of the caisson ; since then the whole of the works have
been destroyed, in consequence of a vessel in one of the severe gales
in the middle of October last, during the night running fonl of it.
Notwithst.inding this disaster, we think it will be interesting to our
readers to know in what manner the works were carried on, and the
construction of the caisson ; as the record of failures is frequently of
as much benefit as the record of successful works, we have therefore
obtained the following reports of its progress, for which and for the
cuts we are mainly indebted to the Naitlical Magazine.

"On the 28th July, at half-past 10 o'clock, p.m., the Monkey steam-
tug succeeded iu getting .Vir. Bush's caisson afloat. She went off from
the bead) in fine style, maintaining a vertical position during her
transit, although she made a good deal of water. The pumps were
kept going nearly the whole of the way out. About 5 o'clock, r.M.,
being at the appointed place, the tug cast off the towing rope, and
the caisson soon settled down, (hough a little out of the perpen-
dicular. She at present declines from north to south about 2 ft. in
24, yet it is believed that, in the operation of sinking the foundation,
Mr. Bush will be able to rectify this. One of the large boats from
the dockyard accompanied the caisson to the sand, having on board
plates for commencing the necessary work immediatelv.

"On the IGth August, Mr. Bush reported that the caisson was
sunk below the sands l(i ft. at low watermark, and that the whole
portion was then 4'2 ft. high, being '.) ft. above high water, and that,
in the course of the following week he hoped to add 10 ft. more, with
every prospect of speedily finding a foundation suitable for the base
of such an undertaking.

"The annexed wood-cut represents the appearance of the caisson
on the morning of the 21st of August, showing the mode by which
the couseculive iron cylinders were placed over each other to
form the building for the lighthouse; and showing also the settle-
ment whi':h hrtd gradually taken place, as well as its inclined position,
owing to the sand beneath it giving way over the foundation which
is sup])(jsed to be of chalk. This inclination Mr. Hush appeared to
have overcome by the report, dated the 12th September.

Fig. 1.

.._H!^tK!j!nL_

Ty^WitgL-me,

" Sept. 2. — Mr. Bush reported that lie had in conjunction with
Lieutenant Batt, R.N., minutely surveyed the caisson, and found, that
after the late stiff breezes it had adjusted itself to a more upright
position; that there were 18 ft. of water around it at lovv water, but
at 2U ft. distance there were only 5 ft. A basin had therefore been
formed by the strong tides, which proved most satisfactorily that he
was but a short distance from the chalk ; this was also confirmed by
the caisson nut having sunk for the three previous weeks more than
5 inches.

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Deoemeer,

•' Sept. 12.— Mr. Bush again reported that he, accnmpanied by Lieu-
tenant Batt, R.N., in Her Majesty's cutter Sealarlc, matle a minute
siuvey of the caisson after the gale, (of the Gtb instant,) and found
that It had not tlie slightest effect upon it, and tliat it remained quite
perpendicular alter having been subjeoled for many liours to the
violence of the storm."

A small stage was washed oti', which was not of any importance
whatever; and the spar aud derrick. The part shown by the dotted
line was also broken away.

Fig. 2.— Section of Caisson.

llcif^Hi^fffCaissoon

By a reference to our description in the Journal for October last,
the annexed engraving, Fig. 2, will explain the construction of the
iron caisson.

NOTES ON EARTH WORK, EXCAVATION, CUTTING, AND FORMING
EMBANKMENT UPON RAILWAYS.

Article III. — Extent, Form, and Proportions.

" Modern practice has reduced it to a price per cubic yard."

Professor Figjiolcs' Lecture. Dec. ISil.

In my two previous communications (see pages 84 and 18G of the present
volume,) I have endeavoured to show what is tlic price of earth work, taking
ordinary soil as the standard, and then stated the price of excavation to be
4id., and of forming embankment under one mile in length to be 12d. and
3d. extra per additional mile ; and taking the average length to which earth
has been led, I find earthwork to liave cost on the following lines, Midland
Counties, 13</., Derby and Birmingham, 12\d., Great Western, 12d., and North
Union, lOJrf. I have aho stated, at page 186, the extent to which it is pru-
dent to employ horse power to be 2i miles, and even when there is a steam
liorse, as the locomotive was once named, it is not prudent to carry earth more
than 4 miles. I now propose to consider whether it be not more economical
to run excavation to spoil where it is got, and purchase earth on the spot
where it is wanted, aud for embankment to get it from a side cutting out of
the hne of railway. At [lagc 84 of t!ie present volume I have given a
table oi" the cost of back cutting or earth excavation from or in the hne of
intended railway. I now, fur the sake of comparison, give a similar table of
the cost of side cutting.

The side cutting was of similar material to the cutting in line of railway
forajerly described, and was made from an angular severance; the length of
the side of the triangle next the line was about 'JO chains long, and the em-
bankment formed w;:.s about 12 ft. in length, about 12,000 cubic yards were
moved without the aid of rails, by barrows only ; the total quantity being
aiiout 40,000 yards; out of 20,000 yards that were moved, 18,000 were got
within 20 yards of the edge of the raiiwjy, fiOOO within 35 yards, and 2000
heyond 35 yards. The contractor was paid per cubic yard Od. within 20
yariJs, 'id. witl.in .j.') yards, and 8ld for all beyond that distance. .\s a
security for the performance of the contract, one penny per cubic yard was
retained out of his payments, until half the quantity was performed, and he
was paid Id. per cubic yard extra for ballast, *hich was raised from the

bottom with horse runs. By a comparison with the price paid for the former
cutting, it will be seen that no great difference exists as to price, neither as
to the expedition of the one process over the other. ' The preceding and fol-
lowing tables were obtained by a close attention and personal superintend-
ence of several months, and at an expense that few contractors would go to.
The number of wagons were counted by the sub-contractor at the face of the
work, and by a person at the tip on the part of the employer ; in one case
the sub-contractor had bribed the counter to make a false return of the num-
ber, but as he was not content with a small defection, it was found out on
the second day. Had it been otherwise, the defalcation wouUl have been
difficult of detection, as from natural causes, weather, lost time, difference
of the earth's tenacity, the number of yards excavated by each man etiiploycd,
varying as much as cent per cent.

Table of Cost of Excavation frou Sidk Cutting.

No. of No. of Wagons No. of Wagons Cubic yds.

1837 days' work, of 2 J c. yds. of lie. yds. per man.

March 11 '208 40 1452 8J5j

18 248 84 1150 8 nearly.

25 358 243 1302 7^%

April 1 376 338 1324 C full.

8 312 213 1251 8 nearly.

Table ok tke ncmbf.r of Men to number of Wagons.

No. of Wagons of
li c. yd. each.
185
275
» 294
216
133
190
201
138
239
406
447
201
246
138
133
203
181
192
754
744
400

By comparing the above table with the former tables, it will be found
that side cutting is a small fraction cheaper, but the extra quantity of ma-
terials and consequent expense will make the two processes equal or
nearly so.

Now that the excavation is to be executed at both ends, it will cost only
9(/., and having previously stated four miles as the distance or extent to
which it is prudent earth should be transported, the cost of which is esti-
mated at Is. 9d. by the scale of leadage i have the difference of 1«.
to play upon. Let us suppose that the laud for side cutting is entirety
destroyed, and that it was purchased at the rate of 70/. per acre, and that trie
excavation could be got down 0 feet over the whole surface without having
to contend with water, which would be as much as conld be done, the lo-
cahty of embankna-nt being valley, often abounding in water ; under the
above circumstances, the earth would cost excavating id, per cubic yard, at
the side cutting end, and if the value of the land at the spoil end be calcu-
lated at half the purchase price, which is only injured, not destroyed, it will
cost 2d. per cubic yard more, making, with the cost of excavating, 6d.,
which will leave 6d. ; this will pay for carrying the earth 2 miles further
than first estimated, hence six miles will be the horizontal extent to which
earth work can be removed with prudence, or the point where back cuttings,
with a leadage of 4 miles, and siile cutting with a leadage of 0 miles, will
cost equal or Is. Or/, per cubic yard.

Having disposed of the horizontal extent to which earthwork may be re-
moveil, I will now consider the transverse extent, and the comparison of
the cost at one end of oi)en cutting with tunnel, and at the other end em-
bankment with viaihict ; I will first then proceed to show where the cost of

No. of Wagons 0

No. of Men.

No. of Days.

2S c. yds. each.

50

50

50

54

17

54

25

49

14

CO

61

22

9

51

45

52

31

60

119

60

61

60

53

22

9

34

25

54

41

54

.",1

54

36

36

48

5,0

3

5

52

2

31

' The Table in the last March No., p. 85, col. 2, hne 26, should be,
" the fourth the cubic yards moved per man," instead of " the fourth the
price per cubic yard."

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

403

a tunnel and cutting coincide, taking the cost of a lineal yard of tunnel at
^40, and the cost of earthwork at Is. per cubic yard ; when the transverse
sectional areas amount to 800 superficial yards, the value of the two will co-
incide and give us the transverse extent of cuttings.

Then as to embankments, taking the number of cubic yards in the trans-
verse area at Is. per cubic yard, and the price of brickwork for viaducts at
Is. per cubic foot, or 27s. per cubic yard, then the two prices will coincide
when the cubical contents of brickwork in any given length of viaduct is
27 times the cubical contents of an embankment of the same length.

The most extensive excavation known to me is the Cowran, on the New-
castle and Carlisle Railway, which is 40 chains long, and averages 43 ft.
deep, its greatest depth is 112 feet ; the material is sand without water, and
the slopes are 1 J to 1. The highest mound or embankment is also in the
North, on the Hartlepool Railway, which is 80 feet high. The amount of
earthwork per mile on the Midland Counties Railway, London and Bir-
mingham, and North Union, were respectively 100,000, 107,000, 125,000,
cubic yards.

There are other embankments of considerable extent in the North of
England, and on the Bishop Auckland and Weasdale Railway. The Den-
burn Brook, Etherly Dean, Gaunless, and AVear embankments are of
the respective heights of 48, 71, 78, and 50 feet. On tlie Hartlepool Rail-
way, the Hesleton Dene. Edder Acres, and Pespool embankments, are
respectively of the height of 80, 70, and 60 feet. On the Clarence Railway
there is the Wliitton embankment 75 feet high, and the StiUington embank-
ment 60 feet high. The cutting will be as a matter of course of an ana-
logous extent; there are on tlie Clarence Railway, the Russel, Whitton and
Rudds Hill cuttings, of the depth of 30, 42, and 67 feet, the latter through
new red sandstone, and their cubic contents are respectively 400,000, 220,000,
and 200,000 cubic yards, being nearly equal in extent to any of the works
on the far famed Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

The form of embankment will depend on the material of which they are
composed, and the angle at which the slopes will stand. The ratio has
been stated to be

For cutting under 20 feet deep . . IJ to 1

Ditto exceeding . . . . 2 to 1

For embankments exceeding 50 . . 2J to 1

Ditto under do. . . . . 2 to 1

Formation levels are regulated by the gauge of the railway, and distance
between the tracks of the road, and proper allowance for side drains. On
the Great Western, where the gauge is 7 feet, and the distance between the
two roads is 6 feet, the width of cutting at the formation level is 29J feet
and 31 feet, and embankments 34 j- feet, and between parapets of bridge
30 feet. On other lines where the old gauge of 4 feet 81 inches is used,
and the distance between the two roads 4 ft. 8^ in. also, a uniform breadth
of 27 ft. is used. A considerable ditference of opinion exists on this sub-
ject, viz., the proper gauge of railway; and it is supposed to be a gauge
between the two above-named, the Eastern Counties having adopted 5 ft.,
the Scotch Railway 51 ft., the Irish Commissioners 6 ft., and tlie Belfast
and Armagh 6 ft. 2 in.

To return to the Great Western, the width at level of rails in cutting is
40 ft., level of ballast 25, 2oJ, and 28 ft. ' On the Midland Counties
Railway the formation and cutting was 27 ft., as also tlie top of ballast,
and of embankment 40 ft., being SJ ft. wic!er than the Great Western, al-
though the old gauge was adopted. This is the only line where earth in
mounds 3^ ft. high was made along the embankment to act as a parapet ;
this was the reason of the extra width ; these mounds were abandoned on
accouut of their expense and their subsiding unequally.

The following rule of progress of earthwork on the Midland Counties
Railway I extract from the local papers, being returned by Mr. Thomas
Woodhouse, who I believe is the only engineer who has given such a com-
plete one to the public.

No. of Station-

No. of cubic yards No. of Locomo- ary
1839. Men. per month. Horses, tives. engines.

23rd March to 20th April 5071 374,085 511 3 1

20th April to 18th May 5138 297,960 513 3 2

4th June to 30th June 4038 13,933 2385

27th Aug. to 22nd Sept. 4373 203,037 438 1 „

22nd Sept. to 27th Oct. 4597 284.160 498 1 1

27th Oct. to 24tb Nov. 4485 210,722 505 1 1

24th Nov. to 29th Dec. 4035 195,174 457 2 1

' On the sections of railways, the formation level is shown by a black
inc. the level of top of ballast by a blue lino, and the level of top of rail by
a red line.

The following are the mishaps which have been most prominently before
the public. On the Great Western, the Sunning cutting in Berkshire, 57 ft.
deep, with slopes 2 to 1. On the Croydon Railway, at New Cross, about 5000
cu. yards slipped, and stopped the traffic, the stratum being plastic clay inter-
mixed with strata of sand and gravel. On the North Union, the Ribble em-
bankment 45 ft. high, principally sand, with a 20 ft. culvert, fell in ; a
similar occurrence, with an S ft. culvert and 40 ft. embankment, hapjiened
at Paddington, on the Great Western Railway. The Hanwell embankment,
on the same line, about 70 ft. high, sunk about 13 ft. in one night, in con-
sequence of being seated on a soft clay, the turf, hedges and trees were
displaced at a distance of 100 yards on the south side of the line ; it was
remedied by weighting and increasing the ratio of the slojiijs, and by driving
an adit to drain off the water. A bridge of 3 arches had to be taken down
on the Pontop and South Shields Railway, being forced in by pressure of
embankment ; on the dock branch of the Brandling Jtmction Railway, a
similar event took place. I have enumerated the above with no invidious
feeling, but merely to show that a considerable allowa:ice is due to con-
tractors for their risk in upholding works after completion, which is now
generally compulsory for the first year after their completion. In cuncIusiOD,
I refer you to the quotation at the head of this paper, from Professor
Vignoles, and I trust I have answered the query as to the price per cubic
yard in actual p°nce; the Professor in a subsequent section states, " the
price of earthwork abstractedly, is the amount of work t!iat an able bodied
man can perform in a day." I wish the Professor had given the amount of
work done by an able bodied man, and not dealt so exclusively in generalities.

I had prepared a table of the principal cuttings and embankments on the
various public works, giving the local name of each, with the length,
depth, quantity in cubic yards, value of the strata, time occupied in exe-
cution, the ratio of the slopes, and as far as could be ascertained, the cost
per cubic yard, as also the datum line of the several railways, and tbf
highest summit yet overcome above the level of the sea ; but I was afraid of
unnecessarily occupying the pages of the Journal with supcrflous matter,
and merely now state that the Northern lines are as heavy as the Southern
in extent of individual knolls, as the following brief comparison will show.
Northern lines ; — Hartlepool, Crunden cut, 800,000 cubic yards ; Clarence,
Russell's 'cut, 400,000 cubic yards. Southern lines ; — Liverpool and Man-
chester, Olive Mount excavation 480,000 ; Kenyon 800,000 ; Edge Hill
220,000; Ram Hill 220,000. The now almost forgotten Cromford .lud High
Peak Railway is the most extensive in rock excavations, principally of the
hardest mountain limestone, and 168,000 cubic yards have been taken from
one hill; this line has more variety of strata than most others, going through
sandstone, day, clunch, shale, freestone, lime, and grit. \n elaborate account
is published in the Companion to the British Almanac, 1830, by Thomas
Woodhouse, Esq., C. E. Extensive as the above works are, they are sur-
passed by Telford's canal works at Birmingham, the Bloonifieid cut being
80 chains long and 90 ft. deep, containing 1,000,000 cubic yards; the
Smethwick 160 chains long, 71ft. deep, and containing 4,697,000 cubic yards,
and being executed in 2i- years, the slopes being 1^ to 1. I will perhaps
return to this subject again, and give superintendence, account, and measure-
ment.

St. Ann's, J^eiecastle-on-Tyae. 0. T.

RE-OPENING OF THE TEMPLE CHURCH.

It n natural to aticipate with eagerness, and to contemplate with some-
thing of exultation, there-opening of a long closed religious edifice; and
when, as in the case of the Temple church, the charms of antiquity combine
with the claims of sanctity to render laudable a liberal, yet reverent, resto-
ration, every one must enter into the feehugs, blending in some degree the
pleasurable and the proud, with which the modern Templars flocked to their
ancient church, so worthily honoured by its present guardians — so hallowed
by associations of the past. Invested by age with no common historical
interest, its site half consecrated by memories of the enthusiastic, though
mistaken piety of its warlike founders — its existing form presenting a noble
specimen of Gothic architecture in all its chastened beauty, its solemn dig-
nity, and grand simplicity — it has been restored with a liberality which,
lavish as it was, was not only directed by the purest taste, but controlled by
the most discerning judgment ; and, above all, by that deep reverence for the
venerable antiquity, and that due regard for the nature and sacred character
of the building, which allowed not even generosity to be misled, nor per-
mitted an ardent desire for the accumulating of all the honours which re-

404

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

spcct could dictate or wealth supply, to alter the edifice one jot more tliau
was requisite to lend renewed durability to its antique beauty, nor to heap
upon a Christian church a too meretricious adornment. On the one hand,
then, we were gratified atlindingthe design of the building a little changed-
and that, even in details, the alterations were not only in the way of reno-
vation, but principally, in the strictest sense, of restoration. The church is
a noble exemplification of the unquestionable, but often forgotten truth, that
the true sublime depends not upon size ; and, that simplicity is, after all, a
main element, alike in the beautiful and the grand. Nothing can be more
simple, yet nothing more truly imposing — striking with a sense of blended
grace and grandeur, than the interior architecture; the two rows of dark-
coloured marble, rising in slender yet stately beauty like trunks of lofty
trees, while the equally simple yet surpassingly lovely tracery of the arches
whii'li from their summits realize an enduring embodiment of the artless in-
terlacing and the overhanging foliage of a noble grove. The round church
at the entrance is spacious, and, opening into the body of the building, af-
fords an unobstructed view right through to the chancel, over which and
nearly along the whole breadth of tliat end are seen splendid painted win-
dows, the colours of which, bright in pristine beauty, are certainly as bril-
liant and as beautiful as any we remember to have seen — blending in softened
hues the glowing purple or the milder violet, " the cloudy crimson or the
misty blue;" through which streams "the dim religious light," admirably har-
monizing with the restored colours of the roof, which, with the more sub-
dued tints of the side windows, give an air of warmth and repose to the
edifice quite in keeping with the general tone of its Gothic architecture.
The continuity of view, so essential to the sense of grandeur, is not broken
by any obstruction, the organ being in a side recess; the pulpit and reading
desk masked in the line of pillars on each side (though in the best positions
for audibility) ; and the interior as little as possible broken up for purposes
•f seats — there being no pews, properly so called ; the students' benches in
the centre and stalls at the sides — so that the general impression, at first
sight, is that of chaste and simple beauty, and every subsequent view serves
to deepen the feeling of the softened harmony that pervades the whole,
while over all

" the spirit of the gray old time

" Still breathes around the fane an awe sublime," —

though no longer, from " the shining mail and banners free " of its early
oceujjants " flashes the light of ancient chivalry." Everything, indeed,
throughout the interior manifests a just appreciation and a constant feeling
of the sacred character of a church ; this is equally apparent in the studious
abstinence from all inappropriate adornments, and in a careful attention to
all Ihe important accompaniments of service, as is exemplified in the liberal
supply of prayer-books and bibles. The benchers have been evidently guided
tb.'-oughout by a desire to adopt the just medium between a meretricious
magnificence, out of keeping with the character of a church, and a cold cor-
recmes;, equally at variauce with the majestic style of the architecture. Their
aim has been to make all adornments harmonize with the spirit of the an-
cient design, an allusion to which was not inappropriately made by the
Master of the Temple when referring, at the close of his sermon, to the
restoration of the building. He deprecated (while applauding the homage
paid by wealth to religion) a departure, in the decoration of such ancient
churches, from the beautiful simplicity of their general design, which (be
observed) in this case eminently exemplified how much better our ancestors
understood the character of sacred architecture than their descendants;
there should, he said, be nothing in the way of ornament calculated to at-
tract attention too particularly to itself; while, on the other hand, there
•ought to be a general tone in harmony with the grand beauty of a Gothic
idifice. Assuredly, the architecture of such buildings was the design of
those who " dreamt not of a perishable home " — who felt that " feelings
which from Heaven are shed" naturally ally themselves to sympathies of
kindred, though perchance of subordinate nature; — and that while man is
influenced by the spirit breathed into his "inner senses" through the
medium of external objects, it might he well to enlist these influences on the
side of the sacred and the eternal ; and if in some sort a superstitious spirit,
impelled by a naturrl and not improper ardour for the heaping on religion
all iu;.-igiiiahle honour, induced them to transgress the legitimate Imiits, and
lose the distinction, severing the subordinate from the superior, theirs was
an error into which, perhaps, there is less danger of our falling than that
contrary one, of imagining (in the words of an eloquent living preacher)
" that in religion, more than in other cases, men can be entirely independent
of associations ;" — of supposing (as said Robest Hall) " that there need be

no very great diftereuce between a temple dedicated to the Most High and a
common building"— t!:e mistake of thinking that it can be wrong to invest
the " outward and visible " appliances of religious worship with as much of
.ittraction as is consistent with a due sense of the distinction so justly
pointed out by the .Master of the Temple, who remarked that there was
nothing arouml him wliich coidd have the effect of diverting attention from
the object and design of edifices so sacred ; and though, indeed, it might be
that to strangers accustomed to churches of humlder architecture, there
might be something at first view exceedingly splendid in the aspect of the
interior, the efl'ect of a very little famiharity would be a feeling of entire ap-
propriateness, consistency, aiul harmony —

" The arch and architrave divinely grand ;
" The fairy fretwork of the cunning hand ;
" The harmony of stone, the coloured light
" That gleams through rainbow windows dimly bright —
" How can we gaze, nor turn from earth to heaven,
" As though some finer sense were newly given .'"
You felt that there was nothing in all you saw about you to detract from,
rather to enhance, the feelings of devotion ; that it was something, at all
events, if not all, to have thus ministered amid
" The sanctities combined
" By art to unseusualize the mind,"
incitements tending " to raise the heart and lead the will by a bright ladder
to the world above;" and while listening to the " pealing organ " and
the "solemn chant" of the cathedral service (conducted, as it was, in a
manner so subdued and so chastened as to be enough to silence for ever the
cold and shallow stigmatizers of such chanting, as necessarily savouring in
any degree of aught save the harmonious and the hallowed,) its music
seemed " lingering and wandering" (in Wordsworth's lovely language^ —
" Like thoughts, whose very sweetness yielded proof
" That they were born for immortality."
You felt that these were influences calculated " not to divert, but to inspire;"
that they served " without oftence, to aught of highest, holiest influence "
(still borrowing from the great poet of our age), but to " recall ihe wan-
dering soul to sympathize with what man hopes from Heaven ;" and to pro-
duce impressions perfectly consistent with the beautiful liturgy (admirably
read,) and with the impressive and able discourse of the JIaster, which we
should be desirous of describing from memory, did not respect, alike for the
preacher and his theme, forbid us.

For ourselves, in the feelings which pervaded our mind at the close of
this first, in (we trust) the long uninterrupted succession of future services
in this noble church, where mingled gratitude to the benchers of these so-
cieties whose funds they have with so much munificence expended in this
highest of all objects; and gratitude, more remote in its application, to the
founders of those ancient institutions, which thus act as conservators of so
much that is valuable and venerable, and whose powers are so worthily ap-
plied to the employment of wealth in a manner calculated, beyond the more
immediate results of their liberality in the renovation of a building which is
their noblest heritage, to afford an example worthy of every possible imi-
tation in the restoration of similar memorials of ages assuredly nobler in
their religious foundations, though not so orthodox in their religious faith
as is our own ; in preserving (that is) all that is valuable in legacies of the
past, for purposes most sacred and most important to the present. And if
the mind coidd not altogether exclude the recollections of those misguided
warriors, whose name and whose memory vet linger on the spot which cen-
turies ago their stern enthusiasm hallowed, it was not, perhaps, an unfounded
idea that as from their church uothing has been removed that was at all
necessary to the simple harmony of its majestic design, so amid the more
peaceful fraternities that have succeeded them their virtues have not been
discarded along with the alloy of their superstition ; hut that, with a more
enlightened liberality, there survives among the modern Templars all the
high and honourable feehng (without its accompanying delusions) which for
the most part characterized the Templars of old. — Times.

Nni/iil SIcam Nanj.—k h;uidsninp anil powerful steam-vessel is ordereil to
be hiiilt, anil named the " Trident," and it is probable she will be constructed
for the sole use of Her Majesty. The vessel is expected io be ready for
launching at an early period next season. The Trident will be equal, if not
of l.irger dimensions, to the Dcrastiil'wii, and will be fitted with the compact
and superior [engines invented by Messrs. Jlau'lslays and Field. The port
at whieli she will be built is not yet knou n, but Pembroke has been named
as the most likely place, the slips in the other dockyards suitable for building
her being already appropriated for other vessels.

1842.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

405

NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

Paddle floats are usually either of fir 3 in. thick or elm 2i in. thick.
Each float should consist of only one piece, either from bein'o- cut off a
plank as wide as the float, or from the pieces being bolted together
edgeways if consisting of more than one. These' bolts should go
right through the float edgewavs with a head on the one end and
clinched on a ring at the other. Tliere should be 3 in each float, and
in distributing them care should be taken that thev do not come in
the way of the bolts which attach the floats to the arms.

Paddle bolls and plates constitute an item of considerable expendi-
ture, especially if the ship's carpenter is negligent in screwing up
the bolts firmly. New floats are particularly liable to become loose
from the compression of the timber, and the bolts should therefore be
tightened on every convenient opportunity. It is not uncommon to
nick the thread of each paddle bolt with a chisel to prevent the nut
from unscrewing, bnt this will seldom be necessary if the bolts be pro-
perly screwed up. When a float is broken, which wil! sometimes
occur in a heavy sea, some of the paddle bolls will generally be lost,
but none ought to be lost from anv other cause. The carpenter in
getting new bolts should always fetch back the old ones, if only to
show that there has been no considerable loss from negligence. On
one of the outward voyages of the British Queen she lost every float
on the weather wheel, and was placed in considerable peril in conse-
quence. This we are inclined to attribute to the circumstance of the
bolts not having been tightened after thev had been shifted. The
vessel on the occasion to whicli we refer had been in dock, and all the
floats had been removed to enable her to go in. When she came out
the floats were replaced, and we doubt not the bolts were screwed as
tight as possible. This was in London: the vessel then started for
Southampton, where the bolts should all have been tightened before
she put to sea ; but this we believe was not done, and the exposed
wheel lost all its floats in consequence. Some of the floats indeed
were probably broken by the violence of the waves, but the greater
number we suspect were lost from the slackness of the bolts.

Against the rapid erosion of the paddle bolts by the sea water we
know of no defence except frequent painting. The wheels should be
well painted with red lead about four times a year. Red lead is, we
think, a better protection to the iron than coal tar, and is much more
manageable in its application. It will penetrate into all the joints
and minute interstices which coal tar will not do, and will also adhere
to the iron more firmly. Coal tar will sometimes peel off, especially
if the wheel has been at all wet at the time of its application ; and
the iron will not untrequently rust beneath the coal tar.

As paddle bolts are an article of large consumption, it is of course
desirable to produce them with as little labour as possible. The
practice of the London engineers is to wind a bar of square iron round
an upright mandril fixed in the ground in the same manner as the
links of cables are made, and then to cut every round of the spiral in
two places ; so that every round of the spiral will make two bolt=.
The mandril must of course be of the figure formed bv placing two
bolts with the point of the one touching the hook of the other. The
nuts of the paddle bolts should not be hexagonal but square, and the
carpenter should be provided with two or three good stout spanners
that will ht on the nuts easily. These spanners should be single
ended ; the handles should be straight, and furnished with a hole at
the end, through which a rope yarn should be rove. Whenever the
spanner is used, the rope yarn should be tied tothe rim of the wheel
so as to prevent the spanner from being lost should it happen to slip
or fall from the man's hands into the water. Sufficient length of rone
yarn should of course be left to permit the spanner to be wrought
without impediment. The nuts of the paddle bolts may be quite well
stamped in a die ; a good stout punching press will answer very well
tor the compressing power.

Horses pon-er.— There is a blessed uncertainty among engineers as
to what area of piston and length of stroke constitutes an. p ; in fact
every engineer appears to have a measure of his own, whereby
about as much confusion is introduced into engine making as would
arise among the haberdashers if every shopkeeper had a yard mea-
sure of greater or less length than his neighbour. A horse power is
as much a conventional unit as a pound avoirdupois, and we think it
a disgrace to the Institution of Civil Engineers that it has not accu-
rately defined what a horse power is. Mr. Watt, it is true, determined
a horse power to be 33,00olb. raised one foot high in a minute ; but,
however useful such a standard may be for the power exerted by an en-
gine with the power exerted by horses or any other species of prime
mover, it is wholly useless for commercial purposes. In short it may
inform you of the power actually exerted by any engine, but not of
ine number ot horses power which a given diameter of cylinder and

length of stroke are equivalent to. If a man purchases an ent'iue h°
IS charged at the rate of so many pounds sterling per horse "power,
and how is he to ascertain whether he has that number of horses
power or not? He has no means of finding out, because it has not
been defined what a Hominat horse power is, and every en<rineer
makes It a different quantity. Thus the West India mail packels are
all said to be of the same power, but he will be very far out who shall
conclude from thence that all the cylinders are of the same diameter.
Messrs. Ma.idsiay & Co.'s 400 h.p. is about 72 in. diameter of cy-
linuer.

Messrs. Miller & Co.'s 400 h.p. is about 74 in., which is just about as
reasonable as that one man's foot should be twelve inches and another
only ten. Again a given sized cylinder, if devoted to the propulsion
of a vessel through the water, is rated difterentiv from what it would
be If used for any purpose on land. And in Messrs. :\rauds|av's
marine engines, while a cylinder of 47.i in. diameter and 5 ft. stroke is
rated at bU h.p., if on the side lever plan, a 4« inch cylinder and oft.
bin. stroke is only rated at 75 H.p., if on their double cylinder con-
struction, buch capricious variations appear to us extremely re-
prehensible, and are calculated, we think, to give a false impres-
sion of the force of a new kind of engine or defraud purchasers of
a part of their measure in the old kind. The power of an engine
ought manifestly to be some function of the cubical capacity of the
cylinder, and that function should not be determined bv abstract or
scientific views, but by the intent to equalize the cost of production
for the same power whatever be the stroke and diameter. In other
words au engine of the same power should cost the ^ame money
whether its stroke be longer or shorter than that of other engines
any increment in the stroke being so compensated for by a decrement
in the diameter, so as to keep the expense of production unaltered.
This standard, it is true, would no longer be a measure of the power
exerted, but of the expense incurred, and therefore "horses power"
might be an inappropriate name for it. But the term horses
power IS not even now expressive of the real power an engine exerts
at least in common language. The actual power is sometimes de-
termined for scientific purposes by means of the indicator, but it is by
the nominal power that engines are bought and sold and always
spoken of, unless when the contrary is expressly stated. The term
horse power is therefore as applicable to the proposed new measure
as to the existing one, yet we think a better term might be invented.

The following is Boulton and Watt's rule for determining the no-
minal horses power.

Let D = the diameter of the cylinder in inches.

V = half the velocity of the piston in feet per minute.
(D=— 4DJV , ^

' 2650 ~ number of nominal horses power.

But how is V to be determined before perhaps the encrine has

been made ? Boulton and Watt fixed upon an empirical velocity for

each ditferent length of stroke. The several velocities are as follow.

stroke. velocity.

ft. in. ft, •

•2 0 IGO

2 ^5 170

^0 ISO

^ ^ lilO

4 0 200

j ^ 210

5 0 . . . . . . , , _ _ 220

And so on with 10 feet of additional velocity for every G inches of
additional stroke. Yet this rule does not give results a'nswerable to
Uie dimensions observed by Boulton and Watt in their marine engines.
Ihus the original engines of tlie Thames and Shannon constructed by
Boulton and Watt, were rated at SO h.p., the cylinders beino- 47^ in.
in diameter, and the length of the stroke 4ft. (Sin." (47-.".)= — 4 r47-5) =
20G(j-25 X 105 = 2171)30 -f- 2(i50 = S3 h.p. nearly, instead of 80.
Land engines of 43-4 in. diameter of cylinder and S ft. stroke, makincr
lb double strokes in a minute, were rated by Boulton and Watt at
SO H.p.^ The average eftective pressure on the piston is rateil at
,1,^ '' „''^''*1"'"''' '"'^''' ""f" the power may be thus computed,
r432j- X -7854 = 148(0-2 X by 7 and 2G6, and H- by 33,UiiU = about
80 HP. In marine engines a greater area of piston is allowed to re-
present a horse power than in land engines, because the motion of the
piston is supposed to be slower, but the eflective force is calculated a
little higher, or at 7-3 per square inch.

