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JOURNAL.

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VOLUME VI._ 18 43.

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JOURNAL.

REMARKS ON ARABESQUE DECORATIONS, AND PAR-
TICULARLY THOSE OF THE VATICAN.

( With an Engraving, Plate I.)
Read at the Institute of British Architects, February 3, 1840.
[At a moment when the public attention is so greatly occupied with
the revival of decorations in fresco painting, we have much pleasure
in being enabled to lay before our readers, on the commencement of a
new volume, the following paper, originally produced at the Institute
of British Architects. We regret that we cannot devote a larger
number of engravings to the illustration of this essay, which must con-
sequently appear somewhat defective in form.]

It is an observation which has been very frequently repeated and
very variously expressed, that the proper use to be made of the
study of the ancients in their works of art, is not to copy, but to
endeavour to think like them. It is admitted to be of little utility to
the artist, to imitate the forms of those beautiful models of decora-
tion, which the Greeks and Romans have bequeathed to us, unless at
the same time he qualifies himself to apply them judiciously, and
modify them successfully, by investigating the principles from which
they originate. Among these principles, none is more important, or
has exercised a greater influence in bringing ancient art to perfection,
than that which has been so well condensed into one line, that

" True art is Nature to advantage dressed."
and if we wish to rival the ancients in the production of what is at
once excellent and original, we must, like them, seek the original types
in the works of Nature. This was the source from which they drew the
various objects which they have modified and combined, not only in their
capitals, their friezes, their vases and their furniture, but also in the
apparently capricious and fanciful mixtures of different species of
animals, and even of foliage and animals, into harmonious composi-
tions, which delight the eye by their graceful and elegant forms,
however repugnant to truth, or incompatible with reason. The mo-
tives are to be inquired into which influenced the choice of these
objects, and the process investigated, by which they fell into the
conventional forms in which alone many, perhaps most of them, are
now to be found.

No. 64.— Vol. VI.— January, 1843.

That such a course of study would be analogous to the practice by
which the ancients themselves attained so high a reach of perfection,
we have sufficient proof. Nothing in art can be imagined more con-
ventional than the orders of architecture ; and yet Vitruvius endea-
vours to derive them all from simple principles, and in the Doric
order, we can easily trace the original elements of a primitive mode
of construction. We shall not so readily perceive the analogy with
the female form, given as the origin of the Ionic. It requires a very
great stretch of imagination to refer the volutes to the curls of the
hair, or the flutes to the folds of the garment. Whatever be the
origin of the Corinthian order, the fable which attributes its invention
to Callimachus, is as graceful as the order itself; and its repetition by
Vitruvius sufficiently indicates it to have been a received principle,
that the most conventional forms (and a more conventional form than
the Corinthian capital it would be difficult to point out), were sup-
posed to have been originally suggested by the forms and accidents
of nature. The least we are authorized to infer from all these in-
stances is, that in the opinion of the only ancient author on archi-
tecture to whom we are able to refer, a motive was to be found in
every thing the ancients invented, and that in studying the arts it was
indispensable to seek and to understand it.

To follow up the subject of these remarks, would open an extensive
field of inquiry. They are offered in the present instance merely as
prefatory to a few observations on the arabesque style of decoration,
illustrated by a short review of the arabesques in the Loggie of the
Vatican. It is proposed to inquire how far the artists who designed
and executed these arabesques have been indebted to the antique,
and how far they have modified the hints derived from that source, so
as to adopt their compositions to the purposes they are destined to
fulfil. There will also be occasion to notice the derivation of many
conventional forms, and the happy adaptation of natural objects by
which these arabesques are enriched in a very extraordinary degree.

In speaking of these sort of compositions as arabesques, the term
is of course adopted as it is commonly understood, and it is needless
to explain that we disregard both its etymology and meaning in
applying it to the paintings and stuccoes of antiquity, which repre-
sent not only foliage and fruits, but also beasts of every species, and
imaginary creatures combined and interlaced together. These deco-
rations have also acquired the name of grotesques, from the grottoes

1

i J S fr 3

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[January,

or underground buildings in which they have been found — a term we
have perverted still more from the sense in which it was invented.

It is remarkable that the only mention Vitruvius makes of this
style of decoration, is in reprobation of it — but he describes it so ac-
curately, that the passage is worth repeating, if for no other reason.
After pointing out and classifying, what he considers legitimate objects
for painting walls, such as architectural compositions, landscapes,
gardens, and sea-pieces — the figures of the gods, and subjects drawn
from mythology, and the poems of Homer, he proceeds thus — "I
know not by what caprice it is, that the rules of the ancients, (observe,
that Vitruvius looks up to the ancients in his day, that is to say to
the Greeks,) who took truth for the model of their paintings, are no
longer followed. Nothing is now painted upon walls but monsters,
instead of true and natural objects, instead of columns we have
slender reeds, which support a complication of flimsy stems and
leaves twisted into volutes. Temples are supported on candelabra,
whence rises, as from a root, foliage on which figures are seated.
In another place, we have demi-figures issuing from flowers, some
with human faces, others with the heads of beasts, all things which
are not, never have been, nor ever can be. Such is the influence of
fashion, that either through indolence or caprice, it renders the world
blind to the true principles of art. How can it ever be supposed that
reeds can uphold a roof, or candelabra a whole building — that slender
plants can support a figure, or their stems, roots, or flowers put forth
living beings. Yet no one condemns these extravagancies; on the
contrary, they are so much admired, that no one cares whether they
be possible or not, so much do mankind render themselves incapable
of judging what is really deserving of approbation. For my own
part, I hold that painting is to be esteemed only so far as it repre-
sents the truth. It is not sufficient that objects be well painted ; it is
also necessary that the design be consonant to reason, and in no
respect offensive to good sense." Pliny also laments that in his time,
gaudy colouring and quaint forms were held in greater estimation
than the real beauties of art. But with all deference be it spoken,
there is another side to the question, which these great authorities
seem to have overlooked. Conventional decorations of this kind
were within the reach of thousands to whom paintings in the higher
branches of art were inaccessible, and a more general diffusion of
taste must have been at once the cause and effect of their universal
adoption — how universal, the remains of Pompeii reveal to us. If
we examine the ancient arabesques independently of these preju-
dices, we shall find endless beauty, variety and originality ; graceful
details, combined in consistent and ingenious motives and analogies,
and great skill and freedom in the mode of execution. We shall also
find reason to doubt whether the introduction of the arabesque style
really had the effect of discouraging painting of a higher class, since
even at Pompeii, poetical compositions of great merit are frequently
combined with the lighter groundwork of the general decoration.

However fanciful and capricious the arabesque style may at first
sight appear to be, there can be no doubt that it may be treated ac-
cording to the general fixed principles of art, and that the artist will
be more or less successful as he keeps these principles in view. A
due balance of the composition is essential, so that the heavier parts
may sustain the lighter through every gradation, and there must be
such a disposition as not to cover too much or too little of the ground.
Unity of design is to be studied in a connexion of the parts with
each other, and in the harmony of the details and accessories, which
ought as much as possible to tend to some general aim. It adds very
greatly to the value of this species of decoration, when it can be
made by these means, significant as well as ornamental. It would
lead us much too far to enter upon the subject of colour; but it may
just be observed, that in the ancient decorative painting, the balance
of colour is strictly attended to. Their walls usually exhibit a gra-
dation of dark panels in the lower part, a breadth of the most brilliant
colours in the middle and principal division, and a light ground thinly
spread with decoration in the upper part and in the ceiling, an ar-
rangement dictated by the natural effects of light and shade, and re-
flection. As lightness and grace are the peculiar attributes of ara-

besque, the foliage which forms its most fertile resource should never
be overloaded, its details and modes of ramification ought to be drawn
from nature. The poems of Schiller and other German authors have
lately been published, with a profusion of arabesque decoration in
the margin, which are well worthy of attention, both for the ingenuity
with which they are rendered illustrative of the text, and for the ac-
curacy, the botanical accuracy, with which some of the foliage and
flowers are represented, and which forms one of the greatest charms
of these clever and original compositions.

Although the paintings in the Loggie of the Vatican pass under
the name of Raffaelle, it is not pretended that they are the work of
his hand, nor even his designs. He was indeed the originator and
director of the whole, and the character and influence of his taste is
visibly stamped in every part. But his coadjutors in the work were
artists, whose names are inferior to none in the Roman school but his
own, such as Giulio Romano, Perino del Vaga, Benvenuto Tisi, and
others, who were occupied not only in the execution but in the inven-
tion of the details. Francesco Penni and Andrea da Salerno are par-
ticularly noticed as being employed for the figures, Giovanni da
Udine for the fruits and flowers, and Polydore Caravaggio for the
relievos. It may be worth digressing to mention, that M. Quatre-
mere de Quincy is of opinion, that the sculptures of the Parthenon
were produced by similar means, Phidias there performing exactly
the same part as Raffaelle in the Vatican — and it is indisputable that
the combination of unity of design with variety of detail which
characterizes Gothic architecture, could have been produced only by
the same system, and by employing the minds as well as the hands, of
those by whom the decorations were executed. When we see per-
fection attained in three distinct styles of art, in three distant ages,
by means precisely similar, it is not too much to assume that these
means are probably the right ones.

The Loggia of Raffaelle, is an arcade in 13 compartments. The
arches are open, or at least, were so originally, toward the court, of
which the Loggia forms one side. The opposite side is a wall pierced
with windows, one in each arch, giving light to the suite of rooms
which contains the great frescos of the prince of painters. The
ceiling of each compartment forms a square cove, on the sides of
which are the panels containing the series of scriptural paintings, the
engravings from which are known as Raffaelle's bible. These are his
own designs, and some are known to have been touched with his hand.
Both the lateral and cross arches are supported by pilasters about 16
feet high, panelled, and decorated with coloured arabesque on a
white ground. Each pilaster on the wall side is flanked by a half
pilaster, in which the arabesque is carried through on a smaller scale
of composition. It is to these pilasters the present remarks will be
confined. We shall find in them as much matter as with the collateral
observations to which they will give rise, will fully occupy the time
at our disposal this evening.

The description of the pilasters will be taken in the order in
which Volpato has engraved them; that is to say, beginning on the
side next the wall. ■

No. 1. Notwithstanding the great variety in the composition and
details of these works, we shall find a general unity of design pre-
vailing throughout, with the exception of the last five of the series,
which will be particularly noticed in their turn. Whatever form the
composition may take, it is rendered subservient to the introduction
of four medallions, or tablets, relieved from the back ground in
stucco, of contrasted shapes — one like an antique shield — the next
circular — the third rectangular, and the fourth in the form known as
the vesica piscis. These medallions occupy the upper part of the
pilaster, to the extent of about one third of the whole panel, while
the lower part, to the height of the dado, or somewhat higher, is
generally filled in such a manner as to afford a weight of colour, suffi-
cient to support itself by the side of that member of the architecture,
and the members introduced into its panels, following in this respect
the practice of the ancients. These medallions might appear to vio-

1 We must reler the reader to Volpato's engravings, which were exhibited
when this payer was read. They are easy of access.

1 843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

3

late the due balance of the arabesques, if they were identified with
them ; but the composition is rescued from that fault, by the separate
character given to the decoration of the medallions, and by their
being detached, and hung as it were, independently upon the back-
ground. In the general arrangement of the whole, these medallions
perform a very important part, connecting the pilasters with the
panelled stuccos adjoining, both by their relief, and by means of an ac-
cordant style of decoration and a similarity in the subjects repre-
sented upon them, neither of which could have been well embodied
in the arabesque itself, (see Plate I, Fig. 1.)

It must be admitted, that these compositions considered separately,
are somewhat unequal, and the examples to be first passed in review
are by no means the best ; but instruction may be derived from a con-
sideration of their defects. There are in this pilaster, (No. 1,) many
graceful details, but the effect is less pleasing and satisfactory than in
some others where there is a greater unity of composition, and where
the objects are less varied and numerous ; moreover, too many of the
forms in this example are somewhat stiff". The guillochi which oc-
cupies the lower part of the half pilaster, is extremely rich ; and we
shall find throughout the series, that this part of the composition
bears a solid and architectural character, in conformity with the
principle which has already been adverted to. Upon the stuccos it
is not my intention to dilate ; I would merely draw your attention to
the beautiful simplicity of the panelling. The antique figures which
till the comparlments would require a separate dissertation to describe
them only. They harmonize, as before observed, with the subjects
contained in the medallions. The clusters of natural fruit and foliage

which surround the windows are continued throughout the series of
arches, and are greatly varied in detail, though precisely similar in
composition. There is nothing conventional in these festoons— the
clusters are simply connected together by a string, and are composed
of the most familiar objects rendered with perfect truth. (Fig. 3.) The
melon, the orange, the chesnut, the tomata, the olive, grapes of different
kinds, pomegranates, gourds of every description, pine and cypress
cones, are those which most frequently recur, with their foliage
and blossoms. The artist has not even disdained the cabbage, the
cucumber, and the onion.

No. 2, has the same faults as the first. The frame, with the horse,
saddled and bridled, is quite in the spirit of the antique decorations,
but it divides the pilaster disagreeably, and is not a proper subject to
occupy the principal place in the composition. In the side pilaster
we have a rather thin and wiry scroll, of which both the foliage and
flowers are conventional, but the convolvulus major twines beautifully
and naturally over the fret below.

In No. 3, a closely woven festoon of foliage and flowers is formed
into panels — not, I think, very happily, since the arrangement is such
as the eye does not very readily comprehend, and even if it were
more simple, it would scarcely be applicable, since it divides into
many distinct parts the panel which is in itself a single feature of
the general design ; its integrity is therefore destroyed by this mode
of decoration. The subjects which occupy the panels are, however,
well worthy of attention. The group of deer, the landscape, the
dog chasing a porcupine, the. Cupid on the dolphin, and the two
winged children manoeuvring a dancing bear, are all in the true spirk
of the antique. The single figures are less so ; an ancient painter
would not have placed them on a scrap of earth. In the Pompeian
decorations, the detached figures — I do not speak of such as are in-
closed in frames, but the detached figures — partake of the artificial
character of the style to which they are adopted, and if they are not
represented as floating in the air, they stand upon a bracket, or a
mere line, or on anything but the natural ground. In the panels of
the stucco are male and female chimeras, enveloped in a scroll formed
of the natural branches of the briar rose.

In No. 4, we arrive at a greater unity in the design, for though it
consists of many parts, yet they all bear upon each other, and are
mutually connected throughout. The temple which forms the centre
of the composition is altogether in the style of architecture which
holds so important a place in the arabesques of the baths of Titus
and Pompeii. I call it a style of architecture, for in the ancient
paintings, where it generally forms the framework of the composi-
tion, and contributes greatly to that unity of design which distin-
guishes the ancient arabesque, it assumes a regularity and consis-
tency which fairly entitle it to the appellation of a style. The sup-
porting figures are objectionable, for they are in motion — common
walking motion. Much more objectionable are the terminal figures
which rise from the acroteria of the temple.

My objection to these terminal figures is, that they are improbable.
Improbable, I mean, upon certain postulates, which it is necessary to
assume before we can reason upon these imaginary compositions at
all. The mythology of the ancients has peopled the elements with
beings compounded of the human and brute creation, their intelli-
gence being indicated by the first, and their fitness for the region they
are supposed to inhabit by the second. There is nothing in ancient
art, in which greater taste or judgment is displayed, than in some of
these combinations. The animal functions appear in no wise com-
promised by the mere interchange of corporeal members, between
different species. Such combinations, therefore, as long as they in-
volve no glaring disproportions, present nothing repugnant to the
mind; and we aie so familiarized to them, that we pronounce upon
the success of the representation of a triton, a satyr, or a centaur,
with as little hesitation as we might upon that of any of the animals
of which they are compounded. We are equally ready, or perhaps
owing to a stronger association of ideas, more ready, to admit of
aerial beings, supporting themselves on wings, floating in the ether,
or alighting upon a flower without bending the stalk, though these

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January,

are, in fact, less probable than those born of the ocean or the earth.
Between animal and vegetable life there is also a sufficient analogy
to attach some probability, or at least to afford an apology, for the
graceful combinations between these two kingdoms of nature, in-
vented by the ancients, and adopted to a very great extent in the
compositions before us; but, when we come to combine animal life
with unorganized matter, the probability ceases ; and if, as in the
case before us, the unorganized portion is something artificial, and
totally out of proportion besides, the combination becomes intolerable.
Thus we acquiesce in the metamorphoses of Ovid or the Arabian
Nights, as long as certain analogies are observed ; but the transfor-
mation of the ships of Eneas into sea nymphs, is, as one of our
greatest critics has observed, a violation of probability to which
nothing can reconcile us.

No conventional form has been more abused than the terminus.
Intelligence and immobility are the attributes which the ancients in-
tended it to embody, but their apposite creation is totally different from
anomalous compositions like this, into which it has been tortured.

The scroll in the half pilaster of this example is greatly superior to
that in No. 2. It is more simple in its composition, and the leaves
are broad and natural, and fill the space much more satisfactorily
than a multiplicity of wiry lines and flimsy objects, producing confu-
sion, and destructive of breadth of effect.

In No. 5, we arrive at a superior composition ; for it must be re-
peated, we are examining the decoration of a single member of an
extensive whole, and that however beautiful each may be, unity is a
beauty in addition. No object in decoration has been so extensively
used as the scroll. The ancients do not appear to have been afflicted
with an unhappy craving for novelties, nor to have been haunted with
the apprehension that beautiful forms of composition would become
less beautiful by repetition. When the most appropriate forms in
architecture and decoration were once ascertained, they were contin-
ually repeated, but marked with a fresh character, and stamped with
originality by those refined and delicate touches which were all-suffi-
cient when they were properly appreciated. We need only refer to
the temples of the ancients, to see how pertinaciously they adhered
to an established principle, and to the varieties in the proportions of
the Doric order, or the character of the Corinthian capital, varieties
which we may be assured were nei-
ther capricious nor accidental, to see
how studiously they availed them-
selves of all the resources of art in
its details. In the same manner with
regard to the ever-recurring form of
the scroll, as long as the foliage and
ramifications of nature are unex-
hausted, so long will it be capable
of assuming an original character in
the hands of the skilful artist. A
striking illustration of this position
may be drawn from the arabesques
in the palace of Caprarola, where
the pilasters of the Loggie are de-
corated with scrolls, all similar in
composition, but each formed of a
different species of natural foliage,
without the intermixture of any-
thing conventional, except the regu-
larity of the convolutions. I regret
that I can show but three of these
beautiful scrolls, and those very
slightly represented. They are com-
posed of the olive, (Fig. 4,) the
vine, (Fig. 5,) and the convolvulus,
(Fig. 6.) The latter being rather
thin in proportion to the others, is
enriched with birds.

Fig. 4.

Fig ■>.

For the magnificent scroll before us we are indebted to the antique.
It is an imitation of the well known marble in the Villa Medici, but
the artist has made it his own by the skill with which he has adapted
it to his purpose both in proportion and colour (see Plate I, Fig. 2.)
I would particularly call your attention to the animals, the squirrels,
the mice, the lizards, the snake, the grasshopper, and the snail, dis-
persed about the branches, so well calculated to fill the spaces they
occupy, and at the same time producing a variety which would have
been wanting, bad the foliage only been extended with that object.
To the scroll in the half pilaster, it is to be objected, that it is a re-
petition in small, of that in the principal compartment; but if ex-
amined separately, it will be found full of instruction, from the union
it displays of natural objects with conventional forms. The spiral
line of the antique scroll, is evidently drawn from the natural course
of climbing plants. It is conventional in its openness and regularity.
The involucra of plants furnish the hint for the base from which the
antique scroll is made to spring, and the spathes of the liliaceous
tribe for the sheaths, of a conventional repetition of which, the an-
cient sculptured scrolls principally consist. Thus far for the general
elements of the antique scroll, which the artist has implicitly followed
in the example before us ; but he has enriched his composition
without disturbing its unity, by making every sheath produce a dif-
ferent branch, drawn immediately from nature. The birds present
an equal variety, and are occupied according to their natural habits,
in feeding on the berries and buds, or on the variety of insects which
are also introduced. The arabesques in the side panels are to be
particularly noticed in this example. A motivo, however slight, is
always to be desired, and here we see a very graceful one, in the two
winged boys, who dip into a vase-like fountain. The winged bear ,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

which occupies the medallion, may be noticed, as a violation of pro-
bability. A being to cleave the air, should not be selected from the
most heavy and awkward of animals. It is undoubtedly intended for
a.jeu d'esprit, and is quite in the spirit of the antique. The ancient
frescos are full of such whimsical combinations, but always, as in the
present instance, occupying a subordinate place.

No. 6 is worthy of an attentive examination ; the lower part is ex-
tremely fanciful, and well adapted to its purpose. For his principal
object the artist has chosen the Diana of Ephesus, with her attributes,
forming, with some arbitrary deco.

Fig. 7.

rations, a remarkably well balanced
composition, of which the recti-
linear shapes contrast in the hap-
piest manner with the flowing lines
above. The Diana constitutes a
foreground, behind which rises a
slender tree. There is nothing
more graceful throughout the
whole series than the branches of
this tree, and the winged boys who
sport among them and enjoy the
fruit. (Fig. 7.) Equally graceful
are those who gather barley from
the Cornucopia, and grapes from
the loaded trellis above.
No. 7 is one of the most remarkable of the series. In this the artist
has ventured, and with the most perfect success, to discard every
thing conventional, and to represent a natural tree, balancing its irre-
gularities of ramification and foliage by the numerous birds which
occupy the branches, where they may be supposed to have been col-
lected by the call of the bird-catcher, who is concealed in the under-
wood with his bird-call in his mouth. (See Plate I, Fig. 1.) One
bird, fettered by a limed twig, is about to fall into his hands. It is
impossible to admire too much the skill with which this simple motivo
is worked out. The arabesque of the side pilaster is one of the best
of this order; all the parts are graceful in themselves, and well ba-
lanced, both in form and colour. This composition is also to be
remarked for the introduction of some of the heraldic insignia of the
holy see. The keys in saltire, the umbrella, the papal tiara, and the
fisherman's ring, with which the successors of St. Peter are invested.
I am rather surprised that this sort of allusion has not been more libe-
rally used.

No. 8 is perhaps the least pleasing of the series. There is a total
want of unity in the composition, which is merely a repetition of
similar designs, and these not a little stiff and formal. There is like-
wise too great a weight, both of form and colour, toward the top ; but
the scroll in the half pilaster is beautiful, and closely resembles that
in No. 4.

It will be unnecessary to dwell upon No. 9, since it is precisely the
same in general character as No. 5, though varied in its details, in
the disposition of the animals, and the mode of spreading the lighter
ramifications at the top.

No. 10 bears nearly the same relation to No. 4, upon which we
have already remarked at some length. It may be further observed
in reference to Nos. 4 and 10, that folds of drapery are too broad and
heavy to be successful in arabesque, its effect is seldom pleasing. I
must also protest against the birds which crown this composition.
Nature has provided a variety which makes it quite unnecessary to
seek novelty by combining the neck of one species and the tail of
another with imaginary wings. The first impression is that these
birds are meant for swans ; the second, and abiding one, that the artist
did not know how to draw a swan — he has not mended them by dress-
ing them in trousers. The scroll in the half pilaster is composed in
the same manner as in No. 5, but is better filled.

The next example may be considered a pendant to No. 7, which,
however, it by no means equals. The stem is a natural reed, each
joint conventionally expanded into a calix, from every one of which
sprouts a branch of a different species ; here are the wild celery, the

rose, the blackberry, the arundo, the privet, the grape, the olive, and
the barley. The panthers in the stucco panels are appropriately
combined with the ivy and grape.

Of the more varied and fanciful compositions on this side of the
Loggia, No. 12 is one of the best. It wants unity, and the introduction
of so dull a reality as a curtain in the midst of so many objects of pure
fancy is displeasing; neither can I reconcile myself to the termini in
the upper part. Independently of other objections, they are too es-
sentially terrestrial to enter into combination with these light sprays —
an aerial terminus is a contradiction. They are, however, well treated
when compared with those in No. 4. The separate parts of this com-
position are greatly to be admired, especially the motivo of the lower
part, and the unity which pervades the fanciful combination above it.
No. 13 is in the same style, but much superior. Taking the lower
half as complete in itself, nothing can be more gracefully designed, or
more perfectly balanced, which latter is, perhaps, after all, the most
important point in the composition of arabesques ; they will certainly
be found more or less pleasing on a first impression, as this condition
is more or less perfectly fulfilled. The solidity of the base, the
breadth of the parts forming the next step, the lightness of the Pom-
peian architecture above, and the fluttering character of the objects
which surmount it, constitute a gradation which satisfies the eye,
while the variety of detail fills the imagination. The upper parts of
both these examples abound too much in trivial and wiry details, such
as ribbons and strings of jewellery, which are introduced to convey
the idea of excessive lightness, but have rather a contrary effect, by
producing confusion, and are also too artificial to harmonize with the
general character of the composition.

The last on this side repeats No. 3 in the principal composition,
and No. 10 in the half pilaster, and therefore requires no observation.
The twelve compositions which occupy the piers on the open side
of the Loggia, differ remarkably from the 14 which have been de-
scribed, and a perfect unity of design distinguishes the majority.
This was, perhaps, the more easily accomplished, since (the architec-
ture necessarily differing from that on the side next the wall) the
dado is continued across the pilaster, and forms a separate series of
panels, each of which is filled with a natural or imaginary being,
adapted to the element of water. The half pilasters are also omitted
on this side, and a greater breadth of design given to the stuccoes
which are brought into immediate contact with the larger arabesque.
In No. 15, the artist has chosen the apparently incongruous subject
of fish to combine with his foliage. In a painting by Hogarth we see
in the fashionable furniture of one of his scenes, a composition o f
foliage inhabited by fish instead of birds, and though this absurdity be
intended as a caricature of the taste of his day, it is no great exagge-
ration of the fact. In this design, the foliage and the fish are brought
together without the slightest violation of probability ; the fish have
been hung to the branches; the variety of their forms and colours
produce an admirable effect, and above all, they are perfect in the
condition, more especially indispensable in objects not intrinsically
graceful or pleasing, of being represented witli the most absolute
truth to nature. We have the haddock, the lobster, the dory, the
cuttle-fish, the whelk, the perch, the shrimp, the crab, the gorbill, the
muscle, the cockle, the mullet, and the anchovy. This example may
teach us that objects for decoration may be sought throughout the
whole range of Nature's works with hopes of success.

A more graceful conception than the double scroll which forms the
subject of No. 16 it is difficult to imagine. It combines unity of de-
sign with an unexceptionable balance of parts, and the most perfect
lightness devoid of any thing trivial. This composition might be con-
sidered absolutely faultless, were not the two figures placed within the
scroll rather too small to bear a proportion to some analogous forms,
combined with other parts.

Of No. 17 it can hardly be said the effect is pleasing ; but both the
motivo and the grouping of the musical instruments are greatly to be
admired, as well as the skill with which the ends of the ribbon are
made to fill up and balance the composition, which is well worthy of
study, as showing how advantageously familiar artificial objects may

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

lip employed in decoration, when used in their proper place, and not
discordantly associated.

Unity is again lost sight of in the design No. 18, but the different
objects which compose it, are harmonized upon a totally different
principle from any which have been hitherto examined, and the effect
is rather dependent upon colour than on form. The panels contrast
brilliantly with the white background, and are relieved and rescued
from heaviness by the sharp dark lines which surround them ; this is
quite antique. The component parts of the upper portion of this
pilaster must not be passed over unnoticed : — the Cupid and Psyche,
the lions with their cubs, the Satyrs grouped with the lower medallion,
and the scroll work, which is entirely free from the trivial and con-
fused appendages of which there is reason to complain in some of the
former examples.

The general design of No. 19 is the same as in the last example,
but its development is scarcely equal, except in the subjects which
till the panels, which are in the highest degree classical and elegant.
I ought, perhaps, to have noticed the Tritons, male and female, which
occupy the dado of the three last pilasters, but I cannot pass over the
bird introduced into this ; we are not only presented with the form of
the creature, but the skeleton of the fish in its claw indicates its habits
also, with the most scrupulous attention to nature ; equally true are
the bull-rushes in the back grounds.

No. 20 appears to me inferior to any other on this side. The lower
part is good, but misapplied, every portion being too minute for its
place in the general design. The observation on the drapery need
not be repeated. The upper part, besides containing too many trivial
and wiry forms, exhibits two or three objectionable matters of detail
which it will be proper to point out. The swaddled children are
equally unpleasing to the eye and the imagination, and are therefore
improper objects for decoration; the heads are also objectionable.
To masks there can be no objection — we are familiar with them as a
decoration of the ancient theatre; the association does not desert us,
though neither the mask nor the manner of its application may have
any thing in common with its origin, and though it may be coloured
to the life, it is but a mask. But if a bust be introduced, unless it be
represented as a sculptured bust, it suggests the idea of mutilation, or
what is still more degrading to its character, a coloured wig-block.
And even if the heads could be tolerated, nothing can be more un-
graceful than holding the festoon in the mouth. Again, in reference
to these cornucopia (to say nothing of their being ill proportioned and
badly drawn), the blossoms and foliage which issue from them are
attached at the other end to the scroll above, so that we are in doubt
to which member of the composition it belongs, or rather, we see that
it confusedly belongs to both. On the sort of termini which finish this
arabesque, enough has already been said.

The remainder of these composi-
tions are of a different character
from any that have preceded them,
their basis being more architectural,
and suited to be the framework of a
series of figures which, in the five
last examples, reach to a much
higher order of art than mere de-
coration. The lower part of the
design No. 21, is in itself beautiful,
independently of the figures com-
bined with it, which in composi-
tion and drawing, are truly worthy
of the Roman school. They do not
appear to form any connected sub-
JHct, like the rest which follow, but
the by-play, if it may be called so,
by which they are united, greatly
adds to their value. The attitude of these lower figures, so per-
fectly adapted to the place they occupy, has its motive in their
retreat from the monkies by whom they are threatened, and the mon-
kies are held carelessly by the figures above who are occupied in

imitating with looking glasses the dragons, whose undulating forms so
gracefully supply the lighter materials of the composition. The me-
dallions which have hitherto accompanied us, are laid aside in this and
the remaining pilasters. (Fig. 8.)

Fig. 9. No. 22 is the first of these con-

nected designs to which I have
adverted. In these groups we have
the four seasons embodied in per-
sonifications truly Raffaelesque : —
Spring distinguished as the pairing
season — Summer by a group load-
ed with ripe grain, and the fruits
of the season spread at their feet
— Autumn by the vintage, repre-
sented with a grace and fancy
which it is difficult to find words
to characterize adequately, (Fig.
9,) and Winter by a composition
well calculated as a base for the
pyramid which risps from it. To
point out the beauties of this paint-
ing as regards decoration, is to take
a very narrow view of its merits ;
every one of the 14 figures it con-
tains might be studied as an ex-
ample of all that is great and
graceful in the Roman school of
art.

No. 23 also is not more remarkable for the skill with which the
parts are combined, than for their separate excellence. The niches
and superstructure, supported by caryatic figures, serve as a basis for
the three fates drawing the thread of human life. Observe well the
pertinency of all the attributes : — the respective ages of the three
females, the opening blossoms which surround the first, the ripened
fruit which accompanies the second, and the monumental character oi
the niche in which the third is placed, with the human emblem ol
mortality at her feet; and to descend to the lower compartment, we
have again to admire the perfect attention to nature in the bird, and
the berry-bearing plant in which it is feasting.

The next compartment (No. 24), is also full of a moral intention.
The principal figures are emblematical of the flight of time. The
horary dial supports an admirable group of day and night, with their
emblems, dominated by the personifications of the sun and moon ; they
are accompanied by the well known emblems of time and eternity,
and we may find much meaning, even in the steel yard, classically
weighted with heads of Janus regarding the past and the future.
None of the series is more elegantly terminated than this, though the
group does not appear to have any immediate relation to the main
subject.

Nothing can be in a higher style of art, than the personifications of
Faith, Hope, and Charity in No. 25. To enlarge upon their indi-
vidual excellence would be foreign to the present purpose. I must
only draw your attention to the manner in which they are made sub-
servient to the general design of filling the space they are intended
to decorate, and the spire-like form in which they are made to rise
from the heavy to the light.

The last compartment is dedicated to the sciences of geography
and astronomy. The terrestrial and celestial globes, borne by the
gpnius below, each support figures emblematical of that part of the
universe which they represent. On the one lies the earth-born An-
tEus at the feet of Hercules, who is represented in his appropriate
labour of supporting the heavens, while a winged being of celestial
aspect crowns the other.

Having now completed the review of this series of arabesques, it is
not my intention to detain you by any lengthened observations upon
them, such as occurred having been expressed on the immediate
occasions on which they arose. I began by stating the principles
which 1 conceived might be illustrated by this review and in con-

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

elusion, I venture to suggest the examination and study of arabesque
composition as practised by the ancients and the moderns — a com-
parison of the Baths of Titus, and the remains of Pompeii and Her-
culaneum, with the Loggia of Raffaelle, the Villa Madaraa and the
Palazzo T, as one of the most instructive lessons that can be devised,
upon the varied and original results that may be derived from the
same materials, according to the different lights in which they are
viewed, the different modes in which they are studied, and the diffe-
rent purposes to which they are applied. In the resources which the
decorative artist can call to his aid, the moderns bave greatly the
advantage over the ancients, since we possess their materials and our
own also. For as long as ancient authors are read, and ancient art
appreciated, so long will allusion to the manners, customs, poetry, and
religion of antiquity be familiar to us, and the symbols to which they
gave rise be universally understood ; indeed numberless allusions of
this kind are constantly before us, and are so familiar that we forget
to inquire their origin. In personification, and the embodying of
abstract ideas, the field is as open to us as to them, and we see to
what advantage it may be turned by the examples we have just passed
in review ; and if we add to all these objects those derived from the
useful arts and sciences which may be turned to account in the hands
of the skilful decorator, his resources maybe considered boundless.
For as we have seen in these examples, it is not the familiar aspect
of any object which should banish its representation from works of
fancv. Every thing depends upon its proper application. The ancients
made the best use of whatever they considered most appropriate, and
we must endeavour to do the same. Thus, on the pedestal of the
Column in the Place Vendome, a professed imitation of that of Tra-
jan, modern arms and habiliments occupy the place of those of the
Roman period sculptured on the original. Whether this translation
be as well executed as it might be, is not now the question. It is
noticed merely as being right in principle. One fertile source we
have, totally unknown to the ancients, from which materials may be
drawn for decoration, carrying with them the invaluable quality of
being in all cases significant as well as ornamental — I mean the science
of heraldry. I cannot help thinking that the Greeks, who used so
much diversity of colour in their architecture, would have availed
themselves liberally of the tints of heraldry in their decorations, had
they been acquainted with it. From the personal allusions it con-
veys, it might be made a much more important feature than it even
now is, in the decoration of private as well as public buildings, and we
have only to study the works of the middle ages for invaluable hints
on the mode in which it may be applied. The mere display of
shields of arms is but one mode. We shall find heraldry intimately
woven into the ornaments of our Gothic buildings, and he who can
read its language, may often understand an allusion in what may
appear, at first sight, a mere decoration. Thus, one of the mouldings
of the tomb of Humphrey, Duke of Glocester, at St. Albans, is filled
with an ornament, which, on examination, resolves itself into a cup
containing flowers, a device assumed by that Prince, says a MS. in
the college of Amis, "as a mark of his love for learning." Heraldry
has not been neglected in modern Italian art, and a very well imagined
arabesque may be seen at the town hall at Foligno, where the ceiling
is covered with foliage spreading from the centre, on the ramifications
of which are hung the shields of the nobility of Foligno for many
generations. And at Macerata there is a church decorated in a very
peculiar style, bearing throughout an allusion to the name of the
founder.

A. P.

Pompeii. — The Frankfort Journal of the 10th November, states, that the
last excavations made in the Street of Pompeii brought to light a number of
paintings in fresco, which were affixed as an ornament to four adjoining
houses. One of those paintings was remarkable for the extreme correctness
of the design, and for the freshness of the colouring. The subject of this
painting is Bacchus and a faun pressing grapes, which are home by a young
slave, whilst a child is pouring the wine into a vessel fixed in the earth.

BUILDINGS IN BELGIUM.
By George Godwin, Jon., F.R.S., &c.

" Perhaps no study reveals to us more forcibly the social condition and
true feeling of passed generations than that of their monuments."— M. Guizot.

Chapter I.

Belgium contains a multitude of interesting examples of architec-
tural skill in the middle ages, eminently worthy of careful study, and
sufficient, from the diversity of the epochs they mark and the charac-
ter they bear, to illustrate fully a history of the rise and progress of
Gothic architecture, and the re-birth of Italian art. An essay on the
architecture of Belgium, its peculiarities, its gradual alteration, and
its connexion with the architecture of other countries, would be a
valuable work, and, so far as I know, is yet to be done, notwithstand-
ing that most of her chief buildings are almost universally known.
The present memoranda consist simply of the jottings made during a
brief visit to the country in question, and are published with the feel-
ing which has in other cases led the writer to take the same course,
namely, that if every one will bring a stone, you may soon raise a
pyramid.

The domestic architecture of Belgium offers an infinite variety, and
affords numerous bints for present application. Within a very small
circle, in some cases even in a single city, examples may be found of
the different styles of building which have prevailed at intervals, say
of fifty years, from the 11th or 12th century up to the present time.
Such towns are a book wdiich those who run may read, and afford a
great amount of pleasure and information to those who will pause to
think. At Tournay, a most interesting old town, close to the French
frontier, towards the western extremity of Belgium, (and of which I
shall hereafter speak again,) there are several exceedingly ancient
houses; one of an interesting character is situated near the church
of St. Brixe. The whole is of stone, and terminates in a gable. The
windows, about 5 feet high and 4 feet wide, are each divided into two
openings by a small column with plain leafed capital. One of the lower
windows has simply a rectangular mullion down the centre, the edges of
which are chamfered to within a certain distance from the top and bot-
tom. The siring courses, consisting simply of a square member and a hol-
low, continue through the whole front, and form straight window heads,
over which are introduced discharging arches. The adjoining front
is precisely similar. In the Rue des Jesuits there are some houses of
the same character, but of a somewhat more advanced period. The
columns and caps are nearly the same as those before mentioned, and
the upper part, perhaps 50 or 60 feet in extent, consists wholly of
windows and small piers alternately.

Ghent and Malines display similarly ancient houses.

An early advance upon this arrangement would probably be the
introduction of a transom to divide the windows into four, and so to
form a croisee. In the gable of an old house at Ghent, near the Hotel
de Ville, appears a large pointed window, quite ecclesiastical in as-
pect, with mullions, traceried head, and label. A house near the
Grand Place at Tournay affords a very perfect example, of the appli-
cation of pointed architecture to a street front, at the beginning of the
16th century, and the Hotel d'Egmont at Ghent, shows, another appli-
cation of the same style at a period when it was beginning to exhibit
svmptoms of decline ; as also on a much more elaborate scale, does the
well known Maison des Franc Battliers in the same city.1

Near the Eglise de Chateau at Tournay is a large building, now the
Horse Infirmary for the artillery, which would seem to be an example
at a later stage of the decline. It is constructed of red brick and
stone, and presents gables, pointed headed windows, other square
windows divided by mullions, and large dormers in the roof. The mould-
ings, however, are Italianized, the discharging arches, partly stone
and partly brick, which occur even over the pointed headed openings,
are made into adornments, and all the ornaments which appear are of
mixed design. Later still, the line of the gable became altered into

1 Mr. Donaldson has o:ade a very interesting series of sketches lo illus-
tiate die gradual progression here only hinted at.

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[January,

a scroll, the mullions of the windows disappeared, and the Gothic
panelling on the face of the building gave place to pilasters and en-
tablatures elaborately adorned with figures, fruit, and foliage, as may
be seen in numberless examples remaining in most of the towns.2 The
Town Halls and Belfries form a striking feature in Belgium, and in
some cases are singularly beautiful. Amongst the privileges granted
to the towns when they first acquired communal rights, none seem to
have been deemed greater, or were more speedily acted upon, than
the right of building a belfry to call together the citizens, and a hall
as a general meeting place.

The Hall at Louvain, which has afforded a subject to so many of our
artists, is now unquestionably one of the most perfect specimens of a
civic building raised by the medieval architects, which remains to us.
The whole of it, a pile of crocketted canopies, corbels sculptured into
numberless figures, windows, panelling, and elegant turrets, has been
restored in a very able manner.

The Town Halls of Bruges, Audenaerde, Ghent, and Brussels, are
other examples of great interest. The spire of the latter, which is
remarkable for its lightness and elegance, is now being restored, and
I cannot avoid making this an opportunity to remark, that the desire
to restore the buildings left us by our fathers, which is, at this time, de-
veloping itself simultaneously in England, France.Germany and Belgium,
is no unimportant sign, and will serve hereafter to characterize the
19th century. Valuable as the result is, the feelings which prompt
to it, and of which it is but the evidence, are more important still.

The west front of St. Gudule at Brussels, the cathedral at Antwerp,
and St. Bavon at Ghent, are amongst the principal buildings in
Belgium, which have been lately repaired. More important perhaps
than anv, however, are the restorations now going on at the cathedral
of Tournay, which is one of the most interesting structures in the
country, whether regarded per se as a specimen of the architectural
skill of two different periods of time, or as recalling by association
the events of many ages.

Seen from a distance, with its forest of towers high above the sur-
rounding buildings, its effect is very striking; nor are the pleasant an-
ticipations so raised in any degree lessened by a close approach. In
form, it is a Latin cross, with five towers; namely, one on the east,
and one on the west side, at each end of the transept, and one at the
centre of the cross. The transept is terminated at each end by a
semi-circular absis, similar to many churches in Cologne and other
parts of Germany. The nave has an aile on each side, separated by
piers and small columns bearing semi-circular arches, which in
various parts approach the horse-shoe form. 3 Above these, is a
second range of piers and arches, of similar or greater height than
the first, forming the front of a large gallery, extending the width of
the ailes. 4 Over these, is a series of arches against the wall, spring-
ing from short piers. The clerestory and the vaulted ceiling were
the work of barbarous repairers, in 1777, and took the place of the
ancient wooden roof: they will shortly be restored to their original
appearance. B

All the capitals of the lower columns in the nave are sculptured to
represent foliage, and are exceedingly sharp and clear. In earlier
times, they were all painted and gilt, and further decorated by
scripture mottoes around the abacus. Much of the stone-work is
rough and has been covered with stucco: the columns and other
parts that were exposed, are of Tournay stone polished.

2 Lille, a French town, but close to the Belgic frontier, displays a great
number of houses of this character, of great richness, and in some cases,
much beauty. _

a The piers occupy a square of six feet on the plan, set diagonally. The
openings are 13 feet 6 inches wide, and about 11 feet 6 inches high to the
springing of the arch. There are nine such compartments on each side of
the nave.

4 'i he galleries in ancient churches were used for the purpose of separating
the sexes, and even different ages of the same sex. This was perhaps ren-
dered necessary by the custom of saluting, which then obtained amongst the
'•faithful."

5 During the whole of the 18th century continued injury was done to the
building, by injudicious endeavours to support the fabric ; many openings,
especially in the transept and the clerestory of the choir were bricked up ;
the capitals of the columns and other decorative portions were covered with
whitewash, and the frescoes which adorned the walls destroyed.

The four great arches at the junction of the cross are pointed, and
have also been embellished by colour, much of which is still visible.

The interior of the semi-circular absis, terminating the transept at
either end, is exceedingly beautiful, and produces a very striking effect.
The annexed sketch, (Fig. 1,) may serve to give some general idea
of its arrangement. At the bottom, a series of six lofty columns two
feet eight inches diameter, and about 24 feet high, built up of ten
courses of stone, and placed at a short distance from the wall of the
absis, support narrow semi-circular arches raised on legs. Over
these are two triforia and a clerestory, and the whole terminates in a
half dome with plain ribs converging to a point. 6 The capitals of
the columns consist of volutes and of leaves. The base of each
pillar has four sculptured leaves at the angles of the pedestal.

Fig. 1.

Originally the choir was about one-third the length of the building,
and terminated in an absis similar to those of the transept in form
and style. This portion of the building, however, was rebuilt, as i-
mentioned hereafter, and is now an exceedingly fine specimen of the
pointed style, resembling in some respects the choir of Cologne ca-
thedral, although executed much before that wonderful building.

The present choir has an aile and a series of small chapels on
both sides, which continue round the east end. Lofty columns bearing
acutely pointed arches, separate the ailes from the choir. In each
spandril of these arches is a circular ornament in mosaic work, and

6 These vaults aie formed of rubble work, under a wooden root, and an
less than two feet in thickness.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

above rise a very elegant triforium and lofty clerestory. Behind the
triforium is a series of peculiar quatrefoil lights, blocked up and un-
known until lately (as indeed was the whole of the triforium), but now
again filled with stained glass.

The choir is elevated above the nave by three steps, for about one-
third its extent, and then by a fourth the remainder of the length, and
is paved with black and white marble in squares. The high altar
has four additional steps. The pillars in the choir were originally
constructed with that daring which characterizes many of the earlier
efforts of pointed architecture, and soon gave symptoms of insuffici-
ency. They were then strengthened by additional masonry at the
back, and even now are remarkable for their lightness and elegance.
It mav be mentioned, that when the choir was rebuilt, the old chancel
arch which was probably semi-circular, was cut away to make room for
a pointed arch ; as also was the case at the entrance from the transept
to the aisle of the choir on each side. Painting and gilding have been
used throughout as a means of decoration, and will probably be again
resorted to when the whole of the substantial repairs have been exe-
cuted. : A series of flying buttresses (seen in the sketch, at the head
of the second chapter), surround the choir externally, and it is be-
tween these that the chapels are formed, terminating in gables.8 The
roof of the choir above the vaulting is of oak, and of great height.

Round the outside of the clerestory of the nave there is a continu-
ous gallery, formed within the thickness of the walls, and faced by small
octagon columns and arches of the Tournay stone, originally polished.9
Elsewhere there are various galleries in the walls, so that all parts of
the building are practicable.

The same stone is employed in the construction of the building as
the rock consists of on which it stands, so that it may be said to be a
continuation of the solid substratum. Nevertheless, there are many very
serious fissures and settlements, especially in the transept and choir,
which need extensive repair. The west front of the building has
been disfigured by various alterations; a groined porch in the pointed
style extends the whole length of the front, and above it a large
pointed window has been introduced, so as to destroy entirely its
original character. ' ° There is a variety of sculpture under the
porch, but the greater part of it is modern and very uninteresting.
The cathedral is entered by two doors, one on the north side of the
nave, and the other on the south, adjoining the transept. The north
door is seen in the external view of the north absis at the head of
the next chapter, (Fig. 2,) and is of the transition period. It con-
sists of a semi-circular archway beneath a pointed trefoil arch, the
whole profusely adorned with ranges of sculptured figures, animals,
and foliage. On each side of the light which occurs between the
circular and the pointed arch, is a small twisted column. The four
towers of the transept are each different in detail, and have been
executed at different times. They all display, however, a mixture of
pointed and semi-circular arches.

The whole length of the cathedral within the walls is, as nearly as
I can estimate it, 420 feet. The transept, which is nearly in the
centre of the building, is 212 feet from north to south. The width
of the nave including the ailes, is 70 feet; the choir is a few feet
wider. The height of the choir is 110 feet. As a datum for com-
parison, it may be mentioned, that Salisbury Cathedral, according to
Mr. Britton, is 450 feet long within the walls, "S feet wide in the
nave, and that the height of the choir is SI feet; in other words, it
is 30 feet longer, 8 feet wider, and 29 feet lower than that of Tournay.

' In a chapel, south side of choir, the spandrils of an arcade are painted
to represent angels bearing scrolls.

6 These flying buttresses are double. The upper arch was apparently
formed first, and this being found insufficient the lower arch was then
added.

0 There is a curious gallery of this description round the Eglise de
Chateau in Tournay.

10 The west frunt had originally two small towers at the angles. These
towers at the extremity of the west front are found in many buildings in
Belgium, at the E-jlise de Chateau before mentioned, St. Bavon, Ghent, &c.

(To be continued^)

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS XLIV.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please.''

I. Were architectural performance to keep pace with architectural
promise in this country, we should have some magnificent works ; but
as ill-luck will have it, either something or other interferes to check
the undertaking — to blight it in the bud, or the thing itself turns out
wofully inferior to promise — far more liberal than discreet. Of such
untoward turn-outs, not a few might be enumerated. The poor Edin-
burgh Parthenon was nipped in the bud : after a few cf its columns
were put up, it was discovered that " Auld Reekie " was not another
Athens, and that an Hellenic Doric face would look as awkwardly
upon the Calton Hill, as the helmet of Minerva herself upon an old
washerwoman or Meg Dods. It was to have been a temple of Scot-
tish worthies, but some one asked where they were to find worthies
to fill it ; so though that Parthenon did not fall to the ground — for
there was nothing but a few columns to fall, and they are still stand-
ing— the scheme did. Not so that of Buckingham Palace ; that w:as
erected, and remains a monument of those twins in architectural
taste, King George (IV.) and Mister Nash. We were there pro-
mised "a magnificent edifice in the most dignified style of Grecian
architecture." So magnificent was the original design — so carefully
had every part been studied beforehand, that no sooner were the two
little boxes intended for wings put up, than it was found out that they
were intolerably paltry, and must come down again ; and afterwards,
another grand discovery was made, namely, that the little dome on
the centre of the west- front, was so impertinent as to show itself from
the Park, where it was not intended to be seen — and that it would so,
might have been ascertained, by a model of the intended structure ; but
models are expensive things — too expensive to be thought of by such a
strict economist, and so careful of John Bull's pocket, as was John Nash !
The National Gallery, at any rate its facade, was to have been a pro-
digiously classical piece of architecture; whereas, its turn-out ex-
hibits to us a "beggarly account of empty" niches above, and a
cockney display of area railings, and kitchen windows below ; to say
nothing of a blank pediment — typical, perhaps, of the state of sculp-
ture in this country ; of scaffold poles left sticking by way of garde-fou
between the columns of the portico ; of the dome, which looks about
as elegant, though somewhat less droll, than the huge cowl at the Old
Bailey. The York column was to have rivalled that of Trajan, but
as it was found impossible to eke out the Duke's martial achieve-
ments so as to cover the shaft with them, that part is left quite bare :
nevertheless, it is still, no doubt, the express image of its prototype.
The Nelson monument — ah ! what was the Nelson monument to
have been, or rather, what was it not to have been? There we were
told to anticipate a work, of which English art would have reason to
be proud. " All the talents " were called out on that occasion, and we
have got a tolerably decent model of one of the five orders, upon the
top of which, Nelson will look like the wick of a candle burnt down
to its socket. Again was public expectation raised to the highest
pitch: the new Royal Exchange was to be a phoenix— in more senses
than one— an edifice worthy of the first country in the world, and of
the dignity of the City of London.— Well, if it should not exactly
answer to our ideas of what is worthy of the first, it will doubtless
amply redeem the promise put forth for it as regards the last, since
should it turn out to have a more shop-keeping than dignified physi-
ognomy, all the more characteristic may it be of the dignity of the
City.

II. Hardly will his letter to the Athenceum obtain for Professor
Cockered a benediction from Professor Pugin ; neither is it likely to
be much better relished by Puseyites, Camdenists, and " Ecclesiolo-
gists," and whatever other 18/8 there may be of the same kind.
" Until the subject of our ancient architecture is studied," says the
Professor, " the true spirit and intention of that architecture will

M

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

never be understood ; and it will then, possibly, be found, that the in-
tercessions of saints, and the pride of heraldry, are not in accordance
with the free spirit of a Protestant, and a free people of the 19th
century; and we may then shake off this dull, unmanly copyism which
disgraces our school, and daring to think for ourselves, invent and
perfect an architecture suited to the ideas religious and moral of our
times, and in accordance with the materials and structure of an im-
proved practice .'" There's heresy for you, with a vengeance! What
say you to that Joseph Gwilt ? Why, the smallest of the "small-fry "
could have uttered nothing half so mischievous and vile! Invent, in-
deed ! — perfect too ! By the beard of Vitruvius — if he wore one — it is
truly scandalous. — " Dull, unmanly copyism !" What say you to that,
Sir Robert? — the audaciousness of it must make your hair stand on end.
What say you again, Friend Welby, to that same fling at " copyism,"
and the expressive hint, that the spirit of our ancient architecture is
not exactly in accordance with the spirit of the 19th century ? Well,
after all, you have reason to comfort yourselves that Cockerell did not
have a fling at Lord Shrewsbury and his "Inspired Virgins," who turn
out, it seems, to be just what might be expected of miracles and
miracle-mongers in this 19th century.

III. Architectural painters and draftsmen are privileged, it may be
presumed, to lie with impunity, a licence of which some avail them-
selves so freely, that some of their productions are no better than so
many downright graphic falsehoods, which, by greatly exaggerating
or flattering the buildings so shown, cause disappointment when we
afterwards behold them. It is a very common mode of lying, with
them, to draw their figures, which should always serve as a faithful
scale to the architecture, so much smaller than they ought to be as to
convey the idea of the buildings being very much larger than they
really are. Another common piece of deception is to throw in forced
effects of light and shade that are never to be seen in the real objects.
By no means is it an uncommon trick to put in, not merely positive,
but most violent and exaggerated shadows on the upper part of a
building, while all below is quite light; — shadows which we must
suppose are occasioned by a score of balloons hovering over us just
up in the air.

IV. It was to be hoped that the invention of the Daguerreotype
would ere this have been turned to a very great account for the study
of architecture, and have been made to supply us with perfect and
trustworthy representations of buildings, more especially of such as
have not yet been represented at all. With regard to subjects of the
latter kind, this does not appear even likely to be the case. Cer-
tainly it is not so with the "Excursions Daguerriennes ;" for there
some pains seem to have been taken to select some of the stalest
subjects possible, and to avoid any which in addition to their in-
trinsic attractions, would have those of novelty and freshness. This
is rather — or more than rather — provoking, so exceedingly perverse,
in fact, that one is quite puzzled to account for it. Those who pro-
vide the engravings for the large sheet almanacs, seem to have the
same relish for staleness of subject. The Cambridge almanac for
this year has an interior view of the hall of Trinity College, instead
of the facade of the new Assize Courts, as might have been expected,
and which, shown upon that scale, would have formed an interesting
architectural plate. Again, there has been so very little building
going on of late, and that little so undeserving of their notice, that
the " Stationers" have been obliged to go to Greenwich Hospital for
the subject of the engraving to their almanac. Well, some fifty
years hence, perhaps, the turn will come for Cockereil's Sun Fire
Office, and Moxhay's Commercial Hall.

V. A sort of materialism seems to be just now prevailing in archi-
tectural doctrine, that is more likely to give us able builders and
cunning "artisans" than real artists in their profession. No doubt, in a
merely utilitarian point of view, it is far more important that we
should have the former than the latter. Art may be dispensed with,
or treated as sometbing altogether subordinate ; but then, let us, in
fairness, abate our claims in behalf of architecture itself, as one of
the fine arts, and to which, in its quality of such, we look for aesthetic
charm and power. " Mere builders," is quite as strong a term of

reproach as " mere artists ;" and is one by very far more generally
applicable than the other, since there are but comparatively few in
the profession — and not everyone among the professors themselves—
who show themselves to be artists at all; most of them being no
better than respectable copyists and plagiarists, unable to catch the
spirit of their models, and both preserving that, and combining with
it some spirit of their own, to give us some fresh ideas wortli having,
and produce works that might deserve to become models in their
turn. It must be admitted that the studies belonging to an architect
are very multifarious; yet, while undue stress is laid upon some,
which, after all, are but means — the mere scaffolding of his art — that
which is assuredly not the least important among them is overlooked,
namely, the study of design, by which is to be understood some-
thing more than that mechanical species of it, which may be learnt
secundum artem. "But," say the feeble and the timid, " it is safer to
stick to mere rules: to pretend to deviate from them, and aim at
originality is very presumptuous, and moreover, exceedingly hazardous
and dangerous." No doubt: yet it is by that daring which some
call rashness, that glory is won, and through perils and hazards that
conquest is achieved — in art as well as in arms. Of course those
whose valour and prowess are calculated for nothing more arduous
and perilous than a sham fight or review, do well to abstain from
entering a field where only master-spirits may hope to win, and
where even they may fail and fall.

VI. Greatly do I envy Professor Donaldson the possession of that
pair of spectacles, which enables him to discern " lines of palaces at
Pimlico and on the north side of the New Road," and magnificence
in Regent Street! George Robins could hardly have been more
liberal of praise in one of his puffing advertisements; and from him.
such puff would have been received for just what it is worth ; but
from a Professor and ex cathedra ! it is tin pen fort. Such excessive
liberality on the part of the Professor at University College, is the
more remarkable, because he could not find even one syllable of praise
to bestow on a certain building in Gower Street, which some hold to
be a very fair piece of architecture, although they are so fastidious
in their taste, as to have no admiration for Pimlico palaces — not even
for the palace, and for Regent Street magnificence. Perhaps the Pro-
fessor was afraid of alluding or calling the attention of his auditors
in any wav, to the portico of the building they were assembled in,
knowing that its columns had been compared by one very great au-
thority in such matters, to "Ten Cyprians," a class of ladies that
ought not to be allowed at Colleges and Universities. As to the
great critical authority alluded to — one, by the bye, who holds archi-
tectural criticism generally, in abhorrence, much as he has scandalized
at " Wilkins' Corinthian Cyprians," he is quite enamoured with those
of St. Martin's Church.

NEW ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY EXTRAORDINARY.

Some witty but malicious wag has just been amusing himself by
circulating a hoaxing jeu d'esprit, which imports to be a list of the
officers of a new Architectural Society, and in so doing has made ex«
ceedingly free with many respectable names, attaching to several of
them some of the most ludicrous titles imaginable. We suspect that
it comes from some one who is no very great admirer of Mr. Gwilt
and his opinions, for that gentleman's name stands very conspicuously
at the head of the list, wheje he is sneeringly designated "Professor
of Latin architecture," — a style of architecture never heard of before
— and as " Vitruvian Professor," which last title seems to be intended,
to be a double shot, and to allude contrastingly to Mr. Hoskiug as the
"Anti-Vitruvian Professor," and therefore in Mr. Gwilt' s opinion, a
Professor of Architectural Heresy and Radicalism. Then we have
Mr. Valentine Bartholomew, "Professor of Fruit and Flower-painting,"
— an odd sort of appointment in a college of architects ; Mr. G. Aitch-
inson, "Professor of Concreting and Opus Incertum," — in which last
there are, if no professors, plenty of practitioners already. How Mr.
Billings will relish the title of " Itinerant Delineator," we know not ;

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Jl

but it is a tolerably safe one, since no one will care to rob him of it,
the epithet being just next door to that of strolling player. Mr. W.
Bartholomew is named as " Honorary Solicitor," and if by that is
meant he is to do all the law business of the society " gratis for no-
thing," he must be a real phoenix in his profession — something more
wonderful than all other Professors put together. We never heard,
before, of " Baptisterograpter," yet such is the high-sounding title
conferred upon a Mr. W. P. Griffith. Besides these, there are a
"Custos,"1 a "Recorder," and a " Cataloguist " ! Of Professors of
one kind or other there are no fewer than eight ; so that the title is
likely to become quite a drug — so dog cheap that no one will think it
•worth having. But the drollest thing of all still remains to be men-
tioned : would it be believed that these professed and professing
"Free-masons" have got a female among them, contrary to the well-
known regulations of that mysterious craft? And what office does the
lady fill ? Is she their " Professor or Professoress of cookery." Oh,
no ! There would be nothing very ridiculous in that ; especially as
there is a "Gibbons' Carver," and there must, accordingly, be a cook
to provide materials for him to operate upon. No, the lady's office is
to be that of — guess if you can, but we defy you to do it ; therefore
not to teaze you any longer, tell you it is to be that of "Embroidress!"
Think of Professors, and a Vitruvian Professor among the rest, being
jumbled up with an " Embroidress " — alias a Professor of Millinery !
O, Vitruvius, how art thou fallen ! Dignity of Art, how art thou
sunk ! — so low that ne'er shall we be able to dig thee out again .'

Not contenting himself with this bit of quiz, the author of it has
very unceremoniously mentioned several gentlemen as individuals on
•whom it is proposed to confer Honorary Fellowships, and has even
had the audacity to make free with the name of Charles Barry; which
is certainly carrying the joke a little too far. He has also put down
those of both Willis and Whewell, and we need not say very blunder-
ingly, since the " Vitruvian Professor" holds their writings in such
contempt, that he has thought proper to omit them in the list of archi-
tectural works inserted in his Encyclopaedia. It being merry Christmas
time, some license may perhaps be allowed to the jokers and lovers of
fun ; but we suspect that many of the parties who figure in this jeu
d'esprit, will consider it very sorry fun — not at all better than a fort
mauvaise plaisanttrie.

RESTORATION OF THE CHURCH OF SAINT MARY,
REDCLIFFE, BRISTOL.

[It affords us much pleasure to be able to lay before our readers the
following address of the Vicar and Churchwardens of the church of
St. Mary, Redeliffe, Bristol, on the proposed works necessary to be
done to restore this noble specimen of ecclesiastical building to its
pristine grandeur; and we are happy to see that the combined talent
of Messrs. Britton and Hosking have been engaged to report upon the
necessary works requisite to be done : the one is well known for his
antiquarian disquisitions and his love for all that concerns the Chris-
tian architecture of Great Britain, and the other for his thorough
knowledge of construction and architecture, which insure that the
public will have that justice done to the building that it so well
merits. We heartily join in the appeal, and do hope that every ar-
chitect will exert his influence, in stimulating the public to come for-
ward with subscriptions, for the restorations requisite this noble
edifice.]

The Vicar, Churchwardens, and Vestry of the Parish of St. Mary,
Redeliffe, having resolved upon a public and extended appeal on be-
half of the venerable and once splendid fabric entrusted to their care,
prepared and circulated, in July last, an address briefly stating the

1 QuEere, should not this be " C'ustnrd-maktr P"

Printer's Devil,

circumstances which appeared to them to justify such appeal. That
address explained the preliminary steps which the parish authorities
had adopted, and especially their selection of Mr. BfilTTOM to advise
respecting the decayed state of their church, and the best mode of
restoring it to its pristine integrity and beauty, with their reasons for
such selection. The result of their communication with that gentle-
man was his calling to his aid Mr. Hosking, Professor of architecture
and of the arts of construction, at King's College, London, whom the
Vestry, at Mr. Britton's request, have associated with him in the
commission.

These gentlemen having carefully and fully sup-eyed the church,
presented to the parish authorities luminous and detailed reports, on
all the matters referred to them, accompanied by plans and drawings
illustrative of their views. In the conclusion of their preliminary
address the parish authorities stated that the reports were thought
too copious for printing on that occasion; but that in a subsequent
appeal, an analysis should be given, to embrace their more leading
and prominent parts, and illustrated by copies of some of the draw-
ings. It is in fulfilment of this intention, and of the pledge contained
in their former paper, that the Vicar, Churchwardens and Vestry, now
present this more extended address, in the hope and belief that the
public will feel as well satisfied as the parish authorities in their pre-
liminary address stated themselves to be, that the able and eminent
architects alluded to, have, in their consideration of the matters re-
ferred to them, " been governed by views not less honourable to their
reputation for taste and science, than for sound and practical know-
ledge, and that could the views of those gentlemen be carried out.
our city would possess a parochial church, and the west of England a
national monument, of unequalled beauty, and one to be visited and
admired by multitudes of strangers of our own and of foreign
nations-"

In their reports on the present state and contemplated repairs and
restoration of the church of St. Mary, Redeliffe, Messrs. Britton and
Hosking commence by drawing the attention of the parish authorities
to the injuries sustained by the fabric, from the long-continued access
of damp and moisture, both in the superstructure and foundation
walls — produced, as to the former, by the insufficient means for carrying
off the rain and snow — and, as to the latter, by the want of drainage;
both which deficiences they principally ascribe to the original ar-
rangement for the discharge of water from the roofs, and want of
drainage round the fabric. To the former of these defects, they at-
tribute, in a great degree, the injury to, if not destruction of, the
external faces of the Masons' work upon the wall* and buttresses.
Thev have, in much detail, set out the nature, extent, and causes of
the mischief; and, in a subsequent part of their report, have sug-
gested, with like detail, the extensive and efficient measures recom-
mended for remedying the evils alluded to, and for preventing their
future recurrence.

They describe the roof covering as, throughout, in a very defective
state, though heavy expence is anuually incurred in repairing it; and
they suggest its entire re-arrangement and re-construction, upon the
principles described in their reports.

They have also ascertained and have very accurately described, an
original defect existing in the great tower, evinced in a bulging out-
wards of the. external faces of that part of the structure, and pro-
duced by an inequality of strength and resisting power between the
finely-wrought and closely-jointed masonry of the faces, and the rub-
ble backing which constitutes the main bulk of the walls ; and they
state that, with the exception of the tower and the flank wall and
buttresses of the south aile of the chancel, all the walls and founda-
tions, throughout, appear to be perfectly sound and but little injured
They attribute the settlement outwards of the flank wall first noticed
to the want of proper drainage before alluded to, and to the too near
approach of graves to the foundations of the wall in question, which
are not, in that part of the fabric, more than four or live feet in depth;

12

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

and they state that, by an attempt formerly made, to prevent the
flank from going further, or to hold it up, mischief has been occa-
sioned to the pillars which stand between it and the chancel, and,
through those pillars, to the clerestory resting upon them. They ex-
press their opinion that the chancel is in an insecure state therefrom,
and point out in very strong and clear terms the mischief and danger
to be apprehended, unless immediate attention be given thereto ; and
they enter, at considerable detail, into the comparative inefficiency of
the repairs which have been from time to time effected.

Recurring to the tower, they state, that the solid structure of this
beautiful work is generally sound and trustworthy, though its exterior
sm/ace has almost wholly perished; and that from the dilapidated
state of the whole exterior and especially of the enrichments pre-
viously noticed by them, the tower is unsafe to approach ; and they
therefore recommend means for excluding persons from passing
within reach of the danger to be apprehended from the constant
liability of fragments of stone, of no mean size, to become detached,
and to fall in every direction.

They represent the masons' work of the spire as generally sound,
though the surface of the stone upon the exterior is rapidly disinte-
grating from the causes described in the report.

In proceeding to advise as to the solid and substantial repair of the
fabric, in its more important parts aud the restoration of the orna-
mental parts, Messrs. Britton and Hosking state that so intimate a
connexion exists between the parts of such a building as that under
consideration as to render what may appear to be merely ornamental
in most cases essential to the stability of the structure — that they
feel themselves compelled to report on these two heads together; and
they furnish very able and sufficient grounds for their determination —
but dividing the subject into two parts, viz. : —

First, the tower and spire — and second, the church with the lady
chapel, the porches and other accessories.

With respect to the first, it would be injustice to the architects to
give in any other language than their own, the suggestions they have
offered, viz . :

'■The Tower and Spire. — This singularly beautiful composition is alto-
gether distinct in style and date from the Church, which has been added to
it, and deserves, as it requires, to he considered, not as a merely provincial
edifice, and far less as a simple parish steeple, but as a national monumen t,
and in the first rank of the many noble structures of the kind in existence in
this country. In magnitude it is exceeded by few ; in destined altitude, the
larger Cathedrals alone would excel it ; and in chaste simplicity of design,
combined with elaborately beautiful, but subdued and appropriate, deco-
ration, Redcliffe tower is surpassed by none ; whilst it is pre-eminent in its
position, on a lofty bank of the Avon, within the commercial capital of the
west of England. We have already intimated, that the solid structure of the
tower is sound and trustworthy, and that it is capable of being easily made
to bear all that it was ever intended to carry. The structural arrangement
of the tower itself, and of the existing portion of the spire, give the com-
pletest evidence that the original design contemplated as it provided for a
spire of the form and proportion exhibited in the accompanying engraving of
the church. It would appear, however, that when the church was built the
idea of completing the spire was abandoned, as the south-western buttresses
of the tower were reduced in projection, and otherwise altered to compose
with the west front of the church — and the south-eastern angle was altered,
throughout, to extend the nave of the church uninterruptedly to its western
front. The tact and skill with which the outer, or south-western angle of
the tower was altered, and the fine taste with which the turret pier, in front
of the church, which composes with the reduced buttress of the tower, is
arranged, to connect the parts of the composition, are most admirable ; but
not so the arrangement at the other angle — where a low, heavy arch, and an
unmeaning blank, upon a heavier pier, obtrude themselves immediately
within the church door — contrasting, most disadvantageous!)- too, with the

composition of the arches of the aile, and with the clerestory on the other
side of the entrance.

" It may be remarked here, that, at the time RedclifFe church was built,
the taste which produced the original design of the magnificent superstruc-
ture to the tower no longer existed ; spires were not built to Gloucester
cathedral nor to Bath Abbey church, in the 15th century — as they had been
at Salisbury, Norwich, and Litchfield, in the 13th and 14th centuries; com-
paratively small spires, on lofty towers, as at Louth and Newcastle — or
lanterns, as at Boston, indicate the prevailing taste, in that respect, when
tlus church was built, and the abutments of the spire of the original design
were altered or removed. In this manner the incomplete or demolished
spire was left, and the original composition was shorn of its fair proportions.
" In compliance with the instructions to us, to advise as to such alterations
in the restoration of the ornamental parts of the fabric both external and
internal as may seem necessary for reinstating it to its ancient and pristine
beauty, we urge, most strongly, the necessity of restoring, at the same time,
the perished surfaces of the tower, and its immediate accessories, adapting it
to receive the completed spire, and carrying on, to completion, that beautiful
feature of a masterwork of architectural composition, which, in its truncated
state, is but an unpicturesque deformity. Thus the original design may be
both restored and completed, and Bristol possess a noble national monu-
ment, that will add to the beauty of her locality and to her pre-eminence
amongst English cities.

" In restoring the tower, as contradistinguished from the superimposed
spire, it will, of course, be proper that the work should be set upright on all
its faces ; and, in doing this, it will become necessary to take out and rein-
state the whole of the ashlaring of the surfaces, even when it might other-
wise remain, though that, indeed, is of very small extent. Moreover, all the
stones upon which the enrichments occur must, of necessity, be drawn,
wherever the enriched surfaces are defective, and these requirements together
would involve the reinstatement of all the external surfaces of the tower.
Paring old work, and pinning in patches of new stone, where there is not any
left to pare, we consider altogether out of the questiou — as paring would
reduce the original proportions of the design — and pinning in, among the
pared faces, pieces in the place of stones altogether ruined, would not pro-
duce a restoration of the fabric to its ancient and pristine beauty. The
absolutely necessary restoration of the faces of the tower, with its buttresses,
turrets, pinnacles, niches, canopies, pediments, windows, and their enrich-
ments, parapets, cornices, and corbels, will give the means of doing all that
is necessary, with a trifling exception, to fit the tower to receive the spire of
its full dimensions. This exception involves an alteration within the church ;
but we shall be able to show that what is required there can be made, not
only consistent with, but most desirable for, the services of the interior.

" The existing portion of the spire is, fortunately, quite enough to give the
means of developing the original design, whilst it affords demonstrative evi-
dence that a complete spire was contemplated by the original designer of the
structure. If lines be drawn from points within the footings of the buttres-
ses of the tower, through the base of the spire, on the summit of the tower,
they will follow the sides of the spire, as far as it now exists, and meet at
such a height as similar compositions of equal date would justify by analogy .
We have drawn such lines, or rather we have set up the present compartment,
as it exists, and find that its thrust is within the abutments afforded by the
buttresses, and that the sub-structure generally has the strength necessary
to carry the superstructure resulting from carrying it up to the height indi-
cated ; which height results from a continuation of the same lines upwards,
and is further justified by the best existing examples of works of the same
class.

" The decorations of the spire, as it exists, are of singular beauty and pro-
priety; the ribs are exquisitely moulded, and the characteristic enrichment
of the vertical and pointed mouldings of the tower below, is carried with
great good taste and beautiful effect up into the spire, so that nothing has to
be imagined in that respect ; and we may say with confidence, that the de-

CHURCH OF ST. MARY, REDCL1FFE, BRISTOL.
VIEW FROM THE SOUTH-EAST, WITH THE SPIRE,

AS PROPOSED TO BK RESTORED.

The general style of architecture and the ornamental details of the church ahove indicated are replete with beauty, and present to the
eye ef the tasteful and intelligent observer a series of exquisite subjects for study and contemplation as viewed from different points. The
view from the south-east, as shown in the annexed woodcut, represents the tall and narrow south transept, with its aisles, windows, highly
enriched flying and attached buttresses, perforated parapets, and purfled pinnacles ; the south porch, of two stories, and newly designed
staircase turret, the flying buttresses and clerestory windows of the nave, with the bold crocketed pinnacle, which surmounts the stairs at
the south-west angle ; rising above the west end of the northern aisle are seen the upper or belfry story of the noble tower, with its
richly adorned panels, boss-enriched mouldings, and perforated parapet ; the bold and finely proportioned octagonal pinnacles at the
angles of the tower ; and rising from among them the lofty graceful spire, crowning and adorning the whole. Of this last splendid and
heaven-pointing architectural member of a Christian edifice, there are numerous examples both in England and on the Continent, which
are now admired as they deserve to be admired; but, however meritorious and beautiful may be the spires of Strasburg, Salisbury.
Freyburg, Lichfield, Norwich, Louth, or others of less note, Redcliffe spire, in form and detail, as indicated by its existing portion,' and
as it is susceptible of being rendered, with the tower, its legitimate base, may challenge a comparison with them all.

' VI i e " existing portion" of the spire is not more than one-fifth of the whole height, or up to the first enriched band.

CHURCH OF ST. MARY, KEDCLIFFE, BRISTOL.
VIEW OF THE NAVE, ETC., LOOKING TOWARDS THE EAST, RESTORED.

Divested of pews, seats, and other furniture of a Protestant church, the above print shows the architectural character and details of
the Interior of this truly beautiful edifice. If not equal in sculptured decoration to the gorgeous chapels of Henry VII, London, and
King's College, Cambridge, it will bear comparison with those justly famed buildings, and will be found to surpass most of the cathedrals
and other large churches of our own and of foreign countries in this respect. Although in miniature, this beautiful delineation in wood
engraving displays the finely moulded and shafted piers or pillars, with the arches to the aisles, and the panelled walls above them in the
situation of the triforium of the large cathedrals. Over this traceried wall is a series of clerestory windows of large dimensions, and of
fine forms and proportions, with mullions and tracery. These, it is reasonably inferred, were originally filled with stained glass " casting
a dim, religious light " over the whole scene. Connecting, and apparently tying together, the two side walls, is a groin-vaulted ceiling,
profusely adorned with intertwining moulded ribs, foliated tracery, and richly sculptured bosses spreading over the whole. In the view
presented by the engraving, the eye ranges through a beautiful vista full of the most charming architectural effects. It requires but little
stretch of fancy to imagine the exquisite, and indeed sublime, appearance of the whole, were the windows filled with pictured glass, and
the ribs, bosses, and capitals of the vaulted ceilings, and of the shafted pillars, with gold and colours " richly dight."

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

13

sign, as we present it, of the tower, with the restored spire, is a true pre-
sentment of the original intention of the first designer. We may have
omitted to state hitherto, however, what is most satisfactory to know, that in
the midst of the dilapidation and disintegration which pervade the work,
not/iing in the moulded forms or other enrichments, and nothing in the forms
and proportions generally, is entirely lost ; hnt specimens remain, from which
restorations may be made with certain truth.

" It will be remarked, that the basement of the tower, in the drawing of
the elevation of the west front, shows a greater depth of faced work than
appears at present. This we consider it desirable to restore, to prevent the
structure from losing any part of its apparent elevation, in raising the level
of Redclift'e Street before the north-west entrance to the enclosure j and we
have suggested, in the drawings, a re-arrangement of the steps of approach
to the church, in accordance with this view. We propose to alter the win-
dows of the tower, from their present forms and proportions, to others,
more in character with the design of the superstructure."

For the reasons detailed in the report, Messrs. Britton and Hos-
king recommend that attention should be first directed to the resto-
ration of the tower and spire ; and that the former should, under the
circumstances, not be deferred any longer, if it be desired to preserve
this beautiful monument from utter destruction.

Speaking of "the church, with the lady chapel, the porches, and
other accessories," after the recommendations before alluded to, as to
what are termed the hydraulic arrangements and the proposed re-
construction of the roofs — Messrs. Britton and Hosking suggest a new
gateway at the north-west corner of the church enclosure, and other
arrangements consequent upon the recent alterations under the Bristol
Improvement Act, and for giving more effect thereby to the beautiful
edifice under consideration ; and, after their valuable suggestions for
the substantial repair of the fabric, in the south flank of the chancel
and the transept, they refer to their drawings, as showing with suffi-
cient clearness the restorations they propose of the various parts of
the exterior of the building ; which restorations, they state, are
mostly from existing authority within the building itself — and where
no specimen exists of the original parts, the restorations are stated
to be made, to the best of their judgment, from analogv. Repeating
their difficulty of separating the substantial from the ornamental parts
they go on to show that many portions commonly considered merely
ornamental are either absolutely necessary, or highly useful, to the
substantial structure; and after naming several instances of this sort,
they add : —

" We do not contemplate, however, and cannot imagine that the necessary
and useful reparations are required to be made in merely shaped blocks of
stone without the mouldings and other decorations appropriate to them ;
and, for ourselves, had rather see the church a picturesque ruin, than be
instrumental in restoring it to strength without its native beauty. We pro-
pose, therefore, the restoration of all the decorations that ever existed upon
the surfaces of the work, and that with new materials, and not by paring and
patching the old."

They add, however, that, in some few cases, the heads of the win-
dows, with the tracery in them, may, perhaps, be preserved.

The architects propose to move the modern attachment to the
south porch, also the lobby to the lady chapel, and likewise the sheds
and other unsightly objects about the church, and of the doorway and
steps at the south-east side of the north porch ; they further suggest
certain provisions and restorations consequent on such removals.

As to the interior of the Church. — The suggestions of Messrs.
Britton and Hosking refer to matters of which they describe the
restoration for the most part as easy. But the most important res-
toration of the interior is that at the east end, involving the removal
of Hogarth's pictures, and other inappropriate attachments, and the
reinstatement of the east and clerestory windows; and they hope to
find that reparations only will be wanted to the screen, between the

chancel and the lady chapel. The latter will want certain alterations,
including a new floor.

In the restoration of the spire will be involved some alterations,
pointed out by them, at the west end of the church, including a new'
arrangement for the organ; and they express their hope, that as the
whole of the lead and glass must be removed from the windows for
the restoration of the mullions and tracery, it may, in the principal
ones at least, be reinstated with stained glass of an appropriate
character.

They also propose in detail numerous and important alterations in
the re-arrangement of the pews and seats, by which, with an increased
seat accommodation, and belter command from the pulpit, reading-
desk and altar, a more perfect view of the building may be obtained,
whilst all the beautiful pillars shall be in every case insulated, that
the eye may range over their lofty and symmetrical forms and pro-
portions, from the base to the summit.

The reports of Messrs. Britton and Hosking, with their accompa-
nying drawings, though (for want of more time and labour than they
have yet been able to bestow) not made with the fi-.lness of detail re-
quired for actual operations, are, nevertheless, the result of admea-
surements and of careful delineation of the most important parts;
and their observations arise from close examination of the work in
general and in detail, upon personal survey and attentive study and
consideration of what they have observed; and their estimatt
joined are the result of such survey and consideration, and also upon
comparison with the cost of other large works of analogous extent
and character.

The Tower and Spire.— The complete reinstatement and lesto-
ration of the tower with its pinnacles, and all its decorations, in the
manner, and with the stone they contemplate adopting, will cost
about £8,200.

The re-construction and completion of the spire, according to the
data afforded by the existing portion thereof, and according to the
drawing of the west front restored, and making the requisite addi-
tions to the buttresses of the tower, and including the scaffolding and
machinery necessary, will cost about £3,(300.

The Church, with the lady chapel, the porches, and other accesso-
ries:—

1st. — The hydraulic arrangements, including new roofs to the church
and lady chapel, the re-arrangement of the north-west approaches,
with the earthwork, drains, &c, as recommended in their general
report, after giving credit for old materials, will cost £1,850.

2nd. — The substantial repair and reinstatement of the interiors, and
the repair, reinstatement, and perfect restoration of the whole of the
exteriors of the church, lady chapel, and porches, including the re-
working of the whole of the external decorations in the stone alluded
to, together with the alterations and presumed improvements recom-
mended in the general report, it is estimated will cost nearly £21,400.
3rd. — The re-arrangement and refitting of the interior of the
church as proposed by Messrs. Britton and Hosking, will cost £2,000.
The whole presenting a total outlay of £37,650, which, with a due
estimate for contingencies, in works so extensive, and of such com-
paratively novel character, cannot, in the judgment of the parish au-
thorities, be safely calculated at a sum much less than £ 1' ',' >• II I.

It is, however, stated by the architects, that the expense under the
2nd head may admit of reduction, by their finding, on further exami-
nation, portions of the work capable of remaining, or of being re-
worked and re-applied in places less exposed to the weather, and it
is their opinion, that the part of the work contemplated in this section
may, after precautions are taken to secure it, generally be distributed
over any reasonable number of years.

In allusion to the large sum required for effecting the object in all
its proposed details, the parish authorities can but repeat, in the lan-
guage of their preliminary address, that such an amount is only to be
raised by the liberal co-operation of those whom providence Ins

II

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

blessed with the ability and the desire to aid in such objects as that
for which this appeal is intended ; and upon those of our own locality
who have been so favoured by providence, they repeat their confi-
dence, that an appeal will not be made in vain for the restoration of a
fabric, which, if not wholly the work of a Bristol Merchant, is to be
ascribed principally to one of that class. Their confidence is strength-
ened bv the able and energetic support they have received from
many and influential quarters, and especially from our local press, by
one of whose editors it has been well and eloquently said, that "the
question for the public — for the church-going public in particular — to
answer, is, — Shall decay be suffered to proceed until restoration shall
have become impossible? The amount required (£40,000) for the
complete repair of the fabric is certainly great, but when we recollect
the large sums which have, been raised for the restoration of Hereford
Cathedral, and of York Minster, we cannot doubt that the nobility,
gentry, and wealthy commoners of Gloucestershire, Somersetshire,
and the neighbouring counties will evince equal liberality in worthily
upholding —

•' The pride of Bristowe and the western land."
The parish authorities, whilst they feel that they cannot, with pro-
priety, divest themselves of the responsibility of carrying out, so far
as they shall be enabled to do, the repair and restoration contem-
plated, feel sensibly that the public, from whom the means of accom-
plishment is so largely to be drawn, are entitled to every reasonable
security for the due appropriation of the sums contributed, and it is
therefore the desire of the parish authorities, at an early period after
any considerable subscription shall be obtained, to convene a meeting
of the subscribers, by the majority of whom, subscribing not less than
£10 each, six contributors of not less than £50 each shall be chosen,
who, with the members of the vestry for the time being, shall form a
committee for carrying out such repair and restoration, and for con-
trolling the monies received, and the expenditure thereof.

The parish authorities in aid of the object intended, propose to
anticipate, as far as they possibly can be advised to do, the revenues
of the estates vested in them for the repair and support of the
church, and by means of which, that object has been hitherto (how-
ever inadequately) accomplished without the parish having been ever
burdened by a church rate, and from this source they will apply the
sum of £2000, to be paid, as they propose the individual contribu-
tions shall be paid, by five equal and successive yearly instalments, to
meet the expenditure as it will probably annually progress.

In conclusion, the vicar, churchwardens and vestry, of St. Mary,
Redclifife, venture to quote and apply to their church, the language
used by the learned and Very Reverend the Dean of Hereford, in re-
ference to his own cathedral, which at the present moment is in a
dangerous state ; but which is likely to be preserved and renovated
by the united efforts of the benevolent friends of the church and of
Archeology. — " Restoration, is the grand object to be achieved, not
mending and patching." * * * * * "I earnestly
intreat that restoration may be regarded as the one thing sought —
sound and legitimate restoration, for which there is sufficient au-
thority."

To the preceding appeal the parish authorities append the fol-
lowing remarks and suggestions by their senior architect, who, as an
antiquary and author, has laboured nearly half a century to elucidate
and illustrate the ecclesiastical architecture of Great Britain.
M. R. Whish, near.

J"03- Paoctok, ) Churchwarden*.
John Farler, J

Extracts from the Remarks and Suggestions by Mr. Britto.n.
To those persons who are. not acquainted with Redcliffe Church, it
may be both interesting and useful to give a short account of its pe-
culiarities, beauties, and historic annals. — As a parochial Christian
temple it is acknowledged to rank, if not the first, at least in the first

class, amongst the many fine sacred edifices of our country. As com-
pared with the cathedral and conventual churches of England, it sur«
passes most in symmetry of design — in harmony and unity of charac-
ter— in rich and elaborate adornments — in the picturesque composi-
tion of exterior forms and parts — and in the fascinating combination
of clustered pillars, mullioued windows, panelled walls, and groin-
ribbed ceilings of the interior. I know of no building, to compare
with it in all these features, in Great Britain, and I feel assured that
there is none superior in graceful design, and beauty of detail, in all
civilized Europe. Except the cathedral of Salisbury, which is nearly
of one age and design throughout, the other cathedrals, and indeed
most of the large parish and conventual churches, consist of hetero-
genous parts, of varied and discordant dates and styles.

The accompanying views of Redcliffe Church, though on a small
scale, cannot fail to impress every eye that can see, and every mind
that can appreciate the beauties and merits of architectural design,
that the church, now fast approaching ruin, was once, as it may again
be made, a splendid edifice; a temple eminently adapted for the
soothing and sublime demotions of Christian worship, and also calcu-
lated to impress every spectator with wonder, delight, and admira-
tion.

The' architect and the antiquary who read plans and sections of
buildings, as the musician reads notes, will instantly perceive, that
the church referred to is systematically and beautifully arranged ; that
its interior abounds with clustered pillars, and richly-ornamented
ceilings ; that its walls are pierced with large windows, divided by
mullions, and strengthened with buttresses toresist the thrust of the
arched ceilings ; that it has a transept of unusual design, being di-
vided into three nearly equal parts; that there is a presbytery, or
chance!, with ailes, divided from it by richly-devised screens ; that
there is a lady-chapel, east of the chancel, separated by another open
screen ; that there are two small apartments, for a resident chantry-
priest, north of the chancel-aile, in one of which is a fire-place,
showing it to have been a dwelling, the whole being of unusual oc-
currence; that there is a double porch on the north flank of the
church, manifesting in form, style of walls, ribs, and stairs, different
ages of erection ; also a porch on the south side, differing, again, from
the double north porch in every respect ; that the wider and stronger
walls at the north-west angle of the plan, show the foundation of a
tower; that there is a doorway for entrauce at the west-end, central
to the nave ; and that different flights of steps, from north to south,
traverse the west-end, and show that the ground ascends, quickly, in
that direction. Aided by the accompanying engravings, of a view of
the church from the north-east, and interior ; any person may readily
understand the architectural characteristics of the church referred to ;
and those who have studied Christian architecture will immediately
perceive its peculiarities of form and arrangement, as well as the
chaste profusion of its ornamental details.

Although essential and substantial repairs and restoration be the
main objects in the contemplated works, these will be applied to the
interior even more than to the exterior of the building; for if the
latter may be regarded as the shell, the former is the kernel — if the
last be the case, the first is the jewel intended to be preserved. In-
deed, as the inside of Redcliffe Church was in its original and finished
state an architectural design of pre-eminent richness aud beauty — as
it was destined by its founder and architect to surpass all its neigh-
bours in originality of composition and elaborate finish, so was it
adapted to satisfy the wants and wishes of those for whose devotions
it was intended — the present architects, emulous to follow such ex-
ample, propose to render it fully and completely adapted for the rites,
as well as the habits, of its protestant occupants. In doing this, they
consider it material to provide accommodation for the many, rather
than merely to please the few ; they think the clergyman and his
congregation should be in such close communion, that the former may
be seen, as well as heard by the latter. If the numerous shafted

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

16

pillars tend to interfere with this communion in some degree, the few
sittings, so placed as to be out of view of the minister, will only be
resorted to on emergencies. In designing and disposing the altar,
the desk, and the pulpit, the organ, and the font, as well as the re-
quired number of seats, the most scrupulous attention will be paid by
the architects to the ancient usages of the Anglican church, and thev
confidently anticipate many striking and beautiful scenes and effects
■when the whole is completed, the subordinate appendages being made
to correspond and harmonize with the architectural disposition and
character of the church. A learned and travelled clergyman who has
devoted some years to the study of the church architecture of the
middle ages, writes to me thus — "The harmonious effect of Redcliffe
Church must at one time have been quite unrivalled. I am not aware
of any cathedral or parish church, either in England or abroad, that
contains an equal amount of rich and uniform vaulting. The bosses,
more particularly, both in quality and quantity, surpass all that I have
met with elsewhere."

To accommodate and afford every degree of comfort to even
larger congregations than have generally assembled within the walls
of this church, we have made such arrangement of the seats, as shall
bring all persons more fully and freely within sight and hearing of the
minister; and have also taken especial care to display the complete
height and design of all the graceful clustered pillars of the edifice.

There are four palpable varieties of Christian architecture in
Redcliffe church, manifesting as many architects, and as many dif-
ferent times when they were respectively designed and erected. The
inner north porch, or vestibule — the tower and spire — the outer north
p0rch — the body of the church, with the lady chapel, and the south
porch — we feel assured were built successively, and it is generally
admitted, that an older church was removed to give place to the
present nave and chancel with their ailes and the transept. The
oldest of these members, i. e. the vestibule, is of a date between A.D.
1200 and 1230. " In 1207 Lord Robert de Berkeley granted to Red-
cliffe church, at the request of William, the chaplain, his fountain of
water from Huge well, for the friars of St. John the Baptist in Red-
cliffe." Lands were conferred on the same church, about that time,
plainly showing that there was one then in the parish. The tower
and spire we may safely refer to the reign of Edward I, as corres-
ponding with known specimens of that age. According to the
chronicles of Bristol, Simon de Burton, who was mayor in 1293,
" began to build the church of St. Mary de Redcliffe, when John
Lamyngton was chaplain," — (Evans's " Chronological Outline.")
Seyer, in his "Memoirs of Bristol" (Vol. II., p. 77) from MS. Calen-
dar, more cautious and particular, says, " It was about the year 1293
or 1294 that Simon de Bourton, a person of wealth and consequence,
who was Mayor of Bristol in that year, and bore the same office six
times, built the church of St. Mary, Radcliffe, where the eastern end
now is." Here we find it positively stated by one writer, that the
church was built, and by another that it was begun, at the above date.
To us it is quite clear that no part of the present church is so early
as 1291.

YORKSHIRE ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

Sir — My attention has been drawn to a letter in the last number of your
Journal, containing remarks on the Yorkshire Architectural Society. "What
is personal in the letter may be safely left unanswered, as the tone in which
it is written will be its best counter-agent.

With respect to the Society, your anonymous correspondent has made
several statements, of the falseness of which I hope he was ignorant; these
appear to require some notice.

In his letter, it is said " The prospectus contains the names of two archi-
tects only, and neither of them attended the Autumn meeting."

Before the Autumn meeting, the prospectus contained the names of twelve
architects; I saw four present at the meeting, aud I believe more attended.

Your correspondent says, " Two meetings arc to he held in the year, and
from the information given at the la-t, it appears, that for general accom-
modation, they are to he in the remote corners of the country."

Two general public meetings will lie held during the year, the places of
meeting being various, and appointed by tin: Committee, so as to suit the
convenience of the members generally.

Again, "All admitted must he members of the Established High Anglo.
Catholic Church." It is true that this Society fur promoting the study of
Ecclesiastical architecture, admits only churchmen ; but without respect to
their peculiar sentiments. No exclusion of any member of the church has
yet taken place, and the Society, amongst its 400 members, includes many
churchmen of different opinions.

The last misstatement is, that " the standard for all buildings is to be
Parker's Glossary."

At the request of a dignitary of the church, a list of elementarv works on
Gothic architecture was added at the end of the report, as a guide to any
member beginning the study of architecture ; in this li.t Mr. I'arker's
Glossary was mentioned, together with the works of Rickman, Bloxam, &c.
This so far as I know, is the only foundation for the imaginative writer's
assertion, " that the standard for all buildings is to be Parker's Glossary."
Whether the insertion of such venturous statements on the authority of an
anonymous writer suits the character of a respectable periodical, I leave to
your judgment.

I am obliged by your having pointed out in your Editorial remarks an
unintentional omission in the advertisement there alluded to. It was con-
sidered, or rather assumed without consideration, so much a matter of course,
that the architect whose plan should he chosen, would have the carrying
out of his design, that no express mention of this was thought necessary.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,

S. Wilkinson,
Hon. Sec. to the Yorkshire Architectural Society.

Leeds, Dec. bth, 1842.

THE KENTISH TOWN COMPETITION.

Sir — Should what I am about to say appear too pointed against a parti-
cular party, that individual has mainly to thank himself for the pointedness
of some of my remarks. When we find a man pursuing that very course
which he has both loudly and publicly reprobated in others, and protested
against — we must suppose, upon principle — when we see a would-be Cato
all at once changed into a Clodius, such an offender has little reason to look
for that lenity which might perhaps be extended to those, who, whatever
their conduct may lie, at least make no parade of being greatly more upright
and conscientious than their neighbours.

That after expressing himself decidedly hostile to competition, after actu-
allv saying, " I have endeavoured to go into t he strongest possible condemna-
tion of which I am capable, of the depreciating effect of competition in ar-
chitectural design;" that after thus pledging himself in print, anil the
strongest possible manner, to be opposed to the system of competition in
any shape, Mr. Bartholomew should have liecome, or have even though! of
becoming a competitor for the intended church at Kentish Town, is indeed
most strange. He cannot disavow those words, and a great many others to
the same effect, unless he should now choose to say, that although his name
appears upon the titlepage, he is nr t the bona-fidc author of the work ; anil did
not even know until after its publication, what opinions it really contained;
yet hardly will he re»wt to sucb evasion. He must therefore put up with
the mortification of having been so imprudent as to puldish a good many
very harsh reflections that now recoil upon himself. Hardly is it possible to
conceive how a man who has denounced the whole Bystem of competition
in the most unmeasured— even virulent terms, as one compounded of folly
and knavery, and which lie accordingly laboured earnestly to put down,

should now abet it ; a Id not onlj join in a public competition, but in doing

so, should unfairly eia.le tin- restrictions laid upon others, having good
reason to know that his doing BO would I"' winked at.

In the list of printed conditions, one was to the effect that none of the
drawings sent in Bhoutd be <■»/„„,,, l. bul merelj tinted in sepia. This m
sufficiently explicit ; there was no possibility of mistaking it. Nevertl
Mr. Bartholomew's principal elevation was a coloured drawin
lie violated the instructions which Ins rivals bad been obliged to conform
to: consequently he ought in justiie to have been put Aon de combat at

16

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

once. The best that can be said in excuse for him in that matter, is h
so far he practised no deception, for the most ignorant set of men must
have been able to see whether a drawing was coloured or not, and if they
choose to violate the pledge implied in their own instructions to the com-
petitors, the dishonesty rests with them. At any rate they have no cause
to upbraid Mr. Bartholomew with having acted unfairly. But there was
one little licence of another kind taken by Mr. Bartholomew, by which they
were probably imposed upon. I here allude to the singular discrepancy
between the geometrical elevations and the perspective view, in which last,
several alterations were made, in order to improve the effect. Improvement
there was, hut it was also direct falsification. It was tantamount to saying,
" execute the building from this set of designs, and such will be its ap-
pearance." And if that does not amount to one of the tricks practised in
competition, I know not what does. By no means do I pretend to say that
Mr. Bartholomew is indebted for the decision in his favour, mainly to that
artifice. He would probably have been equally successful, had he taken the
liberty of evading the condition which required perspective drawings. I
merely mean to say that such artifice was actually practised ; and by whom ?
— by no other than the immaculate and conscientious Mr. Bartholomew,
the violent and ultra anti-competitionist, who, in another edition of his book —
should it ever reach one — may now bring forward some examples of the
ruauceuvres practised in the competition for the Kentish Town Church.

■Without any additions, however, there is enough and more than enough
in his book at present, to convict the author of the " Specifications " of the
most flagrant inconsistency. Or are we to suppose that he purposely left
himself a loophole to creep out of, in the remark, that " what every res-
pectable architect who has any real professional business to attend to, thinks
of competition, may be gathered from the well-known fact, that none such
is found to send in a competition design, unless he possess, or fancy that he
possess, direct influence for obtaining the prize!" After this, we are com-
pelled to suppose that Mr. Bartholomew would not have entered into the
competition in question at all, had he not good reason to imagine before-
hand that the prize would be secured to him by influence behind the curtain.
It seems, therefore, after all, that violent as he is against competitions in
general, he has no objection whatever to enter into one, provided he knows
that it is a mere mockery as far as others are concerned, and that however
superior may be the merit of other designs, the preference will be awarded
to his own ! He has now put beyond all doubt that he had but one in-
ducement, and that founded upon what is most corrupt in the whole system
of competition ; upon that which really brings it into disgrace, and renders
it nothing better than a system of dishonesty and intriguing — where one is to
be favoured, and all the rest are to be duped — being invited to throw away their
time in making drawings for what is arranged and all but finally settled be-
forehand. In the Kentish Town affair, however, there is something to con-
sole those who have been duped and disappointed ; for not only is it a con-
solation, but even a triumph to find that Mr. Bartholomew's anti-competi-
tion rigour has thawed and melted away — probably owing to the late very
hot summer ; and that he has to all intents and purposes publicly recanted
the furious invectives he has uttered against competition in his book. There-
fore, those last now stand for nothing — except as so many proofs of his
singular sincerity and consistency.

I remain, &c.,

Not A. B. but B duped.

THE INVENTOR OF THE DREDGING MACHINE.

Sib — I observe, with some surprise, from a review in your Journal of last
month, that you still consider the claim of the inventor of dredging by steam
power to be amongst the number of those which are not yet satisfactorily
established. You refer to a paper in the Civil Engineer and Architect's
Journal, for January, 1839, wherein the invention is unreservedly ascribed
to my grandfather, John Hughes, and during the four years which have
elapsed since the publication of that paper, no syllable has ever been ad-
vanced in opposition to this claim — a fact which carries with it peculiar
■weight to the minds of those who, like myself, are fully aware of the very'
large circulation which your Journal commands. An individual, however,
has at last thought proper to assert— I am willing to believe without the
sanction of Messrs. Rennie— that the dredging machine is the invention of
the late Mr. Rennie, their father, who first used it at the Hull Docks. In
commenting upon this assertion, you observe truly, that a very important
fact is not mentioned, namely, the year in which Mr. Rennie first introduced

it at the Hull Docks. I shall, therefore, supply this omission in order that
you, Sir, and the readers of the Journal, may estimate the value of the asser.
tion thus rashly hazarded by a self-constituted champion of Mr. Rennie. It
will be found that the first steam dredging engine employed at Hull was that
used for cleansing out the Humber Dock, which was not opened till the 30th
of June, 1809; and the following passage from Mr. Timperley's account of
this dock will fix the time at which the engine was first used.

" This dock was not cleansed for three years and a half after it was
opened, the dredging machine and mud boats not being completed until then."1
Hence it appears that the dredging machine could not have been employed
at Hull before the end of 1812 or the beginning of 1813.

While this is the fact with respect to Mr. Rennie's claim, I am in posses-
sion of a report by my grandfather, dated in 1820, where he describes
minutely every particular of his invention of the engine, and first employ-
ment of her at Woolwich, as far back as the year 1804; and not until it
can be shown that the engine was invented before this last date will the
claim of my ancestor be at all invalidated. I believe that Messrs. Rennie
have far too high a respect for honour and truth to dispute for one moment
a fact with which their respected father must have been so perfectly well ac-
quainted, as that of the invention of the machine, and her first employment
by my grandfather at Woolwich, in the year 1804. At the same time, it is
possible that a person less intimately acquainted than they must be with the
history of an invention of this nature, might be misled by the fact that
dredging machines, on the old bag and spoon principle, were employed at
Hull 50 or 60 years ago. It is even admitted, that a bucket engine worked
by horses, was used at Hull from about the year 1782. This engine was
probably the work of Mr. Rennie. That it bore no resemblance however
to the modern steam dredging engine is abundantly proved by the fact, that
many years after the horse machine was erected at Hull, the application of
steam power to the dredging engine was unsuccessfully attempted by Tre-
vethick and many other able engineers. Had Mr. Rennie's machine of
1782, been anything like the steam dredging engine, the simple application
of steam could scarely have baffled the exertions of so great a man as
Richard Trevethick, with others of his contemporaries.

With respect to your observation " that the late Mr. Rennie, together
with his talented sons, have brought the machine to that great perfection it
has now attained," I would simply remark, that the engine built by Messrs.
Donkin for William Hughes of Inverness, and used by him on the Caledo-
nian Canal, was the most perfect ever constructed. See accounts of this
engine in Baron Dupin's work on the resources of Great Britain, in your
Journal for January 1839, and in a paper read before the Institution of
Civil Engineers during the last session.
I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

8, Duke Street, Westminster, Samuel Hughes.

December loth, 1S42.

AMERICAN MARINE STEAM ENGINES.

Sir — A late number of your Journal contained some remarks concerning
American Marine Steam Engines, which were in a spirit very unlike the
usual tone of the English press in descanting upon " Brother Jonathan's "
available genius in such matters. Candid, fair, impartial criticism, no
matter how close it may chance to " cut," will do much towards removing
those mutual prejudices which unhappily exist to such an extent, that the
mere imprint of "American" or "English," is oftentimes of itself suffi-
cient to place the merits of any work without the pale of respectful con-
troversy.

This should not be ; there is not the least of necessity or of policy in
being thus deprived of the benefits of each other's experience ; as advan-
tages in some shape or other, most undoubtedly belong to each, and only
require to be known in order to be secured. As an illustration, might be
adduced the acquaintance already formed through the establishment of your
Trans-atlantic Steam Navigation Companies. One or two iustauces will
suffice. In the English marine engine we see a connecting rod 15 feet long,
and 10j inches diameter, subjected to the same direct stress with the con-
necting rod of the American engine, and which is 24 feet long and C inches
diameter; two thirds less in area, and one third greater in length, and yet
performing equally well the same labour ! By this, we are taught, that

1 See Mr. Timperley's account of the Harbour and Docks at Kingston-
upon-Hull. Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 1, p. 22.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

17

while the English engines are certainly at one extreme, we are probably at
the other. Again ; the Great Western, if you please, comes over here with
decks as "clean " as a " man of war," and returns with the singular notion,
that on her quarter deck, can be erected, at a trifling expense, a saloon equal
in every respect — and superior in many — to the one below, and making an
addition to her accommodations equal to one third of all her cabin room
below deck !

Notwithstanding the unequalled degree of perfection to which steam na-
vigation upon our rivers has attained — excepting, of course, the great river
of the west — the impression is very prevalent abroad, that in the attempt to
compete with the " Lion of the seas," we shall be found wanting — an im-
pression unfortunately, most consistent with a certain illegitimate specimen
of " Yankee enterprise," which has recently visited your shores. We think,
however, that the time is not far distant when, with a ship exceeding in
length the ordinary proportion, with engines having greater length of stroke
so as to admit of working steam at a greater pressure without adding weight
to the working parts, with paddle wheels large in diameter, very narrow,
and making revolutions not less than 20 per minute ; and with boilers
adapted to a pressure of 151b. to 201b., we shall be able somewhat to
" shorten the distance " which separates us from the " land of our fathers."
Certain it is, that our ship-builders and engineers will not be satisfied with a
steamer which will require, for a passage to Liverpool, more than ten days
of good weather.

You were pleased to notice in a favourable manner the engines of the
Spanish steamers Regent and Congress, built by the late firm of Ward,
Stillman and Co., of the Novelty iron works, New York, and to intimate a
wish to have the details of their arrangement. In answer to which, I take
pleasure in sending to you a detailed account of those vessels, together with
so much of a drawing of their engines, as will answer the purpose of your
inquiry, and which I am authorized to do by Messrs. Stillman and Co.

View of the Upper Valves.

A, Throttle valve. B, Expansion valve. C, Steam valve. D, Exhaust
valve. E, Upper part of cylinder. F, Exhaust pipe. G, Steam pipe to
lower valve.

Length on deck
Breadth .
Ditto at water line
Depth of hold
Draft of water
Burthen

Feet. Inches.
154 0
30 8
2S 8
14 6
8 6
on tons.

Frame of white oak, live oak, locust and cedar. The floor of white oak,
laid close and caulked inside and out. Planked with white oak ; fastened
throughout with copper thorough bolts, composition spikes and locust tree-
nails.

Engines : —

Diameter of cylinders 12 i indies.

Length of stroke 4 feet 7 inches.

Diameter of paddle wheels 18 feet.

Length of board 7 feet 6 inches, and width 2 feet 6 inches.

Pressure of steam 101b.

Number of revolutions per minute 2G.

Total weight of engines, wheels and boilers 100 tons.

Two copper boilers 22 tons.

Length of boilers 14 feet, height 9 feet, and breadth 8 feet.

Total of fire surface 1400 feet.

Speed of vessels 10 miles per hour.

Cost of vessel, engines and boilers, about 150,000 dollars.

It would be trifling, I fear, with the patience of your readers, to enter
into a detailed description of the drawings, representing, as they do — with
one or two exceptions — but an "old acquaintance," the " side lever engine;"
the principal deviation from which, is the steam valves, and perhaps the air-
pump bucket. The valves are shown in the section in the same position as
in the drawings you refer to as having received, and which has recently been
published in the London Mechanics' Magazine. As to the merit of this ar-
rangement of the valves, I will not now offer an opinion, except that they
are not generally used here for large engines.

As English engineers — either from strict fidelity to the opinion) of Watt,
or from much actual experience — have held us guilty of divers " barbarisms,"
in our substitutions for the use of the "slide valve," I shall make this
matter the subject of another communication, accompanied with a sketch of
the most approved form of the " double " or " balance valve."

The bucket of the air-pump, as shown in the separate sketch, for aught I
know, may not be peculiar to this country, nor is it universally adopted
here ; it has been found, however — in situations where the condensing water
is free from sand — to be far more efficient and durable than any other in
use.

The " bilge injection," shown near the bottom of the condenser, is here
thought to be an essential part of the engine of every steam vessel. And
instances have occurred in which the use of it has been attended with the
saving of much life and property.

With your permission, I will from time to time furnish your readers with
notices — accompanied with drawings — of such improvements in American
engineering, as may be thought interesting, or of such of its features as are
not familiar to our transatlantic brethren generally.
I am, Sir, &c,

A'eti; York, July 1842. F. W. S.

In our Journal for June last, we noticed that the Spanish govern-
ment had ordered, and obtained from New York two war steamers, named
the " Regent " and " Congress," and in commenting thereon we observed,
we wished some further information before we gave any opinion on the sub-
ject; we were favoured with a lithographed external view of the engines, but
we desired to look below the surface. Our wish has now been complied with,
we are in possession of an apparently perfect section of the engines of the
Regent and Congress steam ships, together with F. W. S.'s remarks thereon,
and which we now publish. We thank him, and think, if his intentions are
supported by engineers of the Old and New World; it will do much towards
the explosion of prejudice, the extension of knowledge, and general good of
mankind; that we heartily co-operate in this view, we plainly avow, as in
fact our remarks in our last December number fully prove. We are, therefore,
surprised at the opening paragraph of our correspondent, and we are uncon-
scious of having admitted anv thing into our columns which could offend his
taste. If we have descanted upon " Brother Jonathan," it was more in play-
fulness than anger, not as an opposing race, but as descendants of one com-
mon stock, to which genius is common. We think, however, onr corres-
pondent's reprehensions are misapplied, as we do not recollect using the
phrase he complains of. With tins exordium wc at once proceed to an
analysis and consideration of the engines of the Regent and Congress.

The engines are of the beam kind, and scarcely to be distinguished from
those of the Meg,era by Seaward, published by Weale in hisTredgold, pi. 49,
vol. 2. The architecture is vcrv similar to the engines of the Tiger, by
Edward Burv. (See Trcdgold, vol. 2, plates 110 and 1 10 a.) In one point
thev differ, in the use of circular valves instead of the D or Murdock slide,
and' in this it i-e,embies another emanation ofiAmerican intellect, called the
Ro,/al William (now Isabella II.) which; made the voyage to England in
1832, and subsequently figured in the Spanish war.

3

is

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

The cylinders are 421 inches diameter and 4 ft. 7 in. stroke ; at 26 strokes
or 23S feet the power is equal to 71 i horses each, or 143 horses collectively.
This is nominal power as calculated by the rules of the late Mr. Watt, appli-
cable to steam of 21 or 3 lb. per inch, but in this case we have a pressure on
the safety valve of 10 lb. per square inch, so that the actual power will pro-
bably be 150 per cent, above this, depending entirely upon the expansion
used', and we may further observe, that with a suitable arrangement, circular
valves may be made to produce any degree of expansion, at pleasure. The
air pump is 22 inches diameter, and about 2 ft. 6 in. stroke, = a content of
6-6 cubic feet. Cylinder 42A in. x 4 ft. 7 in. long = 49-46 feet content,
which divided by 66, makes the cylinder 7-5 times larger than the pump,
just the usual proportions of English engines. The condenser is 2 ft. 5 in.
fore and aft, 3 ft. 5 in. in width, and 4 ft. high, with proper deductions is
equal to a content of 24 cubic feet, and 71"5 -7- 24 = nearly 3 cubic feet
per h.p. The circular steam valves are 11J in. diameter = 103-86 area,
the eduction valves are 10 in. diameter = 78-54 area, or rather more than
a square inch per horse, a very ample allowance, and much exceeding Mr.
■Watt's rules, as will be seen by reference to Farey and other works, but
taking into consideration the increased density of the steam employed, is
judicious, and about on a par with modern slide valve practice. Our corres-
pondent is wrong in supposing that English engineers have adhered to the
slide valve " from strict fidelity to the opinions of Watt." It is otherwise ;
they have departed therefrom and followed Murdock, his disciple, who
patented the D, triangular, or other shaped sliding valve, in his specification
of 1700. (See Farev, p. 677.) We are at a loss, also, to find any novelty in
the construction of the circular valves ; they appear to us precisely similar to
those used by Mr. Watt1 in his engines of 1808. He used circular pipes,
and here we have rectangular passages. (See Farey, plate 20.) We are
equally obtuse respecting the air pump, of which we have an isometrical
drawing, and can find nothing new therein ; if our correspondent alludes to
the packing ring similar to that of the piston, we may say that system has
been followed in this country since the year 1S26, perhaps earlier. The
bilge injection is in the same category.

There is merit in the adaptation of a double beat expansion valve, though
it is by no means new, and we think we can suggest an improvement, as the
lower face can never be tight (see the annexed engraving). The other parts
of these engines are so much like the best English practice, that it is need-
less to pursue the inquiry farther. The space occupied in the vessel for each
engine is 16 ft. fore and aft, and about 5 ft. 9 in. over the main beams.

On the whole, we think the engines of the Regent and Congress to be
highly creditable to Messrs. Ward, Stillman & Co., of New York, by whom
they were manufactured, not only as evincing considerable judgment in de-
tail, but more so, in their selection of the common beam engine, which, after
all, appears to be the best kind yet produced.

THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

The fifth contract for erecting this national and truly magnificent work
nas just been entered into, and Messrs. Grissell and Peto are again the suc-
cessful competitors. This contract or portion of the work is by far the most
important that lias yet taken place, embracing as it does the Victoria Tower,
the Roval Gallery, the Houses of Lords and Commons, with other important
and necessary adjuncts thereto. The following particulars have been ob-
tained : —

The Victoria Tower, or Royal entrance, necessarily occupies the first posi-
tion in the arrangement, whether as regards the order of description or the
magnitude of its structure, which perhaps will be one of the richest and
most gigantic specimens of Gothic architecture that this or any other coun-
try can boast. Beneath this tower the Royal entrance will be formed, pre-
senting an area of 60 feet square, into which the Royal and other state car-
riages will be enabled to drive with the most perfect ease, turn round at the
foot of the Royal staircase, and depart at the entrance on the south side.
The upper stories of the tower will be used as secure depositories for public
records and state documents. The external square of the tower will be 78
feet at the principal floor level, from which point it will be ornamented with
the richest specimens of Gothic sculpture to the height of 240 feet, reaching
to the base of the four crowned turrets by which it will be surmounted.
The entire height, from the bottom of the "tower to the top of the turrets,
will be 300 feet.

The Royal entrance-hall or vestibule is the next object of interest in-
cluded in the present contract, and will be approached from the right-hand
side of the tower, leading from the principal staircase to the Royal Gallery.

1 Or rather his successors, Boulton and Watt. Mr. Watt retired from
business in 1800.

For the Royal Gallery, the next in order, no pains have been spared on
the design to render this portion of the edifice of surpassing richness and
magnitude. The upper part of the walls will be of the most elaborately-
sculptured designs of Gothic ornaments, while the lower portion of the
walls is divided into compartments intended for the reception of the most
exquisite subjects in fresco painting.

The Royal Robing-room will be next approached from the Royal Gallery,
and will strictly harmonize with the fittings and ornaments of the latter.
It will he a most splendid apartment, 40 feet in length and 30 feet in width,
immediately adjoining the house of Lords, with entrances for the Sovereign
on each side of the throne.

The Bishops' Robing-room, a large apartment on the right-hand side of
the Robing-room of Her Majesty, will be appropriated to the use of the
spiritual peers.

Tne House of Lords comes next in the order of arrangement, and will be
situate on the principal story, preserving a level throughout with the old
floor of St. Stephen's Chapel, so that the entrance for the peers may either
be obtained along the corridors from the river front, or by that leading from
Old Palace-yard. The size of the House of Lords, as well as that of the
House of Commons, will he reduced to the smallest possible limits compa-
tible with the required accommodation, and to give them that form and ar-
rangement which will afford the greatest number of sittings in the smallest
space, bring the members nearest to each other and to the speaker, and be
the most convenient for carrying on the ordinary routine of business.

The two houses will be placed as nearly as possible in the centre of the
whole mass of buildings, this being considered the position best adapted for
communication with each other, and with their respective offices and ac-
commodations ; for easy access from the various entrances and approaches,
public and private ; for security from noise and disturbance ; for allowing
their form and size to he exactly fitted to the wants of each house; for the
purposes of lighting, warming, and ventilating in the most convenient
manner ; and for making any modifications or alterations in them which
may be thought desirable without deranging the general plan and elevations.