To heighten all this perplexity, M. Pambour proclaims to all-
nations that the boiler is the true measure of an engine's power, and
with the forwardness proper to a little knouUdg.-, maim lins this to
be a discovery of his own. All engineers and most amateurs have
long known that the power produced by au engine is proportional
simply to the steam expended, provided there be no accidental cir-

3 1.

406

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

c.u"'°'-riefS to influence the result, and that the piston be not made to
travel' at an extreme velocity. M. Pambonr's discovery, therefore,
contributes nothins; to our knowledge of the subject, unless it be his
intention to allege that the power of an engine is to be determined
bv euaeine the boiler instead of the cylinder. If this be his aim v/e
wiliinglv surrender to him the full credit of the ingenious suggestion.

We trust the Institution of Civil Engineers will give their early at-
tention to this subject, and define what function cf the length and di-
nmeter of a cylinder a horse power should be, so that a uniformity of
measurement "may be established among engineers, and purchasers
may know what tliey are buying. Should this not be done by the In-
stitution we shall attempt the task ourselves— giving the proportion
of our principal engineers, the rules for finding those proportions,
and a new unit of our own. , . , ,

Surcharged sleam.—Tbe question has been frequently raised whe-
ther steam to which a high temperature has been imparted without
increasing its elasticity is more economical than common steam. The
specific heat of steam has been found bv experiment to be 847, that
of water being 1, and if this result is to be relied on, there appears to
be a saving worth attending to in the use of surcharged steam. Yet
it appears questionable to us whether the specific heat of steam is
not the same as water, the apparent diversity arising from some error
in the experiment, which indeed in researches of such delicacy it is
almost impossible to exclude. There are many analogies in favour of
the conclusion that the specific heats of bodies are inversely as the
atomic weights, and if that doctrine be true, the specific heats of
steam and water must be the s.ime. Yet great economy is said to
bare been realized by the use of surcharged steam, and upon the
whole it seems worth'while to inquire what amount of benefit may be
expected from surcharged steam at a given temperature supposing
the specific heat of steam be such as has been determined by experi-
ment.

If e denote the density of the steam, then 45 {- — A will denote

the diminution of temperature when the steam is rarified to unity, or
the number of degrees requisite to be added to maintain the tempe-
rature unchanged. The latent heat of steam being 1000% the hea^t
necessary to raise water from GO" into steam is 1000 + 152 = 1152'',
and if the steam after leaving the water at the temperature of 212-
be heated to 600°, and at the same time be prevented from expanding,

C00° 212° = 3S8° = equal the heat requisite to be added if the

specific heat of steam were the same as that of water. But the
soecific heat of steam is •847.

.-. 1 : -847 : : 38S : 328

Supposing now the steam be allowed to expand,

448+600 = 1048/ ^'^^ '■ ^'^^^ • ' ^°^ • ^^®'® °'' "''^ ^^^"
or the steam when permitted to expand, will occupy 159 volumes at
the original atmospheric pressure. The density of the steam when

so expanded will be -^ — -629 .*. 45 (^t^^ — "'^29^ =^'^^ 1^^^'

absorbed by the steam during its p.xpansion from 100 to 159 volumes,

/ 1 ..„\ / 1 -829-^ -- / 1

This is the result

*i2||i]\ — 45 (-598359) = 26-025015 degrees

for air, the specific heat of which is •2GG9.

.-. •2669 : -847 : : 26 : 82°.
The total quantity of heat therefore requisite to produce 159 volumes
of surcharged steam of the atmospheric pressure and temperature,
C00° is 1152 + 328 + 82 = 1562°. To raise an equal quantity in
the common way would require 1831"68% for

100 : 1152 : : 159 ; 1831-G8'say 1832.

1832 — 1562 = 270° and 270 -;- 1862 :

; — = of the whole lieat ;
0.7

in other words, by surcharging the steam to the temperature of 600°
the saving is a little more than a seventh of the whole fuel con-
sumed.

Deck Pinks. — Every steam vessel should have an iron deck plate
above the steam chest: the fore and aft bearers of the boiler hatch
sh'ould also be of wrought iron. Boiler plate on edge with angle irons
at top and bottom answers well. Dog bolts may still be used in the
beams extending from the fore and after to the ship's side, and the
knees can be placed as usual.

Sa'lty valve c.Vs?.— The weights should all lie within the chest or

within the boiler. The practice of raising the valves by palms acting
on the lower extremities of the valve spindles, and attaching the
weights beneath the valve with a cutter, which admits those weights
to he raised without lifting the valve, is, we think, a good practice.
The valve can thus be cased without opening it, which is done by re-
lieving the valve of its lower weights, the weights above the valve
still keeping it down, though with a diminished force. By raising
the palms sliU more, the cutter arrives at the end of the slit in the
socket, and then the valve is lifted. The safety valves seat should
never be driven tight in and rivetted, but attached by means of a
weak flange and a few weak bolts, so that the valve seat would be
raised out of its place by the pressure of the steam before the boiler
would be burst. The waste steam pipe should always be attacned
to the safety valve chest by a socket joint. If fixed by a flange it
will speedily be cracked at the neck from the rolling of the chimney,
when the vessel is in a sea way, the funnel shrouds never being so
tight as to prevent a!l motion of the chimney. . , ,

-S/irfe wZks.— Messrs. Maudslays make all their shde valves up to
50 H.P., of the long D description, above that power, short D. Iheir
long D's are iust the same as those in common use, but the attachment
to the valve rod is at the top instead of at the bottom as is usual.
The covers of the valve casings are made so that they may be moved
in as the valve faces wear, the bolt holes being oblong, and the part
where the joint is faced in the lathe. The joint is made with a piece
of sheet lead nol wrapped with canvass. The valve rods are steel;
the long D's are of iron, the short D's of brass. Messrs. Miller i: Co.
also make their short D's of brass. The practice is an excellent one.

HYDRAULIC PROPULSION ON RAILWAYS.

Of the many plans to which the fertile ingenuity of the present day
has given birth, for the purpose of diminishing the cost and danger of
railway locomotion, the most novel in design, and amongst the most
recently invented, is the Hydraulic Railway, for which Mr. Shuttle-
worth, of Manchester, has taken out a patent. The principle of the
invention was announced 12 months ago, but the patentee has since
made considerable alterations in his original plans for carrying Ins
design into execution. For the purpose of making it more generally
known, he has just published a pamphlet setting forth the claims of
his invention, describing at great length its proposed mode of opera-
tion, and calculating minutely the advantages to be derived from the
adoption of this system of propulsion on railways. Independently ot
the ingenuity of the invention, which claims notice on that account
alone, the consideration of the subject gives rise to some interesting
questions relative to the motions of fluids, that well deserve attention.
We propose, therefore, shortly to describe Mr. bhuttlewortli s in-
vention; to state the principal grounds and calculations on which he
rests its claims for adoption; and by an examination of the phenomena
and laws of hydrodynamics bearing on the subject, to ascertain whe-
ther this mode of propulsion can be rendered practically available.

The arrangements proposed by Mr. Shuttleworth for carrying his
plan into operation, are in their general features similar to those of
the atmospheric railway. A pipe a foot in diameter, with a longi-
tudinal slit on the top, is to be fixed between the rails. Within this
pipe a piston is to work, which is to receive the propelling impulse,
and communicate it to the carriages by means of a connecting rod
passing through the opening at the top of the pipe; which slit is to
be kept closed by a continuous valve. So far the two plans exac ly
agree, and in Mr. Shuttleworth's first proposed mode of working the
hydraulic railway, its resemblance to the atmospheric was still further
continued. His intention was then to employ an exhausting pump,
worked by a stationary engine, the pipes being filled with water.
The advantage proposed to be gained by employing water instead ot
air in the pipes was the greater facility by which a vacuum could be
obtained by exhausting an inelastic fluid. At that period Mr. Shuttle-
worth did not seem to have made suflicient allowance for the friction
of the water in the pipes, nor for the weight of water the stationary
engine would have had to drag along with great velocity. The resis-
tance presented by these causes of retardation would, however, have
required far more power to overcome than the weight and friction of
a rope, the disadvantage of which it was a principal object ol the
invention to obviate. It is true, that Mr. Shuttleworth from the first
development of his plan contemplated the occasional application ot
the direct pressure of a column of water, as an additional means ot
propulsion; but he seemed to rely principally on the povver to be
gained by the pressure of the atmosphere on the water forced through
the horizontal pipes, to supply the place of the water pumped Jrom
that portion of the pipe in advance of the piston.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

407

The plan of workine bv liydraulic propulsion now propose<l, which
is detailed at ereat length in the pamphlet before us, has effected a
complete change in the mode first intended. Mr. Shuttleworth bow
relies entirely ?or the propulsive power on the pressure of a column
of water, acting against the pressure of the atmosphere, without any
exhaustion. He proposes to have reservoirs of water, of sufficient
height to produce a pressure of six atmospheres, placed at short dis-
tanfes along the line of railway. From these reservoirs vertical pipes,
of the same diameter as the horizontal, are to convey the water to the
commencement of each section of propulsive piping. The length ot
each of these sections is to be about "0 or SO yards, and the termi-
nation of each section of propulsive piping Mr. Shuttleworth pro-
poses to connect with double its length of what he terms skeleton
piping," along which the railway carriages are to be propelled by
the momentum previously acquired. In the intervals between the
rsnning of the trains, it is proposed to employ stationary engines of
ereat power to pump the water back again to the elevated reservoirs.
The foregoing is an outline of the principal features of the hy-
draulic railway. The advantages which are expected to result from
its adoption are, diminished cost in the mode of working, increased
safetv, by the avoidance of collisions, and greater facility in the con-
struction of railways in hilly countries. Mr. Shuttleworth makes
various calculations for the purpose of showing the economy of his
system of propulsion compared with that by locomotive engines; but
into these details we do not propose now to enter. Our present pur-
pose is to examine the principles on which he founds the hydrauUc
mode of propulsion; for if these prove to be defective, as we believe
them to be, it will be useless to inquire further.

The first great error into which we conceive Mr. Shuttleworth has
fallen, is in the calculation of the initial velocity that could be com-
municated to the carriages by a vertical column of water of the same
diameter as the horizontal pipe. He professes to take all his data
from the best authorities in hydrodynamics, among whom Mr. 1 red-
gold ranks foremost, and it is only due to Mr. S. to say that he claims
no more in favour of his plan than the calculations of the authorities
he relies on seem to warrant. His fault, like that of many other in-
genious inventors, lies in the attempt to apply general principles to
particular circumstances wherein those principles are inapplicable.
Founding on Mr. Tredgold's formulae, Mr. Shuttleworth estimates the
velocity of water rushing from the bottom of a column 198 ft. high
to be equal to G7t miles an hour; this, therefore, he assumes to be the
initial velocity which might be communicated to the train of carriages
on the hydraulic railway. Now, granting that water would rush from
a small aperture at the bottom of such a vertical column with a velo-
city of 67f miles an hour; we cannot concede that the whole column
would rush out wilh that velocity. According to theoretical estimates,
water rushes from an orifice with the velocity whicli a body falling
freely would acquire in moving through a space equal to the height
of the water above the orifice; but many circumstances may cause
the velocity of the issuing fluid to deviate from this general law. If
■the size of the aperture approximate to that of the tube, the velocity
will be diminished; and if the aperture be of the same size as the
tube, so that the whole column of water must fall as rapidly as the
issuino- fluid, the velocity will be diminished one half, without
raakin'g any allowance for friction. That this must be the case will
appear from the circumstances attending the fall of a column of any
other body the particles of which cohere. The accelerated motion ac-
quired by all bodies in their descent, would naturally give to the water
towards the bottom of the vertical pipe a much greater velocity than
to the water at the top ; and were the particles of the fluid without
cohesion, they would separate into drops in their fall, instead of
acting in one connected column. The cohesion of the particles is,
however, sufficient to prevent this separation, and the fluid column
must, therefore, move with an uniform velocity, in the same manner
as a chain or a rope thrown over a pulley must fall throughout its
whole length with uniform velocity. The lower portions of the water
or chain which, if detached, would move with greatly accelerated
velocity, are retarded in their descent by adhering to the more slowly
raovin" portions above, to which they in turn impart some of their
superior momentum gained in the descent. The communication of
velocity from the lower portions of the falling column to the upper is
evidenced in the flow of water down pipes, by the force with which
the water in the reservoir is drawn into the pipe ; which force in-
creases with the height. It thus appears, that the resulting velocity
of a vertical column of water must be the average motion given by
gravitation to the whole ; or less than half that which Mr. Shuttleworth
calculates would be the initial velocity in his system of propulsion.
He might, it is true, obviate this difficulty by greatly enlarging the
size of the conduit pipe, but this would materially add to the cost of
construction.

Another important error appears in Mr. Shuttleworth's calculations
in consequence of the velocity of water flowing freely being consi-
dered the measure of its propulsive effort. Now, it is very obvious,
that any effort required to propel the train of carriages on the railway-
must diminish the velocity of the acting fluid ; and that in proportion
to the velocity communicated to the train, the propulsive effect of the
fluid pressure must diminish ; for it is only when the pressure is re-
sisted that its effect operates. For example; if the carriages were
propelled by some other power at a velocity equal to that with which
the water rushed along the horizontal pipe, the fluid would evidently
exert no impulsive effort on the piston. If the carri;ige3 were pro-
pelled wilh half the velocity of the fluid, then only half ilie impulsive
effort would be exerted ; and not until the train was stationary, would
the full pressure of the fluid be bronglit to bear on the piston. The
whole of Mr. Shuttleworth's calculations of the power to be derived
from hydraulic propulsion would, consequently, only apply to pressure
against a stationary resistance : so soon as the train was put in motion
the power exerted on the piston would diminish and would continue
to decrease in proportion to the increase of speed attained.

One of the objections urged against the system of propulsion by-
locomotive engines is the great waste of power occasioned by the
weight of the engine and tender, yet Mr. Shuttleworth seems to have
entirely overlooked the fact, that the same objection applies, in a ten-
fold degree, to his plan of hydraulic propulsion. He has, indeed, no
heavy engine to propel, but the weight and friction of the water,
which constitutes his moving power, offer a far greater resistance to
motion than an engine and tender. The length of each section of
propulsion piping is proposed to be only 70 yards, yet towards the
end of that short length the weight of water to be propelled would
amount to nearly 5 tons. This weight of water would have to be
put in motion vvith great velocity, with the additional objection of
being exposed throiigfioitt Us whole coune to retardation by friction in
the pipe ; whereas the frictionof a locomotive engine acts only on those
points of the rails whereon the wheels rest. The loss of power by-
retardation in the tube is, indeed, taken into account by Mr. Shuttle-
worth, but he appears to overlook the fact that this loss is occasioned
by communicating motion to his moving power. The amount of
power lost by propelling the water through the pipe is much greater
than would at first be supposed. Mr. Shuttleworth himself estimates
that his calculated initial velocity of 67j miles an hour would be
reduced in a length of pipe of only 70 yards, to 29f miles an hour;
and in another part of his pamphlet it appears that the estimated
initial propulsive power of G'j3 horses (!) vrould be reduced, after
passing through 70 yards of piping of one foot diameter, to 71 H. p.
We have thus, by Mr. Shuttleworth's own showing, a power of G22
horses absolutely lost in propelling the moving power; and that too
for the short distance of only 70 yards! Surely no system of railway
propulsion was ever before proposed, which by the statement of its
inventor exhibited such a waste as this; and yet it is proposed as a
means of economizing power!

Nor is this all. An enormous waste would arise also from the at-
tempt to regulate the speed communicated by a power varying, by the
estimate, from G93 horses to 71, in the space of 70 yards. To obviate
the objection which would be urged against the plan, were the rates
of speed to be so unequal, Mr. Shuttleworth proposes to fix a self-
acting throttle-valve at the commencement of each section of_pro-
pulsion piping, so as to reduce his estimated initial velocity of 67^ to
27 miles an hour. Thus nearly two-thirds of the power would be
absolutely thrown away for the' purpose of regulating the speed to
agree with that of the terminal velocity of the water. Mr. S. appears
to imagine, however, that this check on the flow of the water, would
not diminish the pressure, because, according to the laws of hydro-
statics, the pressure is as the base of the resistance, and that the area
of the piston would therefore sustain the same pressure however
small the opening of communication from the vertical column of
water. He forgets that this law obtains only in fluids at rest; and
that as soon as the piston moved under the impulse of the whole ver-
tical column of water, the impulsive force would be diminished. If
the throttle-valve were so regulated as to reduce the velocity to 27
miles an hour, the pressure on the piston would correspond with that
velocity, and not with the pressure of the whole vertical column. All
the force lost by checking the water at the throttle-valve would con-
sequently be so much power wasted.

Jt might be supposed from the lavish waste of power which is ex-
hibited throughout the whole plan of the hydraulic railway, that the
inventor had at command the falls of Niagara every 200 yards of his
proposed line ; the waters of which he could send rushing through
the pipes without any limitation. Not so, however, for every drop of
water thus uselessly squandered is to be forced back again into arti-
ficial reservoirs. Of these reservoirs, indeed, though theyforni an

3 L 2

408

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

essential pait of bis system, lie makes but little mention. In Ibe con-
struction of a railway on tbe liydraulic propulsion plan, they wouki,
we conceive, figure ratlier prominently among tlie items of expendi-
ture, and add very materially to tbe engineering " difficulties " of
any line of railway. The erection of immense towers 2UU ft. high
every 200 yards, would present formidable obstacles to the trial of
such a mode of railway propulsion, even did it present theoretically
much greater advantages than those claimed for the hydraulic ; and
unless our views are exceedingly erroneous, the plan could never be
practically carried into execution, in consequence of the immense
waste of power which every pait of it presents. We liave, we think,
pointed out sufficient instances of this waste to justify our opinion,
but on reading over Mr. Shuttleworth's " plain statement " others will
be found which we have not thought it necessary to enumerate. Ob-
jectionable as Mr. Shuttleworth's first plan of the hydraulic railway
appeared, we consider it far preferable to his " improved" mode of
employing the water propulsively. The principle of exhaustion, on
which it depended, is more simple, and its etFects would be more cer-
tain, and produced with vastly less expenditure of power.

We regret to be obliged to decide so unfavourably on the claims of
an invention which bears evident marks of great ingenuity and labour;
but we consider it much more to the interest of an inventor, who has
been milled by the application of erroneous data, to endeavour at
once to convince him of bis error, than to indulge fallacious hopes,
which can only end in more bitter disappointment.

THE ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETIES.

Sir — In this age of novelty, locomotion, and substitution of new-
powers for those approved in days of yore, can we wonder at anv
of the attempts made by Ecclesiastical Commissioners, of whose
"crusade against the employment of architects" T. H. W. so justly
complains, or other Joint-slock societies, such as one recently es-
tablished in the North, which professes to follow the Oxford and
Cambridge architectural societies, and that they should submit to
them any plans which may be made for building new churches, or for
restoring old ones, as prepared by their builders or their builders'
clerks, (lor arcliitects will be out of the question,) under their imme-
diate direction and dictation; albeit their knowledge is obtained en-
tirely from Glossaries and other books, which are compiled from
works, sometimes possibly correct, but more freqaentiy artistical plates,
made for effect only, and when examined and compared with the
work intended to be represented, cause the inquirer to think whether
a wrong plate may not have been bound up with the work by
mistake ; there will be of course much experimentalizing by the new
parsonage house commissioners, and the builders in many places will
have to conform to the views of their architect, who composes his
plans by the fire-side, for why need he trouble himself about local
peculiarities, and what cares he about the gaping and wondering of the
country boobies, at seeing a trim brick and plaster house, built upon
a stone quarry, when the material excavated from the cellars, would
have built the walls of the house at half the expense, and twice the
durability ; the rage is now all for a bit of Gothic, or at least Eliza-
bethan, for possibly a work publislied a few years ago, (the "Princi-
ples of design in architecture,") has tended to put away the " Gothic
and tasty" lintels cut up to a peak over a door, when a'horizontal one
would have been stronger and produced a better etTect ; formerly the
indented battlement or parapet was all the rage, now the pointed
gables, as irregular as it is possible to make them — one in the en-
trance front with windows ranged like a ship's port holes, and much
in the same proportion, and tlie other close to it in the same line
with a huge projecting chimney stack, covered with mouldings and
sliield?, for what purpose only known to the designer. Strips of wood
cut into holes of all shapes, quatrefoil, trefoil and wavy, according to
Rickman, barge hoards, (certainly as appropriate as the rest of the
structure in such a situation,) placed under each of the gables — now
the Architectural Societies intend to co;;y and to restore ; at least so
they say: but when are they to give their knowledge? The prospectus
of the new Yorkshire Society contains the names of two architects
only, and neither of them attended the Autumn meeting. Tno meet-
ings are to be held in the year, and from the information given at the
last, it appears, that for general accommvdatimi, they are to be in the
remote corners of the country ; all admitted must be members of the
Established High Anglo-Catholic Church! the committee, of young
clergymen, and amateurs, who read, and look at pictures, are to be the
bets, ' )/ thtij can be gel to work ; all the rest are to be considered as

' '{he standnrd for all buildings is to be Parker's Oxford Glossary.

drones, and only called together in the Spring and Autumn, to see the
produce of the hive. As far as could be seen after the last meeting,
the secretaries constituted the society — two clergymen and a surgeon,
the latter rertj young. From this society is to be directed the restoration
of the architectural gems of the country, and woe to any architect,
who dares venture upon a slight variation, if even better to remove
the work of a subsequent period, and restore the earlier and better
parts. It is time for the architects to awaken from their lethargy, or
if awake, Iheir apathy, as they alone can be expected to guide the un-
initiated in the profession, and make them so far of use, that (a's
throughout the country there is a feeling in favour of the Ecclesias-
tical buildings of the middle ages, evidently the works of the clergy
and the'n/ree brethren), they may work together, and discover the
source from which the beauties of those temples spring.

I am, Sir, &c..

DR. PAYERNE'S EXPERIMENTS ON THE DIVING BELL.

[We received from Dr. Payerne, but too late for insertion last
month, a letter complaining of our remarks on his diving bell experi-
ments. It is but fair to the Doctor to publish his reclamation, to
which we shall add a rejoinder, in justice to ourselves.]

Sir — He who undertakes to treat a subject which he does not under-
stand, is liable to fall into the deepest error. Of this truth the
reporter of the experiments made by me on different occasions in the
diving bell, furnishes, unfortunately for himself, too glaring an instance
in the October number of your Journal. I shall not, in order to prove
this, lose myself, after his example, in a maze of suppositions all
equally gratuitous, not even excepting the emphatic preamble in
wliich he exclaims against the whole English press, to whom I tender
my sincere thanks for its favourable notice of the success of my ex-
periments, a notice which has done me the more honour, as it was
altogether unsolicited.

One idea in which the reporter, as he reverts to it in every line,
indulges with much complacency, is the supposed pompous announce-
ment by me of the discovery of a new process for generating air by
decomposing water, and thereby producing the necessary oxygen to
support life. Upon wdiat authentic grounds, I will ask him, does he
rest his pretended report ? Is there not reason to believe, until he
condescends to reveal its source, that he has attempted wittingly to
impose upon the judgment of your readers ? He indeed never will,
but I can proclaim its source ; he has collected his notes, not on the
spot wdiere the experiments were made, nor in accordance with the
principles developed in the esteemed works upon chemistry and phy-
siology of which he is ignorant, but in the shop of a third or fourth
rate provincial chemist, a declared enemy of Major-General Pasley,
who did not think fit to receive, with implicit faith, the light offered
to him by this pretender. It shall be my business to show that
Major-General Pasley has unvaryingly adhered to the truth, and that
the reporter is egregiously ignorant of the commonest laws of pneu-
matics.

The diving bell in which my experiments were made at Spithead,
is but 5 feet high, 4 feet long, and 2i feet broad. The seat therein
is about IS inches above the bottom, so that our shoulders did not rise
above 3 feet 3 inches. These data known, I am obliged, in order to
be understood by the reporter, to enter upon a few elementary expla-
nations upon the compressibility of air under a given pressure. It has
been an established fact, since the period of Mariotte and Boyle's
experiments, that all gaseous substances become compressed in an in-
verse ratio with the pressure to which they are subjected. It is a
fact no less true, that a column of water about 33 feet high, after re-
moval of the air above, will counterbalance the terrestrial atmosphere.
But when the latter and the column of water simultaneously press
with their whole weight upon a gaseous substance or upon air, it be-
comes condensed to one-half of the volume which is filled when sub-
jected to a single jiressure of one or other of those agents. This law
once well understood, it becomes evident that, at the depth of 33 feet
of water, subject to the pressure of the atmosphere, the quantity of
air contained in the diving bell at the instant of immersion, will be
reduced to one-half of its original volume, and that the water will rise
to one-half of the height of the diving bell, namely 2i^ feet. If an
atmospheric pressure be added to the former twofold pressure, the
volume of air, already reduced one-half, will be further reduced by
one-third, that is to say, that the water will rise 10 inches higher, or
3 feet 4 inches, a height already more than sufficient to immerse us
shoulders deep in the water. If to this height be added that which
should have been produced by an additional column of S or 10 feet of

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

409

water, it will be seen that Major-General Pasley, instead of exagge-
rating, lias rather restricted facts with that reserve wliicii belongs
only to men of real learning, who advance nothing but what they are
in a condition to establish beyond dispute.

The reporter lays it down as an axiom, that one gallon of air suffices
to support life during one minute. I beg of him to inform us upon
tvhatscientific authorities he rests his reasoning. Unless he dares to
challenge the conclusions of the French Institute, and especially the
recent experiments made by Messrs. Leblanc and Dumas, it has been
demonstrated by the whole body of the learned, that a man inhales in
one hour about 200 gallons of air, and that he requires S times that
quantity in a shut up place, for the well-established reason tliat a
portion of air issuing from the bronchia, renders S portions of pure
air unfit for the support of life. The result from this fact is, that the
diving. bell of the Polytechnic Institution, containing 8U feet of cubic
air only, instead of 14u, as the reporter dares to affirm, or 50u gallons
instead of &70, a diver, without the help of my process, could not
remain therein more than 20 minutes. The pretended experiments
which are alleged to have been made subsequently to mine, and
which deserve to be styled mysterious far more than those to which
this epithet has been so injudiciously ascribed, have been witnessed
by no one ; and had they really taken place, as is alleged, tlie actors
therein must have been driven out of the diving bell by a degree of
suffering past endurance, whereas in ray experiments I was not sensi-
ble of the slightest inconvenience, and was drawn up without having
expressed a wish to that effect, and solely because the term allotted
for the experiment had expired. In a word, I can remain in the
diving bell an indefinite period of time.

What would you have me answer to the absurd supposition that I
profess to enable a man to inhale water at the bottom of the ocean,
instead of air?

The dimensions of the diving bell at Spithead are already known.
The cylinders, according to an exact evaluation, did not hold more
than 70 cubic feet of air, at a pressure of 30 in., and not 220 ft.,
as the reporter alleges. According to the beautiful experiments of
Mons. Leblanc, the whole quantity of air contained in the 2 cylinders
and the diving bell would have been scarcely sufficient for S men
during one quarter of an hour. But the difficulty of living any length
of time under water was not the question I wished to elucidate or
settle at Spithead, that problem having been resolved at the Poly-
technic Institution. The object I had in view has been attained in
the most complete manner, namely, that of proving that the diving bell
being once filled with air, under a given pressure, it was unnecessary,
with the help of my process for living under water, to keep up a
constant supply of fresh air, for the reason, that an even pressure
would keep the vpater out of the diving-bell during an indefinite
period. These reasons alone prevented us from prolonging our con-
finement in the depths of the sea. 'Ihe reporter has not understood
them : but I can well spare his commendation, provided as I am with
the honourable attestations of those eminently competent gentlemen
who witnessed my experiments. Their testimony is, in my opinion,
of at least as much value as the opinions of a writer who seeks infor-
mation in the shop of a man who was not, as I can prove, even
present at the experiments in question.

I have said enough, sir, to convince you that your reporter having
rested his arguments upon a foundation avowedly unsound, all his
conclusions are consequently erroneous, and that I had no need to at-
tempt to conceal a failure, in a case where I had obtained a most
complete success.

Dismissing his other assertions which are not worth contradicting,
let us conclude that your reporter undertook a task above his reach
in attempting to handle a question involving principles of chemistry,
natural philosophy and physiology, three sciences of which he does
not possess the common elementary notions; and, admitting that he
may be less ignorant upon othtr subjects, I still cliim the privilege of
recommending to his notice the old adage : Ne iulor iillra cnptdum.
I remain. Sir,

Yuur obedient servant.

Dr. Payerne.

[Ofthetoneof Dr. Payerne's letter we do not complain. He is
evidently smarting under the infliction of our former article, in which
was exposed the extravagant puffing his performances had been
honoured with in the newspapers; and, under the circumstances, we
can readily excuse his discourteous expressions. Of what we do
complain are, the mystifications and misstatements bv which it is
attempted to convey the idea that he has made some wonderful dis-
covery, whilst he carefully avoids mentioning explicitly what it is
that he claims to have discovered, and of what the nature of it con-
sists. It appears from the latter part of Dr. Payerne's letter, he enter-

tains the opinion that the article commenting on his experiments was
w ritten by some one who " obtained his information in the shop of a
man who was not even present at the experiments in question." We
are entirely- at a loss to conceive to whom he alludes, and in this
respect we are as completely mystified as he could wish us to be
regarding the properties of his revivifying apparatus. Our comments
on the experiments at Spithead were, and professed to be, fou: ded
entirely on the report in the Timen, vihich bore the character of being
semi-official, and of being written by some friend of Dr. Payerne's.
Our object was to prove that all Dr. P. was stated to have accom-
plished by the aid of liis apparatus for purifying and generating air,
might have been done without any apparatus whatever; and to correct
the erroneous notions generally entertained respecting the quantities
of air required to sustain life in confined situations. We think we
completely succeeded in those objects by the statement of a few
simple facts and experiments ; but as Dr. Payerne now questions
their correctness, we must return to some of the points advanced, with
a view to set them at rest more conclusively.

Dr. Payerne adduces the authority of the sarans of the ^cademie
dts Scieiicts against our calculations and facts respecting the quantities
of air necessary to support life. We are certainly not so presump-
tuous as to challenge all the philosophers of the French Institute, but
we may be allowed to question the inferences which Dr. Payerne
draws from their researches, in favour of his own views ; especially
when they can be proved to be diaiiietrically opposed to well esta-
blished facts. He asks on what authority we asserted that one gallon
of air is sufficient to support life for one minute ; and as he appears
to pay great deference to authorities, he may be disposed to admit
that the names of Messrs. Allen & Pepys deserve consideration.
Those accurate investigators of truth performed several experiments,
with a view to ascertain the quantity of air absolutely necessary
to support life; and the results are reported in the Plulosophicat
Transactions of the Royal .Society for ISOS. We did not, however,
state that one gallon of air per minute is sufficient for continued
respiration, but that life might be supported bv one gallon per minute
for a short period. We expressly stated that the increasing deteri-
oration of the air would render a larger quantity necessary, excepting
for a short continuance, and we made ample allowance accordingly.
There is no doubt that air containing a large proportion of carbonic
acid gas is unfit for continued respiration, but the question between
us and Dr. Payerne is, how long can a man ct)ntinue to respire the
same air without serious inconvenience ; for on that point rests the
value of his experiments as a test of his announced discovery. Even
M. Leblanc, wliose authority Dr. Payerne quotes, shows clearly that
the supply of air deemed desirable is far from being necesiary. In his
memoir read to the Acaileiny of Sciences, M. Leblanc states, rather
vaguely, that the quantity of air required for healthy respiration by
one person is from six to ten cubic metres |)er hour, yet iie mentions
at the same time that in the lecture room of the Sorbonne, when the
windows are closed, the quantity of air admitted does nut amount to
one cubic metre each person. But putting aside all inferences drawn
from analyses of the air, the claims of Dr. Payerne, which rest on hi*
experiments in the diving bell at the Polytechnic Institution, must be
annihilated if it be proved that other persons, without any apparatus,
have remained equally long under water in the same bell. It seems
that we were in error when stating the capacity of the bell to be
870 gallons. We have since measured it, and find its height to be
5 feet, and the diameter 4 feet; which give an internal capacity of
about 02 cubic feet, or only 3&7 gallons. The space occupied by two
persons cannot be estimated at less than 5 cubic feet, equal to about
31 gallons ; therefore the bell, when occupied by two persons, would
not contain more than 35(j gallons of air. This is much less than we
originally stated the bell to hold; and if this smaller quantity of air
proved sufficient to support the respiration of two persons for an hour
and a half, it confirms the more strongly our original ])osition respect-
ing the quantity of air absolutely necessary to support hfe. Dr. Pay-
erne feels this, therefore he denies that such an experiment could
have taken place, and even ventures to affirm that the "pretended
experiments" were witnessed by no one. The experiment icm wit-
nessed by a gentleman who communicated the fact to us, and on sub-
sequent inquiry at the Polytechnic Institution, his statement that tlie
parties descended, and remained in the bell without external com-
munication for an hour and a half, burning a candle, too, during a
great portion of the time, was confirmed.

In order to remove all doubt on the subject, the Editor of this
Journal was determined to try the experiment himself, accordingly he,
accompanied by another gentleman, descended in the diving bell at
the West India Docks, the use of which was obligingly afforded
for this purpose. That bell is larger than the one at the Polytechnic
Institution. Its height is 4 ft. S in., length 5 ft. 8 in., and breadtli

410

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

3 ft. S in., its net capacity about 520 gallons ; and the space occupied
by two individuals would reduce the contents to about 49it gallons of
air. To avoid any complication in the experiment by the intro-
duction of more air than the actual contents of the bell, and the neces-
sity of taking down cylinders with compressed air, to prevent the
water rising in the bell, it was lowered so that the whole of the bell
was immersed 9 inches below the surface of the water, sufficiently to
etfectuallv exclude all external air without compressing the air within
too much. The experiment commenced at three o'clock, and was
continued until half past four. In this time no inconvenience was ex-
perienced from the deterioration of the air in the bell, and in their
opinion they might have remained at least half an hour longer, but
the approaching darkness induced them to give the signal to be drawn
up; having fully verified the experiment at the Polytechnic Institution
by remaining, without a fresh supply of air, for an hour and a half.
If Dr. Payerne has any doubt as to the correctness of the experiment,
the Editor will be mo'st happy to accompany the Doctor, and repeat
it with him, or any other person he may nominate.

In the first of these experiments the quantity of air in the bell would
allow scarcely two gallons, in the latter rather more than two gallons
and a half per minute for each individual; yet those limited quan-
tities proved sufficient, without producing any disagreeable sensations

" Facts are stubborn things," Doctor, and in this instance they will,
we expect, prove too obstinate to yield to any mystification, though
backed by the authority of the French Institute. No one would
descend in a diving bell for fresh air, however supplied, nor select
such a residence as a restorative of health ; existence in a diving bell,

must, after all, be a matter of endurance, and the facts we have stated
show the absurdity of applying vague opinions respecting the quan-
tity of aiv requisite for healthy respiration, as data for calculations
of the quantity of air necessary to support life.

We infer from Dr. Payerne's letter, and from circumstances which
have since come to our knowledge, that he now disclaims all pre-
tension to generate oxygen gas, and that he claims only the plan of
absorbing the carbonic acid gas resulting from respiration by the use
of quick lime and potash. If this be the case, on what foundation
does he rest his assertion, that he could " remain in the diving bell
an indefinite period of time t" Though Dr. Payerne may, now that
his experiments have been submitted to scrutiny, disclaim tlie power
of generating " good air," there is little doubt he in the first instance
wished to convey such an impression ; else, by what conformity of
blundering could all the reporters have agreed in so representing
Dr. Payerne's powers. If he did not originally profess to be able to
generate oxygen gas, what becomes of the declaration in the semi-
official report, that "General Pasley had no doubt of the goodness of
the Doctor's air?" and how can he defend the first proposal to descend
without any cylinders of compressed air to keep out the water ?

We hope vve have satisfied Dr. Payerne, or at least the public, that
his experiments in the diving bell at the Polytechnic Institution, sig-
nally failed to prove that he possesses any peculiar and valuable
means of purifying or of generating air ; and that his calculations of
the quantities required for the support of life are extravagantly erro-
neous. We will not deny that he has done some good by the an-
nouncement of his discoveries; it has attracted attention to the sub-
ject, and thereby elicited useful and curious facts.]

SUGAR MAKING APPARATUS.

Sir — The importance of any improvement in the process of" Sugar
making," in the colonies, with respect either to economy in the manu-
facture, or the quality of the product, I trust is a sufficient apology
for calling the attention of your readers to a description of an appa-
ratus employed by Mr. Alfred Stillman, an engineer of this city, who
has for a number of years been engaged almost exclusively in the
introducing and perfecting of steam' machinery in the West Indian
islands.

>> This gentleman, having occasion to put in operation a " Steam mill,"
in St. Croix, conceived the project of converting to the purpose of
generating steam for the engine, that vast proportion of the heat
from the " megass fire " which is wasted beyond the " coppers." In
order to effect this, he placed the steam boilers directly behind the
" trains," in such a manner as most effectively to apply the waste heat
from under the " coppers." In this he so far succeeded as to require
no other fuel for generating steam, than sufficient to "put the mill
about" in the commencement of each day's work.

His attention was next turned to the employment of the " exhaust
steam" for clarifying the "liquor." To do this, he employed tanks
of sheet iron, with double bottoms and traversed by a tier of copper
pipes, into which was introduced the escape steam from the engine.
The process of claiifying was in this way effectually carried on; and
by closing the escape pipe with a loaded valve so as to maintain a
slight pressure within, the effect was so much increased, that by
means of two or more sets of these tanks, the one discharging into
the next, a part or the whole of the process of concentration might
be thus performed, ami thereby dispense with a part or the whole of
the train of eoppers, rendering the megass fire more effective under
the steam boilers.

Now, it is a point pretty well established iti practice, that in the

evaporation of saccharine juices, the less the temperature of the
heating surface, the less of oxidation takes place in the saccharine
matter, and the more perfect the crystallization ; consequently yielding
a greater proportion of sugar and of better quality.

Admitting this, it will be perceived that if, instead of the intense
heat of the megass fire and the limited heating surface, we employ
the temperature of skam with an unUmittd extent of heating surface,
a decided advantage is gained in these important particulars — the
quantity and quality of the product.

The simple sketch accompanying this, will scarcely need further
explanation ; being merely a section of a reduced train of coppers,
A, A, A, with its flue, B, passing from the furnace, C, under and
through the two steam boilers. D, D, also two clarifiers, E, F, re-
presented, showing their construction and the manner of admitting
the steam. .

The whole arrangement and operation is extremely simple, ana
very readily encompassed by such talent as is to be found on every
"sugar estate;" which has been satisfactorily demonstrated during
the last two years in St. Croix, and also during the past season on the
estate of Don Gasper Hernandez, Cuba, West Indies.

Keiv York, July 1842.

F. W. S.

[Although portions (if not the whole) of the apparatus above de-
scribed are not new, we have thought proper to give our Transatlantic
correspondent's communication an insertion, as it shows what economy
there is exercised in the distribution of heat in the process of sugar
making. We may at some future opportunity, publish the process ot
sugar making in vacuo. — Editor.]

1842.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

411

THE PROFESSORS OF ARCHITECTURE.

1. Iiitrodiictonj Lecture at King's College. By William Hoskino,
F. S. A. ; Architect and Civil Engineer, Professor of the Principles
and Practice of Architecture, and of Engineering Constructions.
London: Weale, 1842.

2. Preliminary Discourse at Universily College. By Thomas Lever-
ton Donaldson-, Vice Pres. R. Inst. B. A. &c. ; Professor of Archi-
tecture. London : Taylor & Walton, 1842.

It would be unfair, at the present moment, to compare the Pro-
fessors at the two rival colleges, particularly as one is but on the
threshold of his career; we shall therefore consider separately, as far
as we can, the discourses by which each opens the present session,
giving precedence by seniority to that of Mr. Hosking. The ground-
work of this is in the usual introductory lecture style, but the author
has managed to introduce his favourite theories. Here he repeats
Ids definition of a civil engineer, that he is only an hydraulic architect,
and defines the duties of an architect as those of a civil engineer. Of
the propriety of such doctrines we have before intimated our dissent,
and also of Mr. Hosking's implied definition, that an architect is not
an artist. The architect and the civil engineer have one study in
common, that of construction, but they are no more identical on that
ground than any two substances are identical, each of which contains
an element in common. The design of a civil engineer, and conse-
quently his career, is as distinct from that of an architect as light
from dark. St. Peter's and the Birmingham Railway have masonry
in common, and they have arches, yet few but Professor Hosking
■would propose to interchange Bramante and Stephenson. Again, we
cannot but note the contemptuous terms in which Mr. Hosking speaks
of the artist and of the arts.

"The qualifications of an architect — place him as far beyond the
mere artist as the artist is beyond the artisan."

" Architecture and architects sufter together from their association
in the public mind with the imitative arts and with mere artists."

"Artists being not unfrequently linked in the same category with
players, fiddlers, and dancers."

Judges are linked in the same category with pettifoggers, physi-
cians with quacks, and clergymen with itinerant fanatics, yet we never
lieard the respectability of law, medicine, or divinity impugned, or
that of their professors, and we can conceive no disgrace to a man
from being put in the same class with Michael Angelo, Raphael, and
Rubens. Mr. Hosking, however, seems determined to treat both ar-
chitecture and engineering as mere building. Another of Mr. Hos-
king's peculiarities is about the gentility of architects, and that at
present it is scarcely a profession for a gentleman. How this may be
we do not know, but we fear that at present neither lawyers, physi-
cians, nor architects, are employed for the length of their pedigrees,
the number of their quarterings, or the purity of their descent, but on
account of their ability, and that their gentility is in virtue of the
liberal nature of their professions. We think it much better that
architects should stick to the arts instead of the Herald's College, for
the present generation of architects surely cannot be accused of the
sin of too much artistical feeling, which is just the quality most de-
ficient. Public opinion and competition are especial bugbears to the
Professor, and he recommends his pupils to set both at defiance. We
are only fearful that if they do, they will find themselves equally
wanting of reputation and employment. The present is not the
period'either to hold public opinion as naught, or to run counter to it;
there are too many educated critics and amateurs, there is too much
intelligence in the press, for the old mysterymen to hold their ground,
architects must be prepared to account for the faith within them, to
defend their errors as well as their merits, and to do as every other
art and profession must do, look to the public voice for direction and
reward. It is too late to stem the current. As to his depreciating
opinion of Vitruvius, Mr. Hosking defends it, and repeats his well
known assertion, that " a student would acquire as correct a knowledge
of history and of geography from the ' Seven Champions of Christen-
dom' and 'GiulUver's Travels,' as of architecture from Vitruvius."
We are not surprised at hearing this, for we know a similar diversity
of opinion prevails among lawyers as to the adoption or rejection of
"Coke upon Littleton" as the foundation of legal studies. In both
cases, however, we consider that the class book is to be esteeined as
indispensable, not on account of its positive instruction (which in both
cases is of little value), but as the instrument by which the minds of
the profession have been moulded, and so, essential to the new student.
Mr. Hosking's remarks on competition we must pass over, as also his
plan, for they are so foreign to the present state of public feeling, as
to be entirely futile. As to the assertion that no competition should

take place between architects, because none exists among lawyers and
medical men, it is quite unsupported, for a lawyer or a medical man
may have a thousand cases or more in the course of a year, but few
architects have half a score buildings to erect in the same period.

Mr. Donaldson begins by recognizing the importance which archi-
tecture, within the last twenty years, has assumed in this country, and
the deep interest which all classes have taken in its progress, as
evinced by the attention paid to it by the public press. He then
takes an extensive view of the artistical triumphs of architecture, and
concludes by sketching out the main features of his two courses, the
artistical and the constructive. The composition is brilliant, and the
range of investigation wide, perhaps in some cases too wide, but
giving good earnest of the extent of the author's acquirements. We
note an opinion as to the merits of Vitruvius, opposite from that we
have alluded to in the case of Mr. Hosking.

The following extract of that portion of the Lecture in which the
Professor takes a rapid glance of the various styles of architecture,
will exhibit to our readers, particularly students, those high attain-
ments, which so well qualify Mr. Donaldson for the responsible office
he has undertaken.

Follow me up the Nile which winds its sinuous course through 1000 miles
of country, from 10° within the tropic of Cancer to the Mediterranean, pre-
senting a line of abundance and verdure through an expanse of desert. The
attention is first attracted bv the Pyramids within wlsose dark recesses may
still lie hidden all the secrets, that have hitherto eluded research, to make
us acquainted with the arts, the manufactures and the science of the dynasty
of the Pharaohs. Memphis and Thebes, Phyle and Abussambul offer their
monolithic tombs, their immense excavations, their gorgeous temples, and
superb palaces, enveloped in hieroglyphic inscriptions, which still elude our
research or ill repay the indefatigable zeal, the unwearied patience and the
vast stores of erudition brought to the task of decyphering them ; for in-
stead of being pictures of thought they contain the bare records of names.

The contemplation of these masses makes the mind of the traveller revert
to the period of Egypt's ancient greatness, when she was the cradle of
science to the whole 'world, and by her progress in the arts and letters in-
fluenced the rising genius of Greece. The intelligent observer gives order to
the confused piles which lie around him, and fills up the void space from the
writings of Dionysius the Ilalicarnanian and of Strabo. We shall attempt
to describe one of the Egyptian fanes.

An Egyptian temple appears to have been one of the most imposing as-
semblage' of buildings, that can be well conceived. Avenues lined with
hundreds of sphinxes on each side, led the worshipper to the sacred
precinct for the distance of thousands of feet ; and thus the mind, even
when remote from the vicinity of the Temple, received an impression cal-
culated to excite veneration. This avenue was terminated by a stupendous
mass of pyramidal form, above 200 ft. wide and about 80 ft. high, whose
enormous proportion was naught diminished by the vastness of the plan m
which it stands, nor bv contrast with the mountains that overhung it. Itt
the centre of this propvleura is a door, flanked in advance by iin obelisk on
each side, about 90 ft .'high, and beside which are figures of colossal di-
mensions, 45 ft. high, sitting as guardians of the sacred portal. The eftect
of the whole is gigantic and calculated to impress the coming worshipper
with the fullest notions of his insignificance in the scale of material nature.
The triumphal gateway being passed, a magnificent court meets the eyes of
the beholder, having on each side a colonnade; and this court led to a
densely columned hall or veatible, under the shades of which the crowds of
Egypt's sons and daughters reposed to recover from the exhaustion and fa-
tigue caused bv their journey under a burning sun to the fane of their crea-
ture god. Anil here tlie mind also dwelt awhile on the first impressions
produced by the contemplation of the overpowering majesty of the gorgeous
mass. For the huge popylea, which enclosed either end of the court, and
the hall with its forest of clustered columns, which the eve could not
number, and the playful varietv and copiousness of channelled hieroglyphics
which left not a space uncovered, and the brilliancy of the pigment which
gave an endless variety to the shafts and capHals of the columns, to the
beams, the walls and ceilings, bewildered the attention, and left not a mo-
ment of repose to the wondering stranger. A lofty central avenue of co-
lumns, above 60 ft. high, forming as it were a triumphal way, leads under a
third portal, of dimensions by no means inferior to the others just men-
tioned, and marked with what care and with what sanctity the priests
guarded every approach to the inner parts of the temple. But this gateway
passed and a'scene the most sublime burst upon the view. An ample peris-
tvle, much larger than the one already passed, presented itself to the eye,
probably planted with trees, cio\vdcd with metaphoric statues; on either
hand a double avenue of columns less for convenience than dignity of effect.
In the centre uprose the portico of the mass of building, which formed tlie
Temple itself— the columns in dimension more' ofty, in decoration more
rich, in proportion more graceful than those of the courts. The dynasties,
that had ruled over the country up to the period of the erection of this
temple, have their histories graven on the walls and on the columns— the
same pyramidal form gives an appearance of endless durability to the mass,
which is surmounted liy an immense hollowed cavetto having the centre oc-
cupied by the sculptured form of the agatho demon, or winged globe and

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

serpents, with outstretched wings extending over the centre intercoUimnia-
tion of the facade, and seemingly a being of another world. Admitted be-
neath this porch, the minds of the worshippers are prepared for the gloomy
inner penetraHa, where every object was mysterious and emblematic. Nu-
merous doorways closed by curtains succeeded each other, and led from
vestibule to vestibule, which hindered the eye from penetrating with sacri-
legious gaze into the inmost sanctuary, all access to it being forbidden to the
multitude. To these vestibules the light of day was denied, and the mind
was subdued by the gloom of the spot : for the attention was absorbed by
the contemplation of the sacred mysteries of the place, and by the effects
produced on the attention by the huge incongruous figures of granite — mon-
strous reflections of the gloomy minds of the religious inhabitants of the
sacred precinct, who sought to deify matter and the animal instincts. IIow
sad a contrast, that they, who by their mental powers could command such
mechanical forces and make such progress in art, should be so debased as to
worship the human form distorted by the addition of the head of a bird, of
a cat, of a ram, or some such brute object.

We thus see the impressions which Egyptian architecture is calculated to
produce, reahzing the delinition of beauty given by Aristotle, who says that
it consists in magnitude and order. — To yap KaAof fv fieyeBei nat Ta^ei (n.
Poet. p. 2, 5 i- One of the temples of Thebes exceeded 800 ft. in length
by nearly 300 in breadth exclusive of the avenues which led to it. This
vastness of extent in the plan; — gigantic grandeur in the ponderous
masses; — colossal proportions in the details;— a rapid succession of similar
objects ; — the brilliancy of the gold, purple, scarlet, azure, green, and every
splendid colour that shone upon the surfaces of the stone ; — liable as all this
may be to the charge of monotony, yet a series of lively impressions must
have been extorted by the grandeur, the pomp, and profusion, which these
imposing edifices offer to the bewildered attention. * *

Who would brave the sandy wastes of Syria, unless impelled by a glowing
love for that sacred volume which records the history of the favoured race to
whom were confided the oracles of divine truth, were it not to visit the De-
capolis still profuse with architectural remains, almost unexplored, certainly
unillustrated. Would the traveller quit the fertile and sublime valley of
Baalbec, whither comparative ease and comfort have hitherto accompanied
him. Would he plunge into the dangerous track of ancient commerce, beset
with hordes of .A-rab robbers, deprived of every convenience and means of
subsistence, hut that which he carries with him, were not his privations, his
anxieties and his perils to be rewarded by the sight of that which was once
Tadmor of the desert, the Palmyra of Zenobia and Longinus. These vast
piles of ruins seem the works of those days when " Giants were on the
earth " rather than the production of a race like ourselves. Temples en-
closed in courts seven or eight hundred feet square, surrounded by circum-
ambient porticos of colossal dimensions — now inhabited by a score or two
of wretched families in their mud cottages — avenues of columns, miles in
length — a profusion of triumphal arches, lofty towers and tombs, and marble
beams in single blocks of 70 feet in length attest the mechanical skill, if
not the pure taste of its ancient merchants — for it was a race of merchants
who dwelt in this emporium of the commercial traffic from the East, at that
time forming the hahing place for the caravans, which poured forth the
riches, the refinements and the productions of India to gratify the craving
appetite for variety and luxury of the pampered nations of Europe.

But let us accompany the traveller in his circuit of these shores and exa-
mine with him the coast of Caramania, and we shall find it abounding in a
profusion of architectural embellishments. But as soon as he reaches
Gnidus, sacred to the queen of love, monuments of the refined taste of the
most refined periods again offer themselves, and the ruins of temples, pro-
pylea, theatres and in fact every species of edifice offer themselves to notice
in Halicarnassus, Miletus, Priene, and Magnesia and the numberless cities
which peopled each side of the Micander, the Nile of Asia Minor. Still
further north, Teos and Smyrna, Pergamus and Sardis show how truly ar-
chitecture flourished under the fostering generous splendour of the great
Alexander and his successors.

But the traveller, whose mind is imbued with all those associations con-
nected with the study of the literature of Greece, visits Athens as the zealot
does the shrine of his saint. When Europe was roused from barbarism her
first thought was directed to Athens — " What is become of .\thens ?" was
the universal cry, " and when it was known that her ruins still existed, the
learned and ingenious tlocked thither as if they had discovered the lost
ashes of a parent." (Chateaubriand : Voyages.) When the traveller treads
the soil, which had been for so many centuries polluted by the presence of
the Moslem, all his feelings arise witli double force. He thinks that he now
breathes the same pure air, fixes his glance upon the same enchanting
scenes, contemplates the same noble monuments, as once did Pericles,
Socrates, Demosthenes, Xenophon, Thucydides, Sophocles, and Plato. Pos-
sessed however as are his feelings with such thoughts, his attention is more
than divided by these majestic ruins, which throw around the spot an air of
sanctity. Here Phidias has still his chefs-d'a?uvre, here the genius of Ictinus
St. 11 reigns preeminent, and the space encircled by the walls of the Athenian
Acropolis maybe termed the if pof of architecture, containing temples, altars,
statues, groups, trophies, chapels — the spoils of their enemies and the
plunder of their allies and friends.

See how much .\thens gains upon the affections of every people,
of every age, by her architectural ruins. Not a traveller visits Greece
whose chief purpose is not centred in the acropolis of Minerva. How dif-

ferent from this the renown derived from arms alone. " While the name of
.Athens is in every mouth," exclaims Chateaubriand, " Sparta is totally for-
gotten. Sparta in arms the rival of Athens — the cradle of warriors— the
school of hardihood and all the sterner virtues of humaiiifv. But she dis-
dained the accessories of our art, and not our art only, but of everv other,
for she never offered the smallest incense in the temple of geniusj nor on
the altar of the arts. !u fact, to use the words of one of Sparta's warmest
panegyrists, the Lacedemor.ians drove away from her walls literature,
science and the arts, and now not a single monument arrests the steps of the
traveller. Civilization is now as far distant from the Eurotas as in former
times, and he hurries from tlie unfriendly spot having cast a rapid glance
upon a plain, where nothing records the existence of former times, and a
mound at best reminds one, that here has been a city. Even the haughty
spirit of the Romans bowed before the mighty influence of the superiority
of Athens in art, science, and literature. When Greece was conquered by
Rome, Sparta became a mere province, but Athens although depressed, a
slave and helpless, without her Pericles, her Phidias, her Ictinus, her Demos-
thenes, her Sophocles, still asserted her mental superiority, and held in
slavery the proud spirits of Rome her conqueror.

" Grxcia capta fernm victorem cepit, ct artes
Intulit agresli Latio." — Horace Kpist. lib. 2, cp. 1.

What trial can equal this of the fine arts. 0 ! could the Spartans of old
have thus looked into futurity, and they would have emulated that bright
love of art to which ancient and modern Athens now owes so much of her
perennial glory — for as the refined and accurate Barthelemy has justly and
eloquently observed, " the history of the monuments of this people is the
history of their exploits, their gratitude and their religion."

But perhaps the attention is wearied by dwelling so long on this portion
of the subject, and yet it is impossible to omit all reference to Rome as she
is. It is there that a willing homage is yielded to the architecture of ancient
periods. The soil which time has accumulated upon her ancient pavements
is now being cleared away. Each excavation brings to light some precious
fragment, some interesting object connecting antiquity and modern times.
Her fora, her temples and circuses ; her triumphal arches and lofty sculp-
tured columns ; her aqueducts and baths; her palaces and amphitheatres are
now minutely investigated by the antiquary, the scholar, and the artist.
Hundreds flock annually, less to witness her pomp of religious worship than
to imbibe, at the very fountain head, a true love for achitecture and a re-
fined taste to appreciate all the excellencies with which the eternal city
abounds.

Nor shall Pompeii be altogether unnoticed — hid for centuries from the
view of man — her site questioned and her very existence almost doubted as
the fable of historians, the ashes are now removed from the tomb in which
she had lain for above 15 centuries, and the traveller fancies as his footsteps
are echoed through the tenantless fabrics, that the next moment he will see
her ancient citizens emerge from the courts of her dwellings, from the shops
of her insulae, or from the baths, which still preserve traces of almost recent
occupation. It seems as though it were but yesterday that her thousands
flocked to the fora, temples, and theatres; and the spot brings us in almost
immediate contact with the inhabitants of the olden times. * *

Such then are the emotions inspired by the ruins of the ancient monu-
ments of architecture, and such the claims she has upon the gratitude of
ancient and modern times, as forming one of the main links, that unites us
with those, who have gone before us. Languages become obsolete, but the
language of architecture endures for ever. The pages of history may be lost
or destroyed, but who can for a moment admit the thought that time can
obliterate, although he may deface her monuments. The pyramids and
temples of Egypt are imperishable. The habits, the customs, the re-
ligion, the wants, the luxuries of man change with each century and with
each clime, but for all and every new necessity and fresh desire architecture
amply provides.

But in thus rendering the homage due to ancient art it were unjust to
pass without notice those sublime edifices due to the genius of our fathers.
It is now unnecessary to enter upon the question, whether the first ideas
of Gothic architecture were the result of a casual combination of lines or a
felicitous adaptation of form derived immediately from nature. But graceful
proportion, solemnity of efi'ect, variety of plan, playfulness of outline and
the profoundest elements of knowledge of construction, place these edifices
on a par with any of ancient times. Less pure in conception and detail,
they excel in extent of plan and disposition, and yield not in the mysterious
effect produced on the feelings of the worshipper. The sculptured presence
of the frowning Jove or the chryselephantine statue of Minerva were neces-
sary to awe the Heathen into devotion. But the presence of the godhead
appears, not materially but spiritually, to pervade the whole atmosphere of
one of our Gothic cathedrals.

This style, which has aptly been termed Christian architecture, has produced
edifices of all descriptions, not only ecclesiastical but civil, evincing great
variety and originality; so numerous that we cannot but feel surprised at
the public spirit, the devotion and liberality, which could contribute the
means recpiisite for such vast buildings, and at the skill that could, with a
hardihood verging on infatuation, so daringly sport with danger, and yet in-
spire confidence in the wildest flights of Gothic fancy.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

413

GRADIENTS ON RAILWAYS.

The readers of your valuable Journal will, I have no doubt, be aware that,
but a short time since, the opinion of many, if not most, of the eminent
engineers of the present day, was, that gradients only of the very first order
ought to be employed in the construction of railways intended for passenger
traffic, whatever might be the consequent cost. Under this impression we
have now completed in this kingdom some of the most magnificent and easy
lines of railway in the world, for instance the Great Western, and many
others, on all of which, though, it must be owned, that thousands upon
thousands of pounds have been expended in order to attain such perfection
in gradients. This supposed absolute necessity for easy gradients seems now,
however, to be fast losing ground with many of our first engineers, and the
result of past experience seems now to say, that " one may pay too dear for
one's whistle." So great have been the improvements in the locomotive
engine within the last few years, that in the construction of railways at the
present time, instead of aiming at absolute perfection in levels, our aljlest
engineers are now looking more at the original outlay, and the purchasing
of good levels only at what they are really wortli.

For improvements in railways and locomotive engines, people now, how-
ever, generally look to the south, instead of the north of England, and in
many cases rightly so too, because the improvements in tlie north have been
transferred to the railways in the south, and these improvements have, in
some instances, been improved on again ; yet methinks the hot-bed of rail-
ways may still be inspected with profit by an inquiring mind, neither ought
one to be disrespectful towards the birth-place of railways, or to pass by un-
noticed that part of the kingdom where the locomotive engine, rude as it
was at first, came from its maker's hands a hideous monster, alike the terror
and wonder of every spectator, — I mean the counties of Northumberland
and Durham. And to show that gradients which, by many, are condemned
as impracticable for the use of the locomotive engine for passenger traffic,
may still be employed where the nature of the surrounding country forbids
an alteration for the better, I will state a few particulars as to the work per-
formed by that beautiful machine tlie locomotive engine, on one of the
northern lines, viz. on the Hartlepool Railway.

In the year 1832, an act was obtained for the making of the Hartlepool
Railway, and at that time the science of railway engineering had hardly ad-
vanced" so far as to demand such absolute perfection of levels; consequently,
the Hartlepool Railway can by no means be classed amongst the number of
those possessing gradients and curves of the first order. The railway was
certainly not made to suit the peculiarities of the locomotive engine, conse-
quently the locomotive engine has been obliged to be made to suit it, and
upon it may be daily seen a single locomotive engine, with its train cf car-
riages, running up a gradient of 1 in 3-4 for a mile and a half, at the rate of
from 25 to 30 miles an hour, and, notwithstanding all the inferiority of
gradients, the passenger trains on this railway equal in speed and punctuaUty
any of the more refined and southern hues.

The length of the main line over which the passenger trains run is 121-
miles, and in this short distance it rises nearly 450 feet. For a mile and a
half there is a gradient of 1 in 34, and the prevailing gradients for the re-
mainder vary from 1 in 164 to 1 in 274. The gross load, including engine
and tender, varies from 35 to 40 tons, and the number of passengers in each
train from GO to 100, and occasionally 120. The engines, "Albert" and
" Victoria," with this load mount with ease this tremendous gradient, and
I think it may be fairly said that for hard work their Majesties set an example
worthy of imitation by their subjects both far and near. A few remarks
also as to the other traffic on tliis railway may, perhaps, be worth a passing
notice. The number of trains (exclusive of passenger trains) that pass along
this railway in a day varies from 60 to 120, and at times amounts to 140.
The time occupied for the transit of this enormous traffic is about 13 hours
per day, or an average of a train in every 5^ minutes to 11 minutes during
the day. The gross weight that passes over the rails varies from 7 to 12
tons per minute for 13 hours per day, and occasionally, during the present
year, it has exceeded an average of 13J tons per minute for 13 successive
hours ! What but an iron road could withstand such a traffic as this. So
that, instead of the passenger trains on the Hartlepool Railway meeting with
peculiar facilities, both as to gradients and non-obstruction in consequence
of heavy traffic thereon (as the charge for fares would seem to warrant), the
reverse is the case. Seldom during tlie running of the passenger trains are
there less than six other trains on the railway at the same time, in the first
four miles. So that what with the engines having to wind their way through
this labyrinth of engines and trains, and at tlie same time to encounter

gradients tliat would frighten some of the first engineers of the day, the
passenger trains are performing daily, unheard of and unnoticed, on the
Hartlepool Railway, what may be safely said is not being performed on any
other railway in the kingdom, and probably in the world, and that at a
charge, too, to the passenger, very considerably lower than on other railways
possessing gradients so immensely superior. The table underneath shows the
comparative cost per mile of travelling on the following railways, and without
further comment thereon for the present, I will conclude these remarks : —

1st class. 2nd class. 3rd class.
London and Brighton . . 344 2-26 1-42

London and Birmingham ., 3-20 2"13

Great Western . . 305 2-13 1-27

Hartlepool Railway .. 1-47 1-22 0-81

S. T. N.

SCHOOLS OF DESIGN.
Sir— In the Somerset House Drawing Book, No. 1, it is laid down :—
1st. That ornamental art, as an imitative art, ranks midway between fine
art and mechanical art, and partakes of the nature of both.

2nd. That the fine arts, in dealing with poetry, history, and moral expres-
sion, occupy a ground in which the oninmentist has no riglil to enter !

And yet thirdly, that on beauty, the artist and ornamentist occupy the
same ground !

Again, the author says the power of imitating objects artistically, is not
adequate to the ends the ornamentist has in view-, and yet at page 3, the
author says, " It is not merely with lines the ornamentist lias to do, he has
often to represent the colour and effect of metallic substances, the glitter of
gems, in short to make a picture of the article manufactured, which shall show
its general character and appearance, rather than the exact details of its
form and ornament, and there is no other leaij of acquiring the power of doing
this, than by the habit of copying, as an artist, the objects themselves or simitar
ones."

Again he says, the ornamentist arrives at practice through science— the
artist to science through practice.

And yet he sa\ s in the same page. " a saving of time would be effected, if
the chief labour at commencement were bestowed (by the ornamentist) on
drawing by the hand !
In reply to these inconsistences,*I beg leave to state that —
1st. The ornamentist and the artist, both express their thoughts and in-
ventions by the mechanical operation of imitating natural objects by form,
colour, and light and shadow. Imitation of natural objects is, therefore, the
basis of both ornamental art and high art, and the easiest plan of practising
the eye to see, the brain to conclude, and the hand to obey, is the best plan
at the beginning, both for ornamentist and artist.

A student may puzzle his memory so long by scientific distinctions, if he
begin by science, as to find when he has acquired science his hand per-
fectly helpless ; and, therefore, both in the case of the ornamentist and artist,
a certain degree of purblind practice of hand, eye, and brain, is absolutely
necessary for the highest genius in each department, as well as the humblest,
so that «hen their minds comprehend any principle of science, or any object
of nature, their hands may at once be able to illustrate them by design.

No great artist of the Greek and Italian schools was considered a great
artist without science, and no great ornamentist was considered a great orna-
mentist unless he was a great artist too. Rafl'aello was a great ornamentist ;
Giovanni d'Udine, and Cellini, were artists as well as ornamentists, and the
foundation of both characters is first, a power of imitating what you see.

There is no doubt the imitation of senseless angles and cones, and octa-
gons and pentagons, may generate a dead sort of mechanical imitation, but
the mind uf the mechanic an.l artist sleeps, because there is nothing whatever
to interest their sensibilities in the progress ; give them beautiful eyes, their
svmpathies are excited, and the circle and ellipsis being portions in the
shape of eyes, they acquire the same power of imitation, and exercise their
powers of thinking too-folluw eyes by the nose, they learn the perpendi-
cular—let them then practice the mouth, they are obliged to make it hon-
zontal, or at right angles with the perpendicular of the nose ; the shape of
the head is an ellipse, the forehead and chin, portions of the circle.