It has been thought proper to avoid placing any members' seats under the
galleries, as well as any seats whatever behind the woolsack or the Speakers
chair.

From the House of Lords a spacious lobby and corridor will lead directly
to the great centre hall, immediately under the centre tower. This hall will
he a large apartment, of a circular form, and 60 feet in diameter, and the
principal public approach to the committee-rooms from it will be by a broad
flight of steps to a large waiting-room on the first floor, from which there will
be a direct and immediate access to the committee-rooms of each house, and
to the offices connected with them. When the Houses commence their sit-
tings, and the daily business is at an end, the public may retire either by the
principal staircase, or by that which leads to Westminster Hall. The cen-
tral tower will rise in an octangular form, and will be 270 feet in height.

From the central hall, proceeding northward, will be the Commons' cor-
ridor and lobby, leading to tho House of Commons, with the residence of
officers in that division on the east side of New Palace-yard.

Attached to each House of Parliament will be refreshment-rooms and
offices, and the approaches of the Sovereign, the members of both houses,
and the public ; the clerks' and other offices are so arranged as to be wholly
independent of each other, with the means of making them entirely or par-
tially in communication.

The members and oflicers attending committees, it is arranged, may go or
return by private staircases communicating with their respective houses and
offices.

The whole of the official residences will have separate external entrances
and staircases ; the principal floor of that for the Speaker will be expressly
devoted for state levees or Parliamentary dinners, and will be fitted up on a
scale of great splendour.

The libraries and committee-rooms of each house are placed towards the
river, for the convenience of light, and freedom from noise and disturbance,
and the former are so arranged on the principal floor as to be en suite, with
the power of extending them at pleasure, by including the adjoining com-
mittee-rooms.

The ancient chapel of St. Stephen, the crypt, and cloisters are preserved ;
over the crvpt the spacious apartment will form the inner vestibule to the
houses of Parliament, to be called St. Stephen's Hall. This hall will be fitted
up in the same style of ornament as the Royal Gallery and the corridors,
with the introduction of choice subjects in fresco painting.

Another important feature will also be found in the construction of the
two houses for the purpose of a complete and thorough ventillation. This
department has been placed under the superintendence of Dr. Reid, who,
after a variety of trials of different plans and experiments, has adopted a
mode of ventilation by which not only the houses of Perliament but every
apartment and office connected therewith may, it is said, be regulated at
pleasure. It is proposed that the three great towers shall be made available
for this purpose, and from a certain height that the masonry of them shall
be hollow, and pierced in several places for the reception and egress of air.
According to the state of the wind, air might be received from the Victoria
or clock towers, which will occupy the northern aud southern extremeties.
The form of the Victoria Tower has been already described ; the clock tower
will also be of the square form, finishing spirally, and of the height of 270
feet. The air thus obtained will be forced by machinery through the vaults
under the body of the whole edifice, thence it will be discharged by means

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

1!'

of chambers to the body of both houses, extending to the Royal Gallery and
the main and entire portions of the buildings. After passing through the
various apartments the air will be received by means of perforated ceilings
into chambers to be fitted above the roofs, and will be carried off up the
central tower.

The works that are already in progress on the eastern or river front are in
a great state of forwardness, and will, when completed, extend to 870 feet
in length. The ground floor embraces repositories and offices, and the prin-
cipal one, the Lords' and Commons' libraries, corumittee-rooms, the con-
ference-hall, and the public and private corridors. The south front will he
340 feet long, that portion next the river being appropriated as the residence
of Sir Augustus Clifford, the Usher of the Black Rod. The opposite front,
on the northern wing, will comprise the residence of the Speaker of the
House of Commons, the Sergeant-at-arms, and other officers.

The external works of the first and principal stories on the river front, in-
cluding the Lords' and Commons' river entrances, are nearly completed, and
the decorations are of the most extensive character. The northern and
southern fronts are ornamented with elaborately-sculptured niches in which
are placed statues of the various kings who reigned in England prior to the
Conquest.

Along the whole eastern front, immediately under the principal floor win-
dows is an ornamented band, on which is displayed in strong relief, in old
English characters, the names of every sovereign who has reigned in Eng-
land since the Conquest, commencing in chronological order with William
the Conqueror, and terminating with that of William IV.. and above each
are the Royal arms of England richly sculptured. — Standard.

LAW PROCEEDINGS.

HOARD NUISANCE.

In the Court of Queen's Bench, Friday, December 2nd. (Sittings at Xisi
Prius at Westminster, before Mr. Justice Coleridge and a Special Jury.)

MURRAY V. ELGAR.

The Solicitor-General. Mr. Piatt, and Mr. M. Smith, conducted the case
for the plaintiff; and Mr. Thesiger, Mr. Dundas, and Mr. Watson, that of
the defendant.

This was an action brought by a gentleman residing at No. 16, George-
street, Hanover-square, to recover compensation for the injury which he had
sustained by reason of the defendant having erected a " hoard," for which
some open boarding had been afterwards substituted.

It appeared that the premises occupied by the plaintiff abutted on those
occupied by the defendant, who, in 1839, had erected the hoard in question,
for which the open boarding had been substituted, within 10 feet of the
ilining-room windows of the plaintiff. The object was not to recover
damages, but to get rid of the nuisance. The servants who had lived in the
plaintiff's family before and after the erection of this obstruction, stated that
the light in the lower rooms of the house had been considerably diminished,
that the walls had become damp in consequence of the free circulation of air
beingimpeded, and that the provisions in the larder had frequently been
spoiled from the same cause. Several architects and surveyors gave it as their
opinion that the value of the house was diminished by one-third, and Dr.
Ure stated that he had performed several experiments which convinced him
that the light in the plaintiff's dining-room had undergone a diminution of
six degrees by the erection of the hoard, and three degrees by the open
boards. Mr. Facey corroborated Dr. lTre's evidence, and the medical at-
tendant of the family deposed that Mrs. Murray's health had suffered ma-
terially in consequence.

Mr. Thesiger contended that the plaintiff had no right to recover for any
loss of prospect or comfort, and that the evidence as to the obstruction of
light and air was most unsatisfactory.

Mr. Justice Coleridge having summed up,

The Jury found for the plaintiff, with nominal damages.

PROFESSIONAL CHARGES.

In the Court of Queen's Bench, Friday, December 2nd. (Sittings at Nisi
Prius at Westminster, before Mr. Justice Coleridge and a Common Jury.)

DOBSON V. CROZIER.

Mr. Piatt and Mr. C. Clark were counsel for the plaintiff; and Miv
Whateley and Mr. Petersdorff for the defendant.

This was an action to recover .-£54 5s. Crf., for work and labour done by
the plaintiff, who is an architect.

It appeared that the plaintiff had drawn up certain plans and specifica-
tions for the erection of a house for the defendant, for which tenders had
been offered by builders, but which plan had not been carried into effect.
He had subsequently drawn other plans and specifications, from which the
house had been erected. The defendant had paid .£35 into court, being 5
per cent, on the money expended in carrying into execution the accepted
plans. The plaintiff claimed in addition .£10 for Ids trouble in drawing the

rejected plans, and some other items, making together the sum of .£53, for
which the action was brought.

Several surveyors were called for the defendant, who stated it was the
custom of the profession tc charge 2\ per cent for rejected plans, but they
disallowed all items but that charge.

For the defendant it was contended that the plaintiff had not proved that
the plans had been rejected through the caprice of the defendant, and there-
fore it must be taken that the plans were inapplicable,

The learned Judge having summed up, the jury returned a verdict for the
plaintiff for 9/. 10s., in addition to the money paid into court.

BLACKWALL RAILWAY.— INFRINGEMENT OF PATENT.

//( the Court of Queen's Bench, Monday, December I9(h, Before a

Special Jury.

CURTIS V. THE DIRECTORS.

This was an action for the alleged infringement of a patent which had
been taken out by the plaintiff, for connecting and disconnecting the draught
or ground rope of a railway, with railway carriages, when the rope was in
motion. The plan was specially applicable to railways where the carriages
were drawn, as on the Blackwall Railway, by means of a rope moved by an
engine placed at the spot, towards which the carriages were desired to be
drawn. The defendants had adopted a plan for effecting this purpose, which
it was alleged was essentially the same as that invented by the plaintiff.
The defence was, that the plans were not the same, and that that which was
in use on the Blackwall Railway had been suggested to the directors some
time before the specification of the plaintiff was published. There was a
good deal of evidence given as to the practicability of ever attaching a rope
to a railway carriage when the rope was in motion, and much doubt was
thrown upon the possibility of such a performance ; but a person, named
Barn, stated that he had twice done it when in the service of the Blackwall
Railway Company ; once when, in coming up to London, the rope acciden-
tally got detached, and once at the Limehouse station, when no passengers
were in the carriage, for the purpose of an experiment. He, however, said,
that it required a " good man " to do it, and the appearance of the witness
showed that he came within this expression, in the particular meaning he
attached to it. Witnesses having been examined on both sides, the cause,
which had occupied the whole of the day, was terminated by the jury inter-
fering, and stating that they were of opinion the powers used by the two
parties were not the same, when the plaintiff consented to be non-suited.

ROYAL EXCHANGE.

We hope it may not turn out that there was more of hurry than good speed
manifested in the competition for the sculpture that is to adorn the pediment
of the portico. Quick work it certainly was, when after being sent in on
the evening of the preceding clay, the designs were " examined " ? on the
25th November, and the ballot-box brought into play instanter ; the majo-
rity of votes being in favour of Mr. Westmacott — whom rumour had pre-
viously marked out as likely to lie the fortunate competitor. After so
much has been said relative to the manner in which competitions are
managed and mismanaged, it might have been thought that at any rate a
little more tact and adroitness would have been employed on tins occasion.
Whether such was really the case or not, it certainly now looks as if it had
been a preconcerted affair; for hardly is it possible to suppose that the
committee could competently judge off-hand of the merits of the designs as
works of art — unless indeed the one chosen was so evidently superior to the
two others, as to have no room for doubt or question — which is not very
probable. We ourselves saw one of the rejected designs, or rather two
different designs by Mr. Watson, the artist who has lateiy given such public
proof of his ability in the bas-relief of the new Commercial Hall in Thread-
needle Street; and having seen them, we certainly doubt very much at
present if the one "selected" be— we will not say of greater, but of equal
merit. Upon Hamlet's principle of " Assume a virtue, if you have it not,"
there might have been the appearance of a little deliberation : there might
have been an interval of three or four weeks, during which, artists and those
known to be judges of art should have been allowed to inspect the designs,
and public opinion in regard to them, so far taken, and taken also into con-
sideration. Possibly the one which is to be executed is the best design, and
so too, might the best design have been the winner, had the matter been
decided by lottery. If it be worth while to bestow so considerable a
Three Thousand Guineas or Pounds on the decoration of the pediment, it
was surely worth while to bestow far more scrupulous attention upon I
sign itself, beforehand than now appears to have been done. However, tin
Gresham Committee have, in this instance, shown themselves u, I
of business and dispatch, who can make up their minds very qt
without any nonsensical ■• shilly-shallying." Still, with all our misgivings,
we are willing to hope for the best; though as poor Mr-. Nicklebj says,
" we ought never to be over and above sanguinary in our expectation- ! "

20

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

THE FINE ARTS.— THE ROYAL ACADEMY.

On Saturday, the 10th ult., there was a very numerous meeting of the
members of the Academy, in Trafalgar-square.

Sir Martin Archer Shee was in the chair ; and there were present Sir R.
Westmacolt, Sir W. Ross, A. Cooper, R. Cooke, H. P.Briggs, W. Etty, C. L.
Eastlake, P. llarduicke, D. Maclise, W. Mulready, T. Unwin, W. Wyon, W.
Collins, E. Landseer, C. R. Leslie, J. M. \V. Turner. C. R. Cockerell, J. J.
Clialon, W. T, Witherington, D. Roberts, E. H. Bailey, and A. E. Chalon,
members of the Academy.

At nine o'clock the President commenced the business of the evening, by
stating the objects the Academy had in view, by giving those annual rewards
to the students who gave tangible proofs of talent, vigilance, and applica-
tion in the various classes of drawing, painting, sculpture, and architecture ;
and he then went into a detail of the merits displayed in the respective
classes, to all of which, except that of models from the life subject, the
medals were cheerfully given by the Council ; and the reason for not giving
a medal in that class, arose from there only being one candidate, and there-
fore there could be no competition. The merits of the chalk drawings made
from the living models, and from the antique statues, were mentioned in
terms of high commendation by the President, who observed emphatically,
that the style of drawing these difficult objects had considerably improved
within the last two or three years, which he stated arose from the alterations
made, deviating from the late method, and which had been judiciously made
by the present keeper of the Academy. To the copies in oil from Guido's
picture of " Fortune," the President gave high and deserved commendation,
as well as to the architectural plans, elevations, and sections of the beautiful
Church of Walbrook.

The prizes were then distributed in the following order, viz. : —

To Mr. James Clarke Hook, for the best copy made in the school of paint-
ing, the silver medal, with the lectures of the Professors Barry, Opie, and
Fuseli.

To Mr. Alfred Rankley, for the next best copy made in the painting
scbool, the silver medal.

To Mr. J. C. Hook, for the best drawing from the living models, the silver
inedal.

To Mr. John Clayton, for the best drawings of the ground plan, sections,
&c, of St. Stephen's Church, Walbrook, the silver medal.

To Mr. James Harwood, for the best drawings from the antique, the silver
medal.

To Mr. Alfred Gafley, for the best model from an antique statue, the silver
medal.

After the delivery of the prizes, the President concluded the public busi-
ness of the evening with an address from the chair, which was replete with
the soundest practical observations upon the state, condition, and prospects
of the arts in this country. We regret that our limits do not allow us to
give a full report of this able and eloquent discourse ; but amongst the points
he touched upon with energy and feeling were, that unworthy and ground-
less prejudice that still remains in the minds of a few of the noble and
wealthy classes in England, which would place foreign modern arts far above
that of Great Britain, even at the present day. This morbid desire to set up
every country above their own in matters of an intellectual nature, was far
more commonly entertained some years since in England than it has been of
late; we have done our part in demolishing this unnatural, this monstrous
doctrine, and it has been damaged irretrievably. After the President had
clearly and with much energy pointed out the gross absurdities and contra-
dictions of the few anti-national connoisseurs who still exist, he properly no-
ticed another unnatural practice which militates against the arts of the
United Kingdom — namely, the vituperation poured forth plena flumhw by the
minor press, generally, against the native artists and their works. The Pre-
sident went into many topics professionally interesting, and, on concluding
Ins address, was warmly applauded.

The general assembly then proceeded to appoint officers for the ensuing
year, when Sir Martin Archer Shee was unanimously elected President.

Council, New List.— Messrs. Charles Barry, George Jones, Alfred E. Cha-
lon, and Thomas Phillips.

Old List.— Messrs. Philip Hardwick, David Roberts, John James Chalon,
and William Mulready.

Visitors in the Living Model Academy, New List.— Messrs. Edward H.
Bailey, Alfred E. Chalon, Richard Cook, and William Frederick Wither-
ington.

Old List.— Messrs. Charles Robert Leslie, William Mulready, Thomas
Uwins, and W. Wyon.

Visitors in the School of Painting. New List.— Messrs. Henry P. Briggs,
Charles L. Eastlake, Charles Robert Leslie, and Thomas Uwins.

Old List.— Messrs. W. Collins, W. Etty, Edwin Landseer, and David
Roberts.

Auditors re-elected— Messrs. William Mulready and J. M. W. Turner, and
Sir R. Westmacott.

THERMOGRAPHY.

Art of Copying Engravings, or any Printed Characters from Paper on Metal
Plates; and on the Recent Discovery of Moser, relative to the Formation
of Images in the Dart. By Mr. Robert Hunt. Read at the Meeting of
the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, on the 8th Nov. of which excellent
Society Mr. Hunt is the secretary.

The Journal of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, for the 18th of July,
1842, contains a communication made by M. Regnault, from M. Moser, of
Konigsberg, " Sur la formation des images Daguerriennes ;" in which he
announces the fact, that " when two bodies are sufficiently near, they impress
their images upon each other." The Journal of the 29th of August contains a
second communication from M. Moser, in which the results of his researches
are summed up in 26 paragraphs. From these I select the following, which
alone are to be considered on the present, occasion : — " All bodies radiate
light, even in complete darkness. — This light does not appear to be allied to
phosphorescence, for there is no difference perceived whether the bodies have
been long in the dark, or whether they have been just exposed to daylight,
or even to direct solar light. — Two bodies constantly impress their images on
each other, even in complete darkness. However, for the image to be appre-
ciable, it is necessary, because of the divergence of the rays, that the distance
of the bodies should not be very considerable. — To render the image visible,
the vapour of water, mercury, iodine, &c. may be used. — There exists latent
light as well as latent heat."

The announcement at the last meeting of the British Association of these
discoveries, naturally excited a more than ordinary degree of interest. A
discovery of this kind, changing, as it does, the features, not only of the
theories of light adopted by philosophers, but also the commonly received
opinions of mankind, was more calculated to awaken attention than anything
which has been brought before the public since the publication of Daguerre's
beautiful photographic process. Having instituted a series of experiments,
the results of which appear to prove that these phenomena are not produced
by latent light, I am desirous of recording them.

I would not be understood as denying the absorption of light by bodies;
of this I think we have abundant proof, and it is a matter well deserving
attention. If we pluck a Nasturtium when the sun is shining brightly on
the flower, and carry it into a dark room, we shall still be enabled to see it
by the light which it emits. The human hand will sometimes exhibit the
same phenomenon, and many other instances might be adduced in proof of
the absorption of light ; and I believe, indeed, of the principle that light is
latent in bodies. I have only to show that the conclusions of M. Moser have
been formed somewhat hastily, being led, no doubt, by the striking similarity
which exists between the effects produced on the Daguerreotype plates under
the influence of light, and by the juxtaposition of bodies in the dark, to con-
sider them as the work of the same element.

1. Dr. Draper, in the Philosophical Magazine for September 1840, mentions
a fact which has been long known, that " if a piece of very cold clear glass,
or what is better, a cold polished metallic reflector, has a little object, such
as a piece of metal, laid on it, and the surface be breathed over once, the
object being then carefully removed, as often as you breathe again on the
surface, a spectral figure of it may be seen, and this singular phenomenon
may be exhibited for many days after the first trial is made." Several other
similar experiments are mentioned, all of them going to show that some mys-
terious molecular change has taken place on the metallic surface, which
occasions it to condense vapours unequally.

2. On repeating this simple experiment, I find that it is necessary for the
production of a good effect, to use dissimilar metals ; for instance, a piece of
gold or platina on a plate of copper or of silver, will make a very decided
image, whereas, copper or silver on their respective plates give hut a very
faint one, and bodies which are bad conductors of heat placed on good con-
ductors, make decidedly the strongest impressions when thus treated.

3. I placed upon a well polished copper plate, a sovereign, a shilling, a
large silver medal, and a penny. The plate was gently warmed by passing a
spirit lamp along its under surface : wdien cold, the plate was exposed to the
vapour of mercury ; each piece had made its impression, but those made by
the gold and the large medal were most distinct ; not only was the disc
marked, but the lettering on each was copied.

4. A bronzp medal was supporled upon slips of wood, placed on the copper,
one-eighth of an inch above the plate. After mercurialization, the space the
medal covered was well marked, and for a considerable distance around the
mercury was unequally deposited, giving a shaded border to the image.

5. The above coins and medals were all placed on the plate, and it was
made too hut to be handled, and allowed to cool without their being re-
moved ; impressions were made on the plate in the following order of inten-
sity, gold, silver, bronze, copper. The mass of the metal was found to
influence materially the result ; a large piece of copper making a better image
than a small piece of silver. When.this plate was [exposed, to vapour, the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

2]

results were as before (3, 4). On rubbing off the vapour, it was found that
the gold and silver had made permanent impressions on the copper.

6. The above being repeated with a still greater heat, the image of the
copper coin was, as well as the others, most faithfully given, but the gold
lead, and silver only made permanent impressions.

7. A silvered copper plate was now tried with a moderate warmth (3).
Mercurial vapour brought out good images of the gold and copper; the
silver marked, but not well defined.

8. Having repeated the above experiments many times with the same
results. I was desirous of ascertaining if electricity had any similar effect:
powerful discharges were passed through and over the plate and discs, and
it was subjected to a long continued current without any effect. The silver
had been cleaned off from the plate (7), it was now warmed with the coins
and medals upon it, and submitted to discharges from a very large Leyden
jar ; on exposing it to mercurial vapour, the impressions were very prettily
brought out, and strange to say, spectral images of those which had been
received on the plate when it was silvered (7). Thus proving that the influ-
ence, whatever it may be, was exerted to some depth in the metal.

9. I placed upon a plate of copper, blue, red. and orange coloured glasses,
pieces of crown and flint glass, mica, and a square of tracing paper. These
were allowed to remain in contact half an hour. The space occupied by the
red glass was well marked, that covered by the orange was less distinct, but
the blue glass left no impression : the shapes of the flint and crown glass
were well made out, and a remarkably strong impression where the crown
glass rested on the tracing paper, but the mica had not made any impression.

10. The last experiment repeated ; after the exposure to mercurial vapour,
heat was again applied to dissipate it, the impression still remained.

11. The experiment repeated, but the vapour of iodine used instead of that
of mercury. The impressions of the glasses appeared in the same order as
before, but also a very beautiful image of the mica was developed, and the
paper well marked out, showing some relation to exist between the sub-
stances used and the vapours applied.

12. Placed the glasses used above (9, &c), with a piece of well smoked
glass, for half an hour one-twelfth of an inch below a polished plate of cop-
per. The vapour of mercury brought out the imago of the smoked glass
only.

13. All these glasses were placed on the copper, and slightly warmed ; red
and smoked glasses gave, after vaporization, equally distinct images, the
orange the next, the others left but faint marks of their forms ; polishing
with tripoli and putty powder would not remove the images of the smoked
and red glasses.

14. An etching, made upon a smoked etching ground on glass, the copper
and glass being placed in contact. The image of the glass only could be
brought out.

15. A design cut out in paper was pressed close to a copper plate by a piece
of glass, and ihen exposed to a gentle heat ; the impression was brought out
by the vapour of mercury in beautiful distinctness. On endeavouring to rub
off the vapour, it was found that all those parts which the paper covered
amalgamated with mercury, which was removed from the rest of the plates ;
hence there resulted a perfectly permanent white picture on a polished cop-
per plate.

1C. The coloured glasses before named (9, 12), were placed on a plate of
copper, with a thick piece of charcoal, a copper coin, the mica, and the
paper, and exposed to fervent sunshine. Mercurial vapour brought up the
images in the following order — smoked glass, crown glass, red glass, mica
beautifully delineated, orange glass, paper, charcoal, the coin, blue glass ;
thus distinctly proving, that the only rays which had any influence on the
metal, were the calorific rays. This experiment, was repeated on different
metals, and with various materials, the plate being exposed to steam, mer-
cury, and iodine ; I invariably found, that those bodies which absorbed or
permitted the permeation of the most heat, gave the best images. The blue
and violet rays could not be detected to leave any evidence of action, and as
spectra imprinted on photographic papers by light which had permeated
these glasses, gave evidence of the large quantity of the invisible rays which
passed them freely, we may also consider those as entirely without the power
of effecting any change on compact simple bodies.

17. In a paper which I published in the Philosophical Magazine for October,
1840. 1 mentioned some instances in which I had copied printed pages and
engravings on iodized paper, b mere contact and exposure to the influence
of the calorific rays, or to artificial heat. I then, speculating on the proba-
bility of our being enabled, by some such process as the one I then named, to
copy pictures and the like, proposed the name of Thermography, to distin-
guish it from Photography.

18. I now tried the effects of a print in close contact with a well -polished
copper plate. When exposed to mercury, I found that the outline was very
faithfully copied on the metal.

19. A paper ornament was pressed between two plates of glass, and
warmed, the impression was brought out with tolerable distinctness on the
under and warmest glass, but scarcely traceable on the other.

20. Rose leaves were faithfully copied on a piece of tin plate, ex]

the full influence of sunshine, but a much better impression was obtained by
a prolonged exposure in the dark.

21. With a view of ascertaining the distance at which bodies might be
copied. I placed upon a plat,' of polished copper, a thick piece of plate glass,
over this a square of metal, and several other things, each being larger than
the body beneath. These were all covered by a deal box, which was more
than half an inch distant from the plate. Things were left in this position
for a night. On exposing to the vapour of mercury, it was found that each
article was copied, the bottom of the deal box more faithfully than anv of
the others, the grain of the wood being imaged on (he plate.

22. Having found, by a series of experiments, that a blackened paper made
a stronger image than a white one, I very anxiously tried to effect the copy-
ing of a printed page or a print. 1 was partially successful on several
metals, but it was not until I used copper plates amalgamated on one sur-
face, and the mercury brought to a very high polish, that 1 produced any
thing of good promise. By carefully preparing the amalgamated surface of
the copper, I was at length enabled to copy from paper line-engravings,
wood-cuts, and lithographs, with surprising accuracy. The first specimens
produced (which were submitted to inspection), exhibit a minuteness of de-
tail and sharpness of outline quite equal to the early Daguerreotypes and the
photographic copies, prepared with chloride of silver.'

The following is the process at present adopted by me, which I con-
sider far from perfect, but which affords us very delicate images. A well
polished plate of copper is rubbed over with the nitrate of mercury, and then
well washed to remove any nitrate of copper which may be formed ; when
quite dry, a little mercury taken up on soft leather or linen is well rubbed
over it, and the surface worked to a perfect mirror. The sheet to be copied
is placed smoothly over the mercurial surface, and a sheet or two of soft,
clean paper being placed upon it, is pressed into equal contact with the
metal by a piece of glass, or flat board; in this state it is allowed to remain
for an hour or two. The time may be considerably shortened by applying a
very gentle heat for a few minutes to the under surface of the plate. The
heat must on no account be so great as to volatilize the mercury. The next
process is to place the plate of metal in a closed box, prepared for generating
the vapour of mercury. The vapour is to be slowly evolved, and in a few
seconds the picture will begin to appear ; the vapour of mercury attacks
those parts which correspond to the white parts of the printed page or en-
graving, and gives a very faithful but somewhat indistinct image. The plate
is now removed from the mercurial box. and placed in one containing iodine,
to the vapour of which it is exposed for a short time ; it will soon be very
evident that the iodine vapour attacks those parts which are free from mer-
curial vapour, blackening them. Hence there results a perfectly black pic-
ture, contrasted with the grey ground formed by the mercurial vapour. The
picture being formed by the vapours of mercury and iodine, is of course in
the same state as a Daguerreotype picture, and is readily destroyed by
rubbing. From the depth to which I find the impression made into the
metal, I confidently hope to be enabled to give to these singular and beauti-
ful productions a considerable degree of permanence, so that they may be
used by engravers for working on. It is a curious fact, that the vapoars of
mercury and of iodine attack the plate differently, and I believe it will be
found that vapours have some distinct relation to the chemical or thermo-
electrical state of the bodies upon which they are received. Moser has ob-
served this, and attributes the phenomena to the colours of the rays, which
he supposes to become latent in the vapour on its passing from the solid into
the more subtile form. I do not, however, think this explanation will agree
with the results of experiments. I feel convinced that we have to deal with
some thermic influence, and that it will eventually be found that some purely
calorific excitement produces a molecular change, or that a thermo-electric
action is induced, which effects some change in the polarities of the ultimate
atoms of the solid.

These are matters which can only be decided by a series of well conducted
experiments. Although attention was called to the singular manner in
which vapours disposed themselves on plates of glass and copper, two years
since by Dr. Draper, Professor of Chemistry at New York, and about the
same time to the calorific powers of the solar spectrum, by Sir John Her-
schel, and to the influence oi heat artificially applied, by myself 1 17). yet it
is certainly due to M. Moser of Konigsberg. to acknowledge him to be the
first who has forcibly called the attention of the scientific world to an in-
quiry which promises to be as important in its results as the discovery of the
electric pile, by Volta.

' The first faithful copy of the lines of a copper plate engi
tained by Mr. Cautabrana, who has since succeeded in procuring some tole-
rable specimens on amalgamated copper which cannot be rubbed oil.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

NOTES OX EARTH WORK, EXCAVATION, CUTTING, AND

FORMING EMBANKMENT UPON RAILWAYS.

Article IV. — Superintendence, Accounts, and Measurements.

'.' Modem practice has reduced it to a price per cubic yard."

Professor Vignole's Lecture, Dec. 1841.

In pursuance of my promise given at the conclusion of my former
paper, I shall now attempt to give a description of the methods in
use during the execution of railways, as regards the supervision, both
on the part of the Company and contractor. First, then, as to the
engineering staff; we have parliamentary and consulting engineers,
engineer in chief, resident, assistant, and sub-engineers, but the duties
of the resident and assistant it will only be necessary for me to notice.
The resident controls the whole line and the assistants, and confers
with the Directors at all their meetings for finance, and when the line
exceeds 50 miles in length, the duties will be so multiplied that two
will be requisite. The assistants are subordinate to the resident, and
have generally a division of 10 miles each, or perhaps a length of, say
three contracts. The duties of an assistant is to observe that the
works are executed according to plan, and that the materials are of
proper quality, and if not so, to complain, first to the contractor, and
if not attended to, then to the resident ; to allow no change to be
made in the dimensions without the sanction of the resident, and if
any change is ordered, to ascertain the difference for or against the
contractor jointly with him or his agent, to enter these measurements
in a book, and to" make a return monthly to the resident, as also of all
materials received on the Company's account, as rails, chairs, keys,
sleepers, blocks, &c. He is also to make a return each fortnight, of
the number of men employed by the contractor, to measure works for
monthly payments, and price them by the schedule attached to the
contract. In taking the measurements, he will much facilitate his
work by making them as near as possible to given points, so as to
save re-measurements. He is also to see that all levels are executed
with reference to bench marks and gradients given, and to preserve
the centre or trig line, especially in curves, and to give the half width
of railway, and to see that no more land is enclosed than has been
purchased, and finally to be in frequent communication with the
resident, and if any thing unexpectedly occurs, to lose no time in
communicating it. From the above statement of duties, it will be
seen that great responsibility is often placed on the shoulders of the
assistant, partly owing to the distance that separates him from the
resident.

The accounts in detail are in the province of the contractor, which
will be hereafter considered. The assistant should have a knowledge
of measuring land and artificer's work, as at the stations on the line
he is brought into communication with slaters, joiners, masons,
plumbers, &c. The supervision of a contract on the part of a con-
tractor will consist of a supeiintendent, clerk, timekeepers, and fore-
man over each department of artificers. The superintendent sets out
the works, and sub-lets them to the various gangers and butty gangs,
and measures and prices their work; he also measures with the
assistant engineer for the monthly payments. The clerk keeps the
books, &c. and invoices. The foremen superintend their own trade,
and examine the goods sent to the works, with the invoice, both as
regard quality and quantity ; they also send in a weekly return of all
the men's time individually, and the nature of his employment,
whether on extra or contract work, and any materials sent to other
works, each individual workman making a return to him on a printed
form provided for the purpose. The timekeepers collect the names
of the ganger's men employed at occasional daywork, and count the
number of men in each gang four times daily, and take an average
as to the number employed for the day. One day is retained in hand
from each man employed at daywork, until he is discharged, the
wages being paid on the Saturday, although not for that day, but the
Saturday preceding, counting from each Friday night.

I will, perhaps, better explain myself by giving, as it were, instruc-
tions to a set of men on a contract as to the manner they should adopt
in keeping the accounts : — then as to the clerk, he is to debit the
ganger's accouut, with the weekly men received, and enter to his
credit the quantities and prices he is to have for his woik ; to fill up
a weekly summary, showing how many men have been employed upon
each separate description of work, and to render a perfectly separate
account of day work. With respect to payments, he is to pay no
task man without express sanction of superintendent, and to pay no
day man except on a Saturday, unless he discharge himself entirely
from the works, when he is to pay the back day kept in hand. He is
to receive the invoices after they are examined by the foreman,
whose duty it is to receive the goods. The invoices to be filed until

the monthly or quarterly bills are delivered for examination. The in-
voices are to be copied into the day book, materials sent to or received
from other works to be entered in books expressly for that purpose,
bricks, lime and sand will be kept in separate accounts, backed with
the party's name who supplies each material. No goods to be sent
by tradesmen without an order, and to have a return ticket on de-
livery, for both of which forms are provided. Timekeepers to de-
liver to the desk every evening, the correct time and name of every
man employed at daywork ; also daily, the name of every ganger, the
number of men, where at work, and the description of work. Any
claim by the ganger for daywork not to be allowed unless rendered to
the office as the regular daymen, and he must apply for payment the
next Saturday, as it will not be paid at a subsequent period ; and his
account for taskwork must be settled monthly.

The superintendent lets and measures the works, and is responsible
for the levels, and he is in fact the whole executive, the contractor
being the capitalist or speculator. In the preceding account, no no-
tice is taken of truck system, tommy shops, menage shops, or subsist
monev, or any of the tricks of contractors without capital, or such as
those would be sure to have the lowest estimate; but the proceedings of
a wealthy and reputable contractor are recorded, and from having seen
service in both camps, I can bear testimony as to the good effects,
both morally and physically, of the latter method of proceeding. The
facility now given to contractors of keeping accounts open for an
indefinite time, would be much' checked, if engineers would not
certify contracts completed, until the contractors previously lodged
with them copies of all their extra claims.

With respect to measurement of works in progress, the various
tables published by M'Neil, Day, Bidder, and the prismoidal formula,
&c, are perfectly inapplicable, from the broken nature of the ground,
it assuming shapes so various and uncouth at the different benches,
gullets and levels ; it is, therefore, necessary to take the dimensions on
the ground, and by computation, ascertain the cubic contents. A
considerable difference of opinion exists as to the modes of so doing,
some using the decimal, and others the duodecimal measures ; the
former gives the contents in yards by multiplication, and the latter
gives greater facility for the application of practice, or the division
by aliquot parts; and the total can easily be converted into yards
by dividing the number of cubic feet in a yard. In the one case,
all dimensions are taken in feet and inches, and in the other, they are
taken by a yard and decimal parts, the yard being divided decimally
into a hundred divisions ; this latter method is most used by old
practitioners: but feet and inches are now being more used than for-
merly. The dimensions are recorded in two columns ; one for the
length, breadth, and depth, placed one over the other always in the
same succession : the other column being left for the cubic contents of
each dimension as it is squared, so as to make the addition of the
several items into a total more easy. The dimensions of finished
cuttings are taken at each chain's length, by a line stretched across on
the natural surface of the ground, and a staff held in the centre, by
an assistant, and a mean of the two ends taken for the depth. The
width is measured half way up each slope in the centre of each
chain. The length is measured along the centre of the cutting. The
dimensions of each hole in broken w;ork is taken similarly, but is re-
corded as only on account, and at a subsequent measurement it is re-
taken from a certain fixed point or chain in the section, which the
measurement book will tell if kept on a uniform plan.

In making the monthly return of work executed, all previous mea-
surements are annulled in toto ; and the return made is the total
quantity done, and not that that is done between each measurement.
When a work is very rugged, it is usual to take the measurement of
the embankment, and not the cutting, on account of the fewer di-
mensions. The cuttings are measured generally every fortnight, the
intervening time being subsist weeks, when the pay is on account,
from the timekeeper's return ; and in some cases the number of
wagons are computed as a check. The persons who act as time-
keepers, are generally of the class that has seen better days ; the
excavators are a migratory horde, they are a collection of the
agricultural labourers, wdio are more spirited than their fellow- coun-
trymen, and who have left their native locality to better their condi-
tion ; so that in works of this sort, trusting too much to the honour of
such men will not do; and the more checks there are the better, or
one stands the chance of knowing experimentally the meaning of the
term " sloping," which by this time is fully known in France.

I have said nothing as to the mode in which the directors, engineer,
and secretary, keep a check on each other ; I think, however, that it
is done by a system of sub-committees of finance, and the division of
the line into districts, and that no monies are paid by the banker
without the signatures of three of the directors and the secretary ;
being on an analogous plan to that adopted in olden times by corpo-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

23

rate bodies — "The wardens each to have a key and a chest with
three locks, and each to keep a key." I hope some one who has had
a seat at the board will supply the information, as also the form of
each printed paper used in each department — say engineer's depart-
ment, printed forms for return of number of men, specification of rails,
and general specification for works, number of yards done on each
contract, return for each subdivision of the line, and schedule of
prices, and tickets of return for materials received, and letter heads.
In superintendent of line, a pass book for free riding on the service of
the company, memorandum of coaching department, code of signals,
instructions and duties of guards, general regulations for police, su-
perintendent, inspectors, constables, switchmen and gatekeepers; in-
structions for the use of signal flags. Police department, return of train
before or after time, number of engine, name of driver, uumber and
description of carriages, trucks, wagons, horse boxes, and inspectors'
remarks, and occurrences at :he different stations, viz., number of
coaches of 1st, 2nd, or 3rd class, and carriage trucks, vans, wagons,
and mails leaving each station and left behind ; also, a return of the
name of upper guard, whether delayed by passengers or water, with
the time of arrival, when due and despatched from each station.
There are also a return of absentees, whose wages are suspended,
viz., number of column, name, quality, where stationed, and cause of
absence, and amount of wages. In addition to the above related de-
partments, there are the printed time tables, and the ticket system ; of
colours for the different classes, and whether going east, west, north,
to notice the returns or accounts rendered by police, when a line is
south, or on the up or down trains.

In conclusion, the mention of defalcations must not be omitted
that have taken place in the staff of the companies, which have
amounted to upwards of six cases, and those invariably in the secre-
tary's department; and in no one case am I aware that they have
been brought to trial. The engineers generally come in for the
greatest share of odium when works are unsuccessful, but I think the
blame ought to be divided between the solicitor, secretary, and other
officers, or the committee, which is indefinite enough. The engineer
is of necessity obliged to be somewhat acquainted with his business,
as influence and patronage will not so exclusively prevail as in other
departments. I have known a line of railway where a quondam di-
rector slid into the office of superintendent, with £500 a-year; he was
originally a druggist, having a seat at the board, which the sub-en-
gineer had not; he was enabled to coerce him to do his duty, with no
extra pay, he. was a fluent speaker, and often saved the directors
from attack ; he could not, however, retain his ground, and both he
and the body of directors acted shabbily to their employees, and ille-
gally to their employers, the unfortunate shareholders. I may go on
for some time longer, but am afraid of the editorial pruning hook; so
for the present, conclude.

St. jinn's, Newcastle-on-Tyne. O. T.

REVIEWS.

COMPANION TO THE ALMANAC, FOR 1S43.

On returning to this publication, we might dispense with prefatory
remark ; nevertheless, we have one to make by way of suggestion to
its publishers, viz., that as they must now afford materials enough
for the purpose, were all the architectural chapters from the com-
mencement of the series collected together and reprinted, with such
alterations and additions as might be found requisite, they would
form a very useful and convenient volume — one that would to a cer-
tain extent serve as a Pocket Companion and Architectural Guide to
the Tourist. As a sequence to this suggestion, we will venture
another to publishers abroad, which is, that an "Aimuaire" of new
buildings, &c, for France and Germany — one for each country — is a
desideratum.

Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon here make their debut in the " Com-
panion," with some £clat; there being three different buildings by
them, and one of them very superior for a building of the kind, al-
though— perhaps it would be nearer the truth to say because — it is in
that picturesque style the Lombardie, against which, however, the
Camden Society folks object, because, forsooth, it is not sufficiently
"Christian" for their strait laced notions, upon matters that are
purely conventional, and have nothing whatever to do with genuine
religion. To object — otherwise than as taste is concerned, against
the abandonment of the usages observed by our Roman Catholic
builders, is surely ultra-squeamishness, after we have abandoned
Romanism itself, with its idle pomposity and all its trumpery. Pu-

Ground Plan if Wilton Church.

References.— A, Campanile, 17 feet square, 100 high, or extreme
height about 120. B, Cloister. C C C, Entrances. D D, Staircases
to Children's Gallery. E, Nave, 72 by 24 feet and 54 high. F F,
Ailes. G, Vestry. H, Chancel. I I, Ailes to ditto. Extreme length,
externally, 156 feet ; internally, 127. Breadth, internally, 56 feet.

seyism and Camdenism seem to have of late completely turned some
people's brains. Instead of entering into frivolous, hair-splitting ob-
jections, we are well content with Wilton Church, on its own archi-
tectural merits, which are no ordinary ones ; for while the exterior is
strikingly picturesque in composition and design, the interior will,
when completed, be quite a model of its kind — simple, yet beautiful
and varied in its plan, and tasteful in its decorations ; and not only
with much to produce effect, but with nothing to counteract it, for
there will be no galleries — at least no side galleries — which always
give a sort of play-house look to a church; and which, even if ca-
pable of being so treated, never are made architectural in appear-
ance, but always so as to cut up and encumber. Still, it must be
confessed, that galleries accord very well with Professor Hosking's
principle, that in churches "the largest number of persons must be
brought within the smallest space!" — it is a wonder he did not add,
" and at the cheapest rate." The three apses at the altar end of
Wilton Church will be filled with stained glass, and for the further
decoration of those recesses, which contribute so much to effect, it is
in contemplation to paint their ceilings or semi-domes in fresco, but
whether with subjects, or merely ornamental compositions as in the
Temple Church, is not staled. Even the strait-laced " Ecclesiologist,"
though it protests against " the introduction of a foreign style in
church architecture," as an evil that ought to be put a stop to at once,
allows that Wilton Church is at least " good of its sort." Almost the
only other church with regard to which the Companion enters into
description, is the one now building by Mr. Poynter, in Broadway,
Westminster, in the style of the later period of early English. Its
internal dimensions are about 95 In- 51 feet, exclusive of a spacious
apsis at the east end; but as there are, unfortunately, to be gal1'
we fear we must not anticipate any great excellence of architectural

24

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Januart,

character. The tower and spire, however, rising together to the
height of 200 feet, and placed campanile fashion at the north-west
angle of the front, will be a very good and bold feature in the exterior.
Of Mr. Pugin's Catholic Church, near the Blind School, no further
mention is made, but we suppose that when completed, it will be
fully described, and at present it certainly promises well — for there is
much excellent detail in doors and windows, some of which will be
rather highly decorated, although the general material is only brick —
but homely as it is, even that is better than what has been not unaptly
called the "stone and starvation" style.

The Wesleyans seem to be patronizing architecture ; their College
or "Theological Institution" at Richmond, is an extensive stone
structure in the Tudor style, and with some novelty in its design ; but
the wood-cut view of it does not show it to any great advantage, the
shadowed parts being indistinct and confused. Whether the execu-
tion be as satisfactory as the design, we pretend not to sav ; but as far
as the general character of its facade goes, it appears to be a building
that would not disgrace either of our universities. Mr. Cockerell's
Sun Assurance Office is spoken of, upon the whole, with commenda-
tion, yet not without some exceptions being made to it. The first
floor windows are objected to as being rather poor and trivial in
design, and as requiring further enrichment which might have been
so applied as to till up the plain spaces or panels between the rusti-
cated piers in which they are set. Had this been done, they would
certainly have been more important features in the composition, but
not at all more so than their situation requires; and they would at the
same time have given greater originality of character to the whole.
The ensemble, too, would have been more in keeping. The interior
of the new libraries at Cambridge — that is, of the north wing, the only
portion as yet finished — another work by the same architect, is also
described as being greatly better than the exterior, and the principal
room is said to be a very noble apartment. Another building at Cam-
bridge, and of which a tolerably full account is here given — which is
certainly not the case in Le Keux's Memorials of Cambridge, there
being there scarcely a syllable relative to it — is that for the new
county courts, by Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon. The facade consists of
an Italian Doric order in pilasters, comprising a lesser one of insulated
columns from which spring arches, after the manner of a Venetian
window. Of these the five centre ones are open so as to form a
recessed loggia or arcade, and produce a bold effect of light and
shade. The idea is borrowed from Palladio's Basilica at Vicenza,
but also exhibits, as is here remarked, a considerable degree of im-
provement upon the original ; though, to talk of improving upon any-
thing by Palladio, that may seem little less than treason to those who
hold his works to be the ne plus ultra of refined taste. Of the
"Brunswick Buildings" at Liverpool, some account was given in our
last volume, at page 278, therefore we need here say no more than
that the view in the Companion fully bears out the description of it,
and shows it to be an exceedingly handsome piece of architecture.

Under the head of "Railways of Great Britain" we have a brief
record of the progress of railways since Nov. 1, 1841, by which it
appears that, from that time to the present, there is a total extent of
1761 miles more brought into operation.

An Encyclopedia of Architecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Prac-
tical. By Joseph Gwilt. Illustrated by more than 1000 engrav-
ings on wood. In one thick volume, Svo, lOS'J pp. London, IS 12.
Longman & Co.

As one of a series of similar works devoted to separate branches of
study, and which has been stamped by public favour, and as a useful
and economic compendium for the student, this Encyclopaedia will, no
doubt, prove a successful publication. Its contents, however, are so
multifarious, some of them bearing upon matters which are but very
remotely connected with architecture properly so termed, that it is to
this last department we must confine ourselves for the present. And
we begin by remarking that one great disadvantage attending works
of the kind is that, however satisfactorily they are executed, as
regards their main purpose, namely, the instructing those who have
yet to learn, they are apt to disappoint those who a're already familiar
with the subject treated of, and of course acquainted beforehand with
the substance of the information thus collected together. Allowance
must, therefore, be made for want of novelty, since the whole ground
must be gone over again, and novelty can be displayed only in the
writer's views and opinions, and in his corrections of or additions to
what has previously been said by others. We must, accordingly,
restrict our observations to the architectural portion of the work, but
to those opinions thrown out in it, which come immediately from Mr.

Gwilt as their author; for it is these alone that can be made to serve
as characteristic specimens, in a mere notice like the present, of so
extensive a work.

One thing which is clearly enough apparent is, that Mr. Gwilt has
not written ad. captandum, at least not as far as the profession are
concerned, for he expresses himself more than once by no means very
encouragingly in regard to the present state of the art in this country,
especially as compared with what it is in France. We do not quarrel
with him for uttering such opinion, unpleasant as it may be, provided
it be uttered insincerity; but it is to be regretted that, as he has
not scrupled to make so severe an allegation, he did not also allege
some of the grounds on which it is formed. Possibly he may mean,
not that there is greater architectural talent in France, but that greater
and more frequent opportunities are afforded it in that country than in
our own, where, according to him, it is rather checked than encou-
raged by the government; — which qualification would have softened
the asperity of the censure. Very far be it from us to object to the
expression of censure, for it is that which gives value to praise, and
which produces improvement by holding up faults for correction; still
we do not exactly approve of that species of it which deals in such
vague generalities that it is hardly possible to meet and combat it.
We own that too many opportunities are made mere jobs of in this
country — that interest and favouritism too frequently supersede merit,
and that false economy, which often turns out in the end to be very
expensive, sadly maims many of our public undertakings in architec-
ture ; but we are also of opinion that there is talent among us that
would fully vindicate our national reputation in art, were it but drawn
out, or rather permitted to display itself uncramped, or even with
some tolerable degree of freedom. When we look at what has been
done in various parts of the country within the last few years, we
perceive, upon the whole, improvement — certainly no falling off, and
with regard to ability in Gothic architecture, we stand very far su-
perior to any of our continental neighbours.

We do not dissent, however, very much from Mr. Gwilt, when he
tells us that " the splendour of the government offices in this country,
seems to be in an inverse ratio from the renown of the department;"
in instance of which he refers us to the Admiralty and the " Treasury
jumble of buildings;" to which he might have added the Custom
House — a most miserable affair in point of architecture, and also the
Mint, which has no merit, certainly not that of character, to recom-
mend it. It is notorious that his opinion of the National Gallery is
the reverse of favourable, as is likewise that which he entertains of
the London University ; nor do we suppose that he thinks very highly
of either the Post-office, or the British Museum, for though he has
not expressly censured, neither has he expressly excepted them from
the rest. But it is rather, we trust, with reference to the past than
to the immediate present, that there is or henceforth will be room for
complaining of the indifference betrayed on the part of the govern-
ment and those in power, towards architecture and the other tine arts.
Something like a public voice in their behalf has lately made itself
heard amidst all the never-ceasing din and squabbling of politics, and
the daily palavering of the public press. The erection of such a
noble fabric as the new Houses of Parliament will at least wipe off
some of the reproach justly incurred by many other structures, national
in their purposes, though of the nation most unworthy; and it may
further be anticipated, that the schemes in contemplation for its in«
ternal embellishment, will give a powerful and lasting impulse to
other branches of art. We will not risk our credit by predictions
that may possibly be falsified by the event: fresco-painting may not
succeed here, as far as by success is meant the satisfying public ex-
pectation and public taste ; but it is a good augury, ad interim, that
any discussion on the subject of it should have been treated as matter
of public interest.

There is no difficulty in interpreting Mr. Gwilt's " expressive si-
lence" in regard to Buckingham Palace, in the section devoted to that
class of buildings, more especially as he is exceedingly chary indeed
of any thing like praise towards another structure, which some have
thought they could not extol too magniloquently. " We regret," he
says, " that in this country we can offer no model of a palace for the
student. Windsor Castle, with all its beauties, which, however, con-
sist more in site and scenery than in the disposition of a palace, will
not assist us." Ungracious and captious as this opinion may appear
to many, it does not at all shock us. What we object to is, not the
opinion itself, but to the ipse dixit tone in which it is uttered, without
explanation on the part of the writer, so that we are at a loss to know
what it is he most objects to in it ; whether it be the plan and ar-
rangement chiefly, or the style and the design.1 We almost suspect

1 As neither Mr. Poynter nor Mr. Biittou lias attempted to enter into a
critical examination of the edifice as it came from Sir Jeffrey's hands—

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

25

that it is to these last he objects, and that he is disposed to class Sir
Jeffry Wyatville with another " incompetent architect," for he has
omitted his name as well as that of Wilkins in his list of architects,
as he has likewise that of James Wyatt; which omissions cannot
have been other than intentional, and are therefore peculiarly signifi-
cant. However lightly we may now estimate him, James Wyatt is
most indisputably an historic name in the annals of English architec-
ture, and very far less of a mere shadow and nominix umbra, than
some of those who are registered and catalogued by the historio-
graphers of art, and of whom there is very little more than their
dates to record. The name of Schinkel ought to have been inserted,
unless the list was actually printed before his death was known in this
country, which as it comes nearly at the end of the volume, we can
hardly suppose to have been the case. We are aware that Schinkel
is no favourite of Mr. Gwilt's ; but favourite or not, his fame has
spread throughout Europe ; and if names so distinguished are to be
omitted at pleasure, we may perhaps, ere long, see that of Palladio
expunged from a table of eminent architects.2 At any rate the pre-
cedent is an unfortunate one.

It cannot be expected that we should pretend to go regularly
through a work so comprehensive, or have as yet thoroughly ex-
amined it ; therefore — for the present at least — our readers must be
content with our pointing out some of the passages and remarks
■which we noted in looking over the work. Among them are some
which hit hard at the new Royal Exchange, animadverting on the
want of judgment manifested, in leaving that portion of it which is
intended for the Exchange itself, uncovered ; which, however, he ad-
mits to be a matter of taste ; " for if our merchants prefer exposure
to the inclemency of the seasons, it is not our business to complain of
their fancy." But that is not all ; for after speaking of the Bourse at
Paris, as an excellent model for buildings of that class, he adds, " the
merchants and city of London disgrace themselves by allowing [only]
£ 150,000 for a similar purpose here ; and even for this sum they cut
up their building into little slices, to reimburse themselves by rents
for the miserable outlay. So much for the spirit and liberality of the
British merchant !" Though that spirit will most assuredly not ob-
tain for its writer the freedom of the city of London, or any other
civic honours, we freely vote it our approbation, since we must own
that, compared with the flourishing promises that bid us look for a
structure worthy of the first commercial city in the world, the Royal
Exchange has sunk down into insignificance.3

With equal justice do the Church Commissioners come in for a
very severe reprimand from Mr. Gwilt, who, in one place, says, "if
ever a death blow was aimed at the art, that was done by the com-
missioners for building the recent new churches;" and in another, he
talks of "true honest churches, one whereof is better than a host of
the brick Cockney-Gothic tilings that are at present patronized,
wherein the congregations are crammed to suffocation and not ac-
commodated." It is, indeed, mortifying to reflect that although they
have afforded employment to numbers in the profession, the buildings
alluded to have not at all benefitted architecture itself.

But what shall we say of the severe strictures at page 642, on the
present modes of architectural drawing, which contain so much for
consideration that they would afford us matter for a separate paper 1
That in both exhibition and competition designs there is, now-a-days,
an affectation of powerful pictorial display, by means of meretricious
colouring, exaggerated and unnatural shadows and tricky effects —
amounting sometimes to downright falsification, cannot be denied, and
is likewise to be deprecated as an abuse, because it imposes on the
eye, and draws away the judgment from a sober examination of the
design itself. Yet while we deprecate the abuse, we are not quite
disposed to go along with Mr. Gwilt into the other extreme, and for-
bid not colouring alone, but shadowing also. Very far, indeed, too,

perhaps, because their opinion of it is no better than Mr. Gwilt's — we shall
probably take up the subject ourselves.

2 The omission of such names is all the more extraordinary, because that
of Brettingham is inserted, notwithstanding the discredit attached to it even
by Mr. G. himself, who remarks that he had the unparalleled assurance to
send out to the world as his own, Kent's Designs for the Earl of Leicester's
seat at Holkham — a contemptible and dirty trick, but not an unparalleled
one in the history of architectural publications.

3 Since shops there must be, the very least that can now be done is to
take care that they shall be as little obtrusive in appearance as possible, to
■which end prohibitory clauses ought to be introduced into the leases, for-
bidding not only show-hoards, but all display of articles at the windows,
where only blinds should be allowed, with the names and business of the
respective tenants paiuted on then). This could not he complained of,
because the restrictions would be imposed alike upon every one, and no
one is compelled to become a tenant if he should object to the conditions.

are we from being of opinion that architectural drawing Ins deteri-
orated since the time of Jones, Wren, and Vanbrugh; for we should

as soon think of saying that architectural engraving has declined since
the days of Holler. That Mr. Gwilt is perTectlv sincere in what he
says, cannot for a moment be doubted ; for, though he may be aware
that they are not likely to be very popular, he utters his sentiments not
only without disguise, but in a tone sufficiently emphatic; for instance,
— ' the greatest curse that in these days has fallen on architecture, is
the employment of draughtsmen, who, with their trumpery colouring
and violent effects, mislead (he silly men and common-place critics
that usually decide upon the merits of their works." This is severe
enough, nor is it entirely free from prejudice— a little overcharged,
perhaps, both in opinion and expression, therefore Mr. Gwilt must not
be very much surprised if some should attempt to retaliate, and
charge him with making use of very coarse language; be that aa it
may, we ourselves do not like his work the less for its occasional pun-
gency of expression, which, even when we dissent from the sentiment,
is more, to our taste than the smirking, wishy-washy style of many
other writers.

The more practical part of the work contains a great deal of infor-
mation—of course not entirely fresh, and therefore more or lesf fa-
miliar to professional men; but it renders this Encyclopaedia a com-
plete elementary course for the student, affording" him, in a single
volume, the instruction that he must else gather for himself from a
variety of publications. Still, it is questionable whether it would not
have been more advisable to publish some of the sections separately,
in the form of a supplement to be bound up with the rest by those
who choose to take it, because so much matter of that kind', incor-
porated as it now is in the volume, may deter not a few from be-
coming purchasers.

( To be continued.)

JIncient and Modem Architecture. Edited by M. Jules Gailua-
baud. London: Firmin Didot, and Co. Part 3.

Another part of this excellent work has appeared, which is fully
equal in interest to the former numbers ; it contains a rich specimen
of the Lombard style, the Carthusian Church near Pavia, Italy : the
facade is covered with most elaborate ornament, which is shown
in detail in another plate. The third plate is a view of the Cathedral
of Bonn, in Germany, a fine specimen of the Norman style ; the
principal elements, however, present in general, the characteristics of
the modified Byzantine style, but not so pure as that style. The
eastern apsis, with its two towers, seem to belong to the close of the
eleventh century or the beginning of the twelfth. This edifice con-
tains some excellent points, from which the architect may glean with
advantage, and turn to good account for some of our new churches.
We kuow of no work that will add so much to the taste of the archi-
tect as the one before us.

learning and Mechanical Manipulation. By Charles Holtzapffel,
A. Inst. C. E. Vol. I. London: Holtzapffel & Co., 1848.

We have been able only to give a cursory glance at this work, but
from what we have seen, we have no hesitation in pronouncing it to
be a work of the highest use, both to the practical man and the ama-
teur. Next month we shall return to it.

SEWERS OF THE METROPOLIS.

We are heartily glad that some agitation has taken place on this
subject, having been introduced by the |Boot Law Commissioners.
We are sorry that we cannot insert Mr. Donaldson'- defence, as chair-
man of the Westminster Commissioners, but we horrf to advert to it
next month; for although we do no/ agree with Mr. Chadwick in
many points, we strongly hold that the present system of sewer ad-
ministration is susceptible of improvement, so as greatly to relie
proprietor and builder, and induce parties to construct sewers who
now shrink from such a responsibility.

26

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January

NOTES OF THE MONTH.

' The new Law Courts in Guildhall-yard are to be immediately
erected from llie designs of Mr. Tite, F. R. S. The elevation next
to Guildhall-yard is to be in the Gothic style, and the buildings on the
opposite side, now occupied as the Guildhall Police Office, &c,
are it is said, to be re-fronted, to correspond in appearance. Guild-
hall Chapel formerly occupied the site of the Law Courts, and the
style of that edifice might well be used in the present design ; at the
same time we sincerely hope that the style of Guildhall front will not
be adopted, but that the present opportunity will be taken advantage
of to »et rid of the cocked-hats and other barbarisms which Master
Dance was pleased to call Gothic, and which we should call Gothic par
excellence .' Several of the Common Council have advocated such a
course, and we hope will persevere.

The ground for the new Conservative Club, in St. James -street is
cleared of the buildings upon it, and shows afrontage of 150 feet. The
building, it is expected, will be commenced in the ensuing spring, from
the joint design of Mr. Sydney Smirke and Mr. Basevi.

The restoration of Wells Cathedral has been entrusted by the Dean
and Chapter to Mr. Cockerell, R. A., and it is at present to be con-
fined to the choir and organ.

The Temple Church is fast approaching completion. The floor is
being covered with inlaid tiles, manufactured by Messrs. Minton, of
Staffordshire. Next month we hope to be able to give some account
of the restorations.

The Lycian marbles discovered at Xanthus by Mr. Fellowes have
arrived at the British Museum, and their public exhibition is awaited
with much anxiety on account of the merit they possess. We have
before expressed our opinion that much of value connected with
Persian art remains to be discovered, and recent discoveries in the
East tend to confirm this. The remains of Persian art which have as
yet reached Europe, show a promise of something better than we have
yet had, and illustrate the influence of Persia on Greek art, of which
abundant evidence is shown in the Lycian marbles.

On the Travellers' Club a new attic is being raised, so as to relieve
the garden-front now swamped by the Reform Club and Athenaeum.
The addition is in the same chaste style as the rest of the building.
The only part which is looked upon with doubt is the inhersion of
telescopic circular windows in the roof. The interior is to be deco-
rated by Sang, a German artist, with arabesques, and used as a
smoking-room. In reference to Barry's application of colour we have
heard some remarks upon the decoration of the groined arcade at the
Travellers' Club. This he has had painted in imitation of granite,
thus appearing to violate probability, as it would be difficult to work
granite in such a way.

The Noah's Ark on the top of the Mansion House has at last been
removed, to the great satisfaction of the public.

Cateaton-street is rapidly advancing, and will make a fine street.
Guildhall is, as we have announced, to be improved. St. Lawrence
Jewry and Gresham Hall abut upon the street. The latter building is
to have a highly decorated front, in the florid Italian style, of four
Corinthian pilasters. It is by far too small for the purposes to which
it is to be devoted.

The widening of Fetter-lane, at the Fleet-street end, is determined
upon, and the houses have been removed.

Mr. Barry's works in Trafalgar-square now begin to show them-
selves. The shaft of Mr. Railton's Nelson column is nearly com-
pleted, and the bronze capital which is being cast at Woolwich is in
an advanced state.

A new Hall and Library are to be built in Lincoln's-inn, from the
designs of Mr. Hardvvicke, and are, we understand, to be in the style
of the old parts of Hampton Conrt.

We have seen a line engraving of Barry, by Hurland, which is in
private circulation; it is 8 inches by G4 inches, and beautifully
executed, but we do not consider it a striking likeness.

METROPOLITAN IMPROVEMENTS.

Whitehall, Mocernber 30th. — The Queen has been pleased to appoint the
Earl of Lincoln, Lord Lyttleton, Lord Colborne, the Right Hon. James
Charles Hemes, the Right Hon. the' Lord Mayor of the city of London, Sir
Robert Harry Inglis, Baft., Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., Henry Thomas Hope,
Esq., Henry Gaily Knight, Esq., Alexander Milne, Esq., the Hon. Charles
Gore, Sir Robert Smirke, Knt., and Charles Barry, Esq., to he Her Majesty's
Commissioners for inquiring into and considering the most effectual means
of improving the metropolis, and of providing increased facilities of com-
munication within the same. The Queen has also been pleased to appoint
Trenham Walshman Philipps, Esq., to he Secretary to the said Commission.

IRON STEAM VESSELS.

Sir. — The writer of a paper on steam navigation in the November
number of the Journal says, " The iron of which vessels are composed
has been found to become brittle in the course of years, so that, al-
though tough at first, it will, in the course of time, star like glass,
when struck by a hard and sharp body." May I be allowed to remark
that some of the friends of iron ship-building are startled by the
assertion contained in this sentence, and would be glad to know
whether the author of it can point to any instance of such " starring"
which has actually taken place. Until this can be done, the examples
of the Jlaron Manly, which is stated in the same number of the
Journal to have been at work from 1822 to 1830, without requiring
any repairs, although she had been repeatedly aground in the Seine,
with her cargo on board, and which vessel is also stated to be now at
work, — of the steamer built by the Horseley Company for the Shan-
non, in 1825, and now " in good order," and of other iron vessels, do
not appear to favour very strongly the serious objection raised against
iron vessels in the paper quoted above.

I am, respectfully,

Neath, 12M mo. 10M, 1842. 'A. M.

[The objection alluded to by our correspondent is very well known
to exist, by those whose acquaintance with the working of iron steam
vessels is the most extended. In the Lady Lansdown iron steamer
on the Shannon, the effect of a collision when the vessel was new was
merely to indent the plate ; after the vessel had been at work for
some time, a tendency was observed in the plate to crack, as well as
to become indented, and the brittleness of the plate was found to
increase as the vessel became older, until, when struck by a hard and
sharp body, it starred in the manner we formerly stated. Whether
this effect is due to the action of the water or to the tremor occasioned
by the engine, we do not pretend to determine ; if the latter, steam
vessels of moderate power may undergo a less rapid deterioration,
and something of the superior durability of the „4aron Alanby may
possibly be owing to the smallness of that vessel's power. — Ed.]

MEDHURST'S WATER VALVE.

Sir — Excuse my troubling you with the following remarks : —
I have been much surprised by repeatedly seeing reference made to
a water valve invented by Mr. Medhurst, and particularly a description
of it by Mr. Vignoles in iris lecture in Cornwall, reported lately in the
Railway Times, where he remarks that it is a very ingenious contri-
vance, the only objection being that the country the railway passes
through must be perfectly level — a serious objection certainly, but not
the only one ; for the learned Professor surely cannot be so unac-
quainted with the principle of the common pump as not to know that
when the tube is exhausted of air, the water will rush in to supply its
place, and so render the tube ineffectual. Another objection is that
the communication between the piston and carriage being on one side
only, the pipe must necessarily be on one side also — a very unme-
chanical contrivance, to say the best of it. The chances of tlie water
freezing, or rusting of the piston, are left quite out of the question.

A Young Mechanic.

CONTRIVANCE FOR DESTROYING SMOKE.

Sir — At a meeting held at the Leeds Music Hall about ten months
ago, I had the pleasure of examining a variety of models and draw-
ings of patented smoke-consuming apparatus; also of hearing the
same explained by the inventors thereof, or by their representatives.
Previous to this meeting, I had paid little or no attention to "smoke
burning," as it is commonly termed, but since, I have done quite to
the contrary; I have been continually on the listen, and in full expec-
tation to see from an individual, whose signature has occasionally
appeared in your pages, a contrivance to effect the object in question
more agreeable to my fancy than any I had seen. My expectation in
this respect not being realised, and perceiving from a printed notice
received from the Leeds Board of Works, about three weeks ago,
that the period is fast approaching when all the "wholesale smoke
manufacturers " within the borough of Leeds will, by Act of Parlia-
ment, be compelled to check, to a great extent, that nuisance which
has been so long complained of, I began to think it high time to do
something by way of experiment to diminish the periodical dense
volume which rolled from my own chimney-top.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

27

During the last three or four months, I have had frequent oppor-
tunities of witnessing the operation of several different kinds of appa-
ratus for consuming smoke, some of them patented and some not ; the
whole of which I found wanting some improvement to render them
capable cf accomplishing their intended purpose still more effectually.
This circumstance caused me to try a plan of my own, the success of
which has induced me to hand you the present communication. After
all the discussion and bother that has of late been driven up and down
the country concerning the consumption of smoke, "smoke burning"
is, nevertheless, in my humble opinion, as far as Englishmen have been
enabled to succeed in the science, attended with so little difficulty as
to be accomplished with very little trouble and expense. My furnace
was recently one of the ordinary description, though it is now entitled
to the name of a "smoke-burner," and the difference of the state in
which it now is, and that which it formerly was, is simply this.

Cold air being admitted through a regulating door cr valve built in
the wall on one side of the ash pit, into a space or chamber formed
within the wall which supports the fire-bridge, ascends through a
narrow aperture extending across the top of the bridge, that is from
one side of the boiler to the other into the flue, where it mingles, with
the smoke, and thas renders combustion more complete. The air
thus admitted into the flue can have no good effect any longer than it
assists combustion ; for this reason, if the engine man be a little atten-
tive, he will generally find that the air valve may be shut in about
four minutes after each renewal of the fire.

There are many "smoke burners" now in constant operation in
this neighbourhood, some few of them appear to answer tolerably
well, while others, of the very same plan, appear to have no effect
whatever. This circumstance renders it impossible for a stranger to
distinguish the chimneys which have "smoke burners " attached to
them, from those which have not. I do not mean to say the plan I
here describe is a perfect remedy for preventing the smoke of chim-
neys ; it is such as I am convinced will protect me against any inter-
ference of the Leeds improvement commissioners; it has a better
effect in accomplishing its object than a great majority of those in the
neighbourhood ; and it is inferior to none I have yet witnessed, except
in one point, and that is of all others the most important, viz. expence.
From your humble servant,

.Near Leeds, JVoo. 29, 1842. Fleece.

[We did not think it necessary to give the drawing forwarded by
our correspondent, as we consider that the description will be suffi-
ciently understood without it; this "smoke burner " is, we believe,
identically the same as one that was patented some years since, which
patent has expired. — Ed.]

BLAST ENGINES.

Sir — I shall feel obliged by an explanation from you or from some
of your correspondents in an early number of yoju- valuable Journal,
of the following irregularity of blast from a blast engine.

The engine blows four furnaces, three on one side, and one on the
other side. There are two receivers, one exactly opposite to the
gable of the engine house, into which the air is first /creed, and another
situated nearly equidistant from the three furnaces on one side of the
engine. The blast to the three furnaces is taken from the bottom of
the receiver at the engine house, and to the other furnaces, within a
short space of the top, and about one foot above the orifice through
which the blast passes from the engine to the receiver. I applied a
mercurial gauge to various parts of the pipe leading to the single
furnace, and 1 found the pressure varying irregularly from a quarter
to three and a half pounds on the square inch ; whereas the pressure
on the pipes leading to the three furnaces kept uniformly three and a
half pounds.

I am, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,

Clyde Iron Works, Glasgon, William Ferrie.

December 27, 1S42.

ON THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.

Sir — The above sketch shows the situation of the supports, &c, of
a cast iron beam I lately had an occasion to make use of for carrying
a load of about seven tons at each end. The distance between the
supports s, 8, was six times as great as that between the centre of
each load, W, and the nearest support.

Now, I should feel myself highly obliged if some of your scientific

readers would be kind enough to furnish the Journal with a correct
method of shaping beams of this class; also the best formula for
computing their strength. To prove where a beam of this kind
would break, I took a parallel square bar of cist iron, divid
length, and placed it upon two supports, as seen in the sketch, then

W

W

submitted it to a pressure, acting equally upon the points, W, W, till
it broke in the points c, c. Was I not to' infer from this circumstance,
that beams of the present kind rpquire to be made strongest between
the points of support ? Query— Would this inference be c „isist.>nt
with theory ? I don't remember seeing in any author on the subject,
any satisfactory information relating to this class of bearers ; still it is
a form which in general practice is often found very convenient : and
I have no doubt that if some of your able correspondents would give
the subject a thorough investigation, the result thereof would be
generally received as being of great practical importance.

Leeds, Dec. 17, 1842. Concrete.

OBSTRUCTIONS TO WINDOWS.

Sir — I have repeatedly endeavoured to obtain definite information
on the subject of obstructions to windows (which have acquired a
right by being opened upon adjoining property the requisite length of
time) but having been unable to obtain any thing to be relied on, per-
haps you, or some of your numerous and well informed correspondents
can afford light on the following subjects.

1. Suppose a window to be opened upon an adjoining property, and
(by neglect of the owner of such adjoining property; to acquire a right
to remain open. What space of ground is required to be left open
for its use, say in a direct line from its face, or the face of the wall in
which it is built or opened ?

2. Does the opening such window (of course it being possessed of
the right as above) give any right to space on each side, or more
than its own width.

3. Does it preclude the building of any structure beneath it, or as
high as its sill.

These queries, you will perceive, are intended to cover all the
ground of right of occupancy inherent in [windows, which have been
allowed to remain open a length of time sufficient to give what is
termed a right of light.

By replying to the above, or giving it a place in your valuable
journal,

You will oblige,

West Derby, Dec. 5, 1842. An Old Subscriber.

[We rather suspect that our correspondent will find some difficulty
in obtaining a satisfactory answer to his queries, 1 and 2 ; we believe
that theie has not been any defined distance settled. At a trial, much
depends upon the hard swearing of witnesses on both sides, as to
whether a building erected near a window does obstruct the light and
free circulation of air. After hearing of evidence, it is left to the
Judge and Jury who may try the cause to determine the point. In
answer to the third query, there is no doubt that the owner of the soil
has a right to build beneath the window or as high as the sill ; if in
London, the roof must be 18 inches below or from the opening, to
conform to the building act. — Ed.]

SMITH'S PATENT WIRE ROPE.
At the Society of Arts, on Wednesday, the 14th December, a
paper by Mr. A. Smith was read, " On the propertit* of Win , M applied
in the Manufacture of Rope for Mining and Railway I'm/ osa, Stan l-
ing Rigging, Lightning Conductor*, Cablet, .St." After some pre-
liminary remarks on the increment of strength, as compared with
diminution of bulk, resulting from the processes of drawing and
annealing the wire, Mr. Smith gave a table of the strenglh of single
wires of various gauges, the breaking weights ! avingbeeu obtained by

experiment with the testing machine. This was followed by a table

of tests of the comparative strengths of the Govern nl hempen-rope,

and Mr. Smith's wire-rope, from experiments ordered by the Admi-
ralty in March, 1837. Another table gave the comparative size, with
the weight, and cost per fathom, of iron-wire rope, hempen-rope,

2«

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

and chain of equal strength. The general results are, that standing
rigging of wire-rope, of equal strength with the hempen-rope, one-
third of the size and half the weight', may he fitted at about two-thirds
of the cost.

In the nautical statistics of Mr. Smith's paper it is stated, in re-
ference to the advantages of a reduced surface of rigging, that " the
standing rigging now fitted in her Majesty's navy, presents a surface
of upwards of S00,000 square feet, which is about equal to the surface
of the sails of twenty-four first-class frigates ;" and in reference to the
disadvantages of the absorption of moisture by the hempen-rope, that
"one fathom of hempen-rope, about three inches in circumference,
will absorb half a pound weight of water, and will contract one inch in
length. The standing and running rigging of a first-rate measures
about 30,000 fathoms, and will, consequently when wet, contract in
length, on an average, about 8S0 yards, or nearly half a mile, and will
absorb about seven tons of water, which, being principally carried
aloft, will materially affect her sailing," &c.

Mr. Smith explained the construction of an apparatus termed a
" screw lanyard," which he substitutes for the ordinary lanyards and
dead-eyes of the shrouds, for the purpose of tightening the wire-rope
rigging. It consists of a piece of Russell's wrought-iron tubing, with
a screw at each end, working in right and left screw sockets.

The ship's lightning conductor is described as a copper-wire rope,
securely fitted to the trucks and mast-head caps, and descending from
the top-gallant and top-masts down the rigging, and over the ship's
side, where it is inserted in a copper-plate, in contact with the
sheathing below the water-line, &c.

On Wednesday, the 21st of December, Mr. Smith continued his
communication. He commenced by explaining the tenacity and elas-
ticity of various metals, and experimented by a testing machine on
wires of platina, gold, silver, copper, and iron. He first tried a piece
ofplatina wire, twelve inches in length, -^ inch iu diameter, and
weighing S dwts. a grs; this experiment, however, failed from an
accident. The gold wire, of the same length and size, (weight 5 dwts.
lOgrs.) broke at3S41bs.; silver, same size and length (weight 4 dwts.
14 grs.), broke at 2G0 lbs ; copper, (3 dwts. 12 grs.) broke at 180 lbs. ;
and iron, 3 dwts., at 310 lbs. A copper rod, one-fourth of an inch in
diameter, was then tested, which withstood a tenison of 2,000 lbs. ;
and an iron one, of the same diameter, did not break until a power was
applied equal to upwards of 3,000 lbs. A wire bridge, of 33 feet span,
was erected in the room, the construction of which Mr. Smith ex-
plained. The wire rope, forming its principal support, weighed 50 lbs.;
the angle-irons, 112 lbs.; and the other parts, including the braces,
5(i lbs. ; and 112 lbs. for the platform or footpath, composed of boards
— thus making the whole weight only three cwt., and which might be
completed by four men, in about three days, at a cost not exceeding
15/., and could, at anytime, be taken down or put up in half an hour.
These descriptions of bridges were described as very useful for
military purposes, and for throwing over deep cuttings in railways,
&c, Mr. Smith stated, that for general practical purposes the
cost might be taken at )/. per foot run, with a breadth of three feet.
Two smaller models of bridges, on different principles of construction,
were also shown.

KEENE'S MARBLE CEMENT.

At the Society of Arts a paper was lately read by Mr. White, " On
Ktent' s Marhle Cantnt." It is described as a combination of sulphate
of lime and alum. The gypsum undergoes the same preparation as for
plaster of Paris, being deprived of its water of crystallisation by baking.
It is then steeped in a saturated solution of alum, and this compound,
when recalcined and reduced to a powder, is in a fit state for use. The
cement has been extensively applied as a stucco, but the finer quali-
ties (when coloured by the simple process of fusing mineral colours
in the water with which the cement powder is finally mixed for work-
ing) being susceptible of a high degree of polish, produce beautiful
imitations of mosaic, and other inlaid marbles, scagliola, &c. The
cement is not adapted to hydraulic purposes, or for exposure to the
weather, but has been used as a stucco in the internal decorations of
Windsor and Buckingham Palaces. From its extreme hardness, it
has been found serviceable, when used for imbedding and setting the
tiles of tesselated pavements, &c, and has been adopted for this pur-
pose at the French Protestant Church, the new fire-proof chambers in
Shnrtet's-court, and the Reform Club Honse. In the course of the
discussion which followed, Mr. C. H. Smith and Mr. Lee adverted to
the extreme hardness of the cement as its principal recommendation,
when applied as stucco and for mouldings.

[We have seen some of the imitations of mosaic and inlaid marbles

referred to in the above paper; we can say, and truly, that they are
beautiful, and in point of polish superior to scagliola; we have also
seen some fine specimens of granite, imitations in plinths for halls,
chimney-pieces, columns, pilasters, &c. ; and we must not forget to
mention the imitation statuary mouldings, with polychrome ornaments,
after the Greek. For the purposes of interior ornament, we consider
this cement a great acquisition to the architect. We, therefore,
strongly recommend the profession to visit Messrs. White's works,
where may be seen various applications of the cement for decorative
architecture, particularly two table tops, containiug several imitations
of rare marble?.]

THE SILLOMETER, DERIYOMETER, SUB-MARINE THERMOMETER,
AND STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, OF M. CLEMENT.

At the request of a subscriber to give some information relative to M.
Clement's Nautical instruments, for which Government lately made a grant,
we make the following extracts from the Mechanics' Magazine : —

1. The Sillometer is the title given to a substitute for the common log,
which has been recently invented by a M. Clement, of Rochfort, and is so
well thought of by the French Admiralty, that it has been ordered to be
forthwith supplied to the different, ships of the Royal Navy of France. It is
a most ingeniously constructed instrument, and promises to be of great
practical utility. To describe it as well as we can in words : —

A hollow copper ball, against which the water acts, is attached to a
moveable plug of-the same metal, which slides in a copper tube that passes
through the centre of the vessel to the keel ; to this plug is attached a lever,
which, by means of a vertical rod, acts on a second lever placed on the deck
of the vessel, and communicatiug with a spring ; the tension of the spring;
constitutes an equilibrium with the pressure of the water on the ball, and
serves to measure the rate at which the ship is moving, by means of a hand,
the movements of which on a graduated dial, indicate, at every movement,
not only the speed of the ship, but also the distance ruu in any given time.

2. The second invention is called a Derivometer ; it is an instrument to
ascertain a ship's leeway, and is moved by a paddle, that may be placed
under the keel at will, and is supported by a plug sliding in a tube like that
of the Sillometer, but turning with the paddle and the rod. The motion is
transmitted from the paddle aud rod to two semi-circular dials, one of which
indicates the leeway to larboard, the other to starboard. When at anchor,
the instrument will show clearly the direction of the currents.

3. The third invention is a Sub-marine Thermometer. It appears from
the thermometrical observations of many scientific navigators, that in seas
of unfathomable depth, the water is not so cold as over banks, and that
over banks near the shore it is less cold than over those at a greater distance,
but colder than in the open sea. M. Clement's thermometer is kept con-
stantly under water at the same depth, and indicates the different tempera-
tures of the water by means of a dial placed on the deck of the vessel, and
always open to examination. The immediate action is communicated by
wheels, the working of which turns two hands upon the dial, the one
marking the single degrees, and the other the tens. The whole is enclosed
in a tube attached to the side of the vessel, and the helix of the apparatus
is at the lowest part of the tube, in immediate contact with the water, and
always at the same height.

4. The fourth invention consists of an instrument which indicates con-
stantly the elasticity of the steam both in high and low-pressure engines,
and the level also of the water in the boilers. The instrument may also be
applied to the piston of an engine, so as to show the loss of power sustained
by the steam in its way to it. A tube, similar to the manometer, is affixed
to the instrument through which the steam ascends, and is introduced into a
copper or brass box placed on the deck of the vessel, and upon which a
graduated dial indicates, by means of a hand, to the officer of the watch,
the effects of the engine, without his having to send below to ascertain it.

M. Clement has obtained patents for these different inventions both in
France and this country.

The following experiments made by order of the Lords of the Admiralty
on board of the Lightning steamer, we extract from the Government report.
" Thursday, October 13, 1842.
" About one mile and a quarter below Gravesend commenced a trial be-
tween Massey's patent log and M. Clement's sillometer. After a run of two
hours and a half (being off' Sheerness) —

Miles.
" Distance given by Massey's log . . . 15-^

" Distance given by sillometer . . .15

" Distance from the Nore Light to Deal by sillometer 42
" Distance by tables .... 41$

" At 25 minutes past 4 o'clock, p.m., altered the course four points,
during which operation the sillometer showed a diminution of speed from
8 miles per hour to 7 miles. At 50 minutes past 8 o'clock p.m., off South
Foreland, commenced a trial between Massey's log and the sillometer.

" On Friday morning took in Massey's log, and found the distance from
abreast the South Foreland to about 7 miles to the eastward of the Owers—

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT S JOURN \1.

2»

by Massey's log 84$ miles; by sillometer 82J; by tables 85 miles- Moved
sundry weights aft, viz., boat, brass guns, anchors, oars, &c. : for an instant
the speed, as shown by the sillometer, diminished to 7"4 miles per hour,
but it almost immediately increased to the former speed of 8 miles per
hour. Moved the same weights forward, but could not perceive any sensible
difference in the speed of the vessel. The speed, as shown by the sillometer,
varied from 81 to 8'2 miles per hour. Tried the speed of the vessel by the
common log, which gave 8} miles. The sillometer indicated exactly the
same. At 10 o'clock, a.m., on Friday, when about two miles past the Nab
Light, tried Massey's log, and found the distance to near the entrance of
Portsmouth harbour — by Massey's log six miles nearly; by sillometer six
miles exactly. During the passage round to Portsmouth, the speed of the
vessel was purposely checked, by blowing off the steam, to see the effect on
the sillometer. The speed, as shown by that instrument, was gradually re-
duced from eight miles per hour to four miles, at which point it stood
steady. On the order being given for full speed, the sillometer showed a
gradual increase of speed, till it came to 8 miles per hour, as before. On
the return of the Lightning from Portsmouth to Woolwich, the distance
performed was found to be — hv Massev's log 119 miles; bv the sillometer
118-6.

" The sillometer has a dial upon deck, which constantly shows the
number of miles per hour that the vessel is going ; consequently it is easy
to discover, under all circumstances, what is the best trim of the vessel, and
the most advantageous quantity and distribution of the sails for obtaining
the greatest speed. As the sillometer shows immediately the effect which
every alteration in the sails or trim of the ship has on its velocity, it follows,
also, that ships fitted with the sillometer can constantly maintain the speed
they may have agreed upon, and so keep company together, and maintain
the same relative position, though, from the darkness of the night, or
thickness of the weather, they cannot see each other. To ascertain the
distance run after any number of hours, it is simply to take the number of
minutes one of the watches of the sillometer has gained over the other, and
to multiply that number by six, which gives the distance run in miles.

" The Marine Thermometer. — The trials with this instrument on board
the Lightning, commenced at 11 o'clock on Thursday morning, October 13,
previous to leaving Woolwich harbour, and on taking the centigrade, it was
found to be 12°. At 25 minutes past three o'clock p.m., in five fathom
channel, cant-shoal, depth of water about 16 feet, it indicated 13-25°. In
23 feet depth of water, as stated by the pilot.it indicated 15-25°; off
Dover 16°; and in Portsmouth harbour, 142. From these indications it
appears that the marine thermometer in its variations followed the inequali-
ties of the bottom of the sea, so far as these inequalities could be ascer-
tained from the heaving of the lead, or from the information of the pilot —
that is, on the aproach of shoal water the thermometer fell, and on the ap-
proach of deep water it rose, and distinguished the difference very dis-
tinctly and rapidly, according to the transition from shallow to deep water,
and rice versa. It may, therefore, be inferred that the marine thermometer
would indicate the approach to rocks and icebergs, from the influence these
bodies are known to have on the temperature of the sea for a considerable
distance." The dial of the marine thermometer is also on deck, and shows,
by inspection merely, the exact depth of water in which the vessel may be
sailing at the time.

Sunderland Harbour Floating Dock. — Application is intended to be
made in the ensuing Parliament for an act to authorise the Wear Commis-
sioners to convert the lower part of the Tidal Harbour of Sunderland into a
Floating Dock, by a course of dams, piers of masonry, with navigable gates
between, across the River Wear. The works are intended to confine or im-
pound seven feet of water above the low water-mark of the average spring
tides in this part of the harbour; 100 acres of water will thus be rendered
available to shipping, producing at Pallion a depth of five feet in the Channel,
and at the Folly End an average depth of 12 feet. Facilities for moving ships
in and out of loading berths, and increased accommodation for ships of
a larger class, will thus be secured. The navigable gates to be each 80 feet
in width of opening, with sluices or slackers in them for letting off the water
when required. These gates are proposed to be left open till three hours
after high water, or until the water has ebbed out to the height above spe-
cified. Ample time will, therefore, be given for ships passing outwards.
The gates are to remain closed until the tide has again flowed to the level of
the confined water, of three hours flood, when the tidal water will force them
open, and the navigation of the stream will again proceed as at present. It
is also proposed to construct a Tidal Dock or Basin, to contain 25 sail of
vessels, for the purpose of having an entrance to the great Dock always
available. Mr. Murray, the Commissioner's engineer, has prepared the
necessary plans for the intended works. The Parliamentary plans have been
lodged.

The New Barracks at Preston. — We understand that the plans and
specifications for the new barracks at Fulwood, near Preston, have at length
passed, and received the confirmation of the Hon. Board of Ordnance.
They will he on the most magnificent and complete scale, superior to any in
the kingdom, to accommodate 2,000 men, with stabling for 750 horses. —
Preston Chronicle.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINE]

The Council of the Institution of Civil ,,■ awarded the

following Telford ami \v m bier Premiums foi

Robert Thomas A-tkinson, M. [nst. C. E., for his Paper " On the sinking
and tubbing, or coffering of Pits, as practised in th of the

North of England," a Telford Medal in Silver, and Book*.

William Cotton, for his " Memoir of Captain Huddart," a Telford
in Silver.

Chevalier Frederik Willem Conrad, for his " History of the Canal of Kat-
wyk, (Holland,) with an Account of the Principal Works upon it," a Telford
Medal in Silver.

James John Wilkinson, for his " Historical Account of the various kinds
of Sheathing for Vessels," a Telford Medal in Silver.

Thomas Casebourne, M. Inst. C. V... for his " Description and Drawings
of part of the Works of the Ulster Canal," a Telford Premium of Books.

Thomas Girdwood Hardie, Assoc. Inst. C. E., for his "Description and
Drawings of an Iron Work in South Wales" a Telford Premium of Books.

Charles Nixon, Assoc. Inst. C. E., for his " Description and Drawings of
part of the Tunnels on the Great Western Railway," a Walker Premium of
Books.

Alexander James Adie, for his " Descriptions and Drawings of the Bridges
on the Preston and Bolton Railway," a Walker Premium oi Books.

John Brannis Birch, Grad. Inst. C. E., for his " Description and Dl
of the Bridge at Kingston-on-Thames," a Walker Premium of Book,.

Robert Richardson, Grad. Inst. C. E., for his "Description and |i ,
of part of the Works of the London Docks," a Walker Premium of Books.

James Combe, Assoc. Inst. < . E. for his " Description and Drawings of
Messrs. Marshall's new Flax Mill, at Leeds," a Walker Premium of Books.

Charles Denroche, Grad. Inst. C. E., for his " Description and Drawings
of the Apparatus used for Compressing Gas, for the purposes of Illumina-
tion, &c," a Walker Premium of Books.

Adrian Stephens, for his " Description of the Explosion of a Steam
Boiler at the Penydarran Iron Works, South Wales," a Walker Premium of
Books.

George Ellis, Grad. Inst. C. E., for the Drawings illustrating th
cription, Specification, and Estimates of the Calder Viaduct, on the Wishav.
and Coltness Railway ; with the Series of Experiments on the deflection of
Trussed Timber Beams for that work, by John Macncill, M. Inst. C. E.," a
Walker Premium of Books.

Thomas Chalmers, Grad. Inst. C. E., for the Drawings illustrating the
" Report on the Sinking of two experimental Brick Cylinders, in an attempt
to form a Tunnel across the River Thames, by John Isaac Hawkins, M. Inst.
C. E." a Walker Premium of Books.

THE NILE.

The following account of the plans adopted by Mehemet Ali for carrying
into execution the improvements of the Nile, first conceived by the Emperor
Napoleon, is transmitted to Paris by Dr. Labot, who arrived latelj in
The first great work is to be the establishment of a bridge of S3 arches,
running from the point of the Delta to each of the opposite banks of both
branches, similar to the Pont-Neuf at Paris. On each side of the spur, a
sluice is to be formed for the purpose of Navigation. All the 83 arches are
also to be furnished with flood-gates of iron or wood, to ! . opi m I or shut,
according to the wants of traffic and navigation. A tunnel is to be cat
through "the spur of the Delta, forming a communication between the two
branches of the river. Canals are also to be cut from each branch running
to the east and the west, with various minor channels, with sluice* for tin-
commerce and irrigation of the country. Above the bridge, the Nile is to be
embanked on each side, so as to keep the water always within a certain
level. All these embankments will be faced with ma 'them

solidity and beauty. Concrete will be used for all the mi' tnai tie werks, and
the rest will he done with squared stone, rubble, and bricks. These mate-
rials are found in abundance in Egvpt, and es en in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the works. Artificial pozzolano is in g ing ob-
tainable in all parts of the country from pulverised bricks. This matter,
which is analogous to that produced bv volcanos, being mixed with lime and
rubble, forni what is called beton or concrete. Before li thi-
pozzolano which costs 5 fr. the cube- metre on the -merry
brought from Italv. at the expense of

cost of the bridge has been estimated at 7,000,000 fr., and cannot exceed
10,000,000 fr. When once the materii are coll eted, if will require no
.,,, tj,ree years tbi 5000 men to complete this colossal undertaking.
wnicj, , , ,. ,„■ will, the e, lebrated monuments ul .

Ae, ling to a e.:l. elation .cccntly mole by a I .m.it I I

thai the present irrigation of Egypt, though verj limited in comparison to

what will now be accomplished, costs the labour of 200,000 oxen and
100,000 men.

30

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

MI SCELLANEA.

The Tomb of Napoleon. — The construction of the tomb of the Emperor
Napoleon is about to be commenced, and for the last few days a model of
the work has been exposed to public view at the Invalides. An equestrian
statue of the Emperor is to be placed in the middle of the great court, and
on the pedestal will be represented the arrival of his ashes at the place where
they now lie. The entrance of the crypt destined to receive the Emperor's
mortal remains will be ornamented on each side by two gigantic statues and
two lions coucbant. This entrance will be surmounted with an altar on
spiral columns. The present grand altar and its rich canopy must be
removed to admit of this arrangement.

The Tuileries and the Louvre. —The Glohe notices a rumour, that du-
ring the next session of the Chambers the plan for uniting the palaces of the
Tuileries and the Louvre by a screen, resembling in architecture the facade
front of the Quay de Louvre, and thus forming one of the linest squares in
Europe, will be presented. The centre will, it is said, according to this
project, be ornamented with an equestrian statue of the Duke of Orleans,
and the works are to be entrusted to the direction of the Civil List. The
expense to be divided into thirds : one to be borne by the Civil List — one
by the State — and the last by the city, to be laid out in embellishments. If
this project be adopted, the idea of purchasing the site bounded by the
Pont-Neuf, the Quais d'Horloge and des Orfevres, and the Rue du Ilarlay
will be relinquished, and the new wing or screen of the Louvre will be ap-
propriated to the Royal library.

The New Corn Exchange, Glasgow. — The spacious and beautiful
hall which has been erected in Hope-street as a Corn Exchange, for the ac-
commodation of those engaged in the grain trade, was opened on Wednesday
23rd November, for the first time, when the respective stalls were taken
possession of by their tenants, and a good deal of business transacted. As
this building, independent altogether of the important object it is destined
to serve, is an ornament of a very high order to that part of the city in
which it has been erected, we deem it worthy of a special notice. The ex-
terior is finely relieved by a handsome range of Roman windows, and is de-
corated all round the ;pot with a massive balustrade, while the entrance
which fronts Hope-street, is adorned with a beautiful portico, formed of
Corinthian columns, 25 feet in height, finished with a corresponding en-
tablature and pediment. The front has been designed in a style of great
chasteness and purity, the work executed with much skill, and the entire
building presents a noble and imposing appearance. The hall within is ex-
ceedingly spacious, and has a very striking aspect, being of a construction
altogether different from that of any other building in the city. It is en-
tirely lighted from cupolas tastefully introduced into the panels of the ceil-
ing, and ornamented by a magnificent lantern light 50 feet by 30, formed in
the centre of the building, and supported by eight columns, fluted, and or-
namented in the Corinthian style. The dimensions of the hall are 80 feet
by 57 ; the height of the ceiling 22 feet ; and, viewed as a whole, it has an
exceedingly light and elegant appearance. There have been erected round
the hall 36 stalls for the grain merchants, so formed as to give facilities for
exposing their samples, for writing, and otherwise carrying on business.
They are let at the rate of 10/. each per annum, and we understand that 31
of them have already been taken, the name of each tenant being painted on
his stall. Underneath the hall, which is reached by a short flight of stairs
from the pavement, is a large grain store, perfectly capable of containing
nearly 800 tons of grain. The building, so creditable to the parties chiefly
connected with the grain trade, with whom it originated, has been built by
subscription shares of 50/. ; and the speculation bids fair for being a very
profitable one. The architects are Messrs. Brown and Carrick, who,
throughout the whole details, have manifested a degree of taste, skill, and
ability, which cannot fail to add to their reputation. — Glasgow Chronicle.

Statue of the Queen at Edinburgh. — A colossal statue of Her Ma-
jesty Queen Victoria, is now being executed in freestone, by Mr. Steell,
sculptor, and which is to be placed in the north front of the Royal Institu-
tion, Prince's-street. One stone is upwards of 22 tons weight : and was
brought fiom the Binny Quarry to town on a wagon drawn by 16 powerful
horses, assisted at certain difficult parts of the road by a number of Mr.
Lhind's men. It was safely lodged in a large wooden building. Bread-street,
where Mr. Steell is already far advanced in the formation of this gigantic
structure, and which, when completed, will weigh altogether upwards of 90
tons. From the well known talents of the artist, the beauty and solidity of
the Binny stone, and the commanding situation it is to occupy, this statue
of our beloved Sovereign cannot fail to be an object of great attraction, and
will complete the beauty of the splendid building it is intended to adorn.

Architectural Remains in Asia. — The Commerce states, that
" most favourable news had been received from M. Tessier, appointed to
direct the expedition sent to Magnesia, in Asia Minor, in order to raise the
remains of the temple of Diana Leucophica. It appears that many more
objects had been discovered than was originally expected, amongst others
several columns in complete preservation, with their capitals sculptured with
extreme delicacy, besides 12 bas-reliefs admirably executed, and a number
of statues. The most friendly aid had been afforded by the French author-
ities in the Levant, and it is expected that a brilliant harvest is being reaped
for the Academy des Beaux Arts at Paris."

The New Royal Exchange. — Notices have been given by the city
authorities for pulling down the mass of building in front of" the Bank
(known as Bank-buildings) in the course of the spring, and the space, when
cleared, is to be the site for the statue of the Duke of Wellington, imme-
diately in front of the great portico of the Exchange. The progress made
in the building itself is most astonishingly great, reflecting the highest credit
upon Mr. Tite, the architect, and Mr. Jackson, the contractor. In the
course of this year the work will be in great forwardness, and it will cer-
tainly be finished in the summer of the following year. The sculpture of the
pediment Mr. Westmacot undertakes to complete by the 1st of May, IS 14.

Timber Tank. — A wrought iron cylinder, 51 feet long and 6 feet diameter,
has been erected in Portsmouth Dock Yard, for the purpose of " Burnet-
tizing" timber under pressure. It is composed of plates half an inch thick,
and double rivetted, and the ends are of cast iron, with doors 2 feet 6 inches
square, for the admission of logs. It is fitted with two air pumps of 14
inches diameter, for extracting the air, and two force pumps for increasing
the pressure when filled with the solution. On a trial lately made before
the Admiralty engineer Mr. Kingston, the cylinder having been charged with
20 loads of timber, the air pumps which are arranged to be driven by Lord
Dundonald's rotary engine, were set to work, and a vacuum of 26' inches
was obtained in 30 minutes. A cock in the connecting pipe was then
opened, and the solution rushed into the vacuum from the cistern. When
the cylinder was filled with the solution, the force pumps were set to work,
and the pressure was raised to 200 lb. on the square inch. Under this
pressure there was not the slighest leakage from any part of the cylinder,
nor from the doors. The timber was removed on the following day, and a
log was cut up, when it was found that the solution had penetrated to the
very centre, and completely saturated it. The pressure at which the appar-
atus is in future to be worked, is 100 lb. on the square inch, as this is found
to be sufficient for the due saturation of the timber within 24 hours, under
the process of previous exhaustion of the air. The whole of the work was
executed by Messrs. W. Fairbairn and Co., of London, and the cylinder
rivetted up by their patent rivetting machine, to which its great tightness
may be attributed.

New Iron Steamer, " The Magician." — An iron vessel, of 360 tons
burthen, built by Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair, with engines of 110 horse
power, by Messrs. Penn and Son, and fitted with Morgan's patent wheels,
tubular boilers, and Howard's cooling apparatus, was tried during last month,
and has proved to be a first-rate steamer; in point of speed she is not to be
excelled. The following account of experiments we extract from the Wool-
wich correspondent of the Times: — The experiments were made on the 16th,
17th, and 18th of November. The vessel left Woolwich about ten o'clock,
a.m.. on the 16th, and in about half an hour afterwards passed the Fhada-
manthus, which had left Woolwich at nine o'clock. At about half-past
11 o'clock she stopped for a few minutes at Gravesend, and then proceeded
with a strong breeze ahead, and adverse tide, and at a quarter past one
o'clock passed the Nore-light vessel ; arrived at Ramsgate at 25 minutes past
four o'clock, when the weather was so severe, that none of the London steam-
vessels arrived during the course of day. The weather continued so bois-
terous during the 17th, that the Widgeon steam-vessel was under the neces-
sity of putting into Ramsgate harbour at an early hour for shelter. The
Magician, however, left Ramsgate shortly after 1 1 o'clock, a.m., the wind
blowing at the same time a strong breeze from the eastward, and at 53 mi-
nutes past 12 o'clock passed Dover Pier, with a very heavy sea running. At
24 minutes past one o'clock, when opposite Folkstone, she put back for
Ramsgate, where she arrived at 44 minutes past three o'clock. On the 18th
the Magician left Ramsgate at 17 minutes past ten o'clock, a.m., with flood
tide, and at 14 minutes past three o'clock, p.m., arrived off Woolwich. The
average speed of the engines from Ramsgate to Woolwich was 35^ revolu-
tions per minute, length of stroke three feet six inches, height of steam-
gauge seven inches, height of barometer 28^ inches. The boilers are con-
structed on the tubular principle, very small, and generate steam well. The
consumption of coal was about 61b. per horse-power per hour, and the vessel
was found to be extremely easy and dry in a heavy sea. The average speed
of the vessel from Ramsgate to Woolwich, the distance being estimated at
85 miles, in five hours, was equal to 14 knots, or 17 statute miles per hour.

Dover. — Few persons are perhaps aware that our harbour commissioners
have determined upon making the most extensive alterations and improve-
ments for widening and generally enlarging the harbour ; so extensive, no
dcubt, as to leave it beyond a matter of question that the Government intend
making Dover harbour one of refuge. All the " old buildiugs," including the
Dover Castle Inn, Amherst Battery, and the warehouses and buildings occu-
pied by Messrs. Gilhee, Norwood, Spice, Dennis, Clarke, and others, are to
be pulled down, and their sites thrown into the harbour. The whole of
Union street also is to come down, with the exception of Messrs. Latham's
Bank and the York Hotel. The railway will clear away Beech-street, the
whole of the South Pier houses, and a part of Seven-star-street, which will
include nearly all the shipwrights in Dover, not even excepting Mr. Duke,
whose residence will also come down. These changes must have an extra-
ordinary effect on all the trades of Dover, who will speedily be called into
action for the purpose of supplying the " houseless wanderers" with places
wherein to hide their heads. — Dover Telegraph.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

31

New Locomotive Engine — 'The Man of Kent." — Messrs. Rennie
have turned out another locomotive that promises to excel the " Satellite,"
sent out by the same firm about 12 months since, and which has been work-
ing on the Brighton Railway with so much satisfaction and economy, the
average consumption of coke being not more than 20 lbs. per mile, with a
train of eight or nine carriages. It lately performed the distance from
Croydon to Brighjpn, 40i miles, with six carriages, in 52 minutes, including
three stoppages of three minutes each, which deducted, make the actual time
running only 43 minutes. During the whole period of 12 months it has
been running not one shilling has been laid out for repairs. " The Man of
Kent" promises even to excel these excellent qualities of the " Satellite ;"
it is a splendid specimen of engineering work, and possesses several im-
provements ; among others is an important one of encasing the cylinders,
which are 15 inches diameter, with a jacket, which will always be kept
charged with hot steam ; a second improvement, is the introduction of a
damper, so constructed, that the apertures of the tubes next the smoke-box
may be wholly or partially eclipsed simply by the driver turning a handle,
which regulates the draft of the engine to the greatest nicety ; a third
improvement is in the regulator, which is generally circular consequently diffi-
cult to keep tight — it is now a slide valve. The centre of gravity is kept
down by the spring being below instead of above the axles, as usual. We
hope next month to be able to give some account of its performance.

South Eastern Railway Works. — The stupendous works now pro-
ceeding for the formation of the South Eastern Railway between Dover and
Folkstone are rapidly progressing, and exteusive preparations are making to
throw down a large portion of Rounddown cliff, just beyond the Shakespeare
tunnel, to make way for the sea wall. During last month experiments were
made by the miners below the cliffs, under the superintendence of Lieut.
Hutchinson, and General I'asley is expected to be present at the grand ope-
ration ; this blast is to be effected by the enormous charge of 18,000 lbs. of
gunpowder; it will be exploded by the electric spark from a galvanic bat-
tery, carried by conductors 1,000 yards in length. The experiments have
hitherto been quite satisfactory, and it is expected at once to dislodge a por-
tion of the cliff many tens of thousands of tons in weight.

Comparative Cost of English and Foreign Railways. — In Mr.
Robert Stephenson's elaborate and important report, addressed to the direc-
tors of the South Eastern Railway, on the system of railways, as now pro-
jected by the French government, he gives an analysis of the cost of rail-
ways in England, selecting three lines — the Northern and Eastern, the York
and North Midland, and the Birmingham and Derby— as cases similar in
their results to those in France now under consideration ; from this, and also
an analysis of the cost both of the Belgian and French lines, it appears the
average cost per mile of the English lines is 25,450/., the French lines,
23,000?., and the Belgian lines, 16,206/.; thus showing a difference in the
cost in favour of the Belgian lines over the English of no less a sum than
9,244/. per mile, and over the French of 0,794/.

Burning Lens worked by the Drummond or Oxy-Hydrogen
Light. — A colossal burning lens, three feet in diameter, and weighing 5 cwt.,
has been erected in the Royal Adelaide Gallery, intended to be worked by
the Drummond, or oxy-hydrogen light. Some private experiments of this
power of the Drum mond light have taken place, when it was found that the bulb
of a differential thermometer introduced into the focus, at a distance of 16 ft.,
was sensibly affected, and a piece of phosphorus introduced in the same
point was fused. It has long been asserted that the heat accompanying
light obtained by artificial means does not produce heat capable of being
transmitted and concentrated through lenses ; these experiments fully prove
the contrary.

Price of Gas. — Gas is manufactured in Manchester by the Commis-
sioners of Police, and though sold at from 5s. to 6s. the 1,000 cubic feet,
yields a revenue of 12,000/., or 15,000/. per annum to the town. The large
consumers pay 5s. the 1,000 feet. [In Dublin the charge, when burnt by
meter, is 10s. the 1,000 feet, and the quality so inferior in illuminating
power, as to require the holes in the burners to be about double the ordinary
size. If our civic authorities would follow the example of the Manchester
Commissioners, it might prevent the necessity for a burgh rate, and confer a
boon on the gas consumers.] — Dublin Advertiser.

An Immense Block of Granite has been landed at Mr. Tuckvill's
wharf, Greenwich ; it is from the llaytor Company's quarries, Dartmoor ;
measuring 10 feet 6 inches square, and weighs 22 tons. It is to be used as
a covering for a mausoleum in Kensal-green Cemetery.

Bi.i.l Rock Lighthouse. — During the lale heavy gales which have done
so much damage to shipping, particularly between the 19th and 23rd of
October, the sea sprays appear, by the monthly returns from the Bell Rock
Lighthouse, tc have risen upon the building to ihe height of from 60 to 90
feet every tide. M bile this heavy sea ran, one of those great detached masses
of stone familiar to the lightkeepers by the name of " Travellers " was forced
across the rugged surface of the rock, about 100 yards to the lighthouse,
where it deslroyed part of the cast-iron landing wharf. This stone measured
about 7 feet in length, 31 teet in breadth, 2i feet in thickness, and must have
weighed about 4 tons. To prevent mischief by the movement of these great
stones, Ihe lightkeepers are provided with quarry tools, with which they
brc l;e it up and arrested ils progress, but it was no easy task from the run of
the sea. The heaviest seas which visit Ihe Bell Ruck are from the North-
east, but the present gale was chiefly from the North west ; and ii is not a
little remarkable that the Frith of Forth was but little affected during (his
storm above the Island of May.

Quarrying Stones.— Another remarkable example of the contributions ol
science to the arts of life is derived from the properties of 1,-
in the tast to quarrying blocks of stone, when the object is I i i

blocks from the surrounding m is i. A groove is rut some 2 Inches In depth in
the required direction: this done, the groove is filled with lit, I
lighted until the rock is highly heated. The rock then is, of course, ex-
panded by the action of the heat; the fuel is then swcpl i
water ■immediately poured into the gro ve The sudden contraction causes
the block instantly to split oil. The same principle is daily exhibited on our
tables. If a heated glass be suddenly filled with cold water, it inline
breaks in pieces. In this way blocks SO ft. long and ii thick are easily taken
off with no other labour than that of chiselling mil the gri ove. A
example ot the application of science to the economy of power is
in France in the quarrying of millstones. They are required, as you are well
aware, to he circular ami flat— cylinders with a very small altitude compared
with the diameter— and the stone from which they are made is exceeding!)
hard. The mode of quarrying them is this :— A very high circular column
of stone is wrought out of the requisite diameter. To slice oil porl
this, such as are required by the common s'one saw, would he a v
immense labour, a quite different agent is employed. At regular successive
distances grooves are cut around the column, into which arc driven dry-
wooden wedges at evening, The dew which falls during the nighl being ab-
sorbed by the wood, causes it to expand with a power so irresistible, that
all the stones are found properly cracked off in the morning. —Dr. L\kdnek-
lectures in the United Slides.

Seyssei. Asphalts. — Many of our readers, may remember that some years
ago, and previously to the introduction of asphalte into this country, we
expressed our admiration of the pavement, composed of that substanci in
Paris, and especially of that in the Place de la Concorde, the whole of which
has been long since paved with asphalte. It now behoves us lo point out the
piece of Seyssei asphalte laid down in April, 1838, in Whitehall, opposite
the Horse Guards, as equal to the pavement in the Phce de la Concorde,
or in any part of Paris, and considering that its thickness is only half an
inch, its having so long stood the traffic of so great a thoroughfare without
any apparent change, except a greater smoothness of surface, is very re-
markable.— Times.

NOTICES ON THE STEAM ENGINE, Sec., IN REPLY TO
CORRESPONDENTS.

We have been requested to correct certain alleged errors in our review
of the Appendix E, F, to Tredgold, given last month. In reference to the
engines of the Dee and Solway, a Greenock correspondent says — " The air-
pump rods are cased with gun metal, and the iron at the lower end is secured
by a brass flange jointed and screwed to the bucket, so that no part of the
iron is exposed to corrosion from the salt water. The upper and under
portions of the D valves are connected with three rods. (Is the writer of
that article aware that Maudslays have only one rod in the engines of the
" Great Western ") The holding down bolts were made as requested by the
engineer appointed to inspect the engines."

Our readers will probably recollect that our objection to the air-pump
rods of these engines was, that they were cased at all. We have known
instances in which this casing stripped off, and have been informed that some
such accident did actually occur to the engines of the Dee or Solway. The
expedient referred to by our correspondent, of covering up the end of the
rod with a brass flange will, we fear, go but a little way in obviating the cor-
rosion to which we adverted, for it is not at the extreme end of the rod, but
at the neck of the rod, where any injurious corrosion takes place. The
water insinuates itself to a certain depth between the brass of the bucket-
eye and the iron of the rod, and eats its way up beneath the casing. We
have known air-pump rods to be rendered unserviceable by this species of
corrosion, when their extreme ends were comparatively uninjured.

The allusion to the practice of Messrs. Maudslay is, we suppose, intended
to show that our strictures were shallow and hypercritical, t'pon this point
we shall leave our readers to form their own opinions, and shall content our-
selves with expressing our gratification that Messrs. Scott and Sinclair have
relinquished their old system in favour of that which we have all along
recommended. It forms no part of our function to inquire at whose instance
the holding down bolts, or any other part of an engine have been constructed
in an objectionable manner ; our purpose is not to find fault with any one par-
ticular party, but merely to express our conviction that certain practices are
bad, and ought to be exploded. We war not with individuals but witli
errors.

Another Greenock correspondent informs us that the formula

45 ( i — g J given in the notes on " Steam Navigation " in our last

month's number has been " altogether misapplied." because, indeed, we have
alleged it to express " the rise or fall in temperature due to compression or
rarefaction, without reference to initial density." Our correspondent favours
us with an algebraic formula to prove his position, but our pages do not
contain the allegation he charges upon them, we, therefore, think it needless
to give the paper an insertion.

32

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Januart,

LIST Or NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM NOVEMBER 25tH TO DECEMBER 22nd, 1842.

Six Months allowed fur Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Felix Napoleon Target, of Blackheatti, gentleman, Leon Castelaine, of
Backlane, ShaJwell, chemist, and Adolphe Aubril, of Hack-lane, aforesaid,
artist, for " a new method of refining or manufacturing sugar.'' — Sealed
Nov. 25.

James Smith, of Coventry, card stamper, for " improvements in weaving
ribbons and other ornamented fabrics." — Nov, 25.

Charles Heard Wild, of Birmingham, engineer, for " an improved mode of
constructing floors for fire-proof buildings." — Nov. 25.

I.-ham Baggs, of Wharton-street, in the county of Middlesex, chemist, for
" improvements in producing light." — Nov. 25.

Frederick Oldfield Ward, of St. Martin's-lane, gentleman, and Mark Free-
man, of Sutton, in the county of Surrey, gentleman, for " improvements in
candlesticks, apparatus, and instruments employed in the use of candles and
rushlights. — Nov. 25.

Pandia Theodore Ralli, of Finsbury-circus, wine-merchant, for " improve-
ments in the construction of railwag and other carriages, and in apparatus con-
nected therewith." — Nov. 25.

William Henry Fox Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, Wilts, Esq., for " improve-
ments in coating or covering metals with other metals." — Nov. 25.

Thomas Sbausell, of Birmingham, agent, for " certain improved machinery
for cutting or shaping leather, paper, linen, tastings, silks, and other fabrics."
—Dec. 3.

Ebenezer Timmis, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " improvements in
apparatus used for arresting the progress of and extinguishing fire." — Dec. 3.
Edward Cobbold, of Melford, in the county of Suffolk, clerk, M.A., for
" improvements in instruments for writing or marking, part or parts of which
improvements are applicable to brushes for water-colour drawing." — Dec. 3.
John Stubbins, of Nottingham, hosier, for " improved combinations of
machinery to be employed for manufacturing certain parts of articles in
stocking or lace fabrics." — Dec. 3.

Don Pedro Pouchant of Glasgow, civil engineer, for " a certain improve-
nent or improvements in the construction of machinery for manufacturing
.sugar." — Dec. 3.

John Sealy, of Bridgwater, merchant, for " an improved tile." Two
months. — Dec. 3.

Charles Heard Wild, of Birmingham, engineer, for " an improved switch
for railwag purposes." — Dec. 3.

Thomas Howard, of Hyde Chester, manufacturer, for " improvements
in machinery for preparing and spinning cotton, wool, flax, silk, and similar
fibrous material." — Dec. 3.

William Hancock, .Tun., of Amwell-street, gentleman, for " improvements
in bands, straps, and cards for driving machinery and other mechanical
purposes." — Dec. 3.

Frederick William Etheredge, of Frindsbury, gentleman, for " improve-
in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and other similar plastic sub-
stances." — Dec. 3.

William Henry Stuckey, of Guildford-street, Esq., for " improvements in
filtering water, and other fluids." — Dec. 3.

William Pope, of the Edgeware-road, ironmonger, for " an improved stove."
—Dec. 6.

William Oxley English, of Kingston-upon-Hull, distiller, for " improve-
ments in purifying spirits of turpentine, spirits of tar, and naphtha." — (A
communication.) — Dec. 8.

William Coley Jones, of Vauxhall-terrace, practical chemist, and George
Fergusson Wilson, of Vauxhall, gentleman, for ••improvements in operating
■upon certain organic bodies or substances, in order to obtain products or
materials therefrom for the manufacture of candles and other purposes." —
Dec. 8.

William Smith Harris and Septimus Hamels, both of Leicester, cotton-
winders and copartners, for " improvements in the manufacture of reels for
reeling cotton and linen thread." — Dec. 8.

William Kempson, of the Borough of Leicester, manufacturer, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of muffs, cuffs, ruffs, tippets, mantillas, pele-
rines, dressing gowns, boots, shoes, slippers, coats, cloaks, shawls, stocks,
cravats, capes, boas, caps, bonnets, and trimmings for parts of dress." —
Dec. 8.

George Purt, of St. Mary-at-Hill, soda water manufacturer, and William
Hall of Woolwich, engineer, for •'improvements in producing aerated liquors."
—Dec. 8.

Richard Barber, of Leicester, reel manufacturer, for " improvements in the
manufacture of boots, shoes, and clogs." — Dec. 8.

John George Bodmer, of Manchester, engineer, for " improvements in the
manufacture of metallic hoops and tyres for wheels, and in the method of
fixing the same for use, and also improvements in the machinery or apparatus
to be employed therein." — Dec. 8.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improve-
ments in the construction and arrangement of axles and axletrees for car-
riages, carls, and other vehicles used on rail or other roads. — ( A communi-
cation.)— Dec. 8.

William Lomas, of Manchester, worsted-spinner, and Isaac Sbimwell, of

the same place, worsted-spinner, for " improvements in the manufacture of
fringes, cords, and other similar small wares, and aim in the machinery or
apparatus for producing the same." — Dec. 8.