A human head is thus got through— combined with a human look, and a
human expression ; the students feel as they proceed ; what practice for
geometrical designs is left out in the figure ? Then come action, repose, in-
tention, and thought, by circles, ellipses, angles, and perpendiculars, but
combined as a whole to convey a meaning ; when the artist and mechanic
are got thus far. show them if you please, where is the geometry of the
head and figure, practice thorn in angles and circles, that they may know

3 M

414

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Dkoember,

their meaning ; make lliem both men of science, if you like, and let the me-
chanic begin to branch off— but begin with making both skilful in hand, eye,
aiiJ brain, by imitating the same object, for according to our author at
Somerset House, ''a saving of time would then be engendered, if the chief labour
at first teere drawing by the hand."

If the power of imitation be the first power to be acquired, as I have
proved, both from what I have said and what our opponent saj s, why sepa-
rate the education of artist and mechanic? Bat what will you say, or he
say, when he acknowledges that in the most important of all qualilies of
design, viz., beaut;/, the artist and mechanic stand on the savu- ground, and
yet he would separate their education? And though he admits, page 1,
they stand on the same ground, yet, he again says, they proceed to exhibit
beauty by a method totalli/ the rererse to each other .'

" Beauty,"' says he, " with the ornamcntist, is a quality separable from na-
tural objects." I reply it cannot be. Beauty, with the ornamentist, from
whatever form taken and applied, excites the emotion in the work of the
ornamentist. not because it is separated from the object to which it naluraUy
belongs, but because to whatever object applied, it has the power of again
exciting the emotion, as it did when a component part of its natural object
at first.

If a sculptor, says he, makes a lily, he models a lily. '• Not so the orna-
ment st — the lily appears in his hands with a new individuality." Of course,
but it is still a lily — the ornamentist makes it a cup, a vase, but I reply it is
still a lily turned into a'vase and cup— and if it be not like a lily, w hat would
a sensible master say to a mechanic who showed him a cup made of a lily.
"A lily ! it is not a bit like a lily. Pray did you model a lily, or draw a hly ?"
" No Sir, I did not, because we ornamentists treats lilies with a new individua-
ality." Very true, my pupil, but to be able to give a new individuality to a
lily, you must first be able to form a lily in clay, or by drawing; to model
or draw a lily, you must get a lily and study it ; 'after studying it, you must
imitate it by modelling or drawing. Imitation is the foundation of all arts
or design, whether for the artist or ornamentiit, and though the ornamentist
turns a lily into a new office, if he cannot imitate a lily or a human figure,
somebody else must be employed to do them lor him, and this must prove
to you, my pupil, the necessity of the ornamentist and .the artist beginning
alike. Because what applies to the lily will apply to the figure, and the ar-
guments are as good in one case as the other, and both prove the same truth.

The author proceeds to say " that the ornamentist and the artist are imi-
tators of nature, but in different senses — in the one, the resemblance is ficti-
tious, in the other a^reality."' I reply the resemblance in both is fictitious,
and in both a reality, though the application is different.

The basis of all this sophistry is simply this; the London leading artists
had been so accustomed to be by their rank, their payment, their honour,
and their privilege, o dislincl clas.'i, that they were shocked by any attempt
to revive the old connexion between artist and artizan. It v»as a sculptor,
though liiing from, humble but respectable parents, who first intimated the
insult of giving the artizan an education, which would rank him more as an
artist than, for 300 years, he had hitherto been_ in England, and, of course,
without any imputation on the honourable molives of any one now; we all
know there is a degree of sensibility as to duty, in defending the views of
our superiors, if to them we owe our station and our existence in life — it is
tight it should be so, perhaps I do not know if one is not inclined to respect
gratitude, if even it lead a man into the most egregious folly.

It is a question, if the education of the mechanic be not of more importance
than the great artist's. See how he worms himself into all the ramifications
of domestic decoration, and consider, if he had, like the German and the
Frenchman, the power of conveying his thoughts by drawing the figure,
how prettily, at a little cost, the drawing-room of the middle classes, or their
parlour, or their bed-room, might be made vehicles of history, and poetry,
and design. The more the poiver of design is diffused, the greater, and not
the less will be the employment of the great painters. The wealthy and the
noble will always have the best of everything, and they who love the hand-
somest women, drink the best wines, 'ride the best horses, and claim the high-
est stations, will not be very apt to desert the best artists, when they want
their efforts. I am decidedly of Burke's opinion, " whatever turns attcniion
to art, even the purchase of old pictures," said he " reflects again on modern
painters."

Never, I assure you, was British art in greater danger than now . This
London school, by separating the artist and the meclianic, and promulgating
the doctrine, that sound art and decorative art are distinct, will, in all proba-
bility, do more mischief than a century will remedy — because the facility of
admission is great, young artists go to it, and all the horrors of gaudincss,
glare, hardness, and false taste, wiirspread like wildfire amongst the rising
generation.

What reason can be given, that a flower should look in decoration like
botanical preparations, pasted flat on lime? Distinctness is necessary, of
course, but why cannot imitations of nature be distinct, without being incon-
sistent with the eternal principles of the great masters, established by the
grealest geniuses the world ever saw.

Titian. Velasquez, Rubens, Rembrandt, and Reynolds, made their imitations
of nature on the basis of the philosophy of human sensations.

E'lualities of effect distract! variety is necessary, but if carried too far,
pains. Il is the same with every quality of imitation in the great works of
the great masters, no individual requisite of imitating life is ever obtruded,
whereas, by the separation of the education of the artist and the mechanic,
the imitations of the mechanic at present are all obtrusion and totally incon-
sistent with sound art. If a race of this offensive description issue out, as
designers for glass paintings for rooms, for halls, what will the art be like
in a few years? The combination of sound art can be seen to perfection in
a glass window at Liverpool, where a fine picture has been copied, with all
the principles of imitation ; it is a fine work of art in manufacture, and that
is what should be the object in all Schools of Design.

Not long since, returning from Windsor, I went into the coffee-room of
the Royal Hotel, at Slough, and found the paper on the walls full of pretty
designs, from Kaust (I believe). " Is this English," said I. " English." said
the waiter, with an air quite insufferable, "French, sir, of course!" Here
is another case in point. Had the same principles of educating the mechanic
been acted on at Lyons as in London, would this French artizan have been
able so to please us in the middle class by such a display, and is not every
visitor excited and improved by such a simple way of recalling the scenes of
some beautiful poems ?

I apologize for this long intrusion ; my engagements preclude the possibility
of continuing this important question, but I promise it shall not rest whilst
I live, for I know its vast national importance and that we have only to add
mastery to design to our indisputable quality of material, to take the lead in
the world.

In conclusion, I deny in toto, that the mechanic has no right to mingle
history, poetry, and moral expression, in his manufacturing design; what
right has any man, or any body of men, to fix a limit to the exercise of
human ingenuity ? The Almighty sometimes gifts a Byron, and sometimes a
Burns, and reflects on the principles of our own noble aristocracy. Who,
more tenacious of their rights, but who more useful as a check on the Crown
and the people ? and who is refused admission into their class, even from the
humblest amongst us, if genius, guided by conduct and decorum, prove any
individual worthy to be a great lawyer, toldier, sailor, or statesman ? If it
were not for this wise decision, what would have become of the Aristocracy
long ago ? — and with such an aristocracy in Government, are we to establish
one in art, where no genius, no decorum, and no conduct, will procure ele-
vation and reward for the humble mechanic ? Ridiculous — the bare thought
and promulgation will make us the laughter of Europe, if this preface has
not done so long since.

The artists must become more workmen, and the workmen more artists,
before the great revolution, beginning will begin aright ; but it will not be
by putting forth theories which will separate them more and more than ever,
but by being convinced, as the great Continental schools have long been.
that as imitation is the basis of both arts, the students in each should begin
alike.

At the revival of art in Tuscany artists were artificers, and artificers were
artists, in the strictest sense of the words. " It was not in the academy, but
in the workshop, their genius was nurtured — the arte degli orejici." " The
goldsmith's craft was the chiefest school ; hence came the best artists of all
the three arts of architecture, painting, sculpture — Brunelleschi, Ghiberti,
Orcagna, Luca della Robbia, Massolino, Ghirlandaijo, Pollajuolo, Botticelli,
Verrochio, Francia, Finiguerra, Andrea del Sarto, Baccio Bandinelli, Cellini,
.Salviati, Lioni, Vasari, and a host of inferior names, all were brought up to
this good trade.' Painters were chiefly employed as decorators of houses
and furniture, &c." In all the associations of artists, trunkmakers, varnish-
ers, saddlers, cutlers, and all workmen in wood or metal, w hose crafts had
any connexion with design, were admitted ; and yet in England they are to
be separated in education !

I think, therefore, tliut tliere is nothing " veryierroneous in saying that the
power of imitating natural objects artistically, ought to be the first requisite
in the education of the ornamentist, or that the artistic imitation ought to
begin by the human figure, since the mastery of this would render every
other attainment compar.-itively easy." -

To conclude, the error of the First Council of the London Schoul of Design

» Murray's Hand Book to N. of Italy.
- Drawing Book, page 2.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

415

was this; — viz., adopting the German instead of the French principle in edu-
cating the mechanic. The French begin by tlie figure and sound art— and
the artizan thus educated carries sound art to ornament. TheGerm.ins begin
by ornament, and mal<e the figure and sound art tlie second step — and the
Germans never recover the false taste of their education.

It is not yet too late to remedy this great mistake, by passing a law in
the Council that every mechanic, as at Lyons, should be obliged to begin by
the figure ; and if this he tint passed, I predict a corruption of taste in arlizan
and artist, uhich will throw the art into Iiideous confusion for years.

London, Nov. 7, 1842. B. R. HAYDON.

ON THE RELATIVE PROPERTIES OF IRON,

Made by tlie use of Cold and Hot Air Blast, in the Smelling Furnace ; lateli/
read before the West-Riding Geohgical and Polytechnic Society.

By Hesky Haetop, Civil Engineer and Mineral .Surveyor.

Ill the early part of the year 1829, the use of hot air in the smelting fur-
nace, for the manufacture of cast iron, was introduced at the Clyde Iron
Works, near Glasgow, and at the fourth meeting of the British Association,
held at Edinburgh in 1834, Dr. Clark gave an account of its success as
follows : —

That in their previous operations with cold air, 8 tons, 1 cwt., 1 qr. of
splint coal (made into coke, at a loss in weight of 55 per cent.), were required
to make 1 ton of iron.

With the use of air heated to about 300° Fahrenheit, 5 tons, 3 cwt., 1 qr-
of coal (in coke) produced a ton of iron, in addition to which, 8 cwt. of
coals were used for heating the air.

In 1833, the temperature of the air used being G00° Fahrenheit, it was found
that raw coal (not coked) might be used, which circumstance further reduced
the quantity of coal required in the furnace to 2 tons, 5 cwt., 1 qr. per ton
of iron made.

Not having been present at Edinburgh, on the Association's meeting, the
following year, in Dublin, I stated that the case had not been correctly re-
presented to Dr. Clark, 1 inasmuch, as for some time previous to 1825, a
saving in the coking operation had been made at every well-conducted iron
work, by which a ton of iron covdd be made with 5 tons of splint coal in the
furnace, when cold blast used, so that in reality a saving only took place by
increasing the temperature of the air. so far as to enable Ihem to use coal
uncoked in the smelling furnace, from 5 tons to 2 tons 15 cwt., or 2 tons
5 cwt.

The account, therefore, as regards economy, by the use of hot air, will
stand thus : —

tons. c«t. s. d. £ s. il

Saving in coal used in the furnace 2 5 5 0 0 11 3

In Coker's Wages ... 023

£0 13 6

' A similar misrepresentation has also been made to Mr. Mushet, by reason
of which he has been led into an error so far as to state in his most valuable
work on iron and steel, pages 922, 923, that the materials used at the Milton
Works in December 1834, with cold blast, were for each ton of iron made-
tons, cwt. lb.
Coals ..... 6 3 2

Ironstone .... 4 1 0

Limestone .... 0 13 0

At the same works in December 1836, with hot blast —

tons. cwt. qrs. lb,
Codls per ton of iron in the furnace .2 4 3 14

Ironstone 3 11 2 21

Iron Ore 0 0 1 U

Limestone 0 IG 0 14

It is. however, well known, that on an average of the year through, previc.-us
to April, 1829, wlien cold blast was used at the Milton Works, the materials
consumed were —

tons. cwt. qrs. lb.

Coals in (he furnace . . 4 IS 0 0") per ton

Ironstone do. . . 3 14 3 9 >■ of Iron

Limestone do. . . 0 14 3 23-1 made.

And in comparing this with the make by hot air, in December iS3li, (one

Against this may be set down —
A greater quantity of ironstone used

per ton of iron made .
Extra wear on ditto
Coal to heat the air used

8 G

2 0

0 I 3

0 3 6

0 0 10

£C 5 7

Saving in materials by the use of

hot air, per ton of iron . . 0 7 11

To which saving may be added a further sum of is. Id. per ton, for the
greater quantity of iron produced from each furnace, when hot air and coals
are used, making the total saving of 12.!. Grf. per ton of pig iron.

But in 1835, the deterioration in the value of iron so made was about
17s. 6rf. per ton, as I stated at Dublin, and at the present time, (March 1842,)
I have no recantation to read so far as the above observations go.

In Dublin my observations on the deteriorated value of hot blast iron in
the market of 17s. 6d. per ton were contradicted, but after seven more years
of unceasing application, practised in the manufacture on a very large scale,
of numerous experiments by indefatigable practical men of great abiUly, of
the attention of learned professors of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology,
together with the aid of that no inconsiderable engine the public press, the
price of pig iron so made is .32s. G</. per ton below that made by cold blast
in the smelting furnaces.^

If you ask why iron so made is sold for 32s. 6rf. less in the market, the
answer is 1st, " its great weakness under impact, and therefore its total uii"
fitness for most purposes in which the greatest weight of iron is used.^ 2nd.
Its greater loss in rcmelting in the cupola of 2 cwt. per ton. 3rdly, The great
irregularity in the contraction of castings when cooling, if made from hot
blast iron, on which account many castings of different sizes are produced
from the same pattern, causing 'great expense in their after fitting, or if this
expense is not incurred, great defect in all machinery. Sec,, so made. 4th.
Its unsoundness, that when made into castings require to be turned, bored,
or planed, l&c , on which occasions, if the surface operated upon is not de-
fective on its entire area, a defect so considerable w'ill show itself, probably
when nearly finished, that both the casting and the great expense bestowed
upon it will be thrown away, and in many such cases the expense of making
the casting itself will be at least three times greater than even the present
great diflerence in the value of the two kinds of iron.

I need not unnecessarily occupy your time further than by going more
tully into the first of these points, the great weakness, under impact, of hot
blast iron.

of the best months in the year for iron making,) an addition of 8 cwt. of coal
being made for healing the air, the diflerence is truly so small as to be alto-
gether unworthy of consideration, on taking into account the deteriorated
value of the produce.

- March 1842. per ton.

Price of Scotch hot blast iron at Hull, (No. 1,) £3 7 6
To which add for its general inferiority to

Yorkshire iron 0 5 0

3 12 6

Price of Yorkshire cold blast iron at Hull,
(No. 1.) •

Dili'erence in favour of cold blast iron generally I 12 6
3 In Mr. Fairbairn's recent experiments, published in the Manchestfr Me-
moirs, the diflerence in this respect is very striking : —
Each bar being 1 in. square and 4 ft. 0 in. long between supports.

Breaking weight. Power to

resist impact.
Oldberry cold blast iron .... 4531bs. 822lbs.

Ohlberry hot do 543 549

Using the same coal and ironstone,

Elsecarcold do 446 992

Mdton hot do 3.53 .538

W(,rking in the same mineral field in N. Wales,
Ponkey cold do. .... 567 992

Pla,-kynaslon hot do 378 517

3 M 2

416

THE CniL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Dkoembkr,

My allcntion was first called to llie subject by observing great quantities
of pig iron on the wharfs at the iron foundries and other places in this neigh-
bourhood, very recently broken into pieces so short as to prevent the la-
bourer piling them in cubical tiers in the usual manner, and on inquiry, I
found that they were so broken by loading and reloading, and that they
were made by the new process of using hot air in the furnace, greatly mis-
called an improvement in the manufacture of cast iron. From these and
other circumstances I thought it a duty due to the iron trade to call the at-
tention of the public to it, and having mentioned the subject at the meeting
of the British Association in Dublin, its importance was at once recognised,
and a sum of money appropriated for making the needful experiments, whicli
were carried into execution by Mr. Fairbaim, the highly intelligent and in-
defatigable engineer of Manchester ; and I was very sorry to see in his re-
port read at the Liverpool meeting, as well as in several conversations with
me on the subject, to find that he had experienced great difficulty in ascer-
taining the composition of the irons experimented upon, in consequence of
many of the manufacturers being unwilling to give information ; added to
this, it is well known that in more recent experiments, one of the strongest
irons in Yorkshire has been placed in the scale of strength so much below
other iron, long since known to be no stronger, both irons being made from
the same coal and ironstone, a fence only parting the mineral fields of each
work, that I am driven to the conclusion that the object of the experiments
in question has in a great measure been defeated. There are, however, some
experiments in them, which may not have been affected in their results by
these circumstances, two of which I shall point out for your consideration.
The first will be that of iron from two works using the same materials.
Elsecar iron (cold blast) mean ratio of its strength .. 1000

Milton iron (hot blast) mean ratio of its strength . , 809

Elsecar iron mean ratio of power to resist impact . . 1000

Milton ditto ditto ditto .. 858

In this case, however, the difference is much greater than appears on the
face of these experiments, inasmuch as the specimens of pig iron from the
Milton Works were made with the addition of a portion of the red hematite
iron ore from Ulverstone, for the express purpose of giving greater strength
to that iron, as was invariably done many years for the purpose of making
tin plate, and during the war for the casting of cannon.

The second circumstance is that where Mr. Fairbaim states that in a trial
of 50 sorts of iron, of which each bar " of hot and cold blast iron were made
of the same materials, and under the same circumstances.

Cold blast iron, with a load of 392 lb. increased the deflection in 108 days
from 1"8G to 1-843 inches.
Hot blast iron ditto ditto 1-891 to 1-966 inches.

Cold blast iron with a load for 448 lb. continued to increase in deflection,
and ultimately broke, after sustaining the weight 35 days.

Alt the liol blast iron bars broke in the act of loading them with the above
weight of as lb.

Notwithstanding these and many similar facts brought out by the experi-
ments in question, certain portions of them are constantly being quoted
through the press for the purpose of proving that iron made by hot air is
stronger than that produced by the use of cold air.

Contemporary with these experiments on a small scale, others of far
greater importance have been going on j and we hear of hundreds of railwaj-
chairs, cast from iron made by the improved process, constantly breaking
where tens only broke before, » of steam engines and other valuable machinery
breaking in rapid succession, and in parts where, by regular work, they were
never known to give m ay before the introduction of the improved iron— of the
more respectable portion of mill-wrights Iwing obliged to make new calcu-
lations, and a new stock of patterns, in order to lessen, as far as is in their
po«-er, the enormous losses and the great disappointment of (heir friends by
such breakages. We hear of districts of coal masters and other prudent and

" I take this to mean each pair of bars.

° In a paper recently read before the Institution of Civil Engineers, Mr.
Macneill states that on the Dublin and Drogheda Railway, where chairs were
used made of hot blast iron from Scotland, tlie breakage was very great as
compared with those on the .South Eastern Railway, which were made of
cold blast iron, and that in his opinion the latter would be cheaper than the
former at an increased price of il. per ton.

humane proprietors of large establishments introducing clauses in their con-
tracts for castings, stipulating that no hot blast iron shall be used therein :
and at length the same has become common in contracts for gas and other
pipes, «hich it has liitherto been usual to make of the most inferior quality
of irons, it having been found that the sockets of some miles of piping have
been broken off in one or two years after being laid down, in consequence of
their having been made of hot blast iron.

There has, however, still more recently, been a series of experiments made,
upon which a far greater dependence may be placed, inasmuch as the irons
were all supplied in tlie regular way of business, without the makers knowing
any such experiments were intended ; and they were undertaken for the pur-
pose of information only, to guide the founder and engineer who conducted
the operations at his own establishment. The detail of these valuable trials
by Mr. Todd, of Leeds, formed a paper read before this Society when last it
met at Leeds ; I need not therefore occupy your time with repeating them,
and here, will only call your attention to a few of the results, for the purpose
of more clearly explaining what I wish particularly to impress on your
notice. °

With respect to the strength of bar iron made from hot blast pig iron, very
few experiments have been made public that I am aware of; they are, how-
ever, of very great importance, because they were made with the greatest
possible care, and regardless of expense, by manufacturers of the first emi-
nence and ability for their private information. The irons were eight in
number ; the first set of bars were 2i inches in diameter, made with cold
blast scraps and hot blast respectively, all by Yorkshire manufacturers. The
weight required to draw- them asunder by a steady direct tension was not
very variable, but when all were cut round to the same depth, for the pur-
pose of being broken with the hammer, they required about the following
blows to do so : —

Blows
Cold blast iron . . > . • • • • • • 6

Scrap . . . . . . . . . . • . 3

Hot blast . . . . . . . . . . 1

The second and third set of bars you have now before you, ths result of ex-
periments on which stand thus :

Blows required
to break them
Diam. of bar. Area of see. with a 171b.
in. where cut. hammer.

Low Moor cold blast .. 2-66 ., 3-976 .. 18
Bierley cold blast .. 275 .. 4430 .. 18

Milton hot blast .. 275 .. 4-430 .. 3

Blows required
to break them
with a 201b.
hammer.
Elsecar cold blast . . 2-58 . . 3-976 . . 21 •>

Milton hot blast .. 2-58 .. 4203 .. U J-

Made from the same materials. )

So that the proportionate resistance of hot blast wrought iron to impact is
still less than that of cast iron. I need scarcely say, cold blast iron was
ordered at probably Gt. per ton more than the hot blast iron might have been
bought for.

1 may here take leave to mention the circumstance of scrap iron being any
thing now but what it was formerly, when its name and excellent quality
were synonymous. In former times the importation of scraps from the con-

« They took place from August, 1840, to February, 1841.

Breaking weight
cwt. qr.
average 25 2
do. 24 0
do. 23 2
do. 17 2
do. 16 0

Bierley jiig iron, No. 3, made with cold blast

Elsecar do. 3, do.

Low Moor do. 3, do.

Summerlee (Scotch) 3, hot blast

Level Staffordshire 3, do.

Mixed pig iron 3, 5 parts Low Moor, 1 part Elsecar do. 30 0

Mixed pig iron 3, 5 parts Bierley, 1 part Elsecar do. 33 0

Mixed pig iron 3, equal parts Bierley, Elsecar, Low Moor,

Staflbrdshire, (Cylinder iron in the market,) and Level iron,
also, Summerlee ^o- ^0 2

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

417

tinent of Europe took place to a very considerable extent, all of u hich were
mar.ufacUucd iu this country into bars, sheets, &c. ; and from the circum-
stance of these scraps, being all of charcoal iron, the bars, &c.. so made,
could not but deserve the good name they acquired and long maintained-
Tlie flow of scraps into England has, however, long since ceased, and the ex-
portation from this country having become a considerable trade, it follows,
of course, that scrap iron now must be made from our own scraps ; and when
it is remembered how small a proportion of good iron to bad has for many
years been made liere, bars. See. manufactured from them cannot but be of
very irregular and dubious quality, hence it is that the best scrap iron cuts
so poor a figure when compared with a well made iron from known good
minerals.

The remarks I have made are in reference to irons of known good quality,
but I am ready, and have pleasure in admitting that the use of hot air has
been of very great advantage at those iron works whose produce had not a
first-rate name, by enabling their proprietors to make it at a less cost, without
a proportionate deterioration in quality ; and there are some few works
whose iron, made with cold blast, was so bad, that any change could not be
but for the better. There is also at present a strong impression that iron
cannot be made with anthracite coal only, but with hot air, and that iron so
made is better than any other. The goodness of its quality is, however, due
lo the great purity of that coal. But even here we are told, in a paper read
before the Polytechnic Society of Cornwall, by a gentleman of great prac-
tical skill, that iron made with such proportions of anthracite coal and coke
as enabled him to use cold blast, became much weaker on his using hot air,
all other circumstances being the same.

My apology in troubling you so far must be in the importance of the sub-
ject, and the daily increasing importance to society of the strength of that
material by which the locomotive power is applied that so rapidly conveys a
very large portion of the human race both by land and sea. When we are
about to purchase a horse which is to convey ourselves and families at the
moderate rate of 8 or 10 miles an hour, with what inherent caution our first
object is to examine his knees, to ascertain his safety '. In the steam-engine
we are prevented taking this precaution, and yet in travelling three times as
fast, our risk is in very much greater proportion. Now in this fast travelling
it must not be forgot that in the engines which convey us there are two cy-
linders, and at least 280 returns of the piston, and therefore there are 280
percussions each minute of 9,2'lOlb. pressure in the power itself, and also the
tires of about 42 wheels and axles in each train, passing over a joint of the rails
every 5 yards of our journey, the percussions of which are very sensibly felt,
with numberless others of minor effect, by which it will be at once seen of
what inestimable importance it is that all iron used for such purposes should
not only be strong, but be so under percussion ; for I need only remind you
that it is more than probable, should any one of the numerou.? parts give
way, by any one of the many percussions they have to sustain, that an acci-
dent of the most calamitous nature would be the result.

With this view of the subject I may probably be excused, if I so far further
trespass on your patience as at least to endeavour to point out a duty which
the public only can perform for itself, namely, to take especial care that the
needful protection is given to that class of iron makers whose first care it is
to maintain its utmost strength, regardless of the expense of doing so. And
in order that it may be understood how far such protection is required, the
following statement should be made known. In the year 1830 the total
quantity of pig iron made in Great Britain was about 6.53,500 tons. In 1840
the make had increased to 1,396,400 tons; and although the stock of pig
iron at the latter date was very smill, the price of No. 1 had declined since
the use of hot air from 8/. 5s. in 1836, to 51. 5s. per ton in 1812 for cold blast
iron ; and from 71. 5s. to 3/. 12s. 6rf. per ton for hot blast iron, ' although the
workmen's wages throughout that period were rather higher, which item
forms nearly 75 per cent, of the cost, from which circumstance it has been
very fairly concluded, that the price of the best pig iron made has been
brought down at least 30s. per ton lower than it would otherwise have been

' 1 have been informed that No. 1 hot blast iron has been delivered in
L,?eds for Zl. 2s. Gd. per ton, the average of former years being 9/. lOs. per
ton for No. 1 cold blast pig iron.

by the badness of trade gonerally, had not the use of hot air been intro-
duced in its manufacture.

In addition to the observations I have already made on this subject, I may
refer to the price current of the present day, and those who do so will see
the price of cold blast pig iron in South Wales stand at 3/. 10s. per ton for
No. 1 ; hot blast pig iron in the Clyde, 21. 10s. per ton for No. 1 ; and, upon
the whole, it seems this case may now be thus summed up, that —
The saving in the make of pig iron by the use of hot blast may per ton.
(generally speaking) be . . . . . . £0 12 6

Deteriorated value of such iron in the general market . 10 0

Deteriorated value in the Yorkshire district . . . 12 6

Deteriorated value of castings made of such iron, in the simple
article of railway chairs, as reported to the Institution of
Civil F.ngineers, on the 1st day of March last, by one of their
own body, of the first eminence, and of very great experience
in such matters . . . • • . .400

Deteriorated value of wrought iron when manufactured from
pig iron so made, in the market . . . .600

Indeed, of the last-named iron, engineers and intelligent manufacturers
are agreed, and the experiments I have before referred to, show that 6/. per
ton is far too little a deterioration for bar-iron of such a quality, and parti-
cularly when we reflect how very much bar (and other) iron has now to do
with the personal safety of millions of our fellow-creatures.
Barnborough Hail, near Rotherltam.

SHANNON IMPROVEMENTS.

Lieut. Col. Harry D. Jones, R. E., Shannon Commissioner, and Thomas
Rhodes, Esq. Principal Engineer, were at Killaloe, on the 17th and I8th Octo-
ber, to witness the discharge of the river over that part of the weir which
has been completed, owing to the active exertions of the contractor, Mr. W.
Mackenzie, who has advanced the works at this station so rapidly, that they
may be said to be fast approaching completion.

The weir forms the principal feature of the improvements at this station,
having for its objects to modify and regulate the great rise of the annual
floods, by giving greater freedom of discharge and making a consequent re-
duction in their altitude, at the same time preserving a sufficient depth of
water for the navigation.

The weir, when finished, will be 1100 feet in length, of which 618 feet are
now completed.

All things having been prepared, the dam which excluded the water from
the weir while building, was broken about lialf-past 3 o'clock on Tuesday
afternoon, under the immediate directions of the Commissioners' engineers,
Thomas Rhodes and Thomas Barton, Esqrs. The water having been let into
the space above the weir, began to flow over it about 5 o'clock, and though
the quantity passing over at present is small, yet the effect was grand. It is
calculated that during the flooded seasons there w ill be little more than three
feet of water flowing over it, although, in seasons previous to the improve-
ments, the floods have risen to a height of nine feet, thus showing a general
reduction of si.y feet in the height of the flood waters, and proving with what
eflect the hand of science can grapple with this mighty element.

The above operation has opened the canal from Killaloe to Cussane, which
had been closed for some weeks, and the communication is now complete
from Limerick to our pierhead.

No accident of even the slightest description occurred, and the whole went
off to the evident satisfaction of all present ; the day being fine, the number
of spectators were very considerable. The Lord Bisliop was present at inter-
vals during the day, and the spectacle was heightened by the prt-sence of
many beautiful ladies, (of whom our gay little town has certainly an unusual
share,) together with many of the gentry from the surrounding districts.

The town and neighbourhood possess great interest, both from its natural
beauty and its commercial character. We here see the imprint of the Dublin
Steam Company, whose great and liberal exertions in the cause of commerce
and navigation, under the masteily guidance of C. W. Williams, Esq., aided
by the scientific intelligence of their agent, Joseph Clarke, Esq., and the in-
defatigable attention of Captain Tully, keeps the curling volume from the
steamers' tube gracefully mixing with the beautiful outline of our mountains,
while she bears along the noble Shannon the produce of our lands, our trade
and fortune, and connects our interests with the world.

From the bridge the scene is one of exceeding beauty, and becomes en-
hanced by historical recollections, for while we here meet, upon the banks
of Shannon, many of Ireland's fairest daughters, we see reflected in the
bosom of its waters the beautiful hills where, eight centuries ago, dwelt the
bravest and best of her sons— Kinkora's Prince, Clonlarf's hero, the great
and virtuous, the immortal Brian !

41S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Dkokmbkr,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
June 21. — fconiinued.J

" On Kome peculiar Changes in the Internal Structure of Iron, intlependenl
of, ami subsequent to, the several processes of its manufacture." By
Charles Hood, F.R.A.S., &e.

The singular and important changes in the structure of iron, which it is
the ohject of this Paper to explain, arc those which arise in the conversion
of the quality of iron, known by the name of " red short iron," which is
tough and fibrous, into the brittle and highly crystallized qnality known hy
the name of " cold short iron." This change the author considers has never
been attributed (as it ought to be) to the operation of any definite and
ascertained law, but has generally, when observed, been supposed to arise
from some accidental cause, and been considered as an isolated fact.

The fracture of railway axles, by which some of the most lamentable ac-
cidents liave occurred, arises from this molecular change in the structure of
iron, by which the axles lose a vast proportion of their strength.

The principal causes which produce this change are percussion, heat, and
magnetism, and the author traces through a great number of practical cases
of ordinary occurrence the joint, as well as the separate effect of these three
causes; showing that the rapidity of the change is proportional to the com-
bined action of these several causes, and that in some cases where all the
three causes are in operation at the same time, the change of structure is
almost instantaneous ; while in other cases, where this united operation does
not occur, the change is extremely slow, extending over several years before
it becomes sensible. Among the examples given, and of which the causes
are explained, are the conversion by means of heat, as in the case of wrought-
iron furnace-bars, and other analogous cases, particularly when any vapour is
present : the operation of the tilt hammer in the planishing of iron, by
which both vibration and magnetism of the bar is produced, when the tem-
perature is within a certain Hniit, beyond which limit the bar loses its mag-
netic power, and no crystallization occurs ; and the instance of piston-rods
and other cases, where from any accidental circumstance a peculiar jar or
vibration has been given to particular parts. The effect of the continual jar
or vibration upon the axles of common road carriages is a case of the oppo-
posite kind, where, notwithstanding the continual vibration, this molecular
change does not take place u-lien the a.rle is insulated from the effects of
magnetism. In railway axles, however, the case is very different. The rapid
rotation of the axle produces powerful magnetic action, while the friction
causes much lieat ; and these effects, added to the constant percussion which
is prod\iced by the peculiar motion of railway wheels, causes the crystal-
lization to be produced with extreme rapidity; the effect being probably
further increased in the axles of locomotive engines by the magnetising
power of the electricity generated hy the effluent steam. The crystaUized
structure being the natural condition of iron, as well as of several other
metals, the author considers that in these changes we observe a constant
effort to return from the artificial to the natural and primal condition of the
metal, and the conclusion arrived at is, that this crystaUization is not neces-
sarily dependent upon time for its development, but is determined by other
circumstances of which the principal is undoubtedly vibration: that heat, al-
though it assists, is not essential to it, but that magnetism, whether induced
by percussion or otherwise, is an essential accompaniment of the phenomena.
The paper concludes by pointing out the increased effects likely to result
from the rigidity of the springs, the looseness of the brasses, and other
causes which increase the vibration on tlie axles of railway carriages.