John Grantham, of Liverpool, engineer, for "improvements in the con-
structions and arrangements of the engines and their appendages for propel-
ling vessel* on water." — Dec. 8.

James Brown, of Sobo, Birmingham, engineer, for '^improvements in
steam engines and steam propelling machinery." — Dec. 8.

Benjamin Fothergill, of Manchester, machine-maker, for " improvements
in machines called mules, and other machines for spinning cotton, wool, and
other fibrous substances." — Dec. 8.

Perciv.i.l Moses Parsons, of Waterloo-road, Surry, civil engineer, for " im-
provements in steam engines and boilers, and in motive machinery connected
therewith." — Dec. 8.

Charles Keene, of New Bond-street, hosier, for " improvements in the
manufacture of hose, socks, drawers, gloves, mitts, caps, comforters, and
cuffs."— Dee. 15.

William Palmer, of Sutton-street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for, "im-
provement in the manufacture of candles." — Dec. 15.

Thomas Caldwell, of Bombay, in the East Indies, merchant, for " im-
provements in the construction of presses for compressing cotton and other
articles."— -Dec. 15.

Moses Poole, of Lincolus-inn, gentleman, for " improvements in dressing
millstones. — (A communication.) — Dec. 15.

Charles Maurice Elizee Sautter, of Austin Friars, in the City of London,
gentleman, for " improvements in the manufacture of sulphuric acid." — (A
communication.) — Dec. 15.

Guillaume Simon Richault, of the Sabloniere Hotel, Leicester-square,
editor of music, for " improvements in apparatus for exercising the fingers of
the human hand in order to facilitate their use in the playing of the piano
forte and other instruments." — (A communication.) — Dec. 15.

James Winchester, of Noel-street, hatter, for " improvements in steam
boilers, and in the methods of applying steam or other power to locomotive
purposes." — Dec. 15.

Edward Robert Rigby, and Charles John Rigby, of Gracecburch-streef,
brush manufacturers and copartners, for " improvements in the manufacture
of certain articles in which bristles have been or are now used." — Dec. 21.

Gabriel Hyppolyte Morcau, of Leicester-square, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in propelling vessels." — Dec. 21.

Gabriel Hippolyte Moreau, of Leicester- square, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in steam generators." — Dec. 21.

John Squire, of Pougbill, Cornwall, engineer, for " improvements in steam
boilers or generators." — Dec. 21.

Taverner John .Miller, of Millbauk-street, Westminster, oil merchant, for
" improvements in apparatus for supporting a person in bed. or when reclin-
ing."— Dec. 21.

William Bridges, of Birmingham, button-tool-maker, for " improvements in
buttons." — Dec. 21.

Henry Purser Vaile, late of Fleet-street, gentleman, for " improvements in
combining mechanical instruments for obtaining power." — Dec. 22.

Joseph Beaman, of Smeihwick, Stafford, ironmaster, for " an improvement
in the manufacture of malleable iron." — Dec. 22.

William Godfrey Kneller, of Wimbledon, chemist, for " improvements in
the manufacture of soda in the evaporation of brine, and in the concentration
and manufacture of sulphuric acid." — Dec. 22.

Robert Wilson, manager at the works of Messrs. Nasmyths Gaskell and
Co.. at Patricroft, near Manchester, engineer, for " improvements in locomo-
tive and other steam engines. — Dec, 22.

James Morris, of Cateaton-street, merchant, for " improvements in locomo-
tive and other steam-engines." — Dec. 22.

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic Declination for the month of September, 1842 — 23° 14' 11"

The observations of the Magnetic Dip are suspended, when they are resumed
the results will be recorded as usual.

New Hydrostatic Engine. — At the Taff Vale Railway, we learn, by the
Cambrian, that a very complete hydrostatic engine is now at work, for the
raising and tipping of coal, to be shipped from the terminus of the Taff
Vale Railway, at the Bute Docks, Cardiff. It is only just set to work, but ex-
hibits the principle of the hydrostatic balance very beautifully, and with the
most perfect practical results.

33

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1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.33

BUILDINGS IN BELGIUM.

By George Godwin', Jun\, F.R.S., &c.

" Perhaps no study reveals (o us more forcibly the social condition anil
true feeling of passed generaiions than lhat of their monuments."— M. Guizot.

Chapter II.

Concerning the age of the Cathedral, there has been some con-
troversy. Monsieur B. C. Dumortier, a member of the Belgic Cham-
ber of Representatives and of the Royal Academy of Brussels, (and in
company with whom the writer had the good fortune to examine the
building) published first in 1S37, ' some remarks on the Cathedral,
and then in 1841, a second pamphlet,- with a view to prove that the
nave of the existing building belonged to the 6th century. These
essays display much learning and ingenuity, but more enthusiasm, and
this latter has served to blind the writer to all that militated against
his desire to obtain unlimited reverence for his favourite building,
and like an unruly Pegasus, has carried him far away from the goal
he sought, namely the truth. Absence of direct statement by early
writers that the nave was destroyed, serves to prove to M. Dumortier,
(as in some similar cases it has been urged by other continental anti-
quaries) that it has not been rebuilt, and so far from the fact that
pointed arches form an essential feature in it being deemed sufficient
to weaken his opinion, it is proof strong as holy writ that the system
of pointed architecture arose in Belgium, and that in the cathedral of
Toumay is to be found its first out-budding. In confirmation of his

1 " fftiue de Bnuelles," Dec. Is:. 7.
- •• Dissert nio i sur Cage de la Cat! e~Irale

No. 65.— Vol. VI.— February, iSM.

:" Bruxsller, 1841.

opinion, M. Dumortier informed me, that a charter had been receutly
discovered dated 1257, proving that the architect of Cologne Cathe-
dral was a Belgian. It sets forth that the monks of Cologne, in con-
sideration of the services performed by Master Gerard, of St. Trend
CGtrardus de Sancto Tradone), in directing the construction of their
Cathedral, had assigned to him a certain estate of land.

Although apart from the present purpose, I cannot avoid repeating
here a portion of the King of Prussia's speech when laying the first
stone of the new works in completion of the last mentioned wonderful
building. "Here where the ground stone lies," said the king, "hen; by
these towers, will arise the noblest portal in the world. Germ any builds
it — may it be for her, with God's will, the portal of a new era, great
and good. Far from her be all wickedness, all iniquity, and all that
is ungenuine and therefore un-German. May dis-union between the
German princes and their people, between ditVerent faiths and diffe-
rent classes, never find this road; and never may that feeling appear
here, which, in former times stopped the progress of this temple — aye,
even stopped the advance of our Fatherland. Men of Cologne, the
possession of this building is a high privilege for your city, enjoyed
by none other, and nobly this day have you acknowledged that it is
so. Shout, then, with me, and while you shout will I strike the
ground-stone, — shout loudly with me your rallying cry, ten centuries
old, "Cologne for ever I" And then, while a thousand voices re-
echoed " Cologne for ever! " the ancient crane on the top of the south
tower was once again put into motion, and was seen slowly raising a
ponderous stone. The amount both of time and money required to
complete the Cathedral renders the issue sosaewhat doubtful. Let us
hope, however, that this fear may be unfounded, and that this mag-
nificent building may gradually gain its intended proportions — an em-
blem of unity, a worthy offering to God, and an ornament to the world.

To return, however, to Toumay ; there is sufficient evidence to
induce the belief that the Cathedral was founded at the end of
the 3rd century, and rebuilt about the middle of the 5th century,
with the aid of Clovis, by St. Eleutherius. Chilperic in 578, endowed
the Cathedral largely, and his original deed of gift " cum sigillis,"
remained amongst the archives of the chapter until they were burnt
in 1566.3 Louis le-dcbonnaire added to the cloisters of the Ca-
thedral in SI 7, and Charles the Simple further endowed it. Soon
after this, however, namely in 8S2, the Normans ravaged Belgium
with fire and sword, and inspired such universal dread, that the
people, adding to their prayers "from the fury of the North-men,
Good Lord deliver us," fled hi all directions. Toumay, rich
and important as it then was, did not escape; the walls and the
chief buildings were destroyed, and the inhabitants were forced to
abandon the town, to which it seems they did not return until the
beginning of the luth century. At the time of this invasion tliere can
be little doubt the Cathedral was pillaged, and partly if not wholly
demolished; and it is probable that its re-erection was not attempted
until quite the close of the 10th century, in which the inhabitants
returned, or rather the beginning of the 1 1th. All analogy shows that
earlier than this, the nave and transepts could hardly have been com-
menced, and that it was probably much later before they were com-
pleted.4 If analogy, however, were deemed insufficient to remove

"Triie deeds must have been very numerous, if we believe a contemporary
writer, who says that the melted wax from the seals formed a stream down

' « It is but fair towards M. Dumortier to give, in his own words, his argu-
ment against the assumed destruction of the Cathedral by the Nurmaiw :—

" L'histoirc de la translation dn corps de Saint Eleuttew sous leveque
Hedilion en 870, immediatement avant 1 invasion dea Najrmanda, nous fait
connaitreqn'acetteepoquel'on avail demoh la Candle de Saint biienne,
qui etait iituee i la suite de la cathedrale. Voici comment aW.me u
chroniuue write au Xle siecie : Presulatwu t,„ ■

prudenti t-t just,, posshlenle, basilic, l„ati St,,,!,,,,,, ,,, ,,ll,„„„irt,r ,.
,msl rrclcsium Chrhti ^nitrieis .,v,«/«r,/«c nrfims Man,,; ,t,str,,cta ,s

Lesoin que prend le chroniqueur a nous apprendre la destruct m tU a
chaf*ile de Saint Ktienne .annexee (P) a la ■<-*■ bed rale, tadique churmentla

conservation tie <

lle-ci. Si ce v.istc mununu'itt, aont 1 existen :e est u<

"■'•t au VI,' eta" IXe siecie, avalt ate detrnlt lor. de linvas.on des Now
mands le chrouiquenr se serait-il borne 1 nous apprendre la destruction d un-
dases parties f C'est id que s'applique se vied adage j tnol

partie;

Elevatic corporis beati EUutlurii tor
Libra Sancti Martini Tornactnsis.

epUCO/li ft COtlfit.

34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

the ground for controversy respecting the age of the cathedral, it would
seem to be destroyed by the recent discovery of a M. S. entitled
" Ritua Officii divini ecclesice Tornac," and dated 1656. This gives
a list of tile various fetes formerly celebrated in the Cathedral, and
points out the 9th of May (which was then annually celebrated), as
the anniversary of the dedication of the church, in the following
words: " Dtdicatio ecclesice, est feslivus dies in populo intra muros.
Triplex est cum octavti et duplex prinue classis ; " and then, "fideliscel
novce, anno 1066." Monsieur T. Le Maistre d'Anstaing, who mentions
this MS. in his very interesting work on the Cathedra!,5 remarks that
doubtless there were more consecrations than one, as for example that
of the choir, and those after partial restorations ; but that this being
the first, was properly regarded as the most important, and, being duly
observed, had been handed down to the date of the MS. alluded to.

In a comparatively short space of time after this date, if the his-
torian Jean Cousin is to be believed,0 the choir becoming too small
and probably being injured by the events of troublous times, was
cleared away to make room for a more magnificent structure. Cousin
states, that the first stone of the new choir was laid in 1110; and that
it was finished about 80 years afterwards or more. His authority for
this statement, however, does not appear. According to certain old
chroniclers quoted by M. d'Anstaing, it was vaulted in 1242, at the
expense of Walter de Marvis; but it would seem that divine service
had been performed in it previous to that date, its dedication being
ascribed to the year 1200.

At the end of the twelfth century, pointed architecture was but just
developing itself, so that we must conclude either that the choir
of the Cathedral of Tournay is one of the earliest monuments of that
style, or that the received statements are erroneous. I am iuclined to
believe the former.

In concluding these remarks on the Cathedral of Tournay, it is
gratifying to be able to say, that the sum of £20,000 has been voted
by the nation (to be expended in ten years) for the restoration of this
noble building, and that under the direction of M. Renard, the archi-
tect, there is every reason to expect it will be carried out eflicientlv.

When speaking of the Town Hall at Louvain, the writer intended
mentioning, that what is stated to be the original drawing of the west
front of the Cathedral of that town is preserved there, together with
a very elaborate and beautifully executed model of the same in stone
as it was executed, with a singularly lofty tower and spire in the cen-
tre, and another on either side of it ; only one of the side towers,
however, is shown. The drawing is on vellum, 0 ft. high and 2 feet
'.1 inches wide, and is coarsely but carefully executed. The model is
about 24 feet high and 7 feet 6 inches wide at the base, and is now in
an excellent state of repair. The centre spire, which is said to have
been above 500 feet high (an extraordinary elevation, exceeding, by
100 feet, that of the spire of Salisbury Cathedral) was destroyed in
160G by a storm, and in its fall ruined the side towers.

clusio alterius. Ainsi il demeure demontre que la Catliedrale de Tournai ne
fut pas detruite ft cette epoque. et qu'elle rtsista ft 1'invR.sion Normande. En
effet. eelui qui a vu ce nolle edifice, et constdere l'Spaisseur des colonnes ce
sa partie romane, la solid ite des materiaux employes a sa construction,
n'hlsitera pas ft reconnaitre qu'avec de tels materiaux il existait des con-
ditions de duree que Ton ne retrouve pas dans les eglises des provinces
Rhenanes, et qu'ainsi s'explique pourquoi Notre Dame de Tournai a pu
resister ft une epoque on tant d'autres editices relig;eu.N ont succombe. Au
lieu d'etre eonstruite romme les eglises des bonis du Rliin en un calcaire
sablonneux. friable et de peu de duree, la basilique de Tournai est eonstruite
en calcaire anthraxifere, espece de marbre ties dur, et laisant feu sous le
briquet. Pom detruite un edifice aussi gigantesque, et compose de pierres
aussi solides et aussi massives, il faudrait de milliers d'uuvriers et un iravail
de plusieurs annees. Or, les Normands avaient tuute autre chose a t'aire que
de passer leur temps ft un tel ouvrage. Aussi, tous les chroniqiietirs et les
histonensde Tournai ont parle de la Catliedrale, etl'on ne trouve, dans leurs
ecrils, aucune indication d'oii Ton pourrait induire que ce vaste monument
aurait ele detruit et reconstruit ft la suite de 1 'epoque earlovingier.ne. Au
contraire. preuve certaine que 1'editice etait dejft Lien vieux ft cette epoque. il
est constant que le chceur roman fut demoli vers la fin du Xle sietle. et qu'en
Ian 1110. 1 on commenca la construction du cliaur nctuel, 1'un des monu-
ments les plus vastes et les plus hardis de 1'art goiliique.''

« " Recherches sur I'Histoire et V Architecture do I'Eglise Catliedrale de Noire
Dame de Tournai. 1842.

6 " Histoire de Tommy par Jean Cousin,'' Douay, MIX XX.

The interior of the Cathedral affords an excellent specimen of
pointed architecture. The choir is separated from the nave by a
highly decorated rood-loft of three arches with numerous sculptured
figures under canopies. Above the loft is a rood of very large size,
with figures of the Virgin and St. John at the foot (without which a
rood was not deemed complete) profusely adorned with colours and
gilding.

The font, situated at the west end of the nave, has an elaborate
Gothic crane of iron attached to the wall near it, for the purpose of
supporting the cover, now removed. One of the chapels in the north
aile of the nave has a balustrade or low screen of coloured marbles,
exquisitely sculptured in the style of Louis XIV. And under the arch
which separates the choir from its side aile, on the north side of the
grand altar, is a sculptured stone tabernacle of very elaborate richness,
reaching the whole height of the arch, perhaps about 30 feet. It is
a hexagon in plan, tapering upwards to a point, and is supported on six
small pillars round its circumference, and one in the centre.7

The pulpits found in the Belgic churches are in many cases re-
markable for their large size, the profusion of materials employed,
and their elaborate workmanship, rather than for good taste and pro-
priety. The pulpit in the cathedral under notice (situated as most
of them are, on the south side of the nave) represents the conversion
of St. Paul. The saint and his horse are on the ground; on the west
side of thein stands the figure of a man gazing with astonishment, if I
remember rightly, at the miracle; a huge mass of rocks and trees sup-
porting angels and birds forms the chair itself. Behind rise two lofty
fir trees, from the stems of which, about midway, extends the canopy
or sounding board, adorned with angels and other carved decorations.

The pulpit in the Cathedral at Malines (a most interesting town)
represents the same subject, but is differently arranged. St. Paul and
his horse are on the ground at the foot of a mass of rock forming the
body of the pulpit. Our Saviour on the cross, the Virgin, and other
figures, enter into the composition ; a stem of a fallen tree serves as
a rail to the stairs : and a continuation of the rock work, from which
the Holy Spirit in the shape of a dove, descends over the head of the
preacher, forms the canopy.

In the church of St. Andrew, at Antwerp, the pulpit represents
Andrew and Peter called from their nets by our Saviour. It is as-
cribed to Van Hool and Van Gheel. The pulpit in the Cathedral of
the same city is a curious composition, consisting of twining shrubs
and birds, said to be the work of Verbruggen. This artist also exe-
cuted the pulpit in St. Gudule, at Brussels, which represents the
expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, and is perhaps better
known than any of those I have already mentioned. The pulpit at
Notre Dame, in Brussels, is a representation of Elijah fed by ravens.
In some cases part of the sculpture is in wood and part in marble ; as
for example, in the Cathedral at Ghent, where the pulpit is of large
size and elaborate design, embracing many figures.

In 1S38 the writer laid before the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects, a series of drawings illustrative of the ruins of the ancient
monastery of St. Bavon in the city last mentioned, namely Ghent.
These remains are situated in the old citadel on the eastern side of
the town near the Antwerp Gate, a quarter not generally visited.
They consist chiefly of a large rectangular building unroofed, the
remains of cloisters, and a small octagonal building of two stories,
(known as the chapel of St. Macaire) communicating with the cloisters
and standing within the square court surrounded by them. The ac-
companying sketch (Fig. 3,) represents the interior of the lower story
of the chapel which is much more perfect than any other part of the
building. It is vaulted with rubble stone with flat shallow ribs di-
verging from the centre, and terminating in large corbels of columnar
form. The vault has been covered with stucco, and ornamented with
colours, now for the most part destroyed. One of the eight sides of
the building is wider than the others, for the purpose of admitting a
double archway of the cloisters, and a second side is occupied by an

7 In the church at Leau, a place little known, there is a tabernacle of
somewhat similar outline in the style of the Renaissance, and of very extra-
ordinary workmanship.

1843 ]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

alt.ir, the top stone of which is marked, as is often the case with
ancient altar stones, with five small crosses, one at each corner and one
in the centre, the latter being the larger.8 Each of the other sides
has a semi-circular arched way in it. The building is paved with
black and red tiles about 4 in. square each.

In the rectangular building and cloisters which present the work of
several periods, the columns where they remain are very short, and
have leafed capitals similar to some in Tournay Cathedral. They are
formed of the grey Tournay stone, and in some few instances have
octagon shafts as is also the case in the Cathedral. The arches of
the cloisters were pointed ; they were formed of brick, with stone ribs
and corbels (sculptured with foliage and figures), and were of more
recent date than the walls. The rectangular building is paved with
red, yellow, and black, glazed tiles of various shapes and sizes (some
being very small) disposed in patterns.0

The history of this building ranges over a considerable period. In
the year G36, King Dagobert of France, sent St. Amand to Ghent to
preach Christianity. St. Amand having made many converts, founded
two monasteries, one of which was on the site of the remains in ques-
tion. A few years afterwards, Allowin, surnamed Bavon, was induced
by the teaching of St. Amand to quit the world, and having given the
whole of his property to the latter monastery, obtained permission to
construct a cell in the neighbouring wood, where he died in 054. The
monastery then took his name, a church was dedicated to him, and the
whole quarter was termed, for many years, the town of St. Bavon. In
816, the monks fled to avoid the Normans, and took refuge in Eng-
land. John of Gaunt was born in this monastery in 1341, and at the

6 The crosses upon ancient altar stones were intended to mark the spots
anointed with chrism at its dedication. A Pontifical printed at Home in
1595, and now preserved in the British Museum, shows iliat a bishop when
consecrating a church, was enjoined to mark will) his thumb dipped in the
chrism, twelve crosses on the walls of the church, and others on the door,
altar, <s.c. See Arclueologia, vol. XXV, p. 213. 275.

11 The area of the cloister is about 10U feet square ; the diameter of the
octagonal building is about 20 feet.

beginning of the lGtll century the whole establishment was destroyed,
in order to construct a citadel on the site.'"

In the "Notice Hiztorique de Gaud" it is stated that in 1067, Bail-
douin, Bishop of Noyou, and Liebert, Bishop of Cambray, consecrated
the church of St. Bavon, and deposited there, in a private chapel, the
relics of St. Macaire, who, it was supposed, had freed the city from
the plague by his prayers, some few years before. The style of the
octagon building before mentioned, still called the chapel of St. Ma-
caire, agrees with this date satisfactorily.1 '

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS XLV.

" I must have liberty
With il, as large a charier as the w nds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. Although not propounded ix cathedra, the doctrine broached by
the Premier Professor, has made quite a-sensation, filling all with sur-
prise, and some with a panic feeling. It is the opinion of more than
one in the profession that our architectural Professors are nearly all
bewitched. As if it was not enough to have Hosking preach down
Vitruvianism, we have now Cockerell preaching up rank architectural
Radicalism. He goes to the extent of turning every thing topsv-turvy,
without regard to those most comfortable of all things — our preju-
dices. What is to become of our reverence for precedent and autho-
rity, if copyism is henceforth to be proscribed, and every one expected
to give us his own ideas. It may be all very well for those who pos-
sess taste, and have ideas of their own; but then what is to become
of those poor devils who have none ? If they must neither borrow nor
steal, their fate will be hard indeed. While Professor Pugin would
merely lead us back to the "dark ages," bidding us look for light and
enlightenment there, the Royal Academy Professor would fain turn us
adrift, to grope about in more than Egyptian darkness. Surely it is
better to be tethered to a stake with a yard or two of rope, than to
have the precious liberty of rambling at will blindfold among pitfalls
and precipices. So, at any rate, think some. After copyism has
served them so well, they must now hear it reviled by the ugly epi-
thets of "dull" and "unmanly"! and that by a Professor, too! Why,
he might as well have called it stupid and old-icumaniah, for that was,
no doubt, his meaning. As to invention, that is, of a truth, most ven-
turesome work, but then, be it remembered,

" Things out of hope, are compass'd oft by vent'ring."

II. It argues very great forbearance on the part of Welby Pugin
that he has not had a fling at Abbotsford, for it is certainly quite as
miserable and trumpery as any of the architectural " monstrosities "
he has shown up in his "Contrasts," or quizzed in his "True Prin-
ciples," although concocted out of the ideas of so many persons who
were successively consulted by the " Great Magician," but who have
shown themselves to be no conjurors. Stark, Terry, Burn, Blore,
Atkinson, all prescribed in turn, and bedoctored till they bedevilled it.
Whichever be the best of Scott's works, Abbotsford is decidedly his
worst — mere "Carpenter's Gothic," and a "Tea-Garden Castle."
Fortunate would it be for the credit of his own taste, and also for the
credit of those employed upon that pet fancy of his, were it to be
demolished at once, instead of being piously preserved as a monu-

i" The abbot ;.nd monks were removed to the cathedral church of St. John
the Baptist, in the city of Ghent, from that lime called the church of St.

' ' l" cannot omit mentioning with reference to Ghent, that M. L. Roelandt
to whom the city is indebted for many important buildings, (amongst them
the must elegant little theatre and ball-room that I know of,) is en
upon a new Palais de Justice of large extent. The window dressings ol the
principal floor have mors than ordinary imp rtance given to them, ami form
a principal leature in the facade, L'hej consist each ol twodiset
Corinthian columns supported on corbels, with entablature and pediment,
and corresponding pilasters on the lace of the building.

5*

3G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

ment of Scott's virtuosity in architecture. Attempts in the Gothic
style by Scotch architects are almost without exception intolerably
bad, many of them utterly contemptible. Taymouth Castle, about
which the newspapers made so much fuss a few months ago, is in
point of architecture, most miserable. The noble owner of that big
house possesses an infinitely superior specimen of architecture in a
small one called the Forest Cottage, which he has lately erected in
Inveroran. Homely in character, as its name denotes, yet at the same
time something more than a mere cottage, it idealizes that character
most happily, bringing forward some of its most picturesque traits,
without any paltry affectation. It is withal eminently picturesque,
which is more than can be averred of those things which pretend to
be " Picturesque " by title, and for the nonce.

III. That the lord of Abbotsford himself could be. sufficiently severe
upon other persons' architectural whims, is evident from a postscript
of a letter of his to Mr. Morritt, of Rokeby Park, and who was then
at Brighton ; saying, " Will you do me a favour? Set fire to the
Chinese stables, and if it embrace, the whole of the Pavilion, it will
rid me of a great eye-sore " ! 1 As this was written in the February
of 1826, immediately after the crash that laid low his fortunes, and
reduced him to beggary — at any rate to that sort of nominal beggary
which thousands would call luxurious affluence — hardly is it to be
supposed that his so expressed opinion of the Pavilion at Brighton
■was a mere sally of wantonness and gaiete de cam. The Pavilion
might have been rendered a good specimen of the style it pretends to,
and so far have been satisfactory, whatever may be objected to the
choice of such style for such purpose. Instead of which it is a finical
and insipid, not to say paltry imitation of that style, with little charac-
ter than that of toyishness and gimcrack, certainly with no " hearti-
ness of character" about it, nor any gusto. The "pimping pagoda taste"
of George IV. is not yet extinct in the family, for a Chinese conser-
vatory, or something of that sort, is now erecting in the gardens of
Buckingham Palace, but whether it is of porcelain, or common crock-
ery quality, is not said.

IV. Were the reviewers to pay Mr. Gwilt in his own coin, they
would say nothing of his book, except that, being the work of a living
contemporary, delicacy prevented them from expressing any opinion
relative to it; besides, their silence would be far more gratifying
than any remarks, however complimentary, from a class of critics
whom Mr. Gwilt himself denounces as a set of meddling blunderers
and blockheads. He has shown himself most dreadfully sore upon
the subject of reviewers and anonymous criticism, and for no other
reason, it appears, than because an article in the Foreign Quarterly
spoke in commendation of Schinkel and the German school of archi-
tecture. Any other person than Mr. Gwilt would have been thankful
for the information there first conveyed upon the subject, whether he
agreed with all the writer's opinions or not: whereas the meek Jo-
seph assailed him as virulently as if that article had been a personal
attack upon himself, and spluttered in a very big strain about "small
fry " writers and anonymous critics — or rather those who set up for
critics, though utterly ignorant of the subjects they profess to treat.
Does Mr. Gwilt then suppose that professional men never write in
literary journals, on subjects connected with their own pursuits ? Is
he not aware, poor man, that among the anonymous scribblers in the
periodical he fell foul upon, there was no less a nobody than Sir Walter
Scott ? Can he be so ignorant as not to know that Cowper, Byron,
Southey, Moore, Hallam, Brougham, Horner, the Rev. Sydney Smith,
not to mention Bishops, have been anonymous reviewers? It will be
well for him should he not find out at last, that it had been better had
he condescended to publish anonymously, himself. None will envy
him the fame he will now get by not doing so.

V. "Nothing is so tiresome," says Sir Walter Scott, " as walking
through some beautiful scene with a minute philosopher, a botanist, or
pebble-gatherer, who is eternally calling your attention from the grand
features of the natural picture, to look at grasses and chucky-stones."
Mutatis mutandis, this may be applied to those minute critics in
architecture who attend chiefly to inferior matters, such as the pro-
portions or correctness of an order as an order, without regard to any

further effect, or its coherence with the rest of the building. Any
thing of that kind which happens not to be in distinct conformity with
standard, and therefore only general, rules, — which we are r.aher to be
guided by than tied down to, is at once pronounced by them to be
faulty and incorrect, yet at the same time thpy can tolerate infinitely
greater faults, far more reprehensible licenses, and that which is the
greatest defect of all, let the style be what it may, the utter want of
all artist-like feeling. By a minute critic, however, is not to be
understood one who examines merely the minutiae and details of a
building — for that is more than every one of the tribe is capable of
doing: but one who looks at every thing piecemeal, and who dwells
exclusively upon individual particulars and detached circumstances,
without taking into consideration whether there be any thing to call
for, to justify, or to account for what he only perceives to be uncom-
mon. Your minute critic is generally a staunch stickler for precedent,
and not without reason, since precedent and authority are the crutches
which help him along. Deprived of their aid, he comes to the
ground. In any case out of the ordinary course he feels quite put out,
and unable to make any thing of it, takes his revenge by pointing out
what does not accord with usual practice, and therefore, as he will
have it, a blunder or a solecism. How the minute philosopher
chuckles when he detects some homceopathically small infringement
of a mere pettifogging rule. Yet how obtusely blind is he apt to
show himself in regard to every thing which does not come within
the compass of rules and routine.

VI. By no means would it be amiss were public spirit and archi-
tectural zeal to be displayed in completing and giving the finishing
touches to some of our modern buildings, as well as in the restoration
of decayed ones. Many there are which admit of being greatly im-
proved by corrections, and by omissions in them, more or less obvious,
being supplied. Such is certainly the case with the National Gallery
for one, and there even seems to have been some idea at one time of
doing something more to that building, Barry having actually been
consulted on the subject. Greatly might the United Service Club
House be improved by giving it a cornicione, and throwing more spirit
and richness into its other features. Nay, perhaps even the Conser-
vative might be converted into a tolerably satisfactory design, were
carle blanche for such alteration to be granted to some one who pos-
sessed both ingenuity and taste. At all events we may now expect to
find that that building has served as a wholesome warning to the ar-
chitects of the forthcoming new Conservative Club House in St.
James's Street, and that they will show themselves Radical Reformers
in point of architectural taste.

EXPRESSION IN ARCHITECTURE.

The expression, or as it is sometimes termed, the language of
architecture, is a subject which has engaged the attention and em-
ployed the talents of many writers, both amongst professors of the art
and others, nor is it at all uncommon to hear it said that every build-
ing which makes any pretensions to style and taste, should express by
its design and character, the purpose for which it is intended. Al-
though it is by no means my intention to deny that buildings of almost
every class are capable of great and varied expression, yet to suppose
that this expression may be varied so as to indicate all the different
purposes of modern buildings appears to me as absurd as to deny all
power of expression to the art. The characters of sublimity, majesty,
grandeur, gaiety, or gloom, may be and frequently are imparted to a
structure by the skill of its designer; but this is very different from
the building indicating the intended puipose of its erection. We
may see this by considering that gloom and solemnity are features
equally characteristic of a prison or of a tomb, that grandeur and
majesty are qualities of expression as appropriate in a palace as in a
senate house, whilst gaiety and elegance are generally considered as
characters equally to be impressed on the decorations of the private
house and of the theatre. A great number of buildings must, indeed,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

always share in the same external style and expression, though erected
for and adapted to very different purposes. We might as well expect
the face of each individual whom we meet to express his particular
pursuit and profession, and lay open to us his thoughts and intentions,
as to look upon the facade of a building as the index of the purposes
for which it was erected. The human face, indeed, is considered,
and with unquestionable propriety considered ;;s the index of the soul,
as the outward sign by which we may read the feelings of the man,
and being accustomed from the dawn of reason, perhaps intuitively,
perhaps from experience acquired in infancy, to consider the features
as indicative of the various passions, and our more mature years con-
firming this experience, we become so firmly convinced of the truth of
these principles as to rely on the inferences we draw from them; and
believing all men subject to the same feelings, the same joys and
sorrows as ourselves, we make no distinction in our application of
them ; but consider, that whatever may be a man's rank, his race, his
sation, or his name, without regard to climate or complexion, whether
he be an inhabitant of the polar circles, or the torrid zone, we may
read in his face the passions of his soul. But though he may thus
plainly and universally read the feelings of the man, the cause of
those feelings is yet hidden from us ; and although the expression of
the features we look upon may induce in us corresponding emotions,
we are unable to divine its origin. We may thus see the emotions
of joy or fear spread rapidly through a crowd ignorant of their cause;
each individual being immediately affected by his neighbour's ani-
mated look and gesture, or though himself remote from danger, be-
coming at once alarmed by the fear expressed in surrounding faces,
which indicate that something unknown is to be dreaded, by its por-
tentous indistinctness, rendered yet more fearful. In the arts of
painting and sculpture, the artist copying the human face and figure,
gives to bis productions the expression he may choose, and in pro-
portion to the intensity of that expression is the emotion raised, but
the cause of such expression is sought for in the accessories, or com-
binations of the piece ; and our experience of human feelings leads
us to judge whether the passion expressed is in accordance with its
exciting cause. If then in these most expressive arts the feelings
excited do not lead us to the reason which induced the artist to give
such particular expression to his work, if we are liable to be deceived
in interpreting the meaning of allegorical painting and sculpture, how
shall we in architecture, where neither nature nor experience teach
us to decide, how shall we say what particular character shall indicate
a particular building. We have here no standard of expression; the
ideas of different nations on this subject are as various as their lan-
guages: and in examining the remains of ancient edifices, we do not
decide upon the purposes for which they were built, from their ar-
chitectural character, but the acccessories and combinations of their
construction.

The Gothic style, which is by us considered as peculiarly charac-
teristic of a church, would most assuredly not be viewed in the same
light by an ancient Greek. One of our large churches, or cathedrals,
would unquestionably produce emotion in the breast of any man who
had a soul to feel ; but this, I am persuaded, would arise from the
grandeur of the structure, from the insignificance into which the spec-
tator sinks while gazing through "the long drawn aisle," or looking
up to the " arched and ponderous roof," and from the majestic evidence
of superior constructive skill around him, and not from any feeling
that such a style proclaimed, by its silent but unerring expression,
that he was in the House of God. As on the human face we may
read the feelings of the mind, may trace gaiety, gloom, resolution, or
despair, so may we be impressed by the design of a building with
the emotions corresponding to sublimity, grandeur, magnificence, or
elegance ; but as we cannot determine the cause of the passions
expressed upon the human features, so we cannot impart to any
structure, vary its character as we may, the power to express whether
it be a temple, a palace, a senate-house or an exchange. And as
mankind differ as to the expression proper to be given to a statue or a
painting, so will they disagree as to the character proper for a build-
ing, nor can we hope that architecture shall speak in the same

37

language to us all, until all shall not only have been educated alike
but shall have acquired the same prejudices, habits, tables, and
feelings.

A. D.

THE VELOCITY OF WATER IN VERTICAL PIPES.

We have received a voluminous communication from Mr. Shuttle-
worth, purporting to be a reply to the notice in our December number, of
his system of railway propulsion. The extreme length of his letter,
which occupies thirty closely written pages, would be a total bar to
its insertion, even were it an argumentative treatise instead of being
almost entirely discursive. We have received from another corres-
pondent, however, a communication on the same subject, deserving
much more attention, in which the writer states argumentatively his
objections to two of the positions introduced incidentally in the ar-
ticle on Mr. Shuttleworth's hydraulic railway. The question of the
velocities acquired by water flowing down vertical pipes is, indeed,
important and interesting; we shall therefore, after allowing our corres-
pondent to speak for himself, pursue the inquiry, not only for the pur-
pose of defending our previously expressed opinions, but with the
view of arriving at some, satisfactory conclusions on a subject that
has given rise to much discussion, and respecting which, as it appears
to us, very erroneous notions continue to be entertained.

The following is the letter to which we refer.

"London, December 21s/, 1^12.

"Sir — Agreeing with the writer of the remarks on Mr. Shuttle-
worth's Hydraulic Propulsion system, which appeared in your Journal
of last month, that it is a pity to see so much talent, ingenuity, labour
and expense lavished upon an invention evidently impracticable, I
must at the same time call into question the reasoning by which the
writer has arrived at this conclusion, or at least that part of it which
relates to the flowing of water through a vertical pipe ; I do so more
particularly, as the subject is important, and, I believe, new: also
because, from the editorial character of the article, it might mislead
many of your readers. I shall endeavour to show that the writer has
committed two important errors in the fifth paragraph of that article ;
first, in explaining the uniform flow of the water in the column, by
the cohesive attraction of the particles of water. Secondly, in
saying that this uniform velocity is half that due to the height of the
column of water flowing through a small orifice, he appears to think
that, supposing the height of the water constant, the issuing velocity
diminishes as the aperture increases. Now, it is evident that such is
not the case, as by increasing the diameter of the orifice, the friction
of the sides decreases in a greater ratio than the area of the orifice
increases. This is so evident, that I believe it requires no further
explanation.

"Assuming the Irishman's privilege of going backwards, I shall first
endeavour to demonstrate the second error, by proving the velocity
of the issuing water (and therefore, as will be proved in the second
part) of the whole column, to be expressed by the formula 0 \ x,
where x expresses the height, modified by the resistance of the air
and friction. The friction, however, may be omitted, as being very
trifling in a vertical pipe, when compared with the retarding effect of
the atmosphere.

"When the water first enters the pipe, there is a slight decrease of
velocity, in consequence of the " vena contraeta," which in all works
on hydraulics, is generally allowed for, by changing the Q in the
above formula to 5; it then assumes a vertical direction, its velocity
increasing as the square root of the height, until the resistance of the
air, increasing as the square of the velocity, becomes equal to the
momentum ot the water. An equilibrium then existing between the
accelerating and retarding forces, the velocity would be uniform. As
will be seen from the following equations, it would require an im-
mense length of vertical pipe before this uniform velocity could be
produced. Let c represent tiie velocity, x the height, * the specific

3S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Fkbruary,

gravity of water expressed in pounds, and h the number by which yon
must divide the square of the velocity, in order to find the resistance
of the air; it is generally taken as equal tu 5001b.

"You have then three equations and three unknown quantities.

1st. s X D = ''i resistance of the air at the moment of equilibrium.

3rd. D-' = 64 x taking 8 as the multiplier.

.". J*8S = 64 x, from which x the height at which the equilibrium
between the accelerating and retarding forces exists, would be found.
As might be expected this number would be very great. The above
equations are a'so useful in finding the velocity due to any given
height when the water flows directly into the air, but in the case of
the hydraulic railway, where the vertical pipe deflects into one hori-
zontal, the velocity of the water issuing from the vertical pipe will
be gradually diminished, in consequence of the friction of the hori-
zontal pipe, and therefore the velocity of the whole column (as will
be seen) will be reduced to that of the water issuing from the extre-
mity of the horizontal pipe.

I shall next proceed to show that cohesion does not account for the
uniform flow of the whole column so simply, and consequently not so
well, as the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the water.
For suppose that in some part of the passage of the. water through
the pipe, two consecutive portions separated, a vacuum would be
formed between them, consequently the atmosphere wo8ld act as an
accelerating force on the upper portion, and as a retarding force on
the lower portion, and evidently would cause the junction of the two
parts — the vacuum then ceasing, the whole column would move toge-
ther. A familiar illustration of this explanation is afforded by the
well-known experiment of half-a-crown, and a piece of paper of the
same form placed at the back, falling together to the ground. It is
not the action of gravity alone which makes them fall together, but
the pressure of the atmosphere on the half-a-crown. It is, I believe,
clear, if these results be correctly deduced from sound principles,
that cohesion does not satisfactorily explain the uniform flow of the
column of water, and certainly does not reduce the velocity by one
half, and consequently demonstrates the errors of the fifth paragraph,
alluded to at the commencement of this letter. Some curious results,
explaining the uniform flow of the column, even in the case of the
atmosphere not acting on the surface of the water, might be deduced
from the above equations, by differentiating them.

" You would oblige me by inserting this letter.
" I remain, Sir,

" Your obedient servant,

«T. F n."

Before we reply to the two points to which our correspondent par-
ticularly directs attention, we must correct a misapprehension lie ap-
pears to have, respecting the statement of the diminution of velocity
by increase of aperture. What we stated was, "that if the size of
the aperture approximate to that of the pipe, the velocity will be di-
minished, and that if the aperture be of the same size as the pipe, so
that the whole column must fall as rapidly as the issuing fluid, the
velocity will be diminished one half, without making allowance for
friction."

We never intended to assert, as our correspondent appears to
imagine, that the velocity of water through a small aperture would
be greater than through a large one, unless the aperture he increased
so much as to bear a sensible proportion to the size of the containing
vessel.

We shall reverse the order in which our correspondent has con-
sidered the subject, and direct attention in the first instance to the
cause of the continuously equal flow of water down a vertical pipe,
because the main question rests on the admitted uniform flow of the
fluid. The initial and the final velocities being the same, there must,
as we contend, be a deviation in this case from the usual law that re-
gulates the velocities of falling bodies. With respect to the cause

of this equal fall of water, the difference between us is rather a dif-
ference in form than in substance. Our correspondent admits that
the flow is uniform, but he attributes it entirely to the pressure of the
atmosphere; we attribute its immediate cause to the cohesion of the
particles of the fluid, without which, the pressure of the atmosphere
could have no effect. Were it not for the coherence of the particles
of the water, they would immediately separate in falling, and the
particles would fall independently and with different degrees of ve-
locity. Their coherence prevents this. Each particle of water in the
pipe coheres to the particle immediately above it, with sufficient force
to overcome the minutely different degrees of gravitating momentum,
due to the difference in their respective times of falling. The effect
of this continuity of coherence, transmitted from particle to particle,
is to form a running rope of water in the pipe. This rope of water,
if we may be allowed the expression, being supposed of equal size
throughout, must have an equal velocity in every part of its course;
for as water is practically incompressible, a motion communicated to
one part of the fluid in the pipe will be communicated to all other
parts as effectually as if it were a solid moveable column. It is true
that the pressure of the atmosphere tends materially to prevent the.
separation of the water flowing down a vertical pipe, in the manner
stated by our correspondent; but were it not for the coherence of the
fluid particles, the pressure of the atmosphere would have no effect.
Small round shot, for example, would not fall down a vertical pipe in
a continuous stream, but in separate particles, and with differing velo-
cities. The experiment of the half-crown and piece of paper, ad-
duced by our correspondent as an illustration of his explanation, is
not, we conceive, applicable to the purpose. It is not the pressure of
the atmosphere on the paper that causes it to fall in the same time as
the half-crown, for it is well known, that in a vacuum, even a feather
will fall to the ground as soon as a guinea. The cause of the paper
falling through the air in the same time as the half-crown, must be
attributed not to the pressure of the atmosphere, but to the avoidance
of resistance from the air, in consequence of the paper following
closely in the wake of the half-crown, which sustains all the resistance.

It will be a curious, and we believe a new point, to ascertain to
what extent atmospheric pressure influences the flow of water down
vertical pipes. Many of our readers may have noticed the farce
with which water in a reservoir is drawn into the orifice of a long
vertical pipe as the fluid flows down. This force results from the
weight of water in the pipe, and from the pressure of the atmosphere
on the surface of the water in the reservoir ; the one tending to se-
parate the cohering column of fluid, and to produce a vacuum, the
other pressing in the water to counteract this effort. If the hand be
held on the orifice it is pressed against the aperture with a force cor-
responding, within certain limits, to the height of water in the pipe.
Were the length of the pipe greater than 33 feet, so that the weight
of water surpassed the pressure of the atmosphere, a Torricellian
vacuum would be produced, between the surface of the water in the
pipe and the hand, and the latter would be [drawn, or forced, against
the orifice with a pressure equal to that of the atmosphere. No ad-
ditional leugth of pipe would theu increase the pressure. The va-
cuous space between the hand and the water in the | ipe would be in-
creased, but the pressure would evidently remain the same. The
inferences to be drawn from these premises, are — first, that the velo-
city of the flow increases with the length of the vertical pipe, until
the column of water balances the pressure, of the atmosphere ; se-
condly, that when an equilibrium is established between the column
of water and the pressure of the atmosphere, [the maximum effect is
produced, and no additional length of pipe will add to the velocity of
the flow from the reservoir.

Having thus disposed of the first_objection raised by our correspon-
dent, we shall proceed to consider the point on which we more essen-
tially differ. Our position is, that the velocity with which water is-
sues from a vertical pipe is half the final velocity due to the height of

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

30

the column. Our correspondent disputes this position; but instead
of adducing arguments to prove that it is an " important error," he
takes for granted the very question in dispute, and thereupon founds a
formula for determining another question, with which the present has
no immediate connexion. We affirmed, that the velocity of water
flowing through vertical pipes differs from the velocity of water is-
suing from an orifice, in the bottom of a large column of eqnal
height; we stated, also, the cause of this difference, and its amount.
Our correspondent, by way of refuting this opinion, assumes thai there
is no difference ; and then proceeds, on the ordinary data for calcu-
lating the velocities of falling bodies, to estimate the height from
which a body must fall, before an equilibrium is established between
the accelerating force of gravitation and the resistance of the air.
We shall not imitate this summary process of disposing of the sub-
ject in dispute, but shall endeavour to show that, according to the
generally recognized laws of motion, the velocity of water issuing
from a long vertical pipe, cannot be the velocity which is due to the
height ; and we shall then show the cause of this apparent deviation
from the usual law.

In the first place, it must be borne in mind, that it is admitted, that
a pipe having the same diameter throughout, continues full during the
flow of water through it; therefore, as water is incompressible, the
velocity of the water must be the same at the top of the pipe as at
the bottom. Suppose the pipe to be 10 feet vertical, and to be
covered with water just sufficiently to keep it constantly full. Then,
as the velocity due to a height of 16 ft. is, in round numbers, 32 ft.
per second, if the water issue from the pipe with that velocity, the
same velocity must be communicated to the fluid in all parts of the
pipe, as it forms part of the hypothesis that the velocity is uniform.
We should, therefore, be obliged to assume the existence of some
force, which could communicate to the water flowing into a tube from
a state of rest, a velocity equal to that it would acquire after falling
freely through 10 ft. It can scarcely be asserted, that the pressure of
the atmosphere would communicate this addition \\ velocity, for the
upward pressure on the fluid at the bottom of the pipe must always
counterbalance the downward pressure on the top ; and were the pipe
a very long one, the upward pressure would be the greater, owing to
the increasing density of air at lower elevations. There is, indeed,
no rationally conceivable force called into action but gravitation ; and
if the whole column of water instantly acquire a velocity, which is
due only to a fall through its whole length, the force of gravitation
must, iu some unaccountable manner, be doubled ; for the momentum
of a column of water, moving with a uniform velocity of 32 feet per
second, is equal to the mean momentum of the same weight, were its
motion to increase progressively from a state of rest to a velocity of
64 feet. There is not, however, the slightest ground for assuming
that the force of gravitation produces any such effect. The final ve-
locity of a body falling freely through 16 feet is, within a fraction,
32 feet per second, the mean velocity of the fill will therefore be one
half, or 16 feet per second ; and that, we contend, is the velocity with
which a continuous and equal column of water would fall through a
vertical pipe 10 feet long; putting out of consideration the friction
of the pipe and the resistance of the air. In the case of water is-
suing through an orifice, the velocity due to a height of 10 feet is 32
feet per second, when the areas of the column and of the orifice are
greatly disproportioned ; but it appears from the preceding reasoning,
that the whole column of fluid would issue with only half that velocity,
which was the point to be proved.

Having, therefore, shown that t lie conclusion at which we have ar-
rived may be deduced as a necessary consequence of the continuous uni-
form flow of water in vertical pipes, we shall next proceed to consider
the conditions of water when flowing down vertical pipes, and when
issuing from an orifice ; and we shall endeavour to arrive at the same
conclusion by a different procpss of reasoning.

It was demonstrated by Daniel Bernoulli, that the impulse of a

"vein" of fluid falling perpendicularly, is equal to the weight of a
column whose base is the area of the vein, and whose height is twice
the fall producing the velocity. For example ; if r be taken as the
final velocity of the efflux acquired by falling freely from a height /;,
then it is well known that a body falling with the final velocity, during
the time of the fall, will pass through a space equal to 2 h, or twice,
the height. As the water commences and continues to flow through
an orifice with the final velocity due to the height, the quantity of
water falling through the aperture in a given time is double the quan-
tity that would flow through it if the flow commenced with the initial
velocity of a falling body, and progressively increased to its final ve-
locity.

Bernoulli's hypothetical vein of fluid was without any tan-
gible boundaries, and the particles of the fluid in the vein were sup-
posed to be pressed against, and changing places with, all the other
particles in the containing vessel. It is this transmission of the pres-
sure through the fluid, that causes the difference between the imagi-
nary vein of fluid and a re.il pipe passing from the orifice to the sur-
face. When the communication between the orifice and all other
parts of the vessel is free, the water near the orifice is forced out, net
only by the weight of the particles immediately above it, but all the
particles of fluid are pressing towards the aperture and contributing
towards the effect. The space occupied by the particles of fluid
forced through the aperture, is immediately filled by other particles
sustaining equal pressure. The continuity and equality of the pres-
sure are thus preserved, which consequently ma:ntains an equal and
continuous flow, the. height of the fluid being supposed constant.
The velocity at the first moment of efflux is the same as would be
acquired by a body falling freely from the surface, because the whole
gravitating effects of the perpendicular vein of fluid instantly act on
the portion of water above the orifice, and this action is continued,
because the pressure remains free and constant. When a vertical
pipe passes from the orifice to the surface of the water, so as to ex-
clude the action of the surrounding fluid, the conditions are essentially
changed. Suppose such a pipe to be filled with water, the base of
the vein of water within, when at res/, would sustain the same pres-
sure as another equal area on the bottom of the vessel, the heights
being equal. But as the force then acting on the lowest lamina of
the fluid is produced solely by the pressure of the laminae of fluid
above, were the lowest one to separate from the upppr by the impulse
of this pressure, the force would instantly cease, for the lamina im-
mediately above the lowest not being impelled with equal force,
would not have the same velocity. The adhesion of the particles of
water would, however, prevent the falling vein of fluid from being
divided, because the difference of the force acting on one minute
lamina, and that acting on the. fluid particles immediately above,
would not equal the cohesive attraction which holds them together.
The vein of fluid would, therefore, cohere ami fall through the ver-
tical length of pipe as a solid mass. Again ; as the upper part of
the vertical vein of fluid in the pipe would be as free to move under
the influence of gravitation, when the supporting base was re-
moved, as the lower portions of the vein, and as the force would
be exerted in the same time, the velocities they would re^po lively
acquire, would be the same ; and they would fall through equal spaces
in equal times. The length of pipe we have assumed to be 16 feet,
therefore, it would be emptied by the fall of water in one second,
the final velocity on issuing fro:-; the pipe would be 32 feet per
second, and the mean of the initial and final velocities woul 1 be 10
feet per second.

If we suppose the water just to cover the top of the pipe, so as to
keep it constantly full, the flow of water would then, it is admitted,
be uniform instead of being accelerated, as in the preceding illustra-
tion. The water at the lower portion of the pipe would be retarded
in its fall, by the continuity of cohesion between the particles
fluid in the failing vien; or, in other Word*, the velor I

40

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

fall at the bottom of the pipe, would be diminished, and a greater ve-
locity than is due to the fall, would be imparted to the fluid in the
upper part of the pipe, to produce a mean velocity. The mean be-
tween the initial velocity and 32 is 16. Thus, in whatever mode the
question is considered, we arrive at the same conclusion, that the ve-
locity with which water issues from a vertical pipe, (not exceeding
33 feet in length,) is one-half the velocity due to the height of the
column.

We trust we have proved, even to the satisfaction of our corres-
pondent, that there are no errors in our reasoning on this subject;
and that he was induced to think so, in one case by a misapprehension
of our meaning, and in others by a hasty consideration of the main
proposition: which appears, though in reality it does not, to deviate
from the recognised laws of hydrodynamics. The theory of the flow
of water through pipes well deserves a more full consideration than
we have now time or space to bestow upon it, and to which we shall
probably return.

JAMES NASMYTH'S PATENT DIRECT ACTION STEAM
FORGE HAMMER.

The truly valuable qualities possessed by wrought iron as the ma-
terial of all others the best adapted to withstand force, has rendered
its use as a mechanical agent almost universal, so important are the
purposes it serves in enabling man to combat with the elements, and
as it were bend them to his will, that we may almost measure the
progress of civilization in any nation by the quantity of that inesti-
mable material they convert to their use ; hence it is that Great Bri-
tain owes no small portion of her power, wealth, and mechanical
supremacy to her superior knowledge of the use and capabilities of
this the most serviceable of all substances.

National improvement is always indicated and accompanied by
increased consumption (by reason of increased application) of wrought
iron ; by its use man first merges from the savage state, and by its
extended employment the most civilized nations not only maintain,
but advance in their improvement. It is, perhaps, unnecessary here
to remark how entirely we are indebted to wrought iron for the ser-
vices of the steam engine ; and its innumerable progeny of happy
results, to say nothing of railways and steam vessels, in the very hulls
of which, as well as in other ships, it is rapidly manifesting its su-
periority over wood, and so giving to the world another magnificent
evidence of its all but universality of application. Hence it is that
few mechanical improvements are of more real importance than those
which relate to the manufacture of wrought iron, not only in respect
to its production in the first instance, but also to our increased facili-
ties, and means of working it into such forms as may be rendered
desirable and necessary.

By a property almost peculiar to wrought iron, namely its all but
unmeltableness, its applications would have been very limited, by rea-
son of the difficulty we should have experienced in fashioning it into
any required form, but by another peculiarity, namely its capability
of being welded, we have the loss of convenience arising from its
unmeltableness more than made up to us, and where we add to this
its extreme malleability, by which property and by the assistance of
heat, it is capable of being forged into any required form, our com-
mand over it is only limited by our means of applying the requisite
force, whether by compression, as in the case of the process of rolling,
or by blows, as in the case of forging by the hammer ; this latter pro-
cess being by far the most important, not only in respect to its afford-
ing us the means of giving to masses of wrought iron the requisite
shape and form, but also, when the process of hammering is carried on
with due energy, while the iron is at a welding heat, the effect of such
hammering is productive of a most important improvement in the
quality of the iron, as regards its tenacity and consequent capability
of resisting strains without the risk of fracture, this gain of strength

arising from the more intimate contact or union brought about between
the particles of the iron, by reason of the more perfect expulsion of
all those impurities which otherwise, by separating the particles or
fibres of the iron, so impair its strength. Hence we have one of the
many important reasons why it is so desirable that we should have the
means of hammering iron when at the proper welding heat, with ail
due energy, whatever be the size or form of the mass in question.

The great success which has attended the application of the steam
engine in the case of steam ships, and in other instances, has pro-
duced a demand for enormous forgings of wrought iron, such as paddle
shafts, cranks, &c. that no small difficulty is now felt in the execution
of large parts of them, having attained to such a magnitude as to be
all but beyond the power and capability of the largest forge hammers
to execute them.

The approach of this point of ultimate capability has long been felt,
not only by the vast difficulty and expence by the ordinary means,
such enormous forgings being so frequently attended by the destruction
of the machinery employed, but also by the frequent occurrence of
unsoundness being the certain result of inadequate means, and the
exceeding the limits and capabilities of the machinery hitherto em-
ployed for the purpose, arising from a defect inherent in the principle
on which such machinery has been constructed, the evils of which
have been rendered more and more apparent by every successive
attempt to enlarge the apparatus, with a view to endeavour to enable
it to cope with the increase in the magnitude of the forgings it was
required to execute.

It was with the view to remove those defects in the principle on which
such forge hammers were constructed, and to produce such a hammer
as should, in the most simple manner, attain all that was desirable in
our means of forging the very largest class of work, and that in a
manner infinitely more convenient, perfect, and economical, that led
me to contrive my direct action steam hammer, which I shall now pro-
ceed to describe, and which has realized my most sanguine expec-
tations of its advantages.

In order to give such of my readers as are not minutely acquainted
with the subject, a more clear view of the advantages possessed by
this direct action steam hammer over those of forge hammers of the
ordinary construction, I must refer them to Fig. 1, which is intended
to represent a forge hammer of the largest class, and generally
arranged according to the most improved principle. According to
the scale on which this sketch is made out, such a hammer would be
fully what is called a seven ton hammer, and consequently adapted
(so far as its principles of construction will permit) for the execution
of the largest class of work.

One chief and universal feature in all such hammers, is, that the
power which causes them to rise and fall, and so give out blows on
the work on the anvil, consists of rotary motion, which originating in
the rectilinear motion of the piston of the steam engine, is conveyed
to the hammer by and through the medium of revolving shafts,
wheels, &c, and finally reconverted into its original up and down
motion by means of the cam wheel, marked D in the sketch ; thus, by
a very roundabout course we have brought our power back again
into the form it first existed, namely, rectilinear motion, or as nearly
so as the radial action of the hammer will permit. And what advan-
tage have we obtained by causing our power to travel to its object by
such a roundabout course ? none that I ever could see ; and as to the
disadvantages, they are many and most serious. In the first place,
there is great loss of power, on account of the very unfavourable
manner in which the momentum of the fly-wheel on the cam shaft D
communicates its motion to the helve of the hammer, by a jolting
action most unfavourable to the economical communication of power;
add to which the vast space of the forge shop, occupied by all the
intermediate apparatus of a complete steam engine, with its requisite
fly-wheels, shafts, beams, and very costly foundations, which, in order
to endeavour to maintain the apparatus in due order, has to be made
of more than ordinary substantiality ; so much so that, to resist the
destructive effect of the vibration given to the entire machinery by
the action of the hammer, the foundations have to be made so solid

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

11

1"~7

lit

^fc:

'

Fig. 1.— View of the Old Tilting Hammer,

Fig. 2.— Nasmyth's Direct Action Steam Hammer.

as to cost, in some cases, nearly as much as the whole metallic part of
the apparatus.

With respect to the action of such a forge hammer, as seen in
Fig. 1, it will be found that one grand defect in principle exists,
namely, that when engaged in hammering a large piece of work, as
that seen in the sketch, by reason of the work occupying the greater
part of the clear space between the anvil face and that of the ham-
mer, we have thereby a slight blow when we are doing a large piece
of work, and a heavy blow when we are hammering a small or thinner
piece of work, which is just the very reverse of what we could de-
sire. And in the execution of large work this is found to be a most
serious evil, in as much as, from the nature of the case, we would wish
to have the most powerful and energetic blows that it is possible to
command. The result of this is, that neither is the mass rendered so
sound as we could desire, nor is it brought to its required form except
by repeated heatings, at the very great sacrifice of time and iron, in
so far as, ere the limited blows of the hammer have produced the re-
quired change of form, the welding heat has gone off, and all blows
after this tend rather to loosen than compact or solidify the mass.
Again, we have, another very serious evil, namely, the very confined
limits of the space between the hammer face at its highest, and that

Fig. 5.— Self-acting.

of the face of the anvil, which renders it quite incapable of admitting
or operating upon a mass of any great breadth or height; and besides
having the machinery of the hammer quite in the way, in many
cases we have also this other disadvantage, namely, that except for
one thickness of work, the hammer face and anvil are not parallel, as
will be evident on referring to the sketch, and considering that the
face of -the hammer acts radial to the centre, S, Fig. 1, in which it
rocks. This evil is to a small extent obviated, by means being given
to raise up the tail or centre, S, but this process is not only difficult,
but can only be done between the heats.

With a view to relieve all these defects, I have contrived my direct
action steam hammer, which is represented in one of its many forms
and applications in Fig. 2.

It consists simply of a cylinder C turned as it were upside down;
that is, its piston rod comes out at the bottom of the cylinder instead
of (as in most cases) out of the top ; this cylinder is supported over
the anvil K by two upright standards, 0 O, the end of the piston rod
being attached to a block or mass of cast irou, 13, guided in its descent
by planed guides or ribs cast on the edge of each standard. This
block of cast iron is the hammer or blow-giving part of the apparatus,
while the cylinder, with its piston and piston rod, supplies in the most

42

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

simple, straightforward, and direct manner, the power by which the
striking block B is lifted, or raised up. Gravity performs the down-
ward action for us in a most direct manner. In order to set this steam
hammer in action, steam of such a pressure as, operating upon the
underside of the piston, will a little ■ more than balance the weight
of the block B, is conveyed from a suitable boiler, (situated in any
convenient part of the premises,) through the pipe P into the valve
box, in which a slide valve of the most simple form works. The
valve being up, permits the steam to press upon the underside of the
piston, and up goes the block B to any height (within the limits
of the length of the cylinder) which the forge man may require.
The handle E is now moved in the contrary direction, which not only
prevents any further admission of steam, but also permits that which
had entered, to escape by the pipe L; the instant this is done, the
block B descends with all the energy and force due to its weight and
the height through which it falls, and discharges its fall and entire
momentum upon the work then on the anvil, with such tremendous
effect, as to set the blows of all previous hammers at utter defiance .'
In fact, the power of such a hammer is only limited by the size we
please to make it, as tie principle is capable of being carried out to
any extent; whereas, in the case of such hammers as in Fig. 1, they
have their limits, by reason of the very mass of material causing them
to be weaker se, by the intestinal contraction of the iron which com-
poses their mass, and which in their action is so destructive and
trying to such a form ; the consequence is they generally break over
just behind the neck.

I have only alluded to the means which this steam hammer gives
of obtaining tremendous blows. But energetic and powerful as it is,
it is at the same time one of the most striking examples of the mana-
geability of the power of steam; inasmuch as, when we desire to have
any variety in the intensity of the blow, varying from the most gentle
m;<-cracking tap ! to the most awful smash, we have simply to
work the valve handle in proportion, and by so regulating the exit of
the steam we can let down the block, like closing a well hung window,
or arrest its downward progress in an instant at any part of its stroke,
and retain it there at any required height at any required time; on
the other hand, by duly regulating the entrance of the steam, we
can lift the block to any required height, from the face of the anvil
or surface of the work, and so regulate the amount or rapidity of the
blows accordingly.

The form and arrangement of the steam hammer, as given in Fig.
2, is such as present experience shows to be most convenient, ac-
cording to the scale on which the sketch is made out, the distance
between the standards O O gives a clear space of 12 feet, namely,
six feet on each side of the centre of the anvil, and six feet height
clear over head, as figured in the sketch. But these proportions may
of course be varied at will, as the principle of this steam hammer
affords every facility to extention or otherwise. The space on each
side of the anvil, in front and behind, being quite clear of all ma-
chinery, gives every facility to the introduction and management of
the work, when we progress, as will be evident and fully appreciated
by practical men.

The comparatively small space which the entire apparatus of the
steam hammer occupies, may be judged of by a glance at the sketch,
Fig. 2, as compared with that of the ordinary construction in Fig. 1.
Had 1 turned the standards in the sketch, Fig. 2, so as to give a side
or edge view, the contrast in respect to space occupied would have
been much more striking. As regards the comparative original cost,
any one the least accustomed to such matters will at once see the vast
advantage in that respect in favour of the steam hammer, to say
nothing of its vast superiority as to efficiency and little liability to
derangement; in fact, so simple is it, that there is scarcely anything
to go wrong. One great source of its durability in this respect is the
manner in which the mass of the block is raised, namely, through the
medium of the most elastic of all bodies— steam ; which, in place of

1 About five to six per cent more pressure than will just balance the block
gives all due activity to the upward or lifting action of the block.

*5! i

any destructive jerk, as in the case of motion conveyed by impulse
through solid media, so apparent and destructive in its effect in the
case of the apparatus of the ordinary forge hammer, with the
steam hammer the lifting motion is performed so smoothly as to be
absolutely silent in its action, as if the great block had forgot, for the
while, that it had any weight at all. I do not intend here to rival the
celebrated Caterfelto by wondering at my own wonders ! but truly
the action of this simple but most powerful machine, is not a little
striking, both in its action as well as effect. I think experience will
prove that I am not too far yielding to sanguine expectations when I
state, that the vast facilities which this invention gives to the treat-
ment of large masses of wrought iron, will introduce quite a
new era in the manufacture and working of wrought iron. We have
now, by means of this steam hammer, a power and capability of pro-
ducing forgings of wrought iron of any dimensions, whose soundness
will give the best evidence of the value of the invention in that re-
spect, and from the vast facilities of executing the most ponderous
and acquired forms the saving of time and finish which can be at-
tained under such a hammer will also prove that a great step has
been made in the mechanical arts. In conclusion, it may perhaps be
as well to remark on the valuable and important influence which such

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

43

a hammer will have upon the quality of iron, as in the case of boiler
plates anJ such like, the quality of which, as regards soundness, en-
tirely depends on the efficient manner in which they have been ham-
mered and consolidated in the primary process of faggoting or shing-
ling, namely, the forming into one perfectly solid mass, the block of
iron from which such boiler plates, &c. are rolled. Nine tenths of the
defects which are met with in boiler plates, and which have caused
such disastrous results, namely, defects from blisters, have arisen or
may be traced to imperfect consolidation resulting from inadequate
means of hammering the original mass into a truly solid block, by our
having the power to force out all the scoria, which, otherwise lodging
between the pile of pieces of which the faggot is composed, gives rise
to the most serious defects, which every practical man has had to de-
plore. It will, in like manner, be scarcely requisite that I state any
of the advantages that will arise in our having, by means of the ener-
getic action of the steam hammer, a perfect security against unsound
anchors, the importance of which requires no words to set forth. In
short, we have now at command an almost new power, inasmuch as,
by means of this steam hammer, we have an accession to our means
of dealing with power in the form and state of percussion, such as has
never been attained before, and that in the most simple, straightfor-
ward, and effective manner.

Fig. 3 shows the application of the hammer A for forging an iron
shaft laid over the anvil or block B, and is made self-acting, as will be
seen by a reference to the cut, that when the tappets D D come in
contact with the pin or spring on the block E, the steam valve C is
opened or closed.

Fig. 4 shows the application of the steam hammer for coppers,
pans, &c. The hammer M works in the guides P P, suspended by the
rods R to the beam above, like an inverted truss: the action of the
man pnlling down the lever N opens the valve, so as to admit the
steam for raising the piston and with it the hammer.

I may remark, that one boiler can be made to work any number of
steam hammers, as the steam has only to be conducted to each by
pipes, and the power let on and shut off in the same manner as gas ;
and in most iron forges, the waste heat of the furnace will more than
furnish the requisite steam. There are many other applications and
details connected with this important invention, but reluctance to
further trespass on your readers' attention, and the space of your
columns, causes me to defer to a future opportunity.

But I trust the high importance of the subject will plead my excuse
for the length I have allowed my remarks to extend to.

With most sincere respect,

Bridgeicater Foundry, I am, very truly yours,

Palercroft. — Jan. 17. James Nasmyth.

OBSTRUCTION TO WINDOWS.

Sir — Your Old Subscriber at West Derby does not, I think, quite
understand the nature, of a right gained by prescription to a window
overlooking a neighbours' land. In the case put by him, the right is
not, as I conceive, so much to the window as to an easement of light and
air through the window, and consequently "much (query, all) must de-
pend upon the hard swearing of witnesses on both sides, as to whether
a building erected near a window does or does not obstruct the light
and free circulation of air." Indeed I doubt very much whether proof
that a building had been erected within two feet of the window would
be proper evidence to rely upon, unless it were also proved that the
said building had prevented a certain quantity of light and air from
finding its way to the window. With regard to question 3, it is ob-
vious that the right being to light and air, and not to space, a building
may be erected as high as the upper side (beyond the limits of the
building act) of the window sill, it being impossible that such an erec-
tion should obstruct the free passage of either to the window.

6th January, 1843. I am, Sir,

Yours very obediently,
R. R. A.

ON THE SEWERS OF THE METROPOLIS.

1. Rtporl to the Secretary of State from the Poor Lam Commissioners
on an Inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Popula-
tion of Great Britain.

2. jlddress on the above Report in reference to those parts which incul-
pate the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, delivered at a Meet-
ing of the Court of Sewers for Westminster, <yc. By the Chairman,
Thomas Leverton Donaldson, Esq.

We are heartily glad that the subject of the sewers of the metro-
polis is likely to become an object of inquiry by the administrative
authorities, a course for which we have long been anxious. In con-
sequence of a voluminous report by Mr. Chadwick, the secretary of
the Poor Law Commissioners, containing many very stringent remarks
on the drainage of the metropolis, the ire of many of the function-
aries has been excited. It is very evident that there must be some-
thing radically wrong in the management, when we find such vast
sums of money yearly raised in the metropolis under the name of
sewer rates, while the extension of sewage is so very slow. It will be
our endeavour to show, without entering upon all the points in dispute,
that the present laws and system of building sewers are most oppres-
sive and expensive to builders, and consequently the important system
of draining house by sewers is avoided, and instead thereof, cesspools
are resorted to, and every scheme which can be thought of to save the
expense of building a sewer. Under such circumstances, we are
sorry that Mr. Donaldson, for whom we have great respect, should
have betrayed himself so far as to become the champion of the pre-
sent system. The report of Mr. Chadwick, indeed, like the apple
of discord, seems to have been productive of much asperity and bit-
terness of feeling.

Our present object will be to prove that some broad and general
measure must be at once adopted for the regulation of the sewage of
the metropolis, and that all petty legislation on the subject of drainage
should be suspended. We must not have the metropolis split into
half a dozen commissions. Now that the subject is fairly opened, we
do sincerely hope that the Secretary of State will not listen to the re-
solution passed at the court of commissioners for Westminster sewers
on the 13th ultimo.

" That the Court requests an investigation under the authority of
Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department into the
charges brought against the Westminster Commissions of Sewers in
the report of the Poor Law Commissioners on the sanitary condition
of the poorer classes, and to ascertain the best means of cleansing the
streets and roads by aid of sewers, and also the most advantageous
form of sewers for the public interests."

This is giving the real matter at issue the go by, we want not the
isolated works of the Westminster Commissioners, but what we do
want is an examination into all the metropolitan commissioners, to see
whether they cannot be advantageously consolidated into one body.
We have now on the northern side of the river Thames, the City, the
Westminster, the Holborn and Finsbury, the Regent Street, the Tower
Hamlets, and the Stebon Heath Commissions; here we have six dif-
ferent commissions, and it [is consequently impossible to lay down
any one system of drainage for the whole metropolis; fur to do so it
is requisite to have the cousent of all the different commissions,
which would require months to obtain, even supposing it possible that
they should all agree. We have running right through the very
centre of the Westminster sewage, a sewer of a large class, and at
considerable depth, constructed about 25 to 30 years since, belonging
to the crown, and capable of draining an immense district; yet this
sewer cannot be touched by the Westminster Commissioners; then
again we have, as Mr. Donaldson tells us, in his report, the West-
minster sewers running from the Thames up Tottenham Court lio.ul,
to the New Road, then the Holborn and Finsbury Sewage commences,
and after the sewer passes through the latter district, it comes to the
county drainage, so that any improvement in the drain g .: of the up-

' C*

44

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

lands of the county could not be made without first, the Westminster
Commissioners constructing a new sewer, or lowering an old one, then
the Holborn and Finsbury doing the same. So, also, if either com-
missions wished to divert the upland waters, by constructing catch
■water drains, so as to prevent too great a flow down any particular
district, and prevent the lower parts of the metropolis from being in-
undated, it cannot be done, and the consequence is, that each com-
mission is obliged to cut about and alter the old sewers, to get rid
of tbe evil in the best way they can.
Mr. Donaldson tells us that

" During the present century, and particularly since the removal of
old London Bridge, every opportunity has been taken to lower the
outlets. For instance, the Essex Street sewer, between 18 Hi and
1836, has been lowered from its outfall at the Thames to near Great
Russell Street. Bloomsbury, in length 5,800 feet. The eastern branch
of the Hartshorn Lane Sewer, between 1831 and 1839, from Long
Acre to the New Road, by the line of Tottenham Court Road, &c,
in length 4,200 feet. Another branch of the Hartshorn Lane sewer,
between 1820 and 1837, from the south end of the Haymarket to
Oxford Street, by the line of Princes Street, Wardour Street. &c, in
length 3400 feet. The whole of the King Street sewer, between
1830 and 1S32, from Westminster Bridge to St. James's Park, 1200
feet. The Wood Street sewer, between 1824 and 1827, the College
Street sewer, between 1824 and 1832, and the Romney Row or Horse-
ferry Road sewers, in 1840, have been lowered and rebuilt of enlarged
dimensions from their outlets for their whole extent, being a length of
6850 feet, presenting in these lines alone a total of only 21,450 feet."

Here, then, we have a fearful summary of expenses incurred in
lowering the old sewage only, and we think an inquiry might be use-
fully directed to see if all the commissions had been united, whether
it would not have been far cheaper and more effective to run new lines
of sewer from the river Thames through districts which had no
sewers and to have joined the old sewage at some distant point,
and thereby have relieved the old sewers in the lower levels.

By this arrangement, we should have had the old sewers still re-
maining, which might have answered the purposes of draining either
high or low lands, and have obtained an immense additional length of
new sewerage at the same expense. We do not mean to say that in
all cases under the present system of separate commissions, this could
have been effected ; but it is a fair subject for enquiry, and can only
be got at, by having a thorough examination of all the plans and
levels of the present sewerage, in every district, connected with the
metropolis.

Mr. Donaldson subsequently calls our attention to the vast works
that have been executed for the improvement of the King's Scholar's
Pond Sewer; let us give his own words.

" But the greatest work ever executed by this or any other com-
mission has been that effected on the King's Scholar Pond Sewer,
which has been wholly rebuilt for an extent of upwards of three
miles, from the River Side to the Regent's Park within the last
24 years. It has been so vastly deepened and enlarged since the
year 1816, that property of the most valuable description, in the
neighbourhood of the sewer, at Pimlico, including Buckingham
Palace, the lower floors of which are below the highest tide level,
and most of tbe streets adjacent to the sewer between Piccadilly
and the Regent's Park, have been benefitted to an incalculable ex-
tent. Formerly the whole neighbourhood was inundated by every
sudden fall of rain, so that many of the houses in Berkeley Square,
Brutou Street, Avery Row, South Molton Street, Wigmore Street,
South Street, Baker Street, and Spring Street, were greatly depreci-
ated in value; and some houses in Berkeley Street and Bruton Street
remained unoccupied for many months together, in consequence of the
well-known fact, that in the summer months those premises were
subject to have their lower floors burst up during thunder storms, and
the water to rise so as to extinguish the kitchen fires, &c.

" One of the great means for remedying these evils was designed
and carried into effect by Mr. Dowley. I especially allude to the
entire removal of two immense stone piers, which had at some former
time been built in the water way of the sewer, and which piers sup-
ported certain parts of the heavy and lofty walls of the houses in
Grafton Street, St. George's. These piers, one measuring 53 feet in
length, the other of a more square form, whereby the water way was
divided into two channels, were formerly .considered advantageous

to the property lower down the line of sewer, bv penning back the
torrent of water in times of storms. The work of taking out these
obstructions as also removing two great projections, and putting in an
inverted arch throughout the whole length of sewer between Hay
Hill and Bruton Street, in length 550 feet, at a greatlv increased
depth, was performed from within-side the sewer, which had its course
under buildings. These works proved of such vast importance to
the sewage of the district, that what was formerly reported to be
impracticable by several eminent engineers, amongst whom were the
late Mr. John Rennie, Mr. Jessop, Mr. Chapman, Mr. Bevan of
Leighton Buzzard, and others, was actually and substantially carried
out, and was afterwards inspected by some of these gentlemen, as
also by a numerous committee of the commissioners, who not only
approved of the work that had been so done, unseen by any one other
than by the workmen employed, but were somewhat surprised that
so bold au attempt had been successfully accomplished.

" In the prosecution of the operations necessary for reconstructing
this one line of sewer, various instances may be cited to show that, at
all events, the management and execution were entrusted to an officer
of this court who knew something of his profession, and to any one,
who is acquainted with that part of the district lying between Pic-
cadilly and Oxford Street, it must be manifest, that cases requiring
ability, foresight, science and practical experience frequently arose.
I mean such difficult cases as passing a sewer seven feet six inches
wide in the clear with side walls two bricks thick, at a depth of 22
feet and upwards, along White Horse Street, Piccadilly, a street only '
20 feet wide. Again, carrying the same sewer through Sun Court,
Curzon Street, which is less in width than that of the external di-
mensions of the sewer itself. And, further on, this sewer winds its
course under and close to buildings of great magnitude, nearly the
whole way from the lower end of Berkeley Square to Oxford Street
and in most instances at a depth of from 10 to 12 feet below the foun-
daiions of the contiguous buildings. Surely, these were works, which,
by their nature and extent might be considered of a scientific and
high order of civil engineering, and such as have only been ap-
proached by some recent works, perhaps, of the city commission of
sewers."

With all due deference to the talents of Mr. Donaldson, we are in-
clined to doubt the latter part of his statement, that these works
" might be considered of a scientific and high order of civil engineer-
ing." Instead of enlarging this sewer, and rebuilding it, with all its
original sinuosity, the course we should have preferred, would have
been to have run a new sewer from where the Scholar's Pond sewer
crosses in Oxford Street, near South Molton Street, along Oxford Street,
and united it with the Regent Street sewer belonging to the crown.
No doubt we shall be told, this could not be done, as the Westminster
Commissioners have no power to enter the Regent Street sewer, this
then would at once have proved the great necessity of uniting the
several commissions ; now, if this plan could have been adopted, it
would have relieved the large pressure of water flowing down the
sewer, and inundating the houses as represented in Mr. Donaldson's
report, and would have saved the great expense incurred in removing
the large piers under the houses in Grafton Street, and rebuilding the
tortuous part of the sewer in the vicinity of Curzon Street; and
another advantage gained, would have been in giving Oxford Street a
sewer, which had none. Similar relief might have been given to
other portions of the large sewers which were overpowered with the
upland water, and new sewers given to such portions as had none be-
fore ; for instance, another sewer might have been constructed, to
have commenced about Berkeley Street, and run along Piccadilly, and
discharged itself into the Regent Street sewer, near the Quadrant,
connecting with it the sewers of the side streets, which would have
relived the Scholar's Pond Sewer and have given Piccadilly a sewer
which it was deficient of until lately. And again, the sewer of Pall
Mall might have been diverted into the Regent Street sewer, although
it comes to within a few yards of it the sewage is carried into the
Scholar's Pond Sewer, and has to travel a distance of a mile and a
half before it discharges itself into the Thames, whereas, if the
former plan had been adopted, the discharge into the Thames
would have been within half a mile. If these collateral sewers
had been built, the vast sums of money in reconstructing a consider-
able portion of the Scholar's Pond Sewer, and building the large ap-
proaches described in Mr. Donaldson's address, might have been saved

18-13.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

■r,

and part of the cost devoted to the new sewers we have described. We
think that we could point out several other improvements that might
have been adopted, if the commissions had been united : but we have
already trespassed beyond our original intention upon this portion of
the subject, and must now turn our attention to the more important
part respecting the form, construction, and expense of the present
sewers of the Westminster Holborn, and Finsbury, and Regent Street
commissions.

We will first proceed to enquire into the present cost of con-
structing sewers, and see how far they might be modified, so as to in-
duce builders of small tenements to construct sewers, in preference to
cespools; in order to do this, we are at once brought to another bone
of contention between the present combatants; one commission con-
tends that the oval sewer is the best form, whilst another flatly con-
tradicts it, and says that sewers with upright sides are the best; we
must therefore first hear what Mr. Donaldson says upon the subject.

" With respect to the form of section of sewers, our commis-
sioners have very wisely adhered to that, which experience has
proved to them to be substantial and best calculated for the purpose.
We are to recollect that under-ground constructions must be built so
as to last for ages, otherwise a continued re-building of sewers causes
a constant breaking up of the streets, and obstructions to thorough-
fares, and a suspension to a certain degree of the commerce of the
trades-people on the line. The sewers must be large enough not
merely for the ordinary service of relieving soil drainage, but also for
carrying off the torrents of water, which fall during violent storms.
Hence a large capacity must be given them. Again, this large di-
mension is not without a further use in enabling the officers and
workman to inspect and repair them with sufficient facility, the
width even of our second sized sewers enabling two workmen to pass
each other. As regards the upward sides of the sewer, it must be
borne in mind that all circular work constructed of brick can only be
formed by making the joints more open at the extrados than at the
intrados, for the square shape of the brick does not lend itself to
other than rectangular construction. Now these open joints are filled
■with mortar in a moist state, and before it is set, the earth to the
depth of several feet is filled in, the centres are struck, and the con-
sequence is an irregular settlement of the whole work ; whereas with
spreading footings, an invert at bottom, a circular arch at top, and up-
right side walls, most of these inconveniences are avoided, and the
sewer, even if the earth be washed away at the top or sides, as
sometimes happens from the bursting of one of the large main pipes
of the water companies, stands upright and alone on its board base,
whereas the oval sewer must have inevitably fallen over. I may also
add two other important reasons for giving as much square con-
struction as possible to the body of the sewer, and these are, greater
security against imperfect workmanship, and detection of false thick-
nesses of work at sides. Besides, in the event of its being judged
expedient to increase the depth of a sewer by putting in a new bottom
by underpinning, this operation becomes comparatively easy with
upright side walls — almost impracticable when they are curved.
Much stress is laid in the report upon the curved side walls as ma-
terially aiding the rapidity of the current. But, in fact, the ordinary
sewage rarely rises above the invert, and when it does, there is such a
force in the volume of water, that no perceptible obstruction is offered
by the absence of the complete circular form."

If, on comparing the sewers of the Westminster Commissioners,
Fig.l and 2, with those of the Holborn and Finsbury Commissioners,
Fig. 2 and 3, it must be seen that Mr. Donaldson's remarks about
circular work are completely futile, for his objections apply equally
to the arch and invert of the Westminster as they do to the Holborn
and Finsbury; and as to the sides, the radiating of the courses in the
oval form is so trifling, that it is not worth naming. And again, can
Mr. Donaldson tell us if such an accident ever occurred, as the burst-
ing of a main pipe, and of washing away the earth to the extent
of endangering an oval sewer. We have frequently heard, that
during the construction of the upright sewers, of their falling in ', but

1 We could find several cases of the Westminster sewers falling in during
their construction, and the upright ndes bul- inn in, as at Notting Hill, and
also in the vicinity of the King's Road, Chelsea. But we are told by th
worthy chairman, that tlr-y ucre limit by private indivj luals, and not by the
commission. Lei us ask Mr. Di naldson. under whose direction and super,
ntendance arc they built? Dare a builder alter the lorm, or lay a brick con.

never heard of such a case with the oval Bewer. 20 years ago, we
happen to have been engaged in th i of about 1000 feet

of sewage of the oval form, as shown in Fig.
5, built upon the crown lands in the vicinity
of Regent's Park, and up to the present time
we have never heard of a single failure,
either during the construction or since; we
think this fully justifies us in pronouncing that
the oval form is most effective, and in point
of expense infinitely to be preferred. Now
let us compare the expense of both forms, we
will take the cost of the materials and labour
the same in both cases, Is. per foot reduced,
or 13/. 12-. per rod of brickwork, and Is. per cubic yard fur digging,
strutting, and filling in or removing the surplus ground, the top of the
sewer being taken as ti feet below the surface of the ground.

Westminster Sewers.
Fig. 1, first class. Fig. 2, second class.

1 7 feet brickwork
3 J- yards digging

15 feet brickwork
3 yards digging

Holborn and Finsbury Sewers.

Fig. 3, first class. Fig. i, second class.

12 feet brickwork
3 yards digging

9 feet brickwork - - 9 0
2J yaids digging - - 2 4

Fig. 5,2 the Regent Commission sewer is built in two half brick
rims, and contains about the same quantity of brickwork as fig. 4, and
may be taken at the same cost. Thus it will be seen that in adopting
the oval form, there is a saving of 5s. id. per ft. in the first-class sewer,
and 6s. Sd. per foot in the second-class sewer. Can there then be,
after perusing the above calculations, a doubt as to which form of

trary to the directions of the commissioners' surveyor; tf this be the case,
the commissioners tire responsible for the work and the form of the sewer,
and not the builder.

- We give the preference to the oval sewer. Fig. 5, over that of Fie. 4, as
the larger part of the oval is downwards, which allows a greater flow o(
water to pass oil quicker ; we also consider that the extra hall-brick thick-
ness of the sides of Fig. 3, oval sewer, perfectly useless, and night with
safety be omitted, which would reduce the cost of the sewer, U. Sd. per foot.

46

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

sewer the preference ought to be given ? then why oppress the
builder by compelling him to construct such expensive sewers as the
Westminster Commissioners require ? Why not, as we said before,
give some encouragement ? Nay, we would create every inducement
to the builder of small tenements to construct sewers, and we feel as-
sured that if the expense of building sewers could be reduced to 10s.
per foot, making the charge for small houses of 15 feet frontage on
tach side of the sewer under four pounds, that every builder
would adopt sewers in preference to building cesspools, as the diffe-
rence in expense would then be so trifling; but on behalf of the
builder, we contend for a still smaller form of sewer than even
the second size oval sewer, for in many cases where the distance
required to be drained is not above 20U feet from a main sewer, with
a good fall, we would allow an oval drain of half the altitude and
breadth of fig. 5, to be constructed with a half-brick rim, or an 18 inch
barrel drain, with manholes every 50 feet ; the expense of such drains
would be 21. 5s. for houses on each side of the drain for the 18 inch
barrel drain, and 1/. 10s. for the small oval form; this form of drain,
is amply large enough for 25 to 30 small tenements, including the
surface drainage ; therefore, why put the builder of small tenements
to the vast expense of erecting "second-size sewers, enabling two
workmen to pass each other," when "the ordinary sewage rarely rises
above the invert," for which the Westminster Commissioners charge
10s. per foot for houses on each side, or 71. 10s. for a fourth-rate
house.

We have dwelt more particularly upon sewers for small houses, as
it is to these houses that a cheap form of sewage is wanted, for the
expenses attending upon sewers, forming roads, paths, paying fees to
district and paving surveyors, leases, and a variety of other incidental
charges, which do not immediately belong to the construction of the
house, fall almost equally the same on the small as on the. large house,
and raise the cost of the latter so enormously, that much higher rents
are obliged to be obtained from the small tradesmen and operatives
than woidd otherwise be required if these charges could be reduced.
We could give an instance at the present moment, where parties who
have built some fourth-rate houses immediately contiguous to a main
sewer of the Westminster Commision, will not incur the expense of
the sewage by paying 10s. per foot, but prefer constructing cesspools.

It will be a question well worthy of inquiry to ascertain what num-
ber of houses there are on each side of any of the sewers that have
been built or rebuilt by the Westminster Commission, and see how
many of those houses have taken advantage of the sewers. We are
fearful the return would show very few. If this be the case, it will be
the best proof that the enormity of the charge of 10s. per foot de-
manded by the commissioners, is of an oppressive nature, and if
they continue to make this demand, we are fearful that very few
houses in poor neighbourhoods will ever have drains to enter the
sewers, and that all the calamities pictured in the report on the
sanitary condition of the poor, will still rage with fearful violence. It
is not for surface drainage that new sewers are so much wanted as to
get rid of the nuisance of building cesspools under the basement, and
in the close and confined yards at the backs of the small houses.

We cannot allow these observations to close, without offering a few
remarks on the regulation for constructing drains. We believe all
the Commissions compel each house to have separate drains, no
matter how far the house may be from the centre of the sewer. We
recollect, a few years since, seeing the ground opened to the distance
of at least GO feet long, and 10 feet deep, opposite to every house in
the Grand Junction Road, Paddington. Now, if the commissioners
would have allowed a 15-inch drain to have been constructed from the
sewer for every three houses opposite the centre house, with a
branch drain, nine inches clear, at the end next the houses, there
■would have been a saving of 100 feet run of digging and making
good roads, and a drainage equally as effective, if not more so; for it
is not so likely that the single 15 inch drain would have got choked as
the three 9 inch drains. And again, why not allow a 12 inch drain to
be constructed opposite the party wall, between two houses, for the
drainage of the two, some compulsory law might be made for com-

pelling both owners, if there should be two, to contribnte their share
to the repair or cleansing the drain, if it were required. By some
modification of this nature, a vast expense would be saved both to
builders and owners of houses, as the principal expense in carrying a
drain into the sewer is generally the opening of the ground and mak-
ing good the roadway.

We have, in the present notice carefully abstained from entering
into an examination of the Flushing apparatus, the feasibility of
cleansing the streets by means of the sewers, and also the considera-
tion of uniting the paving of the metropolis with the sewers under
one commission, the same as is now done in the City of London, for
all these points require to be gone into at considerable length at some
future opportunity. We hope we have been successful in establish-
ing that sewers may be constructed far more economically, and equally
as effective, as the present form of the Westminster sewers, and that
considerable improvements might have been adopted in rebuilding
and relieving the old sewage, and at the same time increased to a
large extent the sewage, without any additional expense, and if we
have done so, satisfactorily, it then behoves us to press upou the
government to take up the inquiry on a broad scale, employ com-
petent parties to report upon the subject, and see how far a grand,
measure might be laid down for the improvement of the whole of the
first metropolis in the world.

CONCRETE, ITS INTRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, USES,
AND COMPARATIVE EXPENSE.

Concrete was first used in this country by Sir Robert Sinirke,at the
erection of the Penitentiary at Millbank, afterwards at the under-
setting of the walls of the New Custom House, and has been generally
used by the above named architect in the public buildings since erected
under his care, especially at the club house of the Oxford and Cam-
bridge University in Pall Mall, where the whole area of the building,
and to the extent of two feet beyond the line of the lowest footing,
was covered to a depth of 2i feet, the depth being increa5ed to 4 feet
under all the walls that rise to the roof; in the specification of the
last named building it is thus described. " For the grouted stratum
clean river gravel is to be provided, and mixed with lime ground or
pounded to a fine powder ; it is to be well mixed with the gravel, twice
turned over before it is wheeled to the excavation, and it is to be
thrown from a height of not less than (3 feet in every part. A man to
be kept treading down and puddling the mass as it is thrown down ;
the proportion of materials to be 6 parts of gravel to one of Dorking,
Merstham, or Haling stone lime." It has now become, in the present
day, the most favourable expedient resorted to for artificial foun-
dations. Mr. Ranger, of Brighton, improved the above hint by using
hot water to facilitate the setting, for which he took out a patent for
making artificial stone. A detailed account of the application of Mr.
Ranger's artificial stone to the building of docks and river walls at
Chatham and Woolwich, is given in the 1st vol. of the Journal, being
a paper by Lieut. Denison, from the Papers of the Corps of Royal
Engineers. Analogous to concrete is beton, from which it differs, in
broken stone being used instead of gravel, in the proportion of two of
stone to one of lime or pozzolana of Italy, a description of which,
taken from the Franklin Journal, appeared in Vol. 3, page 2ti5,
of your valuable periodical. Since the introduction of concrete, some
little difference of opinion as to the proportions of materials and man-
ner of mixing them has arisen among engineers. I therefore give the
composition from several specifications: — No. 1. The concrete to
consist of 5 parts of clean gravel, perfectly freed from loam or clay,
with a proper proportion of small gravel and sand, as well as large,
and one part of lime measured dry, the lime to be mixed into a per-
fectly smooth uniform paste, as for the mortar, but with more water,
and then thoroughly mixed with the gravel. — No. 2. The concrete to
be composed of sandy gravel and well burnt lime, in the proportion of
3 of the former to 1 of the latter. The gravel to be free from all
earthy matter, and the pebbles not to exceed one inch ill diameter.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

The lime is to be used in a hot state when slacked, and to be imme-
diately mixed, using no more water than is sufficient to incorporate
them. After being twice turned, it is to be wheeled on to a stage
10 feet high, and let fall into the trench ; it is not to be puddled or
disturbed in any way until perfectly set. — No. 3. All concrete must
be composed of gravel perfectly clean, and mixed with fresh well-
burnt lime in the proportion of 6 of gravel to 1 of lime. The lime and
gravel to be mixed in a dry state, and a sufficient quantity of water
afterwards added. — No. 4. Concrete to be composed of good lime,
gravel, and sand, in the proportion of y to ~ of lime, and it should be
laid in about 12 inch layers or courses, and pitched from a height of 10
to 12 feet, neither should it be disturbed until properly concreted and
set.

In the above five opinions, including that of Sir Robert Smirke, we
have the relative proportions of gravel and lime, varying from 3 to 9 .
and No. 1 states the lime and water to be first mixed, in which No. 2
nearly coincides, whilst No. 3 insists on the gravel and lime being first
mixed, and then the water added ; Nos. 4 and 2 coincide that the
concrete is not to be disturbed after it is thrown into the trench,
whilst Sir Robert Smirke expressly states that parties are to be em-
ployed puddling the mass. The whole are agreed in specifying that
the material is to be thrown from a height. From considerable prac-
tice and experience in the mixing of concrete, I think that the lime
need not be ground, but simply mixed with the gravel, and then, by
the addition of water, it will fall to an impalpable powder, also that
it is unnecessary to be at the expense of puddling the mass after being
deposited in the trenches, neither is there any advantage to be derived
from discharging the mixture from a height, both of which operations
increase the expense of the concrete, and as the concrete in the act
of setting expands in bulk, I think that alone a sufficient proof of the
inutility of both of the above mentioned operations, their tendency
being to condense the mass, whilst its own natural tendency is to
expand. With respect to the proportion of lime and gravel, I think
the less lime the better will be the concrete, and that the proportion
of 8 to 1 of lime is decidedly better than 3 of gravel to 1 of lime. As
to the quality of materials employed, the lime must be stone lime,
fresh from the kiln ; that from chalk will not do, and hydraulic or lias
lime is to be preferred to stone limes. With respect to gravel, if ob-
tained from a pit, the ochereous or ferruginous is to be preferred, and
if loam is present, so as to soil the hand, the gravel must be washed,
if the gravel be obtained from rivers by dredging, alluvial and vege-
table deposits are to be avoided; and if the gravel contain vege-
table refuse, it must be screened or washed. Shelly sharp gravel is
the best, the proportion of small or large pebbles, and the due quan-
tity of sand, is soon learned with a little practice.

As to the uses of concrete, it is principally adopted as an artificial
foundation, and from four to six feet is a sufficient depth, and ex-
tending two feet beyond the space to be occupied with the building.
The following testimony of the utility of concrete, is from Weale's
Bridges, page 31. "Piling will probably never be found more safe
than a body of concrete ; the latter cannot be too much esteemed, for its
durable and almost imperishable nature, besides being quite as safe and,
perhaps, more durable than piling;" and from the paper of Lieute-
nant Denison, before alluded to, we have the following ratification of
its uses. "Concrete cannot be advantageously employed as a build-
ing material." " It may be employed with advantage in backing
retaining walls." I. K. Brunei, Esq., C. E., has used concrete as a
foundation, nearly exclusively and universally in the bridges on the
Great Western Railway; and in the celebrated bridge of Maiden-
head, the land arches are backed with concrete, to the depth of 10j
feet, and the abutments of the large arches are also backed with
concrete. In culverts underneath embankments, the same able engineer
has extensively used concrete as a backing material, the brickwork
being kept thin, and then enveloped in a mass of concrete, in the
form of a polygon, of six sides, or, of the form of two truncated
cones, with their bases joined.

Concrete was used on the Great Western Railway, wherever it could
be employed, as a backing material ; its use is now rapidly extending

47

to the provinces, and bids fair to supersede all other means now em-
ployed for making a foundation; it is much improved by being mixed
with oxide of iron, smith's scales, and roasted iron stone, or any ma-
terial containing iron. As regards the comparative expense, brick-
work being the most common building material, has been taken as the
standard of comparison with concrete for price, and its cost in most
districts will be found from one-third to one-sixth the price of brick-
work, taking a cubic yard as the quantity of each material, the latter
will cost 5s. and the former 21s, both, to a great extent, bein* regu-
lated by the vicinity of brickyards, and the facility of obtaining
gravel. I have known concrete executed at3s.3rf., 3s. Gd., 4s., 4s. Gd.,
5s.,7s.Gd., 8s. Gd., and lis. Gd. per cubic yaid, although the most
common price is 7s. Gd.; as to brickwork, the general price is 21s.,
and the range is from 14s. to 27s. Gd. per cubic yard. The London'
price being 25s. per cent, dearer than the country. The facility of
obtaining lime regulates the cost of concrete ; the price of lime per
cubic yard, measured dry in clots, at Dorking in Surrey, is 11*.-,
Barrow in Leicestershire 21s.; Bulwell in Nottinghamshire 9s. Gd.-
Breadon in Derbyshire 15s. Gd; Harefield in Buckinghamshire 16s'.
Gd. ; Fulwell, Durham County 9s. The measures of lime, also, vary
much ; in some places it is sold by the cubic yard, measured dry,
which is decidedly the best method adopted ; it would be desirable if
it was universal. It used to be sold in London by the hundred, as it
was called, not of weight, but a measure, a yard square, and a yard
and one inch deep, which will be equal to 16 or IS bushels, but it is
now sold by the cubic yard. The Fulwell and Barrow lime is sold
by the quarter, eight of which make a ton and a half. Lime is also
sold by the boll and chaldron; a chaldron will be about 3A tons, a
single horse cart about six bolls. In agricultural districts, the bushel,
boll and quarter are used ; in colliery districts, the chaldron and ton are
the standard of measure. With respect to the cost of gravel, pro-
vided it can be obtained on ground belonging to the company, the
getting, screening, and cartage will cost Is. 6d. to 2s. per cubic yard;
if it be obtained from the gravel pits of the country, the charge will
be per ton, from 2s. Gd. to 2s. 9J., if screened 3s. 3d. to 3s. I0d., if
broken Gs. lOd. A cubic yard will weigh from 24 to 27 cwt. If the
gravel is dredged or brought from the shores of a river, the cost will
be 2s. Gd. per yard, or nearly the same as from the pit. The prices
of the various operations of getting, screening, and washing gravel
are respectively 10d. and 12d. per cubic yard. The price of excava-
tion is also included in the price of concrete in all railway specifica-
tions, which will be about 4d. per cubic yard, as generally the exca-
vation is of limited extent, and consequently more expensive than an.
extensive excavation, and when the gravel is obtained on the ground
of the Company or proprietor, the excavation is a double operation,
the hole having to be refilled with other materials in lieu of the gravel
obtained. From the experience of several thousands of yards and
variety of situations, I find the cost of mixing the materials, or as it is
termed concreting, to be Is. per cubic yard, and taking the proportion
of material at 5 to 1, the following will be a fair estimate of the cost
of concrete : —

s. d.
1 cubic yard of lime - - 12 6

5 do of Gravel at 2s. Gd. • 12 6
Labour mixing at Is. per yard - GO

G yards of excavation at id. - 2 0

Waste, contingencies and profit, at Is. 6 0

6 cubic yards, at Gs. Gd. - =: 39 0
Concrete will set in 24 hours; the specific gravity is 125, or about
the same as brickwork, although brickwork is sometimes 1G5 lb. per
cubic foot. Lieutenant Denison gives the strength of concrete S =
IW
Abd-
paving, tlie proportion is as 1 to 13.

The following works may be consulted ; Colonel Pasley, on Calca-
reous Cement: Weale, 1839; — Aikin on ditto, in Transactions of So-

The constant S being 9-5, and comparing concrete to York

18

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

cisty of Society of Arts; — Lieutenant Denison's Notes on Concrete,
from papers of Corps of Royal Engineers, Journal, Vol. !, p.
Lieutenant-Colonel Reid, ditto, see alsu the Journal, Vol. 1, page 131;
a letter on concrete, by a Constant Reader, Vol. 3, page 2l>5, Vol. 5,
pages 5S, 276.

I am, &c,
St. Ann's, Neircastle-tijJOii-Ty ne. O. T.

WIRE ROPE LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

Sir — Having seeu, in some of the recent numbers of the Mechanics,'
J\tagasine, a long discussion as to the priority of claim, respecting
the wire rope as a substitute for metal rods, in conductors, I beg to
call your attention to a paragraph, which appeared in a work, pub-
lished by Sir John Hersehel, more than 10 years ago. He says thus ;
that wire rope has long been used at Munich in preference to metallic
rods, for lightning conductors. I think this proves that the subject
has been long tried and practised, before Mr. M. J. Roberts brought
forward the subject.

Your insertion of this will oblige

A Subscriber.

WROUGHT IRON AXLES.

Sir — It is worthy of remark how slowly well proved facts, individually
acknowledged and acted upon, become generally admitted ; it is to be
regretted that we are not more communicative of those events which
strike us in our daily practice, and which, if announced as soon as
discovered, would so materially and rapidly tend to general im-
provement. There is, perhaps, no instance in which this can be more
clearly exemplified than in the use of wrought iron; it is scarcely
possible to refer to the subject without an example being readily laid
before you. Every manufacturer has had more or less his attention
drawn to the fact, that in its various applications wrought iron is sub-
ject to become brittle. Iron spindles, piston rods, fire bars, crow bars,
chisels, and many other things, are known to lose their fibrous quality
after being in use for a length of time, varying according to the nature
of the service they have had to perforin. By some it has been con-
sidered that the iron originally employed was of bad quality, and the
circumstance when discovered has not been otherwise attended to
than by replacing the broken piece ; but in many instances the phe-
nomena lias been clearly established, closely examined, and well
attended to, and that for years together, without, however, having
become a generally acknowledged fact, sufficiently positive to justify
the opinion that wrought iron, applied for certain purposes ought only
to be allowed to perforin a previously determined quantity of work,
after which it becomes requisite to re-forge the piece.

In most cases the fracture may be unattended with danger to human
life, but in others, as in connexion with railways, where hundreds of
lives may depend on the strength of an axle, it daily becomes more
evident that extraordinary precautions must be resorted to for the
purpose of avoiding accidents, and 1 would, with regard to railway
axles, suggest (as a precautionary measure) the propriety of limiting
the distance they should be allowed to run previous to their being
thrown out as unfit for service, and that whether apparently in good
condition or not. Such is the perfection with which these axles can
now be manufactured, that when a suitable quantity of iron is used, it
may be confidently asserted that every axle turned ont of the shop
after due examination may be considered to be sound, and that by
limiting the work it is allowed to perform, the fracture of an axle
would become a very improbable event.

Having been lately in Paris, I mentioned the circumstance to M.
Arnoux, the directing manager of the extensive works belonging to
the Messageries Laffite & Caillard, persuaded that from a person
whose attention has been for so many years engaged on this subject,
I should obtain some positive information ; he showed me a number
of axles which he had caused to be broken, after they had performed

their allotted quantity of work ; they all broke short and brittle, the
fracture invariably indicating the progress of the disease. The frac-
mmences at the lower angle of the axle on the side of the
traction, which is evidently in fixed axles the point of greatest fatigue,
and in those axles which have given way under the weight of the
load, the fissure has in some instances nearly traversed the axle before
it broke entirely, and it is then very easy to trace the accident from
its engine. I will endeavour to describe its usual appearance by the
following diagram; the arrow shows the direction in which the car-
riage moves.

The fracture invariably originates at the angle
a, and appears to progress at intervals by zones
as shown by the lines in the diagrams, the first, at
the point a becoming perfectly black, the colour
of each being lighter as they gradually extend
from this point, and as the contact of the two
sides of the fracture becomes more intimate, the
(t' grain of the iron towards the angle a is coarse,

and has a large crystalline texture, which diminishes in size as the
fracture approaches the angle b, at which point the metal remains
slightly fibrous, having evidently undergone a more rapid deterioration
at its point of greatest strain.

M. Arnoux informed me, that in consequence of this effect, to which
he has for a long time paid great attention, he has come to the con-
clusion that an axle can only safely run a distance of 30,000 leagues,
or about 75,000 English miles ; when an axle has run that distance, he
invariably takes it out, places it between two new bars of iron, and
welds them together so as to form a new axle. If the carriage usually
runs over a paved road, such as is frequently met with in France, the
axle is not allowed to run so great a distance, and a certain degree of
wear in the collar then determines the period at which the axle is
thrown out, not in consequence of the wear of the collar, but because
that degree of wear has proved, by experience, that it is prudent to
renew the axles in order to avoid a fracture.

Here, then, we have the proof of an important principle in the
application of wrought iron, being well established and long known to
one, and probably to many individually, without having come to the
knowledge of railway engineers, who are thus compelled to arrive at
this important truth by dint of actual experience, obtained through
the medium of a series of lamentable accdents, and they could not
acquire their information in any other way, unless made acquainted
with the circumstance by those who have previously purchased their
knowledge.

The question, then, admitting the above statement to be correct,
will be, how great a distance it may be pruden; to allow railway axles
of different descriptions to run; and to solve this question, it will be
advisable, in the first instance, to adopt a term which may certainly
be within the limit of perfect safety, until the greatest distance that
can be safely adopted may have been determined by a series of well
conducted experiments.

Iron exposed to great heat undergoes the same kind of deterio-
ration. I examined, in the same establishment, several bars taken
from a furnace in which they heat their wheel hoops ; the part of the
bar directly exposed to the fire offered the same crystalline appear-
ance as the broken axles, which gradually diminished towards the
end that was out of the fire, and the end of the bar which was out of
the fire altogether, had the appearance of good tough iron. The por-
tion which had suffered most from its direct contact with the heat,
having been doubled over and welded entirely, recovered its fibrous
quality, and stood a cold bend as well as any iron that had not been
in the fire.

Should you find this communication worthy a place in the Journal,
you will oblige, by its insertion,

10th January, 1843.

Your obedient servant,

H. H. Edwards.

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

49

SELF-REGULATING EXPANSION SLIDE VALVE.
Fig. 1.

7'"F\

Improvement in the steam engine is so much sought after, so many are
engaged in the pursuit, and economy in the consumption of fuel is a question
of so much importance, that no apology need be offered on presenting a plan
to attain that object, and which has been found here or elsewhere to be an
absolute improvement.

The simple apparatus which I am about to describe, (for which I obtained
two patents abroad,) has been applied very successfully, and is now getting
into extensive use. I believe it to be unknown in this country, except to a
few persons to whom I have explained it ; and as it will on most occasions
be found to be useful, I propose to make it known through the medium of
your truly valuable columns, which being open to communications of the
kind, and much read, I should be happy to introduce this to your readers
through so respectable a channel.

The advantage of using steam expansively does not require demonstration,
it is too universally acknowledged to admit of any doubt ; I must, however,
enter a little into the subject, to point out the benefit to be derived from
the application of my slide valve, but will endeavour to be as concise as
possible.

An engine working without expansion, receives the steam on its piston
during the whole length of stroke, its speed being regulated by contracting
more or less the passage through the throttle valve, thereby to a certain ex-
tent wire-drawing the steam. The speed of the engine is effectually regu-
lated by this means, but a considerable quantity of steam is thereby thrown
away, as I will endeavour to show.

It frequently happens that an engine is lightly loaded, and as the loss to
which I allude is comparatively greater with a light load than with a full
one, on account of the wire-drawing becoming more complete, I will take
for example an engine working with such a load as will require the orifice
through the throttle valve to be sensibly contracted, in order to keep down
the speed of the piston.

When the engine passes over her centre, the motion of the piston is very

slow, and the orifice of the throttle valve will allow the steam to rush into
the cylinder in sufficient quantity to exert its full pressure ; but as the speed
of the piston increases, the quantity of steam admitted becomes insufficient
to fill the space at full pressure behind the piston.

The piston continues increasing in speed until it reaches the middle of the
cylinder, where it is the greatest, from that point to the end of the stroke
the speed decreases until the motion is reversed j there is necessarily a point
of the stroke at which the speed is so slow, that the quantity of steam ad-
mitted through the throttle valve will be proportionate to the speed of the
piston, and from that point until the end of the stroke, as the speed of the
piston decreases, the steam will accumulate in the cylinder, and the pressure
will increase; but at that moment the position of the leverage of the crank
is such, that the increasing pressure of the steam produces comparatively
little effect on the speed of the engine, and at the moment at which the
pressure reaches its maximum, the slide valve is reversed, and the contents
of the cylinder are thrown into the condenser.

The quantity of steam thrown into the cylinder at the beginning of the
stroke is not lost, because it continues to act expansively on the piston, and
becomes a portion of that volume of steam which determines the speed of
the engine and the relative steam passage through the throttle valve ; hut as
I said above, the volume of steam thrown in towards the end of the stroke,
only serves to fill the cylinder uselessly at the moment when its contents are
about to be thrown iuto the condenser.

If the engine happens to have a light fly-wheel, the evil is considerably
increased, because the speed of the engine will sensibly decrease towards
the end of the stroke, the orifice of the throttle valve will be enlarged by
the action of the governor, and an increased volume of steam will he ad-
mitted into the cylinder just in time to he thrown away.

By working the steam expansively, the above-mentioned loss is avoided ;
and if the resistance to be overcome was constant — as for instance, to raise a
given quantity of water to a given height in a given time — then the fixed ex-
pansion would answer every purpose ; and this is, perhaps, the only instance
in which that can he said to be the case.

Generally speaking, the load is variable, and when that is the case, the
point of the stroke at which the steam is cut off should also be variable, so
that the steam employed should exert its full pressure while it is being ad-
mitted to the piston, in order to produce the full effect of expansion from
the moment it is cut otf until the end of the stroke.

For this to be carried out efficiently, the engine itself must determine the
point of the stroke at which the steam should be cut off, and the governor is
sufficient for the purpose. I think I may infer, that the valve hereafter de-
scribed, will be found useful for all engines which require a governor to
regulate their motion.

The present system of advancing the eccentric, and constructing the
working valve, so that the steam is cut otf at about three fourths of the
stroke, is an immense improvement, but stops short of what is wanted, par-
ticularly for those engines which work with high steam.

The elasticity of steam being subject to the same law that governs the
elasticity of atmospheric air, as determined by Mariotte, the elasticity being
proportionate to its density, then a volume equal to 200 under a pressure =
2, will be reduced to 100 under a pressure = 4, and will expand so as to
represent 400, the pressure being reduced to = 1.

This being the case, let us suppose the length of the stroke of the cy-
linder of a steam engine divided into 20 equal parts, and that steam of four
atmospheres is acting upon the piston during the whole of the stroke ; the
consumption of steam will be represented by 20 x 4 = 80, and the sum of
the forces will also be 20 x 4 = 80 ; in this case the consumption of steam
will be as 1, and the power exerted will also be 1.

Take the same cylinder, and admit steam of the same pressure during
xi = J of the length of stroke, the quantity of steam expended will be
15 x 4 = 60, and the sum of the forces will be 15 x 4 = 60 for the first
15 spaces, and 16-77 for the remaining o.
The consumption of steam will be 60 = 1.
The power exerted will be 60 + 16-77 = 76'77 = 1-27.
(See diagram No. 1.)

Again, in the same cylinder, admit the steam only during J£ = J the
length of stroke, the quantity of steam used will be 10 x 4 = 40, and the
sum of the forces will be 10 x 4 = 40 for the first 10 spaces, and for the
remaining 10 spaces it will be 26-75.
The consumption of steam in this case will be 10 = 1.
The power exerted will be 40 + 26-75 = 6675 = 166.
(See diagram No. 2.)

50

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

No. 2.

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

3-75

3-52

3-34

3-1/

3-

6-78

0

0

0

0

1

4

1

4

2

4

2

4

3

4

3

4

4

4

4

4

5

4

5

V 4 /

6

4

G \ 3333 /

7

4

7 \ 2-857 /

8

4

8 \ 2-5 /

9

4

9 \ 2-222 /

10

4

, 10 \ 2- /

11

\ 3-636 /

11 \ 1-818 /

12

\ 3-333 /

12 \ 1-666 /

13

\ 3076 /

13 \ 1-538 /

14

\ 2-857 /

" 1 1-428 J

15

\ 2-666 /

15 1 1-333

10

\ 2'5 /

16

1-25

17

\ 2-352 1

17

1-176

18

\ 2-222

18

1-111

19

I 2-105

19

1-052

20

1 2-

20

1'

46-23

Carry this again further out, by admitting the steam only dining ^
= i of the stroke, and we shall find for the expenditure of steam 5x4 =
20, and the sum of the forces for the first five spaces will be 5 x 4 = 20,
and for the remaining 15 it will be 26-2S.

The consumption of steam in this case will be 20 = 1.

The power exerted will be 20 + 26-28 = 46-28 = 2-31.

(See diagram No. 3.)

To obtain the greatest possible advantage from steam it is requisite :
1st. To employ it expansively.

2nd. To admit it into the cylinder at its full pressure without being wire-
drawn.
3rd. That the portion of the stroke during which it is admitted freely,
should be determined by the engine governor.

The construction of this self-acting slide expansion valve, will be under-
stood by inspection of Figs. 1,2:

A, being the face of the cylinder.

H, the slide valve, acting exactly the same as the ordinary slide valve.

Ii a moveable metallic plate, worked by friction against the back of the
slide valve H, as far each way as will be permitted by the cam or tappet a,
the position of which will be determined by the governor.

When the points of the tappets are approached so as to hold the plate I,
the sUde valve H, alone will move, and the steam will act only during a very
small portion of the stroke of the piston.

When the points of the tappets separate, the plate I, will be carried along
with the valve, until brought in contact with the tappets, and the greater the
distance between the points of the tappets, the longer the steam will be ad-
mitted into the cylinder.

When the tappets are sufficiently thrown back to prevent the plate I, from
reaching them during the whole length of the stroke of the valve, the fixed
bracket K, will then place the plate I in the middle of the slide valve, and
the steam will be admitted during the whole length of stroke of the piston,
with the exception of what portion may be cut off by the advance of the
eccentric.

The two spindles which carry the tappets a, pass through stuffing boxes
reserved on one side of the valve box, and are turned by two sectors fixed

on their extreme ends, and working into each other ; the tappets therefore
move simultaneously in contrary directions, a lever fixed to the top sector
being worked by the governor, so as to separate the points of the tappets a,
as the speed of the engine diminishes, and to approach them nearer toge-
ther as the speed increases, and in this way steam will be admitted in such
volumes into the cylinder, as will effectually regulate the speed of the engine
without ever contracting the orifice of the throttle valve.

This summary explanation is quite sufficient to show the principle upon
which this valve is constructed, and by what means the purpose is effected ;
what follows, is a somewhat more detailed account of the same, useful only
as entering a little more minutely upon the subject, and giving some in-
structions to be attended to in its construction.

To facilitate the setting of the metallic plate I, attention must be paid to
the position of the tappets a, because upon their position depends the
proper effect of the valve. The upper sector G, is keyed on the end of the
spindle, and the lever F, is fixed to the sector by two screws b, running
through oval holes in the sector, which permit the spindle to be turned a
little either way, so as to move the points of the upper tappets a little nearer
to, or a little further from the plate I.

On the lower spindle the same facility is obtained, by keying a plate on
the spindle, instead of fixing the sector itself, and then by fixing the sector
to the plate by two screws, giving play in the holes as above, the bottom
tappets can also be varied as may be required.

To cause the plate 1 to adhere to and follow the vale H, in its motion, a
l spring K, is fixed on the back of the plate I, and the two ends of the spriug
slide in a groove, formed by two side pieces fixed to the slide valve ; this
spring is so disposed as to press the plate against the back of the valve.