Several samples of broken railway axles were exhibited ; some of them
being cut from different parts of the same axles, showed that at the journals,
where the vibration was the most intense, the crystallization was increased
to a great extent beyond what occurred in other parts of the same axle.

Kemarks. — Mr. Moreland had frequently noticed that pins for chains, and
pump-rods, although made of the best iron, would, if subjected to concus-
sion, after a certain time break suddenly, and that the fracture would exhibit
a large crystallized texture. This was also frequently observed in the broken
axles of road-carriages, although they were generally made of iron of the
finest quality.

Mr. E. Woods had observed the crystallized fracture in all the broken
axles on railways which be had seen.

Mr. Hood exhibited some specimens of broken axles, all of which showed
a large crystallized fracture : he believed that the iron from which the ma-
jority of them had been made was of the best qnality, and in the p.irts not
immediately subjected to concussion the fracture was quite different. One
of them had been in use only three months, and had become so brittle that,
on attempting to break it, it jarred off at the shoulder of the journal, al-
though an incision was made all round at the spot where it was intended to
be broken.

Mr York would account for the tendency of the axles to break at the
journal, by that part being subjected during the process of forging to more
hammering than the body.

,Mr. Hood agreed that such might be the case, but he conceived that it
was more probably produced by cold hammering. He had taken a sample
frimi the body of a hrolicn cranked axle, from the (irand Junction Itailway,
the iron of which was evidently of the best quality, but at tlie point of frac-

ture, which was certainly at that part where it had been most hammered, the
fracture presented a large crystallized texture.

A large anchor, which had been in store for more than a ccnturv', at
Woolwich Dock-yard, and was sujiposed to be made of extremely good iron,
had been recently tested as an experiment, and had broken instantly with a
comparatively small strain ; the fracture presented very large crystals : in
this case he believed the length of time which the anchor had remained in
the same position had produced the same effects as magnetism and vibration.

Mr. Lowe stated that at the gas-works under his direction wrought-irou
fire-bars, although more expensive, were generally preferred ; a pan of water
was kept beneath them, the steam from which woidd speedily cause them to
become magnetic: he had frequently seen these bars, when throw down,
break into three pieces with a large crystallized fracture.

Mr. Miller had frequently seen in manufactories, that when the smiths had
forged parts of engine-work which from their intricate forms had required
to be much hammered, the ends were jarred off while they were being
worked upon. He instanced particularly the side rods of the engine for the
" Lord iMelville " steamer, of which, while shutting up the middle, one of
the ends of each rod was jarretl off, and presented large crystals in the
fracture ; being well assured of the good quality of the iron in the rods, he
had the same ends welded on again, and although the circnmstancc had oc-
curred 20 years since, they were still at work, and had not shown any symp-
tom of weakness. It must be evident that iu this case, the fracture and the
crystallized appearance of the metal must have been produced by the cold
hammering to which it had been subjected.

Mr. York agreed with Mr. Hood in the fact of a change taking place in
the texture of the iron, but he was of opinion that it more frequently oc-
curred during than after manipulation ; he alluded more particularly to rail-
way axles, in which he believed the injury to be done by tlje cold hammering
or planishing after they were faggoted; he had frequently seen one end of
an axle fall off while the other was being hammered : in all such cases,
and those of accidental breakage, such as recently occurred on the Versailles
Railway, and in other places, the fracture always presented a crystallized
appearance.

He then exhibited and described a railway axle, which he stated to possess
the combined advantages of rigidity and toughness, and avoiding entirely the
crystallization of the iron during the process of manufacture ; this he des-
cribed to be effected by maintaining the axle in a hollow state during the
whole operation of hammering, thereby avoiding the vibration and concus-
sion, to which cause he attributed the crystallization of the iron in solid
axles, being of opinion that the repeated blows of the hammer on a solid
mass, particularly during the process of " planishing," were the chief, if
not the only cause of the ductile quality of the iron being destroyed. He
stated, that he had made numerous experiments for the purpose of ascertain-
ing this fact, and in every instance when the axle was sound, the iron pre-
sented the same crystallized fracture, although the bars, previous to their
being welded together, were of the most fibrous quality, but if the axle was
not quite sound, and the bars not perfectly welded to the centre, then the
fracture was somewhat fibrous, the axle being partially hollow and thereby
avoiding the vibration to a considerable extent. This fact suggested to him
the propriety of keeping the axle hollow ; and the mode of manufacture he
described to be by taking two dished half-cylindrical bars of iron, of the
entire length of the axle, putting them together and welding them under a
hammer in swages, by which means the particles are not driven asunder by
the heavy blows and the axle of faggot lengthened, but are driven together
and towards the centre. The axles produced by this means, he stated to be
as perfectly ductile as the bars in the first instance. A further advantage,
he stated to consist, in being able to make half the whole length of the axle
at one heat, thereby avoiding to a considerable extent the danger of burning
the iron by repeatedly heating it ; the iron in the axle he described, as being
a uniform cylinder in thickness, and consequently requiring a uniform lieat,
whereas the external bars of a faggot for a common axle were liable to be
burnt, before the centre was heated to a welding state. The diameter of the
hollow axle was increased from 3^ in. (the general size of a solid axle) to
4 in. in order to give a proper degree of rigidity, but without increasing the
weight.

The usual proof to which solid railway axles were subjected, was by al-
lowing a weight of C cwt. to fall upon them from a height of 9 ft. ; with
that force they were frequently brol.en at the second blow, and sometimes
by the first — he had tried some of tiie hollow axles, by letting fall upon
them a weight of 10 cwt. from a height of 15 ft., without breaking one of
them.

Mr. Simpson expressed the obligation of the Institution to .Mr. Hood, for
bringing before the nieetiug such an interesting communication, upon a sub-
ject which it is of the utmost importance to railways, should be carefully
examined. It was to be regretted, that the late period of the Session had
prevented the attendance of those members whose attention had been more
particularly directed to railways ; but on the renewal of the subject next
Session, upon the production of the report upon the projected experiments,
promised by Mr. Hood, a very useful discussion might be anticipated.

June 28. — The Preside.\t in the Chair.
" An Account of the Uridyl- over the Thames, at Kingston, Surrey." I!y
John lirannis Birch, Crad. Inst. C. E.

Previous to the vear 1828, when the present bridge was opened to tlie

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

419

public, the communication between the to%vn of Kingston-upon-Tbames in
Surrey, and tlie hamlet of Hampton-wick in Middlcbcx, was carried on by
an old and incommodious wooden bridge, which was so dilapidated that any
attempt to put it into a substantial condition for the service of the public,
would have been equivalent to an entire rebuilding of the structure.

The corporation of Kingston, therefore, resolved upon erecting a new
bridge, on a design by Mr. Lapidge, their architect, and in the year 1825
obtained an act of Parliament, granting them ihe powers necessary for that
purpose.

The trustees appointed under the Act applied to the Exchequer Bill Loan
Commissioners for pecuniary assistance to the amount of £45,000. but the
application was not entertained until the working drawings, specification,
&c. had been submitted to their engiueer — the late Mr. Telford, when he
gave the following opinion : — " Having carefully inspected all the working
drawings, I consider it only justice to Mr. Lapidge to say, that they are very
complete and do credit to his judgment and assiduity; and as the blue clay
has been found quite across the bed of the river, I am of opinion that with
the precautions provided in the working drawings and specification, that the
work is very practicable, and if well executed will prove a substantial and
useful edifice." He also said. " 1 have gone through the detailed estimates,
and compared the same with the proposal accepted by the corporation, and
am satisfied that the works may be properly executed for the sum therein
mentioned, viz., Xi31,300 ;" and he stated " the amount of the general esti-
mate including the above sura — the expense of houses and ground — the
flood-arches and roads of approach, &c. to be £47,457."

Upon receipt of this report, the Commissioners consented to make the re-
quired loan, but it being found that the Act limited the amount to be raised
to £40,000, alterations in the structure were suggested by Mr. Lapidge,
which received Mr. Telford's approval, and the works were commenced on
the reduced scale.

The bridge is of Grecian architecture and consists of five elliptical arches ;
it is constructed chiefly of brick, with ashlar facing. The abutments are
terminated by towers, and the structure is surmounted by a cornice and
balustrade, with galleries projecting over the piers. The span of the centre
arch is 60 ft., with a versed sine of 19 ft.; the side arches are 56 ft. and
52 ft. span, and 18 ft. 3 in. and 16 ft. 6 in. rise, respectively. The highest
flood rises 6 ft. above the springing line, and the lowest summer level is
about the same distance below it. The foundations are all laid upon the
substratum of blue clay. The length of the bridge is 382 ft. to the ex-
tremes of the abutments, and the width between the balustrades is 25 ft.
The proportion of the piers to the span of the arches is about ^th. The
roadway is formed at an inclination of 1 in 40.

The author then describes fully the constrution of the abutments, piers,
arches, and the superstructure. The work occupied about 2J years to the
completion, the first stone having been laid on the 7th of November, 1825,
and the bridge opened in form on the 17th of July, 1828.

On the completion, Mr. Telford again made a report to the Exchequer
Bill Loan Commissioners in these terms : — " With Mr. Lapidge, I examined
the whole of the bridge and approaches, and taking it for granted that the
foundations of the piers and abutments, which are under water, and which I
had no opportunity of inspecting while in progress, are according to the
working drawings, all the other parts are found in a very perfect state, exe-
cuted in a workman-like manner."

The bridge has in every respect answered the object for which it was in-
tended, and it has justified the good opinion Mi. Telford originally formed
of it.

During the 14 years which have elapsed since its erection, it has required
none other than the most trifling repairs, and the expectations of the trus-
tees have been realized by the tolls having paid the allotted portion of the
principal, up to the present time, as well as the interest of the money bor-
rowed for its execution, and the cost of it did not exceed the amount of the
estimate.

The communication was accompanied by seven remarkably well-executed
drawings, showing accurately all the details of the construction, and the
paper contained all the quantities of metals in the work, together with Mr.
Telford's reports upon it, with other documents of interest.

" Description of Ihe Harbour of Port Talbot ( Glamor (jmishire)." By
Henry Robinson Palmer, V. P. Inst. 0. E.

The harbour described in this communication is situated upon the outfall
of the river Avon, on the eastern shore of Swansea Bay. The adjacent
mountainous district terminates abruptly at about half a mile from the shore,
in a tract of marshy land, for the most part composed of sand, with de-
tached beds of clay and peat of various thickness, at about 10 ft. below the
surface.

The river, which, at its issue from its rocky channel, had been diverted
from its course by accumulations of sand, nearly at right angles with its
point of discharge into the sea, would appear at some period to have bad a
direct channel thither. It has been the object of the author, by whom the
works were designed and executed, to restore this obvious course for tbe
land water, and by means of embankments, to convert into a dock that por-
tion of the old channel which extends through the marshes. A new channel
has also been formed from the outfall to a convenient part of the dock, with
a lock 48 ft. in width for the passage of vessels.

As the works were undertaken by a few private individuals, every proper
economy was enjoined; and in order to diminish the expense of excavating
by manual labour, a channel of 100 ft. wide and a mile in length, Mr. John
Vigurs (whose extensive tin-plate and copper works are situated in the ad-
joining valley) proposed that the new channel should be formed by the force
of the land floods, which descend with great impetuosity. A trench of 20 ft.
wide by 10 ft. deep, was therefore cut in the line of the proposed channel ;
and a few days after it was finished, a heavy land flood descending from the
mountains rushed through it, carrying out to sea from the sides and bottom
of the trench an immense quantity of the soil. Every succeding flood in-
creased the size of the trench, and by judicious guidance of this natural ex-
cavator, the channel was formed of the requisite dimensions; and it is now
generally kept clear from accumulation by the land floods, but in dry seasons
by the sluices in the lock-gates. The bed of the channel is stated to form a
regular inclined plane of more than a mile in length, free from a shoal or any
other impediment.

The confluence of the two channels has been rendered permanent, by a
pier of copper slag, with an active slope of 5 to 1. When finished, this pier
will extend full half a mile in length.

The paper then describes generally the ordinary modes of constructiou
adopted in the works, and more particularly the lock, the cill of which is
23 ft. below the level of an ordinary spring tide : the coping is 2 ft. above
that level, and the gates are 23 ft. 6 in. high.

The fabric of the lock is composed of hard silicious sandstone, cemented
with blue lias lime water. The ashlar work of the walls is 4 ft. in thick-
ness, witli counterforts, and the spaces between them are filled with rubble,
grouted with lime and sand. Tbe whole thickness of the walls may there-
fore be taken at 8 ft., excepting at their bases, where they are 10 ft. The
walls rest in part upon an inverted arch, 3 ft. in thickness, and tbe whole
mass, including the invert, rests upon a concrete of large and small rubble.

The harbour is stated to be in immediate connexion with extensive copper
and tin-plate v;orks, and also with a great extent of coal-beds bordering the
valley of the Avon, and the trade is rapidly increasing, its position in the
Bristol Channel being highly favourable to a foreign trade.

A plan of the harbour, with tbe streams and channels, and a transverse
section of the lock accompanied the paper.

" Desei-ipticn of the Colder Viaduct, on the Wishaw and Coltness Railway,
with the Specijicafions, Estimates, and a series of E.xperiynents to ascertain
the Deflection of tiro of the Strutted Beams." By John Macneill, M. Inst
C. E. ■

When first the author v\as called upon to carry out the extension of the
Wishaw and Coltness Railway, he found that the funds for that purpose were
very limited, and that it was necessary to construct the works in the cheap-
est manner possible. To accomplish this it was necessary to design and lay
out a single line of railway, which would be sufficient to carry on the trade
by H. p., but if possible, and consistently with limited funds, to construct
the viaduct over the valley of tbe Calder (the principal work on the railway)
in such a manner as to be able to vviden it hereafter, and to make it suitable
for locomotive power, in tbe event of the trade being increased, or of the
railway forming a part of the great line of communication between England
and the West of Ssotland. Having these objects in view, and being so res-
tricted in funds, he was obliged to lay out the works in the first instance,
very ditferently from what he otherwise would have done, if there had been
ample funds.

The valley of the Calder, which the railway had to cross, was nearly half
a mile in length, and tbe elevation of the line over the surface of the ground,
varied from 50 to 130 ft. The first intention was to construct a viaduct,
480 ft. in length, of stone arches, 60 ft. span and 12 ft. wide between the
parapets ; but as this mode of construction would have been the cause of
much expense, when it became necessary to widen the viaduct for a double
line of railway, and would also have involved an embankment of nearly 60 ft.
in height, composed of clay and marl, which was considered unsafe and likely
to slip, an effect which subsequent experience on other portions ot the line,
has since fully proved would have been the case ; it was determined to ex-
tend tbe viaduct to about 1200 ft. in length, and to construct it of timber
resting on stone piers, which allowed the means of widening and strength-
ening it hereafter, without stopping the trade or incurring more expense
than would have been necessary in tbe first instance, if built to the full di-
mensions.

The piers and abutments are built hollow, of grey freestone from the ad-
joining quarry of Dalziel ; the trussed wooden beams rest in metal sockets,
and the springing plates are laid, for supporting the under arches of bent
timbers, which are now in progress of construction, to render the viaduct
capable of supporting safely the weight of locomotives and heavier trains
than now pass along it by h. p. The usual load for horses is 4 wagons,
each weighing 1} ton, and carrying 35 tons of coal ; there are frequently 3
of these trains in a single arch of the viaduct at tbe same time, and 30
loaded waggons weighing 120 tons exclusive of the engine and tender, have
frequently been taken over ; on one occasion a train consisting of 65 loaded
wagons of 4 tons each, making a gross load (including the engine and tender)
of 279 tons was taken over the viaduct, but the usual load is restricted to
30 tons, until the under arches are fixed.

The details of tbe construction of the general work are then given, and

42ft

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[DECEMBEa,

the total c«3t of the single width is stated to be about jEId.OOO; this sum
includes the metal castings for the future widening, and when the strength-
ening and wiilening of the whole will he completed the total cost will not
exceed .£25,000, which is stated to be a low price for a viaduct of 1200 ft.
long, and varying from 50 to 130 ft. in height.

X description is then given of the experiments upon the deflection of a
trussed l)eam. Two stone piers were erected 100 ft. apart, with metal caps
and sockets built into them ; two beams were laid ami strapped together and
the struts fi.\ed, precisely as they would have been in the bridge; along each
side of these beams, but quite unconnected with them, posts are driven in
the ground, to which a horizontal beam was attached; six rods of deal,
carefully divided into inches and tenths, were then screwed to the outside
faces of the beams. The beams were, in the first instance, brought as near
as possible to a hori7.ont.il line, by means of a spirit level, and the zero
points on the rods made to correspond with a fixed line on tlie horizontal
bar. When the beams were loaded, and the deflection from the original
level took place, it was marked by the divisions on the index rods, which
being firmly screwed to the beams rose or fell with them, and showed the
quantity of deflection as marked by the line on the horizontal bar ; after
each load was put on the beams, it was allowed to remain au hour or two
before the deflection was measured, and after the load was taken ofl", the de-
flection was again measured at an interval of some hours to ascertain the
iiermanent set, before anotlier load was put on. The load made use of was
railwav bars ; they were distributed over the beams in various situations, and
in various quantities, varying from 1 to GO tons ; the results of which are
stated in a series of elaborate tables : and a large collection of diagrams
show the situation and form of the load and the space covered at each ex-
periment, liy examining these diagrams, the situation of the load, its
weight, and the deflection caused by it, will be at once seen ; the results of
these weights are given in the tables in feet and decimals, which will be
more satisfactory than the diagrams alone would be, to those who raay wish
to make any calculation, or to form a practical rule upon them for their own
guidance.

The appendix contains the specifications for all the artificers' work, with
the dimensions of the several parts and the priced estimates ; — the drawings
accompanving the paper were executed by .Mr. Macniell's assistant, George
Ellis, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

" Description of the mode adopted for sinking a IVell, at Messrs. Trnman,
Hanburi/, Buxton, and Co.'s Bretcery." By Robert Davison, M. Inst. C.E.

The author commences this communication, by stating that one of the
principal objects of the brewers, is to obtain a constant supply of water at a
low temperature, for the purpose of cooling the worts, particularly during
the summer months. The quantity of water to be obtained from the land-
springs has (he says) been represented as not to be depended upon ; this
would probably be correct, if required, as frequently proposed, for the supply
of all the wants of a city, but if a well is properly sunk, there can be no
doubt of obtaining a supply of 80 to 100 gallons per minute.

W'itli regard to the quantity of water obtainable from the chalk stratum,
the author believes it to be more precarious, for while instances occur occa-
sionally, where a considerable opening is found in the chalk and a plentiful
supply is obtained ; the cases it is believed are as frequent, where fissures
arc not met with and a failure ensues.

He then proceeds to give a narrative of the facts which occurred during
the progress of an attempt to sink a cast-iron cylinder from the surface
down to the chalk, a depth of about 200 ft., intending to admit the springs
at the different levels, as might be considered most advisable.

The well was commenced in the middle of a landspring well 10 ft. di-
ameter, and in order to avoid tlie usual inconveniences of pumping and ex-
cavating, Mr. Clark of Tottenham performed a large part of the work with
the " Miser" instead of by the usual methods of well-sinking.

The landspring well was drained January 25, 183y, and the excavation of
a well 1 1 ft. diameter was commenced ; this was carried down of a clear
diameter of 8 ft. C in. inside the brick steiuiug, and when it had arrived at
the depth of 115 ft. 3 in-, the first cast-iron cylinder was lowered, and
others were gradually added, shutting out the springs as they were passed,
until April 3, when, at the depth of 135 ft., in a bed of yellow clay and
pebbles, the water overpowered the excavators, and after trying many me-
thods of continuing the excavation, the use of the "miser" was resorted
to, when the cylinders had gone down to 114 ft. On the Uth of May the
oyster bed was reached, at 103 ft. depth; and after some deliberation, it was
resolved to continue sinking down to the chalk. For seven da; s the men
were employed in "jumping" a heavy chisel bar to break througli the hard
rocky crust of this oyster bed ; at length between the 25th and 27tli of May
the cylinders suddenly sunk 5 ft. C in. ; the niisering was continued until the
depth of 180 ft. 10 in. was attained, and tlie cylinders were found to be
completely fixed. A pressure of nearly 100 tons applied hy powerful screws
was tried without producing anyeflfect; it was therefore determined to fill
all the space between tlie stcining and tlie exterior of the cylinder wiih con-
crete, although a portion of the steining was discovered to have given way ;
it was supposed that the cylinders would have been held up by the pressure
against the steining and tlie earth; the pump-work was therefore fixed, and
after a time the pumping commenced ; on the 21st October, after no more

than the usual pumping (the water generally containing sandy sediment), it
was observed that the pavement round the well had given way ; the ma-
chinery was stopped, and immediately there occurred a rumliling noise
within the cylinders which lasted probably 4 or 5 minutes ; on examination,
it was found that the cylinders had sunk 4 inches, the main girders across
the top were broken, and on sounding the well it was discovered that an
extensive " blow " of sand had taken place, and filled the bottom of the
well for nearly 28 ft. ; this was cleared out by niisering, and after recom-
mencing pumping for some time, on the 14th December a separation of the
cylinders about 2J in. wide was discovereil at about 73 ft. from the surface.
Mr. J. llraithwaitc and >Ir. J. Simpson were consulted as to the best method
of proceeding ; the former was of opinion that there was such a subsidence
behind the cylinders, as would endanger the safety of the surrounding build-
ings. The latter did not take so serious a view of the matter; but he sug-
gested the sinking of an internal cylinder, if the original one could not be
forced down.

After this examination, a portion of one of the cylinders was cut away at
72 ft. from the surface, where the soft part of the clay commenced, and a
dome was constructed with brick and cement all round the exterior of the
cylinder, with the intention of supporting the brick steining and strata
above, and also to carry oft" the water and prevent its softening the clay and
the concrete.

On the 18th of ilarch, 1840, an internal cylinder of 2 ft. diameter was
lowered, within the original cylinder, and continued sinking until it reached
the chalk, into which it was driven 4 ft.; the space between the large and
small cylinders was then filled in with granite paving stones from 5 ft. in
depth, and then with smaller stones, broken bricks, &c. mixed with hydratdic
cement, to the depth of 25 ft., thus forming an eflfectual barrier against any
future " blow " of sand from the original bottom of the well.

.\fter all was imagined to be secure and the pumping had recommenced, a
second separation to the extent of 4 in. was discovered in the cylinder ; the
gap thus formed was first filled in completely with wooden wedges, and a
cast-iron cap was afterwards bolted withinside. The well was then drained,
and 400 holes ^ in. diameter were drilled in the cylinder, immediately be-
neath the oyster bed, to admit the water from that level. It was ascertained
also by experiment, that tlie quantity of water obtained from the 2 ft. bore
in the chalk, was about 22 gallons per minute ; the bore was then continued
for a depth of 200 ft. making the total depth of the well and the bore from
the surface, nearly 400 ft., when a supply of water was obtained of 33 gal-
lons per minute ; some of the joints of the cylinders were then picked out,
to admit the water, and from all the sources combined, the quantity of
water obtained, was about 81 gallons per minute, or 135 barrels per hour;
that is, 55 barrels from the chalk spring and 80 barrels from the sand-spring
per hour.

The cost of the well and the bore was .-£4444, to which must be added
the expense of a 12-horse steam-engine and pumps ^1351, making a total
cost of j;5795.

Appended to the paper is the report of Mr. James Simpson, which gives a
very clear account of the state in which he found the well, and the remedies
which he suggested, for the accidents which had occurred.

It is illustrated by two drawings, showing in detail a vertical section of
the well, with all the pumps and machinery, and also tlie tools used in the
excavation and the bore.

" Description of a Self-aciing Signal for Railways." By Charles Berwick
Curtis, (of Acton,) .\ssoc. Inst. C. E.

The object of this invention is, that notice shall be given by a marked
signal, both by day and night, to the trains on the railway, that they may
proceed with safety, and to regulate their speed. The signal being worked
by machinery, the policemen would not be required, as at present, to remain
on one spot, but could extend their sphere of inspection ; aud thus, by fixing
the apparatus at given intervals along the line, the passage of the trains
could be arranged with such precision as to render collision less frequent.

The apparatus consists of a round signal, composed of glass, the up-
per third part red, aud the remainder green, descending into view from a
casing of three colours, such as black, green, aud red, in equal divisions:
upon the signal is a white plate, which projects in front of aud through a
slit in the casing; and in order that the signal raay be used by night as well
as by day, a lamp is placed immediately beneath the centre of the casing.

On the near side of the rail, at a suitable distance, anil at a proper height
to be cleared by the steps of the carriages, is fixed a trigger, which is at-
tached to a horizontal shaft revolving on bearings, with a counterweight, and
these are connected by suitable shafts and levers with the signal-field. When
an engine passes and depresses the trigger, the signal-field is released, and
falls below the casing ; by this means the machinery is set in action, and in
a given time (which is regulated by clock-work) gradually raises the signal-
field up again, within the casing, indicating by the coincidence of the co-
loured compartments of the casing with those of the signal, the length of
time which has elapsed since the trigger was depressed. \A"hen the signal
has returned entirely into the case, the apparatus has resumed its original
state ready to be again acted upon.

Several ingenious modifications of the apparatus are described ; and it is
stated that the signals which have been at work for a considerable period at
the London and Birmingham and Great Western Railways, have fully answereil

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

421

Fi£. 1.

Fig. 2.

F.:

tte expectations entertained of their eificacy. Detailed drawings of the
signals and machinery accompany the paper.

The following description of the apparatus we have obtained from Mr.
Curtis, which will more fully explain his ingenious inventions than the pre-
ceding brief minutes of the Institution.

Fig. 1, is a front view and section of the apparatus, with a round signal
field descending into view from a bojiiug. The arrangement of the con-
trivance is as follows : — By the left or " near " side of the Rail, at a suitable
distance, and at a proper height to be cleared by the steps, and other pro-
jections of the engines or carriages, is fixed a trigger or camb, to the end of
a horizontal shaft, revolving on bearings, upon a sleeper of wood or stone,
properly secured, and is furnished with a counterweight. The trigger is
made to the radius of 1 ft. G in., of strong wrought iron, and for the pur-
pose of securing a smooth surface, is covered with a plate of brass ; at the
other end of the shaft is a double joint, from which rises an upright rod,
secm-ed by guides, to the wall or framework ; the upright I'od terminates in an
obUque hnk and l)ent neck, working in a bearing, at the point of which neck
is a hammer head, which, as tlie trigger by the side of the rail is depressed,
is forced inwards, and drav.n back again by the counterweight of the hori-
zontal shaft on which the trigger is fixed.

The signal field is fixed on a lever, having its fulcrum or bearing at about
one-sixth of its length from the other end, and is sustained out of sight, that
is, behind the boxing, by pins placed equidistant at three points upon a ring
fixed upon the centre arbor of wheelwork, whicli centre arbor is immediately
opposite to the hammer head of the bent neck of the upright rod, and re-
ceives its blow. The centre arbor being forced in, and thus withdrawing the
pin from holding the end of the signal lever, releases it, and it falls by its
own weight. The wheelwork of which the motion is sustained by a weight,
and which when holding the signal lever is kept motionless, is now set in
action, and the ring having the three pins revolves, and the pin next in ro-
tation travels towards the end of the lever, consuming three minutes and a
half before it comes in contact j when in contact it gradually depresses the
end of the lever, and raises the signal ; the white plate now leaves the red
compartment, and passes on the green, and the upper limb of the field is
withdrawn from view, and continues to rise with the white plate, in the
green compartment, till it is wholly out of sight, and tlie white plate appeai-s
GO the black compartment, and arrives at its resting place, whereby the
wheelwork is stopped.

At night the lamp being lighted, the colours of the glass indicate the
signal according to the same periods, viz. : three minutes and a half red,
and six minutes and a half green light, and afterwards exhibiting the white
light.

The wheelwork is so arranged that 40 trains may act upon it for one
winding up. It comprises a wheel working into that attached to the barrel,
the arbor of which wheel is elongated and made square, and carries the ring
npon which the three equidistant pins are placed, which ring is fixed on a
ioss, made to shde backwards and forwards npon the square elongated end
of the arbor, furnished at the back, or between the ring and the face of the
frame of the wheelwork, with a spiral spring to drive the ring with the three
pins back to its working position, when forced in by the hammer; the only
other wheels necessary are those leading to the escapement, which consist
of a simple balance wheel. A striker must be attached to the engines or
tenders, made of ash, or other long grained wood, 4 ft. long, and 0 in. wide,
cut lengthways of the grain, and inclining to the extent of oue-third the

length from each end towards the centre, the intermediate one-third being
left straight, and so fitted that it shall depress the camb or trigger 2 in.

rig. 2, is another apparatus, with a fan of two colours, one-third red, and
two-thirds green, enlosed within a suitable boxing, having a triangular
opening. The wheelwork and action are precisely the same. The train
passing and acting on the trigger, the fan falls aud presents its red portion
in the opening, and on being drawn back its green portion, and being at the
extremities fimiished v.ith glass of those coloms to correspond, so as to pass
before a lamp, gives the colour signals at night. The fan signal must be
erected upon a pedestal, at a convenient distance from the side of the rail,
and high enough to insure its being visible to the drivers of engines.

Fig. 3, is the third mode of arrangement, that of the signal mast, wliich
is made to tiurn one quarter, thereby exhibiting a change of figure.

The machinery apphed to this is of the same nature as the foregoing, but
placed horizontal instead of vertical, and in place of a lever being released
from the pins, as in t/iem, a sector, with teeth working on a bearing or
gudgeon into a segment attached to the mast, is employed. A weight and
line is fixed to the mast, which upon one of the pins being released from its
hold, as in the other arrangements, draws the mast round one quarter, ex-
hibiting thereby the signal to indicate " stop " or " danger ;" three minutes
and a half are consumed in the approach of the pin to the end of the
sector, and six minutes and a half from the time the pin comes in contact,
tUl it has drawn the mast back again, and restored the signal of '■ safety."
A lamp is fixed on a stationary standard, but is enclosed in a three-sided
lantern, with coloured glass, red, green, and white lantern traversing with
tlie mast, in front of the lamp, showing thereby the colours according to the
position of the mast : red, green, or white.

One apparatus is placed at thi; south entrance of the Primrose Hill tunnel,
and an engine fitted for the purpose of operating upon it, which it has done
since the autumn of last year, and still continues to do daily with the 3
o'clock train. And on the Great Western Railway the (/irte distinct forms,
above described, liave been erected at the Paddington Terminus.

END OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SESSION, 1842.

The Institution will resume their Meetings on Tuesday, the 10th of
January next.

YORKSHIRE ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.
First Report, read at the General Public ileetiny, October 'th, 1842.

A REPORT of the past, as connected with a society which awaits its formal
constitution at the present meeting, must of course be meagre ; l)ut the mem-
bers have a right to know how tlie Yorkshire Architectural Society originated,
with what support, witli what field of usefulness before it, and with what
prospects of success.

When several persons had already expressed a wish that in this county,
which presents perhaps the host field' of architectural study in the kingdom,
an .Architectural Society should lie formed, several of the clergy of the dio-
ceses of York and Ripon having been invited to attend, a meeting was held
at Leeds, the Rev. tiie Vicar in the chair, on the 26th of July last. At this
meeting, with the approbation of many who n ere absent, and with the united

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

care of those present, provisional rules were framed, and officers pro tempore
appointed, and it was determined that all the parochial clergy in the county
should he invited to join the society in its earliest stage. That the greatest
deference might he paid to authority. His Grace tlie Archbishop of York, and
His Lordship the Cishop of Kipon were requested to extend their patronage
to the proposed society, and the Lords Lieutenant of the three Ridings were
requested to accept the oflice of Presidents. The sanction of tlicse great
names was most kindly alforded ; and we were also permitted to number
among our Vice-presidents the Archdeacons of most of the archdeaconries
within the two dioceses, and many noblemen and gentlemen whose names
must give strength to our cause. Of ordinary members we have already, and
before any public meeting, more than 300 names on our list ; and many of
those who were among the first to give their names to the society, have ex-
pressed most strongly their opinion, evidently not newly formed, that such a
society was much needed.

With regard to the objects of the society, they are stated briefly but com-
prehensively in the second resolution passed at the prelimioary meeting, as
follows : —

"That the objects of the society be to promote the study of ecclesiastical
architecture, antiquities, and design, the restoration of mutilated remains,
and of churches or parts of churches which may have been desecrated, within
the county of York; and to improve, as far as may be within its province,
the character of ecclesiastical edifices to he erecteil in future."