I have occasionally applied this valve to engines that required to have
more steam thrown on to one side of the piston than on the other, and have
thereby been able to do away with a considerable counterweight — for in-
stance, in direct engines, where there is considerably more weight in the
down than in the up stroke, I have found it very useful ; and in another
case, in which a cold water pump was attached to one end of the beam, and
lifted water from a very deep well.

The motion of the valve being determined by an eccentric, is exactly the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

51

same as that of the piston determined by the crank, but with this condition,
that the valve is at its greatest speed while the piston is at its lowest.

If the circle described by the crank pin is divided into equal parts round
its circumference, the motion of the piston, commencing from the end of the
cylinder, will increase as the versed sine of the arc described, until it reaches
the middle of the cylinder, while that of the valve will be as the sine of the
arc; and as the difference of the versed sines is constantly increasing, while
the difference of the siues decreases, the result will be, that the motion of
the plate I, on the back of the valve, must be less the longer the steam has
to act upon the piston. The spindles of the tappets must therefore be
worked by a motion of the same description as that of the eccentric, and
this is obtained by means of the bell crank, A, B, the long arm A being
worked by the governor, aud made to describe an angle of 90c, the arm 13,
being horizontal when the governor balls are open, and vertical when they
are closed ; a graduated quadrant C, being fixed against the valve box, a
hand fixed to the extremity of the arm B, of the lever A, B, will show
during what portion of the stroke of the piston the steam is admitted into
the cylinder.

The pin being pulled out from the lower joint of the lever E, the lever F,
will be thrown up by the action of the plate I, against the tappets ; the plate
being no longer stopped by the tappets will be directed into the middle of
the slide valve by the fixed bracket K, and the steam will be admitted to the
piston until cut off in the usual manner by the slide valve.

When it is requisite to stop the engine, this pin must be withdrawn, be-
cause it is requisite that the plate I, should be always in the middle of the
back of the slide valve to be ready for starting ; the small quantity of steam
that would otherwise be admitted would not suffice to start the engine.

This valve, which I have applied to a great many engines, and which has
also been applied by others, answers perfectly well ; it is, therefore, not
merely a speculative idea that I am laying before your readers.

I applied one pair of them to a locomotive engine, but the result was not
so favourable as I anticipated ; not that this valve is not applicable to this
kind of engine, but because I applied it in an improper manner, and without
having beforehand taken into due consideration the several points in which
the locomotive differs from other engines. I considerably increased the
power of the engine, but did not save fuel, which is one of the principal
objects I had in view. I made the cylinder too large ; and did not suffici-
ently provide for the very great speed with which the piston of a locomotive
travels, so that I produced in the slide valve the wire-drawing of the steam,
which I avoided in the regulating valve ; it must also be observed, that a
sufficient blast must be determined in the funnel, to secure the generatiou of
a sufficient quantity of steam ; this was provided for, but in an improper
manner, being only obtained by contracting the orifice of the blast, which
would only enable me to obtain a proper effect under a given load and upon
a constant gradient ; and as on a railroad these two conditions are con-
stantly varying, it is evident that the area of the orifice of the blast should
vary also, not only when the steam is worked expansively, but on all occa-
sions. I therefore took out a patent for an apparatus, by the use of which,
the blast could be regulated with the greatest nicety, and obtained permission
to make a series of experiments with the apparatus, on one of the most
powerful locomotives, unfortunately not the one to which the expansion
valve was applied, and the result was, what might have been anticipated ;
the variable blast did not require any assistance, and acted perfectly well in
every respect ; whereas the expansion valve, which requires absolutely the
variable blast, did not produce its full effect without it.

From the very liberal conduct of the company, I am persuaded, that if I
had remained longer in France, they would have authorized me to complete
these experiments; but family affairs having called me back to England, they
remain in an imperfect state, as far as regards locomotives. I, however,
went far enough with the experiments to feel convinced, that by the appli-
cation of the expansion valve in conjunction with the variable blast, a con-
siderable improvement would be effected in the locomotive engine.

London, I9tt October, 1842. H. H. Edwards.

Improvement in the Manufacture of Gas. — A workman employed
at Esk Mill, Edinburgh, named J. Lothian, is said to have perfected a most
important improvement, whereby a saving of one-half of metal, fuel, and
fire, is effected by a new construction of the flues, and situating of the retort.
His principle of building flues is also said to be well worthy the attention of
those having small establishments, where gas is required. A few days since,
he made, in -U hours, by one small retort, 8IG cubic feet of gas, the same
being prepared from various substances.

THE YORKSHIRE ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY.

Sir — However well-intentioned the regulation may be, that all who are
admitted into this society " must be members of the Established High
Anglo-Catholic Church," it appears to me to be one of a very questionable
kind, whether as regards propriety or expediency. What is exactly meant
by the Anglo-Catholic Church. I for one, know not, the term being to me al-
together a novel one; but let it meau what it may, it seems that Anglo-
Catholicism does not interfere with the "peculiar sentiments " of those
who profess it ! This, however, is touching upon different ground ; what I
have to object to, is the mixing up religion at all with sccidar matters, for
the doing so is apt to lead to the former being made use of as a mere
stalking-horse, and rendered subservient to worldly interests.

Had the restricting sine qua non been that all members must be tho-
roughly acquainted with Ecclesiastical architecture, that would have been a
very intelligible and proper regulation, and would have answered every pur-
pose, if it really is supposed that no one who is not likewise a member of
the Anglo-Catholic Church, can have suitable feeling for, or do justice to
that particular style of the art. Or if such be not the case, why should
the society exclude architectural talent and ability merely because they may
not happen to wear the badge of what it holds to be religious orthodoxy ?

If such affected strictness be not cant, I know not what is. As far as
religion is concerned, it would perhaps be more honest and more consistent
on the part of the Protestant church, sternly to reject at once and alto-
gether, whatever, in any degree, partakes of, or reminds us of Roman-
Catholicism, its idolatrous worship, its vain and puerile superstitions. In-
stead of deploring the barbarous spoliations and ravages committed by
iconoclasts and puritans, we ought to abstain from attempting in any degree
to revive or encourage a taste for a style of architecture, to which we can
never do complete justice, but at the very best must always remain immea-
surably behind the original models, if merely because we neither have oc-
casion for, nor can possibly admit into our churches, that*amplitude of space,
and that prodigal display of architecture and art, which, if it does not im-
periously demand it, Romanism regards as manifestation of piety. For our
churches, we require no long array of ailes and chapels ; neither splendid
sacristies, nor gorgeous altars: we have neither processions, nor saint-
worship ; in fact, do not even know anything of, or in any way recognise,
many of the saints to whom our churches are nominally dedicated, or rather
merely called after for form's sake, and in order to distinguish one building
of the kind from another in ordinary discourse. What are St. Giles, St.
Pancras, St. Olave, St. Chad, &c, to us Protestants, except so many names,
which might as well be those of Egyptian kings ?

Therefore, if such matters are of no moment— no scandal to our Protes-
tantism, why should we now become all at once so excessively scrupulous in
regard to what are equally matters of indifference ? If it can be shown
that it is indispensably necessary a man should belong to the Anglo-Catholic
Church, in order to acquit himself worthily in building churches, let it be
done.

Rickman, who understood Gothic architecture and our ecclesiastical build-
ings, as well or better than most in the profession— although Gwilt has not
thought either him or his work worth any mention— was brought up in the
tenets of quakerism, which, though it did not prevent his being employed
professionally at some of the colleges at Cambridge, would now have ex-
cluded him from the Yorkshire Architectural Society.

It mav he said that all this has scarcely anything in common with the
objects of your Journal, and it certainly ought not ; but if people will mix
up religion'and party spirit, such matters must unavoidably be agitated, and
find their way into publications like your own. If qualification of any kind
be required from those who seek to become members of the Yorkshire Ar-
chitectural Society, it would surely be sufficient precaution against the admis-
sion of the unworthy, were it made a law that every one— at least every
one actually belonging to the profession— should send in as a testimonial of
his ability, some original study or design in ecclesiastical architecture; and
if his taste should be found orthodox, lie might be allowed to pass muster
without inquiry as to the orthodoxy of his religious tenets.
I reman

Q. E. V.

7

52

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

CANADIAN BOARD OF WORKS.

Sir — As you have uniformly taken high and strong ground when discus-
sing the policy of constructing public works by Government, viewing the
system as injurious to the community as it is degrading, and indeed, ruinous
to the profession, the following remarks on some of the works now in pro-
gress or to he soon undertaken by the provincial government of Canada,
may not be without interest to your readers. I believe this the more readily,
as you some time since (Vol. Ill, p. 122 et seq.) copied an article from the
American Railroad Journal, showing the, in every way, injudicious and de-
moralizing effects of the system here, which paper I should have had much
pleasure in condensing for, and otherwise adopting to the English reader,
had I supposed the communication useful to you otherwise than as a refer-
ence. What I now offer on the public works of Canada, will only too
clearly show, that it is not easy to speak too strongly of the wretched system
of carrying on these undertakings by agents ot government, and with the
public money, without any other responsibility than that to party.

My remarks will be confined almost exclusively to the " Improvement of
the St. Lawrence," by canals round the rapids above Montreal. These
canals are three in number.

1. The Lachine canal, round the Lachine rapids, connecting Montreal
with Lake St. Louis, a distance of nine miles. This canal has been in
operation nine or ten years, and the locks are 100 feet long in the chamber,
30 feet wide, and 5 feet deep.

2. The Beauhamois canal, on the other or south-east side of the St. Law-
rence, connecting Lake St. Louis with Lake St. Francis, round the Cascades,
Cedars, and Cotean rapids. This canal was commenced in July last, will be
from 12 to 15 miles long, is- to have locks 200 feet long in the chamber, 45
feet wide, and 9 feet deep on the sill — total lockage 82 feet, prism of canal
120 feet at water line, 80 feet at bottom, and 10 feet deep. Estimated cost
£255,900 currency = £214,000 sterling.

3. The Cornwall canal connecting Lake St. Francis with the river above
the Longue Soult rapids. This canal is nearly or quite finished, is 11$ miles
long, with locks 200 feet long, 55 feet wide, and 9 feet water on the sill.
Prism of canal 140 feet at water line, 100 feet wide at bottom, and 10 feet
deep. Lockage about 48 feet, cost above £400,000 currency, without any pro-
tection to the inner slopes ; a precaution found indispensable on the enlarged
portions of the Erie canal, (which are only 70 feet at water line, 42 feet at
bottom, and 7 feet deep. Locks 110 feet long, and 18 feet wide.) The
excavation of the Cornwall canal was very heavy.

Besides these, there will be several short canals round some of the worst
points in the river, whicfij for the next 35 miles, has a current of from three
to eight miles per hour. The aggregate length will be about 40 miles, and
the total lockage about ISO feet.

You will observe that the Beauhamois canal has been commenced on the
south side of the St. Lawrence, in justification of which the chairman of the
board of works wrote the letter, a copy of which, in a Montreal paper, I
forward to you. The gentleman, in consequence of whose remonstrance
this was written, engaged me to examine the question, and, finding no data,
or indeed, any engineering information whatever in that paper, I was under
the necessity of making such surveys as wonld enable me to give an opinion,
which was to the following effect, that, the incidental works being trifling,
and the lockage of course the same on both sides, the difference in cost,
£105,000, must he sought for in the earth-work. But, the total cost of
this on the north side, was, by my estimate, only £110,000, or, by the prices
of the board of works, about £95,000, so tha't the difference of £100,000
became quite impracticable, as is indeed at once obvious to any eye at all
accustomed to judge of ground. After my reports were laid before the
select committee at Kingston, the board sent in their " estimates," unaccom-
panied by any report, in which they make out their case ; by,

1. Comparing the worst known line on the north side; that is, the last
line run by the board, and designated as No. 10 in the letter I send you,
with the best line on the south side, thus making a difference of £40,000
against the north side.

2. By comparing a canal 15 miles long on the north side, reaching from
still water to still water, with a canal 12 miles long on the south side, having
its western terminus at the foot of a strong current, with extensive rocky
shoals between the mouth of the canal and Lake St. Francis, difficulties,
which I showed in my evidence, it would cost at least £40,000 to overcome.

My reports will be found in the evidence, a copy of which will be sent to
you, and they will enable you at once to sift the facts from the vast quantity
of irrelevant matter, with which the board have endeavoured to mystify the
very simple points on which the investigation turns.

1 will now request your attention to a dispatch of the Colonial Secretary
to the Governor-General, dated 2nd of April, 1S42, in which Lord Stanley-
writes : " It can hardly he doubted that works so extensive, and calculated
to produce such important results, ought to be superintended by the best
professional assistance which it is possible to obtain. Her Majesty's govern-
ment entertain no doubt of the anxious desire of the Canadian Board of
Works to discharge with fidelity the arduous duties which will devolve upon
them ; but I can as little doubt the anxiety which they must feel to have
associated with them in such a trust, the bes"t professional assistance which
it is in the power of the mother country to furnish.

" It is therefore, my intention, in anticipation of the acquiescence, which

I cannot for a moment doubt, of the colonial legislature, in the general ar-
rangements suggested by Her Majesty's government, to send over an officer
of engineers, whom, as Her Majesty's commissioner, I trust the legislature
will have no difficulty in associating with the board of works, in the superin-
tendence of the works to be undertaken ; and whose experience may pro-
bably enable the undertakings to be conducted with the efficiency and
economy which must be alike the interest of the colony and of this
country."

Sir Charles Bagot replies, 2Stb of April, 1842 : " Of course, as her Ma-
jesty's government provide the funds with which the public works are to be
conducted, it is but reasonable that they should have a share in the
management of it, if so desired."

His excellency then goes on to object strongly to a " military engineer,"
and suggests a " civil engineer," an expense it is well known the home
government w ill not incur ; in the mean time the work is commenced before
even the centre line or the levels have been established.

Lord Stanley writes on the 2nd of July, 1842 : " In your dispatch of the
28th April, you admit the necessity of appointing an engineer officer, as
commissioner on the part of Her Majesty's government, to superintend the
execution of the works which may be undertaken, and point out the reasons
which induce you to prefer a civil to a military engineer.

" On this subject, I have only to observe, that if provision be made by
the legislature for the payment of such an officer, (which, I agree with you,
will be very desirable,) Her Majesty's government would have no preference
for a military over a civil engineer, nor any wish on the subject, but to pro-
cure the services of the most competent person who could be engaged for
this purpose."

Now, I have no hesitation in asserting, that, had this officer been sent out
the canal could not possibly have been placed on the south side of the St.
Lawrence. For, the examinations which he would have found it his duty to
make, before giving his acquiescence, would have shown him that the south
side had no advantages in an engineering point of view ; and no English
engineer, civil or military, could well tolerate the position of the Governor-
General, that "ceteris paribus" he should "probably" (!) give the pre-
ference to the north side. The stern reply of Lord Stanley to this flippant
remark, in which he expresses " bis regret " at the " sacrifice of the military
advantages " of the line on the north side of the St. Lawernce, cannot fail
to strike you as proper and manly, as well as decidedly called for.

But the great object of the work is commercial ; and, in this point of
view, the examinations of the engineer of Her Majesty's government, would
have shown him, that the line on the south-east or lee side of the St. Law-
rence, must on that very account, and with any expenditure, be somewhat
inferior to the line on the north-west side ; in other words, that the " mili-
tary advantages," so highly prized by Lord Stanley, were to be " sacrificed "
not to aid, but rather to injure the commercial interests of the country. So
general is the belief in the want of common honesty evinced in this trans-
action, that the large sum (£30,000 or £40,000) already expended on the
south side, constitutes now the only argument in favour of continuing it on
that side of the river. I am, however, of opinion, that this will avail little,
if Lord Stanley send out an engineer — civil or military, I care not which —
who. with even a little practice, is not deficient in self-respect and integrity.
Such a man will soon discover, that a canal adapted to the trade of the
country, will be worth more, both as regards facility of working, and — what
is most important — low tolls; which latter must obviously be in proportion
to the cost, than a canal of the present preposterously colossal dimensions.
Hence, even £100,000 may be spent on the south side; and the commercial
as well as national interests may be advanced by the construction of a canal
on the north side, in such a manner and of such dimensions as prudence,
experience, and common sense shall point out.

Lord Stanley will hardly brook being told, that, the canal having been
commenced, it is useless to look back — that it is better now to submit to the
imposition, infamous though it be, than sacrifice the work already done —
that the honour of the government will be sufficiently appeased by dismissing
the board of works with disgrace, and similar arguments of those whose
only escape from a wretched bargain — if so mild a term may be applied —
lies in the momentary and imaginary value which the construction of a
"ship canal" to the "great lakes" along the Seigneury of Beauhamois
may give to that property in the London market. But should Her Majesty's
government sift this matter thoroughly, not only may the canal on the south
side be stopped, but Sir Robert Peel — the unwavering friend of private enter-
prise, the grand secret of British supremacy — whose policy would never have
originally given the imperial security for £1,500,000 sterling, " cette pilule
dore'e," as it was contemptuously termed by a leading French member of
parliament — may feel himself called on to cancel the endorsement, when he
discovers that the munificence of the home government serves only to the
direct injury of the commercial interests of the colony ; to the neglect of the
military interests of the present state ; of the agricultural interests of the
colony ; and, worst of all, to the demoralization of the colonial government
and people. For, not only does the present course resemble that of the
worst of the subsequently repudiating states, but there is superadded a
degree of cool and mendacious effrontery almost incredible, on which, in-
deed, the main chauce of success now rests. Thus, after reading Mr. Killaly's
letter, you would be surprised to learn, that, the "French engineer" is
supposed to have been a Canadian surveyor, his very name being even un-
known. Survey No. 2, by Mr. Mills, led that gentleman to give the pre-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

53

ference to the north side, (Nos. 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10, have obviously no bearing
on the question.) No. 5 was by a country surveyor, and he merely points
out some disadvantages in one route on the north side. No. 6, Mr. Baird
never examined the north side ; and, though in Kingston at tiie time, was
not called in by the board ; the superior " economy, and facility of navi-
gation," consist in a violent current and lee shore ; that a vessel which can
navigate the canal, can neither get in nor out at the western terminus ; that
the three channels are pure fabrications, and that this is not the first ex-
tensive public work " undertaken through a district entirely settled and in-
habited by Canadians of French origin." The Champlain and Lawrence
railway runs through such a country, and was built almost exclusively by
these Canadians ; the Chambly canal also traverses such a country. On the
latter work I served as assistant engineer in 1834 ; and the former was built
under my directions, by the day. and opened in July, 183G. The evidence
shows all this and much more; but I will proceed with some observations
on the commercial prospects of the St. Lawrence canal.

The grand object of the undertaking is to attract to the St. Lawrence a
large portion of the western trade, on the assumption, that the larger the
canal, the lower the rates of freight; and, secondly, that the cost of trans-
portation from the great lakes to Montreal, is the only drawback to an un-
limited trade with the west — positions altogether untenable.

Barges now descend the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario to Montreal,
with from 100 to 150 tons freight, according to the depth of water in the
" Cedar Rapids," where the barges frequently touch on the boulders, with
which the rocky bed of the river is covered. There is only 41 feet water
here in the autumn, but, by clearing out the channel, it is believed that
boats drawing 5 feet water may descend at all times. Such boats would
carry "150 tons, or, if made of iron, 200 tons of freight, and with a propor-
tionate reduction in the cost. A bill appropriating £10,000 currency to the
improvement of the Cedar Rapids was introduced at the late short session,
and the prerogative alone prevented its passing, as it met with universal
favour. I send you a sketch of the contemplated plan, with a description in
the Montreal Gazette, by Mr. Henry Roebuck, the projector of this, the
first attempt to improve the downward navigation of the St. Lawrence.
The average regular charge is Is. 9(7. currency per bbl. of flour from
Kingston to Montreal, a distance of more than 200 miles by the river =
•19o<7. currency per bbl. per mile = 18s. 3J(7. currency = 15s. 2(7. sterling
per ton of 22401b. (Flour was carried during the late summer for Is.
sterling per bbl. ; and merchandize was carried up for 25s. currency =
20s. 8(7. sterling per ton, by the Rideau canal, a distance of 240 miles, during
a strong competition.) The tolls on the present Laehiue canal are 2d. cur-
rency per bbl. of flour for 9 miles = '222(7. currency per bbl. per mile,
or more than twice the total cost per mile through, -105(7. currency, as above.
The Erie canal of New York, with which these canals are to compete,
has locks 90 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 34 feet water, prism of canal, 21
feet at bottom, 40 feet at water line, and 3 to 4 feet deep. The tolls are
Is. 9(7. currency per barrel of flower for 363 miles = -0578(7. currency per
barrel per mile = about one fourth the (oils of the Lachine canal ! thus
showing an immense advantage in favour of the Erie canal — an advantage
due to the cheapness of its construction ; in other words, to its reasonable
dimensions. How then is transportation to be lessened, by expending two
or three times its original cost in enlarging the Lachine canal? The high
tolls have driven the forwarders to try the Lachine Rapids, and during the
past summer and autumn a vast number of boats have gone safely over.
There is a great depth of water, but the channel is narrow and crooked.
(The descent is about 30 feet in li to 2 miles, which is passed in 4 or 5
minutes, the inclination of the surface of the water being such, that the
force of gravity acts on the boat, thus producing a great velocity through
the water in addition to that of the current. A heavily laden barge overtook
a light steamer in the rapids, fortunately without injury to either — and the
first season of this navigation has passed without accident.)

Now were individuals expending their own money on these canals, they
would endeavour to ascertain whether the income — the true test of the ac-
commodation to be offered to the trade — would justify the construction of
canals of a size unknown, in Christendom at least, and would enter into the
calculations and investigations necessary to show how this reduction of freight
was to be effected, and why barges of 150 tons were so much less efficient
than vessels of 800 to 1200 tons. But, in place of this, the public have
heard nothing beyond such vague assertions as, that " the St. Lawrence is
the natural outlet" for the " boundless trade" of the "far west;" if the
Erie canal, with its pitiful craft of 50 tons burden — omitting all mention, or
more probably ignorant of its small cost and low tolls — has yielded such
large returns to the state of New York, what may not be expected from the
" ship canals " of Canada, when " sea-going " vessels shall " float on Ontario
and Erie," the Welland schooner canal connecting these lakes to the con-
trary notwithstanding — and innumerable other equally preposterous views
and bombastic expressions, which are only too likely to prove as ruinous as
they are ridiculous.

Y'et this little Erie canal, which the State of New York has been endea-
vouring to enlarge to a size somewhat greater than that of the — according
to Canadian ideas — little Lachine canal, and on which she has thrown away
£3,000,000, is now admitted to be equal to any trade which can be expected,
though there is no St. Lawrence to distance all competition for the down
freight, no Rideau to compete with for the up freight, and although it en-
joys a monopoly of all western freight, the people of New York not being

permitted to use the railways along side of this canal on any terms — not even
in winter — for the transportation of freight. These railways are owned by
private companies, the government dreads their competition, and not without
reason. For instance, flour is carried from Albany to Boston for U Bd. ster-
ling per barrel, a distance of 200 miles by railway, through, or rather across,
a mountainous country, or at the rate of -09rf. st.' per barrel per mile, in small
quantities (in full loads for Is.); the rates from Buffalo to Albany, 303 miles,
average 3s. 3d. st. per barrel of llour, or -107(7. st. per mile = 10 per cent.
more than the highest charge on the Western Railway of Massachusetts.
This latter is a private work, open throughout the year, and without any
monopoly; the Erie canal is a State (government) work, closed between
4 and 5 mouths every year, and sustained by a monopoly unparalleled on
either side of the Atlantic. The enlargement of this canal is postponed
indefinitely, and a direct tax on every species of property in the State has
been laid, to meet the interest of the money squandered on this anil other
legislative engineering follies, pointed out in Vol. III. (p. 122 et sea.)

Without stopping to inquire how soon this course will become necessary
in Canada, I will ask, what intelligent Canadian or Englishman, who has
visited New York and Canada, will for a moment tolerate the idea, that the
trade of the latter country is likely to require, not equal, but ten times
greater accommodation than that of New Y'ork ? Should the trade of the
St. Lawrence, twenty years hence, equal that of the Erie canal at this time,
it will show an increase unequalled in the annals of this country. Look at
the most, if not the only, successful work in Canada, the Champlain and
St. Lawrence Railway, 15 miles long, and which cost not quite .t'40,000
sterling, on which 50 per cent, has been paid to the stockholders during the
last six years, because the capital was small, and the outlay made with some
reference to iucome. Had this been made with three or four tracks, on the
scale of the Great Western Railway, it would have been as profitable to the
stockholders as the St. Lawrence canals are likely to prove to the Province.
One mile and a quarter of the Cornwall canal has cost as much as the
15 miles of railway, including cars, engines, buildings, wharms, and steam
forage-boat of 300 tons, whilst the mcome bids fair to be inversely as the
cost ; a fair illustration of the mode of conducting public works by private
companies, as compared with that generally pursued in New York and Cana-
da, where the helm is only too often in the hands of political adventurers
and desperate speculators, who, having every thing to gain by governmental
extravagance, naturally employ kindred spirits to execute their designs,
which are, usually, the expenditures of large sums in certain districts, with-
out any regard to the wants or interests of the community.

The gross receipts on the Erie canal for 1840, were 1,597,334 dollars =
£330,028 St., and the present year will yield about the same amount. As-
suming the St. Lawrence canal to be about one»ninth the length of this
canal, and supposing the same business, the receipts would be very nearly
±'50,000 cy., on an estimated expenditure of £1,043,074 cy. as per Mr.
Killaly's memorandum of 12th Aug. 1840, in which occurs the only argu-
ment (!) vouchsafed to the community for the necessity of this additional
accommodation to the trade at such enormous cost.1

On the Erie canal the up freight or merchandize yields only one-fourth of

1 The following choice morceau — the style of which is worthy of the
reasoning — is all I have been able to discover.

" General Observations. The necessity of involving the province in
the cost of forming a second water communication with tide-water, has been
for a long time the subject of dispute and argument with many. Among the
number of those who doubted the prudence of it, I was one until latterly ;
but the vastly increasing trade, doubling almost annually, and the conviction
upon my mind, after mature consideration, that the lowering of freight con-
sequent upon affording additional facilities, together with the productiveness
of the western countries, which are only now coming into operation, will
increase still further this trade to an almost inconceivable e.i tent, have con-
vinced me that a second and more facile outlet is called for. Besides the
transport being confined to the Rideau, the navigation of which depends
upon the stability of dams of great height, (in one case 60 feet,) should any
injury arise to one of these dams, (as was apprehended last spring,) either
through accident or malice, the effects of it would be ruinous to half the
commercial interests of the country.

" I am decidedly of opinion, that the scale upon which the Cornwall
canal was undertaken, was unsuited to the means of the province, and was
uot absolutely necessarv for the greatest increase of trade, which the most
sanguine mav look forward to; and that a schooner navigation, combined
with a system of tug-boats would have answered every commercial purpose ;
but now, from the laree expenditure already incurred upon the central
portion, the little required to complete it, and the comparatively small saving
that might be effected upon what remains to be done, by adopting the
schooner scale. I am led to conclude that the best and easiest course will be
to open the St. Lawrence throughout from Montreal to Lake Ontario for
steamboats and schooners— not upon the /nil size of the Cornwall canal,
but on a scale sufficiently large to admit a powerful class of steamers or tug-
boats to pass." (Memorandum, 12th Aug., IS 10, p. 5.)

It is scarcely necessary to say, that the " doubling almost annually " is
bombast to an almost inconceivable extent ; that " the small saving" is no
less than on 28 miles out of 40, and the diminution consists in reducing the
canal from 140 to 120 feet in width, and the locks from 200 by 55 to 200
b« 45 — a distinction without a difference you will say.

54

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

the income ; on the St. Lawrence, the ratio is much more unfavourable,
probably not less than 8 or 10 to 1, as the Western States, which furnish
the flour and pork for the Montreal market, receive their merchandize exclu-
sively by way of New York and the Erie canal ; hence the greater the exports
or down freight via the St. Lawrence, the greater the imports or up freight
via the Erie Canal. But the down freight for Montreal will, practically
speaking, all go by the river; hence £S,000 to £10,000 gross income
would be a high estimate for the up freight of the St. Lawrence, if
charging the same tolls as on the Erie canal, or four times that income at
the present rates of the Lachine canal. Some little income will also he
derived from the occasional passage of the steam-tugs employed to tow
barges between the different sections of the canal. It will be observed that
this calculation supposes the trade equal to that of the Erie canal, and that
the estimates are entitled to confidence. The difference in the former is
such as to forbid comparison, and the mere dimensions of the Beauharnois
canal, given in the beginning of this paper, will be quite sufficient to show
the inaccuracy of the latter — to say nothing of the actual cost of the Corn-
wall canal, built principally under the superintendence of the able resident
engineer of the Beauharnois canal.-'

It is quite unnecessary to point out the improbability of vessels of 600
800, or 1000 tons or larger steamers competing with barges of 150 tons
drawn by horses on the canals, and by steam or wind, as at present, on the
river between these canals ; but, when we find that the latter craft can
descend the St. Lawrence (without paying tolls) witli seven-eights of the
freight, and that a suitable canal for the ascending trade would cost about
one-fourth as much as the " ship canal," and be more efficient too, we are
led to conclude that the whole affair would do no discredit to the " par
excellence " land of jobs itself— the " sister island." The enlargement of
the Lachine canal is about to be undertaken the coming winter, estimated
cost £225,300 currency ; and how this measure is to reduce the enormous
tolls of that canal, which have already forced the trade to try the river, and
successfully too, is a question not to be answered — in the affirmative, at
least. The greatest possible reduction in freight I consider to be 6</. per
barrel of flour, an amount ' quite insufficient to increase the demand in
England, the very source of this trade, whilst freights from Montreal vary
during the season not less than 2s. sterling per barrel, according to circum'-
stances ; a vastly more important consideration than any diminution which
can be even anticipated between Montreal and Kingston. (The last Mon-
treal quotations were 6s. sterling, from New York Is. 6d. sterling, per barrel
of flour.)

The Toronto paper, accompanying this, gives very fairly the general view
taken by the entire agricultural and no small part of the commercial com-
munity; and, in confirmation, I will add, that by none did I hear the idea
of using the canals for down freight ridiculed so much, as by French mem-
bers of parliament, whose knowledge of the capacity of the river is nearly
equal to that of the forwarders themselves.

A variety of other important facts might be adduced and different means
taken ; among the rest, the amount of business necessary to clear expenses
and interest ; and the amount of income which the present trade would
yield ; also the quantity of freight from western states seeking the New-
York market via the Erie, or Welland and Erie Canal. ;i

- The respectable British and American engineers who are, have been, or
may be employed by the Board of 'Works, must not be confounded with
the Board proper. They have merely to execute what their superiors, as
politicians and intriguers, but their inferiors as men and engineers, are
pleased to direct, and have nothing to do with the projecting of the works,
as will be easily believed.

3 Taking the interest and expenses at £60,000 currency, and the toll at
3d. currency per barrel of flour, it would require 4,800,000 barrels, about
7 times the present trade, to furnish the income, if even this comparatively
moderate toll would induce boats to use the canals, and if the estimates o'f
cost are correct. Besides the toll on the freight, the boat pavs 1/. toll, and
12s. for towing through the nine miles of the Lachine canal,' which for the
40 miles of canal would cost more than insurance and pilotage from Kings-
ton to Montreal. The insurance is three-eighths of 1</. per pound; the
pilotage about 21. per 1000 barrels.

Allowing 30 minutes for passing one lock, and the entire present annual
downward trade would pass through the Cornwall canal in 24 hours — the up
trade before dinner, or at a point before breakfast. The river is equal to
millions of tons per day, and the vast saving of time — already important
between Lachine and Montreal — is an inseparable argument against the
canals for the down trade — in other words, for the trade. The earlier and
later navigation in spring and autumn is also important.

The Welland canal cost up to August, 1841, £491,777 currency, and re-
quires, by estimate, £450,000 to complete it. (Memorandum, 12th August,
1841. p. 3.) The income for the last three years, has been about £25,000
currency, Mr. Killaly's •' doubling almost annually an inconceivable extent "
to the contrary, notwithstanding. The principal part of this is from down-
freight, and a part also from American trade. With a navigation equal to
that of the St. Lawrence, the income would be about £6000. Its principal
hope of success rests on its becoming an American thoroughfare, which I
think it eventually will be, for reasons given in my paper on " the spring
trade in the American Railroad Journal of April 15th, 1S42.

Vessels drawing 12 to 14 feet water are brought with difficulty up to
Montreal ; and as for taking " ships " through 500 feet lockage up to Lake

It was remarked, by the President of the Institution, (I think,) that many
of the young engineers of England must necessarily look to the colonies for
employment, hence the state and prospects of the profession in Canada can-
not be received with indifference by British engineers in general; and it is
on this account that I think the course of the Canadian government should
not escape the scrutiny of the leading members of the Institution in
London.

The honour and advancement of the colony and of the profession, as far
as public works are concerned, must be considered as the same; and it is
hard to say whether the Canadian Board of Works are doing more to injure
the trade of the country, to degrade the engineer, or to effectually extinguish
in Canada, that vital principle of British institutions — private enterprise.
I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Xew York, 30th Nov., 1842. W. R. Casey.

To win

THE EDUCATION OF AN ENGINEER.

< added a few remarks bearing on the pros?.:
and its Disciples.

By H. F. Clifford.

Our estimate of the value of any scientific pursuit, consists chiefly in the
degree of importance we assign to the amount and nature of the several
qualifications due to its proper attainment. When we reflect upon the cha-
racteristics of engineering', we are not long in discovering it to be a science
requiring much deep and intellectual study, assisted by steady perseverance,
long and unceasing application to arrive at a just appreciation of all those
practical data which experience can alone furnish, and impress vividly on the
mind ; one in which the laborious duties of the artisan must be blended with
the sound theories of the refined mathematician, one, in fact, embodying the
perfect union of theory with practice ; but to define engineering in the full
sense of the word, would be an endless task, for in that single word is com-
prehended a general knowledge of all the artifices that human ingenuity can
devise to supply the conveniences of the present advanced and rapidly pro-
gressing state of civilization. This definition may, indeed, appear vague to
some ; but when we are informed of the vast grasp it takes of all those
sciences which require no ordinary mind to cultivate and condense for the
purpose of obtaining a thorough comprehension of the numerous ramifications
of so noble and deeply interesting a study, we cannot be called presumptuous
in placing it second to few, if any of our standard professions. Since, how-
ever, engineering as a comprehensive and distinct science has become fully
recognised, and taken up its full position high in the rank of secular callings,
there must have been long felt a growing deficiency of some fixed laws or
definite principles to guide such individuals as were desirous of attaching
themselves to the profession as a means of support, in obtaining a thoroughly
useful knowledge of the subject. It is not our intention to throw any un-
reasonable objections in the path of the young aspirant to engineering fame,
but we would seriously urge on his attention the necessity of engendering at
the onset a firm and unchangeable resolution to encounter numerous and
severe difficulties ; but to be forewarned is to be pre-armed, and in the follow-
ing remarks, which are the substance of a few years' careful observation, we
have endeavoured to point out the general features of such a course of pro-
bationary study as from experience we have great confidence in recommend-
ing for adoption ; being fully persuaded, moreover, that the only way to ren-
der engineering ultimately serviceable, at least in a pecuniary point of view,
is to effect the happy combination of the practical with the civil department.
For it is almost chimerical, now-a-days, for any person to imagine he will
ever sueceed solely in the capacity of a " Civil Engineer," inasmuch as civil
engineering is a profession commanding but a very limited practice, and that
what practice there is must inevitably fall to the lot of men whose public
works have already earned for them an undying name, and with w hose lives
it will perish as a distinct avocation. Neither, on the other hand, can we
recommend any one to pursue practical engineering alone, that is the business
of an engine builder, for it is one requiring large capital to erect workshops

Erie, it will be at once obvious to the readers of the Journal, who have any
acquaintance with inland navigation, that such views can be entertained only
by those who are ignorant of the cost, weight and awkwardness of ships in
canals. Should the trade become great, it is clear that the transhipment
will take place at Quebec.

However new these statements of business may be to many of your rea-
ders— and obviously indispensable as they are to a correct understanding of
the wants of the trade of the St. Lawrence — I believe they will be quite as
new to the Canadian Board of Works, supposing that a Journal advocating
such principles as this shotdd accidentally meet their eye.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

55

and supply them with the necessary machinery : and moreover, there is not
nor will there ever be now, a sufficient demand to employ all those first-rate
works that have been established for many years, and whose name is a per-
fect guarantee for a good article. Again, owing to the slow but gradual
development of the system of constructing manufactories on the continent,
conducted by skilful Englishmen, there is every reason to believe that when
the system arrives at a state of maturity, the foreign consumption of English
machinery, especially locomotives, will be almost entirely annihilated. It is
true, however, that there is a body of men, managers of large works, re-
ceiving no despicable salaries, and to a casual observer their occupation pre-
sents fair means of remuneration ; but then what man is there accustomed to
the usual comforts of life who would sink the better part of his early life in
a workshop, as would be necessary to fulfil creditably such a situation ? No.
Such offices are chiefly held by men who, originally of the better class of
mechanics, have gradually raised themselves above the level of their brethren
by the exhibition of no ordinary talents, and have thus become entitled to
the appointments as being the fittest parties from the nature of their previous
education and intercourse with men whose habits and discipline they are best
able to appreciate and to govern. With these few useful premises we now
proceed to show the requisite functions to qualify a man to act successfully
as an engineer. Let it be ascertained, as early as possible, that the person
in question intends becoming an engineer, for having determined this im-
portant point, no time will be lost in acquiring any information foreign to
the purpose. Latin and Greek must be entirely eschewed, and in the earlier
portion of the student's career, let him obtain a tolerably clear knowledge of
geography, history, arithmetic, English, French and German, the rudiments
of ornamental drawing, sketching, the first three books of Euclid and Al-
gebra. The consideration of the above will possibly occupy the student's
attention up to the age of fourteen. From fourteen to sixteen finish Euclid;
take up practical geometry and the higher parts of algebra— read plane tri-
gonometry, conic sections, mechanics, hydrostatics, and hydrodynamics, the
differential and integral calculus, and in order to connect more firmly to-
gether the links of this mathematical chain, work numerous problems
involving each and all of the several branches. The elements of geology and
chemistry, and such other parts in detail as bear more immediately upon
civil engineering have great claims on the pupil, whilst a strict attention
should be given to mechanical drawing, sketching, linear, and isometrical
perspective, with the theory of shadows. During this period, likewise, the
student should make a practical investigation of surveying, and learn to use,
with ease aad accuracy, the level and theodolite, to make himself acquainted
with the general principles of architecture ; and, in order to prepare his mind
more fully for the reception of its future tenant, peruse some standard ele-
mentary work on engineering.

Having completed his sixteenth year, and assidiously devoted all his energy
to the investigation of the foregoing subjects, let the embryo engineer be
now placed in some first-rate manufactory, where there is a great variety of
work executed, for a space of not less than three years. We repeat, first-rate
manufactory, for as his standard of judgment of mechanical productions will
be formed in a great measure by the quality of work passing under his notice
during this time, it is proper he should connect himself with one of the
highest repute. Here he will lay up an ample store of solid information
regarding land, marine, snd locomotive engines, mill-wright work, and, in
fact, machinery in general. But this information, we can assure him, is not
to be purchased in the character of an on-looker. He must keep the same
hours as his fellow workmen (pro tempore stante) ; he must exchange his ordi-
nary attire for the fustian suit, the drawing room and easy chair for the
workshop and the vice, and go through the various gradations of the service
till he is found competent to undertake some responsible situation over the
workmen. And it is a well known fact, that it is impossible for a man to
pass a correct and conscientious opinion with regard to the execution of any
mechanical work, unless the individual in question has himself gone through
a regular system of practical application. It is true the beginner, unused to
the rough habits of a workshop, and unaccustomed to associate with such
characters of men as he finds there, will have to contend with many incon-
veniences and annoyances, but then he must make up his mind to wield the
hammer, chisel, and file, with a firm determination to overcome all diffi-
culties. "We admit it requires a strong and persevering resolution, and many
are they, beginning with a good heart but meeting with impediments at the
commencement, have shrunk from the prosecution of a course of training,
which, pursued to completion, would have amply repaid them the extra ex-
ertion due to its attainment. Locomotive building claims especial care for
its subsequent utility, and let it be a leading principle throughout the entire
course, to ascertain correctly and set a due value upon the proportionate
strength' and properties of materials in general, that the engineer may be

1 By proportionate strength we mean the relative strength the severa
parts uf any piece of mechanism should bear to one another.— Tredgold, Bar-
low, See.

able to adapt with confidence such invaluable knowledge when he ma
afier find it available. For the requisite strength is alike conducive i
metry of figure and economy of material— an intimate acquaintance with
the relative functions of the various descriptions of water wheels' is indis-
pensable to the engineer, on account of the great utility and economy of such
power in countries and districts where water abounds, and where it would be
both inconvenient and expensive to erect steam engines and their concomi-
tant paraphernalia. The foundry must likewise have its due share of im-
portance, and the student should contrive to obtain an introduction to some
large iron works. Here he could devote a short period to analyzing the
processes of smelting, puddling, casting and forging, and thus render himself
capable of passing a good judgment on the quality of m illeable anil cast iron,
when coming under his notice for engineering purpose < occasions.

Although mining engineering is reckoned a distinct branch, and requires Ion"
experience underground as a viewer to sustain any responsible situation, still
a short time passed in investigating colliery work in some well regulated
coal pit, would make the pupil acquainted with much valuable inforn
concerning pumping engines, and the general routine of the mechanical
department, as would be of material service to him. Durin- I
the manufactory, practice in drawing should be kept up by periodical visits
to the drawing office, and he should endeavour, on all occasions, to procure
for himself copies or tracings of any useful piece of mechanism, and thus, bv
carrying the principle out in time, amass a series of practical illustrations of
invaluable use in after life. Lastly, in order to render the former part of his
education ultimately serviceable, the pupil should, during the evenings after
work hours, peruse attentively such works as treat more immediately on
subjects forming the constituent elements of his profession, and for the pur-
pose of blending amusement with instruction, we could suggest reading at his
more leisure hours, and thus keep pace with the constant improvements, the
best periodicals that treat practically and theoretically of civil and mechani-
cal engineering. Having completed the first grand epoch in the probationary
regime, the pupil may easily refresh himself with the pleasing intelligence.
that the remainder of his duties are comparatively easy to the ordeal he has
already passed through. The next step is to place himself under the di-
rection of an eminent civil engineer, who has railways and other works con-
nected with this department of engineering under his superintendence in
course of construction. In this new state of things, the pupil should strive
hard to obtain some inferior, but by all means active and responsible, station,
for there never is that care and attention bestowed on any object that is
simply dependent on our own caprice. The pupil should, therefore, consider
it a matter of paramount importance to endeavour sedulously to create a
high confidence in his own and his superior's mind, that may lead, as soon
as possible, to his entrustment with some minor office, the creditable discharge
of which depends entirely on his own exertions. For confidence, let it be
understood, is the capability of expressing a decided and correct opinion with
regard to any question that may arise, and which can only be given in cases
where a. thorough comprehension by experience of the details of the point at
issue is positively entertained. With civil engineering commences a new era,
Railway making, with its surveying, levelling, cutting and embanking, bridge
building, drainage and other works, will serve to keep the mind contil
employed, in order to become well versed in all its minutiae, The building of
harbours, docks and light houses, the formation of canals, will severally
claim a proportionate degree of careful consideration. Common road-making,
warming and ventilating, general principles of carpentry and masonry, with
a train of minor but no less useful qualifications, will in due order require
each its own peculiar study : lastly a real concise method of making esti-
mates and getting up specifications for contract works, will be found of
utility ; the former can only be obtained by ascertaining on all occasions the
prices of every description of materials for engineering purposes in the
rent localities, the latter by continual reference to specifications of works
already executed. Here, then, is a broad field open to the successful practice
of acquired knowledge, whilst design and construction present favoui
opportunities for the display of any talents or ingenuity the young civj
may be fortunate enough to possess. To acquire a sound knowledge of the
strength and properties of wood, s'.onc. and iron, should be considei
matter of the utmost importance, and a few months could lie profitably passed
in an architect's office of good repute. We have mentioned the preceding
qualifications en masse, but they should be carefully and discriminate]}'
adjusted to the age, ability, and progress of the student. Let the different
subjects be presented to his notice in their most elementary shapes at the
onset, that the rudiments of one and all may be indelibly fixed on the mind ;
for then the intellectual faculties having mastered the approaches, will grasp
with a firmer hold upon maturer development the more complicated facts.
And it should not be lost sight of, that the amount of information acquired,
depends almost entirely upon the youth's own assiduity, as he will not find
persons continually at his elbow . as in the schoolroom, either urging him on
or threatening him with punishment for neglect of duty. He must see

- Smeaton's experiments.

56

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

clearly it is to his own interest to make the best possible use of his time. It
is not within the limits of an article for a Journal, to enter more fully into
detail, but we have endeavoured in as brief a manner as consistent with the
nature and magnitude of the subject, to draw the outline of a plan of edu-
cation, that from actual trial, we can seriously recommend for adoption. We
would fain conclude here, but cannot resist making a few passing remarks
on the several schools for engineers that have lately sprung into existence.
However radically good the principles and intentions of any establishment
may be, professing to teach a young man engineering, however well such
principles may be carried out and matured by able and efficient masters, they
will fall immeasurably short of their purpose, when compared with the pre-
ceding course. For it is not within the limits of a school-room education, to
convey that inestimable practical knowledge, which can only be acquired by
constant every day association with bodies of men, whose daily bread is
earned with the sweat of their brow, and who can readily and satisfactorily
explain any questions or doubts that may arise connected with their indi-
vidual trades. The latter course may, indeed, materially assist the embryo
engineer in the earlier part of his career ; but having arrived at a suitable
age, the workshop, and then the open field, from the slaking out of the rail-
way to the laying of the permanent rails, will be found far more congenial
to the spirit and practice of engineering. In conclusion, it is our decided
opinion, that an individual educated according to our method, and possessing,
in a fair degree, all the advantages arising from it, will be fully competent, at
the expiration of his articles, to undertake some responsible and remune-
rating situation ; and it is not too much to anticipate, that if he be an in-
dustrious and persevering character, he will materially benefit any works
with which he may become connected ; and with good natural talents, as-
sisted by standard ability, he may possibly shine forth a bright star in the
wide sphere of a distinguished profession ; and should he not be fortunate
enough to rival the memories of Brindlev. Smeaton, Telford, Watt, Ste-
phenson or Brunei, he may perhaps leave behind him lasting monuments of
his skill, that would do credit to his more illustrious and deservedly re-
nowed predecessors.

Now for a few words bearing on the prospects of engineering, and its
disciples. When we review the statistics of railways, and reflect upon the
enormous quantity of money (£70,000,000) expended by private individuals
on such speculations, within the limited period of railway existence— when
we consider the little return such parties have had for their invested capital
up to the present time, the heavy loans several companies have still to pay
off. notwithstanding the fallacious exhibition of prosperity, in the declaration
of a moderate dividend to the shareholders— when, moreover, we consider the
riinous s:ate of trade, the prevalence of distress, the sluggish circulation of
specie this last two or three years, caused by the diffidence of large money
holders to let it change hands— and when, lastly, we contrast the super-
abundant supply of engineering skill compared with the demand, we cannot
feel surprised taking iull cognizance of the above, and many other contin-
gent circumstances, at finding engineering in the unpromising condition it
has presented of la'e. It is now generally admitted, that profuse expendi-
ture has been the prevailing feature of railways hitherto constructed ; and it
should be the aim of future companies to complete their engagements with
as much economy as is consistent with the durability and magnitude of the
undertaking. We do not object, let it be understood, to additional expense
being bestowed on the great arteries diverging from the metropolis, for such
may be looked upon as public works, and have a reputation to hold up ; but
he' smaller veins branching from the main trunks, should be made at as
litile cost as possible. Once let a right spirit of economy be established be-
tween the directors of railways and their engineer, and we shall soon have
public confidence restored, and a new impulse given to the profession. There
are many lines that must be laid out and finished, to render the ramifications
of the system complete in England. The grand link connecting Scotland —
will there not be two?— is yet wanting in the chain. Ireland is as yet un-
touched would not a good system of internal locomotive communication go

a Ion" way to improve the civilization and better the condition of that un-
happy and distressed country? This would be, indeed, desirable, if only for
its moral and social effect. And is not her soil as capable of sustaining
rails, and yielding profit too, as any other land ? And we do think that,
could the government overcome its present difficulties, and improve the
revenue, it would do well to assist a spirited public in their meritorious
desire to form a thorough railway connection throughout the entire kingdom,
at least in such cases as presented ostensible means of remuneration for
invested capital. It is true the public were too prone to believe, at the com-
mencement of the railway mania, that in committing their money to the
coffers of the company, it was to be multiplied to the unwarrantable height
of their expectation; but their too sanguine anticipations were disappointed,
and sad experience begat caution— we hope not discouragment; for it was
not likely, upon contemplation, that an impetuous torrent, the characteristic
of early railway speculation, bursting from its source, could dash on in its
headlong course without meeting, at no very remote period, with some coun-
teracting agency— some impediment to its success.

Now, when we meditate on the crowded state of the avenues to all descrip-
tions of avocations for the last few years, we cannot feel astonished that,
upon the introduction of a comparatively new profession, as engineering'
public attention should be diverted into a fresh channel, and seize with
avidity upon one holding out such promising advantages. At this period,
too, there were comparatively very few men who had been really trained to
the profession ; numbers, however, upon ascertaining the necessary qualifi-
cations, went vigorously to work — but then time was an essential requisite
to collect materiel ; and in the interim a body of men, termed surveyors, pos-
sessing a tolerably good knowledge of their business, with a smattering of a
few properties bearing some analogy to this branch of engineering, availed
themselves of the opportunity, managed to get employed (for want of better
substitutes) in some inferior capacity at first, until gradually acquainting
themselves with a few of the details, arrogated to themselves the term of
" Civil Engineers; " and before the genuine pupil had matured his educa-
tion, these men hail obtained, and do now hold, several of the best situations
in the service. This incident will doubtless explain why there have been,
and are, so many intelligent articled pupils out of employment ; and it is a
known fact that many have left the profession, their patience quite exhausted.
Again, did the younger scion of a respectable family, in the innocence of
boyish delight, sketch anything resembling a steam-engine, the anxious
parent felt persuaded " the boy was a genius," and only required to be
educated as an engineer to develop extraordinary talent. A great number of
these geniuses, how ever, soon finding that engineering to be properly under-
stood was no easy matter, floundered on for awhile, and at length gave it up
as a hopeless business. Nevertheless there were many, having endured much
tribulation, passed the rubicon, ar,d thus swelled the numerical strength of the
profession. It would appear, therefore, from the preceding analysis, that
whilst the demand was falling off. the supply of bona fide engineers and self-
amitled adventurers were increasing in a formidable ratio. The present
aspect is, consequently, gloomy enough ; but there is this satisfaction, if it
be any, that, being at the bottom of the wheel, the next change will, in all
likelihood, brighten the prospect. Upon reviewing the system of railway
policy abroad, we cannot but advise the matured pupil to strive hard for
employment at home before seeking it elsewhere ; for Englishmen are not
treated on the continent with that good feeling and generous acknowledg-
ment of their worthiness to which they are justly entitled. There is likewise
much jealousy existing amongst the French, and it almost invariably happens
that such English engineers as have been led by promising hopes to enter
into engagements have, upon a short trial of their continental neighbours,
found their position so unpleasant as to cause resignation of office, if possible,
and in default of that, to put up with much unmerited insolence, or have
been unceremoniously discharged at the immediate expiration of the articles
of agreement, but not before their wily superiors (in office, notabilities) have
taken good care to reap a rich harvest of experimental knowledge from the
solid acquirements of their employe's. Many there are too, wearied with long
inactivity, and despairing of obtaining situations in their own country have
turned their attention to colonial prospects. But here, we fear, they will fall
far short of their expectations ; for the present condition of our colonies is
not of that settled or flourishing nature as to favour the designs of the accom-
plished engineer. The fact is, a country must be in a tolerably advanced
state of civilization— must possess extended commerce, internal trade— must
have substantial resourcesof us own, and contain a strong body of capitalists
devoted to the execution of public work, before it can be pronounced in a fit
state to admit of engineering operations with any hope of success.

It is true a few surveyors may meet with encouragement in the more recent
settlements of New Zealand and thereabouts, to head the exploring staffs in
plotting out the ground for future emigrants, and there is no doubt of the
existence of certain districts in America (especially the more southern parts)
where the mechanical department might be carried on to a very profitable
extent. But then what man is there, without some very definite plans for, and
sure prospect of speedy success, a voluntary exile from father-land, and the
comforts of home, with all its cherished attractions, could embark his living
in such truly outlandish speculations. Wiiat are we to do then, is the ge-
neral and anxious inquiry. Wait patiently, till the tide of fortune takes a
more favourable turn, which we hope is not far distant. There is much left
to be done in old England ; and could the country once again recover from
the depressed state, under which withering influence it has so long laboured,
there is no doubt that engineering, like all other avocations, will quickly re-
sume its former activity, and then every properly constituted member of the

profession will meet with his due share of employment.

An Artesian Well in the Sea.— An attempt is now being made at
Brighton, to obtain water from beneath the chalk under the sea. The ope-
rations for this purpose are being carried on at the head of the chain pier,
and it is confidently expected that the strata of chalk at this spot does not
exceed 70 feet in thickness, through which, on arriving at the green sand, a
constant unfailing supply of pure water is anticipated.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

o7

ROYAL ACADEMY.

Professor Cockerell's Lectures on Architecture.

(From the Athenceum.)

The Professor began by quoting the regulation of the Royal Academy as
to the Lectures on Architecture—"'' That the Professor shall read annually
six public lrctures, calculated to form the taste of the students, to instruct
them in the laws and principles of composition, to poiut out to them the
beauties and faults of celebrated productions, to fit them for an unprejudiced
study of hooks on the art, and for a critical examination of structures." It
is understood that these lectures were to be given by a Professor in the full
practice of his profession, according to the dictum of Vitruvius, " that it is
the union of the practice with the theory, that makes the sound architect " ;
and although he felt that it was precisely this circumstance that gave all the
value in the eyes of the students to these lectures, yet it was obvious that
in the midst of the distractions and bustle of professional practice, the Pro-
fessor laboured under great disadvantages. It was much to be desired that
the means at the disposal of the R'oyal Academy could enable it to extend
these lectures according to the model of the French Academy, which, on
architecture alone, had established five classes, each having a separate pro-
fessor,— namely, 1, Theory; 2, History; 3, Mathematics; 4, Stereotomy
and Construction (in which important class two Repet ileum were appointed) ;
5, Perspective. Such liberal instruction secured the honour of the pro-
fession, and protected the public against empirical practice; and gave the
French architects, in particular, that advantage in foreign countries, which
the unassisted genius, perseverance, and enterprise of our own countrymen
found it difficult to contend with. Aware of this mortifying inferiority in
our public education, the students would exert themselves so much the more
in their private studies to supply the deficiency, and would learn from this
well digested system the course they should pursue. This Academy had,
indeed, been founded by an illustrious prince (George III), and great were
the obligations of the arts and the public to his memory ; but the means by
which it existed were of its own creation, and those means were barely
sufficient to fulfil its engagement, to support gratuitously the only school of
art which this country possessed.

It is an axiom with the civilized nations of the Continent, that the fine
arts are eminently calculated to increase human happiness and exalt human
character, and greatly contribute to the reputation as well as the real interest
of a country, especially of a manufacturing country.

But the austere government of England makes the fine arts no part of its
glory, its policy, or of its expense. And were it not for the sympathy and
patronage of the public, even this limited institution could not exist ; nor
would the country escape the reproach of the Celestials of "outer barbarism."
The fine arts have, indeed, the countenance of the supreme head, and of
" the powers that be " — the Ministers of the day, who cannot, as gentlemen,
renounce the attribute of taste ; but they have uniformly shown by their
public conduct, that they do not consider its support amongst the people a
political duty.

It is now more than a hundred years that Thomson, the best informed
upon the arts of all our poets, indignantly remonstrated on our national
inferiority and neglect of this branch of intellectual culture, and complained
with grief, in his Ode to Liberty —

" That finer arts (save what the Muse has sung,
In daring flight above all modern .ving,)
Neglected droop their head."

Foreigners have attributed this disregard of the rulers of an ingenious and
a great people to various causes — to physical insensibility, to the sordid
nature of our commercial habits, or the adverse propensity of the Protestant
religion — to which objections the history of the ancient dynasties of this
country (never inferior in the fine arts), the abundant enthusiasm of indi-
vidual artists of our own times, and the public sympathy, are direct contra-
dictions. Finally, they have fixed the reproach on the government, by
pointing at the Schools of Design established by parliament ; for they say,
truly, that so soon as the inferiority of our design in manufactures drove us
from the foreign markets, we took the alarm, and immediately formed
schools of design, a Vinstar of those on the continent; not from a generous
love of art, but, confessedly, from the well-grounded fear of loss in trade.
The members of this Academy hailed the measure with joy, as the harbinger
of a better sense of what is due to our intellectual position in Europe, and
they have willingly given their gratuitous attention to its conduct. But the
instruction of youth must be accompanied with the higher prospect of em-
ployment and honour in national works ; and we are happy in the reflection
that the decoratiou of the parliamentary palace at Westminster, and the in-
terest taken by an illustrious personage in that great object, hold out to us
the hopes of equality at least in these noble studies with the improving
countries of the continent, and the opening of a new career for genius and
industry.

But an erroneous and mischievous scepticism as to the utility of Acade-
mies of fine art altogether, has long been fashionable, which has not, how-
ever, been applied to others, for no one has ever yet despaired because a
Newton or a Locke are not annually produced from Cambridge and Oxford ;
but of these it has been plausibly said, that no Michael Angelos, Raphaels,

or Palladios have been produced by them since their foundation in the 17th
century; it is forgotten, however, that the patronage and immense employ-
ment which elicited the talents of those masters, have also been wanting ;
and that without the field for their development, and all the expensive ma-
chinery by which they can be brought to bear, Academics can do little more
than preserve and transmit the rudiments of art.

Fleets and armies arc necessary for war, and without these the greatest
captain of his day might have been nothing more than an eminent professor
at Sandhurst.

Academies were established as depositories of learning and practice in the
fine arts, and the means of their preservation and transmission through the
vicissitudes of the times. The enlightened and commercial Colbert had seen
how in Greece and ancient Rome, and in modem Rome, under his own
countryman, the Constable Bourbon, a public calamity might disperse and
ruin them for half a century, without some fixed and corporate body and
abode. He never dreamt that, in the absence of the fostering patronage
and employment of government, the Academy could do more than fulfil these
negative objects. The Royal Academy bad done much more than this— it
had sustained the credit of the country in fine art, and had reared talents
which were now part and parcel of English history. Through good and evil
report it had nourished the flame; and it was consolatory to find that they
had transmitted it to better times, through long and adverse circumstances ;
for now they had the happiness to see two Professors in the Universities of
London, the British Institute of Architects, large public patronage in Art-
Unions, &c, and a growing interest in the Universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge towards fine art generally.

But Architecture, as a science dignified by an intimate connexion with the
exact sciences, and by her acquaintance with those eternal laws of mathe-
matics and of physics which are obeyed throughout the universe, was, in this
Academy, regarded only as a fine art, and these lectures were designed to
illustrate Architecture in that capacity alone. Dealing with the phenomena
of beauty and ideality in the form and aspect of her contrivances, she be-
comes an essential member of the fine arts, the more essential since her con-
clusions are more undefined and remote than any other branches of the fine
arts, save Poetry and Music, with whom her nearer relationship than with
painting and sculpture, is sustained by many. But in all that respects the
beauty of forms and their combinations, she must never forget her obligations
to her sisters painting and sculpture, by whose aid alone she becomes the
ars regma, and keeps in view her prototype, Nature, ever equally solicitous
of beauty and of use. And the moment she declines their counsels, her
proportions become anomalous, and she descends to the mere building art.

In Egypt, where painting and sculpture were in comparatively small es-
teem, and again in the middle ages, proportions were wholly capricious, and
subject to no order or regularity ; nor have any been ever attributed to them
even by the greatest admirers of Egyptian or Gothic architecture. On the
contrary, the Greeks, aided by the union of the three arts, soon established
that analogy with the organized productions of nature, which fixed the pro-
portions of architecture in so determinate a form as not to be safely departed
from, and which, whether in the days of Phidias, or Raphael and Michael
Angelo, or any other renowned period of art, has been approved and adopted
as just and incontrovertible.

The fulfilment of the duty of the Professor under a limited number of
lectures, had been a subject of some anxiety and difficulty. The history of
the art was the only safe foundation of the study, and had, therefore, formed
his first course. " Architecture," says Sir C. Wren, " is founded on the ex-
perience of all ages, promoted by the vast treasures of all the great monarchs,
and the skill of the greatest artists and geometricians, every one emulating
each other. And experiments in this kind being greatly expenceful and
errors incorrigible, is the reason that architecture is now rather the study o
antiquity than fancy." With respect to the duration and progress of this
art, it might he said that a hundred years were but as a day ; being made
for ages, it could not, therefore, be subjected to the vicissitudes of fashion;
and the slowness of its progress and invention ought to inspire us with
respect for antiquity and the authority of example, and to repress that pre-
sumption which too often assumes to dispense with them.

In fact, at every epoch in which the art bad raised itself to its highest concep-
tions, we find not only artists but tlieoricians, archaeologists, and historians,
occupied in describing its progress and inventions, illustrating its monuments,
and seeking out its antiquities. There are many histories of architecture more
or less complete ; Canina's work promises to supply the history of ancient archi-
tecture which Winkelmann had left very insufficient. D'Agincourt's " His-
toire de l'Art par ses Monumens" was an admirable work; it treated of the
art from its decline to its revival and restoration. Durand's " Parallel des
Edifices anciens et modemes," on the same scale, is highly illustrative of the
history of architecture.

The second course (that of last year) hail treated chiefly the literature of
the art ; following out the Academic instruction quoted above, namely, " to
tit the students for an unprejudiced study of books in the art." It had been
well said by a learned prelate, " that we do not live in an ignorant age, but
certainly not in a learned one;" and it was painful to see those authors who
had been cauoni/.ed by ages, cither attacked and discredited, a- Vitruvius, or
held to be antiquated and obsolete, as the old Italian and French authors,
and above all. the admirable Alberti, the Bacon of the art, anil otili i
greatest interest. i ■ ■ ■ isequeni was, that new lights, fashionable

conceits, and heretical opinions, were conducting us into the large ocean of
error. As well might the lawyer or the divine dispense with

8

58

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

architects. In the very dawn of literature the architect was required to he
learned. In the Memorabilia of Xenophon, Socrates inquires, " But what
employment do you intend to excel in, 0 Euthedemus, that you collect so
many books ? is it architecture ? for this art, too, you will find no little
knowledge necessary."

A familiar example of the great utility of these researches had been given
in the quotation from Philibert de l'Orme (lib. ii. c. xi.), of the specification
for concrete, written in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and corre-
sponding precisely with the recent so-called discovery of this method of
securing foundations. During the last century our architects had discon-
tinued the ancient practice, having adopted the most fallacious fashion of
wood-sleepers, to the ruin of many fine buildings. It was, then, the igno-
rance of this invaluable and most instructive and amusing author, Philibert
de l'Orme, which had led to so fatal an error.

With reference to Vitruvius, the commentators, in forty-one editions, since
his discovery in 1416, were shown to have made but slow progress, and to
have done the author but little justice ; and ever since the uncandid Schnei-
der had published his edition in 1807, ten important discoveries, illustrating
the correctness of his theories, had been made by modern travellers and
architects.

Iu the present course the Professor purposed the consideration of the
more difficult, but no less important, injunction of the Academic regulation,
" that these lectures should be calculated to form the taste of the students,
to instruct them in the laws and principles of composition, and fit tbem for
a critical examination of structures."

Those laws and principles which are technical, were often treated, and
were more obvious ; but those which constituted architecture a fine art, were
more subtle, but not less vital, to those who aspired to the higher attain-
ments of the art, namely, the sublime and beautiful. Such inquiries had
employed the most learned and ingenious minds in all ages ; and although
theories are proverbially dangerous things, and must be treated with great
caution, yet, recommended as they are by the authority of great names, thev
ought to he known and discussed'; effects attributable to right reason and
right feeling are essentially subjects of discussion, and the old proverb should
be reversed, and "De gustibus disputandum est " should apply to all those
preferences which depend on reason, and not on sexual or fanciful arbitra-
ment; and though the inquiries into the sesthetical of art, which have occu-
pied the last century particularly, fall short of the results we should desire
and expect, and that after all genius alone can rightly solve these questions,
which elude common sense, yet we may cultivate and improve our critical
powers, learn to think more accurately, and correct that colloquial laxity of
speech which refers all impressions to some cant phrase of undefined signifi-
cation, asfne and beautiful, tasteless, &c.

Such investigations afford the only means by which the principles of this
or any other art can be ascertained, and the artist can be enabled to deter-
mine whether the beauty he creates is temporary or permanent, whether
adapted to the accidental prejudices of his age or to the uniform constitution
of the human mind ; and whatever the science of criticism can afford for the
improvement or correction of taste must altogether depend upon the previous
knowledge of the nature and laws of this faculty.

In the following lectures the Professor proposes to review the examples
Cited in his former courses with reference to these important principles.

Lecture II.

, . The Professor said, that the developement of the human faculties was ex-
hibited in the history of Architecture under its most favourable aspect. The
art might be termed the epitome of of civilization, the first fruits of social
order and combination, of every discovery in science, and of every concep-
tion of beauty. Political history was of comparatively inferior interest, and
betrayed, for the most part the depravity of our species. The natural
labours of man, those of agriculture, or commerce, their unvarying succession,
brief endurance, and disappointment, leave melancholy convictions ; hut in
the occupation of architecture, man finds the employment of those higher
aspirations and idealities for which he feels himself born, as well as of his
physical energies. Here he perceives that he has a soul ; all his loftier con-
ceptions—order, calculation, beauty, and immortality— are opened to his
contemplation, and he seems to feel the power of extending his works and
his memory beyond the bounds of nature and of time.

The exhibition of these innate and physical capacities seems to be his
natural desire ; and the progress of his operations coincides with his intel-
lectual growth. In his boyhood he contends with the forces of nature j he
moulds the vast rocks, and rears on end the monolithic obelisk ; or, accumu-
lating the masses with laborious endurance in the pyramid, he emulates the
works of Nature herself; and exulting in the force of order and combina-
tion, and his acquired skill, be exclaims, with the Babvlouians, •' Go to, let
us build a city and a tower, whose top mav reach unto the heavens, and let
us make us a name." Add, although in our advanced civilization, we may
smile at the superfluity of such labours, we must not forget that by them
man first vindicated his capacities, and that metallurgy, mechanics, and all
the manual exercise and discipline whicli fulfilled his apprenticeship to civili-
zation, were brought into practice, which soon employed itself in more
intrinsic benefits. J

The age of Alexander and the Romaus abundantly illustrated this truth
Man now contends with the elements. The ocean is curbed by his ports'

and quays, and Pharos ; he sails across its bosom ; marshes are drained ;
sewers, canals, aqueducts, and roads, exhibit the mastery he had acquired,
and his conquests over nature. Frontinus, whose work on aqueducts was
written about the year 80, has a passage remarkably illustrative of the
growth of this spirit in his time. After giving a description of the nine
aqueduets under his care, brought to Rome by successive labours, making an
aggregate length of about 142 miles, he exclaims, " with so many waters,
and so many magnificent works necessary for their transport to this great
city, will you compare the idle Pyramids of Egypt, or even the inert works
of the Greeks, however celebrated and glorious in his ory ?'' The ingenuity
of the architect now, therefore, issues to use, and through 1800 years it is
more or less subordinate to it, either in the great business of religious and
moral improvement in the building of churches, or the security of civil life in
castles and mansions. Finally, in recent times, it is contracted to absolute
utilitarianism, and all its powers are bent to the perfection of the individual
dwelling between party walls, in which every subject of the state is in the
enjoyment of personal luxuries and conveniences of life unknown to the
Pharoahs, the Medici, or the magnificent Louis the Fourteenth.

Thus, as Monsieur Guizot finely observes, each age and nation seems to
have flourished for some beneficial purpose to Mankind, which, being accom-
plished, it disappears from the stage.

The history of architecture may be said to divide itself into five classes —
Sacred, Civil, Military, Domestic, and Monumental. In the accompanying
drawing (a roll about twelve feet square, containing a vast group of build-
ings inscribed within the outline of a pyramid, on a large scale) are seen in-
discriminately some of the principal monuments of all these classes (except
the military), comprising a period of 3,334 years. We may say to the
students, in the words of Napoleon to his troops, before the Pryamids of
Gizeh" Quarante siecles vous contemplent!"

This arrangement done under the Professor's direction, about twenty years
ago, appeared, he believed, for the first time in the Penny Magazine. A com-
parative view of the great buildings of the earth, on the same scale, might
minister to that false estimate of merit, which is derived from material
dimension; but that criterion would vanish before the comparison of renown;
and the Parthenon, and other small buildings, here represented, would
abundantly illustrate the preference to be awarded to

The little body, but the mighty soul.

National attachment might excuse his pointing out the spire of Old St.
Paul's, the only one exceeding the height of the Great Pyramid. Those of
Mechlin and Cologne, though designed to have exceeded it, remained imper-
fect. A limit seems to be placed to man's arrogance and vain glory. We
were taught, like the Babylonians, that the God of nature delights not in
the accumulation of his favours and his light, and isolated in single spots,
but in the wide-scattered communication of them throughout all lands.

But the observations already offered, were illustrated still further by the
sections [on a roll as large as the former, showing the structure of the most
important temples, on the same scale.] The issue of the art in use and
economy, was most remarkably shown in the comparison of those sections,
in which we observe, that St. Paul's displays the largest bulk with the least
material, hitherto contrived.

He should now call the attention of the students to two rolls [about 16
feet long each], in the first of which the plans of the remarkable temples of
the ancient world, from the Tabernacle in the Wilderness (1491 B.C.) to the
reception of Christianity (313 a.c), and in the second those from that epoch
down to 1842, were all laid down to the same scale. There was displayed,
as it were, the genealogy of temples, during 3330 years.

It was sacred architecture which he purposed to review cursorily that
evening ; and short enough was the time for a subject so deeply interesting ;
indeed, such an expression might be deemed presumptuous ; and it was obvious
that we should be enabled to do no more than pass the plans in review, and
remark upon those characteristics which became the more palpable on the
synoptic view of centuries and ideas of such extent and variety ; and which
were less frequently commented upon. It might be objected by the stu-
dents that subjects of such vast scale and importance and rare occurrence
should be illustrated, rather than the more practical ; but we should re-
member the dictum of Vitruvius, that the architect ought to pursue his
studies " maxime in sedibus Deorum, in quibus operum laudes et culpae
peternre solent permanere." In fact, the remains of these precious exemplars
of skill and cost and labour, the types of our art, were still discoverable
even from the most remote times, as if Nature herself, as well as man, had
respected them.

In approaching sacred architecture, and in discussing the technical con-
siderations of the forms and structures of temples, we cannot but bow with
respect and veneration to those motives and affections, the noblest of the
human heart, which have ever urged these sacrifices to the mercy and the
majesty of the Creator — and we recognize in the Grecian or the Druid, the
Hindoo or the Christian temple, the universal sentiment so finely expressed
in the Psalms, cxxix : —

" Lord, remember David and all his trouble !

" How he sware unto the Lord, and vowed a vow unto the mighty God of
Jacob,

" I will not come within the tabernacle of mine house, nor climb up into
my bed,

" I will not suffer mine eyes to sleep, nor mine eyelid to slumber, neither
the temples of my head to take any rest,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

59

" Until I find out a place for the temple of the Lord, an habitation for
the mighty God of Jacob."

In excavating the foundations of the temple at yEgina, the remains of
burnt woods and bones of sacrifices were discovered, mixed, no doubt, with
libations and tears and aspirations as warm as those of David ; — at Selinus
we find the steps in front of one of the temples worn down almost to an
inelined plane, by the feet of the devout. So again of the accomplishment
of these vows amongst men of all ages and nations, we shall find the most
solemn and full expression in the eighth chapter of the First Book of Kings,
the dedication of the temple by Solomon.

The resemblauce of the plan of the Tabernacle in the Wilderness, and
with its surrounding court (the first in our series, B.C. 1491), and still more,
of the temple of Solomon ; with the arrangement of the Greek and Roman
temple, down to the Antonines at the end of the second century of our era,
is very remarkable. In the first the parallelogram is preceded by a portico
of an irregular number, namely, of five columns. In the second (1012 B.C.)
we have the temple in Antis.

If we enter into particulars, we are still more struck with their corres-
pondence; we find for instance, the irregular number in the temple of Ju-
piter at Agrigentum, one of the largest and most important of antiquity:
seven columns compose the front ; and we are reminded of Solomon's
saying, (Prov. ix.) " Wisdom has builded her house, she has hewn out her
seven columns." Again, at Passtum we have a temple (miscalled a basilica)
with nine columns in the front. Other examples also might be cited.
Again, of the Temple of Solomon, that of Themis at Rhamnus, and the
frequent temple in Antis, with its pronaos and heiron, is the constant copy.
The altar of sacrifice, that of incense, the laver, the table of shew-bread,
are all traced either in existing remains, in bas-reliefs, or in medals.

The connexion of classic and sacred architecture is thus apparent ; and
the author of " The Plagiarisms of the Heathen Detected," (Mr. Wood, of
Bath,) is borne out in this comparison of the plan and arrangement of
temple architecture. The common error (and one to be carefully avoided)
is the attempt to trace this resemblance in the styles, or the ichuographic
figure of the parts and orders — the mere vesture of the scheme ; and the
failure in straining the texts and examples (Corinthian or Doric) to a perfect
correspondence, either in Wood, Villalpandus, or his learned predecessor,
Williins, has always thrown a doubt upon these interesting investigations ;
but the comparison of the plans makes the Tabernacle the type of the Greek
and Roman temple, a work which Paul as well as Moses assures us was in-
spired by the Deity, " for see, saith he, that thou make all things according
to the pattern showed thee in the mount." (Heb. viii.)

It is remarkable that the earlier or contemporary works of Egypt show no
similar arrangement ; nor was it likely that Moses should adopt and recom-
mend any form associated with Egyptian recollections. The circular form
of plan is indeed traced in Greece, and Rome more especially, and amongst
the Druids, but the most frequent by far is the parallelogram, after the
Tabernacle : in fact, the earliest inhabitants of the bordering countries were
apparently monotheists ; their connexion with the Jews through Tyre and
Sidon, their respect for a people of superior knowledge and religious in-
struction, may well have sanctified their form with them : the ritual was the
same with them ; the idol took the place of the ark ; with both, the temple
was the Domus Dei ; both were religions of sacrifice.

The ritual was thus the originator of the form of the temple, and must
always be so. The temple in Antis became (with a view to ornament, and
by the successive inventions for decorum and dignity) the prostyle, perip-
teral, dipteral, and pseudo-dipteral. The much-boasted beauty of the Greek
temple was not, then, an invention of taste, but one of ritual ; and in the
consideration of templar architecture, in all times and countries, this impor-
tant fact must be carefully bore in mind.

Another point of resemblance of classical and Jewish architecture, of
great import, since it is the hinge upon which the whole system of ancient
architecture turns, is the employment of " costly stones, even great stones,
stones of ten cubits, stones of eight cubits." Upon this practice the whole
character and taste of sacred and classical architecture depends. The tenth
book of Vitruvius treats chiefly on large stones and their transport. The
type of Domus Dei admitted of no extension ; the only mode of giving
magnificence and dignity to temples, thus circumscribed in form and compo-
sition, was by the employment of monolithic masses, and by the exquisite
detail of proportion, order, and sculpture bestowed upon them. The an-
cient world is full of examples of this remarkable principle, and the last and
most signal one is that in the temple at Balbec, by the Antonines, in which
three stoues measure, in the aggregate, upwards of 199 feet in length.

The Saviour, whose religion was soon to supersede all ancient laws, con-
stantly illustrates his arguments by this practice : " the head stone, the chief
of the corner, which the builders rejected," are his constant metaphors ;
and his prediction that of these great stones " there shall not be left one
upon another," is literally verified in the subsequent history of Architecture.
Our remarks upon the uniform arrangement of plans of Greek and Roman
temples, would be too long, and must be referred to the publications upon
them specifically ; but as brought together in this view it maj be observed,
that the temple at Ephesus, the size of which we learn alone from Pliny,
exceeds all others in dimensions, and the constant limitation of length of
the great temple to Jupiter especially (at Athens, Agrigentum, Selinus,
Balbec, and Rome) to about 358 feet in length, might lead us to suspect the
text of Pliny. Vitruvius gives us a few hints of the attachment of the an-

cients to numbers in his third book, with reference to the dimensions of
temples. The investigation of this subject might be attended with curious
results. The frequent dimension 358, by the addition of the stylobatc, or
by the local variation of the foot, may easily be supposed to refer to the
number of days in the solar year. In the Temple or the Sun at Palmyra,
the portico has 12 columns; these, added to the columns in the temple,
make 52; the whole number of columns in the surrounding peribolus, is
364. Wren seems to have had reference to this idea in his height of St.
Paul's.

The sections of Jigina, the Parthenon, and the temple at Pcestum, exhibit
the arrangement of an interior divided into a nave and two ailes, by two
rows of columns in double heights ; those of Venus and Rome, and Balbec,
exhibit the Roman form, namely, a vast vault — in these instances, upwards
of 60 feet diameter in masonry. The occupation of the whole of these in-
teriors by the idol, their employment as a vast niche to receive the god (in
ivory and gold, at Olympia and Athens), had something of monstrous, but
magnificent ; and invested with the art of Phidias, we may understand how
even the rough soldier, Paulus .Emilius, might be moved even to tears, as
we are told, in the presence of the beauty and majesty of the godhead, as
figured by that great master.

Arrived at that period (313 a.d.) in which the Christian religion was
adopted by the state, the range of temples now exhibited displays a total
reverse of the previous arrangement. The old ritual of external worship
and of sacrifice was abrogated. It was now internal and of the heart ; the por-
tions were now inclosed ; a vast area covered with a roof, of which the
basilica was the best model, constituted the Christian temple. Upon this
the cruciform was engrafted, " in hoc vince," bearing the universal symbol,
in plan as well as in every other situation. The theory of the church of
Constantine is handed down to us by Eusebius, bishop of Coesarea; he des-
cribes the church of Tyre [which the Professor exhibited! and many others
of his day, with the most interesting and instructive hints as to the signifi-
cation and arrangement of sacred edifices, which may be very profitably
consulted by the architect. The basilicas of St. Peter's and that of St.
Paul's at Rome, in the form of the Latin cross, become the types of the
Christian church throughout Western Europe, with very small variation
(until the introduction of the dome, which then only modified it), down to
the present day.

It was said that 1800 churches and religious structures were built during
the reigns of Constantine and Justinian : those of the former were in the
basilica form, which is liable to decay ; those of the latter, to which the
ritual and other important considerations gave a new form, resembled the
Greek cross of equal lengths. The transept was covered with a large dome,
and the ends of the cross with minor ones, forming a group highly favour-
able to architectural effect. This form, executed in Santa Sophia, became
the wonder of the world, and the dome also, 120 feet in diameter, exceeded
any executed since the Pantheon at Rome.

The Professor exhibited several Greek churches at Arta, Thessaloniea, and
other parts of Greece, measured by himself, as also the valuable researches
on the Greek church architecture of the sixth and seventh centuries, by M.
Couchaud, which contained many hints of great beauty and interest to the
practical architect. The churches of Russia were all upou this plan. Pro-
copius was the author, who might be consulted with reference to this era
of the art.

The dome, which had become the distinguishing feature of the Eastern
church, penetrated into Italy, under the exarchate at Ravenna, in the church
Santa Vitali, 510 a.d ; and again at Venice, in St. Mark's, built by a Greek
architect (976—1071). Until the eleventh century, the dome formed no
part of the western church, except in those instances ; it was then that the
Pisans, the richest and most commercial people of Italy, began their great
church (1063), and adorned the transept with this new feature.

The rivalry of nations is the great fulcrnm of many a noble effect, in arts
as well as politics; and to this motive chiefly, we mav attribute the bold
scheme of Arnolpho de Lapo, in the church of Santa Maria, at Florence,
founded in 1290; in which, doubtless, after the model of the Pantheon, he
proposed to place a dome, of nearly equal magnitude, over the transept, but
raised into the air in a way hitherto unattempted, except at Constantinople,
where, however, the space was one-sixth smaller. But the inveterate and
disastrous contests of these republics long deferred the execution, and it was
not till one hundred and twentv vears after, that Brunellescbi accomplished
the work, as related in the very amusing and instructive account by \asari.

It was just one hundred years after this successful work that Michael
Angelo executed the dome at St Peter's, confessedly in imitation of it, as he
told himself, in contemplating the model —
Yo far la tua sorella,
Piu grande gi;i, ma son phi bella.
In another one hundred and fiftj yeai l, we have the Domes of the lnvalidcs,
Val de Grace, at Paris, and si. Pauls, mi I ondon.

The familv of Domes concludes with that of St. Genevieve (the 1 antheon),
and, like the successor of a noble but a worn-out race, exhibits all that
meagreness and debility which precedes its extinction.

But the imitations of the types of the basilicas of St. Peter s and St. Paul s
of Rome in the north mid west of Europe,— more Rumano to the eleventh
century, from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries more Germanieo, by the
societies of freemasons,— have justly been the admiration of the world, for

60

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

their unexampled hardihood and practical science, though the remarks on
their principles of structure and of art, which the future lectures will have
occasion to otter, will show that neither the geometrician nor the scientific
architect need regret the impenetrable veil which conceals them. Any de-
tailed discussion of the merits of the plans exhibited would lead beyond the
bounds prescribed ; but we must admit that, generally, the continental plans
exceed our own in magnificence of design, especially in the double ailes and
the western fronts. To what causes may be assigned the more modest de-
sign of our own churches, except to that characteristic prudence of our
countrymen, which requires the full accomplishment of ever}' enterprise
undertaken, it may not be easy to determine ; certain it is, that all the
churches of this country are complete in their design aud features, whereas
those of the continent are very rarely so.

The words of our poet, though not always applicable to architects, unhap-
pily, may be so to our pastors and masters.

When we mean to build, we first survey the plot,
Then draw the model : which if we find exceeds ability,
What do we then, but draw anew the model in fewer offices.

Consult surveyors, know our own estate,

How able such a work to undergo.

Or else we build like those, who half thro' give o'er,

And leave their part created cost

A naked subject to the watery clouds,

And waste for churlish Winter's tyranny.

With reference to the gradual verticality which the sections of this series
of ancient and modern temples assumed, we might say, that the earliest were
of the earth earthy, and the latter as sublime as the religion for which they
were designed. Thus, the height of the Pantheon, at Rome, was equal to its
diameter, or as 10 to 10 ; that of Venus, and Rome, was as 12A to 10 ; that
of the Baths of Caracalla, as 14 to 10; of St. Peter's, at Rome,~as 17 to 10;
of St. Paul's, London, 20 to 10, as also of Lincoln ; and that of Cologne was
as 34 to 10.

The last great temple of Christendom, was the Magdalene Church at Paris ;
it is 325 feet long by 136 feet wide and 120 feet high, and equalled the
smaller temple at Balbec. It was the work of more than half a century.
In England, great activity had been used in church-building during the last
twenty-five years, but the warmest admirers of those zealous efforts could
never pretend that any regulated architectural spirit has directed those
works. No church of a monumental character had been attempted. The
ascendancy of the high church party is, however, favourable to our art, and
it is not unlikely, that under good direction, it may flourish in a few years.
But there is much pedantry abroad, and an absence of all originality aud
intrinsic character in the taste of the day, which leans to the Roman Catholic
form, the basilica, suited to a demonstrative form of worship, rather than the
auditorium required by our ritual. Veneration for antiquity is to be respected
and encouraged, but its transition to superstition is easy. The divines of
10S0 have left us models, erected under the direction of Sir C. Wren, which
have not been surpassed. Seven of the city churches were exhibited (mea-
sured by the Professor), which would be found as remarkable for their
adaptation to our form of worship — offering the largest area, with the
smallest obstruction to the sight and hearing, — as they were ingenious and
admirable in taste and structure.

The favourite design of Sir C. Wren (laid down from the model now in
St. Paul's,) was also exhibited. It was a precious legacy to posterity, which
had never been surpassed in architectural beauty and arrangement, for the
Anglo-Protestant Cathedral church, and would probably at some future time
be executed.

But attachment to our national architecture may be indulged with great
propriety by the adoption of the forms of the Lady Chapels, modified and
suited to our ritual — as those of Wells, Ely, and others; or of the chapter,
houses; and the Greek church. The basilica form requires length rinsuited
to our services, and the fragments or curtailed portions of that form, often
practised with small success in our recent churches, seems to point at the
greater advantage of the vertical arrangement, which the models, the Pro-
fessor ventured to suggest, in the churches of Wren, and the examples
quoted, would assure to us.

THE METROPOLITAN PAVING ACT.

Ax important case came before Mr. Hardwick at the Marlborough Police
Office, on the 24th of December last, arising out of a dispute between the
Equitable Gas Company and the Commissioners of Paving for the parish of
St. James's, Westminster, as to whether the Equitable Gas Company had or
had not the right of breaking up the street and afterwards lav down a service
pipe " without the consent of the Paving Board." After hearing both
parties, the Magistrate adjourned the case for consideration until Thursday,
January 5th, when it was again heard for final adjudication.

Mr. Smith, solicitor, attended on behalf of the Paving Commissioners,
and Mr. Clarkson, the barrister, for the Equitable Gas Company.

Mr. Hardwick read the following as his opinion :— This is a complaint bv
the Board of Pavements, in the Parish of St. James, against the Equitable
Gas light Company, for breaking and taking up the pavement in their juris-
diction for the purpose of laying down a new pipe without the consent of

the board. The answer of the Gas Company is, that it being a service pipe
and not a main pipe, a notice only and not the consent of the board is re-
quired. The clauses which gave rise to the disputed point are in the 11th
section of the 57th George III, cap. 29. Abridged they stand thus — "No
water or gas light company shall break or take up the pavement in any street
for the purpose of laying down any main or mains of pipes, unless notice in
writing be given to the surveyor of pavements three days previous to such
breaking up," &c. So far water and gas companies are placed upon the
same footing ; but in the next clause a further restriction is imposed on gas
companies. By it no gas company can take or break up any pavement for
the purpose of laying down any new mains or pipes without the consent in
writing of the Board of Pavement. When my attention was first called to
this clause, my impression was, that being, as it then seemed to me, in the
disjunctive, the word "pipes" must be taken to include pipes of every
description, and that the Board of Pavement was right in their view of the
case. But on a more attentive perusal of this section, and especially of the
following one, that impression has been much removed ; and I am now in-
clined to think that the perplexity in this matter has arisen from an ambi-
guous use of terms, from using different expressions to signify one and the
same thing; for example: — In the beginning of the 12th section, which di-
rects of what materials mains should be, the language there used is worthy
of observation. " That all new or complete mains, or pipes laid down in any
street by any water or gas company, whether such new or complete main of
pipes shall or shall not be substituted for, or added to, any other complete
main or mains of pipes, shall be of iron alone." Here in these few lines we
have three different expressions — mains, or pipes, main of pipes, and main
or mains of pipes, all signifying one and the same thing — the main pipe. In
the next clause separate and distinct mention is made of service-pipes, which
may be either of iron or lead, or other durable material ; from which I am
induced to infer that, possibly, " or " is a typographical error for " of," or at
any rate it is to be taken in a disjunctive sense, but, as it is frequently used,
expressing an alternative of terms, a definition or explanation of the same
thing in different words. Thus " main " being purely a technical word of
the most comprehensive signification, the terms "pipes" and "mains of
pipes" have been added and used as an alternative term to give it a clearer
and more definite meaning for the purposes of this act, and therefore the
expression " mains or pipes," in the clause under discussion, may not un-
fairly be read as synonymous with " mains of pipes," or pipes forming the
main. If this should be the right view of the case, the complaint must be
dismissed ; as the pipe in question laid down is a service, not a main pipe,
it requires notice only, not the consent of the board.

Mr. Smith argued that the 11th section of the act of Parliament related
both to main and service pipes, whether they were for gas or water com-
panies.

Mr. Hardwick said this question only applied to mains.
After a long discussion, Mr. Hardwick said he still adhered to the con-
clusion he had just read.

Mr. Smith observed, that unless there was a conviction before the magis-
trate, he had no power of appeal.

Mr. Hardwick said the proper court of tribunal was the Court of Queen's
Bench.

Mr. Clarkson had waited very patiently while this discussion was going
on. He was, however, very much surprised to hear [that Mr. Smith had
displayed so much ignorance with relation to the decision of those whom he
(Mr. Clarkson) was proud to call his learned friends — viz., the present At-
torney-General (Sir F. Pollock), or former Attorney-General (Lord Camp-
bell), Mr. Adolphus, and another learned friend, all of whom had given
opinions quite contrary to that which Mr. Smith now stood upon. He con-
tended that the mains having been laid down at the house of any person
applying, common law and common seuse gave him the power, which the
law of England gave every man, of having his own subsoil opened. He did
not know whether it was, as the worthy magistrate had observed, a typo-
graphical mistake in the act of Parliament in substituting " or " for " of," or
one of those tinkerings which he had so frequently observed in the ma-
chinery of acts of Parliament, but he must say the act was most defective.
It was wind without sense ; sometimes the word " mains " was used, and
sometimes "pipes;" they were " ejusdem generis." What a state of things
it would be, if a collector was to come to a person who wished his gas to be
laid on in the front of his house, and say he did not like his look ; or, if
another was to be asked to lay on the water, to say he did not admire his
politics. Would such proceedings be tolerated ? He was certain not. The
tenant, the drains having been laid down, had a right to open the subsoil,
and in his opinion he was fortified by the opinions of the eminent legal au-
thorities he had mentioned. A similar case had been argued before Mr.
Long by himself and bis learned friend Mr. Bodkin, and the learned magis-
trate had, in that case, decided, notwithstanding all his learned friend's ar-
guments, against him and the parochial commissioner.

A discussion was here raised between Messrs. Clarkson and Smith, as to
whether or not notice had been given on the 11th of May by one of the
inspectors of the gas company of his intention to open the street; Mr.
Clarkson denied that such notice had ever been given.

Mr. Hardwick considered that, by the arguments which had been brought
before him, and also by his own previously written opinion, the gas company
were authorized to open the ground for service-pipes : the complaint was
therefore dismissed.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

61

REVIEWS.

An Encyclopedia of Architecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Prac-
tical. By Joseph Gwilt. Illustrated by more than 1000 engrav-
ings on wood. In one thick volume, Svo., 1080 pp. London, 1842.
Longman & Co.

SECOND NOTICE.

We may resume our notice of this work, by remarking that Mr.
Gwilt indulges almost quite as much in criticism upon "critics," as
upon buildings, and that as regards the former, he is apt to express
himself with a degree of spleen against the whole race, that amounts
to want of temper, and which certainly is not calculated to obtain for
him their good word. Nevertheless, his present work has obtained
unqualified, not to call it outrageous praise, from some of them ; viz.,
those who write for newspapers, and in whose favour he is henceforth
bound to make an exception. Most good-natured they certainly must
be allowed to have shown themselves — that is, supposing they looked
far enough into his book to meet with some of the ungracious re-
flections he has thrown out upon the fraternity of reviewers. Al-
though not very thin-skinned ourselves, nor disposed to vindicate the
pretensions of all our reviewing brethren, we must say, that Mr. Gwilt
carries his hostility too far. He takes it for granted, that none of
those who write upon architectural subjects in literary journals, are
professional men, or if not belonging to the profession, can have qual-
fied themselves by study, for the task they venture upon. Were the
" catalogue of works on architecture," which he has given in his En-
cyclopaedia, what it ought to be, it would contain many, and those not
the least interesting or valuable of all, for which we are indebted to
the studies of those whom Mr. G. would have us regard as little
better than intruders and pretenders — persons who just know enough
of the subject to assume a tone of authority, and mislead others.
Since he has not thought proper to insert in that " Catalogue," such
works as Hope's History of Architecture, Parker's Glossary, (now
considered as a sort of authority,) and the publications of Rickman,
Whewell, and Willis — not to mention others, which he has omitted;
we must suppose that he estimates them not at all higher than the ef-
fusions of anonymous scribblers and reviewers, although they have ob-
tained some character not only with the public, but with the profes-
sion also. What may be his standard of merit— where he has drawn
the line between works that are, and those which are not worthy of
being recommended to the student, we are unable to say, for he seems
to be just as over-liberal and indulgent in some instances, as he is
vigorous in others. Among the publications enumerated under the
head of modern English architecture, we do not find the " Public
Buildings of London," or Malton's "Picturesque Tour," which last,
though not professedly architectural, as it contains only views, is an
exceedingly interesting graphic work. Neither are Robert Adam's
designs there mentioned, although those of James Lewis, a far less
distinguished architect, are. Neither is Barry's "Traveller's Club
House" inserted, notwithstanding that both the building itself is con-
sidered a tolerably favourable specimen of English architecture at the
present day, and is more fully illustrated than almost any other indi-
vidual edifice, exceping Holkham.

That these remarks are rather ungracious, and not likely to prove
altogether palatable to Mr. Gwilt, we do not deny ; but many of his
own remarks are so exceedingly ungracious and illiberal, that he has
do right to look for much forbearance on the part of others. Even
while we are willing to give him credit for having the interests of ar-
chitecture at heart, we think he has altogether mistaken the way in
which they are to be promoted. Instead of expressing any satisfaction
at finding that architecture now begins to excite far more attention
than it used to do, he takes no pains to conceal his disapprobation of
its being taken up as a mere pursuit, by those who do not apply to it
professionally; which is almost tantamount to saying, that those who
have a taste for the study, have no right to indulge in it, and to ac-
quire that knowledge of the art, which is indispensably requisite, if
they would really enjoy it, and become capable of judging of its pro-
ductions : — which is certainly strange doctrine, and is so completely
contrary to all views of sound policy, that, never, it is to be hoped,
will it be adopted. Of that, however, we have little apprehension ;
were it ever so desirable, it is now too late to attempt to check what
is, if not a vapidly advancing, a widely spreading taste. Far more
reason is there to apprehend that the prejudices to which Mr. G. has
given way, will raise up some prejudice against his own book : at
all events, they are not calculated to obtain him good-will. And
though on our own part we might have abstained from adverting to
this characteristic of his Encyclopaedia, we should have felt that by so

doing, we were deserting the cause of architecture and its friends,
and by our acquiescent silence, abandon manv who have rendered im-
portant services to that cause, to the odium attempted to be thrown
upon them by Mr. Gwilt.

To return to the volume itself: the more popular portion of it,
namely, the historical, is by no means so full as it ought to be, and
might have been, had space been obtained for that purpose, by omit-
ing elsewhere a great deal of matter which there was' not the least
occasion to introduce at all. Of the architecture of many parts of
the Continent, we meet with only hasty sketches, without any spe-
cimens of their buildings; and even the historv (if Italian architec-
ture is cut short very abruptly, being brought down onlv to the be-
ginning of the 17th century, as if the following and the present one
had produced nothing of the least note. Yet some mention of Cal-
derar and his works, if of no one else, might have been expected,
from a professed admirer of the Palladian school, as Mr. G.

Of a work of this nature, it is hardly possible to convey a suitable
idea by extracts or detached passages; nevertheless, we give those in
which the characteristics of the Florentine, Roman, and Venetian
schools are spoken of, and respectively illustrated by an example.

" Florentine School. — Climate and the habits of a people are the principal
agents in creating real style in architecture ; but these are in a great mea-
sure controlled, or it is perhaps more correct to say modified, by the mate-
rials which a country supplies. Often, indeed, these latter restrict the ar-
chitect, and influence the lightness or massiveness of the style he adopts.
The quarries of Tuscany furnish very large blocks of stone, lying so close
to the surface that they are without other difficulty than that of carriage
obtained, and removed to the spots where they are wanted. This is probably
a circumstance which will account for the solidity, monotony, and solem-
nity which are such commanding features in the Florentine school ; and
which, if we mayjudge from the colossal ruins still existing, similarly prevailed
in the buildings of ancient Etruria. In later times another cause contri-
buted to the continuation of the practice, and that was the necessity of af-
fording places of defence for the upper ranks of society in a state where in-
surrection continually occurred. Thus the palaces of the Medici, of the
Pitti, of the Strozzi, and of other families, served almost equally for for-
tresses as for palaces. The style seems to have interdicted the use of co-
lumns in the facade, and on this account the stupendous cornices that were
used seem actually necessary for the purpose of imparting grandeur to the
composition. In the best and most celebrated examples of their palaces,
such as the Strozzi, Pandolfini, and others in Florence, and the Picolomini
palace at Sienna, the cornices are proportioned to the whole height of the
building considered as an order, notwithstanding the horizontal subdivisions
and small interposed cornices that are practised between the base and the
crowning member. The courts of these palaces are usually surrounded by
columns and arcades, and their interior is scarcely ever indicated by the ex-
ternal distribution. From among the extraordinary palaces with which Flo-
rence abounds, we place before the reader the exquisite facade of the Pan-
dolfini palace, the design whereof (Fig. 1,) is attributed to the divine Raf-

Fig. 1

PANnOI-FINl PALACE.

faelle d'Urbino. In it almost all the requisites of street architecture are dis-
played. It is an example wherein the principles of that style arc so ad-
mirably developed, as to induce us to recommend it, in conjunction with the
facade of the Farnese palace hereafter given, to the elaborate study of the
young architect.

'• Roman School. — Though the city of Rome, during the period of the rise
and progress of the Roman school of architecture, was not altogether free-
from insurrectionary troubles, its palatial style is far less massive than that
of Florence. None of its buildings present the fortress-like appearance of
those in the last-named city. Indeed, the Roman palaces, from their grace
and lightness, indicate, on the part of the people, habits of a much more
pacific nature, and an advancing state of the art, arising from a more inti-
mate acquaintance with the models of antiquity which were on every side.
The introductions of columns becomes a favourite and pleasing feature, and
great care and study appear to have been constantly bestowed on the facades

62

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

of their buildings : so much so, indeed, iu many, that they are hut masks to
indifferent interiors. In them the entrance becoai ee a principal object ; and

though in a great number of cases the abuses which enter into its composi-
tion are manifold, yet the general effect is usually successful. The courts in
these palaces are most frequently surrounded with arcades, whence a stair-
case of considerable dimensions leads to the sala or principal room of the
palace. The general character is that of grandeur, but devoid altogether of
the severity which so 6trongly marks the Florentine school. The noblest
example of a palace in the world is that of the Farnese family at Rome.

" The palaces of Rome are among the finest architectural works in Europe ;
and of those in Rome, as we have before observed, none equals the Farnese,
whose facade is given in Fig. 3. 169. " Ce vaste palais Farnese, qui a tout
prendre, pour la grandeur de la masse, la regnlarite de son ensemble, et l'ex-
cellence de son architecture, a tenu jusqu'ici, dans l'opinion des artistes, le
premier rang entre tous les palais qu'on renomme,"is the general description
of it by De Quincy, upon whom we have drawn largely, and must continue
to do so. This edifice, by San Gallo, forms a qnadrangle of 256 feet by 185
feet. It is constructed of brick, with the exception of the dressings of the
doors and windows, the quoins of the fronts, and the entablature and loggia
in the Strada Giulia, which are of travertine stone. Of the same stone,
beautifully wrought, is the interior of the court. The building consists of
three stories, including that on the ground, which, in the elevations or fa-
cades, are separated by impost cornices. The only break in its symmetry
and simplicity occurs in the loggia, placed in the centre of the first story,
which connects the windows on each side of it by four columns. On the
ground story the windows are decorated with square-headed dressings of ex-
tremely simple design ; in the next story they are flanked by columns, whose
entablatures are crowned alternately with triangular and circular pediments ;
and in the third story are circular-headed windows, crowned throughout
with triangular pediments. The taste in which these last is composed, is
not so good as the rest, though they were probably the work of Michael
Angelo, of whose cornice to the edifice Vasari observes: — " E stupendissimo
il corniccione[maggiore del medesimo palazzo ncllafacciatadinanzi.non si po-
tendo alcuna cosa ne piii bella ne pin magnified desiderare." The facade towards
the Strada Giulia is different from the other fronts in the centre only, wherein
there are three stories of arcades to the loggia, each of whose piers are deco-
rated with columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders in the respective
stories as they rise, and these in form and dimensions correspond with the
three ranks of arcades towards the court. It appears probable that this central
arrangement was not in the original design of San Gallo, but introduced when
the third story was completed. Magnificent as, from its simplicity and sym-
metry, is the exterior of this palace, which, as De Quincy observes : — " est un
edifice tonjours digne d'etre le sejour d'un prince," yet does it not exceed the
beauty of the interior. The quadrangle of the court is 88 feet square between
the columns of the arcades, and is composed with three stories, in which the
central arrangement above mentioned towards the Villa Giulia is repeated on
the two lower stories, over the upper whereof is a solid wall pierced in the

theatres and amphitheatres ; and in its application at the Farnese palace
rivals in beauty all that antiquity makes us in its remains acquainted with.
San Gallo, its architect, died in 1540."

The Venetian school is spoken of at much greater length than the
others, and is, in our opinion, not a little over rated; tor when we
come to examine some of its most noted productions, we find them to
be made up of insignifioant parts, and petty orders treated in a
formal, dry, and meagre manner, without any of that richness, or of
that artist-like freedom, Which would reconcile us to the orders
being employed merely in half-columns and pilasters, as decorated to
one or more stories of a building.

" The Venetian School is characterised by its lightness and elegance ; by
the convenient distribution it displays; and by the abundant, perhaps exu-
berant, use of columns, pilasters, and arcades, which enter into its compo-
sition. Like its sister school of painting, its address is more to the senses
than is the case with those we have just quitted. We have already given an
account of the church of St. Mark, in the 12th century; from which period,
as the republic rose into importance by its arms and commerce, its arts were
destined to an equally brilliant career. The possession in its provinces of
some fine monuments of antiquity, as well as its early acquaintance with
Greece, would, of course, work beneficially for the advancement of its ar-
chitecture. That species of luxury, the natural result of a desire on the
part of individuals to perpetuate their names through the medium of their
habitations, though not productive of works on a grand or monumental
scale, leads, in a democracy (as were the states of Venice), to a very general
display of moderately splendid and elegant palaces. Hence the extraor-
dinary number of specimens of the building art supplied by the Venetian
school.

" San Micheli, who was born in 1484, may, with propriety, be called its
founder. Having visited Rome at the early age of 16, for the purpose of
studying its ancient monuments of art, and having in that city found much
employment, be, after many years of absence, returned to his native country.
The mode in which he combined pure and beautiful architecture with the
requisites called for in fortifications may be seen displayed to great advantage
at Verona, in which city the Porta cM Pallia is an instance of his wonderful
ingenuity and taste. But his most admired works are his palaces at
Verona ; though, perhaps, that of the Grimani family at Venice is his most
magnificent production. The general style of composition, very different
from that of the palaces of Florence and Rome, is marked by the use of a
basement of rustic work, wherefrom an order rises, often with arched win-
dows, in which he greatly delighted, and these were connected with the

Fig. 1. far;

windows. The piers of the lower arcade are ornamented with Doric,
columns, whose entablature is charged with triglyphs in its frieze, aim
its metopa; are sculptured with various symbols. The impost of the piers
are very finely profiled, so as to form the entablatures, when continued, over
the columns of the entrance vestibule. In the Ionic arcade, over this, the
frieze of the order is decorated with a series of festoons. The distribution of
the different apartments and passage is well contrived. All about the
building is on a scale of great grandeur. Though long unoccupied, and a
large portion of its internal ornaments has disappeared, it still commands
our admiration in the Carracci Gallery, which has continued to serve as a
model for all subsequent works of the kind. The architecture of the Far-
nese palace, more especially as respects the arcades of its court, is the most
perfect adaptation of ancient arrangement to more modern habits that has
ever been designed. We here allude, more particularly, to the arcades, upon
whose piers orders of columns are introduced. This species of composition,
heavier, doubtless, less elegant, yet more solid than simple colonnades, is, on
the last account, preferable to them, where several stories rise above one
another. The idea was, certainly, conceived from the practice in the ancient

order after the manner of an arcade, the whole being crowned with the
proper entablature. As an example, we give in Fig. 3, the facade of the
Pompei palace at Verona. The genius of ian Micheli was of the very highest
order ; his works are as conspicuous for excellent construction as they are
for convenience, unity, harmony, and simplicity, which threw into shade the
minor abuses occasionally found in them. If he had no other testimony, it
would be sufficient to say, that for his talents he was held to be in great
esteem by Michael Angelo ; and our advice to the student would be to study
his works with diligence. San Micheli devoted himself with great ardour to
the practice of military architecture ; and though the invention was not for a
long time afterwards assigned to him, he was the author of the system used
by Vauban and his school, who, for a long period, deprived him of the credit
of it. Before him all the ramparts of a fortification were round or square.
lie introduced a new method, inventing the triangular and pentangular
bastion, with plain fosses, flanks and square bases, which doubled the sup-
port ; he moreover not only flanked the curtain, but all the fosse to the next
bastion, the covered way, and glacis. The mystery of this art consisted in
defending every part of the inclosure by the flank of a bastion ; hence, mak-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

(53

ing it round and squire, the front of it, that is, the space which remains in
the triangle, which was hefore undefended, was by San Micbeli provided
against.

In this example of San Micheli's style, the Palazzo Pompei at Ve-
rona, the basement is the best part of the composition, for the order
is too small in proportion to the rest, and the openings on the prin-
cipal floor as much too large, at least as windows, for the piers be-
tween them must be most inconveniently narrow within. It is rather
singular, that while he was upon the subject of Italian architecture,
Mr. Guilt should not have alluded to the recent introduction of the
palaszo style, in this country. As an example of it, he gives the
facade of ihe Palazzo Pandoltini at Florence, strongly recommending
that and the Palazzo Farnese, to the " elaborate study of the young
architect," but without informing him, that by going into Pall Mall,
he would perceive what use had been made both of the one and the
other, by Mr. Barry, in the two adjoining club houses — the Travellers
and the Reform. Though neither copies nor even imitations— in the
ordinary meaning of the term, they are evidently borrowed from those
prototypes, which in point of mere taste, are there improved upon
and refined. The Reform Club House has been spoken of, by some,
as being a direct copy of the Farnese; with what justice or judgment,
may be seen from the above representation of the latter, which though
too small to do more than afford an idea of the general composition,
shows the manner in which the entrance and window on each side
of it are squeezed together, produces anything but an agreeable
effect; while the centre window above, exceptionable in character
at the best, is, so introduced as to constitute a striking blemish in the
■whole design.

We must now take leave of Mr. Gwilt's work, which we should
have been happy to have been able to speak of in less qualified
terms of approbation. It contains a great deal of valuable, but not
so much fresh matter as it might have done ; but it also contains
many opinions which we should be the last to support, and which are
not likely to gain ground with the public, at the present day. We
cannot, however, conclude, without expressing our high approbation
of the spirited manner with which the publishers have got up the
work, both in the typography and illustrations ; the latter are beauti-
fully executed as wood, or may be seen by the above specimens,
which we have been permitted to select from the work.

Ensamples of Railway making; which, although not of English prac-
tice, are submitted, with Practical Illimrations to the Civil Engineer,
and ihe British and Irish public. London : Architectural Library,
59, High Holborn.

The great disparity between the cost of railways in this country
and that of similar works in America, is worthy at the present time of
giving rise to some important considerations. Whilst on this side of
the Atlantic, our main lines of railway have been constructed of ma-
terials extremely durable, in a manner remarkable for strength and
solidity, and according to a standard of excellence with respect to
gradients, which far surpasses any thing that has been attempted
under like circumstances in other countries, the policy of absorbing
such vast sums of money as have been required to effect all this is at
least open to controversy. Hitherto every thing has been done in
accordance with our national character, and never has that spirit of
energy and industry which marks the Briton under every varying cir-
cumstance of time and distance, been more proudly exhibited than in
the bold and ardent expedition with which the surface of his country
was chequered by a net work of great commercial highways, con-
structed in almost every respect on principles the very antipodes of
those which have guided other nations in their imitation of the same
spirit. Seizing at once upon the experimental fact, that the friction
of iron wheels upon iron roads is incomparably smaller than upon roads
of stone, and connecting this with the no less certain truth, that re-
sistance to motion is made up of friction and gravitv, the English
engineer conceived the grand idea of almost annihilating gravity by
reducing the track of the railway to nearly a perfect level. It was
demonstrable that the same absolute power which could impel a given
weight on a common road at 10 miles an hour, would, on a level rail-
way, impel five times that weight at treble the velocity, and it was
further unquestionable that an inclination greater than I in 224 would
at least double the power required to effect this, and thus diminish
the superiority of the railway by one half. If a horizontal railway be
compared with a horizontal common road, the superiority of the
former over the latter is as 15 to 1 ; but if a railway inclining 1 in 30
be compared with a common road also inclining 1 in 30, its superiority

in this case is only as U to 1. Following out the principle of which
these are illustrations, it is no less obvious now than it was in the ori-
gin of railways, that the more nearly the planes of a railway approach
to a level, the more superiority will they present over the common
road. It was this principle which demanded in the name alike, of
science and of commerce, that in the track of the railway every moun-
tain should be brought low, and every valley should be rilled up : it
was this which caused the transport of vast masses of earth from the
higher to the lower parts of the country, which forced the deep exca-
vation, reared the lofty embankment, bored the yawning tunic
dealt with all the most solid materials of earth, as il they hail been
the playthings of a baby's doll-house, instead of fabrics which require
to be encountered by the sinews of hosts and the wealth ol nations.

For, acting on principles which appeared to.be sani tioned by every
maxim of wisdom and experience, who can blame, with any >how of
reason, the engineers of this country, to whom the world is so much
indebted, ],o less in the early origin, than during tin' steady progress
of railway engineering. Fifteen years ago, when railway sciem
in its infancy, no voice was raised in opposition to the principle of
almost horizontal gradients, and the necessity for those gigantic works
which this principle demanded was as heartily acquiesced in by di-
rectors, by shareholders, and by the whole public, as by the engineers
themselves. Nay, had it been otherwise — had the engineers stood
alone in support of their principle — had the public voice been against
them — and had the public press branded their projects as extravagant
and wasteful, we are amongst the number of those who contend that
they would still have done right to maintain their principle, and we
should have applauded and admired them the more for carrying, in
the first instance, a superior degree of excellence into those works
which were destined to furnish an example to the whole civilized
world. We confidently appeal to any competent judge, who, tho-
roughly understanding the mechanical and political distinctions be-
tween the railway and the common road, shall fairly and dispassionately
review the circumstances of this country, whether we should have
done well or wisely to adopt a less horizontal succession of planes for
those main lines which are probably destined to endure for ages, as
the great arteries through which commerce will ramify into a thou-
sand inferior channels all over the face of the country. While we
thus regard with great satisfaction the superior character with respect
to gradients which has been adopted for all the great railways of this
country, there is yet another element in their construction, which,
while it influences in no degree whatever the facilities for locomotion,
yet contrasts remarkably in point of expense with corresponding
works on the American lines. We shall readily be understood here
as referring to those costly bridges and viaducts of iron, brick and
stone, which have so enormously swelled the estimates for executing
our principal railways. To decide upon the kind of gradients to be
adopted for a given line of railway — a decision which regulates, more
than any thing else, the cost of its construction — required, in the first
instance, only a knowledge of simple principles, and in the absence of
that experience which later years have supplied with respect to the
comparative expense of working lines with steep and with level gra-
dients, our engineers acted in a spirit of perfectly sound wisdom,
when they laid the greatest practicable tax upon capital for the pur-
pose of enabling the nation to realize, in its full extent, the superior
advantages of railway transit. But in deciding on the style and cha-
racter of the attendant works, which are entirely independent of the
surface of the railway, the question assumes a purely commercial
aspect, and may be thus stated: Suppose a line of railway with the
most complete 'and substantial works of masonry, to have cost, say,
one million of money, and suppose the same line could have been
constructed with a more perishable class of works, as tor instance,
bridges and viaducts of timber, at an expense of half this sum, which
kind of work is it most judicious to adopt, having regard to the cir-
cumstance, that after the lapse of a certain number of years the con-
structions of timber will require to be renewed, whilst those of ma-
sonry would require onlv very trifling repairs. Suppose in the former
case, where the railway had cost a million sterling, the interest de-
rived from the expended capital would amount to i per cent per an-
num. It is clear that in the latter case, where the line only cost half
a million, the interest derivable on the capifal would be 10 per cent.
Now supposing 5 per cent of this to be set aside as a reserved fund,
would the works of timber last so long a time as not to require
restoration, until the reserved fund had sufficiently accumulated to
effect this restoration? This is the grand point which should de-
cide between the adoption of timber, or a more expensu e and durable
material for the architectural works of railways. We are not here
to be understood, for one moment, as contending that any such pro-
portion, as that which has been assumed, exists between the cost > f a
railway with stone bridges and viaducts and one iu which their works

64

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

are of wood. What we have said, however, will be sufficient to in-
dicate the general principle of the comparison, and the utmost con-
cession we are prepared at present to make to the champions of
cheap and therefore temporary railways, is this, that the comparative
cost and the comparative durability of the two classes of works are,
in all cases, worthy of being considered by the engineer in connexion
with the estimated amount of revenue derivable from anv given line.