If we may he allowed to expand this resolution, we may say that whatever
tends to the knowledge of the principles or details of church architecture,
as it was practised iu the middle ages; and whatever may suggest any im-
provements in the general style of ecclesiastical edifices in the present day ;
that whatever may tend to explode the anachronisms and other solecisms in
church building now so common ; that whatever njay serve to extend a taste
for the higher branches of the art, and to inculcate reverence for it in its
most sacred applications: that whatever may indirectly encourage, or directly
effect the restoration to their pristine beauty, or to their sacred use, of any
ecclesiastical remains, or any part of the essential furniture of the sanctuary;
whatever may come under any of these heads, the Yorkshire Architectural
Society proposes to itself as the scope of its operations. How far it may be
obliged to do this indirectly only by suitable publications, and by suggesting
an object of study to its members, and those who may interest themselves in
its proceedings, and how far directly, by rendering assistance, pecuniary or
otherwise, to those who will gladly avail themselves of its aid in the repairs
or constructiun of sacred edifices which Providence has committed to their
charge, must of course depend on the resources which the society may have
at its disposal, from the number of its members, or the liberality of more
wealthy supporters.

That some stimulus, of some kind or other, to cultivate a better style of
church huikiiug, and some riireclion of the public taste in matters even of
the minutest detail, and most trifling repairs, is needed, must be clear to
every one who will take the trouble to run over the churches, ancient or
modern, williin a drive of his home.

With regard to new churches, there is scarcely a populous district in the
kingdom which does not possess one of the churches built in pursuance of
the "Million act," as it is called; a huge cumbrous erection, Gothic in its
details, without any principle, or if following any principle at all, probably
Grecian in its proportions ; in size beyond the ci,mpass of most voices, and
in arrangement destructive of all articulate sound. The floor is divided be-
tween pews and benches, making an invidious distinction between Christ's
poor, and the world's rich, and galleries destroy whatever there would have
been of ecclesiastical effect. The consequence of this complication of dis-
orders is a church empty, in proportion to its size at least, and therefore cold
and comfortless to the worshippers ; whereas the same sum would have built
two, or perhaps three churches, not so vast, but far more beautiful, accoiu-
modating a much larger aggregate of worshippers, and forming each a centre,
far more satisfactory, for the exertion of a larger number of pastors. And
this there can he no doubt would have been the happier result, had the pub-
lic mind been indmed, by whatever means, with those principles of eccle-
eiabtical taste and feeling in such matters, which it is the object of such so-
cieties as this to inculcate ; had those who gave their best energies to the
perfecting of so good a work, been prepared to think with good taste, good
feeling, good judgment, and what is inseparable from these, real utility upon
the subject.

In speaking of new churches, we have chosen those which were in every
sense a public work, and the responsibility of which was so greatly divided
between the several parties concerned in their erection and arrangement, that
they arc open, with as Httle invidiousness as possible, to free criticism, and
that it would be impossible to lay blame any where, if blame is due, but on
the deficiency of the ]iulilic taste at the time, for which no individuals can
be accountable. Hut though some of the very best churches lately built
have been erected under the auspices of individuals, yet to whatever class of
churches we turn we still find excellence, and even propriety, the exception;
and are the more confirmed in the conviction that a little greater cultivation
of ecclesiastical taste would tend to the erection of far more beautiful
churcho, without any addition of expense, and sometimes even at a maieriiil
saving.

In the repairs of churches, to which we would next direct the attention
of the Society, the same thing is equally true ; as we shall abundantly prove
by an enumeration of some of the more common errors into which the re-

pairers of churches are continually falling. We will again refer to actual
instances though without mentioning names.

In a district of this county, the chiu'chcs of which amply repay attention,
there arc two towns about ten miles apart, to which aiul to the several vil-
lages between which we will make an imaginary tnur of observation.

The first church is a magnificent cross chuich, with a hjfty spire, supported
by flying buttresses, and must have been, when in its best state, among the
most beautiful ecclesiastical structures in the kingdom. At present, the
lower part of the great east window is blocked up by the i>ainted canvas
containing the creed, the Lord's prayer, and the ten commandments; the
west window being equally spoiled bj a gallery erected before it. The font,
a very fine one, is not used for Holy Baptism, but only as a receptacle for a
fair yellow wash-hand bason, which has usurped its use; the pewing is very
irregular, and destructive of all eftect ; yet this is the least harbarised of all
the churches we are visiting, and is indeed far less so than most others
throughout the kingdom.

The next church is very small, and most unpretending, though containing
some good monuments. It has a pretty screen between the nave and the
chancel, which was very graceful in efl'cct so long as it retained its original
hue, hut it is spoiled by white paint, and all its eftect is destroyed by the
emidous vicinity of the tall open panelling of a squire's pew.

The next church consists of a nave and two aisles, with a spire. The
wooden roof has been lowered to so painful an excess, that the upper part of
the east window is cut off by the new ceiling ; the same window has also
suffered the loss of a whole couipartment, which is wantonly blocked up.
Over the south door of the chancel is a stone with an inscription offensively
commemorating a lord of tlie manor, who was probably art and part in some
of these improvements.

The fourth church consists of a nave and clerestory, aisles and chancel,
with a tower and spire. The roof of the nave is lowered, hut it is still a
pretty good oak roof. The tower arch is blocked up, and a gallery extends
across it. The seats arc arranged in the most originally fantastic manner
possible, bending towards each other, like two marks of parenthesis, extend-
ing along the opposite sides of the nave. The font has lately served the
purpose of a plasterer's bucket.

A little chapel, once very pretty, next occurs, but its effect is quite de-
stroyed, both internally and externally, by a low square brick tower erected
upon it, three sides of which have no other support than wooden props and
beams. Perhaps by this time it has fallen, for the beams were very visibly
and even alarmingly declining two years ago. If the tower has fallen with,
out further damage, and has been replaced by a bell gable, which would cost
a third part as much, the chapel is again a pretty ecclesiastical looking
object.

Sixth and last, is the most beautifid edifice of all, a cross church, with a
central tower, and s]ilendid in all its parts, except where it has been barba-
rized at considerable expense by late improvers. The altar screen is of
Grecian design. The roofs are lowered throughout the whole church, and
those of the nave and south transepts are plastered. The west window is
utterly spoiled, the nave is cut off from the transepts by galleries. The beau-
tiful font is furnished, as almost all fonts are in these days, with a small
basin for the water at Holy Baptism. The repairs on the exterior wotdd
have demanded so considerable an outlay, had they been leally and wholly
in keeping, that they could hardly be meutioned among things that would
require only greater knowledge to have rendered them appropriate, hut still
they might have been less dissightly, to say the least, than they are, at the
same cost.

In all these cases, such trifling matters as the glazing of windows and the
like have been omitted, not as unimportant, but because they would have
recurred so often as to be tedious.

It is not necessary to prove our point to give the names of the several
churches we h,ive visited, for every neighbourhood will furnish iiarallel cases,
as each member of the Society may prove for himself on inspection.

Now, what we said of the " Million Churches," and of the divided respon-
sibility of all persons concerned in the fabric, we repeat of such repairs. Had
there been Architectural Societies in existence, or had the ecclesiastical taste
been cultivated in any adequate degree, these things woidd have been diffe-
rent. More money would have been expended in fact, because devotional
feeling would have been more stimulated in that direction; but this we will
not assume : we will oidy assert that the same money woidd have been ex-
pended to very much better purpose.

To undo gradually and ultimately such evils as are here mentioned, and at
the very least to prevent their so frequent repetition, is among the objects
of this society, as well as to imjirove the character of churches newly erected.
The field of usefulness (for surely such an object will be admitted to he use-
ful) is co-extensive with the county, and every Yorkshireman will tVel that
it ought to be fairly cultivated. The means of effecting any good results
may seem more limited, but the difficulty will vanish before a little con-
sideration.

The first tangible operation of the society will probably be to obtain accu-
rate information concerning the character and state of the churches of York-
shire, and to collect and record whatever there may he curious and instruc-
tive in their arcbiteclural details; forming at the same time, as we maybe
able, a collection of casts and drawings, not from Yorkshire exclusively, but
from any interesting soincc which may he open to us. Such a collection
may seem only a museum of curious fragments, and the more extended pub-

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

423

lications of the Society mere barren records of what was once effected ; and
yet, even if the funds of the Society should not he adequate to any direct
exertions, much will be effected by this means.

For the stuily of ecclesiastical architecture cannot be pursued without
originating and fostering a degree of interest and enthusiasm which must be
influential on the many, although it be called into active exertion only in a
few. The very collection of information, with the examination of churches
requisite to that end, will enlist many on the side of propriety and good
taste, and there are many cases in which these appeal so intelligibly to com-
mon sense, and even to mere utility, that they have only to be fairly stated
to be acted on. Every member, too, of this society will feel himself pledged,
by the very fact of his membership, to exert himself in the furtherance of
its objects ; and at least when he has any voice and intiuence in the erection
or repairs of a church, (and veiy few indeed of the clergy, at any rate, are
wholly without such occasions of influence.) he will feel bound even at a
little self-sacrifice, to care eftectually for the appropriate character of the
House of God. Nor ought we to refrain from the praise which is due in
general to churchwardens and others who may be charged with the main-
tenance of the church's fabric. In rural districts they are generally chosen
from among those whose very different pursuits leave them little opportunity
for a personal acquaintance with ecclesiastical architecture and design ; but
good feeling they have to a great extent, and good sense ; and when they
find one, as for instance, the clergyman or squire of the parish, to direct
them, they will seldom be found opposed to those measures which are really
the best.

But we may surely anticipate the time when the funds at our disposal
shall enable us to do something, as a society, in the way of restoration ; and
something, also, towards raising the architectural character of churches still
to be erected. There are churches and chapels in this county diverted from
their holy purposes, which we should wish, and which perhaps we may even-
tually be able, to rescue from secular and degrading uses. There are beau-
tiful structures, with enough of them left to show what they once were,
which we may hope gradually and one by one to restore. There are churches
worthy of being imitated, which we may hold forth to the admiration of
church builders, and the adoption of the plans of which we may procure by
a seasonable addition to the building fund.

Meanwhile the members who may be really disposed to enter into what
may be called the business of the society, will find it one of great interest,
and will be amply repaid for their contributions to the society's museum aud
stock of knowledge, by the pleasure which the pursuit has afforded. The
value of an oljject of interest in our rambles is proverbial, and hence a great
part of the pleasure of the botanist, the mineralogist, and the painter. The
student of ecclesiastical architecture is not less abundantly stored with inte-
resting objects wherever he goes. With an interest attached to that par-
ticular object, and none other, every one, though but a wayfarer, with a few
minutes' leisure, turns at once to the village church ; but the members of
our society will go thither with far greater assurance of pleasure and instruc-
tion, and stones will be vocal to him that are dumb to others. Every church
has a history which may be read in its walls, its buttresses, its doors, its
windows, its mouldings, its font, its roof, its seats, its chancel, its altar; a
history with his eras, its incidents, and its episodes marked in broad lines,
ami in traces deep and vivid of the chisel of the mason and the sculptor, and
of the brush of the plasterer and painter; in the restorations and additions
of medieval architects, and in the perversions and monstrosities of modern
carpenters and masons. The history is one of interest and of value, and one
which he can transcribe and bring away for the amusement and instruction
of others, and not without a hope that he is acquiring and conveying infor-
mation which will be practically applied in many future instances.

But let us attempt to convey some impression of the interest of the pur-
suit which we are entering upon, by a particular instance. Three years ago,
two persons, now enrolled among the original members of the society, were
walking on the banks of the river Ure, near Ripon, when their attention was
arrested by what seemed in the distance a neglected ruin, but of what cha-
racter, whether a church, a house, or a barn it would be ditficult to say.
However, they bent their steps towards it, and first approaching a cluster of
alms-houses, found the supposed ruin to be a little chapel, sadly neglected,
and almost desecrated, by the near approach of houses, farm yards, pig sties,
and every kind of rubbish. The exterior, besides being extremely pictu-
resque, chiefly from the effect of a tall bell-gable, afforded indications of
great antiquity, and of very consi<lerable changes ; and in short, bore upon
its face the history of six hundred years. The door-way had been Norman,
the East window was of three or four hundred years later date, and there
were traces of intermediate alterations ; while the present dilapidated state
of the whole edifice, gave in sad colours the story of the last two or three
centuries. Within, the little unpretending chapel was full of still deeper
interest. The wooden roof, the original open scats, and the screen remained,
though craving many repairs. Altar rails there were none, and never had
been; before the altar was a little circle of mosaic, and the a'tar itself was
such as was not then generally known to exist in the whole kingdom — it
was the old stone altar, which had escaped the hands of sacrilege and de-
struction. Now this was, all will admit, an interesting discovery, and it was
certainly more than will fall to the lot of every one every day ; but it is so
far from being unexampled, that day after day other stone altars are being
discovered, and other churches and chapels v. hich have been liilherto as little
noticed as that of St. Mary Magdalene, Kipon, are found lo contain the most

interesting remains, and details well worth tlie study of the student of prac-
tical ecclesiastical design.

Enough, perhaps more than enough, has been said, to conciliate your fa.
vour to this society, and to stimulate your interest in its pursuits. Here
therefore, we should conclude ; but it is perhaps as necessary to disarm sus-
picion, by stating the limits of this society's operations in one direction, as
to say what we may well hope it really will effect. It will not, then, inter
fere with the strictly professional labours of the architect, nor in any respect
supersede the application of his skill and science. Ou the contrary, it will
afford him a very great support, unless we over estimate its influence on tha
public mind, against the injudicious suggestions and the very irritating inter
ference of those who cannot be supposed really to understand the subject
yet who stand greatly in tlie way of any degree of excellence in the works
committed to their oversight. Those architects who really understand the
principles of Gothic architecture and of ecclesiastical design, and who only
want room and liberty, and a just appreciation of their talents to distinguisb
themselves, will, we are persuaded, find in the Yorkshire Architectural So-
ciety a very effective ally.

Having thus stated the object of the society, we may, we trust, leave it to
the favour of the public, and at once, with the confidence of all parties, entei
upon its pleasing and useful sphere of duties.

REVIE^VS.

Appendix E, F to tie ntio edition of Tredgold on the Steam Engine.
Engines of tlie Trent and Isis, Dee and Svlrvay, Sfc. Twenly-one
Illustrations. London: John Weale, 1S42.

Tut chief fault we have to find with this work is that there is too
little of it. Brevity, indeed, is a quality of which we rarely have to
complain, yet in the case of such machinery as that of the Trent and
Isis, we should rather have had all the details, though the work had
been a little dearer and more voluminous in consequence. It forms
no part of our function to inquire whether it is upon the publisher of
the work or the makers of the engines, that the absence of these de-
tails is chargeable ; but the policy which has withheld tbem, wherever
it may have originated, is, we are satisfied, a blind and injudicious
one, and is impotent for everything but mischief. The only drawings
of these engines which are given, are a plan, elevation, and end view ;
and these, we suppose, are to prove their title to the public admi-
ration:— as if any one could tell whether an engine were good or bad
by merely looking at the outside of it. We are, it is true, provided
with the performance of the engines as determined by the indicator;
but every one knows that an indicator diagram furnishes no criterion
of tlie quality of an engine as a piece of mechanism, and that an
engine may give an admirable diagram, and yet be a bad engine in
many respects. The true character of an engine is, it appears to us,
only to be determined either by an examination of the details of its
construction, or by the experience afforded by its prolonged operation.
The latter test is certainly a very satisfactory one, but requires a life-
time for its application, and is, we fear, too tedious and transcendental
to arrest very forcibly the public attention, or enable a man to make
his way among a crowd of tumultuous competitors. Those who plume
themselves upon mysteries unknown to the commonalty, and imagine
that the public confidence is to be won by lofty and unsupported pre-
tension, will be laughed at and disregarded, and we think that Messrs.
Miller, by witbholding from the public eye the details of their engines,
have defrauded themselves of the glory to which they were justly
entitled, and rendered vain the superiority which those details would
have made manifest. However sensible we may be of the excellence
of Messrs. Miller's machinery, we are as sensible that any praise of
ours is open to the charge of partiality which is based upon evidence
inaccessible to the public ; and we are heartily provoked at a policy
which renders our commendation fruitless, and casts a veil over such
high and varied excellence.

It may, indeed, be the case, that tlie denial of these details to the
public is only a peace oft'ering to that passion for secrecy which has
become epidemic among engineers, and which we look upon as one of
the most humiliating events in the history of that great fraternity.
But this is surely a very pusillanimous motive, and even on the score
of expediency affords, we think, but a poor palliation. The sober
part of the community very well know that any attempt at secrecy in
engine making is preposterous, and that it is impossible to prevent
people from becoming acquainted with the structure of engines which
are scattered all over the world, and to which any one may obtain
such easy access. Engravings of the best engines of Messr.". Mauds-
lays and Messrs. Mi.ler, in xv'hicli all the details of construction are
represented, are current enough on the Continent, and the French are

3 N 2

424

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

at Otis moment constructing engines from accurate drawings of those
of tliP Great Western. The engines of one maker are frequently put
into tlie hands of -.mother lor repair; driinglitsmfn nnd mechanics
migrate from one fictory to another, carrying with them all itn mys-
teries, and every one knows tliat imy particulars of any practice may
he obt.iiiied without considerable trouble. Yet in the face of all this,
each engineer imagines that he possesses certain miglily secrets
which are hid from all the world beside, believes that the publication
of a few very well known expedients would ruin him entirely, and
mistakes the rejection by other engineers of the plans he has chosen
to adopt, for a happy ignorance of their existence. Opinions, how-
ever, such as these, are only to be laughed at, but a dilferent de-
meanour is due to those who not only refuse to give any practical
information on the subject of the steam engine themselves, hut throw
every impediment m the way of those who are disposed to be more
communicative. The appearance of Wr. Farcy's admirable treatise
on the steam engine was gall and wormwood to these high-minded
gentry, because, indeed, " they feared it would make every body else
as wise as themselves," and the publication of some of the dimensions
of marine engines in a late number of this Journal raised a din and
consternation which we could not have conceived possible from a
cause so inadequate. For this and other aids to engineering we have
been held up as enemies to engineers, and have been charged with the
infliction of injury upon individual practitioners, by opening the door
to the crowd of uninitiated. But upon what authority was the door
ever closed, or when did it become insupportable injustice to hinder
men from being unjust to their neighbours? There is but little of the
knowledge which contemporaneous engineers possess, which they
have not derived from their immediate predecessors, and in attempt-
ing to exclude the rising generation from the benefit of this common
stock, they have arrogated to themselves a right they never could
have possessed. Toleration for their personal prejudices and private
aberrations we are n illing to accord in the largest measure ; but who
ever heard of toleration for intolerance ? Who ever heard a man cry
out because he might not insult and tantalize his fellow creature,
choke up his path with thorns, and shut him cut from benefits to
which he is equally entitled ? Every one but the members of this
parly can see the folly and injustice of such courses, and those who
have the interests of those persons most at heart, will be the most
solicitous to wean them from them.

The first article of the letterpress which accompanies the plates is
an account of the hulls of the Tnnt and his, which contains some
acceptable information. The next article is a short account of the
Orion steamer, and then follows a description of the engines of the
/«»«, which betrays, we fear, a little superficiality, yet contains much
strong sense, and only a moderate infusion of error. After this comes
the specification of tiie hull of the Cyclops, and lastly an account of
the engines of the Z)i£ and .S'w/way. The few remarks we intend to
indulge in we shall drvote principally to the machinery of tlie Trent
and /«(«, by Messrs. Miller & Ravenhill, and that of the Dee and 6'o/-
nay, by Messrs. Scott & Sinclair, of Gieenock.

The most conspicuous peculiarity of the engines of the Trent and
/8IS is the absence of all pretention to architectural beauty. The
frames of the Dee and Solway are of the Gothic order, the crank
shaft being supported by Gothic columns. In the Trent and Ists on
the contrary, the crank shaft is sustained by unadorned plates of
metal, «itli large feathers cast on their sides to stiffen them laterally,
so that the section of each support somewhat resembles the figure of
a double cross. The purpose of this practice is to distribute the
metal properly in every part of the frame. In the case of columns,
it is contended, the core may tioat in the process of casting, and make
the column thicker on the one side than on the other — a defect to
which the crucial system is not liable, but the existence of sucli a
defect at all, involves the supposition of excessive negligence on the
part of the moulder, and is altogether so remote and unusual as to be
only susceptible of measurement by an infinitesimal mensuration. If
pipes can be cast without any injurious inequality when the thickness
does not exceed half an inch altogether, it is dilhcult to see how the
injury can be very serious when the thickness is increased to o or 4
inches, and the proportion of any inequality diminished correspond-
ingly.

The author of the description of these engines ascribes great im-
portance to the horizontal crosses introduced in the Trent and I»is
between the crank and intvrniediate frames of each engine, but we
dissent from his judgment in this particular, and attach lar more im-
portance to a horizontal cross between the engines. He wastes much
rhetoric in showing that the shock of the paddles and the racking
which ensues when the engine is reversed constitute strains «liich it
is hard tor the framing to resist. But the formidable character of
these straius is as regards the framing jiurely imaginary, and the

whole of this part of the description, though indicating coHsiderable
talents, is overcharged, hvpothetical, and pre()03terous.

The diameter of the cylinder of the Ism is 74i in., the length of
the stroke 7 ft., and the number of strokes per minute 1 li ; the mean
vacuum in the cylinder 12-705lb. ; the mean steam pressure 2-2351b.,
which deducting 1-25 for friction, leaves the etfective pressure on the
piston 13-l'i9 lb. per square inch. The indicator diagram shows the
steam to be cut off at between two-thirds and-three fourths of the
stroke. The quantity of lap proper to this degree of expansion may
he computed bv a formula we gave in a former number.

The Isis was, we understand, a very heavy vessel, sank deep in the
water, and was in consequence never very rapid. The author of the
descrifition before us, suggests, that inasmuch as there would appear
to be an objection against working large engines at a high speed, it
might he expedient to employ small engines in steam vessels, and
work them at such a speed as to produce a power equal tu that of the
larger engines working slowly. But there is nothing to prevent large
engines from being worked at a liigh speed so far as the engines
themselves are concerned; and the speed of the engines of the Isis
might easily have been doubled without difficulty or detriment. But
if the engines of a steam vessel be worked at such a speed as to in-
volve the rotation of the padde wheel with undue rapidity, a large
proportion of the engine power will be wasted in throwing the water
back from the wheel instead of being spent in forcing forward the
vessel. In short, a certain relation must always subsist between the
velocity of the wheels' rotation, and that of the vessel's progress;
and this must of course fix the velocity of piston which in a vessel of
ordinary constrncfiun will produce a maximum effect. Small engines
driven "at a high velocity might answer very well if the paddles were
on the second motion, a's it is technically phrased ; in other words, if
they were so arranged that the engines might run at a high velocity
without affecting the relative speeds of the paddles and ship ; but
with the present modes of arrangement, small engines would not
answer at all : and we do not see how it is possible to apply them
under any sort of arrangement, without resorting to cogwheels, which
in steam vessels are, it is agreed, objectionable.

We have never been any great admirers of the engines of Messrs.
Scott and Sinclair, yet in many points we admire the engines of the
Dee and Solway. They are greatly superior to anything we have
hitherto seen from the same factory, and are we think a favourable
specimen of engines of Clyde manufacture. There remains, it is
true, even yet a good deal too much of the old leaven; the joints, for
example, are still made of rust, instead of being metal to rnetal, as in
the London engines; the air pump rods are cased, and the iron is ex-
posed to the corrosion of the salt water at the lower ends, instead of
which they ought to be of solid copper or Muntz's metal; the valve
casings are without expansion joints, the effect of vihich must be to
keep the joints on the level of the cylinder cover in a state of eternal
leakage ; the piston packing consists of three tiers of rings, and is of
an antique and complicated description, long exploded in civilized
communities; the upper and under portions of the D valves are con-
nected bv two rods instead of three, and the holding down bolts are of
the most perishable description; yet in spite of these defects, the
engines are upon the whole of" excellent quality, and contain,
perhaps, more excellences and fewer imperfections than are to be
found in the works of some makers of more exalted pretentions.
'1 he framing, we look upon as being the handsomest, and among the
best of any hitheito constructed ; the side levers and many of the
other working parts are well proportioned, and there is luanit'estly no
niggardliness either in workmanship or materials. Whatever faults
may still adhere to machintry of this firm, they are not, we conceive,
attributable to penury of skill, or insensibility to excellence, but arise,
we think, from the d'ifticulty of changing completely and suddenly a
vicious system. Most of the grosser vices have already been exter-
pated, and the whole may be got rid of in a few years time, even at
the same rate of progression.

We have, we fear, drawn out these remarks to a greater length tlian
our readers will thank us for, and have only room to observe in reference
to the drawings of hulls of vessels here given, that they are excellent.
This part of the work contains a large fund of valuable infL'rination,
and will, we are sure, he appreciated by a wide circle of readers.
The whole of the plates are admirably engraved, and the typography
which accompanies them is of the very first quality; nothing, in-
deed, can surpass the skill and liberality which shine out in the me-
chanical de|iartment of all the works issued by this publisher; and
the height ol this very excellence makes us the more regret that the
intellectual department is so rarely of a correspondent quality.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

425

Bhint's Civil Engineer and Practical Machinist. By Charles
John Blunt, C. E., &c. London : Ackerinan and Co.

To describe the contents of this work is the best way to sliow its
value. They consist of six copper-plate engravings the size of im-
perial, taken from the working drawings from which the machines
were actually made, which renders them authentic records of the
machinery of some of our first engineers. We could have vi'ished,
however, to have seen a little more finish to some of the plates, and
the dimensions more generally given ; for instance, we will allude to
the engraving of the Thames Tunnel, in which the inverts appear to
abut upon nothing in the centre, and the brickwork of the shaft ought
to have been shaded or hatched.

The first plate contains the drawings of a marine dredging and
excavating engine, and deepening machine, employed in the forma-
tion of harbours, constructed by Messrs. Rennie, being the engine
erected for the harbour of Barcelona; tiie plate is 4i in. long, and
18 in. broad ; many of the details are delineated upon an enlarged
scale. Mr. Blunt, contends, that the late John Rennie was the original
inventor of the dredging machine, but does not state the year he first
introduced it at the Hull Docks. This statement is at direct variance
with an article that appeared in the Journal for January 1830, page 9,
vol. 11, by Mr. Thomas Hughes, wherein he claims the invention as
that of his father, who used the dredging macliine off Woolwich,
in 1S04. Now the question is, did Mr. Rennie introduce the machine
prior or subsequently to that date ? Mr. Hughes says subsequently,
which remains to be disproved by date. There cannot, however, be
a question that the late Mr. Rennie, together with his talei)ted sons,
have brought the machine to that great perfection it has now at-
tained.

The second and third plates represent a steam engine for driving
machinery and mills by Messrs. Rennie. The fourth co. tains draw-
ings of a direct action marine engine, with side guides, and the sec-
tion of an iron steamer, also by Messrs. Rennie; we have here to
find the same fault as we have done in another review givon in the
present Journal, for omitting to give the sections showing the interior
of the engines, and likewise some details and dimensions; without
them, it is useless to give mere views of the exterior. We believe
this vessel and engines were tried by Messrs. Rennie during the last
season, when the vessel proved to be one of the fastest steamers on
the river Thames. The fifth plate is the Tliames Tunnel, containing
a longitudinal section, showing the archway, the shield, the driftway,
and the formation and sinking of the large shaft on the Middlesex side
of the river. The sixth plate is devoted to a fifteen ton crane, con-
structed by Messrs. Rennie.

We think we have shown enough of the work to prove its im-
portance as a national record, and a work of value to the engineer.
We trust, however, that in future more attention will paid to tlie en-
gravings, and likewise to the insertion of the details, which will
greatly enhance the value of the worfc, and make it one of reference
for the profession.

Tlie Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture. By
the Rev. Henry Moseley, M.A., F.R.S., Prof, of Nat. Phil, in King's
College, London. London : Longman & Co., 1&13.

Professor Moseley's previous works have at various times come
under our notice, and we have felt it our duty to express our feelings
of the spirit of research and enterprise with whicli the author has
exerted himself for the promotion of constructive science. Placed
at the head of an important department of collegiate instruction,
Mr. Moseley has fell the necessity that exists for the adaptation of
scientific principles to the practical pursuits of the engineer and ar-
chitect, with whom the progress of new combinations and new con-
structions renders it imperative that the classbooks and works of
reference should be frequently remoulded and made applicable to the
wants of the day. It is in union with these requirements that Mr.
Moseley has been induced to undertake this work, in which the ap-
plication of mechanics in the varied pursuits of the engineer and ar-
chitect is taken into consideration. Under the head of dynamics,
Mr. Moseley has directed his attention to the subject of ditlt/, for
which he proposes to substitute the term work, iu imitation of the
French ' travail ;' he observes, that " the English word ' work ' is the
obvious translation of 'travail,' and the use of it appears to be re-
commended by the same considerations. The work of overcoming
a pressure of one pound through a space of one foot has in this
country been taken as the unit, in terms of which any other amount
of work is estimated; and iu France the work of overcoming a
pressure of one kilogramme through a space of one metre. M.
Dupin has proposed the application of the term dyname to this unit.

I have gladly sheltered myself from the charge of liaving conttib.ited
to increase the vocabniary of scientific words by assuming the obvious
term 'unit of work' to represent concisely and conveniently enough
the idea which is attached to it, without translation." To the
term "unit of work," we cannot see any objection.

Mr. Moseley's researches on the mathematical relation of machinery,
which he terms "the modulus," are known to our readers; in the
present work he has applied himself to the determination of the
modulus of toothed wheels, and of bevil wheels, and he has also con-
sidered the influence of the friction of the teeth of wheels and that
of their axes and weights. Upon this lie observes, "an approximate
form of this modulus applies to any shape of the teeth under which
they may be made to work correctly; and when in this approximate
form of the modulus the terms which represent the influence of the
friction of the axis and the weight of the wheel are neglected, it re-
solves itself into a well known theorem of M. Poncelet, reproduced
by M. Navier and the Rev. Dr. Whewell. In respect to wheels
having epicycloidal and involute teeth, the modulus assumes a
character of mathematical exactitude and precision, and at once es-
tablishes the conclusion (so often disputed) that the loss of power is
greater before the teelh pass the line of centres than at corresj,onding
points afterwards ; that the contact should, nevertheless, in all cases
take place partly before and partly after the line of centres has been
passed. In the case of involute teeth, the proportion in which the
arc of contact should thus be divided by the line of centres is deter-
mined by a simple formula; as also are the best dimensions of the
base of the involute, with a view to the most perfect economy of
power in the working of the wheels." In the third | art our author
has taken up a subject, but little treated upon in works of this nature,
hitherto. "The theory of machines, in which he considers the simple
powers and their applications, the capstan, the Chinese capstan, the
whinigin, the applications of the screw, the beam of the ste.mi engine,
the crank, double crank, crank guide, governor, carriage whe^!, Sec.
The fourth part is devoted mainly to construction, and in this are
carried out and applied Mr. Jloseley's researches on the line of re-
sistance as occurring in walls, foundations, buttresses, piers, &c. In
the discussion of the distance of the line of resistance from the ex-
trados of a structure, at the point where it most nearly approaches it,
Mr. Moseley has called it the modulus of stability, preferring this
measure of stability to the co-eflicient of stability used by the French
writers. In thi; determination of the pressure of earth upon revet-
ment wall, and in the theory of foundations, Mr. Moseley has introduced
to English students, M. Poncelet's application of Coulomb's theory.
Mr. Moseley's views upon the theory of the arch, are known to the
public, by his contributions to Hosking and Hann's " Treatise on
Bridges;" and in the present work he has inserted the tables of the
thrust of circular arches, calculated by M. Garide', from formulae
founded on the theory of Coulomb. In considering the strength of
materials, Mr. Moseley has applied a new method to the determina-
tion of the deflexion of a beam under given pressures, and under this
head as incidental to the discussion of rupture, by elongation, the
theory of suspension bridges has been considered. Upon this he
says, "This question, so coiu^dicated when reference is had to the
weight of tlie roadway and the weights of the sus[icndiiig rods, and
when the suspei.ding chains are assumed to be of uniform thickness,
becomes comparatively e^^y when the section of the chain is as-
sumed so as to vary its dimensions as to be everywhere of the same
strength. A suspension bridge .thus constructed is obviously that
wliicli, being of a given strength, can be constructed with the least
quantity of materials; or, which is of the greatest strength having
a given quantity of materi.Us used in its construction." A new class
of problems has also been introduced by the author, having reference
to the forms of girders connected by slender ribs or by open IVarne-
work. The subject of the strength of breaslsuicraers has also been
extensively investigated. There are several tables dispersed through-
out the vvork and in the appendix which are of_ great use both to
the engineer and architect. We are much gratifie<l with this work
indeed ; the more so, as the author has availed himself successfully of
the labours of tbe French mathematicians, whose superiority is not
merely unrivalled, but almost unknown in England. The best, there-
fore, that we can do at present, is to protit by their exertions, with
the hope that when once we enter into the field, we may, as in other
cases, ultimatelv take the lead where our neighbours have shown the
way. The work of I'rofrssor- Moseley may indeed be considered as
an earnest of what may be done in "applied mechanics," hitherto so
much neglected by us, although of such essential importance. Tnis
is a good beginning, but we hope to see the subject carried out in
practical examples, so as to be within the reach of the working uiau.