We are aware that, in all this, we are stating nothing new to the en-
gineer; nothing but what has already occurred to most of the leading
members in the profession, and nothing but what will be extensivelv
practised, in laying out the numerous branch railways, which the con-
venience of the country still requires. Our object in making these
observations, will be amply fulfilled, if they succeed, in disabusing
some part of the public mind, of the notion, that the costly stations
and bridges and viaducts are all that distinguish our railways from
those of Europe and of America. It should be remembered, that the
much larger capital expended on our works has effected a system of
levels, which enables us to command far higher speeds, and to realize,
in every way, greater advantages from the railway, as compared with
the common road. In every case where it is desired to take a compre-
hensive view of railways, as a political question, it is essential to
distinguish between that part of the cost which is due to the superior
character of the buildings connected with the railway, and that which
is incurred in conformity with principles immediately connected with
the facilities for working locomotive power. On the former of these
points, we grant, that a statesman, a merchant, or a financier of any
kind, may form a competent judgment, with proper data before him.
On the latter, the only qualified judge is the engineer, because a de-
cision must in most cases be made with reference to the future, and
particularly with reference to the future auspices of engineering and
mechanical skill. Thus, in the origin of railways, the engineer alone
was qualified to chalk out a system of gradients which should corres-
pond with the known properties of the locomotive engine, and of iron
as a material for the wheels of carriages to roll upon — so in like
manner Mr. Brunei, or those of like qualifications, are alone entitled
to consideration in deciding such a question as that of the gauge to
be adopted for the Great Western Railway, because the accuracy of
the decision depended upon the truth or error of certain prognostica-
tions in physical science, which a mere financier, however able, is not
competent to entertain. The engineer, in fact, must regulate his
operations, both by past experience and by anticipations of the
future ; to what extent these latter arc or should be based upoD, the
former depends on many circumstances, but to some important extent,
all will admit, that the past should influence our future projects of
every kind. It would, therefore, be highly desirable at the present
time, that accurate and comprehensive returns should be framed of
the actual working cost of locomotive power on all railways of every
different rate of inclination, in order that a correct judgment may
be formed upon the influence which gradients really exert in affecting
the working expenses of railways. Thus would information of great
value be placed at the engineer's command j but until sufficient data
have been obtained to clear this subject of the obscurity which now
rests upon it, we certainly must protest against the blind and whole-
sale jumbling which has been perpetrated by some who profess to be
authorities on the subject of railway estimates. We insist, most
strongly, upon the necessity for separating the cost of attendant
works from those which have been rendered essential purely by the
character of the gradients adopted ; and we warn all those, who,
without any engineering knowledge to guide them, shall be rash
enough to commit themselves to paper, on subjects of this nature,
that the less they have to do with the engineering part of the subject
the better. The attendant works, as we have said, involve more or
less of commercial considerations, and these should therefore be free
for discussion; and anything possessing novelty and merit, which
can be placed before the engineer in the way of designs, applicable
to such attendant works, will no doubt be received by the profession
at large with interest and gratification.

The spirited publisher of the work before us, is already too well
known, and too highly valued by the profession to require anything
from us iu the way of general praise. If any such testimony were
wanting, it will always be gratifying to acknowledge the many valu-
able contributions to engineering science, which Mr. Weale has origin-
ated, and which he has been something more than a secondary means
of giving to the world. In the production entitled Railway Ensam-
ples, however, Mr. Weale appears before us in a new character. He
has here assumed the province of authorship, and in this capacity
places himself before the bar of public opinion, subject to that. judg-
ment, whether of condemnation or approval, which that severe tribunal
hesitates not to pronounce, on all who thus prominently court her
notice. In some respects, we feel bound to congratulate Mr. Weale

upon the character he has here assumed — we hail with pleasure, on a
first view, the modest and simple announcement of the titlepage, and
assuming the value of his examples, as specimens of design, we are
glad to perceive that an individual has had the spirit and sagacity to
present to the notice of the English engineer a connected series of
works from a foreign railway. On looking further into their exam-
ples, we find them to be drawn from the Utica and Syracuse Railway,
an American line about 53 miles in length. Whether these examples
be worthy or not of presentation, in such a form, to the engineers of
this country, is not now the question ; supposing they are so, the pro-
fession is undoubtedly much indebted to the iudividual who has thus
incurred the pains and expense of bringing them before their notice.
Mr. Weale's appearance in the character of an author, however, is
not limited to the dry and brief notices which are required to illus-
trate a set of railway plates, but embraces a somewhat extensive
catalogue of subjects connected with railway engineering which have
been condensed into 40 pages of preliminary observations. These
observations are accompanied by several maps, and by plates of an
American locomotive engine, and an American earth excavator. Al-
though we cannot agree with the writer in many of these preliminary
observations, we have at the same time great pleasure in stating, that
the reader will find amongst them much that is interesting and amu-
sing. We may mention particularly the description of the American
locomotives, and that of the Satellite engine on the London and
Brighton Railway. We are not able to say much in praise of the ex-
cavating machine ; it appears to be a very clumsy affair, encumbered
by a mass of machinery out of all proportion to the effect required.
Its economy is extremely doubtful except when put in competition
with very high prices for labour, in which case it might possibly be
more economical than manual labour for excavating earth. The ma-
chine is said to be capable of excavating 1500 cubic yards in 12 hours,
at a cost for fuel of 12s. per diem. To this statement, Mr. Weale
adds, that " earthwork in England has generally been taken at lotf. to
Is. per yard." He forgets, however, that this price includes the
carriage or haulage of the earth, and that the price of getting and
filling the stuff, which is all that the American machine performs, is
commonly not more than from '2d. to 5rf. per yard. It is, therefore,
some mean between these two prices which should be taken for com-
parison with the machine ; but at present, we are not able to make
this comparison, having no information as to her cost and working
expenses.

A second division of the preliminary observations is principally
directed to a comparison between the cost of the American railways
and those of this country. The principal facts on which Mr. Weale
argues, are these, that the aggregate cost of the American railways
was estimated in 1839, at £40U0 per mile, including all buildings and
apparatus ; and secondly, that actual works are not executed cheaper
in America than in this country, as the greater expense of timber
here is counterbalanced by the greater expense of labour there. He
therefore, concludes that the greatly increased cost of the English
railways has been caused by the more expensive nature of the works,
that is by the dilference of the two systems of construction. This is
undoubtedly true to a certain extent, and here the comparison might
cease, with this observation, that we have obtained far superior rail-
ways, by expending more money in their construction than the Ame-
ricans. In case, however, any erroneous notions may be formed as to
the comparative eligibility of the two systems, which are here con-
trasted, it may be sufficient to suggest, that no fair comparison can be
made without full particulars, not only of the works executed on each,
but also of the gradients and curves with which the lines were respec-
tively constructed. It will be found that gradients of 25 to 3u ft. per
mile are considered highly favourable in America, whereas, those of
greater steepness than 15 or lt> feet per mile, have been held in this
country to be highly objectionable. Again, as to curves, the American
lines abound with sharp bends, which are quite inadmissible in those
of Great Britain, A large proportion of the American lines are
graded only for single lines of way; and in many of those which are
graded for double lines, only a single track has been laid down. The
cost per mile, as stated above, furnishes a very unfair comparison, in
every respect, with the English lines, where the gradients and curves
are entirely of a different order, the works are far more substantial,
are mostly constructed for a double line of way, and where the cost
of land has necessarily been excessive; whereas, in America the land
in many cases has cost almost nothing. Another important point of
comparison is the annual expense of working the railways iu the two
countries. M.De Gerstner estimated, in 1839, that the annual expense
of working the American lines was G3-fcU per cent, of the gross in-
come, and that the interest on the whole capital invested iu railroads
in the United States does not exceed 5£ per cent, per annum. Now
this annual expense is far greater than that of working the English

1813.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

railways — as, for instance, the Grand Junction costs 55-53 of tlie
income, the Great Western 51-87 per cent. ; and taking the average
of all the railways, it would be found considerably below the American
lines. In the case of the English lines, this amount will be still further
reduced when their heavy earth works become perfectly settled, and
no longer subject to those slips which, up to this time, have occasioned
such heavy expenses. We find that the average dividend of 82 rail-
ways reported in the Railway Times amounts to Al. 10s. per cent, per
annum, which, although less in absolute amount than that produced
by the American lines, is in reality far greater when the prospective
circumstances are considered. Thus, for instance, supposing the
slight timber bridges and viaducts of the American lines will last 20
years, which is a favourable supposition, where is the capital to come
from in order to effect their restoration at the end of that time. Un-
doubtedly it can scarcely be reserved out of the present dividends of
oi per cent., for nearly the whole amount will be required to provide
the large capital for restoring their perishable works. On the other
hand, the English lines, firmly and substantially constructed, are oay-
ing a steady dividend of 4i per cent, on the average and no reserved
fund is required, as the works are calculated to endure for many cen-
turies. The conclusion to be drawn from all this is highly unfavour-
able to the American system, and at the same time encouraging to
those who have embarked their capital in our own lines. While the
railways of the United States must inevitably, in a very few years,
present a condition of premature decay, with a hopeless prospect of
restitution, those of this country will, in all probability, afford a more
favourable investment for capital than at the present day. We have
no wish to dispute much that is really valuable and ingenious in the
railways of the United States, but we must contend against these lines
being held up as a model for the great trunk lines of this country.
Mr. Weale points out several lines in which he considers the American
system would be applicable, and particularly advoc ites its adoption
in Ireland. With certain restrictions, and under certain circum-
stances connected with the expected revenue, and the capital avail-
able to the undertakings, the American system of cheap temporary
constructions and inferior gradients may be advisable for some lines in
Ireland, but we should extremely regret to see the main lines in that
country laid out on such a principle.

The most valuable part of Mr. Weale's book, because the most
practical, and that which contains the most information is that which
relates to the bridges actually constructed for the American railways.

The Utica and Syracuse Railroad, which has been selected as
affording so favourable a specimen of cheap engineering in the United
States, forms part of the great line of communication across the states
of Massachusets and New York. This great line, which has been
executed by several different companies, is upwards of 530 miles in
length. It commences at Boston, in Massachusets, and passing through
or near the towns of Worcester, West Stockbridge, Albany, Sche-
nectady, Utica, Rome, Syracuse, Auburn, Waterloo, and Worcester,
sweeps along the southern shore of Lake Ontario, for the last 200
miles of its course, from the Atlantic Ocean, and terminates at Buffalo,
the north-eastern extremity of Lake Erie. The part of this great
line which lies between Utica and Syracuse, is 53 miles in length,
and throughout its course it follows the line of the Erie Canal. We
have no information as to the gradients on this line, but judge that
that they must be extremely favourable, as the Erie Canal was on a
perfectly dead level, without any canal lock whatever between Utica
and Syracuse, and for several miles east of the former place.

After an attentive examination of the plates referring to these
bridges, we feel bound to pronounce that, as specimens ol carpentry,
they possess by no means superior merit. In place of that admirable
system of timbers abutting against each other, which gives so much
stiffness to some of the best specimens of English carpentrv, the light
planks of the American bridges are held together by an innumerable
quantity of bolts, and the proper strength of the timber is not applied
to the fullest advantage. The white pine, which is used so exten-
sively in the American bridges is a timber very little known in this
country. It is a white wood with a short grain, possessing little
strength of fibre, and abounding in small black knots; it is used a
good deal in Edinburgh and other parts of Scotland for the interior of
houses, but is never applied to external work.

In addition to the plates of the bridges, and of the viaduct over a
considerable valley and creek on this railway, there are several plates,
showing the system of piling and laying the permanent way on a part
of the line about ID miles in length which was laid upon piles, the
remaining length being graded, as it is called in America, that is
fonned by cuttings and embankments, as usual in this country.

There are also several plates showing culvert*, but these possess
little interest for the English reader; nor could the engineer derive
any advantage from a comparison of this part of the American railway

system with his own. The last portion of the work contains an in-
teresting account (historical and statistical! of the Belgian railways
by Mr. Edward Dobson, but we believe this part of the work is only a
translation.

These ensamples of railway making, affording the best account
which has yet been published in this country of the railroad works of
the United States, will sertainly find a place in the library of every
engineer. Although we cannot consent to the wholesale adoption of
the American system which Mr. Weale appears to advocate, there
are yet many cases, both here and on the continent, in which these
examples will prove very useful in railwav engineering. We must
not omit to mention, in conclusion, that the pl'ates, as in all" Mr. Weale's
works, are admirably executed, and the details are -o well shown
that the most ordinary capacity may readily comprehend every part
of the construction.

The Principles and Practice of Land, Engineering, Trigonometrical
Subterraneous, and Marine Surveying. By Charles BjDRNs, C. E.
London : John < Hlivier.

We need scarcely say that on all occasions we feel much greater
pleasure in speaking well of any book which comes under our notice
than when we are obliged to pronounce an opinion of almost unquali-
fied censure. In the present instance, however, an impartial reviewer
has only the latter alternative ; and we could wish sincerely for the
credit of the profession both at home and abroad, that the production
of works with such feeble claims upon public favour were much less
rare than it is. We are told in the preface of Mr. Bourns' book,
that the aim with which it is written has been "the formation of a
book of reference." Had this really been the case, had the volume
been merely a work of reference, and had it been so styled on its title-
page, we should have known what to expect, and should never have
been deceived into supposing that we were opening a book containing
the principles and practice of every kind of surveying. But we are
told in a few lines further on in the preface, " that the volume is in-
tended to constitute a consistent whole; so that to understand an ad-
vanced part, a person must be conversant with what goes before."
How then can it be a work of reference in the common acceptation of
this term, since by the author's own showing, it requires a regular
study to be made of what goes before, in order to understand any ad-
vanced part. Surely this destroys its value as a work of reference.
Indiscriminate censure is seldom just, and in the present case we are
far from saying that the book before us is absolutely worthless, and
that there is nothing in it which might be instructive to the profes-
sional man. At the same time we feel bound to enter a strong protest
against that too prevalent system of book-making of which this work
is a remarkable specimen. It contains an immense mass of antiquated
information injudiciously selected and badly arranged. The few grains
of original matter which are scattered through its pages relate to
minute points of professional practice, often magnified into undue im-
portance, and introduced to the exclusion of more valuable things for
no reason that we can discover, except that they happen to have
formed part of the author's own practice, or to have been introduced
by some of his friends. We make no pretence of having waded
through the wdiole contents of this book, which is an octavo volume of
350 pages; but having looked into several of those parts of it which
are not purely elementary, the general impression is by no means such
as to encourage a further search. In every point of view the work is
far inferior to those of Mr. BrurT, and to Mr. Williams' Geodesy, books
which hive been reviewed in former numbers of the Journal.

Bluni's Civil Engineer and Practical Mechanist. Division C
Portion the Second. London: Ackerman and Co.

This portion is principally devoted to the delineation and descrip-
tion of machinery by the Messrs. Rennie. The first plate is of the
gun-boring and turning mill, with the lathe apparatus— machinery
used in gun and engine manufacture. Another plate is of M«st<.
Rennie's great boring lathe ; it is used in the boring of cylinders,
condensers, air pumps, and bored vessels of engines and mills,
and in turning pistons, rods, shafts and journals. Three plates
are of their marine dredging and excavating machine, part of which
was in the first portion. The last plate is devoted to Sir Isainbard
Brunei's shield for the Thames Tuunel. We must observe, however
that although we have used the term plate to express the several
sheets, many parts of the works are separately described on each
sheet, and form valuable drawings for reference.

66

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, intended as a Work of General
Reference and Practical Instruction, on the Lathe and the various
Mechanical Pursuits followed by Amateurs. By Charles HOLT-
ZAPFFEL, A. Inst. C. E.

Mr. Holtzapffel looking at the dearth of works on the arts pro-
fessed by the mechanical engineer, has felt himself called upon to
bring before the public the results of his experience on a subject of so
much interest and value. It is fortunate, perhaps, for the mechanical
engineer, that turning and many other of his pursuits have for a long
period formed a favourite occupation with many wealthy individuals,
as thereby an amount of patronage has been conferred on the tool
maker, such as could have been obtained by no other means, and
which has powerfully conduced to the improvement of the tools used
in this important department, while many experiments have been
made at private expense, which could scarcely have been executed
by persons engaged in business. With a class of wealthy amateurs
to whom to look for supporters, Mr. Holtzapffel could scarcely have
rendered a more acceptable service than the production of a work,
which, both to the practical man and the amateur, must be of high
utility. Mr. Holtzapffel, in the resources of his large establishment,
and availing himself of the experience of his predecessors in the
firm, possesses many advantages for the task he has undertaken, and
seems to devote himself to it con amore. The treatment of it he pro-
poses to enter into at some length, and we can scarcely blame him for
this, as the public will profit by the extent of labour devoted to the
subject.

The volume now before us is one of five, and is devoted to the con-
sideration of the various materials used. The second will discuss
the principles of construction and application of cutting tools ; the
third will treat of hand turning ; the fourth of complex or ornamental
turning, and the fifth of the principles and' practice of amateur mecha-
nical engineering.

The description of the materials is distributed into three classes ;
the vegetable, the animal, and the mineral kingdoms. The description
of the various kinds of woods, not only developes new facts as to
their technical peculiarities, but illustrates their botanical characte-
ristics, a portion of the work to which Professor Royle has contributed
his valuable assistance. The materials from the animal kingdom,
which are treated with no less ability, include shells and mother of
pearl, bones, horn, tortoiseshell, whalebone and ivory. The materials
from the mineral kingdom, embrace clay, amber, jet, cannel coal, the
ornamental and precious stonPs,the metals and their alloys. To state,
however, that the work is limited to a simple description of these
materials, would convey an inadequate idea of its value, as it abounds
with practical descriptions of many important or interesting processes.
Thus we have observations on seasoning, softening, bending, and
colouring wood ; the manufacture of iron ; forging, hardening and
tempering of iron and steel ; the melting and mixing of metals ; and
the properties of alloys; casting and founding; wire drawing and
soldering. To the description ot tempering alone twenty-five pages
are devoted, and the subject is treated with a minuteness and ability,
which leuve nothing to be desired.

The Atmospheric Railway. Observations on the Report of Sir
F. Smith and Professor Barlow. By Thomas F. Bergin, M.R.I.A.
Dublin: Hodges and Smith, 1843.

Considerable controversy has existed on this subject, and a long
correspondence has taken place between Mr. Bergin and Professor
Barlow ; with respect to it, we, however, are more inclined to look
forward to the result of the great trial now in progress at Dublin, than
to depend upon any mathematical formula, upon the bases of which
no party seems to be agreed. The experiment will soon be satisfac-
torily settled one way or other, and the merits or demerits of the
atmospheric system, will be shown in all their extent. Mr.Bergin
has devoted considerable ability to the discussion of the subject, and
the many who saw reason to distrust Professor Barlow's deductions,
cannot do better than consult this pamphlet.

Jl Series of Diagrams, Illustrative of the Principles of Mechanical
Philosophy. Drawn on Stone, by Henry Chapman, and Printed in
Colours, by C. F. Cheffins. Loudon : Chapman and Hall.

The fourth and fifth parts illustrate the pulley, inclined plane and
wedge. The plan, which is that of giving practical and useful appli-
cations of the simple powers is well carried out, and thus both theory
and practice are at once brought to bear on the instruction of the
student ; while it is not only a good work for the machinist, but an
excellent drawing book. The work contains so manv illustration

valuable machines, that we feel ourselves still more strongly called
upon to urge the necessity of some letter-press explanations accom-
panying the plates, treating on the theory of the powers and their
several applications.

The Literary and Scientifc Pocket Rook. By J. W. Gutch.
London : Lumley.

This contains much valuable matter of reference, and as such, we
have much pleasure in recommending it to our readers.

ON THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.

Sir — The problem proposed for solution by your correspondent " Con-
crete," at page 27 of the last month's Journal, is certainly one of great in-
terest and importance ; as he states, I believe, it has not been investigated
in any of the standard works on the strength of materials. Like all ques-
tions connected with the strains of beams, it is one which, whether consi-
dered theoretically or practically, is of the most complicated nature and of
great difficulty; particularly if investigated with mathematical accuracy.
There are so many data to such questions, varying in each particular in-
stance— so many circumstances which modify the general result — such as the
deflection of the beam, and consequent variation of the length of leverage,
the position of the neutral line, &c, that since the time of gables to the
present day, they have always been considered as questions of the greatest
difficulty ; and yet there is no subject connected with theoretical mechanics
more interesting to the engineer; none more useful, especially in the present
age, when timber and iron are so extensively used in the most stupendous
structures, the economy and durability of which depend so much upon the
proper application of mechanical principles. I am sorry to say, however,
that even now, there are many engineers, particularly those belonging to the
old school, and such as have not the least knowledge of the elementary
principles of mechanics, who will not admit its utility ; who, because such
men as Telford, Brindley, George Stephenson, and many others, have risen
to eminence by the mere force of their talents, unfettered by, what they
term, college knowledge, think that they may also jog on on the "thumb of
rule " system. And yet, how frequently have I seen these pseudo-engineers,
these practical men, who will not look into a book, for fear it should destroy
the originality of their conceptions, fall into the greatest errors from the
want of such knowledge. I shall merely state one instance. A resident
engineer of one of our railways proposed a plan for strengthening a timber
bridge on the line, and in order to test the efficiency of his improvement,
made a model of the bridge on the scale, if I recollect rightly, of one inch
to the foot; he found that the model would support a certain weight, and
thence argued in a truly practical manner, that as the bridge was twelve
times the model, it would support twelve times the weight ! Thus satisfac-
torily establishing the utility of his proposed improvement. To return to
the question to be solved. If we omit the consideration of the deflection of
the beam, the result will be simple and sufficiently correct for practical pur-
poses, and the problem in question may easily be reduced to that of finding
the dimensions and form of a beam resting loosely on two supports, neces-
sary to sustain a given weight, (in this instance 42 tons,) placed at the centre
of the beam.

Tour correspondent states that he found upon experiment, that a bar iron*
loaded, as he describes, broke near the two supports; this certainly is strange^
and contrary to what we should expect theoretically and practically ; for
it is evident that the beam between the two supports is more curved at the
centre than near the supports, and consequently the strain, being measured
by the tension of the fibres, must be greatest in the centre, and gradually
diminish to the point of support. 1 have several times repeated his expe-
riment on a small scale, using, however, wood instead of iron, and have
always found that the wood broke in the centre between the supports ; of
course with the same proportion of external and internal parts mentioned
by your correspondent.

It is also clear, from the principle of the lever, that the strain at the
centre of the beam, is the same as that produced by a weight of 42 tons
placed there, except that the action is reversed: the upper side of the beam
will now be compressed in place of being extended, and the under side ex-
tended instead of being compressed. If what I have advanced be correct,
as I believe, it will result that the best form to give to the beam is the para-
bolic ; that is, the depth of the beam should be greatest at the middle point
and diminish at the ordinates of a parabola towards the supports. As the
reasons for assuming this form to be the best, are given in all works on the
strength of materials, it would be useless to repeat them here. It is gene-
rally considered best to have the curved side of the beam upwards in such
a ease, but as in this example the action is reversed, it follows that it would
be advisable to have the curved side downwards. As your correspondent
only states the proportion of the distances of the weights from the points
of supports to that between them, it is impossible to give the exact dimen-
sions. I have not thought it necessary to give a diagram, as I believe, this
explanation may be easily understood from the description, and by referring
to that given by your correspondent.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

<;7

If no better attempt to solve this problem be offered, you will oblige uie
"by inserting this letter.

I remain Sir.

Your obedient servant,
London, Jan. 10th, 1843. T. F.

PROCEEDINGS OP SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Dec. 19. — J. Shaw, Esq., in the Chair.
Mr. Fowler, Hon. See., on presenting a plan for rebuilding that portion of
Hamburgh, lately destroyed by fire, from M. Chateauneuf, mentioned as a
gratifying circumstance, that our countryman, Mr. Lindley, the engineer, had
been appointed by the senate to superintend, in part, the rebuilding of the
city.

Mr. Godwin read a paper on Tournay Cathedral, which was partly given
in last month's Journal, and the continuation in the present number.

Jan. 9. — Charles Barry, Esq., V. P., in the Chair.

A. paper was read " On a new mode of constructing tfie Fines of Chimneys,''
by Mr. Moon, surveyor, explaining an improvement in the construction of
flues, of a circular form, of different sizes, from 8 to 14 inches in diameter;
the bricks are arranged in courses, carried up and bonded in the thickness
of the wall.

" Description of the Testimonial to the late Sir Harry Bunard Xeale,"
erected at Lymington, communicated by Mr. Draper, of Chichester, the
architect. It consists of an obelisk, 76 feet high, constructed of Dartmoor
granite, standing on a pedestal 18 feet high, the total cost is about £ 1,400.

Mr. Sylvester's process was described "for rendering stone, brick, and
other absorbent materials impervious to water." It consists of two solutions,
the first a solution of soap, the second of alum ; the brick or stone is first
dipped in the solution of soap, and afterwards in the alum, or the solution
may be applied with a brush. By the combination of the two solutions, a
chemical action takes place, which fills the pores and resists the action of
water and moisture. Colouring matter may be introduced into the sulutions,
and give them any tint that may be desired. *

Mr. Billings introduced his " Illustrations of a mode of striking Gothic
tracery ;" they were principally selected from the old choir of Carlisle Ca-
thedral, which was repaired in 1764. The principle upon which most of the
varieties of the tracery in this cathedral were formed, was by the combina-
tion of curves all having their centres in the same series of lines, formed by
dividing a square into four parts each way. The interstices were afterwards
tilled up by quatrefoil and trefoil ornament, but the main curves are all
formed on the above principle. Mr. Billings introduced a fine specimen of
tracery, described by circles struck from every intersection of the lines
within the square as centres.

Jan. 23. — T. L. Donaldson, Esq., in the Chair.

A letter was read from Herr F. Eisenlohr, Professor, acknowledging the
honour of being elected an honorary and corresponding member of the Insti-
tute ; this letter contains some excellent remarks which we have been per-
mitted to extract.

" I shall esteem it," says Ilerr Eisenlohr, " a great honour to be united in
closer intimacy with your Institute, by the communication of anything relat-
ing to the profession. Such an intercourse and reciprocity among the archi-
tects of different countries is much to be wished for at the present time,
which is principally distinguished from all previous epochs in the history of
architecture by its want of unity. Attempts have been made for some time
past to remedy this by imitations of the ancient Greek and Roman styles of
architecture ; and up to the present day many architects are repeating with
various talent and success, the attempt to introduce those styles into the
present edifices — some, even the imperfect conception of them, called by the
French la Renaissance. On the other hand, in many places in Germany, a
different course has been adopted, which, being partly suggested by the re-
vival of a more christian spirit, partly by the patriotic feeling excited by the
French revolution, leaned more to the christian architecture of the middle
ages at home. This two principal divisions, each with their varities, stand
opposed to one another here in Germany, and carry on, as it were, a contest
in secret. The present age is engaged in seeking a something which at pre-
sent does not exist, viz., unity in a sort of universal architecture. It seems
to me, that no immediate and direct imitation in any style of architecture
already existing, complete in itself, will lead to the desired result as long as
the present age demands its rights, and the existing state of society requires
something arising more from its own nature. When I consider also that
hitherto in our art we have acted in a manner too little abstractive and scien-
tific, and have imitated too much, still, on the other hand, it is not to be
denied that we cannot and ought not to disregard history and its effects, that
we must have some point in history at which to begin a root, from which a
new'stem may shoot up into blossom as from the soil of the present. It is
quite clear that here also theory and history must go hand in baud, whereby
we must with consciousness attain to that new and unprejudiced position
which, in childlike innocence, unconsciously existed at the commencement of

all previous epochs in art. The difference between our age and its problem,
as regards architecture, and indeed every branch of the arts, consists in tins
that we ought to strive, so to say, with manly innocence, with manly know-
ledge and power, (o attain to that point at which former periods in art have
in their infancy begun of their own accord. Where there is nothing but an
empty and groundless adherence to forms, where architectural fallacy and
pretension, or a certain coquetterie is manifested, there an art of a peculiarly
creative nature can never be looked for. It is true that many grand build-
ings have recently been erected in the Roman, Grecian, and so' called By Ean-
tme and Gothic styles, as, for instance, particularly at Munich. But' they
all want the enlivening principle of belonging to tlie present, and are only
silent records of bygone styles of architecture. In the van,,- «ray that we
collect pictures of different schools in galleries, so King Louis has collected
buildings of all possible periods ; and as he had not got them at Munich,
neither could he transport them thence from other parts; he bad them
built, and thus made a grand collection of buildings at Munich, but which is
still deficient in historical authority. If, therefore, we would draw a com-
parison, we must say that the modern collection of buildings at Munich is, .is
far as regards the arts, worth about as much as a picture gallerv containing a
number of more or less successful copies from different masters and schools.
If it be true that the spirit of the times is truly expressed in its buildings,
that the architecture of every period is, as it were, a fossilized history-, future
generations will say that the present period was utterly devoid of character.
By means of a more intimate acquaintance with the history of architecture,
we have been provided with a vast quantity of subject matter, which lias
hitherto quite overwhelmed us, from its variety and quantity, so that we
were quite robbed of our senses. Of this we must first get the mastery, and
impelled by a careful observance, as well as by an artistical and inventive
spirit, regain our consciousness, without at the same time suffering the expe-
rience of history to remain useless. We must, on the one hand, iinestigate
from a theoretical and scientific position, how far our architecture and its
elements answer to the conditions of its purpose, of the building materials,
climates, and so forth ; and must, on the other hand, in looking back upon
history, endeavour to find some point which presents constructions and forms
similar to those which result from our abstract investigations, and thus a
fruitful germ may he found for a modern and, in itself, harmonious style of
architecture — a style which would gradually come into general use, and
supersede all the lifeless imitations and mere whimsical charges of fashion.
In this, it appears to me, consists the great architectural problem of the
present age, which can only be solved by united efforts."

Report on the Marbles from Lycia.

A report was read from the committee appointed by the Institute to ex-
amine the articles that were recently discovered by Mr. Charles Fellowes
amongst the ruins of Xanthus, an ancient city in Lycia, in Asia Minor, and
lately deposited in the British Museum. Mr. Fellowes explained to the com-
mittee " that the tomb is situated on the side, on the slope of a hill, in the
old town of Xanthus, consisted of a square shaft in one block, weighing about
80 tons, and 17 feet high. This shaft, which rested on a base or plinth
rising six feet from the ground on one side, and the other rising but little
above the present level of the earth, was surmounted by the bas-relief in
question, the opposite sides of the relief being respectively 8 feet 4i inches,
and 7 feet 6 inches long making a total length of 31 feet 9 inches. It con-
sisted of four angular and four central blocks of marble, each 9 inches thick
and 3 feet 5 inches high. A kind of chamber was soon formed in the top of
the monument about 7 feet 6 inches high, and 7 feet by 6. Tbis was
covered by a single block of marble forming the cornice, and hollowed out in
the inside soffit so as to present the appearance of a beam and caissons.
Mr. Fellowes considers the subject of the sculptures to represent the legend
of the daughters of King Pandarus carried away by the harpies. There are
also five figures, male and female, seated on chairs, which are evidently in-
tended to be represented as made of bronze ; on these chairs are very per-
ceptible traces of a brownish tint approaching to red, showing that the orna-
ment was indicated by colour, even without the outline being carved.

The figures are about an inch and a half in relief, and in many parts
there are patches of blue colour on the ground, particularly on the under-
cutting of the hair, and especially where the recesses are protected by the
overhanging tenia of the frieze, forming the top of the blocks, A portion of
this blue colour had been taken off by Mr. Hawkins, and submitted to a
chemical analvsis bv Dr. Faraday, who reported that " The substance is a
mixture of wax with a pulverized blue smalt, coloured by cobalt, the smalt
being in rather coarse patches; when the wax is charred away, each piece is
seen by a moderate magnifier as a small fragment of glass."

On referring to the analvsis of Egyptian bloe colour by Dr. Ure, given in
the 3rd vol., pp. 301—3 of'Sir T. Gardiner Wilkinson's work on the manners
and customs of the ancient Egyptians, there appears to he a great analogy in
the composition of this blue 'and that described by Sir. I. Wilkinson; as in
the Egyptian specimen the blue pigment scraped from the stone is a pulveru-
lent blue glass.

On the edge of the crest of a helmet were also collected some remains of
a bright crimson red which have not yet been analyzed.

On the whole, the committee are of opinion that the appearances which
they witnessed are sufficient to warrant their conclusion, that the ground
throughout "as painted blue, s,> as t.> give relief to the figures. Some other
parts also had colour, but to what extent the rough state of the surface of
the marbles did nut enable the committee to ascertain.

9*

68

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[February,

The character of the sculpture of the figures denotes a very remote period
of art, and it i», to a certain degree, rude ; but the forms and embellishments
of the bronze chairs are extremely refined, and betoken a class of art not
unlike that of the triple temple in the Acropolis of Athens.

When the other marbles and fragments brought from Xanthus have beeu
removed into the upper halls of the Museum, the committee will proceed
with their examination on this interesting subject, and they will, if neces-
sary, report to the Institute the result of their inquiries.

The Chairman, in consequence of the unavoidable absence of Mr. Britton,
who was to have read a paper this evening, was requested by the secretaries
to supply a paper, which he readily acceded to with his usual promptness in
all similar difficulties; the subject of the paper was " On the ruins of the
city of Ani, in Armenia," but as we are likely to give the paperin full next
month, we defer giving any abstract.

The meetings for February will take place on Monday 6th, and 20th, at 8
o'clock.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Jan. 10. — James Walker, Esq., President, in the chair.
This was the first meeting of the session, and was occupied by a discus-
sion on a paper by Mr. Davison, describing the sinking of the deep well at
Messrs. Truman and Co.'s, brewery, which was read at the close of last ses-
sion. See Journal, Vol. 5, 1342, page 420.

Jan. 1 7. — The President in the Chair.
This was the annual general meeting of the Society, and was occupied in
reading the report of the council, the election of the council and the dis-
tribution of the prizes ; we must defer until next month a report of the pro-
ceedings when we hope to be able to give them in full.

DESTRUCTION OF THE ROUND-DOWN-CLIFF BY GUNPOWDER.

[We are partly indebted for the accompanying report to the Times, and
through the kindness of two professional friends, who were on the spot and
witnessed the explosion, we have been enabled to give considerable additional
information; and have also added a rough sketch of the cliff, that was
hastily taken, just before and after the explosion took place.]

Dover, Jan. 26th, 18t3.

You will not be surprised to hear that the announcement that an explo-
sion of 18,0001b. of powder was to be made in the Round Down Cliff this
afternoon brought an influx of strangers into this town ; still, though con-
siderable, it was not so large as 1 had expected. Curiosity was, I think, pa-
ralyzed by a vague fear of danger, which kept some thousands at home who
might have witnessed it, as the event turned out, without the slightest shock
to their nervous system. The experiment succeeded to admiration, and, as a
specimen of engineering skill, confers the highest credit on Mr. Cubitt, who
planned, and on his colleagues who assisted, in carrying it into execution.

Everybody has heard of the Shakspeare Cliff, and I (have no doubt that a
majority of your readers have seen it. I should feel it a superfluous task to
speak of its vast height were not the next cliff to it, on the west, somewhat
higher. That cliff is Round Down Cliff, the scene and subject of this day's
operations. It rises to the height of 375 feet above high-water mark, and
was, till this afternoon, of a singularly bold and picturesque character. To
understand the reasons why it was resolved to remove yesterday no inconsi-
derable portion of it from the rugged base on which it has defied the winds
and waves of centuries, I must make your readers acquainted with the in-
tended line of railway between Folkestone and this place.

At Folkestone there will be a viaduct of great height and length. Then
there will be a tunnel, called from a martello tower near it, thesTower
Tunnel, one third of a mile in length. Then comes a cutting through the
chalk of two miles in length, called Warren's Cutting. Then comes the Ab-
bott's Cliff tunnel, one mile and a quarter in length, and now half finished,
although only commenced on the 16th of August last. From the Abbott's
Clifl tunnel to the Shakespeare Cliff tunnel the railroad will be under the
cliffs close to the sea, and protected from it by a strong wall of concrete two
miles lung, and with a parapet of such a height as will not preclude passen-
gers from the splendid marine view which lies under them. Now it was
found that when a straight line was drawn from the eastern mouth of the
Abbott s Cliff tunnel to the western mouth of the Shakespeare tunnel, there
\ras a projection on the Round Down Cliff which must be removed in some
way or other to insure a direct passage. That projection, seen from the sea,
had the appearance of a convex arc of a circle of considerable diameter. It
is now removed, and some idea of its size may be formed from the fact that a
square yard of chalk weighs two tons, and that it was intended by this day's
experiment to remove 1,000,000 tons. The §haKsg%a tunnel is three-quar-
ters ot a mile long, and it is about the same distance from that tunnel to the
town of D^ver.

Having premised thus much as to the locality of Round Down Cliff, I
now proceed to describe, as briefly as I can, the means employed to detach
from it such an immense mass of solid matter. A horizontal gallery T. Fig.
3, extended for about 100 yards parallel with the intended line of railway,
from which cross galleries were driven from the centre and extremes. At the
end of these cross galleries shafts were sunk, and at the bottom of each shaft
was formed a chamber, 11 feet long, 5 feet high, and 4 feet 6 inches wide.
In the eastern chamber were deposited 50001b. of gunpowder, in the western
chamber 60001b., and in the centre chamber 7000 lb., making in the whole
18,0001b. The gunpowder was in bags, placed in boxes. Loose powder was
sprinkled over the bags, of which the mouths were opened, and the bursting
charges were in the centre of the main charges. The distance of the charges
from the face of the cliff was 70 feet at the centre and about 55 feet at each
end. It was calculated that the powder, before it could find a vent, mtul
move 100,000 yards of chalk, or 200,000 tons. It was also confidently ex-
pected that it would move 1,000,000 tons.

The following preparations were made to ignite this enormous quantity of
powder;— At the back of the cliff a wooden shed was constructed, in winch
three electric batteries were erected. Each battery consisted of 18 Daniels'
cylinders, and two common batteries of 20 plates each, to which were attached
wires which communicated at the end of the charge by means of a very fine
wire of platina, which the electric fluid as it passed over it, made red-hot, to
fire the powder. The wires covered with yarn were spread upon the grass
to the top of the cliff, and then falling over it were carried to the eastern, the
centre, and the western chamber. Lieutenant Hutchinson, of the Royal
Engineers, had the command of the three battt-ries, and it was arranged that
when he fired the centre, Mr. Hodges and Mr. Wright should simultaneously
fire the eastern and the western batteries, to ensure which they had practised
at them for several previous days, The wires were each 1,000 feet in length,
audit was ascertained by experiment that the electric fluid will fire powder
at a distance of 2,300 feet of wire. After the chambers were filled with
powder, the galleries and passages were all tamped up with dry sand, as is
usually the case in all blasting operations.

At 9 o'clock in the morning a red flag was hoisted directly over the spot
selected for the explosion. The wires were then tested by the galvanometer,
the batteries were charged, and every arrangement was completed for firing
them.

It was arranged that the explosion should take place at 2 o'clock ; at that
time there was an immense concourse of people assembled. In a marquee
erected near the scene of operation, for the accommodation of the directors
and distinguished visitants, we observed among the number assembled. Sir
John Herschell, General Pasley, Col. Rice Jones, Mr. Rice, M.P., Professors
Sedgwick and Airy, the Rev. Dr. Cope, and there was also a strong muster
of engineers, among whom were Mr. Tierney Clark, Mr. Juhn Braithwaite,
Mr. Charles May, Mr. Lewis Cubitt, and Mr. Frederick Braithwaite ; the
engineers and directors of the Greenwich. Croydon, Brighton, and South
Eastern Railways, besides numerous foreigners of eminence.

At 10 minutes past 2, Mr. Cubitt, the company's engineer in chief, ordered
the signal flag at the western marquee to be hoisted, and that was followed by
the hoisting of all the signal flags. A quarter of an hour soon passed in deep
anxiety. A number of maroons, in what appeared to be a keg, was rolled
over the cliff, and on its explosion with a loud report, all the flags were
hauled down. Four more minutes passed away, and all the flags except that
on the point to be blasted were again hoisted. The next minute was one of
silent, and breathless, and impatient expectation. Not a word was uttered,
except by one lady: who, when too late, wished to be at a greater distance.
Ga'eatitm sero duelli pienitet. Exactly at 26 minutes past 2 o'clock a slight
twitch or shock of the ground was felt, and then a low, faint, indistinct, inde-
scribable moaning subterranean rumble was heard, and immediately after-
wards the bottom of the cliff began to belly out, and then almost simulta-
neously about 500 feet in breadth, with reference to the railway's length of
the summit began gradually to sink.

There was no roaring explosion, no bursting out of fire, no violent and
crashing splitting of rocks, and wdiat was considered extraordinary, no smoke
whatever ; for a proceeding of mighty and irrepressible force, it had little or
nothing of the appearance of force. The rock seemed as if it had exchanged
its solid for a fluid nature, for it glided like a stream into the sea, which was
at a distance of about 100 yards— perhaps more — from its base, tearing up
the beach in its course, and forcing up and driving the muddy substra-
tum together with some debris of a former fall, violently into the sea, and
when the mass had finally reached its resting place a dark brown
colour was seen on different parts of it, which had not been carried
off the land; the shattered fragments of the cliff are said to occupy an
area of 15 acres, but w e should judge it to be much less. I forgot to minute
the time occupied by the descent, but I calculate that it was about four or
five minutes. The first exclamations which burst from every lip was —
"Splendid, beantifu'. !" the next were isolated cheers, followed up by three
times three general cheers from the spectators, and then by one cheer more-
These were caught up by the groups on the surrounding downs, and, as I

1842]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

69

am informed, by the passengers in the steam boats. All were excited— all
■were delighted at the Success of the experiment, and congratulation upon
congratulation flowed in upon Mr. CuUtt for the magnificent manner in
which he had carried his project into execution.

As a proof of the easy, graceful, and swimming style with which Round
Down Cliff, under the gentle force and irresistible influence of Plulus and
Pluto combined, curlseyed down to meet the reluctant embraces of
astonished Neptune, 1 need only mention that the flagstaff, which was
standing on the summit of the cliff before the explosion took place, de-
scended uninjured with the fallen debris.

No fossil remains of the slightest importance were brought to light, which
was a matter of disappointment to many. A very few even of the most
Ordinary character were found among the mass, which it may well be
imagined was soon after the explosion, teeming- with the curious multitude
from the cliffs above anxious to obtain some relic of the event.

On examining the position occupied by the debris of the overthrown cliff,
we were much pleased to find it more favourably disposed than we could
have conceived possible. Instead of occupying the site of the proposed
railway at the foot of the cliff, it had by its acquired velocity slid past it.
and left comparatively little indeed to be removed. At some considerable
distance from the cliff, the fragments appeared to be heaved up into a ridge,
higher than any other part, forming a small valley towards the cliff, and
another seaward, beyond which a second ridge appeared, when it finally
slopes of! towards the sea. The chalk was by no means hard, and appeared
thoroughly saturated with water. The great bulk of the fragments ranged
from about 2 to perhaps 8 or ten cubic feet, although we observed a vast
number of blocks, which contained from two to three cubic yards and up-
wards, one of which was driven some distance into the Shakespeare Tunnel,
without doing injury to the brickwork. There was very little, indeed, of what
might be termed rubbish in the mass.

Previous to the explosion, we had heard it stated that about a million
yards were expected to be detached ; indeed the Railway Times so stated it,
on the 21st ultimo, apparently from authority, and after the explosi n took
place, it was publicly asserted by one of the officials, that three quarters of a
million of cubic yards had come down. Now, on cubing the stated dimen-
sions of the mass, which were given as under 300 feet in height by, say 50
feet longer than ihe gallery, which would therefore be 350 feet, by an
average thickness or depth from the face of the cliff of 60, we shall have
233,333 cubic yards ; but as the present face slope of the cliff is greater than
before, the average thickness perhaps might be increased to 75 feet, which
would make the quantity 291,686 cubic yards, from this is to be deducted
50,000 yards, the estimated quantity to be now shifted in forming the road,
we shall then have 30,000 yards effectively removed by the expenditure of one
ton of powder. We understand that Mr. Cubitt, the engineer, afterwards
stated that a saving of six months' work, and £7000 expenditure was effected
by this blast. Now allowing Sd. per yard for the removal of the quantity
now required to be shifted, which would amount to £1250, and £500 for the
powder used in the blast, the cost of forming the galleries, tamping, &c. &c,
we shall find that this mass has been removed at a cost of 1.44 pence per
yard. Again, taking Mr. Cubitt's statement, that a saving has been effected
of £7000. to which, if we add the £1750, expenditure by the present plan, we
shall find that he estimated the cost of removal by hand labour, at rather
less than ~l\d. per yard.

We felt an interest in examining the beds and fissures of the chalk in the
neighbourhood of this blast, which clearly indicated that the plan of
removal adopted by Mr.'Cubitt, was not only the cheapest, but the safest
method which could have been adopted. The vertical fissures which here
traverse the chalk appear to lie pretty nearly parallel, and at a slope perhaps
of one-fifth to one-tenth to one. It was in one of these fissures that the
whole mass parted and slipped down, on which we believe it had set pre-
viously, no doubt brought about by the infiltration of water more than
the sapping of the base by Ihe sea. So treacherous indeed was this chalk,
that if we are rightly informed, a mass equal nearly in bulk to that blasted
on Thursday came down unexpectedly some time since in the night time,
burying in its ruins a watchman or foreman belonging to that part of the
line. In the zigzig gangways cut along the face of the cliff, to enable
persons to ascend to the summit — this sliding of the chalk where those
vertical fissures are intersected, appears very frequently, inspiring the
passer-by with a feeling of great insecurity. How far the water might be
intercepted, or otherwise be prevented from filtering through these fissures is
a question of great importance, and would not, we think, be one of difficult
remedy. It also becomes a matter of interesting inquiry as to the effect
which a lesser qantity of 'powder would have had, deposited and fired in the
same manner. Would it only have made the mass insecure, or caused a
partial sliding down, rendering it then more difficult of removal by hand
than at first ? The proportion of powder which Mr. Cubitt employs in his
blasting operations we understand is determined thus : " The cube of the
line of least resistance in feet, gives the quantity in half ounces j" but in

this case there does not appear to have been any such quantity employed,
though much more than heretofore is found necessary in usual blasting ope-
rations. Perhaps the most curious circumstance, connected with the
operation, was the apparent absence of shock on the firing of the charge
on some spots in the immediate vicinity, while at other, far more distant,
it w as clearly perceptible. Thus where the batteries were placed, those in
charge of them thought the charge had missed fire, from their being insen-
sible to any shock, while at five times the distance along the face of the
cliff, it was clearly felt. But even along the face of the clill it was very
evident that the shock was felt by some and not by others, though standing
within a few yards of each other.]

Fig. 1.— Section of the Cliff.

Fig. 2. — Section showing the movement of the mass.

Reference.

Fig. 1.— Section of Cliff before the explosion ; H house In winch the bat-
teries were placed, F flag over the spot, T tunnel or heading, C one of the
chambers, L R level of proposed railway, L W level of low water.

Fig. 2. — Section showing the movement of the mass.

Fig. 3. — Plan showing the projection of the clifi ; the heading T, and
chambers A in which 50 barrels of gunpowder were placed, B 70 barrels,
and C 60 barrels.

Neapolitan Steamers. — We lately had the pleasure of attending the
trial of two steam vessels, named the Jimidine (Swallow), and the Antelope,
built at N'orthflect, by Mr. Pitcher, for the revenue service of his Neapolitan
majesty. The engines of both vessels are manufactured by Messrs. Boulton,
Watt, and Co. These vessels arc of similar dimensions, in fact built from
the same drawing, and are in length between perpendiculars, 100 feet ; keel
for tonnage, 90 feet, 5 inches; extreme breadth, 16 feet; moulded breadth,
15 feet 5 inches; depth in hold, 9 feet G inches; tonnage, O.M., 123^-J;
displacement as launched, 65 tons; ditto, complete with 23 tons of coals,
145 tons. Draftj at this, 7 feet 3 inches. Immersed section, 91 feet. Speed

70

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[February,

at measured mile = 0 miles per hour. Although the Rondine and Antelope
are of the same capacity, they differ in the construction of their motive
powers : the former, the Rondine, having heam engines, the Antelope, oscillat-
ing or vibrating cylinder engines, both of the power of 40 horses. Cylinders
26J in, diameter, stroke, 2.0, and 34 strokes per minute. The beam engines are
of the usual construction, as designed by Boulton and Watt in 1818. The
various parts are reduced in strength as experience and improved manufac-
ture dictates ; we perceive they have in this case abolished the headstock
framing, substituting pillars and an entablature, secured longitudinally by
strong deck or paddle beams, they are continued through the side, support-
ing the ends of the paddle shafts, so that they have no connexion with the
spring-beam or frame of the paddle-boxes, thereby preventing tremulous
motion. This arrangement is by no means new, yet greatly to be recommended
and will shortly be applied to a vessel of 300 horse power. The oscillating
engines of the Antelope, in arrangment, are similar to those of the Virago,
published in the Journal, June 1841, Vol. IV., each engine having its
air-pump and condenser — the former worked by a small beam connected with
the cranked intermediate shaft. It may be mentioned as an argument in
favour of oscillating engines (of modeiat? power), that in these cases there is
a saving of rive feet in length of engine-room, and in weight of about six
tons. These engines occupy a space of 10 feet athwart, and five feet fore
and aft. The small amount of the former arises from the combination of
the parts, and must be advantageous in its application to vessels of narrow
beam. The boilers in both cases are of the common flue kind, weighing 7^
tons; or, with its apparatus and water (the latter five tons), 14 i tons; the
engines weigh 13 tons, making a total of 27£ tons complete. Both these
vessels are fitted with a disengaging apparatus for the paddle wheels, so that
they may be connected with, or detached from, the engines at pleasure,
which, as well as the engines of the Antelope are the subjects of a patent
lately granted to Mr. James Brown, of the firm of Boulton, Watt, and Co.

The Great Northern Steam-Ship.— This magnificent ship arrived off
Blackwall at the beginning of last month, and has since taken up a berth in
the East India Import Dock. The Great Northern has been built within the
last 12 months at Londonderry, by Captain Coppin, of that place. She is
a fine specimen of naval architecture. She is fitted with Mr. F. P. Smith's
patent screw propeller. Her dimensions and power are given in the Journal
for July last, p. 243, Vol. V., under the head of " The Monster Steam-Ship."

LIST OP NEW PATENTS.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM DECEMBER 28, 1842, TO JANUARY 28, 1843.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Alonzo Grandison Hull, of Clifford Street, Middlesex, doctor of medicine,
for " improvements in electrical apparatus for medical purposes, and in the
application thereof to the same purposes." — Sealed December 28.

Thomas Thompson, of Coventry, weaver, for " improvements in weaving
figured fabrics." — Dec. 28.

Henry Crosley, of the city of London, civil engineer, and George Stevens,
of Limehouse, gent., for " improvements in the manufacture of sugar, aud
the products of sugar." — Dec. 28.

Edward Thomas, Lord Thurlow, of Ashfield Lodge, Ipswich, Suffolk, for
" an improvement or improvements on bits for horses and other animals." —
Dec. 29.

Benjamin Bailey, of Leicester, frame-smith, for " improvements in ma-
chinery employed in the manufacture of stockings, gloves, and other frame-
work knitted fabrics." — Dee. 29.

John Stephen Bourlier, of Sherborn Street, Blandford Square, engineer,
for " improvements in machinery used in printing calicoes, silks, paper hang-
ings, and other fabrics." (A communication.) — Dec. 29.

Joseph Rock, Jun., of Birmingham, factor, for " improvements in the con-
struction of locks," — Dec. 29.

Henry Samuel Rush, of Sloane Street, mechanic, for "far improvements
in apparatus for containing matches for obtaining instantaneous linht." —
Dec. 29.

Baron Victor de Wydroff, of old Bracknell, Berkshire, for " improvements
in the construction of railways and in wheels to run on railways, and in ap-
paratus for clearing the rails." — Dec. 29.

John Bishop, of Poland Street, Westminster, jeweller, for " improvements
in apparatus for portioning steam power; and also improvements in plugs,
cocks, or taps for steam gases and liquids." — Dec. 29.

Crawshay Bailey, of Nant-y-Glo iron works, Monmouth, Esq., for " im-
proved construction* of rails for tramways and railways." — Jan. II.

James Harvey, Jun., of Regent Street, goldsmith, for " improvements in
steam engines." (A communication.) — Jan. 11.

William Ritter, of 106 Fenchurch Street, gentleman, for " improvements in
crystallizing and purifying sugar." (A communication.) — Jan. 11.

Julian Edward Disbrowe Rodgers, of Upper Ebury Street, chemist, for
'• improvements in the separation of sulphur from various mineral substances."
— Jan. 12.

William Jonn Loat, of Clapham, builder, for " an improved mode of con-
structing floors and roofs." — Jan. 12.

Pierre Armande Comte de Fontain le moreau, of Skinner's Place, Sise Lane,
for liprocess or processes of combining clay with som? olhf,r substances for
the producing of a certain ' ceramic paste,' capable of being moulded into a
variety of forms, and the application thereof to several purposes." (A com-
munication.)— Jan. 14.

James Harvey, of Bazing Place, Waterloo Road, timber merchant, for
improvements in paving streets, roads, and other places." (Partly a communi-
cation.)— Jan. 1 1.

William Snell, of Northampton Square, gentleman, for " improvements in
machinery for the manufacture of farina." — Jan. 14.

Nathaniel Card, of Manchester, candle-wick manufacturer, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of candlewicks, and in the machinery or apparatus
for producing such manufacture." — Jan. 14.

Henry Hussey Vivian, of Singleton, Glamorgan, Esq.. and William Gossage,
of Birmingham, manufacturing chemist, for " improvements in heating or re-
ducing ores of zinc ; also for improvements in furnaces to be used for re-
ducing ores of zinc, part of which improvements are applicable to other fur-
naces."—Jan. 14.

James Hamer, of Wardour Street, engineer, for " improvements in pro-
pelling vessels." — Jan. 19.

Thomas, Earl of Dundonald, of Regent's Park, for " improvements in
rotatory or revolving engines, and in apparatus connected with steam engines,
and propelling vessels." — Jan. 19.

Joseph Kirkman, Jun., of Soho Square, pianoforte manufacturer, for
"improvements in the action of pianofortes." — Jan. 19.

Thomas William Bennett, of Gray's Inn Road, timber merchant, for " im-
provements in paving or covering roads, streets, and other ways and surfaces."
—Jan. 19.

Luke Ilebert, of Dover, civil engineer, for " improvements in machines for
grinding, and for dressing or sifting grain, and other substances." — Jan. 19.

William Bates, of Leicester, fuller and dresser, for " improvements in the
dressing and getting up of hosiery goods, comprising shirts, drawers, stockings,
socks, gloves, and other looped fabrics, made from merino, lambs1 wool,
worsted, cotton, and other yarns, and in machinery for raising the nap or pile
in the same." — Jan. 6.

Thomas Sunderland, of Albany Street, Regent's Park, Esq., for " improve-
ments in moving floating bodies through water and air, and in accelerating the
flow of water, air, and other fluids, through shafts, pipes, and other chan-
nels."— Jan. 19.

Uriah Clarke, of Leicester, dyer, for " improvements in framework-knit-
ting machinery, anda new kind of framework-knitted fabric." — Jan. 21.

Frederick Albert Winsor, of Lincoln's Inn Fields, barrister-at-law, for
"new apparatus for the production of light." (A communication.) — Jan. 26.

Charles Frederick Bielefeld, of Wellington Street, North Strand, papier-
mache manufacturer, for " improvements in suspending or hanging swing
looking glasses and other articles requiring like movements." — Jan. 26.

William Palmer, of Sutton Street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of candles." — Jan. 26.

Henry Chapman, of Arundel Street, Strand, for " a fabric for maps, charts,
prints, drawings, and other purposes ." — Jan. 26.

Frances M'Gretrick, of Ernest Street, St. Pancras, artisan, and Matthew
Bailey Tennant, of Henry Street, Regent's Park, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in apparatus for preventing engines and carriages from going off rail-
ways, and for removing obstructions on railways." — Jan. 26.

Edward Smallwood, of North Lodge, Hampstead, gentleman, for " im-
provements in covering roads, ways, and other surfaces." — Jan. 26.

Robert Goodacre, of Ullesthorpe, Leicester, gentleman, for " improvements
in weighing apparatus applicable to cranes or other elevating machines, zvhere-
by the weight of goods may be ascertained while in a state of suspension." —
Jan. 26.

James Boydell, Jun., of Oak Farm Works, Dudley, Stafford, iron master,
for " improvements in the manufacture of metals for edge tools." — Jan. 26.

George Parker Bidder, of Great George Street, Westmiuster, civil engineer,
for " an improved mode of cutting that kind of slates, commonly called roof-
ing slates, though sometimes used for other purposes." — Jan. 26.

William James Greenstreet, of Blackfriars' Road, gentleman, for " im-
provements in machinery or apparatus for producing or obtaining motive
power." — Jan. 26.

Joseph Kirby, of Banbury, Oxford, gentleman, for " improved apparatus
for manufacturing bricks, tiles, and other articles from clay or earthy mate-
rials."-— Jan. 26.

George Phillips Bayly, of 146, Fenchurch Street, brush maker, for "im-
provements in brushes." — Jan. 26.

Henry Phillips, of Exeter, chemist, for " improvements in removing impu-
rities from coal gas for the purposes of light." — Jan" 26.

Martyn John Roberts, of Brynycaeran, Carmarthen, Esq., for '; improve-
ments in dyeing wool and woollenfabrics." — Jan. 26.

William Weild. of Manchester, Engineer, for " improvements apjilicable to
window blinds and curtains, part of which improvements are also applicable to
doors." — Jan. 28.

David Isaac Wertheimber, of West Street, Finsbury Circus, gentleman,
for " improvements in calculating machines, part of which improvements is
applicable topurposes whe?-e wheelwork is required. / — Jan. 28.

John Barrow, of East Street, Manchester Square, engineer and smith, for
"improvements in the manufacture and hanging of window sashes." — Jan. 28.

Ermines of H. M . STEAM SHIP VULTURE of 476. HC gFOWER.By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN & C? JliU Wall. Londc

Sh,,,o,,;,I Plafl. Top V,

•0«0»0Y(>*£*P|-;

jr? L .

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

71

ENGINES OF H. M. STEAM SHIP "VULTURE."

By Wji. Fairbairn & Co., Millwall Works, London.

( With two Engravings, Plates II and III.)

The general arrangement of these engines will be apparent, from
an inspection of the accompanying engravings. Their chief peculi-
arity consists in the arrangement of the parallel motion, and the
manner in which it is made available for working the air-pump. The
four main parts of each engine, viz., the cylinder, slide valves, con-
denser, and air-pump, form a square, and thus occupy the least pos-
sible area. With a speed of 220 feet per minute, and an effective
pressure of 71b. on the square inch, according to the regulation of
the Admiralty engineer officers, the power will be 238 horses for each
engine, or 470 horses collectively. The space occupied by the en-
gines is 12 feet 3 inches fore and aft, and 19 feet athwartships, and
the total length of the engine room is 52 feet 8 inches, with boilers
calculated for the full power of the engines; and 59 feet 8 inches,
with stowage for 440 tons of coal.

The leading dimensions and proportions are as follow — the letters
refer to the engravings.

A, Cylinder, 80| in. diameter.

B, Crank, 2 ft. 104 in. from centre to centre.
Length of stroke, 5 ft. 9 in.

C, Piston Rod, Si in. diameter.

D, Piston, with metallic packing rings, and steel springs.

E, Connecting Rod, 8 ft. 74 in. long, 10 in. diameter at middle, and

9 in. diameter at ends.

F, F, Base plate, cast in two parts, one for each engine, and firmly

joined in the middle. It projects equally on both sides of the
crank shaft, and takes hold of the ship for the length of 17 ft.
G in.

G, G, Wrought Iron Columns, 7 in. diameter, keyed into sockets on

the base plate, and rising through sockets cast on the cylinder, to
carry the entablature. The sockets on the cylinder are bored out
to fit the columns, but allowed to rise or fall with the elongation
or contraction of the cylinder.
H, H, Entablature, supported by the wrought iron columns G, G. It
is attached by bolts a a, to the engine beams b b, and these bolts
run through to the main paddle-beams c c ; diagonal trussing
being introduced between these beams.
I, I, Wrought iron cross stays, with the sockets d d forged in one
piece. These sockets are bored out to fit the columns which
pass through them, and are fastened with a cotter.

K, Wrought iron stays.

L, Shaft, fixed in a boss on the wrought iron stays K, and on which
the beams e e vibrate to work the air-pump, these beams being at
the same time the radius rods of the parallel motion of the
piston rod. On the outer and projecting end of this shaft, the
lever// for working the valves also vibrates.

M, Crank Pin, 11 in. diameter.

N, N, Slide Valves, 14 in. length of travel; 8-^ in. breadth of space.

O, O, Cylinder Ports, 40 in. long by 51 in. broad, and 1 in. open to the
steam when the engine is on the centre ; they are opened equally
for the ascending and descending strokes, as the engine is ba-
lanced by other means.

P, Condenser, cubic contents 103 ft; g, foot valve, h h, injection pipes
with Kingston's valves, k, sea injection cock, /, bilge injection
cock.

Q, Air Pump, 45 in. diameter.

Ditto length of stroke 2 ft. 104 in.

Air pump rod, cased with brass, 5J in. diameter.

R, Feed and Bilge Pumps.

S, Paddle shaft, 15| in. diameter of necks.

T, Eccentric.

U, Starting gear, power as 15 to 1.

V, Equilibrium Expansion Valve; i, cam for working expansion
valve.
No. 66.— Vol. VI.— March, 1843.

W, Waste water pipe and delivery pipe.
X, Steam pipe to each cylinder 174 in. bore.

Paddle wheels 26 ft. 6 in. diameter to extremity of floats.

Ditto, floats 8 ft. 9 in. long. Each float in two parts, and each

part 13 in. broad.
Boilers four in number placed back to back, 23 ft. 2 in. total
length, 2G ft. 10 in. total breadth, and 13 ft. high.
m, m, Shut oil' valves for steam, to connect or disconnect the boilers.
n, n, Safety valves, one on each boiler, with levers hi the engine room
to ease off the weights.

0, o. Vacuum or reverse valves.

p, p, Blow off cocks, one to each boiler, with Kingston's valves.
r, r, Man-holes to boilers.

s, Chimney, 5 ft. 10 in. diameter, and 44 feet high above steam-chest,
with double external casing.

1, Waste steam pipe, 17 in. bore, with internal pipe for condensed

water.

A CHAPTER ON CHURCH-BUILDING.

Being Comments on some Opinions thereon recently published.

By George Godwin, F.R.S., &c.

The Anglican church for some years past, if it may be said with ut
apparent want of respect, has neglected her duties. Zeal was
wanting on the part of her ministers, and luke-warmness, if nothing
worse, was the result on the part of the congregations. To remedy
this evil, many good and learned men have lately worked sedulously,
and have succeeded in raising a very different feeling from that
which existed before on the subject. Whether, as is often the case
after a violent re-action, an evil of an opposite character may be
caused — whether the freshly excited zeal has not, or may not, outrun
discretion, it would not become the writer to inquire in this place:
his business is simply with one result of the present state of opinion.
With greater attention to the rites and ceremonies of religion, has
come, very properly, greater regard for the buildings in which they
are celebrated. The text, " Is it time for you, O ye, to dwell in your
cieled houses, and this house lie waste?" has been powerfully com-
mented on in numerous places, and has been put forth in various
shapes ; while at both our Universities, as well as in many other
quarters, societies have been established, whereof the clergy are the
chief supporters, for the improvement of church architecture, and
for the preservation, and the proper restoration, of ancient models.
This has led to a corresponding increase of attention to the subject,
on the part of the professors of the art ; the principles of pointed
architecture (the ecclesiastical architecture of our forefathers), have
been investigated, and much sounder views have been arrived at than
were before general: so that not to mention what has been already
done, we may anticipate, without fear of disappointment, an impor-
tant improvement in every new church that may hereafter be erected.
One of the points dwelt on at considerable leugth by recent ecclesio-
logical writers, is, the symbolism of church architecture, the fact that
every ancient ecclesiastical building was intended to convey nume-
rous sacred truths by its form and arrangement, — and the consequent
deduction that ritualism should be carefully studied by all those who
may be called on to design churches.

A general outline of their views in this respect, regarding a church
as deduced from ancient buildings remaining to us, may be thus stated.
A chancel and a nave are the essential parts of a church ; the latter is
the representative of the church militant, the former of the church
triumphant. The chancel-arch, which defines and separates the two
(and is never to be omitted) images the close of our life. The en-
trance to the sacred structure should be at, or as close to, the west-end
as possible, and the font must be placed near it, typical of our entry
to the church militant by baptism.

When ailes can be added to the nave, the edifice becomes more per-
fect, as, apart from ih'- increased accommodation, the three parallel di-
visions so formed, serve in continuation of the symbolical system, to set

10

72

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

forth the Holy Trinity, to which numerous other references are ever
found, in the windows and tracery of ancient ecclesiastical buildings.
In a cruciform church, the best form, but to be adopted only when
funds are plentiful, the four arches at the junction of the nave, chan-
cel, and transept, symbolise that by the -writings of the four Evange-
lists, the doctrine of the cross is taught to the four quarters of the
world. Further, on the altar are to appear two candles, to signify
that "Christ is a light to lighten the Gentiles, and the glory of his
people Israel."

Now, that it is wise and proper to enforce this system so strongly
and so constantly as lias been done — to render matters of this descrip-
tion all-important — we should be quite unwilling to assert. We
would give all " the aid which slackening piety requires ;" we
would not

■ conceal the precious cross

Like men ashamed : the sun with his first smile,
Shall greet that symbol crowning the low pile ;
And the fresh air of incense-breathing morn,
Shall wooingly embrace it ; and green moss
Creep round its arms thro' centuries unborn."

We would place

" Our Christian altar faithful to the east,
Whence the tall window drinks the morning rays;'"

We would most worthily adorn the house of God, to render it to the
extent of our means fitting for its high purpose — but at the same
time we would carefully avoid all proceedings, however agreeable to
our temperament, however enticing to us as an artist, which should
give undue importance to bricks and stones, and man's inventions and
devices, which should increase the number of ceremonial observances,
which should threaten to exalt the shadow in the place of the sub-
stance, and so lead to a state of things which did once result from
such a course, and may result again, notwithstanding the increased
amount of information possessed, and the general comparative en-
lightenment.

Relative to the size of the chancel, the Cambridge writers say, it
" should not be less than a third, or more than the half, of the whole
length of the church. The larger it is made within the prescribed
bounds, the more magnificent will be the appearance of the build-
ing."1 Into this portion of the structure, none but those engaged in
the ceremonies are to enter ; and here the whole of the service is to be
performed with the exception of the sermon. The north side of the
chancel-arch is pointed out as the best position for the pulpit. It
seems to us, and we say it with the greatest deference, that a deep
chancel, such as is here insisted on, however magnificent and striking
it may, and does, make a building, is unsuited to the Protestant ser-
vice as it has been heretofore performed. The fact is evident in an
examination of the arrangements made in the majority of our cathe-
drals, wherein, if the service were read in the chancel, so to term it,
and the worshippers were confined to the nave, nothing said by the
priest at the altar could possibly be heard by them. In ordinary
sized parish churches too, if the chancel were one-third the length of
the building, and still less if half, the majority of priests would fail to
make themselves heard, unless indeed the altar were placed at the
west-end of it, with a reredos or screen, to rail off the remainder of
the chancel. The use of the rood-screen, still further to separate the
laity from the clergy, which is strongly insisted on, would throw an
additional impediment in the way. If it he not necessary that the
service should be heard and understood, and into this inquiry we will
not venture to go, then of coruse the objection vanishes. The very
occurrence of this question in the mind, however, serves to explain
■why the architectural works to which we have referred, are termed
by some, " engines of polemical theology."

Writers of the Roman Catholic faith insist on the inconsistency of
the position held by Protestant divines, who urge this and other
opinions relative to the form, arrangement, and decoration of our
churches. " The good men who are so earnestly labouring for the

» " A few words to Church Bui Iders," 2nd Edition. Published by " Cam-
bridge Camden Society," 1842.

revival of Catholic church architecture," says the Dublin Reviem, 2
must be convinced that we must have the Catholic service revived, in
the first place, before any real good can possibly be accomplished."
This last necessity, (Catholic meaning here Roman Catholic,) we deny
altogether. The principles of ancient church architecture, as applied
to suit one set of circumstances, being studied and understood, may
be adapted without difficulty to other, and in this case but slightly
modified, circumstances, and made to produce as efficient a result.
The remark, however, may possibly be deemed to apply in some
degree to those who would bring back all such forms and details as
were anciently used, although altogether unsuited to present require-
ments.

The antiquity alone, of a practice or form (strong as it makes its
claim), would hardly seem sufficient authority in all cases for its re-
vival: thus, (to illustrate our meaning from a different source,) the
certainty that the practice of burying in churches is of very ancient
date, and its consonance with our feelings, are now not deemed by the
majority sufficient reasons for its continuance, the injurious tendency
of the custom being fully known.

According to recent writers, nothing is to be done that has not
been done before. Fearing the ignorance of modern architectural
professors, (a little too imperiously stated, be it remarked, by some of
the non-professional writers,) the necessity of having a precedent
for every tower, and door, and window, and moulding, is insisted on.
Design nothing, copy all, is the deduction which forcibly presents
itself. " Inspice et fac secundum exemplar quod tibi monstratura
est." This course has safety to recommend it, but will hardly effect
for posterity, what our forefathers have done for us.

To rid our churches of close pews and lumbering galleries, and to
destroy the opinion, that to accommodate the greatest number of
people at the smallest possible cost, is the chief problem to be solved
in church building, would be a great achievement. Something has
already been done towards this very desirable end, and the work is
progressing. The fact once thoroughly understood, that more wor>
shippers may be seated by means of open benches than in pews, will
in this utilitarian age, operate more powerfully in leading to their
disuse, than any of the other numerous arguments against them
which have been advanced. So far as appearance is concerned, there
cannot be two opinions on the subject.

As an artist and an enthusiastic, though humble, advocate of the
fine arts, the writer cannot regard the present views on church deco-
ration, but with gratification, seeing in them the promise of a noble
field for their exercise and development. Less than seventy years ago,
Sir Joshua Reynolds, West, Barry, Dance, Cipriani, and Angelica
Kauffman, offered munificently to adorn the interior of St. Paul's Ca«
thedral with paintings, with the view of convincing the public of the
improvement in our sacred buildings, which might be effected by this
means, and so of obtaining an opening for the encouragement of
British art. The then Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of
London, however, could not be induced to entertain the p roposition,
on the ground that it savoured of Popery, and the idea was in conse-
quence abandoned. How doubtful of one's own judgment should
such marked changes in opinion make us — how tolerant of the senti-
ments of others should we be, remembering as all must, the different
light in which we ourselves have viewed the same circumstances at
different epochs, and the alteration which is constantly taking place
in our own views and opinions.

In one of the latest publications of the Cambridge Camden Society,
containing many very excellent suggestions,3 it is remarked, "a church
is not as it should be till every window is filled with stained glass, till
every inch of floor is covered with encaustic tiles, till there is a rood-
screen (?) glowing with the brightest tints and with gold ; nay, if we
would arrive at perfection, the roof and walls must be painted and
frescoed." In carrying out such views it is hardly necessary to say,
the greatest care must be taken to prevent a theatrical effect likely to
result from such a course, unless pursued with great judgment. We

2 February, 1842.

3 " Church Enlargement and Church Arrangement."

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

73

are disposed to think a more moderate use of colours than has been
made in recent restorations in London and Paris, might produce a
result equally excellent in an artistical, and more so in a devotional,
point of view. Scripture sentences upon the walls, " ywritten full
thicke," are amongst the most excellent and fitting adornments of a
church.

The increased use made of stained glass in England is exceed-
ingly gratifying, and the excellent specimens which have been
prepared lately show clearly, as the writer has on many other occasions
asserted, that we could produce stained glass quite equal to anything
that was done by our forefathers if proper encouragement were
afforded to the professors of the art. Difficult of attainment, expen-
sive in its processes, so much so, indeed, as almost to prevent experi-
mentalizing except for actual commissions, and labouring under the
weight of an erroneous opinion that the art was lost, glass-painting
had remained for a long time in a very languishing condition. Lat-
terly, however, it has revived considerably, and many large works in
various parts of the country are now in progress. The opinion enter-
tained of our want of skill in glass-painting is hardly yet removed.
The author of "A few words to Church Builders," says, "stained
glass is of much importance in giving a chastened and solemn effect
to a church. Those who travel on the Continent might find many
opportunities of procuring from desecrated churches, at a very trifling
expense, many fragments which would be superior to any we can now
make. But if it be modern, let us at least imitate the designs, if we
cannot attaia to the richness of hues which our ancestors possessed."
Against the opinion to be inferred from this, we will venture to place
our feeble protest. There is much old stained glass to be found on
the Continent inferior to what we can now make, and there is not a
great deal which we could not equal if the proper opportunity were
afforded. Moreover, we do not believe there are any hues possessed
by our forefathers which could not now be produced.

Let every material employed in the construction of a church be
real, is a wholesome injunction likely to produce excellent results,
although, perhaps, some may think it could be carried too far. It has
been too much the custom to endeavour to produce a showy and de-
ceptive external appearance, without proper regard to the fitness,
propriety, and excellence of all the various parts of the building,
which, indeed, have been sacrificed for it. While deal painted to
imitate oak, and Roman cement in lieu of stone, give entire satisfaction
to ourselves, and obtain the approval of the world, no efforts will be
made to obtain that which is better, and a niggardly calculating spirit
is engendered, grudgingly giving the "just enough," which is un-
worthy of Christians, and destructive of more good feelings than one.

In designing buildings in the pointed style, this same doctrine
cannot be too constantly reflected on. The more fully our ancient
edifices are studied, the more clearly does it become apparent that
nothing was introduced unnecessarily or deceptively for mere appear-
ance sake — that the excellence of effect, which is apparent, resulted
from the use of sound principles, laid down not with the view of pro-
ducing that effect, but with reference to stability, convenience, and
fitness; good taste and great skill being afterwards employed in
adorning that which was necessary, and making the Useful a producer
of the Beautiful. Plans were not made to accord with a fanciful eleva-
tion, entailing thereby loss of convenience, and unnecessary outlay,
but were arranged first, to suit the requirements of the time, and upon
these naturally the elevation followed. All decoration grew out of
the construction, and reason governed instead of caprice. This is
now better understood than it was a few years ago, and will doubtless
produce its fruit in due season.

The virtual abrogation of the regulation, at one time enforced by
the "Incorporated Society for Building Churches," that no timber
roof should be used without a tie beam, will do much to restore to
modern churches one of the most striking features of ancient build-
ings— the open arched roof — and is a subject for congratulation. The
same may be said of the feeling now fortunatelv growing, against the
tasteless tombs and monumental slabs with which our noble cathedrals
and churches have been gradually encumbered and overladen. Like

some frightful fungus, they have spread insidiously over all parts of
these structures, destroying alike their beauty, propriety, and sta»
bility. Our metropolitan Abbey presents a lamentable example of
the evil ; and it is to be hoped that the acknowledged good taste of
those who now govern there, will not merely prevent the increase of
this abomination, but lead, as opportunities may from time to time
offer themselves, to the removal of the excrescences now deforming
that fine building, and to a restoration of its harmonious proportions
and original integrity.

To say that every one of our ancient buildings should be most re-
ligiously preserved, is perhaps, less necessary now than it was some
little time ago; still it cannot be repeated too often, for alas! in-
stances of injury and destruction still occur, and not unfrequently.
Full of information, abundant of association, and suggestive of most
wholesome thoughts, they are contemporary histories, which once lost,
can never be replaced ; and in which every alteration even, or interpo-
lation, is an offence against society. They are the visible links which
make the past and the present one ; they are the standing monuments
of the Christian religion, and attest at one and the same time our
forefathers' piety and our forefathers' skill.

THE NEW ROYAL EXCHANGE.

Instead of being at all premature, some of the remarks we are
about to make come too late to be of the service they otherwise
might — that is, supposing suggestions so thrown out to be ever at-
tended to, which may fairly be questioned; for although architects
are apt to be not a little sensitive when their productions are ani-
madverted upon, they rarely seem disposed to screen themselves from
criticism by attending to, and profiting by, what it has objected to,
either in their own works or those of others. It is probable, therefore,
that our observations will be of just as much service now, as they
would have been if brought forward when they could have been acted
upon, at least fully taken into consideration before it had been deter-
mined to pursue an opposite course. But with regard to conside-
ration, none at all, as far as we can ascertain, appears to have been
given to what was one of the most essential points to be deliberated
upon at the very outset, viz. whether the new Exchange should be
covered in or not. All we know is that, instead of its being made a
question, it seems to have been settled, or rather assumed as matter
of course, that it should be a mere open court, such having been the
case in the former building. No idea of the possibility of any thing:
else appears to have occurred to any one — at least not to any one who
had a voice in the matter. Yet though we say it should have been
made a question for discussion, we do not think there was occasion
for much discussion, the advantages of the central area being covered
in instead of left open, being so many and so obvious, that merely to
specify them would have been sufficient, we think, to carry the de-
cision at once in favour of such plan. What could have been urged
in behalf of the contrary mode, the one actually adopted, we cannot
even conjecture; therefore, if any arguments at all were adduced in its
support or justification, we should be exceedingly glad to learn what
they were — which is more, we suspect, than any one can inform us.
The only satisfaction then left us, until we are so informed, is the
liberty of concluding that, notwithstanding all that was said at the
time about the vast importance of the Royal Exchange as " a National
Edifice, that should be in every respect worthy of the first commercial

city in the world," and much more to the sa ifrect ; very little of

careful consideration seems to have been bestowed upon it, great as
was the delay, and noisy as was the squabbling as to who should be
the architect.

Had a thought been given to the matter at the outset, it would
probably have been perceived that, even supposing it otherwise mere
matter of indifference whether the area W I D or not, there

was a golden argument to turn the Bcale in fivuur uf its being covered
—namely increased rental from tli" ■xterior of the build*

ing, in consequence of the greater space thai could then have been

10*

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

given up to them, without at all interfering with the accommodation
required for the body of the Exchange. According to Mr. Tite's plan,
the entire space occupied by the latter will be about 19,000 square
feet, but out of this number, 0500 will be quite open and unsheltered,
consequently cannot always be made use of for purposes of business.
Now had it been determined that the centre portion of the plan should
be covered in, there would have been shelter every where, therefore the
breadth of the ambulatories might have been considerably reduced, so
as to afford an additional depth of nine or ten feet to the shops— some
of which will now not be more than 7 feet in depth, or hardly that.
Even then the actual space available at all times for business would
have been the same, or rather more than will now be the case. And
so far from the architectural effect being at all injured by such con-
traction of the space behind the columns, it would, in our opinion, be
improved, and the whole would, in fact, appear to be more spacious
than it is now likely to do; for the width of the cloister portion or
ambulatories will now be so great, in order to provide a sufficiency of
sheltered space, that while they will look low and depressed, they
will occasion the open part or court to appear comparatively narrow
and squeezed up ; more especially as the same space looks consider-
ably less when uncovered than when roofed in.

We have heard it urged as an objection to the Exchange being
covered in, that it would be exceedingly difficult to light it from above
without a very great sacrifice of architectural character. We, our-
selves, however, are of a diametrically contrary opinion. Even sup-
posing it to be covered by a mere skylight as a protection from the
weather (as is the case with the cortile of the new structure at Liver-
pool, called the Brunswick Buildings) we do not see how that could
interfere with the architectural elevations of the sides. We do not
say it would be an improvement in point of appearance, but it would
not be any great drawback on it. Hardly, however, should we recom-
mend a skylight of that homely description for such a place as the
Exchange ; and skylights admit of being put into such a great variety
of form, whether introduced so as to appear mere cofferings or panels
receding little within the general surface of the ceiling; or as lan-
terns,— which may be ceiled above, and open only on their sides; and
further admit of such great diversity of decoration, that a roof of the
kind may be accommodated to any style and any design. While it is
the most original, its ceiling, with three large skylights of plate glass
(each consisting of two sloping planes parallel with those of the ex-
ternal and internal roof), is not the least happy idea in the interior of
the Walhalla, and certainly magnificent enough, it consisting almost
entirely of bronze and gilding.

For these fifty years at least, not a single edifice has been erected
for the purpose of an Exchange for merchants either in Europe or
America, but what has been covered in and protected from the
weather, and now, instead of further improvement being aimed at, we
are reverting to the old inconvenient plan of a mere open court, and
to what, as such, will be no better than a pent-up and dismal area,
except, perhaps, during a few remarkably bright days in the course of
a summer. Almost might it be imagined that the " open court" had
been determined upon, by the company of umbrella-makers, and by
that of " undertakers" also. The city worthies seem to have either
a very singular taste for uncomfortableness, or else very singular
notions of convenience. No sooner had the public began to congratu-
late themselves on the very great advantages attending wooden pave-
ments, than Sir Peter Laurie set about attempting not to put them
down, but to take them all up again.

The architect of the Royal Exchange has, it seems, had sufficient
influence with the Committee to prevail on them to have the pedi-
ment of the portico enriched with sculpture ; let him then now re-
commend, while it may be yet time, that the " area " should be
covered in above, for then it would be protected from the atmosphere
and its London smoke, as well as from the weather ; and as a hall
it would not only appear more spacious than as an open court, but also
more lightsome and cheerful — certainly would be more cleanly, be-
cause its pavement would be always dry.

As to the difference of appearance in regard to spaciousness, there

can be no doubt; for what sort of effect, we ask, as to size, would
Westminster Hall make without its roof. To an open cortile, in
itself, there can be no objection; but, we must contend, it is prepos-
terous to adopt it for a purpose where something more is obviously
required.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS XL VI.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. Since Mr. Gwilt not only entertains, but professes, so great a
horror of architectural critics, anonymous writers, amateurs, and
"literary idlers," as it pleases him to call them who amuse themselves
with architectural studies, it is to be hoped that some of them will
horrify him yet more. Myself, for one, it may be presumed, am num-
bered by him among the most offensive of the tribe, and reckoned an
incorrigible maiivais sujtt, and mischief-maker. Nothing, however,
can be more mischievous, or more completely opposed to the interests
of architecture, than the doctrine he puts forth ; for the drift of it is
not to encourage the study of it as an art, but actually to deter from
it. He would confine it entirely to the profession, treating with scorn
the idea that anv one else can acquire a competent knowledge of it,
even as a fine art, or form a correct taste. In his opinion, the less the
public know, or pretend to know, of it the better ; and if he means
better for himself and those (if there be any) of his way of thinking,
he is undoubtedly right. Hitherto it has generally been made a sub-
ject of pride and congratulation, that architecture has enlisted among
its most zealous votaries, persons of refined taste and liberal educa-
tion, many of whom have rendered it essential services by their pen.
But Mr. Gwilt views the matter in a very different light : he is for
changing it altogether, and "heretoforivard" — to make use of his own
quaint expression — the whole race of Benthams, Hopes, Dallaways,
Whewells, &c, are to be looked upon as mere " literary idlers," who,
furnished with no more than a few purblind ideas, and crude notions,
which they have picked up by chance, pretend to instruct and inform
others in matters of architecture. Yet it is to such industrious
" idlers," that we are indebted for the far greater part of what is
known of the history of the art; very little information of that kind
has been supplied by architects themselves, and what they have
written at all seldom extends further than to the mere elements and dry
rules of their art ; what may be termed the philosophy of it, being
rarely touched upon by them.

II. Instead of taking it amiss of Gwilt that he has omitted his work
in his list of architectural publications, Wightwick ought to consider
himself a very lucky fellow in escaping a good dressing from him, for
having recommended the study of architecture as a very delightful,
and also a very suitable, one, not only for " idle " gentlemen, but
proh pudor .' for "woman kind" also. He and Gwilt are the two
poles of opinion; while the latter would confine the study to those
whose proper business it is, Wightwick would have it rendered acces-
sible to all ; the one would have it kept as a well-watched preserve,
with a due warning of " Man-traps and spring-guns " to scare away
the public — the other is for breaking down all its paling and fences,
and throwing it open as a common, where every one may stroll, and
where literary geese are free to pick up what they can, and to hiss,
without having their necks wrung off for their presumption. It is
G wilt's opinion that the less the public meddle with architecture
the better ; on the other hand, Wightwick's, that the more thfr
public understand and render themselves competent judges of it, the
better both for them and for the art itself, and those who practise it.
Nor is it altogether unreasonable to suppose that people would take more
interest in what they understood, than in what they are now ignorant
of; and further, that the greater and more extended the interest taken
in it by the public, all the better would it be for those whose interest

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:.>

of another kind it is, that, instead of a mere swinish multitude, they
should have an intelligent public to deal with. As far as there is
cause for complaint in that respect at all, it is not that there are so
many " amateurs " and persons without the pale of the profession
who study, or pretend to study, architecture, but that there are so
few. Infinitely better would it be if the whole public, that is all
persons of education were in a manner amateurs.

III. At last Boz has introduced a new character— one which has
hitherto not been handled by either dramatist or novelist — in the per-
son of Mr. Pecksniff", the architect. All other professions — the medical
and the legal more especially, have been represented and shown up
so frequently, that characters of that class are almost worn out. The
wonder, therefore, is that no one should have before thought of
turning to the architectural one. Whether, in entering upon this fresh
track, Mr. Dickens has provided himself with a carte du pays, re-
mains to be seen, for all that can be understood at present is, that
Pecksniff* is to be a very prominent character in the work ; but it is
not quite so clear if he is intended to be the representative of a class
in the profession, or merely an individual who might equally well have
been represented as belonging to any other. If, as he very well may do,
Boz should show up the peculiar kind of charlatanry which stamps
the architectural quack, and distinguishes him from all others of the
duck-like genus — should he expose the arts by which men totally
destitute of artistical talent and feeling for art, obtain credit with the
public for being artists — should he disclose some of the clever tricks
practised at competitions by very " respectable " people — should he
indulge in some pleasant hits at the vox el prceterea nihil pedants, who
can merely talk by book and by rote, without an idea of their own —
should he, among other things, exhibit Pecksniff as an architectural
lecturer, gammoning his bewildered audiences with mere rhodomon-
tade and fiction, — should he do this, Dickens will deserve our thanks,
and the gratitude of the honest part of the profession. Still we have
our misgivings, and suspect that Pecksniff will turn out rather an
overdrawn and ill-drawn caricature, than an ably delineated character
and portraiture from real life. Of extravagant and tedious caricatu re
there is certainly not a little, in the manner in which Pecksniff is first
presented to us — blown down by the wind at his own door. Had any
one else given us such a tirade of laboured nothingness, and dull at-
tempt at grotesque pleasantry, it would at once have been pronounced
intolerably childish stuff'; whereas, now the critics will perhaps dis-
cover it to be ^ery fine — one, indeed, has done so already.

IV. I entertain about the same affection for law books that Gwilt
does for German architecture and German architects. Why does not
a second Omar come to purge the world of them ? Even a book
bound in "law fashion" has to me a very odious look; it seems to
Lave put on the uniform of that Tartuffe race of wolves in sheep's
clothing, or at any rate wolves dressed up in calf's skin. Neverthe-
less, I have done that which a month ago I should have said was im-
possible ; yes, I have actually been seduced into reading an articl e in
the Law Magazine, one, certaiuly, that I should never have thought of
looking for there, consequently might never have known of at all, had
it not been put into my hands by a friend, when, to my utter astonish-
ment, I found it contained a paper headed "Architectural Novelties".'
It was like having a sovereign palmed upon one between a couple of
halfpence; almost was it like my first meeting with Young's desctip-
tions of magnificent country seats, sparkling like bright and verdant
oases over the arid waste of such dreary matter as crops, and hoeing
and drilling. Most truly does the poet say :

" Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear."

yet I doubt if the dark unfathomed caves, or bottomless pit of the
law, contain anything more relating to architecture, whether in the
shape of "novelties" or antiquities. There can, however, be no
doubt, that a vast number of papers, of one kind or another, relating to
architecture lie buried in literary journals and periodicals, foreign ones
more especially. Were the best, or even some of the most interesting
of them, collected and reprinted, they would form a Heading Architec-

tural Library of considerable extent. It is by poking about in periodi-
cals that we stumble upon such treasures as Edward Collow's descrip-
tions of, and remarks on, many of the recent public buildings of Paris-
things, therefore not likely to be met with by gentlemen like Gwilt, who
despises periodical literature, and, though he has not ventured to say
so, no doubt abhors architectural periodicals most of all. Neither are
they likely to come to the notice of those who pore over the writings
of the " venerable" Vitruvius, and carefully collate all the readings of
different authors, in hopes of being able to catch a glimpse of the
meaning of the mysterious " Scamilli impares." But the Law Magazine ;
— be it known, then, to all whom it may concern, that its article on
"Architectural Novelties" gives some account of the Hall and Li-
brary about to be erected by Mr. Hanlwick, in the gardens at Lincoln's
Inn, at the south-west corner or south end of the terrace. The build-
ing is to be of red brick, and in the style of the older parts of Hamp-
ton Court. The Hall or Dining Room will be 120 X 15 and 54 feet
high, and the Library 80x40 and 4^> feet high; and both will have
timber roofs. The remainder and longer part of the article relates
to the restorations and embellishments of the Temple Church.

V. Raczynski is pleased to speak in exceedingly complimentary
terms of the architecture of Edinburgh, and its recent buildings, as
being in better taste than those of London ; but then it is only in such
safe general terms, that what he says amounts to nothing — at least to
nothing more than a bare opinion to that effect, for he does not even
mention a single one of the structures he pretends to admire. If the
Nelson Monument was one of them, his praise is not greatly to be
coveted. Speaking of that " monstrosity," the writer of the. "Re-
marks on the Edinburgh Parthenon," tells us that " it ought to be
pulled down" ; nor is the same unlikely to be said of the other "Nel-
son Monument" in Trafalgar Square.

VI. It is provoking to find that the stupid Germans now propose to
erect a public monument to Schinkel, just after Gwilt has put an ex-
tinguisher upon him. A public monument to a fellow' who was no
more than a mere " scene painter " in architecture ! to one who was
little better than an audacious heretic in the art, an insolent reformer,
setting at defiance both Pope Vitruvius and Pope Palladio, and did
not even abide by the authority of the Greeks themselves, but would
fain be "tampering" with the ancient orders, like a conceited cox-
comb as he was, in the hope of improving them, or at least of pro-
ducing something as good, and not quite so hackneyed. A monument
to Schinkel, indeed ! Zounds ! we will be revenged on those scurvy
Germans, for we will erect a public monument to Gwilt ; therefore
the sooner he gives us the opportunity of doing so, the better.

PONT DU CARROUSEL, PARIS.

In the Journal of August, 1S42, I stated that an improvement
worthy of notice had been introduced in the construction of the Pont
du Carrousel, at Paris, consisting in the application of wrought iron
keys, so disposed as to obtain great precision in setting the segments
of the tubular voussoirs, of which the arches of this bridge are com-
posed. My intention is to explain more particularly in this paper,
how far the application of these keys materially facilitated the casting
of the voussoirs separately, and to show their useful effect in the con-
struction of the arc on the piers.

The amount of contraction of cast iron, in the act of cooling in the
mould in which it has been run, is variable; for although, as stated, the
general average may be considered to be about -p^, this measure can-
not be taken as an absolute quantity: it may be sensibly modified, by
many circumstances, such as the quality of the metal, its temperature
when run into the mould, and the greater or less rapidity of the
cooling process. This difference is not of material importance in
short pieces, but in a length of upwards of 160 feet, it may amount
to some inches, and when the pieces are cast in great lengths, (or even
if they are in short lengths,) and the joints are intended to bed fairly
against each other, as is the case in bridges of the ordinary con-

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

struction, this difference becomes a source of considerable trouble and
annoyance.

It is objectionable to have to add to the length of pieces when
cast, and to avoid this, the patterns are usually made full long,
thereby allowing for the greatest possible contraction of the metal ;
so that generally speaking, a certain portion of each casting has to
be removed by the chisel or otherwise, to get the pieces to their
proper length. Notwithstanding these precautions, there will be oc-
casional wasters, which may be properly or improperly patched up,
or which if thrown away, give rise to extra expense and delay.

When the constructor has plenty of time at his disposal, he pro-
ceeds with still further caution, by casting the principal pieces, and
having them put together; after this, the pattern of the remaining
length is corrected, and sent to the foundry with the certitude, that
the casting will come in pretty well ; thus, by dint of precaution, delay,
and expense, the work is got through to this stage, and if the mason
work is prepared with the same care and precision, all will be found
to come in very well; but a stone pier has been known to be a little
out of its proper position, either in consequence of an error or the
settling of the work upon its foundation. When this takes place, it
becomes requisite to let the cast iron into the stone work on one side
of the pier, and to place a thickness of metal between the pier and
the cast iron on its other side. All these imperfections are only felt
during the construction, they do not at all diminish the strength or
interfere with the durability of the work, but generally speaking, all
those who have been engaged in cast iron bridge building, will have
bad to exercise their ingenuity, not only to correct such evils, but at
the same time to proceed in such a manner, that they may not leave
an indelible trace on the face of the work. There is, therefore, no
doubt but that the facility of extending, or diminishing, the chord
line or the versed sine of the arch, would on many occasions be of
considerable advantage.

The keys placed at each end of the segments, of the tubular vous-
soir, remove all the above mentioned objections, for the segments
being kept rather short, the space will have to be divided amongst
some 10 or 12 joints, so that three or four inches, more or less, in the
total length of the arch, will only require the wrought iron keys to be
made a little thicker or thinner than they were originally intended to
be, and as they are not made until after the arc has been placed, no
extra expense will be incurred, or time lost.

The division of the arc into so many pieces, offers another advan-
tage, as, by reducing the weight of each separate piece, the whole can
be moved about, and managed with great facility, and without requir-
ing such powerful tackle, or such strong centering, as is generally
employed. When the number of segments comprised in an arc are in
their place, a wood model is made for each key, and the keys are
forged and fitted in their places, without being immediately driven
home ; plumb bobs being suspended from the joint of the tubular rib,
it becomes very easy to set the whole in a perfect line, by driving the
keys on either side as may be required ; and by making the keys
sufficiently long, the height of the arc can be regulated with the ut-
most facility and precision. The keys being driven, and the whole of
the tubular arc in its proper place, the bolt holes, those of one fianch
having been cast in, are drilled in the opposite one, and the bolts
placed and tightly screwed up, attention being paid at the same time
to the plumb bobs, as the effect of screwing up the nuts may be to
cause a deviation in the line of the arc, which is again easily rectified
by means of the keys, and the bolts cannot otherwise affect the form
of the arc.

Openings were reserved from distance to distance along the upper
joint of the voussoir, for the purpose of introducing melted bitumen,
which, when the bridge was finished, was done, in order to fill up the
space remaining between the lamellated wooden rib, and its cast iron
covering. This bitumen being intended, by setting when cool, to form
a compact mass of the whole arc, with a view to increase its rigidity.
The wooden arc, as I have already said, greatly facilitated the
erection of the tubular voussoir, and when standing alone, previous to
the application of the latter, it had a wonderfully light and elegant

appearance ; but it becomes a question whether, in reality, it is at all
requisite to the solidity of this kind of bridge, its flexibility being so
great that it cannot in any way be expected to come to the assistance
of the cast iron, which, if accidentally forced out of its original
position, by any extraordinary lateral strain (the only one that could
affect it) would break long before the internal wooden rib could offer
any useful resistance to the strain. It also remains to be ascertained
whether the wood thus confined in the tubular voussoir, will not be
very subject to decay, notwithstanding every precaution that has been
taken to preserve it.

The annular system of spandrils, adopted by M. Polonceau, forms
another remarkable feature in this construction ; they combine strength,
with lightness, and give an elegant appearance to the bridge. Their
circular form renders them elastic; they spring under the load, so that
the vibratory action, communicated to the roadway, and the upper
side of the annular support, is neutralized ere it can arrive at [the
main rib, which, therefore, as I have already observed, maintains the
most rigid firmness, under the heaviest load.

At the same time that the vibratory action is destroyed, they pre-
sent also the advantage of distributing the load acting at a particular
point on the road, over a considerable length of the main rib of the
arch, as will be shown by the diagram.

Let us suppose three rings a, b, c, placed between a beam d, and an
upper platform; and that a weight W be placed on the platform im-
mediately over the ring 6 ; under such circumstances the vertical di-
ameter of the ring 6, will be shortened, and its horizontal diameter
will be lengthened in the same ratio ; half the increased length of the
horizontal diameter of b, will be taken from each of the horizontal
diameters of a and e, and added to their vertical diameters, thus
raising the platform immediately over the centres a and c, and by
increasing its resistance, will remove a portion of the load W from
the point b, to the centres a and c, thereby distributing it along the
beam d.

As a proof of the advantage of this mode of construction in point
of economy, it will be sufficient to mention, that although the length
of this bridge between the buttresses, is nearly 500 feet, it was com-
pleted for £40,000, including every expenditure; and that, in a
country where metal is very high priced. I can conscientiously
affirm, that every precaution was taken, and every outlay made, that
could be required to obtain good workmanship, and a solid construc-
tion. The whole of the tubular ribs were moulded in dry sand, and
cast in second fusion, and the wrought iron employed is of the very
best quality for the purpose.

When the bridge was finished, it became necessary, according to
the government regulation, to test its strength by distributing a given
load over the entire surface of the road way, the government officers
in the meanwhile, minutely inspecting the work, to ascertain whether,
under the strain, any defect would become apparent. This, in France,
is an invariable rule adopted as a legislative measure of public
security; and, until you can present a favourable report from these
officers, it is impossible to obtain permission to open the bridge. We
commenced by making an observation in the morning early, to deter-
mine the positive height of each arch, previous to any load having
been placed on the bridge. The load (about 400 lbs. avoirdupois
upon every square yard of surface) was then laid on, and in the after-
noon we found that, under the load, each arch stood higher than it did
in the morning without the load.

The morning (October) had been very cool, the sun coming out
later in the day heated the metal, and increased its length, so that the

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•whole difference in the height was occasioned by expansion; it became,
however, requisite to ascertain if such was positively the case, ami by
leaving the load on the bridge, and taking an observation again when
the metal was cool, we found that the arches had returned to their
original position. There is nothing surprising in this circumstance,
although without reflection it would appear rather paradoxical, and I
mention it, not with a view of exemplifying the effect of expansion,
which is of course understood, but because I consider the peculiar
system on which this bridge is constructed, to be favourable to the free
action of expansion and contraction, without thereby being subjected
to any strain at all detrimental to its general strength.

The part of the bridge, most immediately exposed to the action of
heat and cold, and more particularly to the action of the sun, is the
arc itself, the upper part of the spandrils being protected by the pro-
jection of the platform, consequently large castings would be subject
to unequal contraction and expansion and consequent strain, which
must very much weaken them, whereas, in bridges constructed upon
this principle, the flexibility of the whole system is so great, that the
expansion of the tubular rib, by increasing the versed sine of the arc,
can lift the entire arch without subjecting any part of it to such a re-
sistance as would tend to diminish its strength.

H. H. Edwards.

London, Feb. 20, 1S43.

VARIABLE ORIFICE OF THE BlAST PIPE OF LOCOMO-
TIVE ENGINES.

In the February number of the Journal, I described a " Self-acting
Expansion Slide Valve" and in the course of the explanation, re-
ferred to having obtained patents abroad for an apparatus, by means
of which, the orifice of the blast pipe of locomotives, can be regu-
lated by the engine driver ; I will endeavour in this paper to describe
the apparatus, and to point out its general utility.

The determination of the area of the orifice of the blast pipe, is
of importance in the construction of locomotives ; upon its proportion
depends the supply of a sufficient quantity of steam for the service of
the engine, and also its comparative effective pressure upon the
piston. It may be made so large, or so small, as to prevent the engine
from performing her allotted amount of duty ; and the application of
this blast of steam, may be considered (next only to the boiler itself),
the most useful invention in this beautiful machine, so essential a
complement thereto, that the locomotive engine would have been very
imperfect without it. The possibility of its successful application
having been ascertained, experience promptly indicated the extreme
limits of the area of the blast, within which the engine could exert
her power; but it still remains to be decided as an invariable rule,
what the exact size should be within these limits, to produce the most
useful effect ; and you will very seldom find any two engineers who
adopt the same sized blast, for engines of the same power.

When the diameter of the orifice of the blast pipe is too great, the
energy of the blast will decrease, and the draught through the fire
will not suffice to generate the quantity of steam required to keep up
the speed of the engine; when, on the contrary, the diameter is too
small, the resistance behind the piston will become so great, in con-
sequence of the steam not being able to escape through the con-
tracted passage, as sensibly to reduce its effective power on the
piston. Within these two extreme limits (if an invariable orifice of
blast is adopted) it at first sight appears, that there must be an inter-
mediate point at which, if it could be attained, an engine would per-
form the greatest quantity of work, with the smallest quantity of
fuel. This intermediate point, if it can be admitted to exist, is ex-
ceedingly difficult to discover, because a locomotive engine has to
overcome a degree of resistance that is constantly changing, either on
account of the load, the action of the wind, the state of the rails, or
other causes.

In the preceding paragraph, speaking of the extreme limits of the

size of blast, within which an engine may work equally well, some
doubt is expressed as to whether there exists an intermediate point
that might be preferable, as enabling the engine to perform more ef-
fective duty. It is probable tint within a certain limit, the blast (if
iuvariable) may be made of any intermediate size, witliout sensibly in-
fluencing the average effect produced, the inconvenience and advan-
tage resulting from the change being so nicely balanced, that no sen-
sible difference could be discovered. If such is allowed t» be the
case, the efficacy of the variable blast must be manifest without a
trial.

In order to diminish the resistance behind the piston at the return
of the stroke, the elasticity of the steam his been taken advantage
of; a chamber placed at the foot of the blast pipe, by allowing the
steam to expand on its escape from the cylinder, relieves the engine,
and has permitted the adoption of the most contracted orifice of
blast, that I have yet seen successfully employed. The greatest relief,
however, has been obtained by throwing off the steam considerably
before the piston arrives at the end of the stroke, thereby enabling it
to expand before the return of the piston, and thus very effectually
diminishing its resistance ; and although by so doing a portion of the
effective power of the steam is lost, it is at the same time a judicious
choice between two evils, and if not adopted, the discharge of the
steam from the cylinder at the moment of the return of the piston
would determine a powerful resistance to its free action, and so re-
duce the effective power of the engine.

The contraction of the blast pipe being an inconvenience inse-
parable from the condition of generating a good supply of steam in
the locomotive boiler, it becomes important to partially remove this
inconvenience when practicable ; and as the state of the fire, and the
quantity of steam required, are frequently varying, it may be posi-
tively assumed that an invariable contraction of the blast pipe is an
imperfection, and that even supposing the question as to the best pos-
sible dimension were decided, and a generally admitted rule laid
down, it would only then be really perfect for some particular load,
and state of the fire ; and that with a different load, or state of the
fire, the determined orifice of the blast would be objectionable ;
therefore, it may be concluded that the faculty of regulating the con-
traction of the blast, so as to have full power over the production of
steam, must be in itself a desirable condition, and that if by the same
means, the average resistance behind the piston can be diminished,
the " ensemble " may be admitted to be a material improvement.

It frequently occurs that there is either too much, or not enough
steam in the boiler; when there is too much, it is the usual custom to
open partially, and sometimes entirely, the fire door, so that by ad-
mitting a current of cold air into the fire box, and through the tubes
the production of steam will be diminished ; but this remedy is very
objectionable, and should be applied as seldom as possible, because
the rush of cold air may give rise immediately, or subsequently, to
leakage in the hoops, and must very much contribute to the destruc-
tion of the tubes, and to injure the boiler itself; whereas, if it were
possible to enlarge the orifice of the blast pipe on such occasions, the
fire would be damped, and the steam would fall, probably without
having to open the fire door at all.

When there is not enough steam, the draught through the fire, in
consequence of the low pressure of the steam, and the slow motion of
the engine, will necessarily be less energetic than it ought to be, the
means of exciting the fire becoming inefficient at the time when its
assistance is most wanted. A good engineer will certainly tal.
that this occurs as seldom as possible, but there are accidental
over which he has not sufficient controul, and on such occasions the
power of contracting the orifice of the blast pipe would be \ery
beneficial, by enabling him materially to increase the rapidity with
which the fire would be brought up to its proper state.

When a heavy train is going up a steep incline, its speed will de-
crease; the strokes of the engine being less frequent, the draught
through the fire will also diminish in intensity, and the quantity of
steam generated may no longer be sufficient; a slight contraction of
the orifice of the blast pipe would then increase the power of the

78

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

blast, the action of the fire, the production of steam, and the speed of
the engine.

The engine driver generally manages his engine and fire, in such a
manner, as to obtain a full supply of steam previous to his arrival at
the foot of the incline ; with the assistance of the variable blast, he
■would naturally (having plenty of steam) enlarge the orifice of the
blast pipe, and thus by diminishing the resistance behind the piston,
would increase the power of the engine, so that although going up
the incline, she might still maintain sufficient speed to keep up the
steam, notwithstanding the enlarged orifice of the blast pipe.

When running down an incline, the orifice of the blast pipe being
opened to its greatest extent, the draught will be considerably di-
minished, because at the same time the regulator will be partially
shut ; the steam may in this way be very effectually kept down, al-
though the incline may be many miles in length : and by contracting
the orifice towards the approach of the foot of the incline, steam may
be again obtained, without having had to expend steam from the
boiler, to increase the draught through the fire, thus effecting an
economy in the consumption of fuel.

By good management, the engineer can therefore have full power
over the production of steam, so as at all times to have, a good supply,
and to prevent almost entirely the loss occasioned by its escape from
the safety valves while the engine is in motion; and taking into con-
sideration the frequent occasions on which advantage may be derived
by varying the orifice of the blast pipe, it may be inferred that it is
as requisite to have full command of this orifice, as it is, to be able to
determine the position of the regulator. The speed of the engine
may, moreover, be occasionally regulated with advantage, by varying
the orifice of the blast pipe, without altering the position of the
steam regulator.

To carry out, in a practical manner, the variable contraction of this
orifice, it is requisite

That the apparatus should be easily constructed and applied, and
not liable to get out of order ;

That its action should be simple and effective;

That an indicator should show the area of the orifice under which
the engine is working.

Having pointed out the general advantages I propose to derive
from the application of a variable blast, I will now describe the ap-
paratus that has been employed, which will be clearly understood,
with the assistance of the annexed figures.

In the construction of this variable blast, there is one point on
which it is proper here to make a remark, which if not attended to,
would materially tend to destroy the good effect to be produced.

The annular space between the internal cone and the orifice of the
blast pipe, if too much contracted, diminishes the energy of the blast;
so that it is necessary that, at the point of greatest contraction, with
a view to obtain the strongest draught, the relative diameter should
be so calculated as to leave nearly a half of an inch of space, for
the passage of the steam between the internal moveable cone and the
edge of the blast pipe.

I The intensity of the draught through the fire can be weakened,
therefore, either by enlarging or by contracting the orifice of the blast
pipe, beyond a certain limit. I have occasionally regulated the mo-
tion of an engine by the contraction of the blast pipe, leaving at the
same time the regulator wide open, because by contracting the orifice
more or less, the pressure behind the piston may be varied, and so
regulated as to augment or diminish the effective action of the steam
on the piston. The adoption of this variable blast may also be con-
sidered as an extra security, for by keeping the internal regulating
cone of the blast pipe closed, while an engine is required to remain
stationary, no danger could arise from the accidental opening of the
regulator.

Explanation of the Figures.
Fig. 1. Longitudinal elevation of a Locomotive Boiler, part of the
smoke box being removed to show the extremity of the blast pipe.
The circular portion of the boiler between A and L is omitted.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. Plan of the orifice of the blast pipe, showing the regulating
internal cone B, with its three guide ribs 6, 6, b,
upon an enlarged scale ; A, smoke box ; B, regulat-
ing cone of the variable blast; 6, b, b, three thin
ribs or feathers, attached to the regulating cone B,
for the purpose of keeping the cone B exactly in the
centre of the blast pipe; C, vertical rod, to which is

attached the reg ulating cone; D, part of the chimney; E, blast pipe;

F, hand gear to work the cone B; K, graduated plate fixed to the

fire box, to show the position of the cone B, and the exact area of the

orifice of the blast pipe; L, fire box.

London, Feb. 11M, 1843. H. H. Edwards.

The Tomb of Napoleon. — The following details are given by one of
the journals resp ecting the tomb iu honour of Napoleon at the Invalides : —
In the lower part of the equestrian statue of the Emperor, which is to be
erected in the court-yard, a door will be opened to a long gallery leading
under the dome of the building. This gallery, paved with marble in all its
length, is to be divided into three sections — in the first of which will be
placed bronze alto-relievos, representing the military deeds of the republic of
the emperor. The second, which exists already, and is consecrated to the
interment of the governors of the Invalides, is to be enlarged, and the tombs
at each side will be fenced off with bronze railing. The third section will be
also adorned with alto-relieros in bronze, recording the most notable acts of
the empire not military. Under the dome will be placed the tomb of the
Emperor made of Corsican granite, fin it will be engraved, in letters of gold,
the single word — Napoleon.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

BALLARD'S ICE BOAT.

79

wsgmmmw .^

The above engraving is an isometrical view, drawn to a scale of
eight feet to the inch, of the ice boat, for which Mr. S. Ballard, had
the honour of receiving of the Institution of Civil Engineers a Telford
medal.

This boat was first used in the year 183", on the Hereford and
Gloucester Canal, and has been in operation, whenever required, ever
since. It breaks the ice by ploughing or forcing it upwards, and does
not require more than one-fourth of the power necessary to break the
ice on the old plan of forcing it downwards against the water.

The ice-breaking frame A consists of three pieces of timber marked
n, fastened together by two cross pieces c and e. That part of the
frame which lies over the boat is boarded or planked over; one part
so as to form a platform for men to stand upon, the other part raised
in the middle and cased with sheet iron, that the ice may not lodge
on it. The frame lies on the front of the boat, which is sloped down
as shown at a b. The frame is made with deal timber; the two out-
side pieces each 27 ft. G inches long by 9 in. by Si in. the middle
timber 31 ft. long by 12 in. by 7 in. These timbers are rounded on
the top as far as they project over the front of the boat, and the uDder
sides are made narrower than the top sides.

The boat is decked over from a to b, and when the ice is very
strong, she has a temporary boarding over, of inch board, as far as the
centre. The spar B, which projects over the stern of the boat, has
the large end chained down to the middle of the boat.

The piece of timber C is attached to the spar B by a chain. It is
about one ton in weight, and prevents the boat rising behind when the
ice presses upon the frame on the front of the boat. It floats on the
water and the chain is strained in proportion to the thickness of the
ice. The timber is also chained to the stem of the boat. By these means
the slope or inclination of the ice-breaking frame is kept always the
same, with the advantage of a short boat, which is easily steered and
managed.

The pole or shaft h is for the purpose of steering the boat. It is
attached to the end of the spar by a chain, and is balanced by a weight
n, so that its weight may be trifling in the hands of the steerer who
walks on the towing-path.

The boat, and also the upper sides of the ice-breaking frame are
cased with sheet iron. The hauling line is attached to the chain o.

When the ice-breaking apparatus is not required, it may be taken
off, and the boat used for other purposes.

THE GREAT BRITAIN STEAM SHIP.

It was but lately that our attention was drawn to an article, pub-
lished in the Xautical Magazine for January last, written by Mr. J.
S. Enys, entitled " Remarks on Nominal Horse-power," and which is
evidently a critique on an article of ours published in the Journal,
Vol. V. p. 357, on "The Great Britain Steam Ship," the same having
been copied into the Nautical Magazine of last November.

The object of Mr. Enys's paper is to shew the fallacy of calculations
made on nominal horse-power, in fact power calculated by the rules of
the late Mr. Watt, in as much as modem practice has deviated from our
great master in the amount of boiler pressures, from 2 £ and 31b., to
5, 6, 7, S, and sometimes 10 lb. per square inch, and then proceeds to
prove that the consumption of fuel by the Great Britain will be just
one-half or one-third (according to the expansion) of that computed
by ourselves. — He states much that is true, and something that is
erroneous, and we consider, that he is guilty of omission; inasmuch, that
he does not follow out his argument (he is undoubtedly able) and de-
monstrate what diminution of speed would result on the employment
of expansion, especially to so great an extent as one-half and two-
thirds of the stroke.

We must do ourselves the justice to say, and we are sure our
readers will agree with us, that our observations were temperate,
written, not in a feeling of opposition, but merely to elucidate and
draw attention to what we considered errors in practice. How far we
are correct in our views with reference to the case of the Great
Britain (late Mammoth) time and experience only will show, we are
fully content to abide by the issue.

It will be seen on reference, that we expressly guarded ourselves
against any misunderstanding with respect to the character of our
data, and took the trouble to explain that we were indebted for them to
Mr. Hill, a writer in the 9%th Number of the Mechanics' JWagazine, so
that our deductions are dependent on the accuracy of the matter there
given. It does not, however, appear that Mr. Enys disputes any

portion excepting the correct delineation of the boiler details, so that
we were right in taking the cylinder at 83 inches diameter, 6 feet
stroke, and 19 strokes per minute. In our article we entered
into a calculation, founded on the capacity of the cylinders and length
of stroke (commonly called nominal horse-power, the only data at
that time at our disposal), to prove that the consumption of . n.ils,
would, during a passage from Bristol to New York, be much greater
than is supposed, or than they have allowed space for in the vesseF.
We are met by the scientific calculations of Mr. Enys, proving that by
expansion to one half, or two-thirds of the stroke, the consumption of
coal would be considerably reduced, in a much larger ratio than the
power. It is, however, worthy of remark, that, although ourselves
and Mr. Enys take different methods of computing power, that we
agree in the amount of fuel which would be expended, supposing the
engines to work to their full power, namely 129 to 130 tons per diem.

We have again carefully looked through Mr. Hill's paper, which
confirms our impression that he did not state any distinct rati oj t.c-
pansion at which the engines were to be worked, he explains the
construction of the expansion valves, which are not new ; and as most
modern engines of large powers are fitted with similar contrivances,
we concluded that in this, as in other cases, the evaporative power of
the boilers and strength of the materials were calculated to supply
steam for, and to resist the action of, the full powers of the cylin lers,
expanding the steam only by the common sliding valve, though
ments of the special expanding valves being nservedas in other ships,
for the occurrence of fine matter and/air winds.

Our justification on this head will be eomplete, when we state, that
"The Great Western," Cunard's vessels, the "British Queen" and
" President," were each fitted with separate expanding ap]
but that their boilers are capable of generating a full supply of steam
for an expansion of not more than -£,th of the stroke— that is by the
sliding valve, and it would be a matter of curious enquiry to see how
frequently this is departed from. If our views be correct on this
point, the general object of commanders of steam vessels, is to make

11

80

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[IVIaroh,

the best of their way to their port without reference to the saving of
fuel, time, in fact, being frequently of much greater value than a few
tons of coals. We state this as a practical fact, for the saving of fuel
by the expansion of steam is now well known to those who have
devoted the slightest attention to the subject.

Nominal horse power is certainly but a conventional expression, de-
signed by the late Mr. Watt, as an approximative measure of the com-
mercial value of his engines, it was very applicable to the circumstances
of his times, and perhaps, until something letter is produced, as much
so to ours. It is not, as it has been called, " empirical," because it is
founded on rational grounds, and if me could gel all engineers to agree
to one standard of computation, it is doubtful if any better system could
be introduced — it is a mechanical test from which no engineer can
escape, and we are enabled, with the aid of the indicator, to apportion
to its work just as much merit as it possesses ; by its use we imme-
diately discover the principles on which the engine is constructed, the
rate of expansion, the state of the vacuum, the proportions and setting
of the sliding valves, and other detail absolutely necessary to the good
performance of an engine — in fact, we can distinguish between a good
and a bad engine, between science and pretension — and in conjunction
with data relative to the consumption of fuel can precisely compute
the value of each man's work.

We say it will be difficult to produce anything better than this.
The commercial world is satisfied, because they may be supposed to
know more of a two foot rule, and its applicability to measure the
diameter and length of a cylinder, than they can possibly be of the
ratio, or of the rarefaction of water when converted into steam, or of
the more intricate theory of expansion. No, the commercial man will
continue to buy his steam engines by the capacity of their cylinders,
and with the aid of his coal merchant's account, and the amount of
nork done, will come to a pretty fair conclusion, as to which engineer is
most deserving of his confidence.

These observations have particular reference to marine engines, in
which it is well known that space occupied and weight is of paramount
importance, and it has been the aim of much consideration and reflec-
tion to obtain these, with the exertion of the greatest power at a mini-
mum expence. We call this the ne plus ultra of marine engineer-
ing.

We may, therefore, doubt the judgement of the engineers of the
Great Britain, who are using cylinders equal to 1200 horses, and by
expansion, reducing the same to 700 horses, occupying both the
weight and space of the former power ; but perhaps we are again in
fault, now reasoning on the assumption of Mr. Enys, as in the former
paper on that of Mr. Hill.

Mr. Enys observes. " that nominal horse power is a most inaccurate

basis for calculations of this nature," that is, the consumption of coal
and speed of the Great Britain.

With reference to the first proposition, the consumption of fuel, we
most freely assent. The value and the theory of expansion has been so
fully explained by many writers, perhaps especially so by Farey, that
it is beyond dispute — it is no new light which has burst upon us. A
few years since, some attention was drawn to the published logs of
certain steamers, in which assertions were made, that the consumption
per horse was (as now reproduced by Mr. Enys,) as low as bi lb.
nominal h. p. per hour, and which was satisfactorily shewn to have
been produced by expansion, during fine weather and favourable winds ;
but that, when the full power was exerted, the consumption of fuel
reached from nine to 10 lb., the general result of the best machinery,
so will it be with the Great Britain. If, as we had supposed, from
the lucubrations of Mr. Hill, that her engines are designed, when neces-
sary, to work to their full power, and by full power we mean expan-
sion by the sliding valve alone, and exciting an average pressure on
the piston of at least 14 lb. per square inch, exclusive of 4the friction,
then will our computation of consumption at 10 lb. per horse be found
correct ; that is, supposing the engines and boilers, scientifically and
practically constructed ; but if any credit is to be attached to the deli-
neations of Mr. Hill, we must be allowed to doubt if even this point
of economy will be attained.

If it be intended to work these engines at a permanent rate vf expan-
sion beyond that of the ordinary sliding valve, a corresponding saving
will accrue in the exact proportion of the length of the stroke worked
by the dense steam ; or, in other words, the quantity of steam used or
admitted into the cylinder, before the communicatio.i with the boiler
is cut off. If the stroke be six feet, and the steam shut off at three
feet, the consumption of fuel will be reduced A (we speak prac-
tically), if at i of the stroke, it will be f , and so on. The reduction of
the power will be in a much less ratio ; and from all we have gathered
from a considerable experience, the velocities of the ship will be, as
the cube roots of the reduced powers. These, then, are the advantages
of expansion.

In order to bring this question more fully before our readers, we
have made the following calculation relative to the engines and
boilers of the Great Britain, and which will at a glance show what
will be the consumption of fuel per horse per hour — the power
exerted — the cubic feet of steam per horse per minute — the cubic feet
of water to be evaporated per horse per hour — and, though last the
most important, what we conceive will be the velocity of the ship,
with full steam pressure, and with expansion from ^ to jj of the stroke,
giving the results for every six inches — from 12 inches to 04 inches,
or # of the stroke.

Engines SS inch cylinder; CO stroke; 223 feet per minute: 294 horse power each.

Expansion in inches of the stroke

Horse Power with dense steam

Horse Power during expansion

Total power, whole stroke

Total power with 4 cylinders, as Great Britain

Contents of cylinder at this expansion

Cubic feet of steam 2i lb. above the atmosphere per horse per minute

Cubic feet of steam at the atmospheric pressure per horse per minute

Water, per horse per hour, to be evaporated

Coals per horse per hour, at 8 lb. per horse

Tons per 24 hours

Speed of vessel with paddle wheels

Speed of vessel with screw

12
245

44-59

289-59

1153-3

211-15

27-6

32-5

1 14

90

111-5

13-9

11-C

IS
220-5

61-96
2S2-4U
1129-8
100-
25-5
30-1
1-09
8-51
103
13-S
11-50

24
196-0
79-38
275-38
1101-5
167-
23 5
27-75
•9S
7-74
92
13-7
11-40

30
171-44
91-00
262-44
10497
147-S
21-5
25-4
•912
7-12
SO
13-5
11-25

36
147-
101-87
248-87
995-5
126-7

19-5

230
•840
6*55

70

13-25

111

42
122-
117-18
229-68
918-72
105-6
17-5
20-6
•72G
5-87
5S
12-9
10-75

48

98-0

107-7

205-7

882-8

84-5

15-8

18-7

•60

5'15

45-5

12-4

103

54

735

101-87

175-37

701-48

63-4

13-7

16-2

•571
4-5
34-
11-7
9-S5

! This table corroborates Mr. Eny's general reasoning, but we differ in
detail arising from different estimations of the full power, and we
would suggest to Mr. E., that he is obviously incorrect in assuming
the " evaporation of a cubic foot of water to be equal to one-horse
power," because that depends entirely on the rate of expansion used
in any particular engine.

We may remark that we have constructed the foregoing table on
the plan laid down by Mr Farey, the truth of which we have prac-

tically proved by indicator experiments — presuming that low pressure
steam at 3A to 4 lb. is to be used, we have supposed its density in the
cylinder to be about 24 lb. on the square inch, and have reduced this
to atmospheric density for the calculations relating to the consump-
tion of fuel.

We have been more liberal than Mr. Enys, and have allowed that
good boilers can evaporate S lb. of salt water with 1 lb. of coal ; that is,
if they are kept in a fair state, by blowing off, or by the use of the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

si

brine-pump. This is no supposition on our part ; it is a practical fact
well known to most marine engineers.

The result given by us is also a minimum, inasmuch as we have only
considered the txact quantities of steam required, and have not made
allowance either for condensation, or for the waste at top and bottom
of the cylinders, preferring that our readers should estimate this
according to their own views, as far as our experience goes, we believe
the allowance ought to be about jfc of the whole quantity.

But has Mr. Envs any reason to conclude that these engines are to
be worked expansively ("we of course assume that he is not in any way
connected with the undertaking) ? We think not; and that such is
not the intention of the engineers. We have noticed that she is
fitted with ordinary sliding valves, arranged (with a lap of 2J inches,
and stroke of 14 inches) to cut off the steam at | of the stroke, we
suspect that the separate expanding apparatus is to be used in
fine weather, as in most steamers of large class; and it will be
observed that Mr. R. Hill expressly states that the cranks are placed
in opposite directions, and not at right angles (p. 254) ; and, further,
the construction of the boiler is proof that the engines are occa-
sionally intended to exert their full power, say an average pressure on
the piston of 141b. per square inch.

We are inclined to be thus particular with reference to this point,
because our professional knowledge has been questioned, in having
made the statement that the grate surface is "less than half the
proper quantity." We are, however, hardy enough to reiterate this
assertion ; and further to say (if any dependence is to be placed on
the drawings), that a more unscientific or badly arranged boiler could
not be devised. We have made a careful analysis of its properties,
and it bears out our views that it is constructed (by the amount of its
absorbent surface) to supply steam for the full power of the engines,
at which the consumption of coals will be fully equal to our original
computation, namely, 129 tons per day. It is as follows :

Fire surface of the six boilers = 2220 square feet.
Flue surface do. =11870 do.

Total surface 14,090

(f the total surface be divided by the total horse power, we shall
have 14090 -7- 1176 = 12 square feet per horse, and the grate surface
2 feet X 6 x 24, = 288, -7- 1176 = -245 of a square foot per horse !

We have no disposition to cavil about words, but think we may
call the practice of our first engineers proper, but certainly not usual,
in as much that in this very case there is an exception to the rule, and
a straining after novelties at the expence of that which is useful. We
here find that we have more than the proper quantity of absorbent
surface, and less than one half the grate surface, and the result will be
a very indifferent ratio of evaporation, as will be discovered when it
is too late.

The size of the air-pump must of course be large enough to suit the
extreme power of the cylinders, and cannot be adapted to various
grades of expansion. With respect to the large condensers, theory
taught us the doctrine as that propounded by Mr. Enys — the larger the
better; but, from actual observations and practice, we find it is
not correct, and that Mr. Watt was right in constructing his con-
densers of the same capacity as his air-pump. The proportion of
Mr. Watt for his air-pump is about a sixth of his cylinder contents;
and it is reasonable and just, the steam rushing from the cylinder, is
condensed in detail, and the air-pump, at owe stroke, clears the con-
denser of whatever vapour may remain. In the Great Britain this
vapour will accumulate in the condenser; being between 7 and 8 times
larger than the pump, which has no power to clear it; the condenser
becomes hot, and no extreme quantity of injection water will keep it
cool. We may or may not be correct in our view of this matter, but
practice supports it, as our readers will see by reference to our last
December number, page 399, vol. V., in which we have detailed the
proportions used by some of our most eminent engineers.

We have little more to say regarding the probable speed of the
Great Britain. We believe the factor 1400 to be applicable, having
found it correct in very large vessels ; and we see nothing in the con-

struction of the Great Britain to render it inapplicable; presuming
that the resistance (in all cases of similar form, as it regards the
sharpness of the water lines) is very nearly as the areas of the im-
mersed midship sections; lengthened experience and experiments
with a great number of vessels have proved this. In this case our data
is meagre, and we have no desire to carry the subject further, espe-
cially as it is probable that an actual trial of the Great Britain will
soon settle all the questions in dispute.

We close with the remark, that however we dissent from the views
of her engineers in matters of detail, we most sincerely hope that we
may be found false prophets, and that the Great Britain will prove
to be superior, if possible, to her sister vessel the Great Western, and
that the proprietors will have every reason to be proud of their
speculation.

THEORY OF ARTESIAN WELLS.

A French pamphlet, from which the following translation is made,
has excited considerable interest in France, and is, up to this time, in
constant requisition by the numerous visitors to the scene of M. Mulot's
labours at Grenelle. Our readers, however, will have the goodness to
observe, that although we present it to their notice, partly on account
of the notoriety which the author's views have obtained in France
and partly because it is important to consider ingenious arguments on
both sides of a question like this, at the same time we feel bound to
dissent almost entirely from the author's explanation.

If the ingenious and eloquent Parisian had been favoured by pre-
vious acquaintance with the phenomena of springs as exhibited in the
extensive mining operations of this country, it is probable that his
surprise would not have been so mightily excited by the Artesian
fountain at Grenelle, and he might possibly have entertained a diffe-
rent and more generally received opinion as to its origin.

A grand Experiment; or the Well at the Abattoirs of Grenelle.

C'HAFrER I.

Exposition of the Subject ; false attempts at Explanation.

This work which has discovered to the city of Paris the source of an abun-
dant supply of water, has been not more remarkable for the boldness of the
conception which gave rise to it. than for the perseverance with which the
design has been followed out. In the bosom of the capital M. Mulot has
opened a sort of aqueous mine, rich and magnificent ; and for this great
boon the Parisians are unanimous in their expressions of admiration and
gratitude. The sight of the ascending stream rushing upwards from so great
a depth beneath the surface has daily attracted crowds of visitors. After
the first gratification of their curiosity, the attention of this multitude is
naturally directed to the cause of so extraordinary a phenomenon, and the
desire for information on the subject corresponds with the admiration it
excites. Each successive visitor asks himself, or inquires ot those are ind
him, whence can proceed so impetuous a stream ? what force impels it ? w hat
immense reservoir feeds it? in what part of the earth is deposited this fruitful
supply, and by what passages and communications does it find access to the
extremity of the vertical tube which M. Mulot has forced into the bowels of
the earth? The scientific men of the present generation have endeavoure.1
to answer these questions. Referring to the very simple means which human
ingenuity has long since employed for embellishing our gardens and publio
places with jets of water, they have said,— At a certain distance from Paris,
and in the upper stratifications of a soil mure elevated than Paris itself, there
exist vast reservoirs fed by the infiltration of rain water and of melted snow.
This water there sinks to great depths below the surface, aid. Bowing in
subterranean sheets, the augur ol the engineer discovers it M a spot
far distant from where the earth fust received it, and after he has thus suc-
ceeded in boring down to it, the liquid element naturally ascends to the sur-
face through the vertical issue which he prepares for it. This is then a real
jet d'eau. Nature has placed the first, that is, the descending branch ; the
engineer places the second, the ascending branch; the machine is perfect.

11*

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[March,

From this explanation, however, we entirely dissent , and fear not to affirm
that under such circumstances water never cuuld rise on the principle of a
syphon. In order that a jet of water, whatever may be its dimensions, shall
work with certainty, one condition is indispensably necessary, viz., the un-
interrupted continuity of the curved tube charged with conducting it from
the reservoir above to the less elevated region where the jet is required to
play. All the force of ascension in the second branch of this tube ought to
be derived from the accelerated velocity of the water in the fust branch, and
this acceleration would be as inevitably broken and annihilated by any ob-
stacle, as by the entire destruction of the continuity. Now, in the interior
of the earth, to whatever depth we may penetrate, we can find nothing re-
sembling continuous tubes ; everything there is more or less friable, casual,
and irregular. Thus, whatever pains the engineer may take in order to reach
by the smaller end of his vertical tube the surface of a subterranean sheet of
water, it will all be useless unless by a very astonishing fortuitous accident,
he should meet with another tube of the same calibre, ascending without rup-
ture to the upper reservoir. If, as some believe, it be in the mountains of
Burgundy that this reservoir is placed, is it possible to conceive the existence
of a continued oblique tube ascending from beneath Paris to the neighbour-
hood of these mountains? Besides, no one appears to doubt that M.Mulot"s
choice of a situation for his well was perfectly arbitrary, and therefore if he
had attempted to construct one upon the Place des Invalides or in any other
part of the capital, he would have equally succeeded. Hence, then, it will be
granted that in and around Paris it would be possible to dig an indefinite
number of Artesian wells, all which would be fed by the mountains of Bur-
gundy ; and in order to explain this, we must picture to ourselves the upper-
most beds or strata of earth under Paris and the surrounding country within
a circle of two hundred leagues diameter, invariably woven into an inex-
tricable net-work of which each filament is an unbroken tube. Assuredly
nothing like this exists.

There are others who have sought to explain the rise of water by
conceiving two concave vases, or two immense cisterns of unequal diameter,
placed one within the other, the basin of Paris occupying the centre. They
imagine that the margins of these vases extend from the mountains of the
Vosges on the east, to Havre on the west ; and from the plains of Flanders
on the north, to the mountains of Burgundy on the south. They suppose
that between these two vases there is a space filled with sand. The rain
Water which penetrates into the pores and cavities of the sandy district is
retained there by the dense matter of the two vases. The water maintains
the same level through the whole of the sandy space, but it does not pene-
trate into the basin of the higher or smaller vase. Hence it follows, that by
boring vertically through the basin, the water confined in the sand will in-
stantly rise to the height of that which exists in the circular reservoir all
iound it- This is certainly a very amusing geological disposition of things,
but unfortunately it is supported neither by facts nor reason. A continued vase
with a double bottom, more than a hundred leagues in diameter, fixed in the
bosom of the earth ! A vase whose inferior limits, as shown at this day by
the well of Grenelle, are no less than 1690 feet deep, and into which
flow all the subterranean waters from all the surrounding shores! What
a gigantic disposition of things, and no less gigantic than admirable!
A god must he have been who founded Paris, and cradled the capital of the
world in the centre'of this'marvellous vase ! Kidiculous idea to imagine, even
if this vase exist, that it should be unbroken throughout so vast an extent.
Do we not know on the contrary that the vase is cut up and divided into
many irregular compartments? Throughout the prodigious extent of space
which is claimed for the field of this theory, as at Tours, at Elbceuf, at St.
Denis, and St. Ouen, numerous Artesian wells have already been constructed,
and all these wells of many various depths are much shallower than that of
Grenelle. Has each well, then, its respective vase encased in the general
vase, and resting upon its own particular bed of sand ? If such be the fact,
we must suppose that a great number of Artesian stages exist in the general
Vase. But in this case, why did not the water rise at Grenelle when the augur
had reached one of these elevated stages, that of the St. Ouen for example,
so near to Grenelle? Does not the Artesian vase of St. Ouen extend to the
abattoirs of Grenelle ? If not it must be singularly circumscribed. It has
nevertheless supplied for fifteen years two constant fountains, and the Arte-
sian wells of Tours, Elbceuf, and St. Denis are equally inexhaustible. Doubt-

less we may construct an indefinite number of Artesian wells upon the surface
of the country which surrounds Paris ; indeed this experiment has been made
in various places, and according to a report addressed to the Academy of
Sciences, dated 15th March, 1841, we find that "many of these wells bored
at the bottom of a valley, yield no water, whilst others fixed upon the side of
a hill, furnish an abundant flow." What inexplicable mystery in the hypo-
thesis of a sheet of subterran an water fed by rain, and springing up only
from inferior cavities to establish a horizontal equilibrium. Again, if it be
said, that the general vase, the centre of which is placed beneath Paris,
receives throughout the whole circle of its sandy borders the rain water from
the Vosges, from Burgundy, from Bretagne, and from La Vendee, we ask how
it is that all these waters, flowing over slopes of many different inclinations,
but all of them more or less steep, and always repairing to the same cavities,
has not long since choked up its own passage by the sands which it must have
carried along with it. The great sands in the Delta of the Nile, in the Gulf
of Gascony, and in the Aigues Mortes, all teach us the inevitable results of
continual deposits. And if we suppose that the two cisterns here spoken of,
are formed of a substance impermeable to water, such as glass, or porcelain, or
baked earth, how has it happened, that buried in the earth during many ages,
they have never experienced any shock or accident which would have broken
them to pieces? Itis evident if any thing of this latter kind had ever occurred,
that the water which had lodged in the interval between the two vases, would
naturally pass through the fissures and ruptures into the cavity of the upper
vase, thus destroying the internal arrangement of the hydrostatic machine,
whose existence has been so gratuitously assumed. Besides, if this machine
really exists under the basin of which Paris occupies the centre, if it has its
circumference at Havre, at La Fleche, in Burgundy, and at the foot of the
Vosges Mountains, we could not construct Artesian wells at any of these
points, for throughout the whole of this circumference, the aqueous reservoir
would be only at its origin and would have no vase to rise into. And yet,
nobody doubts that in the neighbourhood of all these boundary districts, the
Artesian well has as much chance of success as at Paris, St. Denis or Elbceuf.
It is also known that the Artesian wells of Tours have succeeded, although
on the south side of the basin of Paris.

By the simplest laws of physics, we shall now show how imaginary is
this Artesian source of water. Mre are told that through immense beds of
sand the water sinks from the surface of the soil into the grand subterranean
cavity. But who does not know that, when obliged to sift itself through a
bed of sand, however loosely disposed, water loses all motion, except a kind
of slow and difficult leakage. Towards the base of our artificial sandy
fountains it comes only drop by drop, and it loses in its course all the velo-
city due to the space it has passed through, and all the pressure due to its
weight. If the spout which discharges the water should open upon a bent
tube with an ascending branch, the water would not rise above the level of
the space which it already occupied in the base of the fountain. This
would be its whole hydrostatic power ; and if the ascending tube were full
of sand, it would rise something above this same level : but, in that case,
the effect would be due entirely to capillary action. The most striking ob-
jection, however, still remains. During the summer, what becomes of the
rain water immediately after falling. The greater part, instead of sinking
into these profound depths, is evaporated and carried off through the at-
mosphere, and it is very seldom that either our fields or gardens, the morning
succeeding a storm, show any traces of moisture more thau a foot in depth.
Would not the alternation of wet and dry weather cause an incessant varia-
tion in the flow of an Artesian well, seeing that this incessantly varies the
supplies of our fountains and the height of our rivers ? Ob, no! in spile
of all this, the Artesian wells have always the same volume, and in truth,
acknowledge neither summer nor winter. We shall, hereafter, explain the
constancy of Artesian wells. But, in the first place, we must consider
another gratuitous supposition. Let us first explode all error, we shall then
more easily arrive at the truth. It is said, by some, that the rain water and
that which proceeds from the melting of snow, sink into a subterranean hori-
zontal region void of solid matter, but hemmed in above and below by two
beds of impermeable clay. Upon the upper one reposes an enormous mass
of chalk and other calcareous stone, which bears with all its weight upon
the volume of water underneath, and this weight forces the water to rise
vertically at every place where an opening is made down to it from the sur-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

face. In this hypothesis all the mechanism of ascension derives its impelus
from this force of pressure. The origin of the water is a matter of indiffer-
ence, it may have come from Langres, from the Vosges, or from the Jura
mountains; its complete inertia is the same when it has arrived in the centre
of the basin, beneath the abattoirs of Grenelle. The process of filtration,
wlrch lias brought it to this place, gives it at least no inclination to ascend ;
it has, therefore, waited patiently to be impressed by superior masses, in the
same way as the fluid, which is motionless in the body of a pump, waits only
the action of the piston to force it upwards. But to produce this discharge,
the piston must move— it must, in reality, press upon the water which it
brings or sends up — in fact, it must work up and down in the barrel of
the pump, filling at each successive point of its motion the whole area of the
barrel. If we suppose that the subterranean sheets of water rise only because
they are pressed by the solid masses above 'them, we must also suppose that
these masses really act, as no ascension can be obtained except on this condi-
tion ; that they actually fall, so that, in digging the well of Grenelle, there
finding water 1600 feet below the surface and causing it to flow impetu-
ously more than 80 feet above the surface, M. Mulot would have expended so
much art and courage only to provoke a disastrous crash ill the strata be-
neath Paris. Evidently, however, and very happily, we may add, this has
not been the result. The laws of gravity are universally the same. Place
on the surface of the earth a sheet of water of any extent ; fill, for example,
the basin of the Champ de Mars with a body of water which shall remain
there ; endeavour then to gain dominion over this sheet, of tranquil water
through solid masses of chalk or clay. In order that these masses shall re-
main in position superimposed on the stagnant water, they must be fashioned
into vaults and arches, and there they will be supported without pressing upon
the water of the basin. If, for a single instant, they should rest upon this
water, they would inevitably sink and be submerged in it, and the result
would be a chaos of debris saturated with water. But in the bosom of the
earth no solid masses are found in the shape of vaults, neither are there any
sheets of water, either confined or at liberty. It is true there are here and
there, in the cavities of rocks, in subterraneous grottos, and at the foot of all
great mountains, a few pools of water, or more often there are rivulets fed by
the infiltration of rain water, and serving to supply fountains which rise at a
short distance, and which generally contribute to the formation of streams
and rivers. But nearly all these are found on the surface, none of them can
occupy a space of any extent in the lower beds of the earth, because they
would soon fill up such spaces, by depositing the sand which they bring with
them. Besides, in any case the subterranean waters impelled only by a
broken, unequal, irregular movement, would have no disposition like those
of a jet d'eau to rise above the inclined bed over which they had flowed. A
jet d'eau in exercise is in fact a pendulum, it is free and regular in its move-
ments, its mechanism is the same, and the same cause produces it.

Now if a pendulum, starting from any altitude whatever, should meet in the
course of its descent towards the vertical line, any obstacles which retard it,
the motion will either stop at this vertical line, or at least the oscillation
will be very feeble, since it will correspond to that feeble force of acceleration
which the obstacle may not have entirely destroyed. In the same manner,
the liquid pendulum, that is, the column of water, throughout its descent to
a horizontal situation, rigorously requires, in order to an equal rise in the
ascending branch, that all its motion and all its acceleration should be truly
effected in a continuous canal, entirely filled by the water itself, by the water
alone, and that so perfectly as to be inaccessible even to atmospheric air.

We shall now describe a simple and conclusive experiment. Upon the
bottom of a basin, place an upright tube with an opening entirely through
it ; and on some stormy day fix the basin beneath the water pipe of a house.
The tube will be found to contain some water at its lower end, but only to the
height of that which is also found in the basin around it. Not a single drop
Will rise above this level because all the force of its fall is expended on the
basin itself. But let us now replace the straight tube by one which is curved
upwards from its lower extremity, and we shall find that the force of the fall,
being confined to the continued column of water which must entirely fill the
tube, will cause the water to rise in the ascending branch to the same height
as the top of the descending branch. We have now then constructed a real
jet d'eau, because we have made use of the only apparatus which can pro-
duce one.

83

It lsqnite certain that the crust of this earih no where contains an appa-
ratus of this kind ; the flowing of an Artesian well cannot therefore be assi-
milated to a jet d'eau. Some other explanation then must be sought, and
in order to be satisfactory, it must be one which answers all the conditions of
the phenomena.

The explanation we are about to give is necessarily of this kind, since it is
derived from an universal principle of nature.

Chapter 1.1.
The true explanation.

The globe which we inhabit is manifestly a focus of action and heat,
which has its greatest energy at the centre of the mass, and which, from
this central point, works incessantly to carry matter from the interior to
every point of the surface, and which, in this constant effort, meets with a
gradually increasing resistance from the successive strata composing the
crust of the earth.

This exterior resistance constrains the central fire to divide and attenuate
the matter of the interior, and to sift it, as it were, in minute particles through
the pores of the general envelope.

From this internal elaboration, and this subtile oozing out, arises the con-
tinual emission of interior caloric, an emission which necessarily takes place
in a radiating form ; that is to say, each jet or steam of caloric escapes and
flies off in a direction perpendicular to the surface. Here then is the first ana-
logy with the vertical stream of water which issues from an Artesian well. Bat h
pore in the terrestial covering is an Artesian well of caloric : and so again
is each pore in the surface of every star in heaven an Artesian well of light.
These Artesian pores in the crust of the earth being infinitely numerous, it
is through these that the central fire impels, in a state of the most minute
subdivision, a great part of its interior contents.

This way of escape, however, is not every where sufficient ; the central
action does not appear to succeed in attenuating every substance to such a
degree as to effect its expulsion through such exquisitely minute apertures.
At many places under the terrestial covering, opposing masses are crowded
together, some in a state of gas, others in a vapoury state, others again in a
liquid form, and others possessing the consistency of soli Is, but at the same
time broken and confusedly mixed together ; and all these substances,
whether gases, vapours, liquids or solids, are agitated by a movement whose
impetuosity equals its disorder.

The time is now come when the exterior resistance is suddenly con-
quered; the crust cracks — ^volcano is open, and its centre shoots forth im-
mense jets, at first of gas and vapour, then of liquid water, then of burning
lava. It is a frightful pit, suddenly thrown out by the irritation of the cen-
tral fire.

We know that the volcanoes of Iceland frequently vomit forth torrents of
gas, vapour, and liquid water, which cannot have come from the sea. as its
composition is different from that of sea water.

Let us imagine, for a moment, what would happen if at the instant when
a volcano was about to burst forth, its crater could be contracted into a
straight tube like that of Grenelle! What a magnificent Artesian well
would then be displayed ! What force and height would there be in the jet
sent forth !

But let us not forget that every volcano is a kind of relief and vent for
the interior tumult of the earth. It resembles the pimples and boils on the
skins of men and animals. In the normal or regular state, the volcano is
silent, and so in a state of health is our skin smooth and sound.

Thus, at the present time, when no terrestrial volcano is in a state of for-
midable eruption, the globe, like a sound and healthy man, quietly and uni-
formly transpires through every microscopic or ening in its surface, the super-
abundance of its interior productions ; and under their general covering
these productions are chemically elaborated, so that each may occupy its
proper region. The water in a state of vapour, which is directly formed ID
the bowels of the earth, even finds a passage through strata of the denser
character. If near the surface it meets with argillaceous masses, it requires
an increase of effort to traverse them. Below these the vapour thickens,
condenses, and takes at length the liquid form ; and then, far from being op-

84

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

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pressed by the contact and weight of the solid masses which cover it, the
water is constantly, if we may use the expression, in a Btate of insurrection
against them, and continually seeking to rush up through them, or throw
them off.

Hence it is that if human industry, exerting itself at the surface of the
earth, shall pierce thissurface and force down a vertical pipe into the aqueous
region, the impatient water seizes upon the means of escape, and fully liqui-
fied by its very first movement in a passage so contracted, runs impetuously
through its whole length. Arrived at the orifice, it flows over, and even mounis
above it. The vertical jet has a force proportionate to the depth of the
excavation which was necessary to arrive at the water.

This circumstance is remarkable, for the contrary would be the case if the
Artesian fountain were produced like an ordinary jet d'eau, by the simple
weight of a liquid column falling from an elevated reservoir, and working to
regain its level. We know that in every hydraulic apparatus, the effective
action is weakened in proportion to the extent of surface which the liquid
has to pass over, and to the friction it has to overcome.

But not only is the furce of the Artesian jet much greater in proportion to
the depth of the excavation— the heat of the liquid itself shows clearly that
the augur of the well sinker has more closely approached the producing and
expelling fire wh'ch exists in the centre of the globe.

The source then of Artesian eruptions, is the same as that of volcanic
eruptions ; it is the central action of this terrestial globe ; it is the formid-
able Power, which, during the infancy of the world, launched out upon its
primitive surface alike the isolated cones and long unbroken chains of lofty
mountairs, and which from time to time is exerting efforts to raise new-
mountains. This marvellous Power is that sole and universal Force, that
Expansion which is constantly in exercise throughout all material being ; it
is none other than the grand Principle, the Soul of nature, the producer of
life, which under the eyes of all men, spreads and developes itself throughout
the substance of every organized being, and whose expression and sentiment
each one of us exhibits in his own person.

REVIEWS.

Walks through the Studij of the Sculptors at Rome, Kith a brief
historical and critical sketch of Sculpture from the earliest times to the
present day. Bv Count Hawks Le Giuce, K.S.G., Chamberlain of
Honour to his Holiness the Pope, &c.

" It is with great pleasure," says the Diario di Roma, "that we
announce this new work, by a learned Englishman; it contains des-
criptions of works in sculpture, executed by the most renowned living
artists. And we may now congratulate ourselves in having, in this work,
found a person in every respect qualified to do justice to living merit,
and at the sametime give asure and instructiveguide todirectattention
10 the modern productions of the chisel. Throughout the work, the
Count displays profound erudition, and extensive knowledge of the
;irts, and much beauty of classical and poetic illustration. Hitherto,
there existed no book to guide the inquiring traveller through these
repositories of modern genius and taste; and hence numbers visited
Rome, without deriving pleasure or profit from their inspection." In
consequence of these remarks we were led to a perusal of the Count's
work, from which it would appear that sculpture has attained, at
Rome, a remarkable degree of perfection ; and that many of the
works of the nineteenth century are equal to those executed in the
Augustan age.

The degradation of taste in the arts has ever been a mark and
consequence of the degradation of taste in literature ; and we shall
find during the fourgreat agesof the fine arts, that literature flourished.
The first and most brilliant age was that of Phillip and Alexander the
Great, or that of a Pericles, a Demosthenes, an Aristotle, a Plato, an
Apelles, a Phidias, and a Praxiteles. The second age is that of
Caesar and Augustus, distinguished likewise by the names of Lucre-
tius, Cicero, Titus Livius, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Varro, and Vitruvius.
The third age was in the time of Medicis; the most glorious age of
Italy, when learning was restored under the Popes Julius II and Leo
X, and when flourished a Michael Angelo, a Raphael, a Titian, a
Tasso, and an Ariosto.

But it is time that the Count should speak for himself. In des-
cribing an allegorical bas-relief, the author says—

" This allegory is intended to show the difficulties which the arts
have to contend with, from the ignorance or malevolence of those
who can neither understand their value nor feel their influence, and
whose souls are so materialised, if we may be allowed to use the ex-
pression, philologically not metaphysically, as to appreciate nothing
which is not gross. For such souls, the noblest productions of the
chisel and the pencil possess no attractions; the works of genius
and of taste are to them as so much waste marble and canvass ; and
there are not wanting some, who would gladly wage a war of exter-
mination against the productions of the chisel and the pencil. Even
in Old England, my own, my native land, the land of commerce,
wealth, power, freedom and science, how comparatively parsimo-
nious is the encouragement of the fine arts, and how comparatively
unknown are sound artistic principles! Far from us the ignominy of
disparaging our adored country, which absence has served only to
endear to us still more : but it is time that England should take lier
stand among the nations of civilized Europe in relation to the fine, as
she does with regard to the useful, arts. It is time that a fair portion
of that wealth, which is so often profusely expended on less refined
enjoyments, should be appropriated to the encouragement of the
liberal arts, particularly of sculpture and painting; and we should no
longer bear the reproach of employing foreign artists, whilst we.
neglect to promote the cultivation of national artistic taste and
talent."

The Count again observes — " The foreigner finds no obstruction in
Rome to his progress in the fine arts; hut, on the contrary, enjoys
indiscriminately with the Roman, all the facilities that Rome com-
mands. Hence, we find that Thorwaldsen and Fogelberg have aban-
doned the frozen regions of the north to bask in the sunshine of their
fame in the more genial clime of the south. These eminent sculptors
have both won laurels for their country. France, too, is not backward
in the race of glory ; and her splendid academy in Rome will perpetu-
ate, her series of distinguished artists. Russia, too, extends efficient
patronage to her native artists; and at this moment she maintains in
Rome 30 pensioned students. Naples, also, has a Royal Academy
here, under the direction of Baron Camuccini, the first of living
painters ; and Berlin, Spain and Portugal, have also their respective
academies in Rome, as have several other nations, too numerous to be
mentioned. Thus does Europe testify, that Rome is in truth the
only school for the fine arts. And must we make one painful excep-
tion, and that exception our own, our native land? Yes, it is our
painful duty to state, and we do so, in the humble hope of drawing
attention to the fact, and remedying the evil, that England, with all
her wealth, sends but one solitary artist to Rome from the Royal
Academy, and that once only every three years ! How, then, can she
compete with other countries in the true classic style of art."

In speaking of the extraordinary progress of sculpture, our author
observes — " The group of Nestor and Antidochus by Alvarez, exe-
cuted during Canova's life time, the Discobulos of the late Kessels,
the Achilles of Albasini, and the Mercury of Thorwaldsen, astonished
the whole artistic world ; and yet they essentially differ in style and
character from the works of the immortal Canova. These produc-
tions have aided in producing a revolution in style, which is likely to
be permanent; and all with one accord now agree to follow the pure
style of Grecian sculpture. Denmark has now to boast a Thorwald-
sen; Sweden a Fogelberg; England a Gibson and a Hyatt; Ireland a
Hogan; Scotland a Macdonald; Italy a Tenerani and a Finelli ; Spain
an Alvarez; and Holland a Kessals, all educated in Rome, and essen-
tially Roman sculptors of the revised school of Grecian art."

It does appear that nation after nation and century after century
have been able to do little more than copy the Grecian masters. We
know the use Virgil made of Homer in his jEneid, and of Theocritus
in his pastorals; and we find that Horace applied several places, out
of Anacreon and other lyrics, to his own purpose: therefore, why
should we preclude the modern sculptor from copying from Grecian
art ? " There is," says the Count, " but one school of art that can
lead to perfect design and execution, and that is the school of Grecian
art. Any deviation from the Grecian type must necessarily be a de-
parture from the only true standard. The choice of a subject, the
attitude, and in some instances, the drapery, are all of comparatively
minor importance, provided the artist has made the severe, classic
style of Grecian art his canon. The works of the greatest modern
artists should not be taken as models; to copy their style would be to
give a translation from that which has been already translated ; and
he who suffers himself to be carried away by his admiration of
modern productions, should bear in mind that their authors drew their
excellence from no living artist, but from the great masters of ancient
Greece, whose productions they have profoundly studied. When the
great Canova blazed in the zenith of his fame, many artists became
imitators of his style, and their copies were mere shadows of the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER A.ND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

85

great original ; they wanted the soul that animated li is statues : and
the exquisite essences, which Canova extracted from Grecian art, had
evaporated in the attempt to transfer them. That the works of any
eminent modem artist may be consulted with advantage we freely
admit: they serve as a guide to the ascent of an eminence difficult of
access; they inspire the artist with ardour; and encourage, while
they urge him onward by their counsel and example. They are so
many auxiliaries to the other powerful excitements to glory; and
their combined influence has fired the breast of our talented country-
man, and raised him to the proud eminence from which his genius
(Gibson) sheds such lustre on his name and on his country."

Our author seems to have forgotten our distinguished countryman,
Mr. Baily, who, says a recent writer, " is one of those instances, too
frequent in the history of art, in which the rewards of genius of the
highest order have been too long deferred, and too sparingly be-
stowed. Gifted with a sense of beauty, akin to the spirit of his
great countryman Flaxman, and a boldness of conception not unworthy
in some of its exhibitions, of the greatest of sculptors, Michael An-
gelo, he has yet been destined to see men, less highly endowed, step
before him into the light of patronage, and commissions pass by his
neglected studio, on their way to foreign lands." " It is not to be
doubted," continues the writer, " that had Baily been found by his
countrymen in the metropolis of his arts, his genius must, amid the
strong lights of the everlasting city, have long ago secured for him,
in spite of his English name, those triumphs which it is as little to be
doubted yet await him." It appears to us that the removal of our
Baily from the eternal city, is something like transplanting a rare
exotic out of a warm and genial clime, to a cold and sunless country,
where if it but chance to put forth its buds, a hard and a killing frost
nips them ere they blossom and bear its precious fruit. Abb> du
Bas, in his reflections on poetry and painting, has collected a great
many observations on the influence which the air, the climate, and
other such natural causes, may be supposed to have upon genius.

Before we close this interesting book, we are tempted to make one
or two more extracts, which will fully prove the Count's abilities for
the task he has undertaken. In describing the Triumph of Apollo,
a bas-relief by the celebrated sculptor Thorwaldsen, the Count
observes :

" This bas-relief represents Apollo attended by the Graces and by
Cupids, as he conducts the Muses, eminent poet's, and promoters of
the fine arts to Mount Parnassus. The first figure is Hyperion, the
father of Aurora ; he is on the wing, bearing a torch, and is conducting
the winged Pegasus. Apollo appears seated in his chariot, drawn by
the horse of Helicon; his brow is wreathed with a laurel crown, and
in his hands are his harp and plectrum. With impassioned air be
sweeps the silver strings, which fill heaven with melody, and render
the very stones harmonious. Next follow the Graces, entwined with
festoons of flowers, and conducted by an infant Love, while the god of
the Cyprian bowers is on the wing, and scatters roses on their decoy
path. The fair daughters of Jupiter and 1' nphrcsyne appear in unveiled
loveliness, and glide along with the lightness of summer zephyrs. The
first among the Muses is Calliope ; presiding, as she does, over elo-
quence, she holds in her hand a scroll, such as Demosthenes might
have thundered from as he paced with earnest step the solitary beach
of his native Attica. Euterpe, as she plays her favourite lute, joins
Terpsichore in the merry dance. Thalia and Melpomene follow, with
the characteristic symbols of comedy and tragedy, the pedo or pas-
toral staff, the mushe and club. Erato, the muse of love, is crowned
with roses, and attended by a winged genius with a harp, the golden
strings of which he touches lightly with his dimpled fingers, and the
air resounds with the soft sighs of the votaries of Erato. Polyhymnia
is known by her meditative air, and presiding, as she does, over song
and rhetoric, she holds in her hand a scroll. Urania is at once recog-
nized by the globe as the Muse of Astronomy ; and Clio, the Muse of
history, follows, and is inscribing with a pencil of light, on the annals
of Fame, the names of those whose exploits have entitled them to
immortality. Mnemosyne, the mother of the Muses, follows near to
Clio; she is closely draped, and moves with slow and maternal air.
At a short distance from her is Homer, the father of heroic song, who
is preceded by a winged genius bearing a palm branch and a wreath
of flowers, emblems of his pre-eminence and renown. The venerable
bard lifts his sightless eye-balls towards heaven, the source of his
inspiration; and, whilst his fingers sweep the strings, his lips give
utterance to those epic strains which enrapture gods and men.
"Homer," says a modem writer, "transports us to a new and ever
fresh creation, in which, though much is calculated to astonish, all
appears real, substantial and imperishable. Olympus, with its deities
on their golden seats, lies open to our view, in form as palpable as the
glorious tuwers of Troy, the sacred Scamander, and Ida with its hun-
dred springs. Prodigies become familiar to us! "

Such is a brief outline of the bas-relief before us, which combinfll
so many classic beauties of such various characters, that even the
disjecta membra delight us ; but, to catch the spirit of this sublime
creation, let us but cast an eye over it for a moment as a whole, and
we shall thus learn to appreciate its surpassing excellence, and to
estimate, as we ought, the genius of the man whose creative power
invented, and whose artistic skill executed, "The Triumph of
Apollo."

We will conclude our extracts with a description of the " Terrestrial
and Celestial Love," abas-relief by Gibson, R. A. "This relief is com-
posed of two figures, one representing Terrestrial the other Celestial
Love, under the forms of two winged Cupids. They are both contend-
ing for the soul, under the form of a butterfly, the emblem of the fair
Pryene, who was about to be immolated on the altar of Venus. Ce-
lestial love appears in the act of descending from above ; he his
rescued the soul from Terrestrial Love, and is staying his hai
prevent its pollution at so foul a shrine. In the struggle, Heavenly
Love has triumphed over earthly desire ; and holding aloft the divine
Psyche, he plumes his ethereal wings to bear her aloft to purer nil
brighter realms. Terrestrial Love holds the torch of Hymen, which
he has lighted from the flame burning on the impure altar of Venus ;
and at the foot of the altar are the fatal instruments of his power, the
bow and arrow, and also a pine-apple, the symbol of love.

"This bas-relief is an illustration of one of the tenets of the Platonic
philosophy. Plato compared the soul to a small republic, of which the
reasoning powers were placed in the head as in a citadel, guarded by
the senses, and the tumultuary portion he placed in the inferior parts
of the body. He was the first heathen philosopher who maintained
the immortality of the soul upon solid arguments, deduced from truth
and experience; and he held that the soul, being an emanation from
the Divinity, can never remain satisfied with objects or pursuits un-
worthy of their divine original. According to Plato, supreme happi-
ness is attainable by removing from the material and approaching
nearer to the intellectual world, or, in other words, by governing the
passions according to the principle of the moral law, and thus, by the
practice of virtue, exalting ourselves to an imitation of the Divinity,
from whom the soul has proceeded, and to whom, when its affections
are thus purified, it is finally to be united in supreme felicity. The
beautiful moral thus conveyed by this exquisite composition is too
obvious to be dwelt upon. Who has not experienced the struggles of
the sensual with the spiritual man? and who has not felt, within his
breast, those lofty aspirations which lift the soul above the debasing
influence of unholy desire, and fix its affections on another and better
world ? Nor is the idea of two Cupids struggling for the soul recom-
mended by the simple beauty of its moral alone, but also by its classic
taste, for the ancients recognised a celestial as well as a terrestial
Venus. " I will not assert," said Socrates, "that there are two Venuses ;
but as I see that there are temples consecrated to the celestial as well
as to the terrestial Venus, and that they sacrificed in the former with
ceremonies more sacred and with victims more pure, I presume that
two goddesses of that name do exist. The vulgar Venus inflames the
passions, and the heavenly Venus invites to viituous actions.'

" It were superfluous to" dwell on the artistic merit of this relief; it
evinces a mind cast in a classic mould, and possessing a deep and
refined sense of the beautiful in conception as well as in form ; nor
can the harmonious lines of the composition be too much admired or
too highly praised."

• From our extracts we are sure our readers will agree with us, that
the sculptors of Rome have good reason to congratulate themselves
on having found in Count Hawks le Grice one who has not only
brought their productions favourably before the public, but is
likely to perpetuate their memory. We are indebted to 1 'liny and Pau-
sanias for a knowledge of some of the noblest pn ces o1 ancient
sculpture, many of which have perished; and whatever may be the
fate of the works which the Count describes, he is very likely to
transmit to posterity their merits, and the honoured names Of their
authors. We understand that the author has received numerous
literary distinctions from various learned bodies; and we have no
hesitation in saying, that his « Walks through the study more than
justifies the opinion held of his merits. The style is characterised
by an elegant simplicity and classic purity, and the «ork is enricned
throughout with such felicity of illustration and fecundity of inven-
tion, as shed a golden glow over its pages and the productions which
they describe.

> E'.Koirau 5'aV xai rous tfa>ras Ti^fM* liar Squov r« »/ ara >*tnrni>
ai\v Z'OvpavM tt)S iHW T« *«' ">* *'*"" ""' Ta" Ka*"' ' 'P">"»'-— - t,."r<"""">

86

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

Railways, their Uus and Management. — London, Pelham Richardson,

1842.

This is a very interesting epitome of all the railways that have been
executed and in progress in this country, and is very ably written,
affording a brief insight into their cost, working, and management.
The following extract, relative to some of our principal engineers, will
be read with some interest.

"Most happy should we be if the undertaking had to depend for its
success in Parliament upon its own value without the intervention of
counsel, as not only would time and money be thus saved, but the real
merits of the proposed work would be brought forward more honestly,
or if it had not these pretensions and that recommendation, it would
lose a false bolster and fall. It is well known that the skill and science
of the different Engineers is frequently useless to them, with all their
assured knowledge, by their failure as witnesses. Thus George Ste-
phenson is never put into a witness-box, if his friends can keep him
out, he has not the temper for cross-examination by persons he consi-
ders ignorant of the subject, and with his opinion of himself, it would
be impossible to find any person he would submit to. No man however
deserves more credit than George Stephenson, for the manner he has
advanced himself in the world, which is in itself no greater proof of
his natural abilities, than his acknowledgment of it, is of his real
unaffected excellence of heart — he is however a theorist of the wildest
kind, and until he became a coal owner, felt that the first things in the
world were railways and the first person George Stephenson. He has,
notwithstanding his energy and knowledge of coals, failed to intro-
duce them into public use at a rednction in their price, as he promised
lie would, and no inland coal will do so, however much its introduc-
tion into the metropolis may interfere with the sea-born supply. His
railways are not always the best or most profitable, and we think he
has made a mistake also in becoming chairman of any railway com-
pany. Robert Stephenson, with a higher education is more calm and
self-possessed and makes a better witness. Walker, sharp, quick
and clever, may always be relied upon for all he undertakes. Sir
John Rennie, however, possessed of all the knowledge on the subject,
cannot stand the badgering of counsel and forgets his professional
service in his gentlemanly feelings. George Rennie is too retired
and modest to make known his extensive information and much
mechanical knowledge under the ordinary examination of counsel — be
must be drawn out, and thus makes an honest, conscientious, and intel-
ligent witness. Young Brunei is clever and self-possessed, and would
not be easily put down. Locke's testimony would look hard, matter-of-
fact, and solid — economical in all its parts. Giles is hasty, anxious,
but determined not to be put down ; Cubitt, quiet, calm,' and firm.
Vignolles, energetic and fiery, looking the very personification of
some new and wild theory, to be put into immediate practice by his
instrumentality, would rather astonish his audience by his bold expos-
tulations and warm support of them, than convince by his arguments
and facts, except in matters of detailed and minute expense in practical
experience — his evidence has, however, been largely counted on by
his employers. Braithwaite is a clever machinist, with an inquiring
mind ; and, in our opinion, has been spoilt by being made a railway
engineer; in this latter position his only experience is the Eastern
Counties line, and his declaration of the' correctness of his original
estimates for the whole line to Yarmouth, made at a public meeting a
year and a half after obtaining the act, will hardly add to the
confidence of the public in his future undertakings ; his self-
opinion and readiness will always support him, whether as a witness
or advocate. Bidder is, perhaps, the most perfect witness; for
though Rastrick has the hardest mouth of any, and the most impur-
turable determination not to be beaten — yet Bidder, with all the same
pertinacity has, in addition, an effrontery of manner (however unin-
tentional; which defies the most resolute opposition ; Gibbs is honest
and straightforward, and having bought his experience on estimates
somewhat dearly on the Croydon, would never again deceive himself,
or others."

Ytar Book of Fuels. London : Tilt and Bogue. 184-3.
This very useful annual abounds with a store of information ex-
tracted from numerous scientific periodicals and daily papersof the past
year, and which exhibits the progress of science during that period.

A Hand Book for Plain and Ornamental Mapping and Engineering
Drawing. By Benjamin P. Wilme, C.E. Part IV.

This part, like the previous numbers, contains some useful exam-
ples for reference; among others are sections of stratified rocks,
titles for maps and designs, Gothic letters, &c.

NOTES ON STEAM NAVIGATION.

Slide halves. — As the formulae we gave on a former occasion in
reference to the effect of any particular quantity of lap on slide valves,
have not, we understand, been thoroughly uaderstood by the less
scientific portion of our readers, it may be useful to reduce them to
the form of common arithmetical rules.

To find at what part of the stroke the steam is cut of.

Rule. — Divide the cover on the steam side by half the stroke of
the valve. Find by a table of natural sines the arc whose sine is
equal to the quotient. Take the double of the arc thus found and
subtract it from 90°. Find (in the same table) the sine of the re-
mainder; add 1 to the sine thus found, and multiply the sum by half
the stroke of the piston. The product will be the space travelled
over by the piston before the steam is cut off.

To find at what part of the stroke the exhaustion passage is closed.

Rule. — Add the cover on the steam side to the cover nn the ex-
hausting side, and divide the sum by the length of the valve stroke.
Find the arc whose sine is equal to the quotient. Take the double of
this arc and subtract it from 90°. Find the sine of the remainder, add
one to it, and multiply the sum by half the stroke of the piston. The
product is the space passed over by the piston before the exhausting
passage is closed.

To find at nhat pari of the stroke the exhaustion passage is opened.

Rule. — Subtract the cover on the exhausting side from the cover on
the steam side. Divide the remainder by half the length of the
valve stroke. Find the arc whose sine is equal to the quotient. Sub-
tract this arc from 90°, and find the sine of the remainder. Add 1 to
it, and multiply by half the stroke of the piston. The product is the
space passed over by the piston before the exhaustion passage opens
at the opposite end of the cylinder.

All dimensions must of course be taken in the same measure,
whether feet or inches. If the eccentric be so placed as to make the
steam port be considerably opened at the commencement of the
stroke, or so as to give a considerable lead as it is termed, the amount
of the lead must be added to the cover on the steam side.

Covering boilers with bricks. — The iron platform above the boi!er on
which the coal generally rests, becomes quickly worn away by oxida-
tion, and the boiler beneath it is generally much injured from the same
cause, the whole top of the boiler being necessarily inaccesible,
thereby imposing an insuperable obstacle to painting and even to
inspection. To obviate these evils, as well as to prevent the escape
of the heat, a covering of bricks set in Roman cement was some years
ago applied to the boilers of the steam vessel Tagus, and has been
found to accomplish its purpose effectually. Upon this covering of
bricks the coals repose —the expence of an iron platform, and what is
more important, the expence and inconvenience consequent upon its
constant repair have thus been avoided, the shell of the boiler is pre-
served from corrosion, the intolerable heat of the coal boxes is
obviated, and fuel saved by the conservation of the heat. The expe-
pedient is an exceedingly economical one, and we look upon it as
effectual and judicious in every respect.

We have received another letter from Greenock, signed J. G.
Laurie, respecting the formula we gave in our Notes on Steam Na-
vigation, respecting the heat contained in surcharged steam, and in
which our correspondent says, " I again assert, in the face of the de-
nial in your last number, that the formula is misapplied." The best
mode, perhaps, to refute the alleged misapplication, is to investigate
the question by an independent method, in order to see whether the
same results are obtained; and should our readers afterwards conclude
that the " total misapplication" applies rather to our correspondent's
correction than to our original statement, we are at least not respon-
sible for the discourteous manner in which the intimation is conveyed.

(1) When air is heated, it expands, and the increments of volume
are proportional to the increments of temperature. Every increment
of 1° in temperature produces an increase in volume -^ part of the
bulk of the air at 32°. This rule lias been found to apply to steam
out of contact with water. — (Thomson on Heat.)

(2) The specific heat of steam out of contact with water is inversely
as its specific gravity, and at 212 and saturated is "847. From these
data, the amount of advantage derivable from the use of surcharged
steam may be computed.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

87

Let 2'= temperature to which the steam is raised out of contact with
water,
s =: mean specific heat of the steam between the temperatures

212° and*'.
D = the volume of steam at the temperature I' — the volume at

212° being 100.
x — the volume of the same w:eight of steam at 32', supposing

that it could be cooled to 32° without condensing.
A — heat required to raise 100 volumes of steam from 212° to V
5=r weight of water in 100 volumes af steam at 212°.
c = heat required to raise the temperature of a quantity of water

= b 1°.
A' = heat required to generate from water at 60° a quantity of
steam equal in volume to v — 100.

From (1) we have af + * X *btt (212 — 32) = 100 or (since Ti7y =
•002083) x + x X -0020S3 x 180 = 100 : ■ x (1 + -37494) = 100

100
0r X = 73749?

From (1) also we get v = 100 + x X -002083 (l' — 212) which by
substituting the value of x previously found becomes u = 100 -j-
•2083 (f — 212)
1-37494
From (2) we find 100 : e : : -S47 : specific heat at the tempera-

*8470
ture V which is therefore — — - hence

s = j ( — — — \- -847 \ or by substituting the value of r.

000S82 (V — 212)

F37494
- 212) s c, which by substituting the value of s

S47 +

But A = (l'
becomes

A = { -847 (*' — 212) +

000882 (T — 212) - >

7

•137494

Now the addition to the volume of steam produced by heating it from

212° to i' = v — 100 =

•2083 (t'~ 212)

and the water in an equal

1-37494
volume, may be found by this proportion

•2083 (i< — 212) , -002083 (i1 — 212) 6

100

1-37494

1-37494

= weight of water in a quantity of steam, whose volume at 212 is
o — 100. Hence, supposing the latent heat of steam to be 1000° we
have

,/«« . ,™« -002083 (i' — 212) 2-3954 (T — 212)
A = (1000 + 150) „ X j^j = j^gj C

Now since A z= heat required to produce an additional volume of
steam equal to v — 100 by heating the steam out of contact with
water, and since A' — the heat required to make the same addition to
the volume of the steam by generating it from water, it follows that
the saving of heat by using the former method is h' — A
_ 2-3954 (<' — 212)e f g,7 „, _ ai» J. 000S82 (f 212) * )
1-37494 I " V 1-37494 i

which reduced =

1-37494
1-230S (f — 212) — O00SS2 (f — 212) 2 c.

1-37494

The weight of water in steam equal in volume to v at 212° is evi-
dently b — consequently the heat required to generate from water

steam equal in volume to v, is 6 -j—tl " — r — which by substituting
•00283 (? — 212)

the value of b becomes 1150

/, -00283 (/ — 212) \
\}+ F3T491 )

And this being reduced gives the whole heat required to raise steam
equal in volume to » from water

_ 1581- 181 + 2-3954 (f — 212)

~~ 1.37494 C

consequently by this formula the
the whole heat used in generating

*'-*- K371'11

heat saved is expressed in parts of
steam in the usual way

1581- 181 + 2-3954 (f —"212) ' c by substituti"g *tabe-
1-2308 (f — 212) —000882 (f — 212) '

1581- 181 x 2
If the steam be heated to 600°
such case gives the saving equal
Our former mode of determinat
nearly. The minute difference
been in the one case supposed to
inversely as the specific gravity.

•3954 (f — 212)
then I' = G00J, and the formula in
to about j-th of the whole fuel used,
ion gave the saving at B.y, or | very
arises from the specific he.it having
be uniform, and in the other to vary

SEWERS OF THE METROPOLIS.

To the Wonhijgful Her Majesty's Justices and Commissioners of Sewers
for Holbvm and Finsbunj Divisions.

[In the last month's Journal we offered some observations on the
construction of sewers, and reserved the examination of other por-
tions of Mr. Donaldson's address and Mr. Chadwick's report for
another occasion. Since writing those observations, we have had put
into our hands a very able report drawn up by Mr. Roe, the surveyor
to the Holborn and Finsbury divisions of sewers. As this report so
fully enters into the subject of "flushing," we abstain from offering
any remarks of our own, but leave it in the hands of Mr. Roe, whose
experience on the subject, enables him to report upon it far better than
we could have done had we attempted it: by a reference to the en-
graving of Mr. Roe's flushing apparatus, given in the last September
number of the Journal, Mr. Roe's report will be better understood,
and to all those of our professional readers who may take a deep in-
terest in the question, we strongly recommend them to inspect the
apparatus fixed in the sewer of Hatton Garden, opposite the office of
the Commissioners of Sewers of the Holborn and Finsbury divisions,
by an application to the Clerk of the Commissioners, we feel assured
that any member of the profession will meet with the same courtesy
that we did, and obtain permission to inspect the apparatus.

At the Court, held October, 1842, an order was made " that the surveyor
prepare and lay before the next court, a Report as to the result of the use of
flushing apparatus for cleansing sewers, with an account of the expense in-
curred, and probable saving to the Commission, and embracing the general
improvements in drainage that have been adopted by this Commission." The
surveyor, in obedience to that order, has prepared a report, winch he begs
respectfully to lay before you.

Several honourable Commissioners at the last court having expressed a de-
sire that the surveyor should give as full explanation as possible of the me-
thod of flushing, and as to what effect it would have upon sewers having
little or no fall in them, and upon private drains, it seems necessary to enter
into some detail of the cause of flushing being suggested from the necessity
that exists for using some artificial method to clear large portions of the
sewers from the foul deposit that accumulates in them.

The Holborn and Finsbury divisions are peculiarly situate as bavin;; no
immediate connexion with the River Thames as an outlet, the waters from
these divisions having to pass through one or other of the adjoining districts
of the city, the Tower Hamlets or "Westminster, Lefore reaching the river.
The sewage of the Holborn and Finsbury divisions has therefore of necessity
been formed to such outlets as the other districts presented for usi
these formerly being put in without a due regard to an exten le I drainage,
the sewers of your Commission have not had the benefit of the best fall that
could have been afforded to them. Of late years, the adjoining districts
have lowered many of their outlets ; but to alter the existing sewers of your
Commission to the amended level, would require the rebuilding of about
323.706 feet of sewer, at an expense of about i'200,000, exclusive of the cost
of connecting sewers where the rutting would be deep, and of con:
existing surface and house drainage with them, which would make the total
amount of cost nearly a quarter of a million. S ill, aa the lowering of those
outlets has taken place, you have availed yourselves of them to a considerable
extent ; witness the line of sewer to Holl way, the City Road line, th
well-street and Ooldcn-lane lines, and several others, varying in length from
one lo four miles.

The city, some time since, sent to ask you, as data for the improvement ol
their sewage, the depth of sewage which it would Le desirable ultimately to

12

S8

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

obtain at the junction of their district with yours ;— your answer was, " the
greatest depth that can be obtained." In lowering their outlets, the city
have accordingly afforded the greatest depth they could ; the Tower Hamlets
express their intention to do the same. The covered portion of the Holbom
and Finsbury divisions appears to be greater than any other district north of
the Thames, the return of houses rated to the sewer rate in 1833, as made to
the House of Commons, showing an excess of 723 houses above the "West-
minster district.

In the Holbom and Finsbury divisions there are about 98i miles of covered
sewers for house drainage, exclusive of several miles in length built by indi-
viduals, previous to the present regulations being made ; there is also about
IS* miles of sewage for the surface drainage, and about 10 miles of open
sewers.

In a large proportion of the covered sewers from various causes, accumu-
lations of foul deposit obtain. These accumulations existing beneath the
streets in a state of ferment for many years, were a cause of much disagree-
able and unhealthy effluvia, and were a further annoyance to the public by
choking up the private drains when they attained to any considerable quan-
tity. The remedy for the evil, when complained of, was only to be had by
raising the noisome substance in pails to the level of the street, and carting
it away ; a process which, in itself, was subject to many manifest objections,
and made the breaking up of the pavement and roads, and the consequent
obstruction of public thoroughfares, unavoidable.

On a general examination into the causes of deposit, one thing that ar-
rested attention was this, viz. that in sewers of the same form and with the
same fall or inclination, a different degree of accumulation was found to exist.
In some instances this difference was occasioned by the common run of
water being greater in quantity in one sewer than another. In other sewers
the current of water coming in, where old sewers improperly met at right
angles, was found to cause, at thejunction of the two streams, an obstruction
to the flow along the main line, and here deposit accumulated; and where
the collateral sewers were connected with the main line at right angles and
at different levels, the obstruction was still greater ; for example, in one in-
stance where the collateral sewer was 3 feet above the level of the main line,
a deposit was formed of a foot in depth, extending in a shoal up the stream
to the length of several hundred feet from the point of junction, while below
that point the sewer was perfectly clear. It was also observed, that where a
gully neck delivered the surface water of the street or road into the sewer
through the crown of the arch, an obstruction was caused in the sewer and
deposit accumulated largely on the up-stream side. The whole of these ob-
structions tended to lessen the capacity of the main line of sewer. The ine-
quality of the bottom of many sewers, and the little fall in others, were
causes of accumulation of deposit, and the common run of water in many
sewers was found to be insufficient to carry the deposit away.

To remove accumulations from the sewers in a way less offensive than the
prevalent mode, to construct the sewers on such principles as were likely to
lessen the cause of the formation of deposit, became subjects of consideration.
Levels were taken through the Holbom and Finsbury divisions, to ascertain
the practicability and expense of remodelling the sewers and rebuilding them
at the lowest level which the outlets would afford ; but it was found that the
level was such as would not give that fall to the sewers as would secure the
passing off of the foul matter with the common run of water, and that the
utmost that could be obtained would be the natural cleansing of one-half of
the sewers, while the remaining portion would still require artificial aid. The
cost of lowering the sewers to obtain this partial relief would be, as before
Stated, nearly a quarter of a million sterling.

This result the surveyor communicated to Mr. Donaldson, the chairman of
the Westminster Commission, who, on examining in July 1840, the flushing
apparatus now in use, agreed that it would do well for old sewers, but ex-
pressed a desire that all new sewers should have such a fall as not to need
flushing.

There being a current of water of greater or less quantity in all sewers, in
some constant, in others periodical, the idea presented itself of turning this
ordinary current to advantage in preventing the accumulation of deposit ;
and to do so, the use of dams at certain distances asunder, to collect heads of
water, was thought of.

A series of experiments was commenced in order to ascertain what ve-
locity could be obtained, and how far such flushes of water would maintain
Telocity sufficient for the purpose required. These experiments were made
with board dams fixed in the sewers, and the results led to the conviction
that the deposit might be removed at less expense by this than by the pre-
valent method. In making experiments it was observed that the effect was
the greatest when the dam was removed the quickest. Sufficient data having
been acquired, the matter was laid before you, and a great number of open-
ings were directed by t^e Board to be made in various sewers having different
degrees of accumulation, that you might personally see the effect of the plan
on an extended scale. / The result proving satisfactory, you encouraged the
idea, and several of your body made very valuable suggestions upon the
•various methods of appli &tjon which were brought before you ; and a report

was directed to be made upon the system of Hushing, and on other suggested
improvements which you were pleased to adopt. In that report it was stated
that the average yearly cost of cleansing was about 900/. per annum. To
this there would in future have to be added the cost of cleansing such sewers
as had not then been cleansed, but in which deposit was accumulating, and
in time would need removal. An example of this class of sewers may be seen
in the extensive sewage on the Whiskin estate. Clerkenwell. These sewers
have been built about twenty years, and have not required cleansing until
this winter. The different degrees of accumulation in these sewers show
also many of the causes of accumulation where sewers are well built and
have a good fall in them. For instance, the sewer in Meredith Street having
a constant flow of water turned through it from St. John Street Road is kept
free from deposit, whilst in the sewers in Whiskin Street, Skinner Street,
Coburg Street, and the upper part of Gloster Street, the common run of
water being too small to keep them clear, deposit accumulates ; and in the
lower part of Gloster Street, where the junction with Meredith Street was at
right angles, the deposit had accumulated to nearly twice the depth that it
had done in the other sewers. Of this class of sewers that would gradually
come under the necessity of cleansing, there is about 97.498 feet, which, esti-
mated at the quantity of deposit contained in the above named sew ers, would,
by the old method of cleansing, involve an expense of 244/. per annum, in
addition to the sum before named.

In the Report before named, it was stated that if the average sum which
the cleansing then cost was applied for seven years, and the cleansing done
by flushing, the apparatus and side entrances might be fixed to the sewers
without any extra charge whatever, and the public would, at the end of that
period, derive the benefit of a saving of nearly 800/. per annum, besides se-
curing, during those years and for the future, a saving of 300/. •per annum in
the item of cleansing, which the Commissioners had effected under their then
existing contracts. The flushing system being adopted by you, the method
of carrying it out was ordered to be as follows, viz. that when a sewer was
complained of and required cleansing, the foul deposit should be flushed
away, and apparatus fixed to enable it to be kept free from accumulations of
deposit in future. The result to this time is as follows. Since the com-
mencement of the system of flushing, the foul deposit has been washed away
from about 16 miles in length of old sewers, on which have been placed 59
side entrances and 67 flushing gates. After deducting from the cost of
removing this deposit by the old method, the expense of all the side en-
trances and flushing gates, there remains a saving of 445/. 13s. 6</„ and the
side entrances and apparatus are furnished for future use. These sewers are
about 2-7ths of those that appear to have deposit accumulate in them ; and
2-7ths of the average annual cost of cleansing by the old method would be
326/. 17s, The annual cost for men to work these gates is 106/., forming a
saving of 220/. per annum on these 2-7ths of the sewers. The total cost of
flushing apparatus to these 2-7ths of the length of the sewers has been 434/.
thus whenever that apparatus should require renewing, the amount of two
years' saving will renew the whole. It is not likely they will require renew-
ing for between 30 and 40 years, if then. It is very probable that the
interest of the saving will keep the apparatus renewed. There is also the
saving to individuals of the cost of cleansing [private drains, which, by the
system of flushing, can never become choked by accumulations in the sewers
as heretofore ; and when it is considered that many sewers required cleansing
every fifth year, the amount of expense and annoyance must have been con-
siderable. Another benefit has been the avoidance of breaking up the pave-
ment and roads, the cost of replacing which for holes that must have been
made to cleanse the sewers that have been flushed, would have been 370/.
The raising large quantities of foul deposit to the surface, to the annoyance
of the inhabitants and passengers, has been prevented. And the side en-
trances and flushing where they occur have afforded facilities for the men to
rake the deposit from old gullyholes into the sewers, from whence it is
washed away, thus preventing the breaking up the paving round the gully-
holes, and a saving in the article of cartage of the deposit. In one year and
a half the saving from this cause in the amount paid for reinstating paving
round the gullyholes alone has been 101/. 8s. id. A misconception appears
to exist that each flushing gate requires a man to look after it ; it may not
therefore be irrelevant in this place to state that one man will be able to look
after and manage all the flushing gates that may be placed in a district con-
taining 15 miles of sewer.

With respect to private drains, the flushing gates are placed on such a
principle that, if the whole of them were shut for twelve months together,
the houses draining into the sewers would not be at all affected by the water
in the sewers ; but these gates are never shut except periodically to collect a
head of water, and after the head is let off the gate is fastened back, so that
no obstruction whatever is caused any where by the application of the sys-
tem of flushing. At present, as above stated, the flushing gates are placed
in such a manner that if kept shut for months together, the water would not
enter the private drains ; but the result of experiments made upon this point
was such as induces the surveyor to state.it as a matter worthy future con-
sideration.!

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

Several houses by the side of the open part of the River Fleet at Kentish
Town, have drains from their privies emptying into the sewers ; these drains
were nearly filled with privy soil, which exuded and presented a most filthy
spectacle along the side of the open sewer. A wooden flushing gate was
constructed to pen up the water which rose gradually to such height as to
completely fill the drains. The gate being very large, was made to open
suddenly, by the simple principle on which the drag chain of a wagon is
loosened. When the head was up the gate was opened, and the water rushed
away. The effect upon the drains was, that the sudden withdrawal of the
water brought out with it, the soil with which they were nearly filled, and
left them in as clean a state as they were when first built. It also drew away
all the soil and filth from the open sewer, as far as the head of water ex-
tended. Since the flushing gates have been fixed, particular notice has been
taken what the effect is upon neighbouring districts, through which the
waters of these divisions pass before they reach the Thames. The depth of
the deposit was measured at every hundred feet length before using the gate ;
in one instance the length measured was 2440 feet before reaching the main
outlet to the river. The gate was then shut, and a head 2 ft. 6 in. in height
obtained, containing about 208 hogsheads of water; this head was let off, and
then the whole length of sewer was again examined, when it was found that
the deposit had been washed away in the whole length. In another instance
the head of water was 3 ft. in height ; and this was found to wash deposit away
for the whole length of 3250 feet, that being the length from the gate to the
main outlet. The total length of continuous sewer that a head of water at
one flushing gate would serve to keep free from accumulations, has not yet
been ascertained, the greatest length by experiment being 3250 feet, as just
stated ; but from the velocity of the current when it reached the extreme
end, and the depth of water the head furnished at that point, the surveyor
has not the slightest doubt but that more than a mile in length of continuous
sewer might be kept clear by the use of one flushing gate.

But the washing away below the gate is not the only benefit derived from
heading up water by flushing gates, for the effect which took place, in the
manner named in the private drains at Kentish Town, is also beneficially
felt at the heads of sewers, and in other situations. The drains from the
houses in Eagle Street. Red Lion Square, enter the sewer near the bottom,
so that this sewer has required cleansing as often as twice in five years, the
depth of deposit being one foot and upwards ; this sewer is nearly on a dead
level for 300 feet. There is a flushing gate placed so as to head up water in
this sewer to a height of one foot eight inches, so that when there was 11
inches of deposit, there was nine inches of water standing over the soil.
The head of water was let off, and it was found that an average of 3i inches
in depth of deposit had been drawn away with the water from 300 feet of
sewer by this one head.

The accumulation of deposit in this sewer is prevented by this process,
which occupies a man rather less than one day in the year. The East Long
Alley, and part of the Moor's Alley sewer, have bottoms of the most irre-
gular description ; the cleansing the deposit from these formerly cost on an
average 16?. per annum : the accumulations are now kept down by a flushing
gate of three feet in height, penning up the common run of water; to work
which, occupies a man rather less than three days in the year.

The open sewer at the back of Glo'ster Street, Hoxton, was formerly so
offensive in the summer season, that one of the inhabitants, frum that cause
only, petitioned for leave to arch over, at his own expense, the portion op-
posite his premises, which was accordingly done. But since you have placed
a flushing gate in the covered sewer wdiich empties into this open sewer, the
use of that gate has not only kept down the accumulations in the covered
sewer, but has had the effect of keeping the open sewer in question clear for
its length of several hundred feet, thus preventing the dangerous nuisance
which formerly existed. The saving in this instance is greater than that
named as effected in the East Long Alley sewer.

In regard to the effects of flushing the deposit into the river Thames, the
surveyor has made observations, and taken measurements, which enable him
to arrive at the conclusion, that rather more than 14-15ths of the soil and
impurities that entered the sewers in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions,
was washed to the Thames by occasional rains, and the common run of water
in the sewers.

That much road drift is swept through the gully grates into the sewers is
certain. In Bedford Place, which has been lately flushed, the depth of de-
posit was nearly four feet ; and amongst this was found a layer of road drift
in one part, nine inches in thickness.

In concluding this portion of the report, it may be in general ob-
served, that if there be running through a sewer, a sufficient body of water
with sufficient velocity to prevent deposits, that, of course, is the best ar-
rangement. But such an arrangement can only be obtained in main lines of
sewers, unless a considerable expense be incurred in the purchase of water ;
and this expense would far exceed the expense of cleansing by flushing.
But where there is not a run of water of sufficient body to keep the sewers
clear, there is, and must be, a deposit.

A convincing proof of this appears in the sewer, in a part of Holborn,
which is in the Westminster district, and which is connected with the Essex
Street sewer, which has been lowered from its outfall at the Thames into
Holborn, and thence along Museum Street, Bloomsbury, to the boundary of
that district ; to which point it was completed in 1839. Yet with the ad-
vantage of a connexion with a sewer luwered from the Thames, and at a point
very little more than a mile from the river, this part of the llolburn sewer has
a considerable accumulation of deposit in it.

The New River Company expressed their willingness to supply water at
certain seasons at a moderate expense to your Commission, where it might
be needed for flushing ; but at present, the common run of water, by being
penned up at intervals, has been found sufficient for the purpose. The use of
flushing gates, supplies the want of a sufficient fall in the sewers, and also
the want of a continuous and sufficient flow of water at a much less expense
than the cost of the prevalent filthy method of clearing the sewers from ac-
cumulations of deposit.

Where there is not a sufficient fall and flow of water, then by damming up
the common run of water and letting it off suddenly, an artificial fill uf the
water is obtained, which answers the purpose. The ordinary fall at which it
is required that sewers shall be put in at, is about 51 feet for the half mile;
there are, however, cases where such a fall cannot begot: it is found at
Eton, for example, that a fall cannot be got of more than two feet in half a
mile, and m parts of Hamburgh not even of half that height. Under such
circumstances, unless there be a large body of water, with an adequate flow ,
there must be a deposit. It is in such cases that the flushing apparatus,
collecting the common run of water supplies a remedy. If a continuous
line of sewer were formed on a dead level, and if the water be raised by a
dam 51 feet, then when the water is discharged, it has the effect of sweeping
away silt, or of keeping half a mile of continuous sewer clear from deposit,
producing the same effect as a fall of 5J feet in the half mile with a contin-
uous flow of water.

When the surveyor first suggested the present method of application to
the principle of flushing, he asked your permission to take out a patent for
it ; but your opinion being that it should be left open for the use of any who
might wish to adopt it. he did not proceed therein ; as from its promising to
prove a saving of considerable amount to the public at large, you as a public
body did not wish a monopoly to be made of it ; and in accordance with this
spirit other Commissions of sewers were invited to inspect it.

Many persons, interested in sewage, have looked at the flushing apparatus
used in these divisions, and the surveyor being desirous of the best possible
plan, has always expressed his wish that any one would suggest anything
that might answer the purpose better, but as yet he has not been favoured
with any suggestion on the subject. Much approbation was expressed by-
many, and one surveyor of sewers considered it clever ; Mr. Lindley, w ho is
employed to lay out the new sewage for Hamburgh, expressed his high satis-
faction with the plan, and at the clean state in which the sewers are kept by
its use; and considered the curved junctions as an excellent engineering
work : and the form of your gullies and shoots the one that should be gene-
rally used. Captain Vetch, who has been employed to lay out a plan of
sewage for Leeds, suggests Rushing for general use, and expresses his inten-
tion of using all the improvements you have adopted, in every place where
he has any influence.

It is interesting to find that the principle of flushing has been in constant
practice for 400 years at Eton College, during which long period the sewers
have been kept free from accumulations of deposit by its use. > Sluice boards
are used to keep up a head of water ; these are drawn up with a windlass,
but the form of (lushing gates used by you is about to be adopted at Eton.

In a communicatim, from a gentleman, the surveyor sent to France to
examine the sewers there, it is stated that there are In Paris about 80 miles
in length of covered sewers, the whole of which are constantly
flushed by the use of wooden dams, employing upwards ol 80 |
flushings with wooden dams, do not, however, clear the bottoms of the sewers
from a heavy black deposit which is thereftre scraped together, and got by
hand to the main line of sewer, where a sufficient head ol m
to wash it away. Now, if the method of flushing used in the Hi Iborn and
Finsbury divisions was adopted in Paris, six nun would be sufficient to
manage the whole of the gates; and from the very superior effect obtained
by the method you use, the whole of the deposit in every sewer would be
washed away without the labour at present used.

The Surrey and Kent Commission have, I am informed, used side en
to some of their sew ers for years ; these were c rered ' > a sione, but since,
Mr. lanson, one of the surveyors to that Commission, has sew the
grating used in your divisions,' he has introduced -.bun lot the use of tlnir
side entrances, and, 1 believe, one or both of the other surveyors to that
Commission have done the same.

' The same principle, upon a large scale, has also been in use for many
years for scouring harbours and removing bars, as may be seen at Dover,
Ramseate, See. — ho,'

90

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

Another improvement that you have adopted, is a form of gully hole and
shoot, constructed with radiated bricks, the shoot being half a brick in
substance. The form of these is such as to deliver the water and deposit
from the surface of the streets into the sewer, in such a direction as to cause
no obstruction to the flow of water along the sewer.

There have been 690 gullyholes and 13.060 feet of shoot built after this im-
proved manner ; the saving in expense is £2149 11*. 9d.

An improved form of grale was also adopted, by the use of which there
has been a saving of £422 12s. Gd. effected/

The adoption of the present method of cleansing the gullyholes, intro-
duced in the old system, has eflected a saving of £200 3s. 2d.

By the improvement in the form and construction of new sewers, a saving
of £1094 6s. Gil. has been effected on 14,591 feet length of sewer. In no case
has the curved form of sewer failed ; nor were there any struts at all in the
new sewer la'ely built from near Thornhill Bridge to the Mo.lel Prison ; nor
any left in, as none were required.

Every engineer and scientific person must agree that curved work for
sewers is stronger than upright walls, where the substance of material is
equal. By the use of curved work, you have been enabled to adopt a sewer
for the use of short streets, by which a saving of nearly 5s. per foot lineal is
effected from the cost of your second size sewer, which, when the great
length of sewers required in situations where this sewer will suit, is con-
sidered, the item of saving will be found ultimately to reach a very consider-
able amount.

Of the benefit of curved junctions and proper curves to turns in sewers, it
would seem needless to utter one word ; and whether it be better for water
conduits to have turns with curves, or turns with angles, it could scarcely be
expected that there would be two opinions ; and in sewers where the water is
loaded with foul matter, surely the less obstruction there is to the current
the better. Besides, curved junctions are in reality a saving of expense to
the public, by preventing occasions of obstruction where deposit would other-
wise accumulate.

To illustrate this, take the capital letter T, the head of the T to represent
two sewers, the currents of water in which meet at the point where the up-
right port:on of the T touches the head thereof, and then flow down in the
direction represented by the stem or upright of the T; this see-ns bad
enough; but a little way along the left portion of the head of the T let
another line be drawn perpendicular thereto : this will represent a sewer
coming in at right angles with a considerable flow of water, adding to the
obstruction formed by the meeting of the other two streams, it being only-
six feet from that adverse junction : and the natural consequence is, tlrat a
very considerable accumulation of deposit has taken place. And if two
other lines be drawn across the last perpendicular line, each of those lines
will represent two sewers coming into that main line at right angles and op-
posite to each other, so that the water falling from the sewer or the highest
level not only meets and obstructs the current of water in the main sewer,
but presents an obstacle to the flow of water from its opposite neighbour,
hence considerable deposit has formed in the latter ; such consequences ac-
cruing from junctions at angles, entail a perpetual expense upon the public
in the removal of deposit.

The absvc is a description of part of a new line of sewer and its junctions,
built within the last seven years.

The next improvement which the surveyor has to report upon is, the adop-
tion of s;de entrances to new sewers in lieu of man-holes or apertures, as
formerly used. In the 24,624 feet of new sewer built by your Commission,
since this improvement was adopted, side entrances, and such flushing gates
as was deemed necessary, have been placed in lieu of apertures, and the
saving by so doing has been £1349 lis. In the 21,048 ft. of sewer, petitioned
for and built by individuals after the same manner, a saving to them of £782
has been effected, after allowing 2-3 per cent as their profit, or the amount
which a builder might think he could save by doing his own work, instead
of paying for it at your contract prices. The avoiding breaking up the
pavement or roads, and other advantages which the use of side entrances
secures, the surveyor named in his former report on this subject.

The total saving by the adoption of flushing apparatus, and of the other
improvements named in this report, in about two years, is £6443 19s.; and
2-7ths of the sewers that require artificial aid in removing deposit are pro-
vided with side entrances and flushing apparatus for future use.

On the whole, the amount of immediate saving which it was calculated
would be effected by your adoption of the improvements herein named has
been exceeded; and this will be the case with the perpetual annual saving ;
experience showing that by flushing sewers with water, a saving of nearly
two-thirds may be made from the cost of the old method of removing de-
posit. But the fact which is of more importance, in a sanitary point of view,
than the expense of removal is, that instead of the two or three thousand
tons of refuse, which may be removed for £1000 or £1200 per annum, re-
maining for years decomposing in the sewers, and generating miasma which
penetrates the houses and creates disease there, and escapes, and is diffused
in the streets amongst the passengers, the deposit would by the flushing ap-

paratus be removed, with sufficient rapidity to prevent any extensive decom-
position or any smell.

The men engaged in cleansing the sewers have a more healthy employ-
ment; the laying cut of large quantities of foul accumulations on the sur-
face of the streets, which was formerly the practice, is avoided ; the pave-
ments of the streets are undisturbed ; the putting in drains surreptitiously is
easily detected ; private individuals are saved from the annoyance of having
their drains choked, and the expense of cleansing them in consequence ; and
these are considerations of future expenditure in sewers, which your syste-
matic adoption of these and other improvements will influence, so as to
render your having done so one of those circumstances, the great and bene-
ficial consequences of which will be felt, not only in these kingdoms but in
every civilized nation in the earth.

In conclusion, I respectfully beg permission to make a few observations
upon the address of the Chairman of the 'Westminster Commission, lately
published and circulated, in consequence of the late sanitary report of the
Poor Law Commissioners. At page 30, there is a paragraph, as follows—
" The truth is evident, that the Secretary of the Poor Law Commissioners
has been content to inform himself, in respect of the Metropolitan Sewage',
by special deference to the opinion of one individual, whose object has been
to give himself importance, by vaunting his own contrivances, by exalting
Iris own Commission, exaggerating his own success, and with unbecoming
boldness casting unjust reflections on the adjoining Commissions, traducing
the competency of hs brother surveyors of the surrounding jurisdictions."

In the first place, I beg to state that the first communication I bad with
the Secretary of the Poor Law Commissioners, on this subject, was his sending
to me to give information as to sewerage, his questions being founded upon a
printed copy of my report to your court, in April, 1840 ; the only information
I gave him appears in the Report, at page 373, to part of page 378, and a
quotation at page 61, on the quantity of deposit passing from the sewers to
the Thames.

I never endeavoured to show the superiority of the regulations of this
Commission, by comparing them with those of other Commissions: and in
the few observations I made as to the metheds adopted in the neighbouring
districts, I endeavoured to show tlrat improvements were in progress.

After my interview with Mr. Chadwick, I informed the surveyor of the
Westminster seweis that I had been examined, and expected he would be
sent for. Finding from a letter of Mr. Kelsey, the surveyor of the City
sewers, that his feelings were much hurt, and that he attributed much of the
Secretary's blame to me, I wrote to him. and he sent me an answer, from
which the following is an extract.

" Dear Sir,
" Did my letter to the Poor Law Secretary produce no other result than
your communication, I should feel highly gratified, for it has entirely dis-
abused my mind of an impression which is by no means confined to myself.

" With your leave, I will show your letter to a gentleman, whose father
is connected with another Commission of sewers, for it is well tlrat the ill
impression should be counteracted.

" It is much to be regretted that the course which you supposed would be
taken was not taken, 2 but advocates of any particular system never v\ ant to
know the whole truth, but only just as much as can be bent to suit their
object.''

And I have been informed that Mr. Dowley, the surveyor to the Westmin-
ster Commission, never considered that anything personal to him or others
was meant by me at all.

In answering the questions of the Poor Law Commissioners' Secretary, I
cast no reflection or said one word on the competency of any one ; and it is
mere assumption to say that Mr. Chadwick has been content to inform him-
self, in respect to metropolitan sewerage, from me only, when the many
quotations he brings from others show the contrary.

As to exalting my own Commission, it needs not my feeble praise ; its own
acts — the scientific knowledge of its members— the attention given to every
sort of improvement, will ever produce for it that meed of praise in the
public mind which is justly due. I have always been ready to give every in-
formation in my power to anyone that asks for it ; but, that little is rightly
known of what is doing in this Commission, or how it is done, is very evi-
dent ; a fact, which ths Report I this day have the honour to lay before you,
will confirm.

I have the honour to remain,
Gentlemen,
Your obedient and faithful servant,

Jan.27th, 1843. John Roe.

That of other surveyors of sewers being examined.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

01

NOTES ON EARTH WORK, EXCAVATION, CUTTING, AND

FORMING EMBANKMENT UPON RAILWAYS.

Article V. — Tenders, Schedules, and Securities.

The preceding paper treated on the supervision of works during their
progress ; in the present one I will endeavour to give a sketch of the custom
prevailing amongst the various railway works, previous to the actual com-
mencement of works, in the prior operation of advertising the works for
competition, and the condition and manner of taking securities. In
the general form of contracts, plans, sections and specifications are ex-
hibited, and printed forms of tender, drafts of contracts, and printed sche-
dules are distributed to intending competitors ; in some few cases the
approximate quantities of the principal works, as earthwork and masonry
are given, but the contractor has to satisfy himself both as to quantity and
nature of the ground, the companies furnishing him with sections of the
strata from actual borings. The directors do not bind themselves to accept
the lowest tender, but reserve to themselves the power of accepting any offer
which they may think fit. The successful party has to enter into a bond with
two securities to the extent of 10 per cent, on the amount of contract.
The amount of contract is generally exclusive of permanent way, which is
let separately, as also the keeping of the works in repair for twelve months
after completion. As regards the permanent way, the Company furnish the
material, and the contract is taken only for laying, and perhaps including keys,
wooden pins, or small wares. The keeping the roadway in repair has been
tendered for by contractors at sometimes six times the amount that the actual
cost has been to them. After experience has tested the amount, it has produced
a feeling amongst engineers that it is not expedient to include in the contract
the keeping the works in repair, but the contract to be ended on the cer-
tificate of completion being obtained from the engineer. When the directors
meet to receive tenders, it fs expected the parties tendering, or an autho-
rized person on their behalf, will attend. The directors make no allow-
ance to the unsuccessful competitors for the expense of their estimates. In
some cases the bondsmen of the contractor are bound in a specific amount
proportionate to the estimated amount of the contract by the engineer, not
a per centage. The time of completion is in some cases stipulated, and a
penalty imposed if the works be not completed within the given time, in an
increasing ratio, say 100/. for the 1st week, 200/. for the 2nd week, 300/.
for the 3rd week, and increasing by 100/. per week for each successive week.

The design and responsibility of centreing for bridges, &c. and the
onus for the execution of the works are thrown upon the contractor,
he is to repair all injuries, from whatever cause, during the execution
of the work ; he is not to be allowed any day bill for work " expressed
or implied " by the specification, and the decision of the engineer is to be
final and binding upon the contractor, in all cases where there shall be any
dispute or misunderstanding regarding the specification and drawings ; and
should an insufficient number of men be employed, the engineer is to have
full power to take the whole of the works out of the hands of the con-
tractor, seize upon his plant, and cause the work to be finished by any other
person. The payments on account are regulated by the certificate of
the engineer, and a per centage retained in hand varying from 10 to 20 per
cent. Some altercation amongst parties has arisen in their not being
allowed to draw for material on the ground and not being in the work. The
contractor is made responsible for all damage that may be done to adjoin-
ing lands, and for any penalties and forfeitures imposed by the Act of Incor-
poration as regards crossing canals or public highways. He, the contractor,
is to furnish tools and assistants to the engineer in setting out the works,
and the engineer has power to remove all materials insufficient as regards
the quality at his mere dictum.

I think, as a matter of justice, that the lowest tender should have the con-
tract, provided he obtains the stipulated securities ; if the tender be
not accepted, the party ought to be paid for his estimate. I consider that
the present mode of taking security is unfair and inefficient, and that if
penalties are to be exacted for delays, that an equivalent bonus should be
given to the contractor for any number of weeks that the works may be
completed before the stipulated time. I have, I believe, read attentively all
the works in the English language relative to railways, and do not think
that this important subject has been treated on by any party, even in the
splendidly got up works of Mr. Weale, which merely give the specifications
of the quality of materials and mode of execution of the works without note
or comment. The practice of London for tenders of buildings under an
architect is, that when a work is to be tendered for, the architect appoints a

surveyor, and a limited number of contractors of note and reputation are
written to, and they appoint another surveyor, who, with the former, make
out a bill of quantities which is supplied to each competitor, as also the cost
of the estimate, which is included in each tender, and is generally 1$ per
cent, on the amount, and which is paid by the successful party. The
architect charges 5 per cent, if he superintend and carry the work into exe-
cution, and if the job fails for want of capital or change of opinion, the
architect only gets paid at the rate of 1\ per cent, on the estimated cost.

I cannot forego this opportunity of directing attention to an article in the
Companion, to the British Almanac, page 21, 1843, on the sanatary condition
of the people, where Mr. Chadwick observes that " In the execution of other
local works, as sewers, roads, and drains to houses, no care is at present
taken to ensure the superintendence of persons of competent skill. Noisy
parish brawlers obtain appointments of this nature, and are paid at an
extravagant rate for inefficient services occupying only a part of their time.
A case is mentioned of an illiterate person receiving a salary of 150/. a year,
or as much as a lieutenant of engineers and a private, or as much as three Ser-
jeants of sappers and miners." Mr. Chadwick, with respect to the other
works alluded to, states, a hundred thousand pounds have been received in
fees for surveys of new buildings per annum, and that "this sum would be
sufficient to pay the whole corps of Royal Engineers, or 240 men of science,
and the whole corps of sappers and miners, or nearly 1000 trained men."
Mr. Chadwick also observes that under the Tithe Commutation and Parochial
Assessment Acts, that "amongst the most satisfactory surveys were those exe-
cuted by a retired Serjeant of sappers and miners." In respect to railways,
the point of the government wedge is already introduced, and I would warn
the assistant engineers to unite boldly against this attempt to interfere with
them.

Whilst extracting from the Companion to the Almanac, I cannot
forego the temptation of extending my extracts to the " Notes on railways,"
and the new position assumed by them in page "8, alluding to the Norwich
and Yarmouth line : " the difficulty in obtaining the capital was so great,
that the scheme was all but abandoned, when a new mode was devised
whereby the contracts for the whole works were secured to compe-
tent parties, on condition of their investing a large portion of their contract
prices in the undertaking ; in this instance the contracts were taken at the
original estimates of the engineer ; still the principle thus adopted might
obviously lead to a good deal of jobbing, and is so far to be reprehended."
In the above observations I perfectly agree, and have made the extract that
this vara avis in terra may be more fully known through the Journal.

Since writing the above, a special meeting of the London and Birmingham
Railway Company has been held (Jan. 16), to consider the expediency of
applying to Parliament for an act to make a branch railway from the main
line at Blisworth to the city of Peterborough. This meeting is reported in
the Railway Times (Jan. 21), from which I take the following conversation
bearing on the subject. A proprietor asks, " Am I to understand that there
is to be no specific contract for the completion of the work from end to end,
and that the contract will be advertized in the usual way ? I presume it
will be a common contract." The chairman replies, " In one sense it will
be so certainly, but I trust that in another sense it will be an uncommon
one, for I hope it will be done within the amount of the estimate. We do
not, however, mean to advertise, but to adopt the now usual course of writ-
ing to a certain number cf first rate contractors, requesting them to send in
tenders within a specified time." Proprietor. — " Then there is no actual
guarantee on the part of the contractor that the engineer's estimate will not
be exceeded." Chairman. — " We certainly are not now in that position,
although, as I said before, the engineer's estimate was accompanied by a
tender with a full guarantee for the execution of the works within the sum
named." Another proprietor is replied to by the chairman, who says, " I
think the honourable proprietor may fairly presume that the estimate will
not be exceeded by the mode of tender now proposed. The view of the
board was that there ought to be a probability of reduction in the terms of
the tender, rather than the chance of an increase, and it was that conside-
ration which induced us to determine on competition, as far as it can be done
with safety. As far, therefore, as the execution of the work goes, I consider
that we are in a state of perfect security, and that they will be finished
within the estimate." In the above conversation we have the results of the
most experienced men as capitalists and engineers that the world has pro-
duced, and with as much natural talent as perhaps ever will be produced.
From which we learn that the London practice as regards contracts for
buildings will be applied to railways, and that competition to too great au
extent is unsafe, and that the guarantee of the contractor was for the exe-

92

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

cution within the sum named as the estimate ; thereby fixing a maximum
amount, and that the difficulty arose in fixing a maximum. No mention is
made of a schedule, or power of making deductions by any given scale.

Another plan, letting out works, has been adopted on broken works, that
is, where companies have taken works out of the hands of contractors, by
allowing other parties to finish them, at a per eentage on the expenditure of
7 to 10 per cent., a check being kept on the contractor by the companies in
the weekly pay bills. I have also known other public works, as gas works,
so carried into execution. This system is also applied to the agents of con-
tractors and extensive commercial works, a salary being fixed, and a per
eentage being given on the amount of profits made by the concern.

From the number of responsibilities and restrictions laid on contractors,
as previously enumerated, one would have thought there would have been no
necessity for the remark, that competition had taken place to too great an
extent, and was unsafe. Do contractors rely for profits on extras and un-
settled amounts ? there being many amounts which remain unsettled for 10
years after the completion or opening of several railways already executed,
or do they rely on the law's delay ? let the cause now in Chancery, of Ranger
versius the Great Western company furnish the reply. Again, as to securities ;
are there no bubble companies ? and on what has the contractor to rely on
for letting his plant fall into their hands ? I can only think his protection
must be the cash in his pocket, and his being ready for active defence. I
have known a poor contractor ruined, by having his works pushed in bad
weather, and he was obliged to leave the works without redress. Ready
money is Aladdin's lamp, and will quicken even the perception of a Lord
Chancellor. In settling disputes of this nature, arbitration is sometimes
resorted to by public companies, to avoid the law's delay ; and engineers of
eminence are called in to settle the disputed accounts. In all contracts be-
tween companies and contractors, it would be well to name two parties, all
as referees, in case of dispute, to curb the sole controul of impetuous or
peevish engineers.

The practice of the Board of Ordnance, is to fill up a printed schedule of
prices. Take smiths work, for instance, the items enumerated most likely to
be wanted, will extend to a hundred articles, of any pattern that the super-
intending officer may order, as, articles of wrought iron, materials for day-
work or for store, cast iron, exclusive of patterns. The tender is to he " at
how much per cent., above or below the prices inserted in the schedule, he
is willing to contract for the supplies ;" and only one rate of per eentage
must be named above or below all the prices in the schedule ; and he is to
make out his bill at these prices, and add to or deduct from the total the per
eentage. according to his tender. The generality of tenders are below the
prices of the honourable board. The contracts are taken for a term of years,
determinable at any period after one year, on either party giving three months
notice. Bondsmen, with two securities bound jointly and severally, are
taken for the performance of the contract. The superintending officer has
the controul of materials as to quality, and imperfections of workmanship,
number of and efficiency of men employed. The contractor is to furnish
daily a list of men, and weekly a statement of daywork, and how employed,
and a list of articles, if any, to which the schedule will not apply. The bills
are delivered within 10 days after the expiration of the current quarter, and
payment made in the course of the subsequent quarter. In this account of
the practice of the honourable Board of Ordnance, we have undoubtedly the
nucleus of the principle adopted by the different railway companies ; but
the chief point, the principle of a per eentage, has not been adopted, which
I think is the safest for all parties, the company and contractor. I have
known the practice adopted by a friend of mine, in a public work of great
extent ; he sent a schedule of prices to parties, and they were to tender at
per cent, on the amount of work (the bills beihg priced by the schedule) at
which they would execute the works. In this mode there is no definite
quantity fixed, and therefore no addition and deductions as the works pro-
gress, and therefore there can be no extras so annoying to all parties con-
cerned ; it is more assimilating to measure and value, with the exception,
that the scale of prices is fixed before the commencement of the works.
There is a custom amongst contractors of pricing the body of their contract,
at a different ratio from that of the schedule, in the expectation that there
will be more extra works than deductions here; I warn all parties that so
doir.g, is decidedly wrong in principle and unexpedient in practice. To
avoid the above practice, the Manchester and Leeds Railway company in-
serted two schedules in their proposals, the first containing a list at which
the tender is computed, t he second containing a list of extra works : in each
schedule above 100 items were enumerated. A difficulty often also arises in
the measurement of works, as to the custom of the country or trade ; and

in railway works it is generally expressed, that net measurement only will
be allowed, and that brickwork is to include all foundations, digging, pump-
ing water, and all punning1 or ramming back of walls, backing bridges, &c.

I will now proceed to say a few words on plans, sections, specifications,
forms of tender, drafts of contracts, schedules of prices, &c. The two first
explain themselves, and the draft of contract is in the province of the lawyer.
The specification is supplementary and general ; the latter applies to all con-
tracts on a line of railway, and in one case was so voluminous as to extend
to 20 folio pages containing 61 clauses. The 61st clause was to the following
effect, and will define what is meant by general. " The whole of this speci-
fication is to be taken and construed according to the true intent and mean-
ing of it, and in case of the construction of any part of it appearing doubtful,
the opinion of the engineer as to the intent of any such portion is to be
binding upon both parties." The supplementary specification describes the
particular works referred to in the general clauses, as for contract No. I.
No. 5 L, or any subdivision of a particular line, say commencing at chain

No. 21, in a field shown in the plan near , and ending at chain

No. 306, shown in the plan situate near , being in length about

3 miles, 4 furlongs, 5 chains, " yards, or thereabouts. In the specification
a table of the gradients is given, and the number of the bridges, with de-
tailed plans of each. The form of tender is as follows : — " To the Committee

of . I, of , do propose to make and complete the work of

the portion of Railway, (inclusive or exclusive of the permanent

way, as the case may be), from — — to, — — according to the plans
and specification, within the period and upon the terms and conditions men-
tioned and contained in the draft contract exhibited, for the sum of £ s. d.,
and I have, in the schedule hereto annexed, set forth the prices of the different
descriptions of work at which the aggregate amount of this tender is com-
puted, and in case this tender shall lie accepted, I hereby undertake to exe-
cute a contract according to the draft referred to within 14 days from this
date, and propose A B and C D as securities for fhe due performance of such
contract." Again, " I hereby offer to execute the whole of the works de-
scribed in the specification, &c, and in the event of this tender being accepted,
I bind myself to enter into a regular contract, and to find satisfactory se-
curity for the due performance of the work, and I agree that the value of
any addition to or deduction from the amount of the work specified, shall be
calculated at the rates stated in the annexed schedule of prices." In the
last case, the real estimate of quantities by the engineer was printed in the
schedule, with a description of each kind of work attached, and in the case of
the Manchester and Leeds Company before alluded to, the amount of secu-
rity required was stated in the conditions of the contract; it was, therefore,
necessary for the parties tendering to add to their tender. " And I do hereby
undertake that A B and C D shall, within a fortnight from this date, execute
a bond to be prepared by the Company for that purpose, in a penal sum
equal in amount to 10 per cent, on the amount of my tender." The Great
Western Railway fixed a definite sum for the bondsmen to become security
for on each contract, not a per eentage ; also that the two sureties be bound
jointly and severally with the parties tendering.

Notwithstanding the arbitrary powers of engineers, the complex array of
law, and the exaction of be .ids, they are all found inefficient as regards keep-
ing contracts within a specific sum, or the gross amount of tenders. Can
there then be any thing said in addition to show the inutility of contracts on
the usual plan.

I should like to see the principle of tendering now in practice by the
Board of Ordnance applied to railways, as before alluded to ; and if this
plan, with the addition of the quantities (as agreed upon by the con-
tractor and engineer, or by their surveyor) were supplied to intending com-
petitors, I think it would tend to simplify the cost of public works, and at
the same time make the officers of supervision and of the executive look more
lovingly on each other. I have no doubt, should Government execute the
Irish railways, some such system will he adopted by the Board of Trade.

I will, in my next, if leisure permit, enter on the principle and construc-
tion of earth wagons, which has not, as yet, had the importance bestowed on
it that it deserves. In the mean time allow me to subscribe myself, with all
respect,

5/. Ann's, Neivcastle-npon-Tune. Your's obediently,

O. T.

1 The cost of punning, per cubic yard, is about twopence, or half the cost
of excavation.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

ROYAL ACADEMY.

Professor. Cockerell's Lectures on Architecture.

CFrom the Athenaum.)

Lecture III.

The chronological table ' offered to the students was designed to assist their
study of the history of architecture, so strongly recommended ; it was a sketch
capable of great development — the intelligent observation of antiquity was an
all-important object with the architect. No consideration could confer more
importance and dignity on the art than that it was identified with time —
that the architect himself was a part of history, and that the marked works
he performs were, by the consent of language, termed monuments. Such a
table presented at one view the religious and moral, the political and tech-
nical influences which have guided aud developed the art. Through the
>arly centuries we trace it as one of the most active engines of civilization ;
but it is loug before we find the table rich with the names of patrons, ar-
chitects, or works, aud then with many voids of tedious centuries between.
The dearth of wisdom or wealth in governments, or genius or liberality in
the individuals, accounts for the barren ages ; as naturally as do the contrary
for the fruits of all the muses. They follow each other as natural conse-
quences, as effects from causes. And it is glorious to recognize the coinci-
dence of epochs favourable to art with the most wise-hearted and generous
spirits of history.

Under whom were those more remarkable buildings of Egypt raised ? It
was when Sesostris built his library, and pointed to its destination by the
significant and enlightened subscription — Vvxns larpftov — " The health of
the soul." When were those bright edifices erected which have ever at-
tracted the traveller to Athens from every part of Europe, and still do so ?
It was when Pericles could discuss the buildings he designed with a So-
crates, a Plato, a Phidias, and an Ictiuus — and so, with minor splendour, an
Augustus, a Justiniau, a Medici, a Louis XIV., a Frederick the Great, a
George III., or a King of Bavaria, have known how to illustrate their era ;
aud, however a half-sighted economy has calculated and complained of the
cost, history may be defied to prove that states have suffered from these ex-
penses ; those wise princes kuew how fructifying they were in real commer-
cial benefits ; and never wanted the address to silence the item-counting
economists. " Do you complain of these expenses ?" said Pericles ; " I will
find the remedy. I myself will defray them, provided you will allow my
name to be inscribed upon the walls." He might have added — " You are
prompt enough to vote money to carry on an Affghan war, on a pretence,
into Sicily, and fill Syracuse with carcases, to your own disgrace and ruin ;
but these expenses, trifling in the comparison, these becoming ornaments,
these productive fructifying decencies of a great state, you grudge."

When Louis's accounts of Versailles were made up, and his Minister of
Finance asked what was to be done with them — " Burn them," said the
monarch. He knew as well as Necker the secret " that the arts and
sciences repay with usury the expenses of the state in providing for then-
exercise and culture." He knew, too, that they formed not a tithe of those
arrogant aud unsuccessful wars which he waged with all his neighbours.

But why are the two centuries before our era less fertile in names ? be-
cause the Roman sword began to supersede the olive branch of Olympia :
and why again do they cease after the second century of our era ? because
the Emperor himself (Hadrian) professed the art, and murdered his rival
Apollodorus, the last great architect of Greece. And now, for twelve cen-
turies, they are obscure under the antagonist rules of feudal aud ecclesias-
tical aristocracy, and re-appear only with liberty and the muses.

Again, for himself, the architect lays to heart the care and circumspection
due to lasting monuments, and the penalty which the absence of these is to
inflict on him in the curse

Of Ripley and his rule ;
and for his patrons, his duty to awaken them to the seriousness of these
responsibilities, the compromise of national honour and credit in works
which are nothing less than state matters ; and were so esteemed in Athens
by the appointment of a minister, the $e/j.itfpyos, answerable for their success.
He is humiliated in finding that his own design, with the originality of
which he had flattered himself, is but a repetition of former essays. Again,
in the contemplation of the slowness of invention, and the imitative nature
of our species through centuries. The arch and the dome essayed during
1000 years before they assumed the form of the Pantheon or the Bridge of
Narni ; and 1400 more are required to accomplish a humble imitation in the
dome at Florence. That the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman, as if spell-bound,
did as their fathers did — that the monuments themselves are but the copies,
more or less altered, the successors of a remote ancestry receding into the
night of time. Pliny tells us that the temple of Ephesus had been seven
times rebuilt. The oldest monuments of Egypt and of Greece, and of our
Own countries, are composed of fragments of still ones :

Vixere fortes ante Agamemnona

Multi : sed omnes Ulacrymabiles
Urgentur ignotique longa
Nocte, carent quia vate sacro.

1 See two following pages.

" They had no artist, and they died."

But the technical reflections on this table are not less instructive. The
struggle of 2G00 years with the monolithc ;— the influence of fashions in the
design, and of slavery in the execution, of works, reducing the cost by at
least one quarter;— the lever, the lewis, the trochlea, and every engine em-
ployed by modern masons, are recognized in all the oldest buildings of the
east ; Stonehenge being one of the few buildings which displays the infancy
of art ;— the inferiority of ancient cities in the distant view as a conglome-
rate of low buildings, to those of the modern world with towers and campa-
niles ;— the changes which customs induce ;— the church-bell, which in the
seventh century hardly exceeded one cwt., and terrified Clothaire and his
troops under the walls of Orleans ; then the delight and boast of commu-
nities, and gradually becoming 80 tons in the 19th centurv at Moscow, en-
larging during those centuries the towers and structures'for its reception,
and altering by degrees the whole face of architecture ;— the use of glass,'
in narrow windows in the first century, a vast improvement on Phengytes',
used till then; the manufacture of the civilized only, till the 12th century;
then infusing colours with unseen lustre — glazing iu part onlv the domestic
windows, which had shutters below until the 1 7th, and now in one sheet
filling the entire sash. Meanwhile, architecture bends to this manufacture,
and changes its features and proportions with the phases of its improvement.
And, lastly, cast-iron, which within 40 years has discovered capacities which
will alter the whole structure of buildings. We may say with the poet

Loin d'ici ce discours vulgaire
Que l'art pour jamais degetiere,

Que tout s'eclipse, tout finit ;
La nature est inepassable,
Et le genie infatigable,

Et le Dieu que la rajeunit.

The principle to be inculcated seems then to be the acceptance and em-
ployment of every useful element of our art, and so to engraft new features,
and bend it to the march of human improvement, as to be consistent with
taste, while it is also to the great end of use. Thus we shall obtain new
creations iu the art — which a servile imitation refuses.

These are amongst the advantageous reflections which the contemplation
of the chronological table will give rise to.

This evening the Professor purposed offering some remarks on the prin-
cipal monuments of civil architecture amongst the ancients. As the ritual
prescribed the forms of sacred architecture, so political aud civil institutions
prescribed those of civil architecture : where monarchs sway we have their
palaces, suited to the temporal governor of the earth : regarded as God's
vicegerent while living, and as demi-gods when dead, their niausolea endure
through all ages, in the Pyramids, or in the Moles Hadriana ; and where
these are supported by castes, we have the Labyrinth, the Temple Palace,
and the treasury — in republics none of these are found, but the temple, the
gymnasium, the theatre, the stoa, the basilica, and public works abound;
when states are absolutely commercial, as Tyre or Carthage, nothing remains
hut their name in history ; their architecture seems to have been confined to
the perishable Trireme.

The uncertainty of future existence made duration in the present the
earliest object of solicitude ; monuments in the pyramid or the obelisk are
the most remote architectural works which have reached us. In 1732 b.c
Jacob raised a memorial to Rachel, " that is the pillar upon Rachel's grave
unto this day." " The kings of Egypt," says Diodorus Siculus, did not
think that the fragility of the body deserved a solid habitation ; indeed,
they regarded their palaces as simple lodgings, in which each successively
inhabited ; but they considered their tombs as their peculiar habitations, as
their fixed and perpetual domicile.

The subject of pyramids would never be mentioned without acknow-
ledgment to the labours of Colonel Vyse, which for princely liberality and
English endurance and disinterestedness are unparalleled, as indeed also for
their great interest, since on this subject, debated for so many centuries, he
has left nothing to desire.

But, to the architect, no monument of antiquity could be more precious
than the tomb of Absalom, iu the valley of Jehosaphat, which is monolithic
(for the most part), or rather cut in the living rock, and exhibits an Ionic
temple in antis (like Solomon's temple), with a Doric entablature, an Egyp-
tian cornice, and a tholus or circular attic, surmounted with a conical top
and a pomegranate ; all features in perfect correspondence with the reason-
able expectations regarding Jewish architecture, which, however original in
plan and disposition, would never be so in ornamental style, because the
comparative smallness of the nation, the fortunes of individuals limited by
law, the agricultural habits of the people, their discouragement of taste,
and their position between great and flourishing countries so remarkable for
its cultivation as to lend their artists to the Jews, whenever occasion de-
manded, were all opposed to the invention of any peculiar and original style
of architecture.

A beautiful representation of this remarkable tomb had appeared iu
Roberts' " Holy Land ;" there could be no doubt as to its identity, since
tradition amongst the Jews on such a point might always be accepted as full
and sufficient evidence — its perfect correspondence with holy writ (II Samuel,
ch. xviii.) is striking : — " Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared
up for himself a pillar, which is iu the king's dale : for he said, I have no

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son to keep my name in remembrance; and he called
the pillar after his own name, and it is called unto
this day Absalom's place." Wren calls it " the
most observable monument of the Tyrian style."
" It were to be wished," says he, " some skilful ar-
tist would give us the exact dimensions to inches,
by wb.ich we might have a true idea of the ancient
Tyrian manner."

Labyrinths are amongst the earliest and most
astonishing of architectural works; they were found
in Egypt, Crete, Lemnos, and Tuscany. Herodotus
describes them as surpassing in extent and magnifi-
cence : the one he describes (Eut. cxlviii.) was
composed of 12 courts, having apartments of two
kinds, 1500 above the surface of the ground and
as many beneath, in which were the tombs of their
kings. " No one could enter them," says Diodorus
Sicnlus, " without a guide." Yet Pliny tells us
they were not contrived like the ornament com-
monly called by that name ; in that of Lemnos,
says he, were 150 columns turned in a lathe, which
a child could move ; and this is remarkable as
evidence of the use of such a machine in the capi-
tals of the Parthenon, which has been always sup-
posed.

The living use of the Labyrinth is left to conjec-
ture; but we may easily conceive their adaptation
to a people of castes, with whom they might be
colleges for those aristocratic classes surrounding
the throne. We are told that all the youth of
Egypt, born on the same day with Sesostris, were
set apart and educated with the young prince, and
thus it was that he found himself surrounded in
manhood by attached companions, who carried his
conquests and his fame to the greatest height.
Where could so vast a generation be educated but
in the Labyrinth ?

The Professor doubted the interpretation com-
monly applied to the so called temples of Egypt ;
be believed them to be rather temple palaces, in
which the temporal administration of a great coun-
try was carried on, together with the spiritual.
The ruins of Karnac covered 10 acres. Within the
walls was inclosed a space equal to the whole
length of St. James's Street, and four times its
width. The comparison of this plan with that of
the Louvre and its courts, with the use of which
we are familiar (and exhibited with plans of Luxor
and Dendera, and Diocletian's palace, and others
drawn to the same scale), would show the high
improbability of the employment of such vast
spaces for the priesthood alone ; and it could be
shown, especially at Dendera, that all the public
business of the realm might be conducted there,
and that the Pharaoh himself very probably re-
sided, as in the Arab villages at this day, upon the
F road terraces which these vast buildings afforded,
raised into the air, and removed from the vermin,
inundations, mirage, and confinement, to which the
habitations on the soil of Egypt were subject.

The Pharaoh united the offices of monarch and
high priest, and all the dignity and imposing awe
which the arts could afford, were associated with
his presence. The palace was approached through
an avenue of sphynxes of a mile in length. The
Pylac were seen afar off raising a vast front of uni-
form surface, on which were engraved on one side
the Pharoah in his warlike attributes reviewing his
troops, charging the enemy, whom he annihilates
at a stroke, besieging cities ; on the other, in his
peaceful, administering justice, and the more sacred
duties of his priestly office. In front of this were
obelisks (the smallest of which is now in Paris),
and colossal figures of the Pharaohs.

The first court equals in size Waterloo Place,
from the column to Pall Mall. Here, under a co-
lonade, " the King sat in the gate," with " his
princes and counsellors ;" this was " his porch of
judgment," the sculpture and painting of the ceil-
ing symbolized appropriately the passage of the
soul through human vicissitudes to a final judg-
ment.

The columnar grove beyond, 325 feet by 266,
afforded a waiting hall (the only cool one in
(Egypt for all the court, so pompously described

BEFORE CHRIST.

Dates,
Authors,
Patrons,

Events.

architectural
Writers.

Eminent
Architects.

2400
S'oah

2300

Tower of Babel

2200
Menes

Walls of Babylon

2100
Abraham

Pyramids

Obelisks

2000-1900

1800
Amos or

Cheops
Joseph or

Chephren

Pyramid
Pvramid

1700
1600

Arch

1500 Mu^ts
Sesostris

Beseleel

Tabernacle

Pyramid

Temple of Jupiter at Thebes

1400

Labyrinth in Egypt

K'.nn

Daedalus

Labyrinth of Crete

1200
Troy taken

Nineveh

Treasuries at Mycene, Orchome-
nos, inc.