426

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Dkoember,

The Cornish, and Boulloii and Walt Eiigints, creeled at the East
London Water Works, Old Fo,-d. Tuo.mas Wicksteed, Engineer.
London : Joliu \V(>.ile, 1S12.

Mr. Wicksteed lias been unceasing for tlie last live years, in bring-
in" ri>rwar<l the merits and tlie superiority of tlie Cornish engine, for
piTinping; lie has manfully fought through all the prejudices that
were raised up against it. Before the Institution of Civil Engineers,
has he night after night contended, almost single handed, with iiis op-
ponents; in the engine room lias he daily watclied the progress of the
construction of the engine, and hourly has he experimented upon
every part of the ponderous machine, to trace the cause of the supe-
riorily of the Cornish engine for pumping, over that of the ordinary
engine; all lii« experiments he has recorded publicly, in such a plain,
candid and unostentatious manner, that it has called forth the praise
of all ; these were published some time since, and reviewed by us in
the Journal, p. 30S, vol. 4. Now, he has given us the engine ilself, so
accurately set forth in plan, section, elevation, detail and dimensions,
without attempting to conceal any portion, so that any engineer may
set to work and construct an engine from the drawings he has fa-
voured us with. Besides the Cornish engine, Mr. Wicksteed has
also furnished us with drawings and descri|)tion of the Boulton and
Watt l^umping Engine and Boiler, upon which lie also made the ex-
periments before alluded to. The plates are elaboralely engraved by
Gladwin, of the size of imperial, and are accompanied w ith a very clear
deseri|ition, drawn up by Mr. Graham, the Secretary of the Society
of Arts. There are four plates of the Cornish engine and boilers,
and four plates of the Boulton and Watt engine and boilers,
which likewise exhibit Stanley's Feeding Apparatus; and with the
letter-press there is an engraving by Lovvry, of Messrs. Harvey and
West's Patent Pump Valve, similar to the one with description that
was inserted in the /o«rHa/ for February ISIO, vol. 3, p. 41. These
valves ought to be adopted for all large pumping engines.

We arc sure it is unnecessary for us to recommend such a very valu-
able work to the profession, ifor we feel certain it will soon be in the
hands of every one who takes a lively interest in the steam engine.

Companion lo the Almanac for 1S43.

Ok this new volume of the "Companion" we shall say very little at
present, it being our intention to notice the architectural subjects it
contains next month, when we shall be able to speak of them more
fully than we can now do oft-hand, just as our number is going to
press. In the interim we merely mention some of the articles in the
bill of fare, viz. Messrs. Wyatt & Brandon's new church at Wilton,
and their Assize Courts at Cambridge ; Mr. Poynter's church, Broad-
way, Wcslminsler ; the Wesleyan College or institution, Richmond;
and Mr. Ewart's offices, Liverpool ; which last structure is not the
least commeudaljle for the taste displayed in it. Although these con-
stitute the more prominent subjects, several other buildings are no-
ticed, and some of ihem are rather fully described — for instance, the
houses composing the facade and building in front of Marks' Carriage
Repository, Langham Place, or rather what is the principal one of that
graip of houses, and which, though it does not show itself externally
to be larger than the rest, is internally eijual to three of them. This
residence is laid out in very superior style, and has a libiary or gallery
very striking in its plan and effect.

"There can be no doubt that the "Companion" has contributed not a
little to render the subject of architecture more popular tluui it used
to be, as it is a very widely diffused publication; nevertheless, that
portion of the work is susceptible of improvement, for a greater num-
ber of pages might be allowed for it.

Philosophical Conversations. By Frederic C. B.^kewell. Lon-
don : Harvey and Darton.

This is the second edition of a cheap and popular work on the ap-
plication of natural philosophy to the pursuits of daily life, and is an
explanation ot the most striking terrestial phenomena, and which
we strongly recommend to the young friends of our readers.

Ancient and Modern Architecture. Edited bv M.Jules Gailuabaud.
Part -2. London : Didot & Co.

The present number is of more interest even than its predecessor.
It introduces to the architect the Persian monument ofNakshi Kustam,
a most curious specimen of that ancient school of art. The accom-
panying plates illustrate the well known cave temple of Ellora, in
the East Indies.

Record o/ Patent Inventions. By Alexander Prince.

A valuable addition to this class of periodicals. It takes upon
itself as its distinguishing characteristic, the duty of giving all spe«
cifications as they are enrolled, which appears to be done with great
clearness.

Adcock's Engineer's Pocket Book for 1843. London : Simpkin
and Marshall.

This contains the usual mass of valuable tables and useful informa-
tion for (he engineer.

English Patents. By Andrew Pritchard. London: Whittaker
and Co.

This is a useful list of patents for 1841, with an index.

PROF. DONALDSON'S LECTURES ON ARCHITECTURE.

We have on several occasions attended Mr. Donaldson's courses
at University College, and are pleased to see the success that at-
tends him in the discharge of his duties, and in the number of his
pupils. The courses at present are purely elementary, and are well
illustrated with drawings and experiments. From time to time ex-
aminations of the pupils on the previous lectures take place, when
the pupils answer either orally or by drawing the subject to be
described. It was evident from these examinations that the class
possesses the best qualifications in students — attention, and they seem
also to take a great interest in the lectures. In a recent lecture on
the Corinthian order, Mr. Donaldson observed, in reference to the fa-
bulous origin of the capital, that some people were inclined to look
with a severe eye on such tales. He, however, did not think that in
a studv so abstruse as theirs, the imaginative should be quite dis-
carded. He thought that they ought to be allowed to beguile them-
selves a little in the regions of imagination. Paraphrasing Cicero's
saying — "Nemo unquam mugnus fuit sine aliquo artlatu divino," he
went on to remark that, "no man ever produced a great work without
great eftbrt of their imagination; and that if they rejected the fable
on historical grounds, they could at least learn one lesson from it —
always to look at nature, and they might derive from the commonest
objects happy ideas which they might introduce into their own works.
Even going along in his walks in the neighbourhood of the me-
tropolis, he often saw in the rank weeds of the ditches, luxiu'iant fo-
liage, well calculated for architectural effect, and took out his pencil
and sketched them." He gave it as his opinion that the original
Corinthian capital was to be sought in those specimens where the
corniculi are deficent and where only a row or two of foliage sur-
rounds the cap.

WHITE LEAD.

A new process of manufacturing white lead or carbonate of lead, (and for
vhich a patent has been granted for Great Britain and lri.'land,) is now being
exhibited at the late •' Pin Manufactory," in the Bmough Koa:l, Southwark.
We have not yet had an opportuniiy of fully satisfying ourselves as to the
white lead produced by it, and shall therefore notice it in our next number.
However, as far as we can judge from examining some small samples which
have been furnished us, we are of opinion that the (juality is quite equal to
the best made by the ordinary or old process. The rapidity, cheapness, and
simplicity with which the metallic lead is converted into a carbonate by this
process, is sufficient to recommend it to the investigation of those who are
eugnged in the manufacture of so important and indispensable an article.
We are informed that a manufactory, by the process alluded to above, has
been for 2 years successfully in operation in America, and that patents have
ban secured in most of the Continental kingdoms.

Soulli Eastern RuilHiiy. — The Saltwood Tunnel. — 'llus work which h.os
hilhorlo assumed a very formidable aspect owing to the immense ijuantity of
water, ue are happy to slate is being successtiiliy dealt with ; the stratum is
the lower green sand, containing an immerse volume of waler; the ditfuully
Inis been in sinl\ing the shafts and driving the adits at the level of the
boitom ot the tunnel, »hich arose from the rapid collecting of llie water
so as to compel the miners to retreat from the worUs or they would have
been drowned ; this has now been successfully overcome, and the adit is
formed completely ilirongli tlie bill so as to let all the water run out at one
end, where nearly 3(J,U0U gallons of waler now How uvcry liour ; «e are in-
Ibnnc'd that about 'M millions of gallons of water were drawn to the surface,
during the time ihc workmen drew 3-000 yards of earth or about 30 times the
weight of waler compared with the earth. The tunnel is now commenced
ami there appears to be no real difficulty left in the w.iy of its completion.

1842.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

427

AINSLIE'S PATENT BRICK AND TILE MACHINE.

Th's Machine is Don- being exhibited at the "Pin Manufac-
tory," in the Borough Road, Southwarlv j it is applicable for
making Tiles of different sizes, and likewise Bricks; of almost
any shape, by simply shifting the front pliUe of the lower box.
It is altogether different from any other machine that^has"
hitherto come belbre the public. The articles made by it are of gf]
the best description, as the clay is in no way strained (as in'Sj
some other machines, by turning the clay from a flat to a curve)
hut is in fact pressed through the moulds in an equal and re<nilar —
manner, leaving the top as well as the bottom of the°tiles^
equally solid, substantial, and far more durable, reqiiirirTS^less"
fuel to bum them than in the ordinary mode of manufacture.
One of the machines has been erected for the MarquirofTIo^ —
thian, and appears from the following extract to ans'wFr the^
purpose.—'- Amongst the machines recently introduced for"th~
manufacture of drain-tiles, that under the patent of iMr.^AinslieT*
Redheugh, Mid -Lothian, stands pre-eminent, whether as regardsThe amount
of Its production, or for the quality of the article which it produces. There
is a directness in the principle un which tiles and bricks are formed by this
machine, that gives them at once greater solidity and soundness of texture
than any process hitherto adopted. * " « Tiles of any size, from
a 9 m. main-drain down to the smallest conduit, can be made by this ma-
chine, at rates varying from 14 large mains to 36 small conduit-tiles per
minute, or from 8000 to 20,000 per day.' ~Sl,-plm,s- Book of the Farm, No. 7,
p. 581. 582.

The following description of the machine, furnished by the ingenious in-
ventor, H ill explain its action and utility.

In consequence of the rollers being'near to each other, little more than
one quarter of an inch apart, every obstacle, such as stones and other hard
substances, are crushed to powder, in their progress down«ard. thereby
giving proprietors of clay fields the power of manufacturing tlieir own tiles,
even though the clay should be of an inferior quality.

Immediately below the centre of the rollers is placed a cylinder lying
Iwrizontally, with an opening U in. wide on tho top, through which the
clay enters; and on each side of the opening is placed a scraper to clean the
rollers and duct the clay into the lower cylinder. In the latter cylinder there
is a powerful double spiral screw which revolves, the threads are about 7 in.

GILLOT'S PATKNT FOR HEATING AND VENTIL.\TING.
Fig. L Fig. 2.

A. The Stove. The door of the (Ire- place opens on the opposite side. B.
the Box containing the Fan. C. The Pulley on the spindle to »hich the
fan is attached, over which p.asses a strap leading to D. the Fly Wheel, the
turning of which sets the fan in motion, and drives the air tbroiigh the
cocl^le. Fig. 2. placed at G G, Fig. 1. and the air is carried through E, the
delivering pipe to any part required. F. The chimney either ascending or
descending.

This apparatus for heating and ventilating, may be seen in use at No. 1,
Liverpool -street, Finsbury. The fite-place is similar in construclion to ordi-
nary hot air stoves, over which is placed a cockle, sec Fig. 2. through the
vertical spaces. A A. in «hich llie fire jiasses. and the air, by the rcvid\ing
of llie fans, is driven through the intermediate spaces, B B, into the delivering

j apart, consequently whilst the rollers force the clay in a perpendicular di-
rection througli the opening into the threads of the screw, the screw forces
the clay horizontally into the chamber in front of it. for holding the mass of
clay into which the screw empties itself. In front of this chamber, a plate
with nioidds is screwed, so that when the chamber is charged, the overplus
is forced through the moulds from the mass of clay in a continuous stream,
on to an endless cloth, which moves the moulded clay forward to the cutting
frame, consisting of two endless chains inclining a little from the perpendi-
cular, to which, two wires are attached horizontally by hooks ; these chains
are moved by a belt to the shaft of the first roller of the endless web,
to suit the speed of the clay, and is kept constantly revolving, so that the
wires divide the clay, during the continuous movement of the new moulded
tiles, which are then pushed forward by the uncut clay over small rollers,
till they reach another endless web, from which they are taken.

In order to prevent breakages, a strong friction hoop is placed upon the
driving shaft of the machine, which is screwed up, till it puts the machine
in motion. .Suppose either by accident or intention, iron or any other hard
substance was thrust into the machine, this friction hoop will yield to the
strain of such a substance, thereby causing the machine to stand still, till
the obstacle is removed. When the clay is very irregular, a pug mill is re-
commended to feed the machine.

pipe, E, Fig. 1. Tlie purity and quantity of the beat produced by this appa-
ratus, must be witnessed to be believed ; the air is driven with such velocity
through the cockle, that the oxygen is not destroyed, as is the case, more or
less, in all self-acting hot air stoves. The quantity of heat to be obtained
is limited only by the size of the apparatus used, and the number of revolu-
tions of the fan ; any budding, however large, can easily and speedily be
warmed ; in fact, this apparatus is capable of effecting all that can be desired
for warming churches, all large public buildings, drying corn, rew buildings,
and manufactories of all kinds, where heat, with perfect safety and economy
is required. It is not necessary that the apparatus should be upon the pre-
mises, but the heat may be conveyed into any factory or building, by trunks
or pipes.

PATENT STUCCO PAINT CEMENT.

In a former number we slightly alluded to this new cement, deferring until

we had an opportunity of examining into its qualities, to recommend it to

the notice of the profession, which we are now enabled to do, after having

carefully investigated its properties, and examined several samples of the

cement, at Messrs. Mann's, Maiden-lane, in the City. It appears to be a

cement possessing superior qualities, and to be well adapted for external

works, particularly in exposed anil damp situations, such as on the sea coast,

and south-western aspects. At Plymouth. « here the cement is manufactured

by Messrs. Johns, the patentees, and where the principal ingre.lient is obtained,

it has been tried for the last three years, and subjected to the most rigid tests

with perfect success. Its strong adhesive properties cause it to adhere to

almost any substance ; specimens may be seen on glass, wood, slate, tile, and

brick. The nature of the materials of which the cement is composed, renders

it highly repellant of water, and impervious to wet or damp. It is sold in a

semi-liquid stale, w hich has the appearance of white lead ; and when used it is

mixed with three times its weight of sharp sand, to the consistency of mortar,

and laid on the wall with a trowel m the same manner as cement, and with

about the same labour. It is finished oil at once, with either u fine or a

coarse Coat, as may bedesired; itdries gradually, an.iin two or three days time

the surface becomes as hard as stone, to which it lias all llie appearance,

without colouring. It may likewise be used for interiors, and painted over

4i8

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

within a fow "lays, a couple oftoats being suflicient (o cover it, as tlie cement
is noi "I 'hat absorbent character as stucco or n-man cement.

The cost of the -lAi cement is lis. per cttt.,an<l for covering a yard super-
ficial of brick-work, ii ref|Uircs 7 lbs. of cement, and 21 lbs. of sand, or 4 lbs.
of cement, and 12 lbs. if sand, if laid on a coat of plastering, or 1 cwt. of
cement will lake one bi^shel of sand, and cover H yaids. The prime cost,
including labour, is about Is. 6d. per square yaid, whicli is a low price, con-
siderinK the excellent qualities of the maleijal, and thit it does not require
colouring. We strongly recommend the archiiccl to give the cement a fair
trial. Some specimens may be seen at the ofljce of the Journal.

THE ARTESIAN WELL XT CRENELLE, PARIS.
We have at various times given an account of this well, the first descrip-
tion of the labours of M. Mulot, up to the time of his accomplishing the
objects in obtaining water, appeared in the Jo^nm/ for April IS41, p. 131.
vol. 4 : r.nd in the Journal for the following July, we gave a farther account,
explaining the size of the tubes, and the geological character of the strata
through which the boring passed. All the reports that have recently ap-
peared in ditferent publications i early correspond wiih our rrpi rls, and the
engraviis- lately published in I'aris, showing tlie strata does not differ much
form our description, but it gives the strata more minutely, which we now
give m a tabular form. It «iil be perceived that the form.ation is identical
with that of the London Basin below the London Clay.

Depth
in ft.

13.

STR.\TA.

Gravel and Sand

180.

328.

886.
1049.
1453.

1C34,

1794.

Cockle Shells

Quartoze Sand with fine particles of sulphuret of

iron
Pine Sand
Argillaceous Sand
Mottled Clay
Sand and Clay with nodules of Limestone

White Chalk with layers of flints

White Chalk alternating with stata of dolomite
and small pieces of silex

Gray chalk with small particles of silex

Gray Chalk, compact without silex

Green Chalk and green particles of the silicate

of iron
Blue argillaceous Chalk
Bine argillaceous and sandy chalk, with particles

of mica, and veins of green chalk

Clay with iron pyrites, nodules of the phosphate

of lime and fossil debris
Gaecn Sand

Clay and Greenish Sand with grains of quartz
Argillaceous Sand
Green and White Sand

Water

Formation.

Plastic Clay.

White Chalk.

Gray Chalk.

Chalk Marl.

Gaiilt.

[December,

, coal, and other combustible

lion to promote the ignition ami comhuslion of coke

s'tbstHnccs. in stoves. I'ltrnnrcs, nnil grates.'' — Nov. 5. . , , .

William Colkv Jones, of Vauxhail-walk. Lnmbeth, practical chemist, for
" improevmcnts in treating or operating upon a certain unclimis substance, in
order to obtain products therefrom for the muniifacture of candles, and other
purposes.*' — Nov. 8. , -, .

PiEHBE I-'rt-debick IsGOLn, of Bucliinghaui-place, HaDOVcr-square, w.itch-
maker. for " im/jrouenicn^s in machineri/ for making parts of uiatckes and other
time-keepers. — Nov. 8. , ^ •

Aktiivr Hakvib, of Wilmington-squ-.re, genieman. for " improvements iit
tlie process of vinous fermentation." (A Ciiramunicati. n.)— Nov. b.

Thomas WttiGi.EV, ol Vjiidgc Hall. Bury, I^ncaster,__pa;'_pr manu'acturcr,
for ■' iinprnvemints in machimn/ for manufacturing paper. ' — Nov. 8.

John Mitchell, of Birmingham, s eel pen manufscturer, for " n» improve-
ment ill the manufacture nf metuilic pens, and an improvement in tlie tnaniifacture
of pen.liolilers.—iiuv. 8. „ ,„ , , r ,

Joii.N .Si'iNKS, the younger, of John-street, Bedford-row, gentleman, for-' an
improved apparatus Jor giving clasticiti/ to certain parts of railway and other car-
riages reiiniriv^ the same.'' — Nov. 8.

llrNKiK Zantjer, of Norlh-street, Sloanc-street. engineer, for '• im/jroir-
ments in steam-engine boilers and furnaces, and in the methods nf feeding and
u-urking llie same ; as also in the machinery for a])}>lyiiig steam power to pro-
pelling purposes." — Nov. 8. , . , t i

John Bap.ni s, of Church. Lancashire, manufacturing chemist, ani John
Mercer, of O.ikenshaw, Lancashire, calico printer, for "improvements in the
mnniifiel lire of articles used inprinting anddyeing cotton, silk, woollen, and other
fabrics." — Nov. 10. , , <■

CiiAK-LEs UowLEv and James Turner, of Birmingham, bill Ion-makers, for
■' improecnicnts in the rnanufactnre nf perforated metal buttons." — Nov. 15.

Andre Eustache Gratien Algi-.ste M.-vckras, of Cornhill. genlleman,
for '■ imprnrenients in the process and apparatus for filtering water and other
liquids." (Partly a coninuinic.ition.)— Nov. 1.5.

Charles .'i^mith. of Newcastle-street, Slrand, for '■improvements in the ma-
nufacture and application of bricks, tiles, and other plastic articles or surfaces,
and fur cements or compositions to be used with, in, and about the same, for build-
ing and other useful purposes.'' — Nov. 17.

LIST OF KEVW PATENTS.

CBANTID IV ENGLAND FROM NOVEMBER 2nD TO NOVDMIIER l/TH, 1842.

Six Months allowed fur Enrolment, unless otherwise cxpresstd.

MATTHEW Gbeoson, of Tosteth Park, Liverpool, esquire, for " impruveinenls
amlienhlo to the sawing or cutting of veneers. (A communication.)— .Sealed
November 2. , , - ,

.losf.i'ii EnwABPS. of Bloomsbury-square. clerk, for '• «'j improved raxor-
slrirp. or instrument for shrirprning certain cutting edges, and an improved material
for covering the same, tehich material is also applicable to other purposes' —

Nov. 2. , . , „ X- o

.Sir J. SroTi Lillie. of Chelsea, for " improvements in roads. — Mov. I.

Pierre Pkllitan, ol Bedlord -square, esquire, for " improvements in thepro-
duclionnflight."—'i<uv.2 , , , . • ,

James BcLLOiiiii, of Blackburn, overlooker, for "improvements in the '-ou-
strurlion of looms for wealing.' (A communication J— Nov. 3.

RuHABn Bkvan, of Liverpool, wine-merchant, for " nrrangements connected
with the circulation of steam employed in pipes or tubes for producing lieat, and
the application of such arrangements to various purposes." — Nov 0.

John Rotiiwell, ol Great Bolton, grocer, for "a composition and prepara-

misceZjiX.ahi:a.

The Cormorant Steam Frigate.— On the 23i-d ultimo Her Majesty's second
class steam frigate Cormorant, having been fitted with a pair of engines of
300 H.P., by Messrs. Fairbairn and Co., was tried down the river from M'ool-
wich, under the charge of one of the Admiralty pilots. This was the first
trip made by the Cormorant, and the government engineers on board were so
fully satisfied with the working of the engines and the results obtained from
them, that lliey at once ordered her to proceed to .Sheernoss, where she will
be got ready immediately to be put in commission. The diameter of the
cylinders is 651 in., and the length of the stroke 3 ft. 3 in. The average
number of strokes during the trial was 21S, the boilers generating an ample
■supply of steam. The draught of W'ater of the vessel was 12 ft. 2 in. aft,
and lU ft. 'il in. forward, the guns and armament not being yet on board.
The speed tfirough slill water, according to the trials made at the measured
distance, was 11 miles an hiur; but greater speed Hill be attained when the
paddle wheels have more held of the water. The same makers are now con-
structing a pair of engines of -170 ii,p. for Uer Majesty's first class frigate
Vulture, building at Pembroke. In the Journal lor next nionih we hope to be
able to give the drawings of these engines.

Jberyslwifth Jlarhour. — The works of the pier are left closed for this
season (e.-;<'epting a few jobs). There is now completed of the new jiier, 261
lineal yards, leaving only 39 vards for completion. The body of the work
is composed of stone, from 1' to 14 Ions, in rough blocks, and filled in with
rubble stone. The sra slope is pitched, and grouted, with thf best Aberlhaw
lime mortar ; and a quantity of large blocks ot .stone are placed at foot of
sea slojies, for i!s proteciion. The inner walling is composed of very heavy
stones, set and grouted willi the same mortar. The p.aiv.pel wall is 8 ft.
;'bove the top oi the pier, and of immense thickness. Tlie stones forming
its coping, weigh from 4 to 1 1 tons each, and are a'so grouted and set with
the same mortar. The height of pier is about 32 ft., from foumlalion to top
of coping, being 12 ft. abo^e ordinary spring tides: the widili on tup 40 ft.,
Ibe sea slope has an inclination of 3 to 1. There is also fi.\e,I a pow-
erful capstan and mooring posts; landing steps are built in the inner
walling. A convenient storm room is also erected in the parapet, for ropes,
fee, lor use of vessels. The pier as far as is completed, has been ilie meaiis
of saving life, aad an immense quantit.i of property ; as well as the facili-
tating of vessels, in their ingress and egress.

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

G. B. .\ibv. Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic Declination for the month of August, 1842 — 23° 15' 10"

The observations of the .Magnetic Dip are suspended, when they are resumed
the results will be recorded as usual.

INDEX.

Academy of Sciences, Paris, Proceedings of, 66,

137, 170,242,265,347.
Academv, Royal, exhibition of, 232, 238, 262,

294. '
Ainslie's brick and tile machine, 427.
Algemeine Baiizeitung, 1 78.
American pile-dri%'ing machine, 1.
American canals, 73, 105, 361.
Antiquities, vide Architecture.

Angouleme, 149; Athens, 411; baths,
221 ; canals, 97 ; Cologne, 224 ; Egyptian, 45,
127, 411 ; Elgin marbles, 249 ; Hereford, 374 ;
lithochromy, 249 ; Mexican, 185 ; Mycenw, 217 ;
Palmyra, 412; Poitiers, 09, 113; Sardis, 218;
theatres, 390 ; therma;, 221 ; tombs, 217 ; West-
minster, 32.
Apparatus, vide Machine.
Aqueducts, 24, 264.

PennsyWanian, 361.
Arch, tide Bridge, vault in architecture, its origin,
forms, and properties, 251.
Semi, on the development of, 370.
Skew, theory of, 156, 388 ; history of, 39,

102.
Stone beam, Lincoln, 299.
Architects, British, Royal Institute of, meetings,
27, 98, 126, 170, 204, 321, transac-
tions, 258, 295, 297.
bequest to, 253.
chronological table of, 17.
congress of, 369.
Architects, Alexander, Mr., 30 ; Atkinson, Mr.,
27; Barry, Cliarles, 87, 139, 217, 233, 397;
Bartholomew, Alfred, 294 ; Burton, Decimus,
392 ; Cockerell, Chas. R. 232 ; Cuffley, Mr., 27 ;
Culshaw, Mr., 278; Donaldson, T. L., 31,233,
411 ; Duff, T. J., 175; East, F., 181 ; Elmes,
W. H. L., 30, 233 ; Ferrey, B. 30, 233 ; Foulston,
J. 68, 77 ; Godwin, Spencer, 69, 113, 149, 225 ;
Goldicutt, S., 372 ; Green, J. B., 40 ; Hanson,
Joseph, 209: Iterdwick, P., 57; Hoiking, W.,
30, 38, 67, 91, 411 ; Lamb, E. B. 234 ; Mallin-
son, James, 65 ; Michael Angelo, 216 ; Millar,
Mr. 67 ; Moseley, Mr. 27 ; Pugin, A. W., 27,
118, 121, 211, 232; Savage, Mr., 392; Scott,
Mr., 27 ; Smirke, Sir Robert, 232, 247 ; Smirke,
Sidney, 392; TattersaU, R., 175,211; Tottie,
Carl, 234 ; Treinson, A., 234 ; Walker, T. L., 31 ;
Wallace, Robert, 33 ; Walters, E., 27 ; WiUiams,
A. and C, 278 ; Wren, life and works of, 224,
325 ; Wyatt, Mr., 233.
Architectural criticism, 24, 37.

Draughtsmen, British Association of,

389.
Drawings, exhibition of, 232, 238,
262, 294, 389.
Honours, 139.
Precedent, 36, 82.

Society, 98, 127; Yorkshire, 322,
399, 408, 422 ; societies, 408.
Architecture, vide Building, Caudidus, Competi-
tion, Decoration, Ecclesiastical.

Architecture, Angouleme, 149.

ancient and modern, rev. 29, 424.

arch, 251, 370.

astylar, 79.

beauty, 76, 106.

bar windows, 367.

Byzantine, 150.

Canova, 81.

caryatides, 76.

columns, 79, 127.

Dublin, 78.

ecclesiastical, 117, 141.

Egyptian, 45, 79, 127, 411.

entablatures, weight of, 298.

friezes, 81.

Gothic, 69, 79, 260.

Gothic tracery, 204.

Grecian, 146, 148, 217.

introductory lecture on, by Dr. Ful-
ton, 78, 127 ; ditto by Hosking,
91, 411 ; ditto by Donaldson, 411.

iron, use of, 126, 235, 252.

Italian, 106.

lithochromy, 249.

Manchester, 27.

Michael Angelo, 217.

Mexican, 45, 185.

origin of, 148.

Palladian, 79, 397.

picture galleries, 10.

Poitiers, 69, 113.

polychromy, 290.

professors, 31, 411.

Russian, 297.

sculpture in, 281.

spires, 121.

spirit of, 246, 295.

staircases, 86.

theatres, 390.

Vitruvius, 38, 79, 248, 336, 411.
Art and Protestantism, 141.
Art Union, 170.
Artesian well, Lille, 137; London, 184; Paris,

395.
Asphalte roofing, 284.
Axle, vide Railway, Locomotive.
Auxiliary steam power, use of, in navigation, 118,

174.
Bank Note Printing Machine, 385.
Baths, Thermae, of ancient Rome, with engravings,

221.
Beale's rotary engine and boiler, with engravings,

181.
Beam, vide Arch, Iron.
Beatsou's valve closet, with engravings, 174.
Belgium, industrial state of, 61.
Beton, 58, 276.

Biography — Antolini Cavalier, 139 ; Birkbeck, Dr.,
25 ; Chantrey, 24 ; Chapman, W., C. E., 39 : Dan-
necker, 25 ; Foulston, J., 68 ; Goldicutt, J., 372 ;
Havdon, B. R., 207; Huddait, Capt. 167 ; Sea-
ward, Samuel, 209 ; Wilkie, 3.'i5 ; Wren, 325.

Boiler, vide Marine engine. Steam engine.
Bologna Academy, 393.
Borrie's P., engine, with engraving, 213. 400.
Boulton & Watt's direct action engine the Virago,

44, 400.
Breakwater, vide Hydraulic, Engineering.
Brick, vide Material ; brick lighter than water, 393 ;

making, improvements in, 8, 61.
Bridge, vide Aqueduct, Arch, Viaduct.
Brick and tile machine, Ainslie's, 427.
bar iron, 53, 224.
Bolton and Preston Railway, 388.
building of, 58.
cast iron, 226.
comparison of bar iron and iron wire, 53,

224.
Danube suspension, 359.
Ereyburg, 224.

iron, 53, 58, 224, 226, 249, 279, 291, 335.
Kingston, 418.
Lucca, 167.
measurement of, 174.
Newcastle, 359.
Pont du Carrousel, 279.
Scotswood suspension, with plate, 397.
Skew, 40, 242.
Sunderland, 335.

Suspension, 53, 224, 391 ; Dredge's, 396.
tension bar, 291.
TuUow, 385.
Wire, 53, 224.
British Association, 273, 314.
Building, notes on, vide Arch, Architectural, Beam,
Brick, Cement, Chimney, Girder, Materials,
Roof, Stone, Tile, Wood.
Building, fireproof, 333.
flooring, 333.
foundations, 57.
girders, cast iron, 228 ; trussed, 291 ;

fireproof, 333.
Prussia, 297.
sandstone, 102.
stonebeam, Lincoln, 299.
stone vaulting, 258.
Buildings, vide also Ecclesiastical.
Alliance Fire-oflice, 336.
Bath Savings Bank, 30.
Brunswick Buildings, 278.
College, Independent, Manchester, 27.
Collegiate Institution, Liverpool, 30.
Coblentz, 32.
Conservative Club, 244.
Dublin, 78.

Exchange, Hamburgh, 139.
Fitzwilliara Museum, 87.
Hall of Commerce, Threadneedle-street,

21,31,245, 295,338.
Liverpool, 278.
Liverpool Collegiate Institution, 30 ; St.

George's Hall, 30.
Manchester, 27.
Music Hall, 209.

INDEX.

Palace of Moarshedabad, with engrav-
ings, 151, 205.
Pantheon of Bavaria, 139.
Paris, 139.

Penitentiary, Pennsylvania, 29.
Poitiers, 69.
Prussia, 29".
Reform Club, 8", 122.
Royal Exchange, C2.
Socinian Museum, 21.
Strawberry Hill, with engravings, 182, 2-14.
Town Hall, Birmingham, 209; St.

Anstle, 244.
Wren's buildings, 325.
Windsor stables, 393.
Canal, vide Hydraulic Engineering.

American, 73, 105, 361 ; ancient, 9" ;
Katwyk, 387 ; Colchester, 359 ; Dutch,
387 ; Glo'ster and Ledbury, 360 ; in-
clined planes, 105 ; Lehigh, 73 ; Morris,
105 ; Pennsvlvania, 361 ; sluicegates,
73 ; Ulster, 125.
Candidus's Note-book, 21, 3", 76,106, 149,178,

216, 247, 290, 336, 368, 397.
Carpets, 10.