1100 Solomon

Hiram

Temple at Jerusalem

1000
Shisbak spoils
Jerusalem

900
Homer — Hesiod

800
Ezekiel

Cyclopian Walls
Labyrinth of Lemnos

700 Theodorus

Chersiphron Metagenes

Rhoecus Temple of Juno at Samos

Zoilus Rholus 1st Temple of Diana at Ephesus

T. of Jupiter Panellenius of .Egina
Agamedes Trophonius Temple of Cybele at Sardes

1st Temple of Apollo Didymeus

600
Ezra Antistates Calleschros

.Eschylus Agatarchus Democritus Antimachides Porinos
Anaxagoras Silenus

1st Temple of Pallas at Priene

1st T. of Jupiter Olympius, Athens
Temple of Jupiter Olympius. Elis
Theatre of Bacchus at Athens

500 Ictinus Carpion

Theodorus
Pericles phoceus

Argelius
Herodotus Satyrus Phyteus
Thucvdides

C'allicrates Mnesicles Temple of Ceres Eleusina
Agaptus Libon Parthenon, Propylcca

Pheax T. vEsculapius, Tralles. T. Selinus

T. Jupiter Olympius, Agrigentum
Mausoleum. Temple at Cyrene

400 Hermogenes Nexaris Ma:sthes Callias T. Diana, Magnesia. T.Bacchus,

Pytheus Theocydes Tarchesius Archias Teos

Demophilos Pollis Daphnis Demetrjus 2nd T. Priene. 2nd T. Ephesus

Leonides Philo Denocrates Lycicratus 2nd Temple of Apollo

Peonius Pharos at Alexandria

Silanion

Melampus

Sostratus

Callimachu

Corinthian Capital

300

Sarnacus

Euphranor

Polycletus
Andronicus

Theatre at Epidaurus
Tower of the Winds

200

Cosutius

T. Jup. Olym. Athens, completed
Gymnasia

Diodorus
Strabo

Fussitius

Terrentius Varro Mutius

Publius Sattimius

Hermodorus

Valerius

Saurus

Cyrus

Batrachus

Temple of Jupiter Stator
Temple of Honour aud Virtue
2nd Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus

Basilica at Fano in Italy

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

05

AFTER CHRIST.

Pliny
Plutarch

Pausanias

Lucian

Dionysius

200

300

Eusebius
Constantine

Metrodorus
Alipius

Temple at Jerusalem

400

500

Justinian

Anthemius
Isidorus

St. Sophia

600
700

800

Romualdus

Cathedral of Rheims
St. Mark's at Venice

900

Elphege

Crypts of Winchester Cathedral

Dates,
Authors,
Patrons,

Events.

Architectural
Writers.

Medici Alberti

Cataneo

Eminent
Architects.

Vitruvius Cerdo

Seler

Severus Rabirius

Baths

Tomb of Augustus

Amphitheatre at Rome

Apollodorus
Hadrian

Forum of Trajan

Temple of Venus and Rome

Moles Hadriani

Temple of the Sun at Palmyra

Temple at Balbec

Leo X.

Julius II.

Buschetto
Mauritius
Lanfranc
De Carilelpho
Losinga

Duouio of Pisa

Old St. Paul's

Choir of Canterbury Cathedral

Durham Cathedral

Norwich Cathedral

Dioti Salvi
Roger
Normannns
W. Senensis

Baptistery of Pisa
York Cathedral
Lincoln Cathedral
Canterbury Cathedral

Troteman

Poore

Erwin von Steinbach

Louton

Arnolfo

Wells Cathedral
Salisbury Cathedral
Minster of Strasburg
Lichfield Cathedral
S. Maria del Fiore

Agostino da Siena

Walsingham

Walter

William of Wykeham

Cathedral of Sienna
Ely Cathedral
St. Stephen's Chapel
Windsor

Brunelleschi

Cesare Cesariano
Reginald Bray

Cupola of S. Maria
St. Francis at Rimini

Milan Cathedral
Henry Vllth's Chapel

Philibert de Lorme

Sansovini

Serlio

VlGNOLA.

Palladio

Bramante Rafaelle St. Peter
Peruzzi San Micheli

San Gallo Michelangiolo Cupola of St. Peter
De Lescott Louvre

Scammozzi
Wotton
Inigo Jones
Perrault
Christopher Wren

Whitehall

Borromini Facade of the Louvre

St. Paul's

Chambers

Mansart
Vanbrugh
Hawksmoor
Gibbs
Perronet

Soufflot

Arches of Triumph at Paris
Blenheim House
Somerset House

Nole.— The writings of those in capital letters are still extant.

in Daniel : " the princes, the governors, the cap.
tains, the judges, the treasurers, the counsellors, the
sheriffs, and the rulers of the provinces." Through
these was the approach to the Sekos for the god ;
and on the face of each column of the avenue were
represented on one side Osiris, on the other the
Pharaoh.

The paving above all this showed a surface pre-
pared for other buildings, apparently of timber :
holes occur for the reception of the posts, very
large ornamental spouts for the discharge of sewage
and water, in a country of no rain, and there-
fore only wanted for the uses of a great family.
The parapet walls forming the external face of the
temple palace, surmounted with the usual cornice,
defend and partially conceal these buildings ; and
at Dendera especially are chapels for the daily ser-
vices of the Pharaoh and his family on this higher
level, and the staircases by which they arrived at
them. These were the " ivory palaces," the habi-
tations of cedar, and sandel, and almug woods, al-
luded to in the 45th Psalm, and in which each
Pharaoh might indulge his taste, and be " glad,"
and enjoy exemption from the inconveniences of
the nether world.

Some very beautiful drawings, by Mr. Jones, re-
presenting the actual remains and restorations of
the Pila?, were obligingly exhibited, by permission
of that gentleman. An interesting part of the
ruins of Karnac was not to be forgotten, namely, a
triumphal gate built by Shyshack on his return
from Jerusalem, whence he had taken the golden
shields put up by Solomon, as described in 1 Kings,
xiv.

The treasuries of Atreus, 48 feet in diameter,
and the gates of Mycenre, and the treasury of Or-
chomenos, of still larger diameter, are the only
monuments of Homeric pretension, unless the Ly-
cian remains, discovered by Mr. Fellowes, can be
proved to be of that remote period, and that the
taste of Sarpedon can be identified by them.

Amongst the objects of civil architecture, few
have had more influence on the art than theatres,
both in their external elevation, in the application
of the orders in relief on the pier and spandrel of
the arch, and in the internal elevation, the scene,
which has been the occasion of so much caprice
and corruption of taste. The theatre, being con-
stantly employed for parliamentary assemblies, re-
quired a permanent scene, as well as moveable, and
adapted to the performance. It was a subject of
vast architectural study and expense. Pliny (lib.
xxxvi.) tells us that Caius Antonius silvered the
scene ; Pretonius gilt it ; Quintus Catullus clothed
it in ivory. Scaurus surpassed them all ; he taised
360 columns, in three ranges : the first was of mar-
ble 38 feet high, the next was in glass, the third
of wood gilt. Three thousand bronze statues orna-
mented the intercolumniatious. Curion, unable to
surpass Scaurus, built two theatres of wood, which,
being back to back, could be turned so as to form
an amphitheatre for gladiators, displaying the skill
of the Roman carpenters to great advantage.

Vitruvius (lib. vii. c. 5.) lamenting the deprava-
tion of taste, tells us that Apaturius of Alabanda
offered a design for a scene of two stories, the
upper called Episcenius, filled with every caprice,
centaurs did the office of columns, pediments were
twisted in a variety of shapes ; all which pleased
the people of Tralles, for whom it was designed ;
but Licinius a mathematician, exposed its absurdity,
and it was accordingly reformed on better princi-
ples.

The scene of Laodicea (amongst many which the
Professor exhibited) was the most extensive, being
no less than 254 feet in length. The theatre of
Orange, lately published by M. Caristie, was a valu-
able addition to our information on the Roman
scene.

Palladio's scene of the theatre at Viccnza gUes
the best idea of its feature of ancient architectural
magnificence.

Originally of wood, and continuing so for many

centuries, it was not until the third century before

our era (232 B.C., the theatre at Epidaurus,) that

they were built in stone and marble. The Greek

13

96

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

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theatre approached the amphitheatre, and was a horse-shoe comprising 200"
or more, because the orchestra was reserved also for the performance ; but
the Roman theatre did not exceed 1S0L, because the orchestra was occupied
by the senators.

The Odeum was a covered theatre, chiefly for music; that of Herodes
Atticus, at Athens, was the most magnificent in Greece, and had a roof of
cedar. The space covered was 240 feet by 159. The construction of such
a roof, without obstructing sight or hearing, or injuring external architec-
ture, offers a problem to the architect of no easy solution, and is one of
great interest in the present times, as we are frequently called upon to cover
large areas for occasional assemblies.

But as modern theatres were more to the point with students, the Profes-
sor called their attention to a magnificent work, lately published on " The
great modern theatres of Europe," by M. Contant, which he exhibited.

The amphitheatre was then considered : although of early Tuscan origin,
and originally formed in earth or scaffolding, it was not executed in perma-
nent materials till the end of the first century. One in earth had been dis-
covered by Sir C. Wren at Dorchester. That of Vespasian (as shown in a
diagram) was too large for the site of Trafalgar Square, Charing Cross, &c.
The velarium, 550 feet by 450, with which the colosseum was covered
during exhibitions, was a suqirising contrivance, and had been made the
subject of a work by the architect Fontana. M. Hittorf had suspended the
roof of a panorama in the Champs Elysees, somewhat in the manner of the
Velarium, with great skill. This work, published, was here exhibited.

The gymnasium, in which the youth of Greece were instructed for the
defence and honour of their country, in every department of prowess, was j
an interesting object of civil architecture. The plan of that of Ephesus,
published by the Dilettante Society, was exhibited, and it was gratifying to
observe the use which the late Professor Mr. Wilkins had made of this
example, in illustration of the text of Vitruvius, which had hitherto been
misunderstood.

The Gymnasium was the more interesting as the type of those Therma;,
the Roman baths, which have furnished the great school of architectural in-
itruction, and from which the best inventions of the architects of the middle
age, and of the revival, had been derived.

The name, Therma;, as well as the express declaration of Vitruvius, de-
clare that these institutions were exotic : a refinement adopted from Greece
in the time of Augustus. During the first three centuries of our era, seven
of these were erected ; they were well calculated to indulge that love of
luxury which rapidly corrupted the Roman manners under the emperors, as
well as to gratify that constant excitement of novelty and splendour, which
gave popularity to the government. Some idea of their extent may be con-
ceived from the plan (exhibited) of the Baths of Caracalla laid down upon
that plot which is comprised between Regent Street, Pall Mall, St. James's
Street, and Piccadilly, covering about 28 acres. Cameron assures us. that
those of Diocletian, somewhat larger, afforded hot baths for 18,000 persons
at the same time : a bell rung at two o'clock to announce that the water was
warm. The mask of a paternal urbanity was often affected by the despotic
emperors, who frequently bathed with the people. One day Hadrian recog-
nized an old companion in arms in poverty, scraping himself with a tile in-
stead of the strigil ; accosting him kindly,' he furnished him with a slave,
and all that could be wanted to his future comfort. Such an example could
not but be infectious: accordingly when he came again, he was surrounded
with poor acquaintances scraping themselves with tiles; but, calling them
together, he observed, that being many they could scrape each other,
without any superflous expense of slaves or furniture. The Thermx were
in fact vast clubs, castles of indolence, in which even- easy exercise of body
or mind, and every delight of the senses might be indulged. The gardens,
raised about thirty feet above the general level, were adorned with every
fragrant shrub and flower; the choicest works of sculpture, obelisks and
fountains, exedrx for the enjoyment of the shade or the sun (of a structure
well worthy the student's attention) terminated the walks. In the cen-
tral building was the great hall, the type of Gothic structure in ecclesiastical
architecture, namely, the groined ceiling reposing on a column, and abutting
on an extended pier, with the nascent flying buttress. The space of the
naves (varying from 76 to 90 feet) being twice that of York, the widest of
our cathedrals. The area covered, offers the largest space with the smallest
obstruction in the support, of any scheme yet devised, and cannot be too
much admired. It has been well observed of those structures, that we
discern in them the type of all that has been since done in architecture,
just as throughout the animal creation we trace the more or less resem-
blance to the type man. The interest excited amongst the French students
recently (as exhibited in their late competition for the grand prize), pro-
mises that this admirable feature of ancient architecture will be reproduced
in Europe before many years past. It was proposed for the new Public
Library at Cambridge ; it was employed by Sir C. Wren in Bow Church, on
a small scale; and is executed on a still smaller scale, with considerable
differences, but with happy application in the Bank of England, by Sir J.
Soane. But the cloisters, the surrounding rooms and baths, their various
forms and structures, and the happy union of the arch and the trabeated
systems, would lead to more observation than can be here admitted. To the
students he would say of them,

Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.

Palladio designed to have published a book upon them, the drawings for

which were afterwards edited by Lord Burlington. Mons. Blouet has pub-
lished a magnificent work, giving all the restorations and details, which
large excavations and very careful study of them enabled him to obtain.

The Basilica is also of Greek origin, as the name imports. The kingly
hall was such as Solomon built in the palace of the forest of Lebanon. It
was the Westminster Hall of ancient governments for administration of
justice, commercial exchange, great public meetings, &c. The building at
Pcestum, so called, was more properly a temple, because the Greeks were not
accustomed to apply sacred architecture to civil purposes.

The Basilica of Trajan was the most magnificent exemplar of this species
of building which the Professor could point out : with its forum, temples,
and approaches, it covered 12 acres. The central hall or basilica, 540 by
168 feet, would contain St. Paul's in length and in width, exceeded only in
the extreme ends of the cross. The central nave, 27S by 78, would contain
the whole of Westminster Hall, in plan as well as in section. In Rome were
18 basilicas, and one at least in every city of the empire. Their subsequent
adaptation to the Christian temple makes them highly interesting to the
student. Vitruvius, lib. v. c. 1, describes the basilica, and his own work
at Fauum, which differs from the usual form in some particulars.

Lectcke IV.

Of the divisions of the art proposed, that of domestic and villa archi-
tecture alone remained to be considered. On this subject, two important
preliminary remarks were to be made. Firstly, that the republican form of
government, which prevailed in the ancient world after the seventh century
b.c, greatly influenced the style of domestic buildings, which were expressly
unostentatious externally, towards narrow streets, lined with shops, reserving
all their elegance for the interior, in the atrium impluviatum — porticatutn—
the exedra, &c. Secondly, that populations and fashions having been de-
rived from the east, an oriental character was impressed on the ancient
habits and arrangements of countries in which (as in Italy especially) the
northern and occidental now prevail ; as derived from an opposite source.
Whoever walks through the streets of Pompeia, after having resided amongst
the Turks, will be struck with this fact. The profuse employment of water,
in the bath, the impluvium, and in the corner of every street — the narrow
street — the secluded mansions, within high walls — the internal air and space
— the subdivision of the house into the men's apartments and the women's—
the harem — the lightness of the costume — all express migration from warmer
climates, and a marked distinction of the races of modern and ancient in-
habitants.

The Jews lived chiefly on the terraced tops of the houses, as the Professor
presumed the Pharaoh to have done. " Ahaziah " (II Kings, c. i.), King of
Samaria, " fell down through a lattice in his upper chamber ;" and it was
thence that David, in a wanton moment, incurred the curse which fell upon
his family. The house top is ever the scene of prayer. " Let him that is
on the house top," says our Saviour, '• not come down into his house, neither
enter therein," (Mark, xiii. 15) ; yet it is possible that in the latter ages
they had adopted the Greek and Roman ichnography — it was, perhaps,
through the roof of the atrium testudhiatuui that the sick man was let down
to be cured by our Saviour (Luke, v. 19.)

The narrowness of the streets, and unostentatious style of the houses in
Athens, occasioned disappointment to the traveller, as Dica-archus expressly
tells us ; in Rome the same ; and as the houses were limited by the Augustan
law to 70 feet high, we must suppose them unattractive. The fragments of
the great plau of Rome, inscribed on the pavement of the temple of Romu-
lus, by order of Septimius Severus, and published by Bellori, show the re-
semblance of the houses to those of Pompeia. It was an extraordinary in-
novation on the ancient humility of the Roman house, which Cresar pro-
posed, in demanding permission of the Senate to erect a fastigium, or pedi-
ment, over his door.

But the complete account of the Roman aristocratic house is to be found
in the " Palais de Scaurus," by Mons. Mazois, as also of the citizen's house,
in the " Ruines de Pompeia," so admirably illustrated by that ingenious and
lamented architect.

But if the Roman nobles accomplished the admirable works described, in
favour of the public, they did not neglect their own comforts. Under the
empire they lived as individuals with the income of monarchs ; and Straho tells
us expressiy that " they built their villas after the palaces of the kings of
Persia." The number" of them was also extraordinary; for, as Lucullus
said, " they were as wise as those birds which change their residence with
the seasons."

Cicero had 19 villas, and it was in one of these that Caesar honoured him
with a morning call, and paid him the very high compliment of taking a
vomit in order that he might do justice to his lunch. In another he de-
lighted to ornament his library with Greek paintings and sculptures, which
his friend Herodes Atticus was always collecting for him.

It was a fortunate legacy to the architect-antiquary which Pliny had left,
in the description of his villa at Laurentinum. It had often employed the
ingenuity of the architect, since the revival, but with small profit, till the
discovery of the ancient ichnography of Pompeia. The Professor exhibited
his own restoration, founded upon those data, in which, though he differed
in some points from his accomplished friend, Mons. Haudebourt, in his ele-
gant version of the Laurentinum, yet he strongly recommended it to the
student, on account of the great research and taste shown in the composi-

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

97

tion. Some of the features he would describe. You entered a small tarium
and thence a court in the form of the letter D, surrounded with a portico,
which was enclosed partially with glass (the very original of our old con-
ventual cloisters), and thus excluded rough weather. Thence through a
gay court into a triclinium, which hung over the sea, and had windows all
round three sides, giving the full enjoyment of the air, and view of wood
and mountains beyond. To the left of this was a room, at the end of which
was a rotunda (in apside curvatum), so contrived as to receive the sun's rays
from the rising to the setting : in this was a case containing books, calcu-
lated to detain you, and such as " one loves to read over and over again."
This arrangement afforded an angular parterre, protected on all sides except
the south from the winds, and concentrating the sun's rays — a delightful
refuge in the winter season. There were rooms heated by pipes from a hy-
pocaustum, and others to retire to in stormy weather, to escape the roaring
of the waves; a large bath for cold and hot bathing; a perfumery; and
spheristerium, or fives court ; a long gallery (crypto porticus) with windows
on either side, which, when opened, admitted the fragrance of beds of
violets, and the sun's rays at the rising and setting. " At the end of this,"
continues Pliny, " is a casino I built myself — my delight : in it I have an
Heliocaminus, a sun chamber, warmed by windows all round ; while reposing
on my couch in a recess adjoining, I can see the garden, the landscape, and
the sea, through a glazed door ; I can study in perfect quiet here, and escape
all the noise and disturbance of my servants, occasioned by the Saturnalia."
Pliny omits some features of great interest in the Roman house, as the
Sacrariura, (the chapel,) in which the Lares (the household gods,) were
placed, and sometimes the imagines majorum, of which the Romans, like
ourselves, were justly proud. The Tabliuium, for the archives, which also
received these sometimes ; and the Ergastulum, that room of the domestic
side of the house in which chastisement was administered to the slaves, in
the approved fashion of our schools at this day, as we see by various paint-
ings preserved to us.

Pliny describes his gardens, his figs and mulberries, his gestatio bordered
with box, and plantatious disposed in the form of Xystus and the Hippo-
drome ; classical titles, which give a charm to features otherwise insignifi-
cant : and since " the world," says Sir C. Wren, " is governed by wordes,"
they may often be adopted by the architect with good effect, when intro-
duced appropriately and without pedantry.

The attention to the sun's rays in the milder climate of Italy, so conspi-
cuously shown in Pliny's letters, is confirmed by all the ^authorities of anti-
quity.

Vitruvius (b. 6, c. vii.) is very particular in his recommendations to this
effect ; but the wisest of men, in a still warmer climate, has enforced this
point yet more strikingly : — " To make a house pleasaut," says Socrates, " it
should be cool in summer and warm in winter : the building, therefore,
which looks towards the south will best secure these objects, for the sun
which will enter into the rooms in winter, will, by its greater altitude, pass
over its roof in summer. For the same reason, these honses ought to be
carried up to a considerable height, the better to admit the winter's sun ;
whilst those to the north should be left much lower, as less exposed to the
bleak winds from that quarter : for, in short," continues he, " that house is
to be regarded as beautiful where a man may pass even' season of the year
pleasantly, and lodge whatever belongs to him in security."

The modern Italians are not less attentive to aspect, which they signifi-
cantly express by the proverb, " Dove non viene il sole, viene il medico."

But the most extraordinary villa of the ancient world, was that of Had-
rian, at Tivoli, in which he displayed all the acquirements and collections of
taste, during 21 years of constant travel through this vast empire ; in it was
reproduced every remarkable building of the world, and probably every
statue of celebrity, since from this magazine the baths of Caracalla were
furnished 80 years after, and the Vatican in some of its most precious orna-
ments. The whole was said to be inclosed in a wall 10 miles in circum-
ference. Pizzo Legorio, Kircher, Contini, and Panini, have engraved and
written upon the remains.

The modern villas of Rome, built by the popes and cardinals since the
15th century, convey to us some of those graces in which the ancient villas
abounded. In these all the great masters of the revival have displayed their
research and ingenuity. They are described in the elegant work of Messrs.
Percier and Fontaine, to which the Villa Pia, by Mons. Boucher, has lately
been added.

Our own architects of the I6th, encouraged by Bacon, Burleigh, and
Wotton, certainly studied these works, and engrafted some of their princi-
ples on our Elizabethan architecture, which adapts itself admirably to our
climate and the extent of our establishments. Bacon (Essays, vol. I.) de-
scribes his idea of a villa with great detail, insisting upon the aspect and the
seasons as primary considerations. Indeed, all authorities agree upon this
subject, except those of the 19th century, and especially the patentees of
hot air or hot water apparatus.

" The Elements of Architecture," by Sir Henry Wotton, being " the Rules
and Cautions of this Art cast into a Comportable Method," are amongst the
most precious and tbe earliest in our language. He was long ambassador at
Venice, from Elizabeth and James, and seems to have been personally ac-
quainted woith Palladio. Domestic and villa architecture are special sub-
jects with him ; for, says he, " Every man's proper mansion and home being
the theater of his hospitalitie, the seat of self-fruition, the comfortablest
part of his own life, the noblest part of his son's inheritencc, a kind of

private princedome, nay, to the possessor himself an epitome of the whole
worlde, may well deserve by these attributes according to the degree of the
master, to be decently and delightfully adorned."

In truth, during three centuries the cultivation of this branch of architec-
ture may be said to be peculiar to England, and that, while monumental and
palatial edifices are better illustrated on the continent, the constitution of
this country, and of the English mind — prone to the salutary retirements of
home, the centre to which all its desires and warmest imaginings are ever
pointing — bave made the English house of every grade the most perfect in
comfort and convenience, and the villa the beau ideal of individual posses-
sion, and the branch of the art in which our country excels beyond all
others.

The compact square villa, after Palladio especially, was introduced by Inigo
Jones, and much advanced by the model of those at Genoa, published by
Rubens, who recommends them as full of beauty and convenience, and admi-
rably suited to gentlemen of moderate fortune, such as the republic of Genoa
is composed of. But the extension of the habits and the requirements of
the present day have outgrown the spuare villa, and we are constrained to
build a house beside the villa to accommodate them, with the worst possible
effect in the group and in detail ; for in vain the plantation attempts to hide
it out ; an anomalous composition is the Jesuit, and we had better have re
verted to the Elizabethan mansion, which cast the house and offices into one
in the extended E or H, or the French mansion, " enter cour et jardin," of
the 18th century, reserving the centre for the best apartments, and the wings
for offices, and the entrances in the angles communicating easily with all.

The least rational of English productions in this sort is seen in the castel-
lated elevation adapted to this plan — the battlements and dungeon-keeps of
Edward the Third upon the Italian villa of the 16th and 1 7th centimes.
The menacing aspect, the machicolations, threatening hot lead upon the in-
truders, in the distance, are, on the approach, found to be peaceful and
harmless ; the fortress is accessible at every window, and expresses a security
from danger on better acquaintance, in direct contradiction to its fortified
exterior. On entering the baronial hall, where you expect the paraphenalia
of chivalry and the chase, retainers and bondsmen, you are addressed by a
powdered footman, or may discover a housemaid sweeping the marble pave-
ment.

The Grecian villa is hardly better conceived; it may be taken for a library,
or a philosophical institution. An extensive portico, borrowed from Minerva
Polias, imposes its order on the whole composition, which is to be com-
pressed accordingly, at the cost of all its internal proportions and accom-
modations. Even' useful appendage of vulgar convenience is to be sxp-
pressed, as ill-suited to its Flatonic refinement. As Swift says of Clelia —

You'd think that so divine a creature
Felt no necessities of nature.

But such architectural solecisms derogate from the dignity of the art, and
convert into a theatrical or romantic dream, that which should embody sound
sense and rational invention.

The essential features should be prominently expressed ; the nobler por-
tions, the offices, kitchen, the clock, and the stables, should tell their own
story. And fiction would be found unnecessary when all these are placed in
due subordination and proper character by the artist's hand.

France, until recent times, essentially monarchical and aristocratic, has
ever delighted in palaces ; and since the reign of Francis I., they have been,
the most remarkable of Europe. Du Cerceau, Philibert de l'Orme, Mansards,
and Blondel, and many able successors, afford us the fullest information on
the ichuography adapted to these grades. In conception and design, and in
many respects in execution also, the Louvre is the most magnificent palace
in the world, Situatad in the metropolis, and occupying 32 acres, its galle-
ries, and museums, and its gardens, form the recreation of the people. The
paternal monarch invites them into his courts and vestibules, of which he
esteems them the best ornaments, the most familiar and acceptable guests at
all hours ; participating with them his refinements and his delights, they are
endeared and elevated, and the palace of the arts and sciences, a part of the
entire composition, and ranging in the axis of the first court, forming the
chief object from its windows, assure them of the nobleness of Ins views for
their honour and real advantage. The palace itself, the work of centunes,
still unfinished, is the great attelier of artists— the field in which they may
exercise their genius for centuries to come in their several works— the great
harbour in which talent may find protection and employment.

It was for the foundation of such schemes as these, that Francis 1. invited
Vignola and Serlio, and the painters of the school of Raphael, into France ;
and for their transmission to posteritv, that he encouraged the publication of
C;esari Cssariauo's translation of Vitruvius and the elementary wor^s of
Serlio and others, which obtained for him in return the title of the lather
of Literature. Nor were his successors inferior in these encouragements,
which enabled native artists afterwards to rival the great Italians— for
L'Escot was preferred to Serlia, and Perrautt to Bernini.

The peculiarity of French orthography is in the high roofs, subdivided
into paviliaus. affording great effect in composition of various and cumulating
forms, aided by their high mi hafts and dormer windows, and their

vast windows below them, suited to the northern climate. Indeed, Philibert
de l'Orme, and the architects have rendered the Italian style

homogeneous witli the northern climate and circumstances in the happiest
manner.

11*

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A military people delight in pavilions ; each apartment was to represent a
tent. So in the Tuileries the line of tents is terminated with two, distin-
guished by the name of Pavilions de Flore and Marsan. A maritime people
delight in' their ships : thus the English apartments convey the idea of " be-
tween decks," and the largtr buildings are often like the man-of-war hulk
laid up in ordinary. So in Russia the palaces have the air of barracks ; vast
and forlorn, they remind the spectator of the plains of Siberia. In Egypt,
the Troglodite excavation was revealed in the temple palace ; in Greece, the
log.house in the temple structure: in China, still the tent, in its simplest
form.

In the middle ages domestic architecture arose from the monastic struc-
tures in single rooms, lighted on either side like our colleges, the chimney
shafts issuing from the eaves. The composite house of double rooms was
borrowed from the Italians by Francis I., but even there the degagement was
wanting, and the chamber, ante-chamber, waiting-room, and guard-room,
were all passage-rooms. It is in the English palaces that this problem has
been best solved.

But the Professor observed, that this digression had led us from the chro-
nology of the art, which terminated with the Roman villa ; and we now
entered that melancholy period of history, in which all ancient ideas of
human enjoyment were absorbed in loftier and more serious aspirations ; and
the art during the next 1000 years was employed alone in military and eccle-
siastical buildings, by means of the Freemasons. The original institution of
that order is traced even to the Greeks and Romans. Numa established the
first corporations of architects, Collegia Fabrorum, together with the inferior
Collegia Artificum. They were invested with a religious character, and
rights of framing laws and treaties amongst themselves. They greatly con-
tributed to the increase of the Roman power amongst the barbarians,
as have done our own people amongst the North American Indians, with
whom an article of treaty on their part, has always been to send a
blacksmith amongst them. The Collegia were greatly promoted by the
Roman Emperors in the rebuilding of cities, in the aqueducts and public
works, and endowed with peculiar privileges, as freedom from taxation, hold-
ing councils with closed doors, &c. Victor relates that Hadrian was the
first to attach a corps of architects to the Cohorts (about 120, A.n.) — an ex-
ample which the admirable College for Civil Engineers at Putney, in favour
of our colonies, promises to follow with great advantage.

But it was at the termination of the eighth century, that the masons of
Como assumed their peculiar form of Freemasonry, raised into importance by
the patronage of the commercial and zealous Lombards, in the building
of churches and monasteries with new materials; and dispersed after the
destruction of that kingdom by Charlemagne, they spread themselves over
Europe, obtaining bulls from the Pope, and maintaining peculiar rights and
mysteries. Collegia had existed in England ; but, destroyed by the ravages
of the barbarians, the Freemasons (probably of Como) were invited by Alfred,
aud after by King Athelstan, who gave them a charter in York (926), the
original of which is said to exist still in that ancient city. It cites the
Oriental Church, the history of architecture from Adam, with Rabbinical
tales of the Building of Babel, the Temple of Solomon ; Ilieram, the Greeks
and Romans, Pythagoras, Euclid, and Vitravius, are quoted ; that St.
Albanus (300, a.d.) obtained a charter from King Carausius, with sixteen
laws, agreeing with the corpus juris, relating to the Corpora or Collegia of
ancient Rome. Another precious document preserved to us was written in
1450, under Henry VI., a great patron of architecture, published in the
Gentleman's Magazine (1753, p. 417).

In 1459 a grand lodge was erected at Ratisbon, of which the architect of
Strasbourg cathedral was the grand master. Charters and privileges were
added by Maximilian, 1498. In 1717, SirC. Wren was the grand master in
England ; but shortly after the ancient fraternity altered its original form
and purpose, and became what we now understand by Freemasonry. Wren
was then extremely old, and probably unequal to oppose the perversion
which then took place; and which, from his known services to the craft, we
cannot doubt was contrary to his wishes.

Thus the period of the revival was arrived at, and the Professor explained
that in the previous and the present lecture he had devoted the more time
to the review of ancient, sacred, and civil architecture, from the per-
suasion that the art would never again effect similar productions ; therefore
that antiquity formedjthat great storehouse from which the architect was to
draw his best instructions.

It might be said, that the problem of architectural power and combina-
tion had been worked out and solved, that the mastery of the ancients was
admitted, and that such works would never again be performed ; it would
not again become a primary instrument of civilization. The human mind
had passed through that stage of its discipline, and had embraced new
sciences, engaging the faculties in occupations more advantageous to the
improvement and happiness of our species. The intellectual growth to the
manhood of our nature, now perhaps attained, would esteem architecture
ever a powerful engine in the attainment of the sublime aud beautiful, but
would probably never again indulge that preponderating regard given to it
by the ancients.

The middle ages laboured after the ancient models with many divergencies :
in the revival with the muses, the conviction of their pre-eminence was ad-
mitted, and their laws and principles were confessed as unalterable. Nothing
then was wanted but to revive them, and the zeal with which this object was
pursued was immense.

lu 1416, Poggio Bracciolini, in searching for manuscripts, discovered a

copy of Vitravius, " covered with dust and rubbish, in a tower not fit to
receive a malefactor," says he, " at the monastery of St. Gal, at Constance."
Copies of this happy revelation -were spread amongst the learned, until the
invention of printing, in 1445, multiplied them amongst the great archi-
tects of the day — Brunellesclii, Ca;sariano, Bramante, and others. The mag-
nificent Albert i was one of the chief of these, but not finding in Vitravius
sufficient to inform and fire the student's mind, he composed that work
which all competent judges have esteemed the most masterly compilation in
the art extant. " Seeing," says be (lib. vi.) " that of all antiquity Vitravius
alone has reached us, that such chasms and imperfections appear in his
work, that his help is insufficient : his language, too, — Greek to the Romans,
and Latin to the Greeks — leaves so much unintelligible, I thought it the
duty of an honest and a studious mind to free this science from ruin ; though
the rehearing without meanness, reducing to a just method, writing in an
accurate style, and explaining perspicuously so many various matters — so un-
equal, so dispersed, and so remote from the common use and knowledge of
mankind — certainly required a greater genius and learning than I can pre-
tend to," &c.

But he did not confine himself to the theory of his art ; as a scholar, a
mathematician, a Platonist, and of a noble family, he associated with all the
greatest spirits of his day, and was intimate with the living masters and the
progress of their works. M'hatever conies from him, therefore, is generous,
moral, philosophical, practical, and elevating : he proves himself truly of the
order of cavalieros ; he mounts you upon his horse, which quickly you find a
Pegasus ; he raises you above the vulgar cares and labours of this nether
world, and in his airy flight he shows you all the kingdoms of the world and
their handiworks ; and then he sets you down, cheered, instructed, delighted,
and exulting in your profession.

The only English edition is that of Leoni, 1755. The spirit of that day
deemed art a primary instrument of civilization ; it became the boast and
the occupation of the little courts of the rival states of Italy ; literary
societies, discussions, and conversaziones, discovered and refined upon the
true principles of poetry and of fine arts; and a Bembo, SaJolet, Aimibal
Caro, Castiglione, Aretino, and a host of literary stars, all contributed their
zeal and means to thea'sthetical intelligence of artists. Architecture became
the field of poetical imagination : and we have the "i'jr^oTfpo^ax"', " The
sufferings of love in a dream," by the learned friar. Collonna, in which the
wonders aud delights of the art, and of its theories (full of original and
beautiful conception, the source from whence the artists of the day drew
continually), are accompanied with the romantic and amorous adventures of
blighted lo\e, of which the author was the victim. "The Dream of Poli-
philus." printed by Aldus, in 1199. was published in French ill 1600, with
new plates, engraved from the drawings of Jean Gougeon.

From that period (early in the fifteenth century) to the present day we
have a race of able architects in an uninterrupted chain, each adding some
new grace or invention to the art, on which their merit and celebrity are
founded; all these we now appropriate without appreciating their difficulties,
and these progressions ; or due acknowledgment to each for the contributions
gradually made to our common stock. On the accompanying drawings of
some of the great works of those masters, on which our present practice is
based, the Professor proceeded to offer some comments. It must be pre-
mised that the revival found the art under very different circumstances. The
growth of liberty in the middle ages, magnifying the individual, whose house
now became his castle, an aristocracy balancing the kingly authority, the in-
crease of commerce, and many other causes, altered the whole face of do-
mestic architecture ; it might safely be asserted, that no palace of the
solidity of the Strozzi or of Burlington House, ever existed in antiquity. The
remains of the most insignificant temples and public buildings are still found,
but the absence of any remains of such solid mansions as those throughout
the ancient world might be adduced in proof that the domestic architecture
of the ancients was slight and ephemeral. The houses of the ancients, like
those of the Turks, were of wood and brick, covered with plaster and with
paint. Columns, indeed, abounded, but they were moveables, or furniture,
the objects of manufacture at the quarries, and of trade. These reflections
were sufficient to show, that the features which the architects of the revival,
in their endeavour to restore classical architecture, introduced, were new
in execution and design, and required a stretch and effort of mind which we
do not sufficiently take into account. Those who may be considered the
active restorers of architecture are — Brunellesclii, Bramante, Alberti, Peruzzi,
Serlio, San Gallo, Michael Angelo, Raphael, San Micheli, Sansovino, Galle-
azzo Alessi, Vignola, Palladio, Scaniniozzi, L'Escot, Philibert de l'Orme ;
many others might be added, but none more remarkable than these. The
question occurs, in what particulars were these men great ? the answer will
always be, that not only were they eminent practitioners, but they advanced
their art, and contributed new views and inventions towards its perfection.

Tbe first essays were in imitation of the system observed in the colosseum
and the theatre,' namely, the column and trabeation in relief, and superposed
upon the frieze and arch, and this, in a small scale, formed a crowning order
upon the tower on which Brunelleschi raised his dome at Florence. The
same difficulties of constructing the trabeation, aud of finding stone of suffi-
cient size, and of funds for opening the quarries, which had induced the de-
cline of architecture under Diocletian, occurred in its restoration ; and it
required the experience of one hundred and fifty years to suspend the disen-
gaged entablature in the ancient manner, with any boldness of scale aud pro-
jection, as in Perranlt's Louvre, about 12 ft. 6 in.

Brunellesclii, in his church of St. Spirito and St. Lorenzo, employed the

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99

orders in good proportion, but these supported arches. The celebrity of
Bramante's St. Pietro, in Montorio, doubtless arose, in great measure, from
the accomplishment of the trabeated entablature, though the scale was indeed
small, only 3 ft. 10 in. from column to column. But the timid application
of the classical orders to the middle age buildings, often of large dimensions,
gave them rather the character of trinkets hung upon them than of constitu-
ent parts of the fabric. Bramante, indeed, made a great step in the palace
of Cardinal Wolsey, but the orders are still delicate in low relief, the windows
circular-headed (from the difficulty of executing the square trabeated head)
with the horizontal entablature above them. The basement, though elegant,
has a gothic character, and the crowning cornice has but a small projection ;
the whole is dry and timid. But Bramante had the merit of inventing the
coupled columns, which gave breadth and proportion to the front not other-
ways attainable. The ancients had left no examples of this disposition — but
such were its advantages that it was at once accepted by Raphael and his
successors ; Perrault used it in the Louvre and Wren in St. Paul's.

Alberti's bold and master mind originated many of those features which
his successors knew how to adopt, particularly in his church at Mantua ; he
gave the hint which M. Angelo followed in St. Peter's, of incorporating the
whole height of the interior (not done till then) in one order, and vaulting
the ceiling. His church at Rimini bears the stamp of Roman magnificence,
quite beyond his age.

Peruzzi was the first to render his orders homogeneous with the structure,
and his giving to the entablature of the upper order (especially in the Far-
nesina) a proportion suited to the entire height of the two, was as beautiful
as it was new ; it was afterwards adopted by Sansovino in the library at
Venice with the greatest effect.

But Peruzzi executed an entablature in the Palace Massimi, and square-
headed doors of no mean dimensions (six feet six inches between the capi-
tals) ; but it was especially in perspective that he made advances far beyond
the conception of his day. In other particulars, the merit of Peruzzi is un-
folded by Serlio, his pupil, who possessed his collections and published them,
through the patronage of Francis I., in the first elementary work on the art
written since the revival. The first edition in French is dated Paris, 1345 ;
it was translated into Italian at Venice, 1550, and, by Robert Peake, into
English, 1611, under James I.

San Gallo was remarkable for the dignity which he gave to his buildings
(especially the Palace Farnese), without the aid of the orders, except in
subordinate dimensions, in the windows only, and in the interior court and
vestibule. The vertically which is designed and usually conveyed by the
orders he communicated to his buildings by- rustic quoins, which carry the
eye up, and enable it to embrace the whole front. This invention, which
appears to be wholly his own, became popular and universal.

The windows, with their small orders, are undoubtedly taken from the
Roman tabernaculum, or ornamented niche, so often seen in the baths and in
the Pantheon, and was also a new application.

Raphael, as great in architecture as in painting, adopted his master Bra-
mante's invention of coupled columns, as also San Gallo's windows and
quoins, and if he did not invent, he employed the balustrade with singular
grace and effect — for grace united with strength and nobility, his palace
Pandolfini, Caffarelli, and Uggieri are unequalled ; indeed, his letters show
his enthusiasm for architecture, his profound estimation of the antique, and
his ardent aspiration for the restoration of Rome to its antique character and
splendour. The backgrounds of his pictures are not less to be regarded as
examples than his executed works, being designed with as much care as if
they were to have been perpetuated in marble.

M. Angelo distinguished his designs by vastness and singularity, compared
with the previous schemes of Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. We are
surprised at his boldness in proposing one order, eight feet in diameter, for
the external front, and a corresponding disengaged entablature for an ex-
tended portico in the west front— which latter, however, was never at-
tempted. His palace of the Capitol has many merits and peculiarities, one
of which, practised in the Laurentian library also, was the sinking his co-
lumns in niches.

Vignola has been deservedly regarded as a master of the first merit, and
has been hitherto the great authority in the French school, as Palladio lias
been of the English. His stereotomy, profile, proportion, and composition
are admirable; his orders are generally subordinate, often at the top of his
buildings — they are never coupled as in Bramante and Raphael, but he
reconciles the wide intercolumniation by a panel which gives proportion and
sustains the pilaster with excellent effect. This expedient, much followed in
Italy and in France, was original with him, as was also his modillion cornice,
extending to the frieze, and giving extent and importance to the entablature,
proportioned to the whole height of the building, in a better mode than
that of Peruzzi. This beautiful invention is recommended without ostenta-
tion : — " Questa cornice," says he, " la quale ho mesa phi volte in opera per
finimento di facciate, ho conosciuto che riesce molto grata." This cornice
was made the termination of the fabric, on which he never permitted a
blocking or balustrade. But Vignola was chiefly remarkable for an artifice
of composition, which, by subordinating the parts, gave apparent vastness
to the whole ; his doors and windows are remarkably small, the latter 3 feet
8 inches by 7 feet, only in Capralola — but, being finely proportioned and
complete in their members, deceive the spectator into the belief of actual
scale. This artifice has been much used by his successors, especially in the
upper portions of churches, with good effect, where no means of comparison

or admeasurement are offered, just as a man becomes a giant when seen upon
a hill and against the clouds.

Sansovino, the Lombardi, and San Michele, Palladio and Scammozzi,
formed a school peculiar to Venice, uniting sculpture in the happiest manner
with architecture. In the library of Venice, one of the most beautiful
buildings of the world, Sansovino adopted two orders, to the upper of which
he applied the deep frieze and entablature suited to the entire height, after
the invention of Peruzzi, the intercolumniations being occupied with the
Venetian window, so much employed afterwards in England — these windows
having columns doubled transversely in the thickness of the wall, by which
an amazing solidity and richness is communicated to the architecture ; an
arrangement subsequently adopted by Palladio in his town house at Vicenza
with admirable effect.

San Michele, chiefly a military architect, and who first gave the gates of
cities the character afterwards universal, is remarkable for the energy, rich-
ness, and expression given to his works. His employment of the orders and
of rustics is exemplary. His gates at Verona, and his palaces in Venice, es-
pecially of the Grimani, are masterpieces.

Palladio, by much the most laborious and learned architect of the revival,
produced his effects by a happy employment of two orders, the one on a
scale comprehending the entire height, the other subordinate, comprehending
about two-thirds of that height. This principle had been employed by the
ancients in the adjustment of side porticoes to the temple, and in the Pro-
pylea of Athens. In this last, the subordinate being 10, the principal is 15 ;
in the Casa del Capitano, it. is 10 to 161; the same in the Basilica; in the
Casa Valmarana 10 to 20i. This principle may be regarded as the secret of
Palladio's magnificence, just as the subordination of windows and features
was of Vignola's. But his employment of the arch in conjunction with the
trabeated arrangement adopted from the baths, his classical plans, his mas-
tery over all the features aad parts of architecture, cannot be enough
studied.

The two volumes on the architecture of Venice, by Cicognara — the single
volume of the works of San Michele at Verona, by Albertolli — and the
works of Palladio, by Bertotti Scammozzi, should be within the reach of
reference to the architect at all times.

The pompous Scamozzi (braggadocio, as Inigo Jones calls him, probably
from personal acquaintance, in his visit in 1614,) was a follower of Palladio,
though he assumed to be an inventor. He was, however, the first to ac-
complish a portico, of any size, with a disengaged trabeation, in the church
of the Theani. He was chiefly remarkable for the employment of orders
above orders in well-studied proportions.

Galeazzo Alessi turned the peculiar locality of Genoa to immense advan-
tage, and was the most active of those who have stamped upon the archi-
tecture of Genoa that sumptuous character so original and exemplary. This
architect was in frequent competition with Palladio and Vignola at Brescia,
Bologna, and other cities.

L'Escot and Philibert de l'Orme, in France, laboured with great advantage
on the materials thus offered by the great masters of Italy ; and they are
chiefly remarkable for their adaptation of their inventions to the require-
ments of a northern climate, in large windows, chimney shafts, high
roofs, &c.

The student will add many more peculiarities and titles of merit to the
great masters of the revival from the hints here offered.

AN ARCHITECTURAL DOCTOR, AND ARCHITECTURAL
IDLERS.

Sir — Whatever may be the merit of Mr. Gvvilt's work, as one of
elementary and practical instruction — and he must have been inge-
nious, indeed, to have got up so bulky a volume without at the same
time bringing together information, new as such to many, if not to all
— whatever merit, I repeat, it may so have, the intolerance and illibe-
rality not only betrayed in it, but in many places openly expressed, are
not very creditable to him, nor likely to recommend his book. The
most that can be said in his favour is, that be does not stoop to flat-
ter, nor has even attempted to conciliate the good opinion of, those
whose opinion is likely to have some influence in stamping the cha-
racter of his " Encyclopedia." It is to be hoped that the bulk of the
profession — at any rate those who follow it as a liberal art, do not at
all agree with him in his "bow-wow " depreciation of a class of per-
sons to whose labours in the study of Gothic architecture we are greatly
indebted, and professional men themselves not least of all. It may
be fairly questioned if that style of the art would have been revived
among us at all, but for the diligence of extra-professional students,
and the attention directed to it by their writings.

It might be thought that, if not disinterested generosity, at least a
sort of enlightened and generous selfishness would induce architects to
encourage as much as possible a taste for the study of their art — and
without some study, a taste for the art itself cannot be acquired — and to
aid in removing the prejudices which deter persons in general from ap-
proaching it, under the false notion of its being entirely a practical one,

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[March,

mechanical, dry, and repulsive. Whether any of his brother archi-
tects will now side with Mr. Gwilt, remains to be seen ; but in my
own opinion they have very little cause to congratulate themselves
upon having a champion in their ranks, who would show his prowess
by hewing down, and putting hors cle combat, all the volunteers en-
gaged in the same cause. Much liberality I did not expect from Mr.
Gwilt, but I certainly did suppose that he would exercise a little more
discretion than he has done. I did not, for instance, imagine that he
would allow his antipathy to German architecture to prevail so far, as
to give no account of any of the numerous fine buildings erected in
that country during the last 30 years; and as not to applaud the zeal
-with which'architecture is there cultivated, if he could not say much
in favour of the taste displayed in it. Had he done so — and the same
■with regard to other countries, those chapters of his work might have
been made to contain a great deal of quite fresh and valuable in-
formation. The reason assigned by him for not doing so, is a most
flimsy and childish one — perfectly ridiculous ; for according to that,
there ought to be no such thing as criticism on contemporary works
at all; nor ought any to have yet appeared relative to those of a Thor-
waldsen, a Cornelius, and other great living masters in their respective
arts. Besides, he might have executed that part of his lask very in-
voctntly, and without giving the slightest umbrage to any one, by ab-
staining altogether from criticism and comment, and confining him-
self to description and mere matter-of-fact information. At pre-
sent, his apology for passing over altogether what be was conscious
■would naturally be looked for, sounds too much like the fox's — " the
grapes are sour." The real reason, there can be very little doubt,
was his inability to make the necessary research, and collect mate-
rials for that part of his work, wherefore he would have done well to
obtain assistance for it. Considering his avowed and unqualified dis-
like, or I might say, hatred of modern German architecture, it is not
very surprising that he should not have referred us to any of its chief
productions, lest the bare mention of them should be mistaken for
approbation. Yet neither does modern Italian receive better treat-
ment from him, for lie says nothing of what has been done in that coun-
try, within the present or even the last century, excepting the palace
at Caserta. There is not a syllable relative to such architects as
Calderari, Temanza,Selva, Piermarini, Cagnola, Niccolini, and a great
many others, whose works display quite as much ability and taste as
some of those which he most highly praises. Nay, though he ex-
presses so very high an opinion of modern French architecture ge-
nerally, it is only in general terms, without either describing any
thing of the kind, or showing it in a wood-cut. In fact, he has not
introduced any fresh subjects among his " illustrations ;" and of his
" more than 1000 pngravings on wood," the greater part are mere
diagrams, and the rest of very ordinary character. What will ulti-
mately be that of his " Encyclopaedia " itself, may easily be guessed,
for most assuredly it will not obtain a very flattering one either from
students of Gothic, or admirers of German architecture, both of
whom will not only be disappointed in it, but offended also, more par-
ticularly the former, since they are by no means likely to relish the
insolently sneering and contemptuous tone in which Mr. G. speaks of
the " literary idlers, especially at the universities," who amuse them-
selves with inquiring into the history of Gothic architecture; which
censure, we must suppose, extended by him also to such publications
as those by Parker, and Bloxam, their object being to aid, encourage,
and promote the study of it, not at the universities alone, but all over
the kingdom. But the popular current against which Mr. Gwilt
swims, may overwhelm both him and his book; therefore, his opinions
may do no great harm after all. What is chiefly to be regretted is,
that his " Encyclopsedia" is likely to stand for some time in the way
of any better publication of a similar nature, because, though there is
ample room for one, in one sense, the market for it is, or will be
thought to be, pre-occupied.

I remain,

Yours, &c,

" A Literary Idler."

OK THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.

Sir. — One of the greatest advantages which the practical man has
over the theoretical, is that of being able to discover any gnat error
in a design by mere inspection ; this facility in discovering serious
mistakes at a " coup d'ceil " is only acquired by men of great practical
skill and long experience, and is a faculty too frequently dearly bought
by many failures ; the practical man, in forming a design for a bridge
or any mechanical structure, seldom uses anything besides a scale
and pencil ; he rarely commits any great error, but also he is rarely

exactly right ; on the contrary, certain data being given to the the-
oretical man, he enters into calculations mostly always long and in-
tricate, and forms his design according to the dimensions obtained
from his results; he frequently commits a mistake in his calculations,
omits the consideration of some modifying circumstances, and thus
his design is faulty, and frequently is only discovered to be bad wheo
the structure falls to pieces ; even then he will certainly lay the blame
on the builder, like a celebrated French engineer who, being told that
a large bridge built according to his design had given way on the
striking of the centering, would not believe it, saying, "Impossible, I
calculated its dimensions to the greatest nicety."

The sensible engineer will combine theory and practice, and giving
to neither undue preponderance, will certainly, ceteris paribus, pro-
duce the most perfect design; he will neither trust too much to the
eye nor rely implicitly on his calculations, and thus he will avoid such
a serious error as that which I committed, in my answer to the ques-
tion on the strength of beams, proposed for solution by "Concrete," and
which appeared in your Journal of last month; if I had constructed
the result obtained by algebra and made a sketch of the beam corre-
sponding to that answer, in short, if I had followed the advice given
above of not trusting too much to your calculations, but correcting them
by the eye, I should at once have perceived my gross mistake, viz.,
that of multiplying, instead of dividing, the momenta of the weights
by the internal leverage^ of any point, in order to find the counter-
balancing weight.

By correcting the error myself, I shall prevent much useless discus-
sion and comment from your Argus-eyed readers; at the same time I
shall briefly explain what I conceive to be the real solution of the
question. I stated in my letter of last month, that the true and best
form to give to the beam is the parabolic ; this being however de-
duced from erroneous calculations, must be altered, and a result much
more simple and satisfactory will ensue by modifying ihe equations
in one or two steps, dividing, in place of multiplying, the momenta of
the weights by the lengths of the internal segments at any point be-
tween the supports, in order to find the equivalent weight there. For
the purpose of rendering my explanation more clear, and making the
action of the weights on a beam so circumstanced, more intelligible,
I add a sketch of the form it will assume before it attains the point

v$h

of fracture. N', M', M, N, is the beam resting on the supports M', M;
the distance between these is C times that of the points of support
fM', M,) from the extremities N", N, to which the equal weights
W , W, are applied, to find the best form of the beam between the
points of support. On first applying the weights, the part between
the supports cambers, as represented in the sketch by the dotted line,
acd assumes a circular form, becoming more flattened at the centre as
it approaches the point of fracture, and ultimately breaks at or about
the points c, c,. I am indebted to a friend, on whose accuracy I can
depend, for the account of the experiments from which this explantion
has been deduced; you will observe how precisely it agrees with
Concrete's statement of the points of fracture as deduced from his
own experiments ; I must here apologise to him for having cast a
doubt on their accuracy ; I could not account how the beams could give
way at these points; which more particularly made me suspect some
error, is his statement that the bar of iron broke in tito points. The
experiments I brought forward in support of my explanation in your
Journal of last month, were conducted on such a small scale that I am
not in the least astonished at the fact of the model yielding in the
centre. It appears from the above sketch how the beam may remain
in a very curved position without breaking; the leverage of the
weights decreasing as the beam approaches the point of fracture. In
the following investigation, I shall however omit the deflection of
the beam and its weight. What then is the weight which, placed at
any point (P) between the supports, will balance the two external
weights, and what is the effect of its strain at that point ?
From the principle of the lever, it is found equal to W. MN X

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

101

+_M_ but tlle strain of any wej„ilt at the point P, as is
MP X MP'
proved in all works on mechanics, is expressed by the product of this

, , , . MP X M'P
weight, and the fraction Mp + M-p '

and consequently in this case

by W X MN ; that is the momentum of the external weight, a con-
stant quantity, but since the strength of the beam at any point is pro-
portional to the breadth multiplied by the square of the depth, the
breadth being the same, it ensues that the beam should be rectangular.
If the weight of the beam was taken iuto consideration, it would appear
that the depth of the beam should slightly increase from the centre to
the supports ; and it is because this weight acts with greater effect at
the centre that, in the experiments alluded to above, the beam broke
near the supports. In practice, therefore, the beam should be made
rectangular, unless its weight be considerable, in which case its depth
should slightly increase from the centre to the supports, according to
a law easily deduced by introducing the action of its weight at any
point in the above equations.

The strain at any point between the supports is W. MN, and at any
oint outside the supports, W multiplied by the distance of the point
pom the extremity. The strain is therefore less externally than
frternally.

You would greatly oblige me by inserting this letter in your next
number.

I remain, Sir,

Your obedient,

T. F N.

PROCEEDINGS OP SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Annual Meeting, Jan. 17, 1843.

Annual Report.

This report contains a reference to the proceedings and principal papers
read before the Institution last session, and which have been reported in the
Journal of last year ; likewise the receipts and expenditure of the past year,
and the following obituary : —

We have to regret the decease of the Right Honourable Lord Congleton,
Mr. Samuel Seaward, Mr. Benjamin Hick, Mr. Charles Collinge, Mr. \V. D.
Anderson, Mr. John Smeaton, and Captain Foster, Bombay Engineers.

Lord Congleton. — Sir Henry Parnell was born in the year 1776. After
the usual routine of university education he entered early upon a parlia-
mentary career as member for Queen's County, and became distinguished for
his steady industry and application to business ; his speeches abounded with
facts and calculations, and in many political as well as financial questions he
took a prominent part. In 1828 he was appointed chairman of the Finance
Committee ; subsequently he became Secretary-at-War and a member of the
Privy Council; in 1835 he succeeded Lord Lowther in the office of Treasurer
of the Navy, with which were consolidated the duties of Paymaster-General
of the Forces and Treasurer of the Ordnance, which combined otfice he held
until his elevation to the peerage in 1841 as Lord Congleton of Congleton, in
Cheshire. These public duties did not prevent him from filling numerous
private offices, among which must be principally noticed that of chairman of
the Commissioners of the Holyhead Road. This post naturally created an
intimacy between him and our first president (Mr. Telford), which was only
interrupted by the death of the latter. The active mind of Lord Congleton
being thus directed to engineering pursuits, he cultivated the society of other
civil engineers, and became an honorary member of this Institution in 1833 ;
his Treatise on the Construction of Roads, and his plan (adopted by the
Post-office) for improving the construction of mad coaches, show that his
acquirements in the practical details of professional subjects were not super-
ficial. He published also several works on finance, banking, aud the cur-
rency, besides pamphlets on Catholic Emancipation and other political
subjects. The decease of his Lordship took place in the sixty-sixth year of
his age, respected as a public character for his attainments, his general con-
sistency, and his great industry, and regretted by a large circle of private
friends.

Mr. Samuel Seaward, F. R. S., Sue., was born at Lambeth in the year
1800, and at the age of fourteen years he entered the service of the East
India Company as a midshipman : after his second voyage to Bombay aud
China he relinquished a naval career, and was placed by his brother as an
apprentice with the late Mr. Henry Maudslay, in whose establishment he
had the best opportunities of acquiring a practical knowledge of mechanics
and engineering ; of these opportunities he carefully availed himself, and
always cherished a grateful recollection of his instructor. After passing
about five years with Mr. Maudslay, he entered the service of Messrs. Taylor
and Martineau, whence he proceeded to Cornwall, aud assisted, under the di-

rection of Mr. Arthur Woolf, in the erection of several large pumping engines ;
he then underto iti ndence of part of the works of Mr. Harvey,

at the Hayle Foundry, where he had the advantage of the instructions of
Mr. Richard Trevithiek. In the year 1825 he returned from Cornwall and
joined his brother, Mr. John Seaward, in the Canal Iron-works, Limehouse,
as manufacturers of marine and other steam engines, as well as of general
machinery. The attention devoted by Mr. Seaward to the construction of
marine engines particularly, and the successful adaptation of the " direct
action" engines1 (which were, it is believed, first introduced by Mr. Gutzmer,
of Leith, on board the Tourist steamer), are well known in the profession.
His ingenuity and mechanical talents are manifested in all the works under-
taken by the firm to which he belonged, and by several scientific pamphlets
which he published. He joined the Institution in the year 1828, aud became
subsequently an active and useful member of council, and our Transactions
are indebted to him for a memoir "On the application cf Auxiliary Steam
Power to sailing vessels on long Voyages." Snatched from among us at
the early age of forty-two years, the profession has lost an intelligent and
zealous member, and his private friends a worthy and estimable man.

Mr. Benjamin Hick was born at Leeds in the year 1790, and was
brought up as a practical engineer in the establishment of Messrs. Fenion
and Murray, by whom at an early age he was intrusted with the superin-
tendence and erection of several large engines, &c, and he was eventually
offered a partnership in their works; this he declined, and in 1810 engaged
with Mr. Rothwell in the Union Foundry at Bolton, of which he was the
managing partner; and in 1833 he established the Soho Foundry, now
carried on by his sons in that town. His attention was directed to almost
all branches of mechanics, and the ingenuity displayed in his inventions and
improvements is generally acknowledged : some of his improvements have
become public property without being claimed by him, or its being known
from what source they emanated. He became a member of the Institution
in the year 1824, and although the distance of his residence precluded his
frequent attendance at the meetings, he was a liberal contributor to the col-
lection of models, &c. His good taste, his integrity of character, the en-
couragement which he extended to talent of all kinds, and the assistance
given by him to all public improvements, obtained for him considerable in-
fluence in the town of Bolton, where his loss will be much felt.

Mr Charles Collingr. was born in the year 1792, and being engaged
from an early age in mechanical pursuits, he eagerly embraced the proposi-
tion of your vice-president, Mr. Henry Robinson Palmer, to unite with him
and a few more young men2 in forming a society for mutual improvement,
by discussing scientific subjects ; from this commencement, in the year 1818,
has arisen the Institution of Civil Engineers, which now numbers five hun-
dred and twenty-five members of all classes. Mr. Collinge continued, through
all the stages of its progress, an useful aud active member; he took his share
of the duties as a member of councU, and filled the other offices of the Insti-
tution with readiness, aud his attendance at the meetings was very constant.

Mr. \Y. D. Anderson was a pupil of our first president, Mr. Telford, after
wbose decease he travelled in Italy, whence he sent to the Institution a
series of drawings of the Ponte Santa Trinita at Florence. On his return he
was engaged under Mr. W. Anderson (his father), the engineer of the Grand
Junction Water-works, on several surveys and other works. He then gave
plans for, and was appointed engineer to, the Exeter Water-works, which
situation he resigned in 1837, in order to become engineer to the corporation
of Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he constructed some important works. Ill
health obliged him to resign this latter appointment in the year 1841, and
lus decease took place during the last summer.

Mr. John Smeaton and Captain R. Foster, Bombay Engineers, had
only been elected during the past session, and owing to the sudden decease
of the former, and the shattered health of the latter, consequent on a length-
ened residence in the East Indies, they had scarcely ever been able to attend
the meetings of the Institution.

address of the president.

Before I resign this chair I have to perform the pleasing duty of thanking
you for your attention to the Institution, which has enabled your Council to
present to you the satisfactorv Report that has just been read, and has ren-
dered the discharge of my duty so agreeable. I take advantage of the op-
portunity thus afforded me, to refer to some points which may not be
considered strictlv within the scope of the Report of the Council.

Honorary Members.— The Report has informed you of a considerable
addition to the list of Honorary Members, by the electiou of several distin-
guished individuals.— The following is a list of the Honorary Members re-
ferred to :— Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington ; the Duke of Buccleuch
and Queeusberrv; the Marquis of Northampton, President of the Royal
Society : the Lord Chancellor Lyndhurst ; Lord Brougham and Vaux ; Sir
Robert Peel, Bart., First Lord of the Treasury; Charles Shaw Lefevre,
Speaker of the House of Commons ; Professor Airy ; the Rev. Dr. Buckland ;
and the Rev. Dr. Robinson, of Armagh. These have been elected, not on
accouut of their rank alone, but because with rank, they hold, or have held,
high stations, or have been placed in situations in which they have shown

1 The engines of the Gorgon, the first of a numerous class of Government
steamers fitted with that kind of engine, were built at the Canal Iron-works.

2 Messrs. H. R. Palmer, J, Field, W. Maudslay, J. Jones, C. Collinge, and
J. Ashwcll.

102

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

their desire to advance the sciences or arts connected with Civil Engineering ;
or because they are themselves eminent as men of science and learning.
None of them were proposed until they had, like all other candidates for
election, expressed their desire to become Members ; and in many instances
their wishes have been communicated in a manner highly complimentary to
the Institution and to its objects. Indeed it is impossible that public men,
who have held the highest offices, possessing only the tithe of the under-
standing of a Wellington, a Brougham, aLyndhurst, or a Peel, can be indiffe-
rent to the growing importance of engineering to the welfare of this country,
or not aware that the greatness, I may, perhaps, be justified in saying, and
even the existence of the nation, mainly depend on it. It has been said that
the steam engine, rendered powerful and practicable by Watt, fought the
battles and gained the victories of the last great war ; that by it the mines
were drained, and the ores and coal raised, which, when applied to Ark-
wright's and other improvements, multiplied in effect the power of the
country, reducing the price of mechanical labour a hundred-fold, and en-
abling us to supply foreigners with our manufactures, for which they re-
turned us the sinews of war; and that, hence, notwithstanding an expense,
beyond all precedent, continued for a quarter of a century, the country, even
if the increase to the national debt were deducted, was richer as well as
more powerful and more populous at the end than at the beginning of the
war. In this there is much truth, but the effect being indirect is not so
obvious. In the late Syrian and Chinese wars, however, there could be no
doubt. In both cases the work was done chiefly by steam ships of war ;
and it could not have been done so quickly or so effectually in any other
known way. The steam engine, therefore, may now be considered the great
power in war as well as in peace ; and hence, in another light, the immense
importance of the objects of this Institution, when it appears that the long-
boasted wooden walls of Old England will henceforth be comparatively
inefficient without the co-operation of steam. I do not mean by this to
express any opinion of the justice or policy of the late wars — the most glo-
rious part of them was, in my opinion, their termination. My object is to
show why the lately elected honorary members have naturally been desirous
of becoming so ; why we have elected them, and why we may expect them
to take an interest in our proceedings and our progress. But there are other
considerations more congenial to our civil position in which the individuals
who have not written and published scientific works are to be regarded as
worthy of the membership.

Sir Robert Peel, now at the bead of the government of this country, has
not been unmindful that to the application, by his enterprising parent, of
the discoveries of Watt and Arkwright he owes the position and education
which started him in public life. At the public meeting in 1824, for erecting
a monument to Watt, Sir Robert, then Mr. Secretary Peel, said, " that he
belonged to that very numerous class of persons who had derived a direct
personal benefit from the important discoveries of Watt, and he acknow-
ledged with satisfaction and pride that he was one of those who derived all
that they possess from the honest industry of others." His connexion with
us is therefore natural : and by evincing his desire to promote science and
the useful as well as the fine arts, he has proved, and I am sure will continue
to prove, himself a useful as well as an ornamental member.

The Duke of Wellington, in being, while in office, mainly instrumental in
recommending the means for proceeding with the Thames Tunnel, and for
completing the approaches to London Bridge (one of the greatest metropo-
litan improvements), considered that he only did his duty ; but Sir Mark
Isambard Brunei, and Mr. Jones (Chairman of the London Bridge Com-
mittee), consider that to his Grace is mainly due the merit of these great
works; and that as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, he has always taken
a lively interest in the works of Dover Harbour and other improvements upon
the coast, I can bear witness, as well as to his knowledge of works of civil
engineering, which he has lost no opportunity of cultivating. His Grace"s
reply to a qnestion by me, as to how he came to know so much of the dif-
ferent plans of sluices for draining, &c., was, that when with the army in
Holland and Belgium he had plenty of time to ride round the country and to
examine them.

The Duke of Buccleuch has, in being the liberal President of the College
of Civil Engineers, shown his desire to advance the profession ; and in the
formation of mines, railways, roads, bridges, and piers, upon his extensive
estates, he gives the best practical illustration of his taste for works of en-
gineering, and his wish to promote the objects of this Institution.

Earl De Grey, as President of the Institute of British Architects, himself
in taste an architect, and aware of the close connexion between architecture
and engineering, has abundantly shown the interest he feels for our success
and progress.

The Marquis of Northampton, as President of the Royal Society, would
have had sufficient passport for membership, even if his zeal for science, par-
ticularly geology, which we all agree with Dr. Buckland to be intimately
connected with our profession, were not known. At the last anniversary of
the Royal Society, his Lordship, in proposing as a toast the success of this
Institution, referred in very flattering terms to its importance and future
prospects.

The Speaker of the House of Commons, Mr. Shaw Lefevre, has been a
fellow-labourer with our associate, Mr. Handley, in the application of en-
gineering to agriculture, — not only in the drainage of great districts, but in
machinery of all kinds, from the steam plough downwards. — Our member,
Mr. Parkes, could till up a long list of Mr. Shaw Lefevre's exertions in this

way. As a Commissioner, ex officio, of many of the most important public
works, I have witnessed his attention to details which, unless he were fond
of engineering, he would not think of, even if he had more leisure than the
onerous duties of Speaker of the House of Commons allow him.

I might proceed to remark on the other recently elected honorary mem-
bers, but they are so well known, and have by their writings shown them-
selves so qualified, that to do so would be an unnecessary occupation of your
time.

The late Mr. Ewart. — Having referred to the subject of our steam fleet, I
may mention that, until the year 1835, there was no chief engineer and in-
spector of machinery for the navy, and that Mr. Peter Ewart, who died
during the last summer, first held that office. As he was not a member of
the Institution he is not noticed in the report of the Council ; but the
situation he held, and his talents, will, I trust, he considered sufficient to
make acceptable a short notice of some facts respecting him.

Mr. Ewart was born on the 14th of May 1767, at Troquaire Manse, in the
county of Dumfries. His father, and two or three generations before him,
were clergymen of the church of Scotland. Peter was the youngest of a
family of ten children (six sons and four daughters). The father's care was
divided between the duties of his parish, his private studies, and the early
education of his family, which he superintended, — the result proves how
successfully ; two of his sons having been well known as among the most
eminent merchants in Liverpool, and a third as Envoy of this country at the
Court of Berlin, where he died at the early age of 32 years. At nine years
of age Peter was sent to the Dumfries parish day-school, where he had the
benefit of good masters, particularly of Dr. Dinwiddie, an excellent mathe-
matical teacher. At this period his natural turn for mechanics showed
itself. His hours of recreation were spent in the shop of a watch and clock
maker (named Crocket), which lay between the school and his home ; and
so well did he profit by what he saw there, that at the age of twelve he had,
from materials which he had collected, made and finished a clock that per-
formed well, and was the most interesting piece of furniture in his bed-room.
In his fifteenth year he went to Edinburgh and attended a course of lectures,
probably those of Professors Robinson and Playfair, as these distinguished
philosophers were subsequently on the most intimate terms with Ewart.
John Rennie, the late eminent engineer, had a short time before this begun
business as a millwright in East Lothian, and on Ewart's leaving Edinburgh
he was sent to Rennie. Ewart told me that he was Rennie's first apprentice ;
that Rennie had one journeyman ; and that one of the jobs of the trio was
the construction of a small water-mill (the Knows Mill), upon Phantassie
farm, for which a shed was lent by Rennie's elder brother George, who after-
wards stood as high as an agriculturist as his brother John did as an en-
gineer. He described to me the scene that took place on the day this mill
was started, when, inspired by the success of his first work, his master
foretold, to the astonishment of his journeyman and apprentice, his own
future greatness.

The facts that the celebrated James Watt was about this time employed
in the erection of his steam-engine to work the Albion Mills, which stood at
the south-east angle of Blackfriars Bridge, now Albion-place, that he applied
to Professor Robinson to recommend to him an intelligent well-educated
mechanic to superintend the mill-work, and that Robinson fortunately re-
commended Rennie, the Lothian millwright, who had distinguished himself
in his class, are well known. And here I would call the attention of my
young friends to the illustration which Robinson's recommendation, as well
as Rennie's success, affords, that a practical knowledge of millwrighting is
one of the best, if not the very best, foundation for engineering. Soon after
Rennie's arrival in London he sent for his apprentice Ewart to assist him in
the erection of the mills, — a proof of his opinion and his friendship. Ewart
followed his master. How well he had calculated the expense of the journey
may be collected from the fact that the last penny he had was paid as toll
for passing Blackfriars Bridge to enable him to reach the mill. For four
years, 1784 to 1788, Ewart worked as a millwright at these mills, whence
he was sent by Mr. Rennie to Soho, to construct a water-wheel for Mr.
Bouiton's rolling-mill, and was afterwards taken into the service of Boulton
and Watt, to erect their steam-engines. There he had ample scope for his
abilities, and the advantage of Watt as his friend ; this friendship terminated
only with AVatt's life, and was continued by the present Mr. Watt, whom I
have often heard speak with the greatest respect of Ewart's abilities and
excellent qualities.

In 1791 he was sent by Boulton and Watt to fix one of their engines
upon the cloth-works of Benjamin Gott and Co., Leeds. Mr. Gott, who
was then a young man, and became afterwards on the most public-spirited
and liberal, as well as greatest manufacturers in this country, was just the
person to appreciate Ewart's qualities ; the engine superintendent became
his friend, and that friendship remained firm and unchanged for nearly half
a century. I have heard Mr. Gott speak in the highest terms of Ewart.
The following anecdote, told me by Mr. Gott, proves that others well able
to judge entertained the same opinion. A gentleman speaking of Ewart at
Gott's table, said he had met with but few better practical mechanics than
Ewart. " You have been a fortunate man," said Professor Playfair. who
was of the party, "for I have never met with one." In 1795 and 1796 he
assisted the present Mr. Watt in planning the buildings and works of the
Soho foundry, shortly after which, he quitted engineering as a profession,
and became' a manufacturer, first at Stockport with Mr. Ohlknow, then
shortlv after in Manchester with Mr. Gregg, and afterwards he took a cotton

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

103

mill on his own account. His Mas being always so much towards me-
chanics, it is not improbable that his idea was that he could make great im-
provements in the cotton machinery, and that this led him to engage in the
business of a manufacturer.

Ewart remained in Manchester in constant association with Dr. Dalton,
Dr. Henry, Mr. Kennedy, and other eminent men, until 1S35, when he was
recommended by the present Mr. Watt to the Admiralty as a proper person
to fill the situation which he held until the time of bis decease, on the loth
September, 1812, then in his 76th year. His health had been delicate for
some time ; but the immediate cause of his death was a blow from the end
of a chain which broke when he was standing near it in the Dock Yard at
Woolwich. Notwithstanding the long interval between his quitting the
practice of engineering and his returning to it, and notwithstanding his age
{68 years) when he undertook the office, he gave, so far as I have ever heard
at the Admiralty or elsewhere, great satisfaction. The professional respon-
sibilitv, in his own department, of the steam machinery of the British navy
rested upon him, and how well he acquitted himself is proved by the results
in China and Syria, and in almost every other quarter of the globe.

Mr. Ewart's change of employment for so long a period of his life has
caused his name and character to be less generally known than they deserved
to be. Like Playfair, I may say that I never met with a man who had so
general an acquaintance with engineers and mechanical men of his own time
as Ewart had, hut he was not easily brought out. I have often pressed him
to record in some way his great store of anecdotes and interesting facts, but
my doing so was in vain. To write or even to speak on matters in which he
had taken an active part appeared painful to him, and was never done when
with more than one or two friends. His knowledge of machines, and par-
ticularly of the principles of the steam engine, was very intimate. His ad-
miration of Watt, and his practice at Soho, inclined him to view with some
degree of scepticism any innovation in the engine, which he considered to
have been almost perfected by his great master; and, for the public situation
which he held, this prejudice was probably useful, for the war steamers in
active service are not those in which new schemes should first be tried.

Ewart was a warm and persevering friend to merit. My friend, Mr. Hart-
ley, engineer to the Liverpool Docks, considers that he owes his appointment
chiefly to Ewart's exertions in his behalf, and Ewart was ever afterwards
ready to assist Mr. Hartley with his scientific opinion. Mr. Hartley is con-
scious of the advantage he derived from it, and considers that by Ewart"s
death he has lost his best and ablest friend and counsellor. Sir Edward
Parry (the comptroller of steam machinery to the navy,) in a note I have
lately received from him, states, that " after more than five years' constant
and intimate acquaintance with Mr. Ewart, he must declare that he never
met with a man of sounder judgment, more amiable feelings, or stricter in-
tegrity of purpose; and that he felt he had, at his decease, lost an esteemed
friend, as well as a valuable coadjutor in the public service." Sir Edward's
note then refers to the late results of the war in Syria, and still later in
China, in which he says. " the mighty power of steam played so decisive a
part, that these wars, humanly speaking, may be said to have been entirely
terminated by steam."

I will close tiiis subject with an extract of a letter, dated in 1793, from
Dr. Currie of Liverpool (the elegant biographer and editor of Burns), to Mr.
Wilberforce. The letter is given in the first volume of Wilberforce's corres-
pondence. It appears by the description that at that time the distress of
the cotton manufacturers was greater than even anything of recent date ;
that the workmen were in a starving state ; and that Ewart, the partner of
Oldknow, went to Liverpool to represent the extreme case, and endeavour to
obtain the attention of ministers through the members. He had a meeting
with Dr. Currie, who writes thus to Wilberforce in order to increase his at-
tention to the statement of the case.

" (Ewart) is no common character; he was with Boulton and Watt as
superintendent of machinery, and has an extraordinary degree of the most
useful knowledge of every kind, and in a word is one of the first young men
I ever knew. These qualities recommended him to the notice of the manu-
facturers, among whom he exercised his profession of mechanic and engi-
neer. He had offers of partnership from the first houses there, and was ac-
tually taken into the house of Mr. Oldknow (of Stockport), at that time the
first establishment in Lancashire. Mr. Oldknow was the original fabricator
of muslin in this country, aud a man of first-rate character."

Mr. Cotton. — Having referred to the countenance received from distin-
guished noblemen, I must not omit also to say how proud I am of the com-
munications and presents we have received from my excellent friend Mr.
Cotton. Ewart was not more devoted to Watt than Cotton was to his late
friend Huddart, whose portrait is, through Mr. Turner's kindness, before
me. Watt and Huddart were indeed kindred spirits, I have often seen
them together, and at the time and since I have often thought that never
were two men better paired in person and bearing as well as in mind. Mr.
Cotton was the friend of both. Being governor of the Bank of England,
and therefore tilling the highest office in the greatest corporation in the
world, he has given us very decided marks of the estimation in which he
holds us. Following his friend Huddart in the march of mechanical im-
provements, Mr. Cotton has invented a very beautiful machine for weighing
gold coin : it is now used at the Bank, and from his uniform attention we
may expect soon to have it brought under our notice.

Thames Tunnel. — Among many engineering works of which this country
is possessed, none has, during its execution, attracted so much public notice

as the Thames Tunnel, and this even more in foreign countries than in
England. In October 1812 the shield reached the shaft on the Middlesex
side ; and we may therefore congratulate Sir Mark Isambard Brunei in
having, so far as the great engineering work goes, completed the tunnel, and
accomplished the great wish of his heart. With the amazement with which
foreigners consider the abstract notion of a tunnel under the Thames, we in
this country of mines and tunnels do not sympathize. We know that if the
tunnel had been through the London clay or the chalk, there would have
been little difficulty; hut this was not the case; the strata were of the
worst kind, often entirely silt and quick-sand, which were forced through
the smallest apertures. At these times the iron of the shield, little more
than an inch in thickness, was the only division between the tunnel and the
Thames. On three occasions this ever-watchful enemy succeeded. The
second irruption, which took place on the 14th January, 1828, was the most
serious, as then not only was the whole tunnel in possession of the Thames,
but the shield, the invention of Brunei, and by which alone so much could
have been done, was, as if in revenge, seriously damaged by the invader, and
the tunnel was left nearly tilled with mud. Nine-tenths of those who pro-
fessed to know anything of the subject, then considered the case desperate,
and the works were indeed abandoned until the year 1836; but never, at
least since the time of the Roman engineers, who confined him to his pre-
sent width by their artificial embankments, had Father Thames so deter-
mined a general to oppose him as Father Brunei. Armed with a new and
more powerful shield, in design a masterpiece of ingenuity and contrivance,
and executed in the best manner by Messrs. Kennie, the engineer and his
companions renewed the attack ; and although twice afterwards beaten back
and obliged to surrender possession, he has at last succeeded, and may now-,
I think, bid defiance to the enemy. It was my duty, as the engineer con-
sulted by the treasury, to visit the works on several occasions, and I can
therefore certify to the difficulties and indomitable courage of our veteran
member, which never failed him, for the notes which he despatched to four
individuals (of whom I was one) on the occasion of irruptions, read as if he
were rather pleased that the event had taken place; as if he had gained a
victory rather than suffered a defeat ; resembling in this respect the bulletins
from other great generals, who have not however always been so successful
in recovering thetr misfortunes. The difference might be that Sir Isambard
bad a Wellington, not to oppose, but to aid him. But, seriously, looking at
the Thames tunnel entirely in an engineering point of view, we cannot but
be proud of the work, and pleased to have the opportunity of congratula-
ting Sir Isambard Brunei on the result of sixteen years (eight of which he
spent on the spot) of hard mental and bodily labour. I know no other man
who would have so worked, or if he had, could have so succeeded. France,
his native country, has reason to be proud of him, as England, his adopted
country, is. To Mr. Armstrong, Mr. I. K. Brunei, Mr. Beamish, and Mr.
(now Professor) Gordon and Mr. Page, who were successively the assistant
engineers, great credit is due ; and Sir Isambard has always spoken with
satisfaction of their services and of the perseverance and courage of the
men, many of whom stood by him in his greatest need as if the merit were
to be theirs.

Electric Telegraph. — Having said thus much on the Tunnel, I am induced not
to pass over unnoticed Professor Wheatstone's application of electricity for
telegraphic and other purposes, considering it strictly within our province,
not ouly from its nature, but its application to railroads and similar pur-
poses. And as respects utility (if there be use in despatch), we need have
no apprehension on that account. The velocity of Wheatstone's messenger
has reached a maximum, which can safely be said of but few human things,
and we ought to be satisfied, as we know that the speed is about 170,000
miles per second — that therefore a message could go to Bristol or Birming-
ham in 14',ll) of a second, or round the globe, if wires could he laid for its
travelling upon, in one-sixth of a second. The messages upon the Black-
wall railway, upon part of the Great Western railway, and some other rail-
ways, are carried at this extraordinary rate. The bells in the House of
Commons are rung by it, and its uses are extending. Its superiority for
telegraphing appears obvious. Professor Wheatstone informed me some
years since that by his machine for measuring the velocity he made 10,000 000
of miles per minute. I had named 10 A millions, being the velocity of light
— my opinion, erroneous perhaps, having long been, that solar light is a
modification of electricity, an hypothesis that seems to dispense with the
necessity for the doctrine of latent light, which Professor Moser has intro-
duced to account for his late elegant discoveries ; but this is too wide a field
to enter on now. My object is to express how much I think the profession
and the country are indebted to my highly gifted friend, who has entered
upon his important labours with a zeal worthy of the cause, and a success
that holds out the hope of ample reward ; for I feel convinced, that great as
the recent discoveries in electricity or photography are, they are but an ear-
nest of what is to come ; that riches are to be extracted from these recently
opened mines, of which we have not at present the most distant notion.
Unfortunately miners cannot work without tools, and they cannot always,
from their own resources, command them. France has, by rewarding Da-
guerre, and giving, so far as she could give, his inventions as a free gift to
the world, set a noble example. I have nut heard that Wheatstone has bad
any public aid in prosecuting his researches ; but with our own honorary
member as premier, we may depend that the government of this great
country will not be indifferent to a matter which involves so much of prac-
tical utility and at the same time national glory.

15

104

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Feb. 6. — William Tite, Esq., in the chair.

Mr. Morris read a paper on Ripon Cathedral.

Mr. Papworth read a paper explaining the method adopted by him in 1829 ,
to confine the lateral walls, then inclining outward of Trinity church, on
Clapham-common. Upon a survey of the building, it was discovered that
the brick footings of the walls of the church and tower, were built upon a
continuous 4 in. yellow fir planking, containing much resinous matter, and
abounding with large knots. In the first instance the trenches were not dug
perfectly level, and the bottom course of brickwork was laid dry, thence
much of the trench was in winter, subject to wet. and at all times to some
moisture. In some parts, particularly the north west angle of the tower,
and west staircase, the timber was probably never dry : the nature of gravel,
(absorbing moisture freely J upon which the walls were built, of course admits
damp air, and the timber is proportionably subject to the decay common to
wood when so circumstanced.

The footings were first examined from the vaults, when the timber beneath
the brickwork was found to be in such a pulpy state generally, excepting at
the knots and closely adjacent fibres, that the walls, both of church and
tower might really be said entirely to depend on the latter for support; with
the addition of the adhesion of the materials and the strength contributed by
occasional cross walls. The planking was very soon removed, and York
stone steps and proper underpinning substituted.'

Although portions of the church walls, from the parapets down to the
plates receiving the gallery floors were leaning outwards, it was found that
all beneath was nearly upright ; of course this led to an examination of the
ceiling, in which, at about the middle, a wide crack appeared running from
the west towards the east end. On examining the roof, it appeared that the
fissure, and the overhanging of the walls was caused by the pressure outward
of the principal rafters, and chiefly on the south side of the church. This
pressure outward had disjoined the tie beams, which had been scarfed in
no very judicious manner in the middle, (the church being about 59 ft. wide)
the scarfing was merely bound together by slight iron bands, and thin iron
ties, depending on staples at their turned up ends and some spikes to restrain
the lateral thrust ; which force had almost wholly disengaged these contri-
vances, and amply accounted for the effects observed. The roof is of a mixed
character uniting the king-post and queen-post arrangement. The queens
were framed into the upper rafters, and those rafters, the tie beam and the
king-post united and made a roof independent of the other timbers ; the
usual straining beam between the heads of the queen posts being omitted.
The disarrangement of the timbers of the roof, by settlements common to
them, and the displacement caused by the thrust, made it proper to prepare
for the operation, of drawing the separated scarfed ends of the tie-beams
something closer ; it not being intended to give verv much further effect to
the power contemplated, because it might have produced injurv to the entire
roof, and to the upper part of the walls, the gutters and slating— at least it
was considered injudicious to risk so much probable damage.

The object was only to prevent a greater separation of the tie beams at
their scarrings, to stop any further thrust to the walls ; and it appeared that,
by drawing the lower ends of the queen-posts nearer to each other, each
having a tendency to urge back its moiety of the tie beam towards the centre,
that much might be done, and at no great expense. It being found that the
queen-post mortices in the tie-beam were far from being filled by the tenons
of the queens, and that to draw them much out of the perpendicular, might
produce a further and serious disarrangement of the timbers above. To keep
the queens upright, and therefore nearly parallel to each other, the timbers
were bolted together through the head's of the queens, through the struts,
and through the middle of the king-post; and iron blockings, intended to
oppose any movement more than desirable, were carcfullv fitted and bolted
to the top of the tiebeam at the foot of each queen-post. ' The application of
iron rods having powerfully threaded screws and ample washers and nuts,
was of course a matter of easy accomplishment, and when put into operation,
there would evidently have been no difficulty in bringing the ends of the
timbers into close contact; but, as above stated, there was no wish to effect
much more than full security ; and they were only drawn together enough to
close in part, the fissure in the ceiling. As will be evident on reflection, this
operation of drawing together the posts might, without due care, have left
the tie beams without any check to their tendency to sag, and it was therefore
found proper, at the time the iron blockings were fixed on to the top of the
tie-beams, to saddle on them iron straps, bolted well through the tie-beams.

The authorities of Clapham church, not doubting the stabilitv of the edi-
fice, directed, in October last, the execution of two additional' galleries for
about 150 children, when the consequent scaffolding afforded the opportunity
of a close examination, and it was very satisfactory to observe that the ope-
ration has been completely successful, and that no settlement, nor spreading
of the roof, nor further overhanging of the walls, has taken place.

Feb. 20.— T. L. Donaldson, Esq., V. P., in the chair.

Mr. Godwin read a paper on Church Building, which is given in another
part of the Journal for the present month.

C. W. Wooley read a paper on the Valhalla, which we propose to give
next month, with engravings.

LICHFIELD SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF ECCLESI-
ASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.

The first annual meeting of the members of this society was held on the
5th of January, at the Diocesan School Room, at Lichfield, and, was nume-
rously attended. The chair was taken by the Rev. Prebendary Greslev,
upon the motion of the Hon. and Very Rev. the Dean of Lichfield. The
report of the Proceedings of the committee for the past year was read by
Richard Greene, Esq., F.S.A.. Hon. Sec. ; and we are glad to perceive
thereby that, although in its infancy, and with but small present available
funds, the society is stimulating the desirable object of church restoration
upon correct principles, and is, in conjunction with sister societies, strenu-
ously resisting the gradual destruction of our venerable churches by time,
and that greater innovator, ignorance. We trust the day is arrived when
the beautiful remains of those fabrics raised by the piety and skill of our
forefathers, and venerated by us, will be rescued from the tender mercies of
agrarian churchwardens, and own the fostering care of better guardians.

The report was followed by an address from the Chairman, in which he
set forth, in his usual plain and felicitous style, the leading characteristics of
Gothic architecture, from the earliest period to its abasement in the reign of
Elizabeth, and offered some strictures upon the cheap church building of
modern times.

Thomas Johnson, Esq., followed the chairman, with some most excellent
practical remarks upon the care to be observed in effecting what are termed
restorations. He admitted the great utility and advantage to be derived
from the combined talent and enquiries of such societies ; but, as a practical
architect, he held out a warning to their members to remember the ancient
adage, " Xe sutor ultra erepidam."

The proceedings were concluded by the honorary secretary, Richard
Greene, Esq., who read a paper upon the sculptures of Norman architecture,
in which he advanced the somewhat startling opinion that our earliest
Christian church embellishments are essentially pagan, and of idolatrous
origin. He supported the proposition with great ingenuity, and most inter-
esting facts, elucidating the paper throughout with numerous drawings.

METROPOLITAN IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY.

On Wednesday evening, 22nd ult., a meeting of the Metropolitan Society
was held. Mr. J. Ivatt Briscoe in the chair. The chairman congratulated
the meeting on the attainment of one of the principal objects of the society
— the appointment of a government commission to prepare a comprehensive
plan of metropolitan improvement. From a letter in the hands of the secre-
tary of Sir Robert Peel, it appeared that the new commission had com-
menced its labours by inquiring into the expediency of an ordnance survey
aud map of London upon the largest scale, and it was understood that the
commission was now engaged in considering the various plans proposed for
an embankment of the Thames. Mr. Martin, the painter, said, that for
fourteen years he had been engaged in promoting the two-fold object of
throwing open the banks of the Thames, and of converting the contents of
the sewers, now flowing into the river, to agricultural uses. — Mr. W. E.
Hickson observed, that some idea of the pecuniary value of the liquid manure,
now permitted to be lost, might be formed from the fact, that in Paris a
new contract had recently been signed, by which the contractor agreed to
give the city 22,000/. for the contents of the cesspools of Paris. Mr. Fowler
observed, that as numerous private interests would be affected by an em-
bankment of the Thames, it was very important to watch any proceedings re-
lating to this object, in order that the public interest should not be sacrificed.
Mr. W. Lindley was anxious that the new commission in considering any
plan for the embankment of the north side of the river, should inquire into
the practicability of connecting it with the Essex road by means of a new
and broad street running from Aldgate to the Thames, so as to form a prac-
ticable carriage thoroughfare from the west to the east of London, which now
could scarelv be said to exist.

MODERN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

A verv clever little periodical, The Eeclesiolorjist , published by the Cam-
bridge Camden Society, has already done much good in counteracting the
churchwarden barbarisms that have been too often committed in many of our
churches; it is also creating a taste among the clergy for Gothic architec-
ture, which will ultimately be of great service to the profession, and act as a
counteraction to the selection of inferior designs by " Building Committees."
The selection is frequently governed by favouritism, and much oftener by the
want of true taste in those who are appointed to select the designs out of
probably 50 or 60 that may be laid before them. We quite agree with the
following hint on modern church architecture, and consider that too much
attention and money is bestowed in highly finishing the stone work, carving,
and other ornaments, when frequently rough scabbled stone work will pro-
duce a more pleasing effect than the highly wrought stone, and be done at
one-half the expence, consequently it may be used less sparingly than it now

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

105

is ; in fact, very frequently the whole chureh may be built or faced with such
stonework as cheap as with brickwork.

" How often do we," says the Eeelesiologist, " see a simple village church,
consisting, it may be, of low and rough stone walls, surmounted, and almost
overwhelmed, by an immense roof, and pierced with some two or three plain
windows between as many bold irregular buttresses on each side, or having
a short massive tower placed at one corner, or in some seemingly accidental
position, which nevertheless every one confesses to be as picturesque and
beautiful and church-like an edifice as the most critical eye or the most re-
fined taste could wish to behold. And just such another church could be
built, perhaps, for seven or eight hundred pounds; while a modern early-
English design, with all its wouldtbe elegancies of trim regular built buttress,

tripellancet, and curtailed chancel, would contain no more kneelings, cost
more than twice the money, and look like a ' gothick factory ' after all. And
why is this ? Because a lofty tower must be built instead of a simple unpre-
tending chancel ; or because one-half of the money is expended first in pro-
curing, ond then in smoothing and squaring, gTeat masses of stone, or in
working some extravagant and incongruous ornament, so that cast-iron
pillars must be placed iu the interior instead of piers and arches; whereas
the small and rude hammer-dressed Ashlar, or rubble work, of the ancient
model, has a far better appearance, and allows a larger expenditure where it is
most wanted, in procuring solid, handsome, aud substantial arrangements for
the interior."

EDGE'S IMPROVED GAS METER.

Considerable excitement has lately been raised
respecting the gas meters, in consequence of Mr.
Flower issuing a pamphlet accusing the gas com-
panies of defrauding the consumer by the false
registering of the meter, occasioned by filling the
meter above the proper level with water; when that
is the case, be contends that the meter is registering
water instead of gas, whereby the consumer is suf-
fering considerable loss. This did appear to us a
very serious charge, and in this age of improvement
we felt surprise that this " false registering" could not
be avoided, and that there was no scheme to adjust
the water in the meter to the proper level, so that
the meter should correctly register the exact quan-
tity of gas consumed. Upon making some inquiry
upon the subject, we very soon discovered that a
meter, combining the requisites just alluded to had
been invented and patented by Mr. Botten, and
another by Mr. Edge, the well-known manufacturer
of gas meters and fittings; but we consider the meter
of the latter the best, as it combines other improve-
ments. We have, therefore, much pleasure in pre-
senting to our readers a description and engravings
of Mr. Edge's meter, which appears to us to be as
perfect as a wet meter can well be.

Fig. 1 is a front view of the meter, with the outer
casing removed to show the interior, and Fig. 2 is
a cross section of the front portion of the meter.
A is the improved index. B, patent lever valve.
C, syphon pipe. D, waste water cistern. E, F,
hydraulic sealed outlet to allow the accumulation
of water in the waste water cistern to be drawn off

upon the removal of the plug at E. G, tube for filling the meter with water,
which dips into the water, and consequently prevents the escape of gas.
H, shaft and apparatus connected with index. I, inlet tube through which
the gas passes into the meter through the valve B, thence down the pipe C,
and again up into the interior or drum of the meter, as shown by the arrows
in the section Fig. 2. Thence through spiral chambers within the wheel, as it
revolves, to the outside of the wheel, and escapes into the surrounding chamber,
and out at the outlet tube, on the top of the meter, at the back of the index
box A. As the gas passes through the spiral chambers, the pressure of the gas
causes the wheel to which they are attached to revolve, and with it its axis,
which is prolonged and passes through to the front box, where, by means of
an endless screw on the prolonged end of the axis working into a toothed
wheel keyed on to the lower part of the shaft H, and a pinion on the upper
part of the shaft, sets in motion the clock-work of the index, which shows
the quantity of gas that passes through the meter.

There are several important improvements combined in Mr. Edge's meter,
which we shall proceed to describe, the first and most important is an ar-
rangement to prevent too much water being put into the meter. This
is accomplished by the patent syphon C, and the waste water chamber D,
the value of which cannot be over estimated ; for, in the first place, it re-
moves the only dangerous part of the meter, viz., the outlet from the syphon
pipe, which is now sealed off; in the second place, it prevents the fraudulent
abstraction of the water, to the serious injury of the companv: and thirdly,
it obviates the only tenable objection to the meter alluded to in Mr. Flower's
pamphlet, that is, the accumulation of the water, by which the consumer is
deprived of his full measure. The top of the syphon pipe C being placed on
a line with the water level, every surplus drop must pass down it into the
waste water box D, thence into the pipe F below, and when the plug is
removed, it rises up the pipe F, and passes out at the orifice E ; and as this
pipe is bent downwards, it must always present an hydraulic joint to prevent
the escape of any gas that might accumulate in the svphon C, and which, by
the construction of the old meter, would escape when the plug was removed.
Provided too much water be collected, it would prevent the influx of anv
gas, consequently it must he at once detected ; the consumer' would then
have only to unscrew the plug E, and allow the water to run off, which may
1 e done without the least danger. It will be observed that there is only one
outlet screw, E, instead of two, as in the common meter.

The second improvement is the patent index A, which enables the con-

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

sumer to ascertain the quantity of gas used with ease and certainty. The
complexity of the old method, which consists of 3 dials with the movements
of the hands or pointers, has been the occasion of very frequent mistakes and
misunderstandings, even with the inspectors, and amongst the consumers has
created a feeling of doubt and distrust injurious to the advancement of the
meter. In the improved index, the figures are made to revolve instead of the
hands; and as the only one figure required on each plate (to denote the number
of cubic feet consumed) can be seen at a time, no mistake can arise, so that
both parties will be satisfied. A reference to the engraving cannot fail to
establish its great superiority, and show how the quantity may be read off as
78,900 without the chance of error.

The third improvement is the patent lever valve, B, the object of which is
to prevent the numerous complaints of the consumers, and the very heavy
losses to the companies, by the lodgment of the old valve, consequent on the
corrosion of the guide wires ; this lodgment can rarely, if ever, be proved by
ocular demonstration, as the slightest movement will cause the valve to fall
into its seat, but still it is proved daily, and beyond all question, by a di-
minished registration ; and it is not the less objectionable, as an evil, for
being a secret and invisible one. The lever valve completely and effectually
remedies this ; it also indicates a deficiency of water much earlier than the
old valve, and the shield protects it at once from any sudden rush of pressure;
it may, in fact, be considered perfect in its action, and unassailable on every
point.

DRAWING SCALES.
Mr. Drake, of Elm-tree-road, St. John's Wood, land-surveyor, has obtained
a patent for making scales for laying down plans, of the same paper as that
on which the plan or drawing is laid down. The scales are intended to ac-
company the plans to which they belong, and being of the same material,
they consequently expand or contract, by changes of temperature, in exactly
the same proportion as the plan. The paper to be drawn upon is mounted
on linen or cotton, by means of India-rubber cement, and, on a strip of it
the scale is made. The under surface of the straight edge or holder, by
which the scale is held, whilst being u id, and covered with a

piece of paper or linen, so as to form a space for the reception of the scale;
and the off-set scale, used with it. has a small metal frame at one end, which
works against the edge of the holder.

106

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[March,

GALVANIZED IRON.

Aboi-t five years since a patent was taken out in this country, by M. Sorel,
for the purpose of galvanizing iron, by a process of ccating it with zinc, in a
similar manner to tinning, but for some cause, we believe a dispute among
certain capitalists, this patent has been allowed to remain in abeyance, during
which period, it has been in considerable use in Fiance, and is, at the pre-
sent time, we understand, extensively employed by the French government.
It is now taken up in this country by some spirited individuals, who have
established large works in London for zincing iron to any extent. The pro-
cess may be applied to both cast and wrought iron in any form.

" The effect of zinc in protecting iron from oxidation," says Professor
Graham, " has been known to chemists for some time. When these two
metals are in contact, an electrical or galvanic relation is established between
them, by which the iron ceases to be susceptible of corrosion by dilute acids,
saline solution, or atmospheric humidity. It was found in experiments lately
conducted at Dublin and Liverpool, that small pieces of zinc attached to
each link of a chain-cable were adequate to defend it from corrosion in sea
water. The protection was observed to be complete even in the upper por-
tion of the iron chains by which buoys are moored (and which, from being
alternately exposed to sea water and air, is particularly liable to oxidation,)
so long as the zinc remained in contact with the iron links. The protecting
influence of the zinc could not be more certainly secured than in the articles
prepared by the patent process, the iron surface being uniformly coated over
by that metal. In trials to which I have had an opportunity of subjecting
them, the iron escaped untouched in acid liquids, so long as a particle of the
zinc covering remained undissolved. The same protection is afforded to iron
in the open atmosphere by zinc, with a loss of its own substance, which is
inappreciably minute. The zinc covering has the advantage over tinning,
that, although it may be worn off, and the iron below it partially exposed, i
the iron is still secured from oxidation by the galvanic action, while the
smallest quantity of zinc remains upon it ; whereas tin. in common tin plate,
affords no protection of this kind, and not being absolutely impermeable to
air and moisture, the iron under it soon begins to rust in a damp atmosphere.
The simplicity and perfect efficacy of the means employed to defend iron
from the wasting influence of air and humidity in this process of zinc tin-
ning, certainly entitle it to be ranked as one of the most valuable economical
discoveries of the present age."

DRPAYERNE'S PATENT FOR PURIFYING AIR.

An abstract of this patent appears in the Mechanics' Magazine; it is
granted to \Y. R. Vigers, Esq. of Russell-square, on behalf of Dr. Payerne,
" for a mode of keeping the air in confined places in a pure or respirable
state, to enable persons to remain or work under water and other places,
without a constant supply of fresh atmospheric air.''

The first thing claimed and specified is the depriving the atmosphere
in confined places of the carbonic acid gas which it contains, produced from
respiration or combustion, by means of quick lime and caustic alkali, or of
the lime alone, which is to be dissolved in eight times its weight of water.
The air in the apartment is to be passed through this caustic solution by a
pair of bellows, the nozzle of which reaches nearly to the bottom of the vessel
containing the lime and water. The vitiated air thus coming in contact with
the lime, the carbonic acid gas is absorbed. It is calculated that one cubic
foot of atmospheric air must be purified for each person per minute.

2. The patentee claims the restoring the requisite quantity of oxygen, to
supply the place of that consumed ; which oxygen is to be procured from the
chloride of potash, or driven otf from the peroxide of manganese by means of
beat, into the apartment or allowed to escape from vessels into which it may
have been previously compressed.

3. The patentee claims further, the purification of the air contained in the
diving bell, by the process described in claim 1, and the restoring the requi-
site proportion of oxygen from a vessel attached to the diving-bell, into which
the oxygen had been previously compressed ; also the allowing the escape of
atmospheric air, which had previously been compressed several atmospheres,
into two compartments, one of which is situated at each end of a diving bell,
somewhat resembling a boat inverted, the centre one being occupied by the
diver or workmen, who may, by means of stop-cocks, regulate the supply
according to their wants.

The specification is of extraordinary length, filling no less than ten skins
of parchment, but the above extract contains all that is material in it.

The bituminous pavement consists of blocks a foot square and 6 inches in
depth. These block are composed of an artificial bitumen and angular
broken stones, forming a concrete of considerable tenacity. When the
granite stones of the old pavement had been taken up and removed, a surface
with a considerable convexity in a transverse direction was prepared to re-
ceive the bituminous blocks. These are then laid down in straight lines
longitudinally, and breaking joint transversely. The blocks are not placed
close together, but with a space betwen them of about one inch all round
each block. This space is left for the purpose of being filled with melted
pitch in order to fix the blocks in their places. These spaces or joints be-
tween the blocks are filled in with pitch at several different times ; but when
the pitch joint is only 2 or 3 in. in depth, the blocks are quite immoveable.
When the first thickness of pitch has become quite solid, the joints are filled
with the same substance up to the top, and before the top surface of the
joint has time to set, a workman sprinkles it over with a sharp, yellow, large
grained sea sand, which sets firmly in the pitch. The pavement, when
finished, presents the appearance of an ordinary stone pavement, except that
the blocks, instead of ranging in straight lines transversely across the road,
are placed in straight lines in a longitudinal direction. We can see no good
reason for this deviation from the old practice, while on the other hand it has
obviously one great defect, namely, that the water falling on the surface is
checked in its escape to the sides at every course of stones, and thus the sur-
face of the roadway must be kept constantly wet. The unbroken transverse
lines of joints in an ordinary pavement, answer the useful purpose of minute
channels to convey the water off to the sides. It may be said that the bitu-
minous surface will prevent the penetration of water, and that the w ater lodg-
ing on the surface is of no consequence. We cannot agree in this, but con-
sider on the other hand that for this very reason bituminous pavement should
always lie laid with a slope in some direction, so that the water, which can
only otherwise escape by evaporating, may drain oft" it as fast as it falls.

BITUMINOUS STREET PAVING.

Notwithstanding several unsuccessful trials of bitumen in the paving of
carriage-ways, as in the Vauxhall Road some years ago, and more recently
in Oxford Street, the Parisian Bitumen Company is at this time engaged in
paving the square space opening into Hungerfor'd Market, at the bottom of
Hungerford Street, Strand. As this place is not subject to the same kind of
wear and tear as a street through which a rapid traffic is constantly passing,
it is possible that the bitumen may here answer better than in former trials.
and in any case it may interest our readers to know the method pursued bv
the Company in their present operations.

MISCELLANEA.

Stockton". — The bridge to substitute the Stockton Suspension Bridge is
now in progress ; two of the piers are completed — one on each side of the
stream; and the gangways and travelling cranes are erected. Mr. (. ra-
nt" Newcastle is the contractor for the masonry, and Mr. Kitchen of
Darlington, the contractor for the iron work. The foundation requires piles
50 feet long, and a 10-horse engine with a ram of 18 cwt., and three men to
drive them. The stone piers are dressed in rockwork, six feet broad at top ;
the span is 83 feet 6 inches between the piers ; the roadway is to be carried
by cast iron bearers about 3J feet deep. The site is about 100 feet above
the suspension bridge, up the stream or to the west of it. It is not certain
whether the suspension bridge will be taken down, or used as a turn. out for
wagons.

Middlisborovgh Dock. — This dock was completed in the early part of
1842, and ships were admitted on the 12th of May in thai year, and the
shipment of coals has been carried on regularly in the dock since that time.
H lias an area of nine acres of water surface, and is entered by a commo-
dious channel rather more than a quarter of a mile in length, leading from
mid-channel of the river Tees. The entrance lock is 132 feet long, and 30
; the depth on the sill averages about 18 feet at spring tides, and
15 feet at neap tides ; and the coping is 21 feet above the sill. The bottom
of the dock is three feet under the level of the sills; the sides of the dock
are sloped and paved with stones at the water's edge. For the shipment of
coal there are 10 staiths or "drops," at each of which coals may he loaded
at the rate of 5 keels, or 10 a tons per hour. Ballast is taken out at a very
low rate, by means ..f cranes situated at different places on the river hanks.
The branch railway leading from the Stockton and Darlington line, which
communicates with the dock, is situated on the south side of the town of
Middlesborough ; it terminates in 10 lines of double railway leading to the 10
drops. The raised platform is covered by three diverging lines of railway, it
comprises an area of la acres, and affords standage room for 1,200 loaded
wagons, or more than 3000 tons of coal, besides ready means of egress for
locomotives with their trains of empty wagons. Unfortunately the lock
entrance has been constructed too narrow for steam tugs to enter, of which
there are about 20 from 2j to 50 horse power. The channel from Middle
Tees is very much liable to silt up, and requires constant dredging. Mr.
Cubitt was the engineer, and Mr. Turnbull the resident engineer, and Mr.
Briggs the contractor.

Lower Shannon Improvements. Ireland. — The works at Banagher
are contracted for by Mr. William M'Kenzie, and consist of deepening all the
fords in the river from Killalo to Athlone, either by dams and excavating,
or by dredging. Two 12 horse dredgers are employed, and two weirs are to
he constructed, 1100 feet long each, across the Shannon ; also a lock 170
feet by 40 feet, and 8 feet rise to pass an 80-horse steamer; likewise a stone
bridge at Banagher of 6 arches 60 feet span, and a 40 feet swivel bridge on
one side to pass the steamer through. The works are under government,
and are expected to be completed in the ensuing summer.

The Oik: —A new seam vessel, o! 765 toi

ihe 2Sth of January, having been built by Mr. Thomas K iyd :n
for the East India ami China irade.

1843]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

107

Alexandria. — We have already informed our readers, says the " Eccle-
siologist," of our (the Cambridge Camden Society) engagement to supply
designs and working drawings of a new church to be erected at Alexandria.
These have now been completed by the architect, Mr. Salvin, and will be
dispatched by the earliest post to their destination. As it may be interesting
to many, and especially to the absent members of the Camden Society, to
have some account of the form and plan of this church, we shall here subjoin
a brief description of it for their information. The entire length of the
church externally is 128 feet by 50 feet in breadth (exclusive of a north and
south porch), the plan comprises a full and spacious chancel, 40 feet by
18 feet internally, and a nave and aisles, 78 feet by 40 feet ; and a tower
with a lofty spire is to be added, if funds can be procured, in the place of
the south porch. The chancel is raised by three steps, and is furnished with
all the proper appurtenances of stalls, priest's door, credence, scdilia, and
piscina. The seats in the nave are ranged in four parallel rows facing the
east, there being a passage of 5 ft. 9 in. in the centre, and one of 2 ft. 0 in.
in each aisle next to the piers. The seats are, of course, all open. The west
front, adapted from that of Llanercost Abbey, exhibits a beautiful facade
made by the nave, which is terminated by a high-pitched roof with a gable
cross between two large pinnacle turrets, and has below a lofty arcade
pierced with two lights, and the two aisles, each of which carries a separate
gable with a cross, and a single lancet light. To this front the north porch
and southern tower will add great breadth and diversity of effect. The
chancel, nave, and aisles will be vaulted; and the clerestory lighted by a
circular window in each groined compartment. The aisles are lighted by
single lancets between buttresses with pedimented heads and set-offs. The
east end will have a peculiarly beautiful effect, from a richly arcaded triplet
with a wheel window above, and from the lofty gables of the chancel, nave,
and aisles, all of which will he surmounted with crosses, and are similar in
design to the west end. The sides of the chancel contain three bays, each
of which is arcaded of three, with the central arch pierced for a lancet light.
Every portion of this church has been designed in strict conformity with
ancient models.

Lancashire. — We have been permitted by the architect, Mr. Sharpe, of
Lancaster, a member of our Society, to inspect the plans and working-
drawings of a new church which he is now erecting at Knowsley, in Lan-
cashire. There are many points iu this design which deserve great com-
mendation, and as a whole, it may safely be pronounced a most successful
example of modern church building, although some of the arrangements
appear to us liable to serious objection. The church is of the early-English
style, and consists of a good chancel, nave with aisles, and tower with broach
spire at the west end. There will be no galleries, and the ground-floor alone
■will accommodate 400 worshippers. There is a well-defined clerestory, sup-
ported by beautiful clustered piers and arches, and surmounted by a very fine
high-pitched roof, the trusses of which spring from triple-shafted corbels,
with floriated capitals. The walls of this church are somewhat too thin to
allow of the proper internal splay of the lancets, and appear to us to be too
much and too regularly pierced. Thus each side of the aisles and clerestory
exhibits an equal number of lancets, placed exactly opposite to each other.
We should have preferred single lights in both positions, for a church should
he dimly lighted ; or the clerestory might have had foliated circles (a beauti-
ful early-English feature, which we wonder is not more frequently intro-
duced), and the aisles plain two-light windows with circles in the heads.
There is too much sameness in so greal a number of lancet windows. The
nave roof might have been carried up to the belfry windows with better effect.
The tower is very good, and has nothing to which we can object, excepting a
number of small trefoil apertures which are intended to light the staircase,
but which should rather have been plain oblong slits in the wall. There is,
we suspect, but scanty ancient authority for such ornaments, unless in very
magnificent towers, and they appear singularly inappiopriate when placed
just below the point where the Ijroach meets the top of the tower, since this
part ought especially to convey the idea of strength and solidity. Small
apertures, however, of this description occur in St. Mary's tower, Stamford.
The northern porch (we should have much preferred a southern one, or at
least a southern door should have been added, as at Woodton, Norfolk ;
Irnham, Lincolnshire ; and of later date, Grantchester and Chesterton
churches, near Cambridge,) has too large a doorway, and its roof does not
meet that of the aisle in a pleasing manner. The west door would be very
good if the mouldings were less meagre and ornamental. A tower doorway
of this style should be very deeply recessed, and have a great display of arch
moulding. The details in general are very good, and have the rare merit of
being at once extremely correct and varied in form. We have several grave
objections to make against the internal arrangements. There is no central
passage to the altar ; but the space which ought to have been left for this
purpose is occupied by seats for children. The tables of commandments,
creed, <ic. are placed in an arcade above the chancel arch — a modernism
which we consider altogether inadmissible, to say nothing of its bad effect.
We should lie inclined to carry the chancel arch considerably higher. The
organ is at the east end of the north aisle ; it should rather have been at the
west, and a window at the east end. The font is too nearly t'ae centre of the
nave ; its correct position is bythe west pier nearest to the porch. Upon the
whole, however, great praise is due to this design ; but we deeply regret to
observe that some of the internal details are to be executed in plaster.
We had much rather that they had not been attempted at all. Under the
chancel is a vaulted crypt, and above it we observe with no great satisfac-
tion a contrivance for warming the church with hot air. — Ecclesiologist.

New Military Church it Windsor.— The last stone of the spire of the
new military church ins lai I on Friday morning. Dec. 30. The first stone of
this building was laid on the 4th of April last. The church is built of white
brick and Bath stone, and its architecture is pure Gothic : it is in the i'-rm
of a crucifix, having tun large transepts for the accommodation of the mili-
tary and the one at the west end for the children. These galleries are cal-
culated to contain between 400 and 500 persons. A certain portion o- the
church will Le set apart for the accommodation of the soldiers' wives. The
body of the church will be filled up with beautifully carved oaken benches,
by which, whilst this arrangement will afford a great number of sittings,
will present a light and elegant appearance at a much less cost than the
erecting of pews. In addition to the accommodation afforded to the military,
there will be about 1,000 sittings for the inhabitants of Windsor and CleWer.
The principal feature of this church is the beautiful tnwer and spire, the
tower being nearly 100 feet high, and the spire, of Bath stone, rising 48 feet,
surmounted by a vane. The cost of this edifice will be about £10,000,
nearly one-hall' of which is already subscribed, Her Majesty and Prince
Albert being large contributors. The building is designed by Mr. E. Blore,
and when complete will form a magnificent object from the Castle and sur-
rounding neighbourhood, being oi.e of the most beautiful designs un this
side of the metropolis. The whole of the plans have been carrie 1 out with
great accuracy by Mr. J. B. Heard.

The Prince Albert. — A new iron built steamer of the above name, has
been making several trips up and down the river Thames, trying her speed,
which proves to be very superior, and equal to our fastest steamers ; at pre-
sent she has exceeded the speed of all thatshe has been able to compete with,
even the far famed " Railway." She is an iron built vessel, the deck beams
are also of deep angle iron, to which the deck planks are bolted down : her
length is 155 ft. between perpendiculars ; extreme breadth 19 ft. 6 in. : draught
of water when loaded, 4 ft. 6 in. ; length of saloon. 36 ft. . fore cabin. 36 ft. .
engine room, 2fi ft. The engines are of the direct action principle, constructed
by Messrs. Braithwaite, Milner, and Co.. and are a beautiful specimen of
workmanship, and occupy an ex'remely small space. The diameter of steam
cylinders, 40 in. ; length'of stroke, 40 in. ; nominal h.p. of the two engines.
110 horses, with 32 revolutions per minute ; diameter of paddle-wheels,
17 ft. 6 in. ; breadth, 9ft.; space occupied by engines. 10 ft. 8 in. in the
breadth, and 6 ft. 6 in. in the length of vessel. The engines are constructed
with two piston rods to allowthe piston in the centre to be hollowed cut. that
the cover may be dished in a similar manner, to allowthe connecting rod
and cross-head to descend partially into the cylinder, that the length uf con-
necting rod may be as long as possible, which is equal to three times the
radius of crank,' or five feet; the air-pump and feed-pump are worked from
either end of the cross-head ; the boilers are tubular, on Spiller's construc-
tion. The time occupied in the passage from Blackwall to Gravesend, the
day we were on board, was 1 hour 13 minutes, with a slack tide, but against
the wind, and 1 hour 5 minutes returning.