Cast Iron, vide Iron Bridges, notes on, 226.
Cathedral, vide Ecclesiastical Building.
Cement, vide Materials, Fresco,
beton, 58, 276.
caoutchouc, 324, 395.
concrete, 58, 276.
Jeffrey's, 211, 395.
Keene's. for fresco, 278.
lithic, 28.
Martin's 308, 337.
puzzolana, 347.
stucco paint, 323, 427.
Cemeter)-, Edinburgh, 260.
Chimneys, regulation of, 172 ; St. Rollox, 294.
Chantrell, R.D., on lightning conductors, 320.
Church, vide Ecclesiastical Building.
Chubb's well safe, with engravings, 31.
Chalk Basin, London, periodical drainage of, 383 ;
supply of water from, 238 ; formation, outburst-
iug of water from, 238.
Clarke, Hyde, F.L.S., on colour, as applied to deco-
ration, 9.
Cologne Cathedral, on the restoration of, by George

Godwin, Jun., 225.
Colour, vide Decoration.
Combustion, vide Fuel.
Compass, variation of, 181, 283, 323, 353, 392,

and 428.
Competition, 21, 57 ; pump-room, Harrowgate, 65 ;

Kidderminster, 179, 237 ; Candidus on, 24 7.
Conductors, lightning, with engravings, 103, 229,

277,321,357.
Copper sheathing, history of, 169.
Cormorant steam frigate, 428.
Cornish, and Boulton and Watt engines, by T.

Wicksteed, rev. 426.
Cvraagraph for copying mouldings, with an engrav-

'ing, 219.
Daguerreotype, 284, 348, 358.
Decoration, vide Fresco.

buildings, list of, 64, 305 ; carpets,

10; furniture, 10; leather hangings,

358 ; lithochromy, 249 ; picture

frames, 10 ; polychromy, 290 ; use

of gold in, 7, 9 ; use of colour in, 9.

Denton, J. B., on model mapping, 56.

Design, schools of, in the 17th century, 53.

Diving Bell experiments, Payerne's, 331, 388, 408 ;

machine for working, 351.
Docks, London, 167; Woolwich, 323 ; Southamp-
ton, 359.
Door knobs, 358.

Drainage, Smith of Deanston on, 340.
Drawing, vide Fine Arts, Surveying.
Dredging bars, 50 ; vide Hydraulic Engineering.
Dyer, Charles, on fireproof building, 334.
Earthwork, Essay on, 84, 186; notes on, 336,

403 ; vide Engineering.
East, Freilerick, hints on architectural criticism,

24, 37, 86, 136.
Ecclesiastical architecture, remarks on. 107. 111.

Ecclesiastical Buildings — All Saints, Gordon-sqnare,
234 ; Angoulome cathedral, with engravings,
149 ; Belgium, 393 ; Bruges, 393 ; Burgos cathe-
dral, 37; Calcutta cathedral, 211; Cologne
cathedral, 224, 393; commissioners, 380, 389;
Dundalk Uonian Catholic church, 1 75 ; fires in,
55 ; Hereford cathedral, Professor Willis's report
on, with engravings, 374 : Kentish Town church,
294, 324; Kidderminster new church, 179, 237 ;
lightning conductors, 103, 229, 277, 321, 357;
Lincoln cathedral, 299 ; Manchester churches, 27,
211;Norwichcloisters, vaults of, 98; Notre Dame,
Poitiers, with engravings, 113; Poitiers, 69,
113; Portaferry church, 67; Russian, 297; St.
George's Chapel Royal, 393 ; St. Hilarv, Poitiers,
113; St. Martin's in the Fields, 393 ; St. Marv's
Southwark, 30; St. Mary's Wareham, 393; St.
Nicholas, Civray, with engravings, 150; St.
Nicholas, Hereford, 323 ; St. Paul's, 323, 395 ;
St. Peters. Poitiers, 71 ; St. Peters, Rome, 329 ; St.
Porchaire, Poitiers, 114 ; St. Radegonde, Poitiers,
115; Scotch church. Crown-court, with engrav-
ings, 33; spires, 121; Sunderland church, 31;
Temple church, 392, 403 ; Trinity chapel, Poplar,
30; Unitarian chapel, Stockport, 1 75 j West Hack-
ney church, 243; Wilton church, 233; Wren's
buildings, 325 ; York Roman Catholic cathedral,
211.
Ecclesiastical commissioners, 380, 389,408.
Ede's chemical laboratories, 68.
Electric circuit, experiment on, 395.
Electricity of whirlwinds, 395.

lightning conductors, 103, 229, 277,
321,357.
Electrotint, 67.

Electro-magnetism as a motive power, 234, 394.
Encaustic, vide Fresco.

Engineering, vide also Arch, Beam, Building, Div-
ing-bell, Gas, Hydraulic, Locomotive, Machine,
Material, Marine Engine, Mining, Motive Power,
Paving, Railway, Steam, Steam-engine, Tile,
Tunnel, Water, Wood.
Engineering, ancient, 59 : aqueducts, 24, 264, 361 ;
chalk formation, 104, 238 ; clav, London, 59 ; cut-
ting, 60 ; earthwork, 59, 84, 186, 402; notes on,
336, 403; foundations, Indian, 58, 168 ; history
of, 96 ; lectures on, bv Professor Vignoles, C.E.,
57, 95, 127, 136, 165,'l96, 230, 263, 345, 380;
pile driving machine, American, 1 ; pressure of
earth against walls, 317; retaining walls, 95;
sheet piling, 57; sinking, 386; slips, 60, 95,
127 ; spring of water, outbursting of, 104 ; study
of, 56 ; tippler, 336 ; tubbing, 386 ; tunnels, 264';
viaducts, 264 ; Yankee geologist, 395.
Engineers, blind, 97 ; convention of, 62 ; Acraman,
Mr., 103 ; Adie, A. J., 388 ; Baker, W. L., 126 ;
Bateman, J. F., 26; Beale, Mr., 181; Birch, E.,
26,397; Blackraore, Mr.,40; Boulton, Mr., 40 ;
Bruff, Peter, 56 ; Brunei, I. K. 40 ; Brun-
ton, W., 212; Buck, G. W., 40; Casehourne,
T., 125; Chapman, W., 39; Clarke, Hyde,
7, 9; Dixon, J., 40; Dockray, R.B., 115;
Dodd, G., 59; Donkin, Bryan, 385; Ewart,
Peter, 360; Fairbairn, W., 138, 284, 314, 428;
Gibbs, Mr., 102 ; Gurney, Golds'worthy, 28, 324 ;
Gutzmer, Mr., 5 ; Green, John, 397 ; Grantham,
John, 8, 124, 254 ; Haddan, J. C, 104 ; Hall,
Samuel, 212 ; lluddart. Captain, 26, 167 ; Jack-
son, G. B. W., 126; Lawrie, J. G., 155; Losh,
W., 65, 175; Maudslay, Mr., 31, 103, 104, 107;
Miller, Jose]]h, 1 38, 1 77 ; Napier, David, 6, 324 ;
Napier, Robert, 175; Nasniyth, James, 285;
Nicholson, Robert, 40; Oldham, John, 385;
Palmer, H. U., 176; Parkes, Josiah, 134 ; Penn,
Mr., 5 ; Phipps, Mr., 65 ; Pole, W., 134 ; Rennie,
G., 28, 109; Seaward, Samuel, 6, 118, 209;
Sosastros, 59; Stephenson, George, 40, 59;
Stephenson, Robert, 38, 238 ; Stevenson, David,
119 ; Telford, 59 ; Timperley, J., 203 ; Trewhitt,
Mr., 35, 104 ; Vignoles, professor, 57, 95, 363;
Welch, 11., 46; Woodhouse, S. J., 40.
Fine Arts, vide Architecture, Decoration, Fresco,

Schools of Design.
Fine arts, report of the Commissioners on, 302,

353.
Fireproof building. Dyer on, 333.

Flywheel, a few observations on, and on its applica-
tion to the steam-engine, 364.
Force of wind and sea, 189.
Fresco, ancient, 78.

account of, 171, 353.
Bavarian, 308.
Cornelius on, 306.
detaching from the wall, 355.
EngUsh, 305.

government report on, 302, 353.
Hampton Court, 128.
Ilaydon on, 207, 261.
Keene's cement for fresco, 278.
Latilla on, 171.
in London, 305.
Parris on, 98.
Severn on, 161, 188,310.
Simpson's, 278.
on slate, 84.
Fuel, consumption of, C. W. Williams, 40, 101 ,

129, 192, 252, 279.
Furnaces, gas smelting, 62 ; development of gases,

137.
Furniture, 10.

Galvanoplastio process, 395.
Gas, dilation of, 137.
Gas furnaces for iron, 62.

meters, Defries's, 205 ; unfairness of, 392.
purification of, 137.
Gillot's patent stove for heating and ventilating. 427.
Girders, cast iron, table of, strength of, 228, 291 ;
trussed, table of, strength of, 291 ; wood, table
of, strength of, 293.
Godwin, George, Jun., F.L.S., Pen and Pencil
Sketches in Poitiers and Angouleme, 69, 113,
149 ; on the restoration of Cologne cathedral,
224.
Gold, use of, in decoration, 7.

Grantham, John, C. E., paddle wheel disconnecting
apparatus, with engravings, 8 ; on iron, as a
material for shipbuilding, 124, 254.
Green, John, Scotswood suspension bridge, 397.
Guide screw stock, 373.
Harbour, I'ide Hydraulic Engineering.

Abervstwith, 428 ; Boulogne, 359; Port
Talbot, 419.
Haydon, B. R., on fresco, 206, 261.
on schools of design. 413.
on the Wilkie exhibition, 355.
Holborn-hill, improvement of, 199.
Hood, Charles, on lightning conductors, 357.
Hosking, Professor, lecture on architecture, 91.
Hydraulic Engineering, vide Aqueduct, Bridge,
Canal, Dock, Draining, Embankment, Harbour,
Lighthouse, Machine, Mill, Pier, Water.
Hydraulic propulsion on railway, 406.
Hydraulic engineering : —

Bann reservoirs, 26.

breakwater, floating, Reid's, 153, Algiers,
277; Jones on, 318; ancient, 319;
Madras, 319.
coffer dam, 58.

diving bell, ,331, 351, 388,408.
dredging bars, 50 ; dredging machine,

steam, 351.
embankment, 190 ; Hughes', 186; Hel-

der, 319; Calder, 320.
force of wind and sea, 189.
foundations, 58, 168.
self acting weir, 277.
Shannon improvements, 417.
sheet piUng, 57.
sluice gates, Katwyk, 387; Rotterdam,

277; Lehigh, 73.
sluice, Chelsea meadow, 168 ; Bate-
man's, 277.
Thames embankment, 177.
Weir. Killaloe, 417 ; self-acting, 277.
Whitby Pier, 359.
Ln'dicator, steam engine, Moseley's, with engrav-
ings, 268, 288 ; Penn's, 321 ; Russell's, 277.
Ink, indehble, 137.

Institute of Civil Engineers, proceedings of, 26,
125, 167, 199, 238, 242, 265, 318, 348, 383,
418.
Institute of British Architects, vide Architects.

INDEX.

Iron, vide Materials,
anthracite, 260.

action of air and water on, 275, 368.
cast, bridges, notes on, 226.
etTect of water on, 352.
corrosion of, in boilers, 199.
changes in internal structure of, 418.
hot and cold blast, strength of, 314, 415.
as a material for shipbuilding, 124, 254, 386.
relative properties of, 415.
sheathing, 386.
strength of, 178, 227.
use of, in architecture, 126, 235, 252.
works, use of gas furnaces in, 62 ; descrip-
tion of, 168, 416.
wrought, tenacity of, 285.
Irving, William, tile machine, with engravings, 8,1

Jermtn, G. a., drawings, 4.

Kalsomine, 278.

Kyanizing tanks, 202.

Laurie, J. G., on the economy of fuel in marine

engines by expansion, 155.
Leather hangings, Leake's, 358.
Lecture, vide Architecture, Fresco, Vignoles.
Lightning conductors, with engravings, 103, 229

277, 321, 357.
Lighthouse, ancient, 59 ; light of aU nations, with
engravings, 357, 401 ; Eddystone, 59 : MapUn,
with engravings, 60, 352 ; Menai, 318.
Lithochromy, report on, 249.
Liverpool Pavilion, with engravings, 4 ; architec-
ture, 278. , -
Lock, Gerish's, 204.
Locomotive engine, vide Railway.
Locomotive engine, electro-magnetic, four wheel,
experiment on, 242; marine engine, 283; power,
cost of, 381; Stephenson's, 37; straight axles,
273; theory of, 165.
Machine, vide Steam Engine, Marine Engine,

wheel.
Machine, astronomical clock, Strasburg,396; bank-
note printing, 385; Barker's mill; 267; breast-
wheel, 265 ; dredging, steam, 351 ; forging, new
358; guide screwstock, with engravings, 373;
horizontal water wheel, 265 ; overshot wheel,
265, 266 ; pile driving, American, with engrav-
ings, 1, 135; rope, flat, for sewing, 26; stone
boring. Hunter's, with engravings, 351; straps
for driving, proportion of, with engravings, 35 ;
sugarmaking.withengravings, 410; tile, Irving's,
with engravings, 8, 61 ; tippler, for earthwork,
with engraving, 336 ; turbine, 265,267; under-
shot wheel, 265 ; water pressure, 126,267; water
power, 265; watch making, 395; windmill,
new, 1 70 ; Yankee geologist, 395.
Marbles, inlaid, 160.
Marine engines, vide Fuel, Motive Power, Steam

Engine, Steamboat.
Marine engines, air pumps, 399 ; Anti-John Scott
Russell, with engravings, 170, 181 ; beam engine,
with engravings, 14, 157; bilge pipes, 368;
blow off cocks, 367 ; boUers, 226 ; sight tubes
for ditto, 353 ; wear and tear of, 367 ; Borrie's
direct action, with engravings, 213, 400; Clyde,
table of proportions of, 309 ; cocks, 226, 367 ■
condensers, 289, 400 ; connecting rods, 400 ■'
crank pins, 288; direct action, 5, 157, 40l'
Boulton and Watt's, 399; engravings of, 177*
213; Field's, 399; Borrie's, with engravings'
213,400; Maudslay's, 103,399; Miller's,400; oh-
servations on, 399; economy of fuel in, by ex-
pansion, 153; engine frames, 252,287; expan-
sion valves, 252 ; furnace, management of, 367 •
bars, 226; frames, 252,287; Gorgon, with en-'
gravings, 4, 132, 157; gauge tubes, 140; hang-
ing bridges, 226 ; horse power, 405 ; improve-
ment of, 289 ; indicator, Moseley's, with engrav-
ings, 266, 288; Penn's, 321; Russell's, 277;
Little Western, 103 ; locomotive, 283 ; Maudslay
and Field's, 107, 399; Miller and RavenhiU's,
177, 400 : oscillating, 5 ; piston rods, 368, 399 ;
proportions of Clyde, 309 ; ditto, direct action,
399; rolling of vessels, 367; shafts, 400; side
rods, 418; slide valves, 226, 287, 399; 406;
speed of, RusseU's index, 276 ; stop valves, 368 \

surcharged steam, 406 ; table of proportions of,
Clyde, 309; direct action, 401; Maudslay's, 107;
Virago, 44, 399 ; valve motions, 287 ; slide,
226, 287, 406; waste steam pipe, 368 ; waste
waterpipe, 400.
Marylebone association for improved street navine
21,41,280. f 6.

Materials, vide Brick, Cement, Iron, Stone, Timber,

Wood, strength of, 2 "5.
Maudslaysand Field, proportions of maiine engines,
107. 399.
[ Metals, fixing by metallic process, 348 ; coating,
< Talbot's process, 358.
; Metropolitan Improvement Society, 112.
j Mill, Marshall and Co.'s flax, 350.
Miller's direct action engine, 179, 399.
Millwork, see Machine ; Rennie on, 28.
Mining, sinking or tubbing, 386.
Model mapping, 56, 383.

Monument, Napoleon, 139 ; Nelson, 20, 230, 284,
397; Scott, 212; Smolensko, 139; Warsaw, 139.
Moseley's steam engine indicator, 268, 288.
Motive Power, vide Steam Engine.

Electro-magnetism, 234 ; water, 406 ;
atmospheric, 95, 139, 166, 172.
Moxhay, Mr., C.E., on strength of timber and iron,

178.
Navigatiov, vide Canal, Hydraulic Engineering.
Nasmyth, James, C.E., ou tlie tenacity of wrounht

iron, 285.
Nelson Monument, 20, 230, 284, 397.
Neville, J., on the force of falling bodies, 135.
New River Head, cleansing of, 396.
Paddles, vide Propellers.
Paddlebox boats, 368.

Palace of Moorshedabad, with engravings, 151, 205.
Park, Green, 139 ; Liverpool, 139.
Parkes, Josiab, C,E., and Count de Pambour, 134.
Parsey, Arthur, 248.
Patents, new, list of, 32,68, 104, 140, 178,212

244, 284, 324, 360, 428 ; Belgian, 61.
Pavilion, Liverpool, with engravings, 4.
Paving Association, Marylebone, 244, 281.
wood, history and theory of, 280.
Payeme, Dr.. diving bell experiments, 331, 388, 408.
Penitentiary, Pennsvlvania, 49.
Photography, 137,317.
Picture frames, 10.
Pier, Whitby, 359; Copper slag, 419 ; Greenhithe,

Piledriving machine, American, with engraviuKs.
1, 135; force of, 1, 135. *

Pole, W., C.E., on Gorgon engines, 134.

Professional bequest, 253.

Propeller, vide Marine Engine.

Propeller, Archemedian, 243, 299; bolts, 405;
Booth's, 257 ; centres, 288 ; disconnecting appa-
ratus, Grantham's, 8 ; Trewhitt's, 35, 104, 116,
205 ; effect of backwater, 226 ; floats, 405 ; modes
of, 288 ; palmipede, 66 ; plates, 405 ; reversing,
34, 282; Swanfort, 66; tractive power of, re-
marks on, 19.

Propelling through water, 257.

Protestantism and Art, 141.

Railway, vide Locomotive.

Railway, atmospheric, 95, 139, 166, 172— axles,
broken, 418— axles, improvement of, 395— Bel-
gians, 389— breaks, Bunnett and Corpe's with
engravings, 71— curves, 263— estimates, 345—
France, 211— Gauge, 230— gradients on, 413—
hydraulic propulsion, 406— inclined planes, 166
—laying out of, 136, 165, 196— lectures on,
136, 165, 196, 230, 263, 312— Milan and Monza,
67— permanent, way of Birmingham and Gloster,
126— ditto. South Eastern, 200, 261— power on,
165 — rails, 313 — rails, rusting of, 137 — wear of,
314— regulations in France, 180 — report on]
104— section's, report of, 263— signal, Dockray's
Self-acting, 115— trains, 165— upper works, 312
—velocity on, 231— wheels, Phipps's, 05 —
Losh's, 65 — working expenses, 381.
Reid's floating breakwater, 153.
Remarks on ships of wood and iron, 10.
Report of the commissioners on the fine arts, 303,

Respiration, experiments on, 331, 388, 408.

Rome, Therma; of, 221.

Roofing Liverpool Pavilion, with engravings, 4 ;
Simpson and Co.'s, 242 ; Asphalte, 284 ; Pano-
rama, 321.
Rope, wire, 212.
Reviews : —

Albano's London Bridge, 64.
Ancient and Modern Architecture, 329, 424.
Anglican church architecture, 120.
Austen's, Goldman, 101.
Architectural Drawing Book, 237.
Bartlett's Index Gcologicus, 30.
Booth on Propelling, 257.
Boys' London as it is, 300,
Brown's Domestic Architecture, 63.
Bruflf's Engineering Fieldwork, 260.
Buchanan's Millwork, by Rennie, 28.
Castle's Land Surveying, 205.
Chalmers on Radiant Heat, 208.
Civil Engineer and Practical Machinist, bv C
J. Blunt, 425. '

Clegg's Architecture of Machinery, 235.
Tredgold's Steam Engine, 236.
Clifford's Fractional Arithmetic, 208.
Companion to the Almanack, 30, 425.
Cornish and Boulton and Watt Engines, by

Thomas WicKsteed, Engineer, 426.
Cooke on Telegraphic Railways, 101.
DubUn Review, 117.
Examples of Gothic tiles, 64, 237.
Flower on Gas Meters, 392.
Gailhabaud's Ancient and Modern Architec-
ture, 340.
Galloway's Tredgold's Steam Engine, 299.
Gandy and Baud's Windsor Castle, 208, 339.
Grantham on Iron Shipbuilding, 254.
Gregory's Civil Engineering, 205.
Hansom's Music Hall, 209.
Haydon's Lecture on Fresco, 207, 261.
Iloblyn's Manual of the Steam Engine, 172.
Hughes's Geology of England, 31.
Lardner's Electricity, 208.
Latilla on Fresco, 171.
Lewin's Church's of Holland, 30.
Longman's Catalogue, 207.
Loudon's Cotta;;e Architecture, 209.
Love's Handbook of Manchester, 303.
Markland on English Churches, 101.
Memorials of Cambridge, 236, 262.
Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety ot Manchester, 260.
Moxon's Grainers' Guide, 208.
Papers of Corps of Royal Engineers. 100,
Pelzer's Pianoforte Player, 64.
Penny Cyclopicdia, 390.
Pocock's Life Assurance, 64.
Rawlins on Elementary Perspective, 208.
Seaward's Auxiliary Steam Power, 118.
Shaw's Electro-metallurgy, 208.
South Eastern Railway Map, 208.
Steam Navigation, Appendix to Tredgold, 235

299, 423.
Stevenson's Marine Surveying, 119.
Stevens's Wood Paving, 280.
Transactions of the Royal Institute of British

Architects, 258, 297.
Tredgold on the Strength of Iron, 237.
Tredgold Appendix, Steam Navigation, 236,

299, 423.
Useful Knowledge, Mechanical Diagrams, 208,

260,392.
Use of Mechanical Power on Turnpike Roads,

280.
Walker's Architectural Practice, 31.
Walker's Electrotype Manipulation, 392.
West's Consumption of Smoke, 173.
Whishavv's Railway's, 31.
Wicksteed on Cornish and Boulton and Watt

Engines, 424.
Williams's, C. W., Evaporative Power of

Boilers, 301.
Williams's (ieology, 205.
Wilme's Ornamental Mapping, 209.
Year Book of Facts, 101.
Sandstone, use of, 102.
Sardis and Myceniv, antiquities of, 217.

INDEX.

Schools of design, ancient, 53.

Sculpture in architectiiral design, 281.

Seaward, Samuel, C.E., on auxiliary steam power,
118, 174.

Sewers, rentals of, 393 — flushing apparatus for, 320.

Ships, new mode of raising, 3-18.

Ship building, form of, 315 — sheathing, copper,
history of, 169 — iron do, 38C — history of iron,
254 — holding down bolts, 2.")2 — on use of wood
and iron, 10 — table of the dimensions of timbers,
in steam boats, 89 — on iron as a material, 121,
254, 368.

Skew arch, 155.

Smoke, consumption of, vide Fuel.

Somerset House, 413.

Spires, article on, and table of, 121.

Staircases, article on, 86.

Steamhoat, vide Marine Engine Propellers.

Steamboat, .Vcbar, 210 — anti, John Scott Russell,
170, 181, 241— Archimedean, 243— building,
of, dimensions of timbers, 88 — British Queen,
309— Cambridge, 309— Cherokee, 323, 359—
coal boxes, 104, 229 — Congresco, 210— Dee,
309 — defence of, 394 — Devastation, 132 —
Devonshire, 309— Don Juan, 88, 158, 309
— Driver, 132 — engine men, 3G7 — Favourite
5 — Firebrand, 300 — French government, 300
—Gorgon, 4, 132, 157, 160— Great Britain,
357 — Great Western, 394 — Hecate, 309 —
Hecia, 132 — llibernia, 360 — hogging, Capt.
Drew's plan to prevent, 394 — Ilindostan, 300 —
Hydra, 132, 157 — India, 350 — iron, .\aron
Manby, 254 — Atmospheric, 283 — Bruges, 309 —
history of, 124, 254— Iron Duke, 256— John
Garrow, 254— Rocket, 323— Sirene, 67— James
Watt, 303, 359— Little Western, 103, 209—
Liverpool, 301— Locomotive, 283— Medea, 132,
157; Medway, 104 ; Mega;ra, 323— Memnon,103;
Monarch, 132 — Monster, 243 — Montezuma, 323,
— navy, 104 — Oriental, 301 — Peloro. 175 — Pene-
lope, 323 — Pha;nix,205 — Precursor, 175 — Prince
Albert, 394— Regent, 210— rolling of, 367—
Royal Tar, 88— rudder, 368— Solway, 309—
Stromboli, 132— Styx, 7, 133— Tartarus, 210—
Thames, 31— Tourist, 5, 132, 157— Trent, 138,
424 — Trident, 404 — United Kingdom, 6 — ven-
tilation of, 367— Virago, 44, 399— Vivid, 132,
157_West India mail, 88, 174, 214.

Steam Engine, vide Locomotive, Marine Engine.

' Steam engine, Belgium, 139 — blow off cocks, 367
—boiler, explosions, 43, 51, 173, 242, 243, 351
— Sinclair's contrivance, 173 — sight tubes for,
353 — corrosion of, 199 — wear and tear of, 307
— cocks, 226 — 367 — crank pins, 288 — double
cylinder rotary, 109 — expansion valves, 252 —
flywheel, observations on, 364 — frames, 252,
287 — gauge tubes, 140 — history of, 67 — horse
power, 137, 271, 405 — indicator, .Moseley's, 269
— packing, 352 — piston rods, 368 — rotary,
Rennie's, 109— slide valves, 226, 287, 406— stop
valves, 308 — surcharged steam, 406 — waste
steam pipe, 368.

Steam Navigation, vide Steamboat, Marine Engine.

Steam Navigation, has it been successful ? 12, 56 —
association, 283 — Como, Lake of, 67 — Irish,
301— Notes on, 226, 252. 286, ;i67, 405—
Thames, 210 — Tredgold's .\ppendix (Review),
230,299, 423— West India mail, 88, 174. 214.

Stevenson, Thos., C. E., on levelling instruments,
25.

Stone, vide Materials,

immense block of, 230 — sin'ength of, 275 —
observations on, 299.

Straps for driving machinery, 385.

Strawberry Hill, with engravings, 182, 244.

Streets, London, inclinations of, 200.

Sugar making apparatus, 410.

Sunken vessels, new mode of raising, 170.

Stove for ventilating and heating, by Gillot, 427.

Surveying vide Drawing.

levelling instruments. Stevenson's. 23.
Bewley's, 56 — model mapping. 56 —
sliding scale, Bewley's, 61 — works on,
120. 205.

Surveyors, bequest to, 253.

Telemaqve treasure ship, 359.

Telescopes, improvement of, 316.

Tile and brick machine, Ainslie's patent, with en-
gravings, 427.

Thames embankment, 179.

Theatres, ancient and modern, article on, 390.

Therma; of Rome, 221.

Threadneedle-street structure, 21, 31, 245, 295,
338.

Tile machine. Irving's, with engravings, 8, 61 —
Minton's, 317 — Ainslie's, 425.

Tiles, inlaid. 138.

Timber, vide Wood.

taritT. 173 — tables of, strength of, 178 —
worm, ravages of, 242 — painting of, 253
— tank at Portsmouth dockyard, 428.

Tool, vide Machine.

Tunnel. Blechingly, 103— Great Western, 349—
Sheftield and .Manchester, 363— Thames, 139—
315— theory of. 264.

Turnpike roads, 262.

Ure. Dr., on warming and ventilation, 122

Variation of the compass, 181, 283, 323, 353.
392. 428.

Velocimeter. 231.

Vaults of Warwick cloisters, 89.

Ventilation at Reform Club, 122 — history of, 122 —
Leblanc's remarks, 265 — Fleming's, 277.

Viaducts. 264.

Vignoles', Professor, C.E., lectures on civil engi-
neering, 57, 95, 127, 136, 165, 196, 230, 263
312, 345. 380.

Warming and ventilation. Dr. Ure, 122.

Warming and ventilating stove, Gillot's patent,
with engravings, 427,

V/ater, as a motive power, 406 — supply of, to
Paris, 66 — machinery propelled by. i 65 — velocity
of, through pipes, 1 79 — force of wind and sea,
189 — supply of, from the chalk basin, 238.

Water colour drawings, preserving, 68.

Well, Artesian, Lille, 137 — London, 384 — Grenelle,
395,426.

Weights and Measures proposed, 138, 276.

West India Mail Steam Packet Company, 174, 214.

Wheels. Table of. pitches of,29 — pinions, 29.

Weir, self-acting, 277 — Killaloe, 417.

Wicksteed on the Cornish and Boulton and Watt
engine (review), 426.

Williams. C. W.. Consumption of fuel, 40, 101,
129, 192, 279, 301.

Williams, E. L., on ditto, 131.

Windmill, new, 170.

Wire rope, 212— bridges, 53, 224.

Wood, preservation of, 169, 203 — pacing associa-
tion. 244, 281— paving, theory of, 280— Oxford-
street, 380.

Woolwich Dock, 323.

Yorkshire Architectural Society, 399.408, 422.

Ainslie's brick and tile machine, 425.

Archimedean screw, 4 cuts, 300.

Aqueduct, Pennsylvania. 11 cuts, 361.

Baths of ancient Rome, 213.

Be.im engines. 2 cuts, ,5,

Bealson's valve closet, 3 cuts, 174.

Brick and Tile Machine. Ainslie's patent, 425.

Breakwater, floating, Reid's. 1.53.

Bridge, .■^cotsHoud, phile, 379 — Sunderland, 3 en-
gravings, .334 — Pennsylvania, plalc, 361.

Canal, Lehigh, 73— Morris, 105— Pennsylvania, 361.

Chubb's well safe, 31.

Church, Angoulcme Cathedral, 149 — Hereford ca-
thedral, 2 plules, Zn — Nalion.il Scotch Church,
Crown-court, 33^Notre Dame, Poitiers, 3 cuts,
11.3— St, Nicholas, Civray, 150,

Curtis's railway signals, 4 cuts 421.

Cymagraph, plale, 213.

Kmbankmcnts, 3 cuts, 18fi, 190.

Ciirder, fireproof, 3 cuts, 334 — tnissed, 3 cuts, 291,

Guide screw stock, 2 cuts, 373,

Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 6 cuts, 48,

Inclined planes on Morris canal, 12 cuts, 105,

INDEX TO PLATES AND ENGRAVINGS.

Iron, experiments on, 4 diagrams. 285.

Lighthouse, lit;ht of all nations, 2 cuts, 401 — Maplin,
69.

Lightning conductors, G cuts, 321.

Liverpool Pavilion, 2 cuts, 3.

Lock, Gerish's, mortice, 204.

Marine engines, anti John Scott Russell, 2 cuts,
180— beam. 4 cuts .5— Borrie's, plate, 213— Miller's
direct action, plate, 17G — Gorgon, 5.

Screw. Archimedean, 4 cuts, 300— Virago, 5 cuts,
44.

Palace of Moorshedabad, plate, 141, 405.

Pennsylvania canal aqueduct, plate, 361.

Pile driving machine, American, plnle, 1.

Plan, palace of Moorshedabad, 141, 205— Liverpool
pavilion, 3 — Strawberry-hill, 177.

Poitiers, temple of St. Jean, 3 cuts. 69.

Propellers, Archimedean screw, 4 cuts, 300— Gran-
tham's disconnecting apparatus, 4 c\its, 8, 35—
reversing, 8 cuts, 34, 116, 281— tractive power of,
19,

Railway breaks, Bunnett and Corpe's, 3 cuts, 72.

Railway signals, by Curtis, 4 cuts, 421 — signal,

Dockray's, 5 cuts, 115 — permanent way, 9 cuts,

200.
Reid's floatin;; breakwater, 153.
Roofing, I/iverpool Pavilion, 3.
.Scotswood .Svispension Bridge, plitti, 379.
Sewers' Flushing Apparatus, 2 cuts, 320.
.Skew Arch, 2 cuts, 156.
Sluice Gates, Lehigh Canal, 73.
Steam Engine. Rennie's, 4 cuts. 110; Indicator.

Moseley's. plate, 268.
Stone-boring Machine, Hunter's, 351.
Straps for driving Machinery, 35.
Strawberry Hill. 177.
Sugar Making Machine, 410.
Therma; of Ancient Rome, 213 plate.
Tile Marhine. Irvine's, 461.
Tippler for excavating, 336.
Velocimeter, 213.

Ventilation Reform Club. 3 cuts, 124.
Ventilating and warming stove, Gillot's, 423.
Warming, Reform Club, 3 culs, 124.
Mheels, teeth of, 30.

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.

Plale 1.-

.. 2.-

.. 3-

.. 4.-

.. 5.-

. . fi.-

.. 7.-

-Amerlcan Pile Driving Machine opposite page

-Engines of Virago

-Maplin Lighthouse

-Inc'ined Planes on Morris Canal

-Palace of Moorshebad

-Miller and Ravenhill's Direct Action Engines

-Plan of Strawberry Hill, and Beale's Marine Engine :

■Borrie's Direct Action Engines

1
4-t
69
105
151
177
181
213

Plate 9.— Cymagraph and Velocimeter opposite page 220

.. 10. — Therm.-c of Ancient Rome .. 221
.. 11.— Professor Moseley's Constant Indicator for Steam

Engines . . 268

..12. — Tribute to the Memory of Sir Christopher Wren .. 325

.. 13.— Pennsvlvania Canal Aqueduct .• 361

.. 14 & 15— Hereford Cathedral .. 377

..16. — Scots vood Suspension Bridge .. 397

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