Temperador. — This steam vessel is the first of a pair built for the Post-
office service in the Brazils, which business is performed by a private com-
pany. She was built by Messrs Fletcher. Son. and Fearnall, from the de-
signs of Messrs. Ritturden and Carr. (Mr. Ritturden is the surveyor of
shipping to the honourable the East India Company.) She is a very superior
specimen of Thames building, and her arrangements and cabin fittings are in
a stvle uf extreme neatness and comfort. The length between perpendiculars,
151 ft. and over all 169 ft. Gin. ; breadth, extreme to a 3 in plank. 24ft. ;
depth in hold- 14 ft. ; burthen, old measurement, 418 tons ; her draught of
water, loaded, is 9ft. 3 in. forward, and 10ft. 2in. att. She has two engines,
of the collective power of 140 horses, constructed by Messrs. Miller, Raven-
hill, and Co. They are finished in a superior manner, and work most
satisfactorily : the speed of the vessel in the river, with every thing on board,
and the coal boxes full, was 10* statute miles per hour. The vessel left Lon-
don on the 5th ultimo for South America, and performed the distance from
Blackwall to Falmouth Harbour in 42 hours, consuming from 9 to 9i cwt.
of coal per hour, with the steam up to 5| inches, and the barometer standing
at 271 inches ; the engineer reports that he had plenty of steam, and the firing
very easy.

The Bentinck — This fine steam vessel, which has been for some time
building as a compamion to the H'mdostan, was launched on the 2
January, from the yard of Mr. Wilson, at Liverpool ; she is proposed to be
nearly a fac-simile of the Hindustan, and was moored in the Trafalgar Dock,
to be completed, and to receive her engines, which are being constructed by
Fawcett and Co.

The Royal Mail Steam Ship " Hieernia."— Another superb ship has
been added to the fine fleet of steamers belonging to Cunard's hue. running
between Liverpool and Halifax. She 'was built at Greenock, by Messrs.
Steele and Co. ; burthen 1350 tons, length between perpendiculars 218 feet,
and depth of hold 24 feet. Her engines were constructed by Mr. Robert
Napier of Glasgow, and are of the nominal power, the piston travelling
220 feet per minute, of 550 horses collectively, the diameter of cylinders is
77J inches, and length of stroke 7 feet 6 inches, the paddle wheels 30 feet
4 inches diameter.

Electric Telegraph.— Mr. Cook, the joint patentee with Professor
Wheatstone. of |the voltaic telegraph, has been commissioned to lay down a
line from the Padding. n station ot the Great Western Railway to \1 mdsor
Castle, and carry it thence to the Parliament houses and Buckingham Palace.
The effect of this will be, that on important occasions, when the sovereign
may be at Windsor, any intelligence if extraordinary interest can lie trans-
mitted to her Majesty iii a second— nay, in less time. The voltaic electricity
which governs the motion of the telegraph, travels at the rate of two hundred
anil eighty -eight thousand miles a second. This has been proved by the deli-
cate instrument invented by Professor Wheatstone. The new and m st sin-
gular arrangement will lie of great value in connection with the publics
When cabinet councils sit on momentous questions, her Majest] can be ac-
quainted with the result of their deliberations as instantaneously as if she

108

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[March,

were present. 'When the Queen presides over the meetings of her ministers
in person at Windsor, it not (infrequently happens 'hat information on a
particular subject may he reauired from the departments in London ; and
hitherto, when this lias been the case, it of course became necessary to send
an express to town to obtain what was called for, before the business could
satisfactorily proceed. Now it. in most cases, will be procured while the
council is sitting, and. indeed, in the course of four or five minutes, which
before would have caused a delay of as many hours- This will not only be of
use on great occasions, but in a common way its every-day value will be con-
siderable. During the session of parliament, for instance, on every question
of interest her Majesty can learn the division, or the progress made in a
debate, one moment after the house has divided, or any particular orator has
risen to speak or resumed his seat. Thus, a more rapid communication be-
tween the sovereign and her ministers fur the time being will be established
than has ever been known or thought of before. — Mirror.

The Birmingham Town Hall Organ has undergone great altera'ions.
These consist of certain new arrangements and adaptations, founded on an
extensive survey of the great organs both in Germany and Holland ; and will
have the effect of greatly increasing the powerfulness, and variety of this
splendid instrument, the recent improvemenls having caused an addition oi
about 1200 pipes. The height of the case is 54 feet, and 40 feet wide, and,
contains about 4000 pipes. The circumference of the CCCC metal pipe is
5 feet 3 inches ; the largest wood pipe (ihe CCCC) is 12 feet in circumference,
and its interior measurement is 224 cubic feet. The organ contains G3 real
stops, six copulas, and has four sets of keys; the fourth is the combination
or solo organ, upon which (by an ingenious contrivance) can be played any
stop or steps out of the swell or choir, without interfering with their pre-
vious arrangement. There are several stops peculiar to this organ, and
which are not to be found in any other; amongst them is the grand ophi-
tltide, invented by Mr. Hill, which is distinguished by its immense power and
richness of tone. The posaune is built on a large scale, and is uy far the
most powerful ever made. By coupling the pedals with the keys, 87 pipes
are made to speak with each pedal. The bellows contain 300 square feet of
surface, and upwards of 3 tons weight upon them is required to give the ne-
cessary pres lire. The machinery of the organ is so very extensive, that the
trackers, if placed in one line, would measure more than 5 miles.

Nankin and its Porcelain Works. — Numerous, as you may conceive, have
been the pilgrimages made to the far-famed " Pvrcelain Tower," for the first
time in inspecting any of the monuments renommit of this country, no dis-
appointment has been experienced, while comparing what actually is. with
What the legends of the book-makers in China describe to be. It is, indeed,
a most elegant and singular structure, as remarkable for its correct propor-
tions as for the rare material of which it is partially composed. I sr.y par-
tially, because the mass of building is not of porcelain, but is composed of
common brick, with a facing and lining of beautiful white glazed porcelain
bricks or slabs, fixed into the masonry by means of deep keys or shoulders,
cast like a half T. on the brick. Its form is octagonal, and running up each
ol the angles is a moulding of large tiles of very fine els
coloured red and green alternately ; round each story runs a high balustrade
formed of green porcelain, upon which lour arched dourwaysopen, set to the
four cardinal points, the arches being elegantly turned with large glazed
tiles, cast in all imaginable fancies of design and variegation of colour
representing wild beasts, demons, deities, mi osiers, Sec. It appears to I e a
" sight" amongst the Chinese themselves, for there are priests er bonzes
attached to the building to ktcp it in order, who cam their consideration by
' tiling to the visitors lithographed elevations of the tower, with descrip-
tions attached, and who seem to have the duty entrusted to them of illumi-
natii g it on gala occasions. This is effected by means of lanterns made of
thin oyster shells, used in lieu of window glass by the Chinese, which are
placed at each of the eight angles on every story, and the effect of whose
subdued light on the highly reflective surlace of the tower must be most
striking and beautiful.— Bombay Spectator.

Florence — The Duomo. — The grand Duke has given orders that the " Gran
Duon.o'' ot Florence shall be completed under the direction of the Imperial
Academy. The dome was begun to be built in 1296, by Arnolfo di Lapo.
In the works now to be commenced, the materials to be employed are marbles
from the quarries of the two mountains Seravezza and Altissimo, in some

respects more beautiful than those of Carrara, and 'hey are those which

Al eh el Angelo made use of.

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

G. B. Airy, Astronomer Roval.

Mean Magnetic

Declination.

Dip at 9 a.m.

Dip at 3 p.m.

1842 October .. ..
November . .
December . .

23 18 4
23 17 22
23 17 22

68 56J
68 56

1 69 Oi
68 59i

LIST OF NEW PATENTS.

6RANTED IN ENGLAND FROM JANUARY 31, TO FEBRUARY 25, 1843.

Six Mont/is allowed/or Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

George Benjamin Thorneycroft, of Wolverhampton, ironmaster, for " im-
provements in furnaces used for the manufacture of iron, and also in the
mode of manufacturing iron."— Sealed Jan. 31.

William Maugham, of Newport-street, Lambeth, chemist, for "an improve-
ment in preparing aerated water." — Jan. 31.

William Barnard Boddy, of Saint Mary, Newington, surgeon, for " im-
provements in apparatus arid means for opening, shutting, and fastening
every description of sliding and lifting window sashes, windows, and window
shutters." — Jan. 31.

William Robinson Shaw, of Leeds, engineer, for " improvements in feeding
or sujiplying steam boilers with water." — Jan. 31.

Samnel Kirk, of Staly-bridge, Lancaster, cotton spinner, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for preparing cotton and other fibrous sub-
stances for spinning." — Jan. 31.

Charles Hancock, of Grosvenor-plaee, artist, for " an improved means of
dyeing or staining cotton, woollen, silk, and other fabrics, and rendering them
repellent of waters and moisture." — Jan. 31.

Charles Clark, of Great Winchester-street, London, merchant, for an " im.
proved pyro-hydro pneumatic apparatus, or means of generating, purifying,
and condensing steam and ether vapours, and of extracting from vegetable
substances the soluble portions thereof as also the application of parts of the
said apparatus to other heating, evaporating and distilling purposes." — Jan. 31 .
James Clark, of Glasgow, power-loom cloth manufacturer, for " an im-
proved mode of manufacturing certain descriptions of cloths." — Feb, 1 .

John Hill, of Manchester, machine-maker, for " improvements in or appli-
cable to looms for weaving carpets and various other fabrics in which rased
loops or a raised pile constitute the face or the figure of the fabric." — Feb. 11.
Robert Hicks, of Old Burlington-street, surgeon, for " improvements in
apparatus for impregnating liguuh with gases." — Feh, 11.

Joseph Morgan, of Manchester, manufacturer of patent candle-making
machines, for "( i., the manufacture of candles." — Feb. 11.

Jonathan Badger, of Sheffield, carpenter and builder, for " improvements
in the construction of beds! tads for invalids." — Feb. 11.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of fabrics made by lace machinery." — Feb. 11.

Thomas Ensor. of Milbome Port, glove manufacturer, for " improvements
in the manufacture of leather gloves." — Feb. 11.

Henry Du Bochet, of South Mall, Ireland, piano-forte tuner, for " <i new
method of making pianofortes." — Feb. 11.

Thomas Wolverstan, of Salisbury, iron founder, for " improvement! in a.i!e-
trees and axletree boxes." — Feb. 11.

Alfred Brewer, of Surrey-place, Old Kent-road, wire-weaver and felt
manufacturer, for " improvements in machinery for manufacturing paper."
(A communication.) — Feb. 11.

George Ebenezer Doudney and Edward Phillips Doudney, of Mile-end,
Portsea, candle manufacturers, for " improvements in the manufacture of dip
and mould candles." — Feb. 17.

James Boydell, jun., of Oak Farm Iron Works, near Dudley, ironmaster,
for " improvements in apparatus for retaining the wheels of carriage) in the
event of an axis breaking, or othenvise." — Feb. 17.

Henry Ross, of Leicester, worsted manufacturer, for " improvements in
combing and drawing wool, and other fibrous substances." — Feb. 17.

Charles Brook, of Meltbam Mills, York, cotton spinner, for "improvements
in the apparatus used for purifying gas." — Feb. 17.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " an improved sys-
tem of working coal mines and quarries of stone, marble, and slate, which
may also he applied to the making of tunnel borings, or to other purposes of
the like kind." (A communication.) — Feb. 20.

John Kymcr, of Pontardalaw, South Wales, coal proprietor, and Thomas
Hodgson Leighton, of Llanclly, Carmarthen, chemist, for " improvements
applicable to the burning anthracite or stone coal, and other fuel, for the pur-
pose of obtaining heat." — Feb. 21.

Joseph Crannis and Robert Kemp, both of Southwark, furriers, for " im-

. • in wood paring." — Feb. 21.
Benjamin Brunton Blackwell, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gentleman, and
William Norris, of the city of Exeter, civil engineer, for " an improvement in
coating iron nails, screws, nuts, bolts, and other articles made of iron with
certain other metals." — Feb. 21.

Lawrence Holker Potts, of Greenwich, doctor of medicine, for " new or
improved methods of conveying goods, passengers, or intelligence." — Feb. 21.

Henry Clarke, of Drogheda, linen merchant, for " improvements in ma-
chinery for lapping and folding all descriptions of woven textures and surface
fabrics."— Feb. 23.

Francis Ronbiliic Conder, of Highgate, Middlesex, engineer, for " im-
provements in the cutting and shaping of wood, and in the machinery for that
purpose." (A communication.) — Feb. 23.

John Haggerston Leathes, of Norwich, gentleman, and William
Kirrage, of the same place, asphalte manufacturer, for " improvements in
coffins."— Feb. 25,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

10.9

THE WALHALLA.

Description of the Walhalla, read at the Institute of British Architects,

By John Woollet, Fellow.

( With tno Engravings, Plates IV and V. ' J

The idea of raising a monument to the great men of Germany
originated with the present king of Bavaria. While he was Crown
Prince, and only 20 years of age, he conceived the plan of raising a
vast edifice for the reception of busts of illustrious men of every state
in Germany, whether Bavarian, Prussian, or Austrian, without dis-
tinction, beginning from the earliest records of German history, and
including princes, philosophers, warriors, poets, artists, and learned
men, — all who might have distinguished themselves by their virtues
or their genius. It was in 1804, according to the inscription upon the
pavement of the temple, that this noble project was first contemplated
by the prince; and though delayed and interrupted at that period, and
for some years subsequently, by the disturbed state of his country,
his design was never abandoned ; but, conceived as it was in youthful
ardour, it has been prosecuted with manly energy and constancy, and
at length, in the summer of last year, received completion in the
magnificent edifice, the Walhalla, which now adorns the banks of the
Danube at Ratisbon.

The character given 'to the building by its mythological appellation,
is carried out by the sculpture which adorns the interior, and Klenze
has made this " voice of architecture," as Mr. Cockerell terms it, an
organ to awaken among artists an interest in a mythology which has
been most undeservedly neglected. The adaptation of the national
fables of the early Germans to a building so entirely national in its
conception as the Walhalla, is most appropriate, and certainly the
most original feature of the design. Except merely to state that the
name received the consideration of many learned men, the architect
Las offered no remark upon this employment of the Gothic mythology:
probably because the subject is much more familiar to Germans than
to Englishmen. For this reason 1 shall offer no apology for prefacing
the description of the Walhalla by a brief account of its mythological
prototype, and by a few words upon the northern mythology.

The study of mythology has always held a foremost place in
modern education, because the knowledge of the religion professed
by the early inhabitants of a country is so essential to the understand-
ing the works of ancient authors, and in order to aid the investiga-
tions of the customs and monuments of antiquity. But why the Pagan-
ism— called, by way of excellence, classic — should have engrossed so
much attention, to the exclusion of a mythology which has so much
more claim upon our national sympathy, has been frequently asked,
but remains still to be answered. As long ago as the year 1800, the
University of Copenhagen considered the matter of sufficient import-
ance to give, as the subject of a prize essay, the question, " Whether
the Northern mythology is worthy of equal rank with the Grecian."
The question was decided in the affirmative by all the candidates, and
Midler, Ohlenschliiger, Dalins, and others in their subsequent illustra-
tions of the subject, have fully justified their decision. Without dis-
cussing the degree of merit to which each is entitled, it will be
readily granted that the Scandinavian mythology, independent of any
intrinsic beauty it may possess, has this one great claim upon our
attention over the Paganism of Greece and Rome : namely, that we,
as well as the other countries of Northern Europe, may esteem these
magnificent superstitions as having been the religion of our fore-
fathers; for while the worship prescribed by the Greeks extended
itself in Europe no farther than Greece and Italy, the major part of
Gaul, Scandinavia, Germany, and Britain, cultivated a mythology and
literature peculiarly their own, — a mythology which gives a striking
picture of our northern ancestors, and to which our customs, antiqui-
ties, and language make perpetual reference.

Upon the conquest of England by the Saxons, the ancient Britons
were driven to seek refuge, the principal part of them in that part of
France then called Armorica, to which they gave the Dame of Brit-

1 [We are obliged to postpone Plate V, a perspective view of the interior,
until next month. — Ed.]
No. 67.— Vol. VI.— Amu., IS 13.

tany, and the few that remained in this country in the remote corners
of Wales and Cornwall. With their language and their customs the
victorious Saxons introduced their fables and their sagas, and the
worship of Odin was established throughout the heptarchy.

Hume speaks of the religion of the Saxons as "consisting of super-
stitions of the grossest and most barbarous kind, as one of which little
is known, and which, compared with the systematic and politic insti-
tutions of the Druids, made little impression upon its votaries, and
which accordingly gave place to the new doctrine" (of Christianity).
This is not true ; the worship of Odin was one of all others calculated
to dazzle and captivate the imagination of a warlike race like the
Northmen; and that the laws of that great conqueror took deep root
wherever they were propagated, — that is to say, throughout the
north, — is beyond all question. Christianity eventually triumphed,
not easily, or because it met with no opposition, as Hume supposes;
but because truth must prevail over superstition and error. But even
Christianity and the lapse of more than eleven centuries have failed
to eradicate altogether the traces of this worship : of which fact the
names of the days of the week in almost all the languages of Northern
Europe is the most familiar instance. The rites of the Druids were
the most terrible ever known: their barbarous wicker idol immola-
tions were unknown among the Gothic nations. And another princi-
pal feature of their institutions was the profound ignorance which it
was the policy of their priests to maintain ; for they most carefully
concealed their doctrines from the vulgar, forbidding that they should
ever be committed to writing : and on this account they had not so
much as even an alphabet of their own. The institutions of Odin
were entirely the reverse of this. No barbarous people were ever so
addicted to writing, as appears from the innumerable quantity of
Runic inscriptions scattered all over the north, not excepting England
and Scotland. The invention of letters was considered the offspring
of Divine intellect, and ascribed to their chief deity; and the charac-
ters themselves were supposed to be possessed of magic virtues.
The Edda, the Voluspa, and the sagas of this heathen period are still
preserved, and are written in a language which is the parent of all the
Gothic dialects. The Havamaal, or sublime discourse, ascribed to
Odin himself, in which he has delivered admirable precepts to his
followers, is the only thing of the kind iu existence, and contains pro-
found maxims of wisdom :

" Which skalds of old have spoken since, in lays of Hcvamaal :
From race to race descended deep, those sayir.gs fraught with doom,
And Norway still reveres the same, as voices from the tomb."

The religion of Odin carried with it an innumerable quantity of
mythic poems and sagas, and the skalds, or scops, who sung and chro-
nicled these traditions, thus possessed of a mythology so propitious to
poetic fiction and ornament, were celebrated throughout the north of
Europe : they visited other countries, resided amidst the splendour of
courts, and were enriched and caressed by the greatest monarchs of
their time. The dawn of northern literature — the only literature
which Enrope can boast anterior to the adoption of Christianity — is,
in short, inseparably connected with the northern superstitions, and
the sagas in which they are preserved, must ever remain the earliest
monuments of Gothic intellect. So rich a mine has not been neg-
lected by modern writers among the Danes, Swedes, and Germans ;
many a beautiful creation of genius owes its existence to this source,
as the German reader well' knows, and the works of Gray, Cottle,
Sayers, and especially Herbert, prove that the English are not insensi-
ble of the beauties of the northern mythology.' But for the artist, to
whom these remarks are addressed, it remains an almost unexplored
region of magnificent and poetic fable, which may challenge competi-
tion with any which the ingenuity of man has invented. As an
instance, it would be impossible to select a more poetical creation of
fiction than that of the Walkyriae, — those beautiful, but terrible emis-
saries of Odin, seen bv the dying Scandinavian hero only during his
last agonies upon the field of battle, and there upholding his courage

* Among these should be mentione 1 aHo 'hi' translations of Tegneris
Frithoff, especially that by Mr. Latham.

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to the h.>t, and cheering the dark hour of death by visions of the
Walhalla, to which they were come to conduct him.

These beautiful and warlike maidens play an important part in the
paradise of heroes, and have been accordingly introduced by Klenza
in the building under consideration. Their name, Walkyriae from
two Icelandic words, signifies choosers of the slain, as Walhalla means
the hall of the slain. Their office was to receive the souls of those
warriors who were deemed by Odin worthy of immortal reward, and
conduct them to his palace of Walhalla. Led by his beautiful guide,
the shade of the hero passes over the bridge of the gods, the rainbow,
called Bifrost, which is guarded by the sentinel Heimdal, and they
enter the celestial city Asgard, surrounded by ever blooming trees, and
full of gold and silver palaces, the mansions of the gods of the Edda.
Above this city lies Gladsheim: and here, surrounded by a grove
whose trees bear golden leaves and fruit, is situated the promised
Walhalla. The hero and his guide approach the western gate, upon
which the magic bolt Walgrind, which excludes all unconsecrated
souls, falls, and his future residence lies before the hero in all its
glittering splendour: gold and silver, brightly polished shields,
armour, and weapons, and all the paraphernalia of barbarous warfare,
appears on all sides. The Einheriar,— the name given to the future
inhabitant of this glorious abode, — upon his entrance, is presented by
his guardian Walkyria with his installation cup of mead, Iduna, the
goddess of youth, offers him the apples of immortality, and he is at
once recognised by his former companions in arms, who have gone to
Walhalla before him, with loud shouts of greeting, — "Welcome,
Einheriar! enjoy peace and drink mead for ever with the gods!"
the future life of these heroes, notwithstanding this reception, is
neither an idle or peaceable one. Fighting was an indispensable
amusement with our forefathers even in the abodes of bliss. Fight-
ing was their business and pleasure upon earth, and, according to all
savage ideas of a future state, they expected to repeat agaiu their
earthly pleasures in heaven. Hence arose the custom among the
Scandinavians when a chief fell gloriously in battle, to burn with him
upon the pyre his armour, sword, and war horse, and whatever else
he held most dear. His dependents and friends frequently made it a
point of honor to die with their leader, and attend on his shade in the
palace of Odin. In the tomb of King Chilperic were found his arms
and the bones of the horse on which he supposed he should be pre-
sented to the warrior god in Walhalla. A singular instance of this
custom has been recently discovered upon opening three tumuli near
East Ilsley in Berkshire. In the graves were found skeletons of
gigantic persons, together with warlike weapons, rude articles of
military equipments, and the bones of animals, probably horses.
These persons had evideutly fallen in battle, the skulls being frac-
tured, and an iron javelin head being firmly fixed in one of the hip
bones.

The pastimes in Walhalla were therefore in accordance with this
superstition. In the morning, at the crowing of the golden cock
Fialar, the heroes arise with one accord, buckle on their armour and
weapons, mount their war steeds, and sallv out of the 54U gates of the
Walhalla.

" Fiinfuundert Thiireu und noch vierzig

Glanb'ich dass in Walhall sind: —

Alle Einheriar iii Odin's Gehege

Hanen sich jeden Tag ;

Tod kiesen sie und reiten vorn Kanipf,

Trinken Bier mil den Asen und speisen Sahrimner,

Und silken eiutrachtig zusammeu."

—Riih's Edda.
They ride to a mighty plain called Odinstun, and here they fight
together with all the fury of their mortal days, performing miracles
of bravery until the god Heimdal sounds his horn, upon which their
wounds are miraeuloMsly healed, and they return amicablv to the
banquet m Walhalla, the bravest of the day being rewarded "with the
most dist.nguished places at the board. Their food consists of
swine's flesh, from the hog Sahrimner, which is never consumed, and
mead, or hydromel, is supplied by the beautiful Walkvriae, whose

duty it is to attend upon them, the gods and Odin himself being pre-
sent at the banquet.

It should be observed, that warriors of mean birth, and slaves,
though dying bravely and in battle, were not admitted to the mansion
of Odin; but were received into the palace of Thor, in Bilskirner :
noble women were assigned a residence in Folkvang, the palace of
the goddess Freia. The nnwarlike, and those who had the misfor-
tune to live all the days of their lives, — a calamity which the Scandi-
navians avoided by voluntarily destroying themselves, — were con-
demned to an abode in Niflheim, the icy domain of the infernal
goddess Hela, from whose name is derived our word hell.

These are the principal features of that portion of the northern
mythology which has furnished an appropriate name for a mouumeut
to the honor of the illustrious sons of Germany. It might be wished
that the architecture of this splendid building had shared in the spirit
of nationality of which in all other respects it is so characteristic; or
at least that it had been more original in design. But as far as
regards the exterior, it can claim the merit only of being an excellent
restoration of the Parthenon: the architect lias made more than
ample atonement for rejecting the mythology of the Greeks by most
scrupulously following their architectural model. For this want of
invention he seems quite willing to hold himself responsible, by stating
that, though the Grecian Doric order was recommended, he was left
to the free exercise of his judgment in every other respct. I am,
notwithstanding, inclined to suspect that the hint given to the com-
peting architects in the original instructions — to the effect, that an
imitation of some approved model of antiquity would be preferred to
a less beautiful, though more original invention — influenced him more
than he chooses to coufess.

The enormous substructure of masonry and large "step-like
plinths" upon which the temple is elevated appears to be an injudi-
cious arrangement : it has the effect of making the principal object,
the building itself, appear insignificant compared with its subordinate
pedestal. The effect must not be judged, however, from a geome-
trical elevation ; for it must be remembered that the building stands
upon a considerable eminence, and that the consequent forshorten-
iiig, when seen from below, must in a great measure obviate this
objection.

The arrangement of the interior is very skilful, and in many
respects original. The task of introducing a method of roofing
unknown to the Greeks, but designed in the spirit of their architec-
ture, was a difficult one, and is well overcome. The roof is of cast
iron, of which the construction is visible, leaving open spaces glazed
for the admission of light, and by means of sculpture rendered highly
ornamental.

The division of the hall by the projecting masses, or wings, which
originate in the necessary support of the roof, is a disposition which
produces animation and a play of light and shade, and also increases
the apparent extent of the building. These wings boldly projecting
from the side walls, break the monotony of the simple parallelogram
form of the plan, and always conceal a portion of the busts which
occupy the lower range of walls, and which, from their great number
and similarity, would otherwise have become wearisome. The upper
portion of the side walls is visible the entire length, interrupted only
by the beautiful Walkyren caryatides which form the principal orna-
ment of the interior, and upon which the eye of the spectator first
rests.

The temple, exclusive of the substructure, incloses a space of
234 ft. in length and 107 ft. in breadth, surrounded by 52 Doric
columns 31 ft. high and 5 ft. 10 in. diameter. The internal length,
including the opisthodomus, is 171 ft., the breadth 92 ft., and the
greatest height 53 ft. 5 in. Height of the lower order, 28ft. 5 in. ;
the upper order, 17ft. 5 in.; and the caryatides, 10ft. 5 in.; — height
of the temple outside to the summit of the pediment, 61ft. The sub-
structure is 106ft high, 23tift. in breadth, and 425ft. in depth. From
the level of the Danube to the summit of the temple is 304 ft.

The following description is abridged from the work published by
the architect, Leo von Klenze: —

18J3.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER ANDJARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

Ill

"In February of the year 1814 there appeared in the public papers
an invitation to German architects, to prepare designs for the monu-
ment which his Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Bavaria pro-
posed erecting to the great men of Germany. The plans produced by
this invitation were not satisfactory to his Royal Highness, and I was
commissioned to prepare the drawings which have formed the basis
of the present design.

" Ratisbon, — a city famous in the history of Germany and Bavaria,
and one of the uniting points of the grand roads of Germany, situated
upon one of the principal rivers, and in a charming country diversified
by valley and mountain, and in a mild climate favourable to building,
— Ratisbon was the place chosen by the king as the site of the
future Walhalla.

" The 18th October, 1830, the anniversary of that battle which
freed Germany from a foreign yoke, was the day appointed for
laying the first stone of the edifice. The ceremony was performed
by the king in person, and an eloquent oration was pronounced by
Edward von Scbenck. ' Since civilization and education have been
naturalized in Germany,' said he, ' many glorious buildings have
been erected ; for centuries together has the most persevering art
been often employed upon the perfection of a single cathedral. Our
country is filled with churches, palaces, fortresses, and castles, and
modern times have seen the erection of halls and temples not un-
worthy of the very father-land of the arts. Statues also, and monu-
ments have been raised to individuals ; but since the earliest period
of our history Germany has never till now erected an universal monu-
ment to her mighty sons. The project of erecting such a monument
was reserved for King Louis of Bavaria, and never lived a monarch
more worthy to carry such a design into execution.'

"'Let us now,' continued von Schenck, ' look with prophetic eye
to the completion of the Walhalla, and contemplate the building as it
will one day appear upon the eminence whereon we now stand.
What a prospect for the traveller who approaches from the shores of
the Danube ! Upon the summit of this mountain he will behold a
mighty temple of white marble, a hall worthy of the glorified heroes,
resting upon mighty Doric columns, embanked by cyclopeian walls
and terraces, and approached by extensive flights of stone steps.

"'Having ascended these steps, the sculptured pediment above
reminds him of the conquest of the Romans by the Cherusei, and
other early battles of the German people. He enters the temple, and
his first glance falls upon a sculptured frieze which surrounds the
walls, representing the religion, customs, battles, and commerce of the
aborigines of Germany. Beneath this frieze, and all around hiin, he
beholds the busts and glorious names of those men who have immor-
talized our father-land in every braach of art and science, and on
every public occasion. The series of these great men commences
with those ancient heroes whose primordial efforts broke the mighty
power of Rome : to them follows the race of Pepin of Heristhall, the
line of noble and mighty emperors of Saxon and Frankish race, the
Hohenstanfen, and the race of Habsburger.

'"The line of emperors is closed by those great and good princes
who have governed in their own separate countries, or in foreign
lands, — such as Otho and Maximillian of Bavaria, Amalia of' Hessen,
William of Orange, Frederick of Prussia, &c.

" 'These monarchs are surrounded by the great men who have been
their contemporaries, and who have lived and died for faith and
truth, for fame and freedom, or for science and art. Heroes from the
Cherusker Hermann, who conquered the Romans, down to Schwart-
zenberg and Blucher ; holy men, like Nicholas von der Flue and
Thomas a Kempis; philosophers, as Leibnitz and Haller; Germany's
early poets, from the author of the renowned Nibelungen Lied down
to Schiller ; (long may the bust of Goethe remain in the Hall of
Expectation5) the heroes of plastic art, from the old masters down to
Mengs ; and, last of all, the mighty Dioscuri of German melody, from
Gluck to Mozart.'

" 2 Goethe lias passed the ordeal which entitles the hero to admission
within the halls uf Walhalla; his bust will now Le found among the
best.— T.

" 'I can believe,' concluded Von Shenck, 'that the spirits of these
great men are now at this auspicious moment hovering around us in
gratitude to the noble king who raises this monument to their merits.
Their blessing will not be in vain : it is joined to that of Heaven,
and descends already upon this building.'

"'While in many other— alas! also German— states, sedition and
mistrust threaten to loosen the holy bands between prince and people,
here, in Bavaria, stands her king : happy, because he diffuses happi-
ness and prosperity, mighty in the love of his people, justly estima-
ting his high calling, and with conscious power steadily fulfilling it.
And thus he lays the foundation stone of a monument to German
greatness and German truth.' "

On the conclusion of this oration, the king, standing beneath a
baldaquin, supported by columns and surmounted by a statue of Ger-
many, proceeded to lay the first stone of the Walhalla, and the build-
ing was commenced in the spring of 1831.

The first large division of the terrace is of Pelasgic construction,
and of polygonal blocks of a marble-like limestone ; the second
division, and likewise the three large step-like landings betow the
temple, are of the same stone, and formed of regular blocks, but of
unequal height and length, as is found in many buildings of the
Greeks, — as in the walls of Kalidon, and also in the Theatre of Mar-
cellus in Rome. The columns are 5 ft. 10 in. in diameter, and formed
in eleven blocks.

The severe style of the exterior architecture is relieved by the
sculpture in the pediments, consisting of highly relieved groups in
white marble, by the hand of Schwanthaler, from designs made by the
king. The first illustrates the battle in Teutoburger Walde, under the
victorious Armenius : the second represents Germany, to whom, after
the catastrophe of 1813-14, the representatives of the united forces
are presenting the lost provinces.3

The site was so chosen that the south end of the temple should
present the principal entrance and access for those on foot. In
ascending, by means of the different steps and terraces, first to the
right and then to the left, the building and prospects of the distant
country are presented to the visitor under various and continually
changing points of view. Having arrived by 140 steps at the second
terrace, a bronze door is seen, which leads to an arched chamber.
This chamber is termed the Hall of Expectation, and is intended for
the reception of busts of great men still living, from whence, when
the occasion arrives, they are removed into the Walhalla itself.
Two other flights of steps lead to the pronaos and principal entrance
of the temple.

The arrangement of the interior demanded all possible space for
the reception of the busts, and their proper distribution was a leading
feature of the design. It was necessary that the busts should be all
of equal size, and of the Greek therm form; and also, in order to
typify the universal equality of all in Elysium, that they should be
placed in rows according to their dates only, without individual dis-
tinction.

It was then essential that the monotony of the coup d'ceil of so
many similar sized heads should be got rid of. The construction of
the roof, which of course could not be left open like the ancient hy-
pethral temples, and which therefore required supporting beams, sus-
tained by four projecting masses from each longitudinal wall so as to
lessen their span: this form offered the best means of avoiding the
objectionable repetition; and it was thus attained, namely, that in a
general view along the hall, a large proportion of the busts would be
always concealed from the spectator by the projecting architectural
masses. At the extreme end is a large gallery, and in each longitu-
dinal wall a passage introduced, both which during an inauguration or
other ceremony, serve for the accommodation of spectators. In de-
signing the building, the architect always had in view the celebration
of some solemn and poetic ceremony, as for instance, that certain pe-

3 Professor Kaucli made the original model for this sculpture to a small
scale. The execution of it was afterwards entrusted to Schwanthaler, who
was then rising into fame, lie remodelled the design, and descries the
credit of the entire work, which is of the highest order.

15s*

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riodical national associations should be held, having for a principal
object, the admission of a new bust, and the solemn inauguration cf a
new hero to the halls of the Walhalla. On such an occasion a pro-
cessional train would ascend the steps to the first terrace. Here the
inaugural bust would be taken from the Hall of Expectation, which
would be appropriately decorated for the occasion, and from thence
be bcrne in procession to the next terrace, and so carried into the tem-
ple. Upon opening the great bronze doors the procession would be
received by a chorus of singers, who would remain unseen in the gal-
lery. Spectators would be permitted only in the gallerv and passages,
and the hall remain consequently quite free for the train, which would
proceed in choragic order to the place appointed for the reception of
the bust.

It was important that the interior decoration should tend to pro-
mote in the spectator the frame of mind which the foregoing cere-
mony had awakened, and therefore it was the desire of the accom-
plished founder of the Walhalla, that the aid of rich descriptive
sculpture and ornament should be called in as the most effective
means of so doing. In the mythology of our forefathers the Walky-
riae were beautiful maidens, whose duty it was to bear dying heroes
from the field of battle to the palace of Odin, there to be entertained
with never-ending banquets, and to dwell for ever in the paradise of
the valiant.

Statues of these beautiful companions of the beatified German
heroes, have been employed as caryatides, to avoid the multiplica-
tion of severe architectural tonus, which are apt to produce mechani-
cal plainness, and also, in order to relieve the monotony produced
by so large a number of busts. Tiiese Walkyren caryatides, sculp-
tured in marble by L. Schwanthaler, are habited, as near as is known,
in the ancient German costume, and are employed to support the
cornice and roof. The heroes of the Walhalla are necessarily divided
into two classes, namely, those who from the want of existing por-
traits are recorded only by name, and those of whom busts are really
extant. To the first of these is allotted the upper division of the
inner compartments of the walls, and their names are inscribed in the
spaces between the fourteen caryatides. The busts in a double row,
partly upon a continued pedestal, partly upon projecting marble bear-
ers, are divided into six classes, over each of which presides a female
therm-shaped statue, sculptured by Rauch, and having reference to
the class over which she presides.

In order to complete the allegorical sculpture, the interior pedi-
ments formed by the horizontal beams, and the sloping roof, are en-
riched by three sculptured bas-reliefs, in which are represented the
three principal epochs of the northern mythology. In the first is
seen the giant Ymer, bom of the moisture engendered by the hot
wind from Muspelheim and the cold mists from Nifelheim, and from
his shoulders spring the first human beings, Askar and Embla. Near
him are the Lord of Muspelheim, Surtur the god of light and warmth,
and Hela the goddess of Nifelheim, Foliage of the ash and elm *
fill up the angles of the pediment. In the seeu:. appeal

the principal inhabitants of Asgar 1 ; Odin with his spear Gugner
and Frigga with her golden spindle, seated upon their throne Lidskjolf ;
on the right is Thur with his terrible hammer Mibmer, striking the
Roman eagle to fragments, and Baldur the youthful god of Elo-
quence. On the left Braga the god of wisdom and poetry with his
goddess Iduna, who, like the Greek Eebe in Olympus, pres -i
heroes of the Walhalla v% it li" the golden apples of immortality. The
ravens of Odin fill up the angles. The centre of the third pediment
is filled with the mighty ash tree Ydrasil, on the summit of which
the eagle of Odin spiea is his wings. Beneath the roots flows the
fountain of wisdom, with which the tree is watered by the tl:ree
Nornies. In the angles are the squirrels Rotatoskr.

Beneath this and between the upper and lower orders, is introduced
a large bas-relief in eight divisions, which, according to the command
of the royal founder of the Walhalla, illustrates the history of the
German nation from its earliest period to the introduction of Christi-
anity, and was designed and executed in white marble by Martin von
4 These were sacred trets.

Wagner in Rome. This admirable work, 224 ft. in length and 3 ft.
6 in. high, embraces the following eight principal events. 1st. The
peopling of Germany by settlers from the east and the Caucasian
couutries. A mighty train, in long procession, of wild but beautiful
forms, preceded by warriors, followed by their wives and children,
and closed by shepherds, are represented passing the river Ister, and
engaged in subduing the bear and wild boar, the sole inhabitants of
the forests of Germany. In the second division is represented the
religi in and occupations of our ancestors. In tlie midst a religious
ceremony is being solemnized under a large oak, and horses are being
offered in sacrifice. Bards are chauntiog the mysteries of the reli-
gious rites ; and a troop of young warriors is impatiently awaiting
the completion of their shields, which an artist is emploved in deco-
rating. The third division represents the political ar.d commercial
doings of our aucestors ; the choice of a leader, the first council of
the chosen king with his people, and the intercourse and commerce
of the Phoenicians with the northern nations. In the 4th, 5th, and
6th, are represented the contests between the Germans and the Ro-
man empire. In the 7th, the conquest of Rome by Alarle ; and the
introduction of Christianity by the fervent preaching of the holy
Boniface, in the Stb division, concludes the bas-relief.

Respecting the ornament employed, it may be remarked, that
without abandoning the long sanctioned Greek contour of form, the
architect has employed foliage of German growth, assimilating it as
far as possible with the Greek character.

As the adoption of classical architecture was expressly enjoined in
the instructions tor the edifice, it became necessary to follow what is
believed to have been the practice of the Greeks, and unite the charm
of colour to that of form. But the architect considers that the strik-
ing means which the Greeks employed to distinguish the outlines of
their mouldings and members, rendered beautiful and necessary be-
neath the brilliant skies of Greece, on account of the clearness and
light of their atmosphere, is not admissible ou external architecture
in a northern climate. The interior lithuc-hromic decoration, is as
follows: lu the ceiling, those parts of the metal construction winch
are visible, are entirely gilt. The coffers of the ceiling, as well as
the soffit of the beams, are coloured azure, and ornamented with stars
of white gold or platina, with which, also, all rosettes, screw heads,
and fir cones used in the construction are covered. The mouldings of
the o tiers and panels are likewise gilt and ornamented with coloured
foliage. The sculpture and ornamental foliage which fill up the pedi-
ment shaped supports of the roof, are pierced and open, and of light
form, that they may not appear to overload this essential part of the
construction. They are partly of white aud gold, and partly coloured
after the manner of classic sculpture. The carved members of the
cornice of the upper order, which is of white veined marble, is also
partly gilt and partly coloured. The frieze is azure, with oak wreaths
of bronze gilt. The upper division of the walls is of a reddish brown
marble, from the quarries of Oberfranken : the inscription tablets of
white marble, the letters of gilt bronze. The Walkyren caryatides
of marble of the Danube are entirely but very faintly coloured. The
parts representing flesh are ivory colour, the hair fair brown, the bear
skin mantle eutireiy gilt, the upper dress bright violet, the under robe
v bite. The plinth upon which the figures stand is of a warm grey
Lumachelli marble: the entire entablature, and the long bas-relief, in
tlie frieze, is of white marble, pait from Sehlanders, part from Car-
rara. The carved architrave and cornice are brought out in colour
and gold, the relief quite white, and the ground of the ornaments in
the frieze azure. The lower division of the principal walls, as well
us the pilasters and shafts oi the columns, are of brownish red marble
from Adruet, resembling the antique African. The caps and bases of
the columns and pilasters are of white marble, ornamented with
colour and gold. The carved bearers of the busts, the busts them-
selves, and the six presiding statues, together with all cantilevers and
se its c instituting the furniture of the hall, are of white marble
without colour or gilding. As the busts could not with propriety
have been coloured, it would have been prejudicial to them to have
employed gilding or colouring in the sculpture of which th orm a

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

113

part. The continued pedestal upon which the first row of busts stands,
is of a beautiful yellow marble, from Weltenburg, on the Danube ;
the plinth is white. The architraves of the doors and windows are
of white marble, with ornaments of colour and gold. The doors,
plated with bronze externally, are towards the interior, of maple,
with studs, and inlaying of bright red amazanth wood.

The floor consists of a variety of marbles, following in pattern the
general plan of the interior, and was worked and polished in the
manufactory at Tegernsee. In the centre fields are three tablets,
upon which, in black letters, upon a white ground, are the following
inscriptions: "Projected in January, 180(3 ; commenced October 18th,
1830 ; finished October 18th, 1842."

Inscriptions on the Tablets.

Herrmann, Conqueror of the Romans
Marobod, Chief of the Markomanni
Velleda, Prophetess

Claudius Civilis, Leader of the Batavians
Herrmannrich, King of the east Goths
Ulphilas, Bishop . . . .

Friediga, Leader of the west Goths . . . .

Alaric, King of the west Goths

Ataulf. ditto

Theodorich, ditto .. .. ..

Horsa, Conqueror of Britain

Genserich, King of the Vandals

Hengist, Conqueror of Britain

Odoaker, King of the Herulii and Rugii ..

Klodwig, King of the Franks

Theodrich, King of the east Goths

Totila, ditto

Alboin, King of the Lombards

Theutelinde, Queen of the Lombards

Emeran the Holy

Pipin of Heristall, Duke of Austrasia . . . .

Beda the Venerable, Abbot and Historian

Willibrod the Holy, first Bishop of Utrecht

Charles, Duke and Prince of the Franks

Bonifacius the Holy, Archbishop of Maiuz . .

Pipiu the Short, King of France

Wedekind, Leader of the Saxons . . . .

Paul Warnerfied, Historian . . . . , .

Alcuin, Abbot and Philosopher

Egbert, King of England

Charles the Great, Emperor (Charlemagne)

Eginhard, Historian

Rhabanus Maurus, Bishop and Philosopher

Arnulph, Emperor .. .. .. ..

Alfred the Great, King of England

Otto the Enlightened, Bishop of Saxony

Arnulph, Duke of Bavaria

Machthildis the Holy, Queen of Germany

Roswitha, Poetess

Bernward the Holy, Bishop of Hildesheim

Heirbert, Archbishop of Cologne

Henry III, Emperor .. .. .. ...

Lambrec'nt of Aschaffenburg, Historian . . . .

Otto the Holy, Bishop of Bamberg
Otto, Bishop of Freysing, Historian
Hildegard the Holy, Abbess . . . . . .

Otto the Great of 'Wittlesbach . .
Engelbert the Holy, Archbishop of Cologne
The Poet of Nibelunger Lied
Walther of the Vogelweide, Minnesanger
Elizabeth the Holy, Landgravine of Thiiringen
Leopold VII the Glorious, Duke of Austria
Hermann of Saiza, Master of the Teutonic Order
Wolfram of Escl.enback, Minnesanger
The Architect of the Cathedral of Cologne
Arnold of Thum, the Founder of the Rhenish League
Albertus Magnus, Bishop of Regensburg . .
Walther Fiirst, Werner Stauffacher, Arnold of Meshthal, The
three men of Riitli . . . . , .

Friednck the Handsome of Austria

Bruno of Wareudop, Hanseatic Leader

Arnold Struttbahn of Winkelried, Knight of Unterwalden

Wilhelm of Cologne, Painter

Hadrian of Bubenberg .. ,. .,

Peter Henlein, Inventor of Watches ., ,.

21

40

65

100

375

380

380

410

415

451

451

477

480

497

511

526

552

573

626

680

714

735

739

741

755

768

800

800

804

810

814

839

856

900

900

912

937

968

1000

1022

1028

1056

1077

1139

1158

1179

1183

1225

1230
1231
1234
1240
1251

1264
1280

1330
1369
1386
1388
1479
1540

List of Busts at present placed in the Walhalla,
A catalogue of the individuals who have, in the first instance, been se-
lected as worthy representatives of the genius of the German nation,
will doubtless possess interest for many, nor the less on account of its
indicating a very different estimate of worth and celebrity, from what
would be looked for by ourselves. While many of the characters that
have been selected for such honour, are scarcely known at all in this
couutry, others who are here looked upon as first-rate German celebri-
ties, do not appear. It is true not much more than half the intended
number of busts have yet been executed, but those which remain to
be added, are exceedingly few in comparison with the host of claim-
ants for distinction. Among artists, Schinkel will almost of certainty
be elected ; as to Klenze, even when the time shall arrive for his
being admitted into the company of illustrious worthies, such com-
pliment may be deemed superfluous in his case, inasmuch as the
Walhalla itself constitutes a sufficient monument of his talents and
his fame.

Heinrich der Finkler, King
Otto der Grosse, Emperor
Konrad II, Emperor

Date of

Death. Sculptor.
93G Schadow
973 Ditto
1039 Ditto

1190 Schadow
1250 Ditto
1291

1318
1445
1467

1475 Rauch

1476 J.ossow

Friedrich I. der Rothbart (Baibarossa) Emperor 1190 Scbwanthaler
Heinrich der Lowe . . . . . .

Friedrich II, Emperor

Rudolph von Hapsburg, King

Erwin von Steinbach (architect of Strasburg

Cathedral)

Eberhard, Duke of Wurtemberg

Joh. Guttenberg, inventor of printing

Job. von Eyck, painter

Friedrich der Siegreiche

J. Muller (Regiomontanus) .. .. .. 1476

Nikolaus von der Flue .. .. .. 1487 Tieck

Hans Hemling, painter . . . . . . 1500 Woldeck

J. von Dalherg, Bishop of Worms . . . . 1503 J. Henmann

Berthold von Henneberg . . . . . . 1504 Mayr

Hans von Hallwyl .. .. .. .. 1501 Christen

Maximilian I, Emperor .. .. .. 1519 Kauffmann

Reuchlin 1522 Imhof

Franz von Sikingen . . . . . . . . 1523 Bmidel

Ulrich von Hutten .. .. .. .. 1523 Kirchmaier

Albert Diirer, artist .. .. .. .. 1528 Rauch

Georg von Freunsberg, field officer .. .. 1528 Widnmann

Peter Visscher, the elder, artist .. .. 1530 C. Muller

J. Turmayr, historian .. .. .. 1534 Horchler

Walter von Plettenberg .. .. .. 1535 Scbwanthaler

Erasmus 1536 Tieck

Theopbrastus von Hohenheim (medical) .. 1541 Wolf

Kopernieus, astronomer .. ., .. 1543 Schadow

Hans Holbein, artist .. .. .. .. 1554

Karl von Kaiser ; 1558 Scbwanthaler

Christopher, Duke of Wurtemberg .. .. 1568 Bissen

jEgidius Tchudi, historian .. .. .. 1572 Tieck

William, Prince of Orange .. .. .. 1584 Ditto

Augustus I, Elector of Saxony , . . . 1586 Ritschel

Jul. Echter von Mespelbrunn, Bishop of Wurr-
burg

Date of
Bust.
1821
1821
1810

1835
1821
1821

1617 Scholl

Maurice, Prince of Orange .. .. .. 1625 Tieck

Kepler, astronomer ., .. ., .. 1630 Sclibpf

Wallenstein, warrior 1634 Tieck

Bernhard, Duke of Saxe Weimar .. .. 1639 Ditto

Rubens, artist .. ,. .. .. 1G40 Mannheim

Yandyk, artist 1641 Rauch

Hugo Grotius, philosophy .. .. .. 1645 Tieck

Maximilian von Trautmannsdorf .. .. 1650 Scballer

Maximilian. Elector of Bavaria .. ..' 1651 Imhof

Amalia Landgrafin von Hesse .. .. 1652 Tieck

Von Troup, Admiral .. .. .. 1653 Kessels

Lodron, Archbishop of Salzburg .. .. 1653 C. Eberhard

Snvders, painter .. .. .. .. 1657 Rauch

Charles IX. of Sweden L560 Tieck

Von Schonborn .. .. .. .. 1673 Ditto

Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Gotha .. .. .. 1675 Ditto

De Ruiter, Admiral 1676 Ditto

Otto von Quericke, inventor of air pump .. 1684 Rathgeber

William, Elector of Brandenburg .. .. 1688 Wichmaun

Zinzeudorf 1702 Tieck

William III. of Great Britain .. .. 1702

Ludwig, Margrave of Baden-Baden .. .. 1707 Widnmann

1834
1842

1814
1841
1840
1824
1812
1801
1835
1823
1811
1837
1841
1831
1841
1831
1813
1827
1817

1841
1831
1817
1815
1840

1840

1814

1842

1812

1812

1809

1812

1814

1S04

1812

1817

1825

1814

1814

1816

1818

1815

1817

1811

1818

1808

1841

114

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

Leibnitz, philosophy

Boerhaave, medicine

Moritz von Saxe, warrior

Handel, musician

Count von Munich, Russian Field-marshall . .

Winckelmann, antiquary

Count von Schaumburg-Lippe

Von Haller, poet, &c.

Mengs, artist

Maria Theresa, of Austria

Gluck, musician

Von Loudon, Field-marshall

Mozart, musician

Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick

Justus Moser . . . . . .

Burger, poet

Catherine II. of Russia

Klopstock, poet

Heinse . . . . . .

Herder, poetry and philosophy

Kant, philosophy

Schiller, poetry and history

Haydn, music .. .. .. .

Joh. von Muller, history
Wielaud, poetry and belles lettre6
Scharenhorst, Field-marshall

Barclay de Tolli, ditto

Blucher, ditto

Prince Schwartzenburg

Herschel, astronomy . .

Diebitsch-Sabalkansky, Field-marshall

Stein, Prussian Minister

Count von Gneisenau, Field-marshall

Goethe, poetry and universal literature

1716 Schadow

1808

1732 Leeb

1823

1750 Tieck

1813

1753 Schadow

1810

1767 Lossow

1841

1768 Schadow

1814

1777 Ditto

1809

1777 Ditto

1808

1779 Rauch

1808

1780 Eberhard

1811

1787 Danneker

1812

1790 Kissling

1813

1791 Schwanthaler

1840

1792 Schadow

1808

1794 Schmid

1821

1791 Tieck

1811

1796 Werdo

1831

1803 Schadow

1808

1803 Haller

1826

1803 Tieck

1815

1804 Schadow

1808

1805 Danneker

1794

1809 Robotz

1810

1809 Schadow

1808

1813 Ditto

1807

1813 Rauch

1830

1818 Widnmann

1841

1819 Rauch

1817

1820 Schaller

1821

1822 C. Eberhard

1816

1831 Rauch

1830

1831 Leeb

1825

1831 Tieck

1842

1832 Ditto

1808

A CHAT ABOUT WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

Our metropolitan minster (nasi of St. Paul's), is perhaps without
exception, the most beautiful, interesting, and instructive sight in
London; and yet how many inhabitants of this great city are there
who, but for the accidental visit of a country cousin, which led them
to seek the Lions, had never seen it? and how many more to whom it
is still unknown ground ? They have travelled, perhaps, to York, to
see the Minster there; they have sought objects of interest at Co-
logne ; they have thrown their eyes round the Cathedral of Stras-
burgh — but Westminster Abbey, close at home, has escaped their in-
vestigating gaze. Let them lose no time in seeking it out. We feel
persuaded that few can visit this wonderful museum of skill, genius,
noble thoughts, and memories of good deeds, without an elevation of
mind, an improvement in taste, and a chastening in feeling which
must tend in a greater or less degree to good. Walk through it, ex-
amine it, study it, as often and carefully as you may, you will ever
find some fresh claim on your attention, some beauty before over-
looked, or some evidence of unpretending piety, which makes you
prouder of humanity and more determined to do nothing derogatory
in your own person. It is, indeed, a spot " where folly's dancing foam
melts if it cross the threshold ;" where thoughts that are unholy
die ; where the past great ones of six centuries speak powerfully to
you — it is to be hoped, not uselessly.

The multitude of monuments which it contains, from that of King
Henry III, upwards, (omitting, for the present, any remarks on the
destructive effect produced by those erected in modern times,) render
it an index to English history, and a commentary, while the speci-
mens of the workmanship of different epochs in wood and stone, and
glass and metal, which these and other portions of the building pre-
sent, make it a lecturer on British art and a record of its progress.
Edward the Confessor's chapel, at the east end of the choir, is alone
a sufficient reward for a pilgrimage of a hundred miles. Here,
where old Time seems to have secluded himself from the garish
present, and reigns over remnants of the past, are ranged memorials
of our early sovereigns — the pious Edward, Queen Eleanor, Edward I,
Henry III, Queen Philippa, Richard II and his Queen, and the gallant
Henry V. It has nothing in common with the present time, it stands

alone, and cannot be realized in the mind of any one of the throng-
ing thousands, who are passing at so short a distance from the spot, if
they have not visited it. Examine the pavement, examine the shrines
— the chantry of Henry V, the screen, next the choir covered with
minutest sculpturing — and see how the powers of art hare been la-
vished in honour of God. Our forefathers were not satisfied with the
decoration of the mere face of the part in human sight — the highest
exercise of their powers was deemed hardly worthy of the temple,
and so long as any portion, however remote, or hidden, remained ca-
pable of improvement, so long was it deemed incomplete and requi-
ring alteration.

Of the elegance of the Abbey as a structure it is almost needless
to speak : it may be termed the finest example of the pointed style
of architecture ever executed in England, and remains the most com-
plete, with the exception of the cathedral at Salisbury. The combi-
nations which its various parts form, especially at the eastern end,
are as numerous as they are striking, and serve to impress a strong
conviction on the mind, of the skill of the old builders, and the power
they possessed of so arranging their structures as to excite plea-
surable and lofty emotions. Amongst the most striking of these com-
binations is that presented when standing beneath the porch of Henry
VII's chapel, the gloom in which, most artistically devised, serves to
render the full flood of light, to be found in the chapel itself, striking
and effective in the highest degree. Burke remarks, in his essay on
the sublime, "I think that all edifices, calculated to produce an idea
of the sublime, ought rather to be dark and gloomy ; and this for two
reasons; the first is, that darkness itself, on other occasions, is known
by experience, to have a greater effect on the passions than light.
The second is, that to make an object very striking, we should make
it as different as possible from the objects with which we have been
immediately conversant ; when, therefore, you enter a building, you
cannot pass into a greater light than you had in the open air: to go
into one some few degrees less luminous, can make only a trifling
change; but to make the transition thoroughly striking, you ought to
pass from the greatest light to as much darkness as is consistent with
the uses of architecture." This the architects of the middle ages
well understood ; they appreciated the " dim religious light," and
accordingly built their ecclesiatical edifices, for the most part, with
comparatively few openings. When, however, as in the case before
us, the style adopted rendered larger windows necessary, they re-
versed the arrangement, and so still obtained the required effect. In
a Gothic edifice, nothing was done without intention — everything is
meaning-full, design is everywhere apparent.

Many of the striking combinations, to which we have referred, are
now sadly interfered with by the modern monuments, with which the
Abbey is lumbered up — monuments for the most part so absurd that
they would make us laugh if they did not make us sad. Mouldings,
pillars, and adornments of all descriptions have been ruthlessly cut
away for them, openings have been interfered with, and even several
of the spaces between the large clustered columns in the side ailes
and chapels, are blocked up to the top with tasteless and incongruous
masses of stone and marble, alike unsuitable and discordant in colour
and design.

The sculpture of the best periods of the middle ages has an en-
tirely distinct and original character, prompted by the spirit of the
time and carried out by genius. It is in no way imitated from the
master-pieces of Pagan art, which might have been used as models ;
but is nevertheless full of feeling, and appeals to the sympathies
rather than to the eye. In the ancient tombs at Westminster as
elsewhere, the sculpture is seen to be a portion of the building, con-
ceived in the same spirit and displaying the same feeling of reve-
rence. All the figures are in repose, all are devotional — there is no
flutter, no action even, certainly no worldly action ; they do not seek
to record, in vain self-glory, any moment of the past, but carry us for-
ward to the great hereafter, and inculcate humility. Alas ! how sadly
this contrasts with those of more recent date, where every man " for
his own hand," has worked in his own way, careless of the general
effect, and has not worked well. Mountains of most material clouds,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

115

urns, flames, figures in ill conceived and violent momentary action,
accurate models of periwigs and whiskers, the evanescent fashions of
a period of universal bad taste, form the staple — but why endeavour
to prove what nearly all seem to acknowledge ? A few weeks ago,
when the writer said at the Institute of Architects, iu reference to the
tasteless tombs and monuments with which our cathedrals and churches
have been gradually encumbered and overladen, "Like some frightful
fungus, they have spread insidiously over all parts of these struc-
tures, destroying alike their beauty, propriety, and stability. Our
metropolitan Abbey presents a lamentable example of the evil; and
it is to be hoped that the acknowledged good taste of those who now
govern there, will not merely prevent the increase of this abomina-
tion, but lead, as opportunities may from time to time offer them-
selves, to the removal of the excrescences now deforming that fine
building, and to a restoration of its harmonious proportions and ori-
ginal integrity ;" — the meeting at once recognized the existence of the
evil and reiterated the desire for an alteration. Again we venture
to re-urge it. The triforium might be made to contain many of the
monuments, as has been done at the Temple Church. Perhaps, too,
the Chapter House, which is about to be cleared of its present con-
tents, (dirty shelves and presses,) could receive some without injury
to itself, so as gradually to restore to our venerable Abbey its original
appearance.

The present state of the ancient monuments is deplorable, and re-
quires immediate attention. Mr. E. Blore, the architect of the Dean
and Chapter, when before the Committee of the House of Commons
on national monuments, in 1841, said, that he considered these monu-
ments very sacred things, not to be touched without great care and
consideration, as more harm than good might be done in attempting
to improve their appearance. This is quite true, but there is never-
theless a limit to that forbearance, and this limit has been reached ;
for unquestionably, unless some steps be taken at once in several cases,
nothing will remain to guide the restorer hereafter, and an irretrieva-
ble loss will be sustained. We should be right glad to see a general
and perfect restoration commenced, a restoration which should in-
clude the removal of the ugly western towers put up by Wren, (who
knew little of Gothic architecture, and liked it less,) and the comple-
tion of the central tower or spire. Some partial repairs and altera-
tions are indeed contemplated, and the plans have been prepared :
let us most strenuously urge on the new Dean, Dr. Turton, if it may
be done without apparent impertinence, the importance of energy in
such a matter as this, and the necessity for the greatest vigilance,
in order to prevent not only the occurrence of fresh injuries, but
the perpetuation of those already committed.

Amongst the earliest improvements to be made in the Abbey, is
the introduction of stained glass in the rose-window and twelve lower
openings of the south transept. The execution of this work, after
two competitions, was entrusted to Messrs. Ward and Nixon, and is
making rapid progress. The subjects for the twelve lower windows
are taken from the Old Testament, and may be described as, Noah's
sacrifice, Abraham and the angels, Jacob's dream, Joseph interpreting
Pharoah's dream, the finding of Moses, Moses before the burning
bush, Moses striking the rock, Moses with the tables of the law, Da-
vid anointed by Samuel, dedication of the temple by Solomon, Eli-
jah's sacrifice, and Josiah renewing the covenant ; the figures are the
size of life. The large rose-window, besides a variety of symbols,
scrolls, sentences, and arms, intended to form a rich piece of mosaic
work, conformable to the practice of the. old glass painters, will con-
tain thirty-two subjects illustrative of the life of Christ, wherein the
height of the figures will be about three feet. The impulse which
has lately been given to glass-painting in England is a pleasant sign,
and cannot be too strongly aided. So firm was the belief that English
artists in this department were inferior to foreigners, that the Chapter,
it is said, had nearly determined on sending to Germany for the work
in question ; luckily, however, one or two members of it were staunch
friends to English art, and succeeded in making the present arrange-
ment ; the result of which, it is to be hoped, will fully justify them
for so doing.

We have not yet looked into the chapel of Henry VII, orbis mira~
cvlum, as Leland calls it— one of the most beautiful specimens of the
last period of Gothic architecture which England or any other country
can boast. l From its roof, " pendent by subtle magic," to the floor,
the whole presents a rich lace-work of decoration. The lover of ar-
chitecture, after studying the perfect development of the pointed
style in the Minster itself,2 with its acutely pointed arches, its lofty
attenuated columns, its infinite divisions, finds here the style which
succeeded it when the arch was becoming more horizontal, and when
a love of decoration threatened, as indeed did soon afterwards hap-
pen, to overwhelm good taste, and lead to the abandonment for a
time, of pointed architecture altogether.

With respect to sculpture, Henry VII's chapel presents one of the
finest illustrations of early art, in England, in the series of figures
which fill the- countless recesses in the walls. It is said they were,
once three thousand in number, but this is perhaps doubtful. They
display admirable feeling for art, and will well repay attentive exa-
mination. The carving too, in the stalls here, is good, and leads us
to express regret that so little encouragement is now given to this
branch of art in England. There are a considerable number of ar-
tists employed in it at this time, but unfortunately — such is the do-
minion of fashion, (another word for caprice,) — it is chiefly, if not
wholly, in the imitation of old work, to be afterwards stained and
sold as such. The upholsterer is the arbiter elegant/arum, and the
result is, exactly what might be expected under such circumstances.
The remedy for this, and many like evils, is, to make artistical know-
ledge more general, and to induce the multitudes to talk and think ou
the subject. With an increased public — an extended circle of admi-
rers and employers — the powers of the artist will be more fully
called into play, and the more critical that public is, the more stre-
nuous will the efforts of the artist be to maintain himself superior to
his judges.

George Godwin.

MESSRS. W. FAIRBAIRN & CO.'S IMPROVED PATENT
RIVETING MACHINE.

The annexed is a drawing of the Patent Riveting Machine as now
constructed by Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, drawn to a scale of
half an inch to the foot. It is widely different in construction from
the machine first made, embodying many improvements, and reme-
dying several defects to which the former was subject.

The machine is worked in the following manner ; a strap or band
leading from the shafting of a steam engine passes round a pulley,
and causes the same to revolve, and with it a pinion fixed upon its
axis working into the large spur wheel ; upon the axis of the latter
is a cam which acts upon the knee joint of the jointed bars at the top,
and forces forward the moving slide C, and with it the die against the
head of the rivet, and the inner point of the rivet against a corres-
ponding die fixed upon the top of the stem A, the rivet being previ-
ously heated in the usual manner.

The large stem A is now made of malleable iron, and having an
iron strap B B screwed round the base, it renders the whole perfectly
safe in the case of the dies coming in contact with a cold rivet, or
any other hard substance, during the process. Its construction also
allows the workmen to rivet angle iron along the edges, and to finish
the corners of boilers, tanks, and cisterns; and the stem being now
made four feet six inches high, it renders the machine more extensive
in its application, and allows of its riveting the fire-box of a locomo-
tive boiler, or any other work, within the given depth. In addition
to these advantages, it has a broad moving slide C, in which are three
dies corresponding with others on the top of the wrought-iron stem.
By using the centre die, every description of flat and circular work
can be riveted, and by selecting those on the sides it will rivet the
corners, and thus complete vessels of almost every shape. Another
advantage of this machine is its portable form, and the facility with

1 Commenced 1503.

2 Commenced A.D. 1220.

116

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

FAIRBAIRN'S RIVETING MACHINE.— Elevation and Plan.

[April,

■which it can be moved on rails, to suit the article suspended from the
shears. The introduction of the knee joint is also a very important
improvement, as it gives to the dies a variable motion, and causes the
greatest force to be exerted at the proper time, viz., at the closing of
lie joint and the finishing of the head of the rivet.

In other respects the Machine operates as before, effecting by an
almost instantaneous pressure what is performed in the ordinary mode

by a long series of impacts. The machine fixes in the firmest manner,
and completes eight rivets of 2-inch diameter in a minute, with the
attendance of two men and two boys to the plates and rivets; whereas,
the average work that can be done by two riveters, with one " holder
on," and a boy, is forty 1-inch rivets per hour; the quantity done in
the two cases being in the proportion of 40 to 480, or as 1 to 12, ex-
clusive of the saving of one man's labour.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

117

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS XLVII.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom 1 please."

I. " The works of Messrs. Whewell and Willis, honorary members
of the Royal Institute of British Architects, reflect the greatest credit
upon their penetration and learning :"— so says Professor Donaldson,
and therefore so far differs toto ccelo from the author of a certain
" Encyclopaedia," who, although he does not name those gentlemen,
gives a pretty broad hint as to the esteem he entertains for them and
their works ; which last, he has considered unworthy of being named
in the list he gives of architectural publications — a list, by the bye,
that seems to have been made up from a bookseller's catalogue. How-
ever, the " Encyclopedia " has got plenty of puff from some of the
country newspapers, therefore, it is to be hoped that Mr. Gwilt will
now become quite reconciled to "small-fry critics," of that class,
who, if they do not understand anything of the subject, are most
conveniently blind to defects and blunders, yet at the same time so
lynx-eyed, that [they discover wonderful learning and industry,
where others detect great carelessness, and the mere handicraft of
scissors and paste. As to Mr. Donaldson, his "learned and scientific
professional brother," as he styles him, is not likely to be at all pleased
at his complimenting the two W's.

II. Donaldson is certainly the most good-natured of critics — liberal
of praise even to a fault, for he bestows it so freely as to render it
quite common, and hardly worth having; in which respect, however,

■ lie does not exactly stand alone, yet one looks for something superior
to ordinary puff, from a professional man and a Professor. After
that honey, a gentle squeeze of acid from Welby Pugin will prove
refreshing ; and no doubt he will give us some of it by and bye, in his
forthcoming work. His bill of fare promises some relish of the kind ;
and there are one or two capital tid-bits for him to serve up to us,
should he not have overlooked them. It is a pity that he does not
mean to give us a chapter on " Lost Opportunities," but a chapter
would hardly suffice to enumerate them all — they would require a
yolume. As to his idea of recommending Gothic architecture, as
our general style at the present day, and for public buildings of all
kinds, it seems to be somewhat a visionary and Quixotic one. At
any rate he will hardly be able to enforce his argument by satisfactory
and encouraging examples, proving how successfully we can now accom-
modate that style to every purpose and every occasion. But what does
Pugin himself mean by clapping that odd bristling chevaux-de-fme on
the ridge of St. George's Catholic church? It looks neither useful nor
ornamental — quite the contrary: nor does there seem to be precedent
for it, much as it stands in need of authority to reconcile us at all
to it.

III. If instead of falling foul on reviewers, anonymous critics, and
others of that class, and bestowing upon them a good deal of his
" Big bow-wow," as Scott calls it, the illustrious Joseph had con-
descended to point out some of the best architectural papers that
are to be found scattered up and down periodicals, foreign as well
as English ones, he would have performed a good office. There
are several of the kind in the Quarterly Review, although of late that
journal has given us nothing on the subject of architecture ; and from
that entitled the " Modern Palladian Architecture of Italy," he him-
self might have picked up some information which he does not ap-
pear to possess. No doubt there has been a good deal of flimsy
nonsense written in periodicals, not only upon architecture, but other
subjects also : yet it does not therefore follow that there is nothing at
all good, or deserving attention, to be met with in the shape of ma-
gazine and review articles ; and as the good ones, it seems, bear so
small a proportion to the rest, a list of them would not have occupied
a great deal of room— though as for the matter of room, Gwilt had
more than he knew how to fill up, except by cramming into his book

such heterogeneous stuff as tables of compound interest. Takenjin
general, reviewers— more especially architectural reviewers, may be
the ignoramusses Gwilt represents them. Nevertheless, every rule
has its exceptions: at any rate, certain it is that some who have
written in periodicals are not only professional men, but those who as
such stand rather high in public opinion. Professor Pugin, for in-
stance, has written in the Dublin Review; and each of the other Pro-
fessors—Cockerell, Hosking and Donaldson, stands suspected of having
occasionally contributed to periodical publications. How they relish
Gwilt's remarks may, therefore^ easily be conceived. Whether the
venerable Vitruvius and the great Palladio were ever guilty of any
thing so unprofessional and so horrible, may be questioned, because
in their times — oh! happy times for architecture! — there were no
periodicals; and if there had been, those great luminaries of art,
would not have' put their light under a bushel. Surely an " ignorant
reviewer" may be excused from admiring Schinkel, when for so doing
he had the authority of all Germany. To vent his wroth on such a
poor devil, looks like cowardice on the part of Mr. Gwilt, more espe-
cially as he might attack architectural heresy in " high places," and
display his prowess against giants instead of dwarfs. Besides,

Thyself, friend Joseph, may at times be wrong;
Bethink thee, then, what says the song,

" Remember, where the judgment's weak,

The prejudice is strong.''
And there, 'twould seem thy strength most lies.
Reviewers, v. hy should you so rail at and despise ?

On them why all thy vengeance wreak —

Reviewers, meekest of the meek,
If not the wisest of the wise?

IV. There is no department of biography in which less has been
done than that of architects ; and, strange to say, least of all has been
done — at any rate in this country — of late years, when even the most
eminent — if not exactly the ablest — in the profession have obtained
only a mere passing notice in an obituary — hardly so full a one as is be-
stowed upon some of those " distinguished," persons of whom the world
never heard while living, nor will care to remember when dead.
Wyatt, Gandon, Soane, Wyatville, Wilkins, and Rickman, have pas-
sed away without obtaining more than that kind of notice. In
Soane's case, indeed, it was entirely his own fault, for a handsome
legacy would have secured him a splendid biographical monument
from one who was always telling the world of his esteem for Sir John,
but who has since written him plain " Soane," without the knightly
prefix, and without endearing compliment of any kind. Well, per-
haps poor Soane had no relish for " extreme unction," administered
by an Egyptian — that is, by a crocodile.

V. " It is found easier," says a writer in the Edinburgh Review,
" to deal with generalities and abstraction, than to descend to parti-
culars ; to frame a theory, or a philosophical essay having the slen-
derest application to the case in hand, than to direct the criticism to
the real appreciation of the work to be reviewed." This is more
especially true as regards architectural criticism, or what is given to
the world as such: of general remark that has been worn threadbare,
there is usually an overdose, while the building which calls it forth,
obtains no further notice than two or three lines, and sometimes not
even so much. When such is the case, we may without any very
great breach of charity, suppose that the writers know not how to apply
their own principles — supposing them to be really their own, which is
doubtful, and to test by them what they profess to examine and pass
sentence upon. Indeed, it occasionally happens that the opinion they
express, is altogether at variance with the principles they pretend to
lay down: — after twaddling about Grecian architecture, for instance,
they will praise what is no better than an abominable caricature or
preposterous application of it — at the best a servile copy in regard
to mere columns, and those generally introduced so injudiciously as
to render all the rest more insignificant in character than it other-
wise might have appeared.

VI. Innovation is the bugbear of architects, and is most solemnly
of all, deprecated by those who themselves do not possess a fresh

US

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

idea to start from. Yet what does the history of architecture —
or, indeed, of all art, present, but a series and continued course of
innovation? How should we have got Gothic at all, without innova-
tion ; or having been introduced, how could it have advanced beyond
its first stages ? Architecture does not indeed admit of fashions, if
by fashions are meant fresh patterns every month for dandies of both
sexes. But change, growth, and further development, there may
and must be ; for the very principle of art prevents architecture from
continuing stationary. If it cannut advance, it must retrograde, and
become entirely mechanical, without aught worthy the name of de-
sign. It is owing to our not striving to get forward at all, but con-
fining ourselves to repetitions of the same forms and ideas over and
over again, that we at length suddenly abandon them altogether, sa-
tiated with the unvarying sameness of a style we have stereotyped,
and desparing of obtaining variety, except by going to one entirely
different. Thus Elizabethan is taken up by way of change from Gre-
cian, because no one knows how to produce anv noveltv in Grecian
itself.

VII. An architectural book, I am informed, has just appeared,
edited by Lady Mary Fox: but "edited" has of late become such an
equivocal term, that its meaning in this instance is exceedingly
doubtful. No one ever heard before that Lady Mary had made archi-
tecture her study ; and even were she ever so well qualified for the
task, it is strange that, merely for the sake of seeing her name so in-
troduced upon a title-page, a lady should condescend to accept the
job of superintending the printing of a book. Lady Mary, however,
it seems, is not above even crying " stinking fish !" for it is said in the
preface that the work, which it seems is partly from the German, is
incorrectly translated ! If such be the case, it was then surely the
duty of her editorial ladyship to revise and correct those portions
instead of knowingly sending forth to the public what she was aware
was very inadequately executed. At any rate there was no occasion
to tell the world how utterly unable she was to get through the job
she had undertaken, and to coufess her own incompetence with a de-
gree of ingenuousness that amounts to stupidity.

OBSERVATIONS ON RIPON CATHEDRAL.

Read at the Royal Institute of British Architects. By Mr. Morris.

" E.lreile with powere untitle the north went
Alle the touu of Kipon he wasted and brent"

Peter Langtoft.

In the seventh century au animated controversv divided the pole-
mics of the Anglo-Saxon church concerning the time of celebratino-
Easter. The Northumbrians observing the Irish tradition, kept the
iestival upon the Sunday that fell between the 11th and 20th davs of
the Paschal moon, while in most parts of the country the Roman
practice was followed. Thus Bede tells us that two Easters were
sometimes observed in one year, and the Northumbrian king and his
queen being divided in opinion, it would happen that when' the king
having completed his Lenten fast was celebrating Easter, the queen
still fasting was spending Palm Sunday.

Wilfred, an ecclesiastic, had at the age of 20 been sent to Rome
under the auspices of queen Elfleda, for the purpose of acquiring at
the papal see, the best information on the subject of dispute, and on his
return is said to have taken a distinguished part at the Synod of
r ., v? e d ln,6^4 ; and llis success was Allowed by his appointment
to the Episcopal Chair of York, from which he was afterwards twice
ejected, on the last occasion being absent for 10 years, and it would
seem that he visited Rome in both intervals, and found a sure if not
a powerful ally in the pope.

In the year 661 Alchfrid, king of Deira, bestowed upon Eata
Abbot of Melrose and Lindisfarne certain lands at Ripon, where, al-
lured by the beauty of its situation he built a monastery. But soon
alter its erection the monks, (among whom was St. Cuthbert,) on ac-
count ot their nonconformance to the Catholic observance of Easter,
were expe led the monastery by Alchfrid, who then conferred it, en-
dowed with 30 hides of laud, upon Wilfred, who, notwithstanding
his subsequent elevation, retained it during his life. King Athelstan
gave it the privilege of sanctuary, which extended a mile round the

church, so that not only the church but the whole town was a
place of refuge to all who fled to it. One (if not more) of the crosses
marking the bounds of sanctuary yet remains.

It would have been strange, indeed, had a prelate, endowed with
Wilfred's mental and physical energy, made repeated and protracted
sojourns in the " Eternal city,'' without acquiring some regard for its
architectural treasures and a desire to emulate them on his native
soil. That he was thus affected, we have the most satisfactory evi-
dence; and ecclesiastical architecture in this country was more in-
debted to him than to any other person of that age. Notices of his
works are found in his biographer Heddins, Richard of Hexham,
William of Malmesbury, and other ancient writers, of which a sum-
mary sufficient for our present purpose will be found in Britton's York
Cathedral and the Chronological Volume. From these we learn that
he erected in Ripon a church of hewn stone supported with various
columns aud porticos, and completed it from its foundation to the
summit.

" The church of St. Andrew at Hexham he built, laying the founda-
tions deep in the earth with great care, forming crypts and subter-
ranean oratories, and winding passages. The walls, extending to a
great length, and raised to a great height, were divided into three
distinct stories, supported by polished columns, some square, aud
others of various foru-.s. The walls and likewise the capitals of the
columns by which they were supported, and the arch of the sanctuary,
were decorated with histories and images and different figures, carved
in relief on stone, and painted with colours, displaying a pleasing va-
riety and wonderful beauty. The body of the church was likewise
surrounded on all sides by ^entices and porticos, which, with the
most wonderful artifice, were divided above and below by walls and
winding stairs. Within these winding passages and over them were
stairs and galleries of stone, and various methods for ascending and
descending, so ingeniously contrived, that a vast multitude of persons
might be there and pass round the church without being visible to any
one in the nave below. Many oratories also, most retired and beau-
tiful, were, with the utmost care and diligence, erected in the porti-
cos- both above and below, and in them were placed altars in honour
of the blessed mother of God, the Virgin Mary, St. Michael the Arch-
angel, St. John the Baptist, and the Holy Apostles, martyrs, confessors,
and virgins, with all becoming and proper furniture belonging to
them."

I have transcribed this passage relative to the church at Hexham, as
its circumstantial character can hardly fail to be interesting; audit
illustrates in a very decided manner the highly artificial models co-
pied by the architect. Indeed, I question whether old St. Paul's,
Salisbury, Westminster or Durham, in the very zenith of their mag-
nificence, could have furnished more glowing images to the pictoral
imagination of the good old chronicler, Richard the Prior, who wrote
towards the end of the 12th century, when the church after 500
years, though bowed and stricken with age, retained like a patriarch,
the indelible traces of former glory.

Wilfred is said to have erected two other churches at Hexham, be-
sides several in other parts of England ; and Bentham supposes that
he superintended the erection of the church and monastery of Ely.
Indeed, he appears to have been equally celebrated for his theological
and architectural acquirements, being eminent for his knowledge and
skill in the science of architecture, and was himself the principal di-
rector of all those works in concert with the excellent masters whom
the hopes of preferment had invited from Rome and other places, to
execute the plans which he had formed.

William of Malmesbury also notices the beauty of the pavements;
and there is little doubt that where so much emulation existed, an at-
tempt to imitate the mosaics of Rome would be made. In the small,
half ruinated, hospital chapel of St. Mary Magdalen at Ripon, is a
venerable relic of some such effort, with tesseras about half an inch
square; and on the site of the high altar at Fountains' Abbey, a
pavement remains which has glazed tiles of various forms and colours
to suit the geometrical figures of the design, which exhibits great
elegance and variety; ana I think this kind of paving maybe con-
sidered to have intervened between the former and the inlaid or en-
caustic tiles met with at Romsey, Salisbury, Winchester, aud many
other places, an attempt to revive which method has lately been made
with some success, and from the present state of the manufactures in
pottery, the most beautiful productions may be expected. At Win-
chester are to be seen some examples of embossed tiles, or with the
ornaments raised from the surface or ground.

In Bishop Wilfred's time then we find the church and monastery
settled on a permanent footing — his labours and benefactions endeared
him to the inhabitants, and the demonstration of rapturous and enthu-
siastic affection which marked his return from exile, is still commemo-
rated by the annual observance of a mimic pageant. The church,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

119

however, that he raised with so much care, and so cunningly adorned,
and the monastery whose walls so often reverberated the applause of
his virtues, are now no more seen, and the finger of tradition alone,
points out the spot where once they stood.

The present cathedral occupies a more elevated and commanding
site to the westward. It was commenced by Archbishop Thurston,
soon after his advancement to the see of York, fin 1119). The plan
was a simple cross, and the style Anglo-Norman with semi-circular
and pointed arches promiscuously applied. The walls, as usual in
similar buildings, are thick enough to allow galleries or passages to
be formed in them. The doors are ornamented with shafts and arch
mouldings, in which richness is produced by the repetition of a simple
elementary form ; and it is worthy of notice, that in the Norman
arches the blocks of stone, though moulded or carved in a variety of
ways, never wholly lost the original square figure, previously given to
them. Without asserting, therefore, that at this period the mouldings
and ornaments were actually wrought after the stonework was set,
such a disposition of the mouldings would tend very much to sim-
plify that process : and it will further be found that these ornaments
are not unfrequently modified to suit the actual size of the blocks.
There is a low central tower with good detail; and immediately
under this is a small crypt or cell, with access from the nave, and also
from the choir. To what use it was appropriated does not seem very
clearly decided, its extreme dreariness suggesting the idea of a
penitentiary ; and the small recesses in the sides suitable for the re-
ception of a lamp or crucifix assisting the notion. It may have served
simply as a confessional; but whether intended for the momentary re-
ception, or more perdurable home of the sinner, or the fugitive from
the arms of the temporal power, it is evident that the priest entering
from the choir could communicate with and not be seen by a person
brought down from the nave. For this purpose there was an orifice
in the wall that has acquired the name of St. Wilfred's needle, which
the more energetic visitors make a point of endeavouring to get
through : and the fine polish acquired by the stone in its contact with
silk and broadcloth, show that the attempt is pretty generally made
with success. Since the completion of the original structure, no
building has perhaps undergone such important alterations without a
more complete destruction of its individuality.

The transepts, however, bear more legibly than any other portions,
the impress of the 12th century, but the inner roofs appear never to
have been completed. Small shafts suited to support the foot of a
groin (revealing a purpose unfulfilled) are carried up (here as in
many other instances) story after story, and are at last left without
adaptation either to a flat or vaulted ceiling ; and thus from the ab-
sence of an homogeneous and appropriate inner roof half the effect is
lost. How lame and abrupt does the flat ceiling at Peterborough ap-
pear to an eye that has dwelt on the masculine vaulting of Durham !
The cause of the very few instances of Norman groining remaining,
except in crypts, and the fair presumption that not many ever existed,
is a subject open to investigation, and a speculative idea may be not
without its utility in eliciting satisfactory information. Thick as the
walls of that period are known to be, the risk that would have at-
tended charging them with stone ceilings, without the auxiliary re-
sistance of external buttresses, may have become an object of anxiety
with the. builders, and the execution of such works in stone may have
been attended with difficulties which even at this time would be con-
siderable, and may then have proved altogether insurmountable, ex-
cept under the most favourable circumstances, and amplitude of
means. The centering alone, if considered for a moment, is an object
involving so considerable an amount of expense and practical skill,
that we cannot wonder that even in the best days of the art, methods
should have been devised for dispensing with it, and hence doubt-
lessly arose the adoption of wood at Lincoln, York, and elsewhere.
Did not the Norman builders feel and shrink from the difficulty like
their successors, but without the good fortune to hit upon so happy
an expedient? We know that they affected the groin, from its con-
stant adoption in crypts and ailes, when a moderate span facilitated
its execution. As the central tower presented the strongest abut-
ments for an arch of any part of the church, it is possible that a
groin existed there similar to that at Lindisfarn, in Northumberland,
and causes for its non-existence, at the present time, are by no means
deficent. Before leaving the transept we may notice that on the east
side of each, there is a chapel of two arches ; that in the north
transept being nearly coeval with the church, and that in the south, of
the fourteenth or fifteenth century.

The choir comprised originally three arches only, but was subse-
quently increased to six. The effect is curious at first, from the cir-
cumstance of the triforium arches being filled with tracery and
glazed, and the roofs having been lowered. It looks, therefore, like
a double clerestory. The addition of the arches appears to have

been carefully made to assimilate with the original work, but subse-
quent alterations bear the characteristic of their own date. In 1319,
the church was burnt and greatly injured by the Scots, but restored
by the munificence of Edward III, Melton, archbishop of York, and
others; and the "steeples" were then added, of which the central
one, 40 yards high, was called St. Wilfred's.

There is an old print which shows spires on the central and western
towers similar to Litchfield. The former was blown down in 1660,
destroying in its fall a part of the south side, of which the reinstate-
ment (said to have been done at the expense of one of the preben-
daries) is still perceptible, by the variation in style. After this acci-
dent the other spires were removed. In the south aile is a large
piscina, probably used for washing the sacerdotal linen, and round the
the sides and end there was arched-headed panelling, but part of this
is now displaced by the altar screen, erected some few years ago from
a design by Mr. Blore, under whom also the groined ceiling was re-
stored, in which are preserved the ancient wooden bosses, which are
very beautiful. The east window, erroneously said by Rickman to be
of five only, consists of seven lights, and is a fine example of the
kind. The' clear opening is 4S feet high. Sir William de Plumpton
was founder of a chantry at the altar of the Holy Trinity behind the
high altar. The act of endowment is dated at Ripon on Wednesday,
the feast of the conversion of St. Paul, 20 Edward III, 1345, and was
sealed with the seals of Henry de Plumpton, the chaplain first ap-
pointed thereto, and of Sir William de Plumpton, which bore the im-
pression of a shield, and on it five fusils, with the name written on the
circumference. This chantry was screened from the rest of the
church, and under lock and key, but no vestige of it remains.

Near the altar on the south side of the choir are three sedilia and
a piscina of curious and elaborate design and skilful execution. The
arches are cinquefoiled, the cusps being ornamented with small gro-
tesque heads or other figures, which at the first glance appear to ter-
minate the design; but, on closer inspection, it is found that the small
bas-relief first seen is merely the crown of another head in high relief,
of a figure falling into bas-relief and covering the soffit of the arch.
These figures have human heads with the bodies of quadrupeds.
They are of either sex and habited in full monastic costume ; and the
stout friar is regarding, with an expression too energetic to be per-
fectly platonic, the beautiful coy, and wimpled l nun. Seats of this
kind are not of unfrequent occurrence in English cathedral and other
churches, as well as in those of the continent: "at Seus, on the
epistle or south side of the high altar are five seats. One for the
celebrant, (which is highest,) two for deacons, and as many for sub-
deacons, all officiating while the other priests were in the choir."
" One single seat," continues the essayist, (Clark in the Archaologia,)
" is accounted for by the choir performing the part of sub-deacon, and
one priest that of celebrant and deacon. In churches better endowed,
beside the celebrant one performed the part of deacon and sub-
deacon. In such churches were trco seats. Thus the number was
proportionate to the richness of the endowment, and the seats in-
tended for the officiating clergy only. The bishops' seats, were at the
east and by the side of the altar. The choir is rich in carved oak-
work. The stalls are furnished with misereres and tabernacle work,
(which is said to have formed the model for the new work in the
choir of York Minster.) The throne is also an object of interest, as
presenting one of the earliest evidences of the architectural attain-
ments of the noble Earl, the President of the Institute of British

The organ screen is of bold and original character, without pre-
tending to the extreme elaboration of that at York. Adjacent to tins
stands part of a rich stone pulpit. The central tower has for some
generations, presented a most singular and heterogeneous spectac e, but
at the same time affording to the professional observer a valuable
comparative view of the varied proportion and effect of the first and
latest eras of true Gothic. In point of expansive lightness, the ear-
lier style is certainly entitled to our admiration, though mass and
richness maybe exclusively the merit of the latter, lhree of the
piers of the central tower were cased in the perpendicular period,
and the arches of the choir and south transept were also completed;
but the fourth pier and the arches of the nave and north transept
retain their original form. It is also illustrative of the method pursued
to find the perpendicular work carried on the two sides quite up to
the battlements. The immense size of the piers and the increased
height of the springing, has the effect of contracting the opening ot
the arch, and also of rendering it necessary to ramp up the longi-
tudinal crown rib of the groin.

Taking our survev in chronological order, the next point lor con-
sideration is the west front, which comprises the end wall of the

' The wimple is a pan of the head dress.

1G*

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[April,

nave and the two flanking towers, each of which is about 28 feet
wide and 112 high. The present termination is not original, the bat-
tlements and pinnacles being of much later date. As to the mode in
which they were originally finished it may be difficult to furnish a
satisfactory suggestion: but of that which remains it would be still
more difficult to convey an adequate impression. The simplicity of
its outline, the unbroken massiveness of its general feature, and the
rich and effective detail, respectively contribute to the grandeur of an
ensemble unsurpassed by any building of its date.

The lower story has three doors into the church, and the second
five successive windows extending the whole width of the nave, with
a passage in the thickness of the wall. The second stage has an
equal number of windows, the heads of which are elevated towards
the centre to compose more readily with the gable, which is filled up
by a triple window and trefoil panel. The windows are of two lights
with trefoil heads and a trefoil in a circle above. Between the win-
dows are piers of several shafts with foliated capitals, and the
pierced pyramid or four-leaved rose; and the wall is very thick here
to receive the many shafts and deep receding mouldings with which
they are charged. The buttresses of the towers are broad and flat,
with shafts in square recesses at the quoins, and run the entire height
without diminution; the windows (except that some are filled with
louvres) corresponding nearly in form and date with those of the
central front. It is an interesting circumstance that the progress of
almost every change in this edifice can be traced at this moment with
no other guide than a little reflection, and with nearly as much clear-
ness as the most circumstantial chronicle could have recounted them.
The Norman nave, for instance, is shown to have extended as far
westward as the present, from the fact that the builders in making
their addition, left as much of the old work remaining as could be
rendered available ; and a portion of the old nave has thus been pre-
served, and the perfect coincidence of the joints of the piers with
those of the west wall, show that the formation of the fine arches
into the towers from the nave was predetermined in the design of the
architect, and not an afterthought as might on a cursory view be
imagined ; indeed, it may be noticed that the interiors of these
towers were finished with great care, and were intended to be entirely
open to view from the floor to the roof, where the walls are termi-
nated by a cornice and corbel-table. The moulded piers and arches
of the lower stories are very fine, and become plainer in proportion
to their remoteness from the eye. At each storv was a gallery of
communication, not only round the interior of each tower, but across
the front from one tower to another.

I should have noticed that while the pyramidal flower is abundantly
used in the vertical lines and in the arches, the flattened uncut py-
ramid, usually called the nail head, is adopted with equal constancy in
the horizontal bands and dripstones ; yet there is not the slightest taint
of monotony discernible throughout. Beautiful as the principle of
construction here observed must be generally deemed, giving an ap-
pearance of the utmost solidity and strength, with a comparatively
small amont of material, it is to be regretted that there was a prac-
tical disregard of bond, and from the very inconsiderable proportion
of horizontal masonry the towers were divided by the windows into
four insulated vertical piers, with no adequate tie to meet the con-
tingency of a tendency to spread at the top. The subtle workings
of half a dozen centuries, however, manifest the necessity for a pre-
caution that was not contemplated bv the builder.

It is, I think, pretty evident that the primary plan was a simple
Latin cross, without ailes. The transepts retain their original form,
except that chapels have been erected in the east walls, and arches
have been opened into the ailes of the nave; while the continuation
of the base mouldings, and other external decorations of the towers,
attest the absence of ailes at the time of their construction. The
present nave may be referred to the close of the 14th century, and is
a fine masculine example of that date. It has no triforium, but the
clerestory windows are large, and have a gallery running through the
piers. The wall ribs which exist indicate the purpose and form of
groined inner roofs; but it is to be regretted that this part of the de-
sign has never been effected ; and the external pinnacles were also
left in an unfinished state.

Although the interior of this church cannot boast much of the rich
garniture of ancient monumeuts or mortuary reliques, its impression
and venerable aspect cannot fail to call forth our admiration and
respect; and the circumstance of its comprising fine decisive portions
of the consecutive styles including Norman and perpendicular, render
it an object deserving the careful attention of the architectural stu-
dent and antiquary.

It only remains to notice a small building on the south of the choir,
a lower apartment of which has obtained some celebrity in modem
times as the bone-house, from the immense number and symmetrical

disposition of the exuviaj of innumerable tenants of vet more cir-
cumscribed and darksome chambers, from which they "were ejected
some half century ago. They are now built in masses like masonry,
and exhibit an affecting display, to speak in the language of heraldry
of morts and saltirea argent. (There was a similar instance at Sligo
and another at Hythe.) This charnel house has certainly the charac-
teristics of extreme age, and the formation of the vaulting accords
with the earlier imitations of classic examples. The apsis at the
east, and certain external details also, attest its ancient foundation.
Immediately above is an apartment now used as the vestry, but for-
merly the chapel, to which the part just considered formed the
crypt. It is entered from the aile of the choir, end is of a verv sim-
ple character ; vaulted, and retains its ancient piscina. This building
has been deemed anterior to the body of the Minster : but when we
consider the casualties to which, from its position, it would have been
subject during the erection of so large a pile immediately contiguous,
it will probably be more rational to assign it a contemporary date.
May it not have been the lady chapel, or chancel chapel ? of which
there is a fine example now used as a school at the west end of Nor-
wich Cathedral, with a crypt below ; and it may be borne in mind
that both Norwich aud Ripon are Norman foundations without
crypts.

THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.

The recent successful destruction of the Round Down Clift", at
Dover, by gunpowder, of which a full description was given in the
February number of our Journal, suggests a consideration of the ex-
plosive force of that agent, and of the best means of applying its
power.

The circumstance which excited most surprise in the blast at Dover,
was the absence of all indication of explosive effort. That the cliff
should have been rent asunder by the force of the immense quantity
of gunpowder employed, was to have been expected ; but that the
effect should have been produced so gradually, without any report or
flame, or other usual accompaniment of an explosion of that agent,
appeared contrary to the ordinary conception of blasting operations,
and induced the operating engineers to imagine, at first, that the
charge had missed fire. The result has showji that Mr. Cubitt ad-
justed with great exactness, the amount of power to the resistance to
be overcome; and it has shown, practically, that the explosive force
of gunpowder, in any quantity, may be controlled, and brought to act
with a steady effort, like any other moving power. Had the quantity
of powder been much greater than it was, or had the same quantity
been placed nearer to the face of the cliff, there can be little doubt the
blast would have been accompanied by all the usual phenomena of
explosion. Had the quantity of powder been less, probably even to a
small degree, its force would have been either pent up within the
rock, without producing any effect, or it would have found vent by
blowing out the tamping.

The force of ignited gunpowder, it is generally admitted, arises
from the sudden generation of a quantity of a permanently elastic
gaseous fluid, and the expansion of that fluid by the heat excited
during the ignition of the powder. The volume of elastic gas gene-
rated by the explosion of gunpowder, after it is cooled down to the
temperature of the atmosphere, has been determined by experiment
to be 244 times greater than the bulk of the powder exploded. It is
calculated that the heat produced by the ignition of the powder ex-
pands the generated gas into 1UO0 volumes at the moment of ex-
plosion; and that, consequently, fired gunpowder exerts a pressure
equal to 1000 atmospheres, or about 64 tons on the square inch.

The 18,000 lb. of gunpowder used in the blast at the Round Down
Cliff" would occupy about 3u0 cubic feet, and the capacity of the three
chambers made to contain it was about 750 cubic feet. What space
was left between the tamping and the powder chambers, we are not
aware; but it would appear, from the published reports of the ope-
ration, that the tamping was rammed not far from the powder. We
will assume, therefore, the total space within which the gunpowder
was confined, to have been 900 cubic feet. This space would be three
times the estimated bulk of the powder, exclusive of the containing

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

121

barrels and bags, therefore its first impulsive effort on being ignited
would be 1000 -r- 3 = 333i atmospheres, or about 5000 lb. the square
inch; and the force of the permanent generated elastic fluid, when
cooled, would be 244 -^ 3 = 81i atmospheres, or about 1200 lb. to
the square inch. Now, if we suppose the space within which the
gunpowder was confined to have been cubical, each of the six sides
would have exposed an internal surface to the action of the gunpowder
of 100 square feet, equal to 14,400 square inches. As the pressure,
according to the preceding calculation, would in the first instant be
equal to 5000 lb. the square inch, the impulsive effort on each side of
the cubical chamber would be 72,000,000 lb. or 32,143 tons. As the
point of least resistance must necessarily have been towards the face
of the cliff, the acting power maybe considered as having been exerted
'only in that direction ; therefore the cliff would be forced outwards
with an impulse upwards of 32,000 tons. As the rock yielded to this
immense power, the pent-up air would expand, and its force would
consequently be diminished. The cooling of the generated gas would
also greatly weaken its expansive force, and its gradual escape through
the fissures of the falling rock would prevent any sudden explosion.

The sound which was heard was that of the rending of the solid
rock, and not the firing of the powder; for it is well known that the
explosive report of any detonating body is caused by the concussion
of the air. This fact is proved by the firing of explosive mixtures of
hydrogen and oxygen gases in a strong glass apparatus, for the pur-
pose of obtaining the product of the combustion of the two gases.
The apparatus usually employed contains about half a pint, the ex-
plosion of which quantity of the mixed gases, when in contact with
the atmosphere, is sufficient to produce a report as loud as the firing
of a pistol ; but when the gases are fixed in a closed vessel, no report
whatever is heard. This experiment proves also, on a small scale,
the posBibilitv of controlling explosive forces. The expansion of an
explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases at the moment of
combustion, amounts to 15 times its original volume, which gives a
pressure of 15 atmospheres, or about 225 lb. to the square inch; yet
the glass bottle in which the gases are fired is sufficient to control the
explosive effort, and to prevent even any sound from being heard.

The quantity of gunpowder requisite in ordinary blasting operations
must depend altogether on the hardness of the rock, and the mass in-
tended to be moved. The proper adjustment of the quantity of pow-
der to the resistance to be overcome, forms, however, an important
consideration, for an excess of powder is not only a wasteful expendi-
ture of a valuable agent, but it renders the operation more dangerous
by the dispersion of fragments in all directions, and it not unfrequently
diminishes the effect of a blast by concentrating the direction of the
impulsive force. This is particularly the case in warlike operations,
where the object in springing a mine is to make the destructive effects
extend as far as possible. The aperture produced by the explosion,
when a mine is properly charged, is a cone, the diameter of the base
of which is double the height, taken from the centre of the mine. This
calculation is founded on the supposition that the materials to be re-
moved are either earth or soft clayey soil. The allowance of powder
recommended for such mines is about 10 lb. per cubic fathom when
the materials are loose earth, and for strong clayey soil about 16 lb.
It is found that when the charge of powder greatly exceeds those
quantities, the materials immediately above the powder are alone
blown up, that the aperture is nearly cylindrical instead of conical, and
consequently the sphere of its influence is diminished.

The explosive effects of a charge of powder in blasting, depends
also materially on the mode of tamping. This is a point which, until
a comparatively late period, was altogether overlooked, and it is not
even now so generally attended to as its importance deserves. The
notion which formerly obtained was, that the impulsive effort of the
powder was greatly increased by ramming it tight. In gunnery
practice this is correct; for when the ball is rammed closely to the
powder, it is propelled with greater force than when it is not.
But the required effects in the operations of blasting are exactly the
opposite of those in gunnery. The ball and wadding of the gun may
be considered as the tamping of the mine. To blow out this tamping

without bursting the gun, is the object in gunnery — to retain the
tamping and to burst the chamber holding the gunpowder is the object
in blasting. To attain these different ends, the methods adopted in
the two cases ought of course to be different. The well known fact
that when a ball is rammed only a short way down the barrel of a gun,
it will burst before the ball is forced out, affords a very instructive
lesson in the practice of blasting, and shows clearly that to produce
the most effect in rending the rock, and to run the least risk of blowing
out the tamping, ample space should be left between the tamping and
the powder. It is true that by leaving such a space for the expansion
of the generated elastic fluid, the intensity of its action is diminished,
but the same amount of power is distributed over a larger surface ; its
action accordingly approaches more to that of an ordinary mechanical
force, and the liability to split the rock into small fragments is thereby
decreased.

One great advantage in mining operations, derived from the prac-
tice of leaving a space between the tamping and the powder, arises
from its admitting the use of loose dry sand for tamping, instead of
requiring the blast hole to be filled and rammed tight with hard sub-
stances. The labour, the trouble, and the danger of tamping by the
common process, renders the substitution of dry sand a great ad-
vantage, as the risk of igniting the powder by striking a spark, is
entirely removed ; and we suspect that in those cases where it has
been found to fail, and the tamping has blown out, that the cause of
failure may be attributed to the neglect to leave a sufficient space
between the tamping and the powder.

The manner in which the space between the powder and the tamp-
ing operates in preventing the latter from being blown out, has been
explained in the following manner. The force of fired gunpowder
may be considered as proceeding from a point, and radiating in all
directions round it. This force must, therefore, participate in the
nature of all central forces, and diminish in intensity as the square of
the distance. When a ball is rammed close to the powder, it
approaches near to the point whence the force emanates, and sustains
consequently its full effect ; but when the ball is placed farther from
the point of radiation, the force acting on it may be diminished many
times within the space of half an inch. Suppose, for example, that a
musket ball which, when close to the powder, is within a quarter of
an inch of the centre of radiating power, were placed a quarter of an
inch from contact with the powder, the impulsive force it would re-
ceive would be diminished four times. If it were removed to a dis-
tance of one inch from the charge, the force acting on it would be
diminished sixteen times. If, therefore, we view the first impulsive
effort of fired gunpowder as a radiating force, we perceive at once
the cause of its diminished action on the tampirg of a mine, when a
space is left between it and the charge, and whether the tamping
materials be sand or hard fragments of rock, the vacant space must be
equally advantageous. Should the resistance be too great to yield to
the first explosive effort of the gunpowder, the direction of the action
of the pent up elastic fluid would cease to be radiating. It would
resemble the pressure of compressed fluids, and act uniformly in
all directions. The tamping would then be acted on by a power
equivalent to the compression of the generated gases, and in a direc-
tion tending most effectually to force it out. It is under such circum-
stances, we conceive, that the tamping, whether of sand or rock, is
most frequently blown.

The mode of tamping with dry sand has been brought into notice
more particularly within the last two years, in connexion with Mr.
Martyn Roberts's plan of blasting by galvanism ; but it was known
and practised successfully, we believe, 30 years ago, at Lord Elgin's
mines at Charlestown, in Scotland. It is to be regretted that an im-
provement, attended evidently with so many advantages, and which
is calculated to prevent accidents in the dangerous occupation of
blasting, should have made such slow progress that more than 30
years have elapsed since its introduction without its general adoption.

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[April,

IMPROVEMENT OF GEODESICAL INSTRUMENTS.

As connected with the profession of a civil engineer, the principles
and practice of surveying is an important branch of study ; under
this term, we do not confine our meaning to the delineation of a few
fields, or of a long narrow slip of land, such as railway plans usually
present, but to the survey of extensive tracts of country or of is-
lands, usually denominated trigonometrical surveying, because that
branch of mathematics known as plain and spherical trigonometry,
forms the basis or principle upon which such surveys are carried on.
This branch of surveying has hitherto been principally confined to the
officers of the corps of royal engineers, by whom the trigonometrical
survey of the united kingdoms has been for so many years conducted;
but although too much unheeded by students in civil engineering, it
forms a legitimate branch of their studies, otherwise they cannot be
said to be eligible to occupy such important stations as surveyors-
general of our colonial possessions, where such surveys are so much
needed, nay almost indispensable. Connected with this subject, the
knowledge of the use and adjustments of the higher class of geo-
desical instruments is necessary, such as theodolites of large dimen-
sions, but more, especially an instrument called the altitude and azi-
muth instrument, from its two-fold application to the measurement of
vertical and horizontal or azimuthal angles, and its peculiar applica-
bility to the purposes of so much of astronomy as is requisite in such
class of surveying, or we may call it the instrumental link which con-
nects astronomy with geodesy and geography; any improvements,
therefore, in the construction of instruments thus connected with the
profession we profess to advocate, come fully within the limits of our
province, and therefore we are desirous of calling attention to the
following extracts from a paper that has been read before the Royal
Astronomical Society on January 13th last, entitled " On a new ar-
rangement of a Vertical Collimator attached to the Altitude and Azi-
muth Instrument." By William Simms, Esq.

" The only essential respect in which the altitude and azimuth in-
strument now before the society ' differs from similar instruments by
which it has been preceded, is this. The azimuth or vertical axis is
perforated and fitted with an achromatic object-glass having a dia-
phragm in its focus, so as to serve, in conjunction with the spirit-level
upon the instrument, as a vertical collimator.

•' At present the spider lines in the diaphragm of the collimator
form an acute cross, subtending an angle of about 30c ; but the pre-
ference of this arrangement over two parallel lines placed very nearly
together, so as to present a narrow space for bisection, admits perhaps
of question ; my own habit being that of bisecting au angle by
Leads me to give to it the preference, although 1 have tound by ex-
periment that very satisfactory results may be obtained by the other
arrangement.

" In this state of things, if the telescope be directed vertically
downwards, the image of the cross in the collimator will be seen
u|»'ii the diaphragm of the telescope; and the adjustment, indepen-
dently of verticality, which must be effected by the spirit levels at-
tached to the instrument, consists in so rectifying the optical axes,
that the centies, or intersecting points in the telescope and collimator,
remain coincident during an azimuthal revolution.

" The mode of adjustment, described in order, may be as follows,
admitting, however, of variation at the pleasure of the observer.

" 1. I; will be found convenient that the instrument be first generally
levelled: — the azimuth axis by turning 180' in azimuth, and correcting
by the feet screws of the tripod and the adjusting screws of the
spirit levels; but, in all cases, it the error be not beyond the range of
t!'- -rales, it is far better to leave these screws untouched, and to
apply the correction by reference to the divisions upon the scales.
rI be axis of the altitude circle must be rectified by the striding level,
exactly in the same manner as in the transit instrument ; all which,
however, is too well understood to need a particular description, in
:i'ace.
" 2. To adjust the line of collimation, bring the vernier marked a
to 90c or 27uc upon the azimuth circle, and, by means of the ad-
justing screws at the eye end of the telescope, make the middle ver-
or meridian line, bisect the angles of the collimator cross, turn
J8<>^ in azimute, and correct half the error by the above-mentioned
screws, and the remaining half by moving the object-glass of the col-
limator.

" 3. To correct the nadir point, set the vernier a to 0° or 180°
upon the azimuth circle, 90° distant from its former position, and
make the middle horizontal line bisect the angles of the collimator

1 An instrument with the collimator attached was exhibited in the
meeting room ot the Society.

cross; turn 180° in azimuth, and correct half the error by giving
motion to the telescope by means of the tangent screw, and half by
moving the object glass of the collimator. The micrometers should
now be set to the zero points upon the altitude circle. By those,
however, who prefer numerical corrections to mechanical adjustments,
which, when extreme accuracy is aimed at, are always tedious and
difficult to execute satisfactorily, the nadir point may be readily de-
termined by reading the altitude micrometers with the circle in the
reversed position. The judications of the spirit-level fixed to the
micrometer bar must, of course, be carefully attended to in such a
determination.

" I shall conclude this notice by observing that the new application
of the collimator does not deprive it of any uses and conveniences
which it has in any other form, while at the same time it possesses
advantages peculiar to itself. Its property, in common with the ver-
tical floating collimator, of enabling the observer to set the axis of the
altitude circle perfectly horizontal, irrespective of the riding level, is
one which the ievel collimator does not possess. In common with the
others, however, it affords a ready means of verifying and correcting
the essential adjustments of the instrument without reference to any
external object. An object adapted for such purposes should be both
distant and well defined, conditions which imply a clearness of atmos-
phere perhaps not generally met with in any climate, and much less
in that of our own country ; moreover the collimator is equally avail-
able by night and by day: the light of a small lamp or taper being
sufficient to render the lines visible.

" But it has greatly the superiority, particularly in operations out
of doors, over the vertical floating, and also over the level collimator,
because the latter requires supports independent of, and equally
steady with, that upon which the instrument itself is placed; things
by no means easy of attainment under any circumstances, and to the
scientific traveller often perfectly impracticable.

" Neither is it a small advantage to dispense altogether with an
additional instrument, which, to say the least, lessens the number of
the traveller's cases, and with them his cares also. An extra instru-
ment may by accident be injured, or through forgetfulness left behind,
or for want of time to set up, or a steady support when set up, prove
useless when it is most needed. But, by the new arrangement, the
collimator becomes part and parcel of the instrument itself, and is so
completely protected from injury that an accident could hardly impair
or destroy it without at the same time destroying the entire instru-
ment. Its introduction, too, into the perforated axis adds so little to
the original cost of an instrument, that it may make a final claim on
the score of economy."

THE VELOCITY OF WATER IN VERTICAL PIPES.

We have been favoured with another letter from our able corre-
spondent T. F N, in reference to our position that water flows

down vertical pipes with only half the velocity due to the height
when issuing from an orifice. Our correspondent is not convinced by
our arguments, and he reiterates his former opinion supported by
many illustrations, and by the grave authority of Belidor. The same
fault, however, which we before complained of, pervades the whole
of his present argument; he takes for granted the question in dispute,
and assumes, as established data, the very points respecting which
we are at variance. We will let him, however, speak for himself.

" Sir — I am sure that, if all your readers derived as much useful
information and pleasing instruction, as I am bound to say I did, from
your remarks in the last month's Journal, on the ' Velocity of water
in vertical pipes,' conveyed in a style at once clear and copious, they
must look forward anxiously for the fulfilment of the promise iu the
concluding passage, of returning at some future period to a subject
deserving so much consideration and study. Before you do so, how-
ever, I am anxious to point out to you what I conceive to be an error
in your reasoning, and, at the same time, uphold the assertions con-
tained in my last letter on the subject. — 1st. That the velocity of the
column of water in a vertical pipe maintained full, is not half that due
to the height, but that it is expressed by the same formula as for all
other falling bodies. — 2nd. That cohesion does not satisfactorily ex-
plain the continuous flow of water in a vertical pipe; in other words,
that there would be a continuous flow in the pipe even if one particle
did not cohere to that immediately above it.

" It may appear presumptuous in me to endeavour to reply to your
remarks, and to maintain these positions after reading your able ar«

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

123

tide on the subject ; but an explanation of them so clear and so ob-
vious has occurred to me ; and even your own article contains such
ample proof of the truth of my assertions on the main point at issue
between us, namely, the velocity of water in a vertical pipe, that even
at the risk of being charged with presumption, and under all the dis-
advantages of endeavouring to maintain a discussion with one supe-
rior to me in scientific acquirements, I am tempted to offer you a few
more remarks.

" I think it will be well to treat first ' the velocity of the water in
the pipe,' that being the chief point of difference, and also because,
succeeding in proving this, I think it will appear as a necessary
consequence, that the uniform flow of water in the pipe is quite in-
dependent of the cohesion existing between ' one particle and that
immediately above it.'

" You state, and evidently quite correctly, that, supposing a vertical
pipe 16 feet in length full of water to have the supporting base re-
moved ' it would be emptied by the fall of water in one second, the
final velocity of the water on issuing from the pipe, would be 32 feet
per second, and the mean of the initial and final velocities would be
16 feet per second.' This is evidently quite correct. The whole
column of water falls like a block of marble ; the upper and lower
parts are equally subject to the action of gravity, and every particle
of water descending equal spaces in equal times, the whole column
will fall at once, and this even without supposing that ' each particle
coheres to the particle immediately above it,' and quite indepen-
dently of cohesion, except, of course, what I may term, lateral cohe-
sion, or that existing between the particles of the same horizontal
section. The momentum of such a column is, therefore, 16 feet mul-
tiplied by the weight of the water; but you also state that, if the
pipe had not been permitted to empty itself, but had been maintained
constantly full, the velocity of the column of water would be 16 feet,
and the momentum consequently the same as in the former case.
Would not this conclusion be sufficient to convince you that there is
an error in your reasoning?

" In the first case, the momentum, according to your reasoning, is
the same as in the second, when the pipe is maintained constantly full.
Surely this must be wrong. The mistake appears to me to arise from
your not taking into account that, the pipe being supposed constantly
full, the water must enter as fast as it issues, whether this entering
velocity is imparted to the water by the. height of the reservoir or
other force. If the height of the reservoir or other force, which
supplies the pipe with water, is not sufficient to impart to the
entering water a velocity equal to that due to the whole height
of the pipe, then, I maintain that the height of the water in
the pipe will diminish proportionally, so as to regulate the issuing
velocity according to the supply. I shall endeavour to explain this.
No doubt, still supposing the pipe to be constantly full, and, as before,
to be IS feet in length, in the first second, the mean velocity will be
only 16 feet per second, but for the remainder of the time, the ve-
locity will be 32 feet per second, as will be apparent by carefully con-
sidering the following explanation.

" Let us first examine the velocity of the water at different points
of the pipe in the first case; when the pipe being supposed full, and
the supporting base removed, the water is allowed to fall freely, ac-
cording to the law of gravitation: that the velocity at any point
varies as the square root of its distance from the top of the pipe.
At one fourth of the height, the velocity of the water, therefore,
■will be 16 feet per second ; and at a foot from the top the velocity
will be four feet per second; therefore, to keep a pipe one foot long
constantly full, the water must flow in at the rate of four feet per
second ; and to maintain one four feet long full, the water must enter
at 16 feet per second ; if the reservoir does not supply water at this
velocity, the pipe will not be perfectly full; and by analogy and fol-
lowing the same train of reasoning, we deduce that the pipe being
16 feet in length, the velocity will be 32 feet per second, and the
water must enter the pipe at that rate. Suppose, for instance, the
area of the pipe to be one square foot, if the reservoir supplies 32
cubic feet of water per second, then the pipe of 16 feet in length will
be maintained constantly full; if the reservoir can only supply 16
cubic feet, then the pipe 16 feet in length will be maintained full" only
to oue fourth of its height or four feet from the bottom ; or let us
suppose a glass tube 16 feet in length to be maintained full by pouring
water from a jug, and let some colouring liquid, of the same specific
gravity as water, be placed at the top, it will be found that as the
colouring liquid descends, the velocity of the water poured in must
be gradually increased until the colouring liquid has reached the
bottom of the tube, when the velocity will be found to be 32 feet per
second ; during this second, therefore, the mean velocity will be 16
feet, and during the remainder of the time the velocity of the water
to maintain the tube full must be 32 feet per second. If you do not

pour in the water at this velocity, you will find, as I before stated
that the tube will not be maintained full, but that the surface of the
water will fall until the height of the filled part corresponds with the
velocity of the supply.

" I trust I have proved even to your satisfaction that my reasoning
on this point is correct. I have shown, from your own admission,
viz., ' that the final velocity of the issuing water from the pipe in the
first class, would be 32 feet per second, and the mean between the final
and initial velocities 16 feet per second ;' that to maintain a pipe 16
feet in length constantly full, requires the water to enter at the velo-
city of 32 feet per second, and, rice rend, if the idpe be maintained
constantly full, that the issuing velocity will be 32 feet per second.
The above law is true of any body in vacuo; it is true of shot in
vacuo ; it would be true of shillings, in pleno, falling through a tube
without friction, and fitting accurately the sides of the tube, so as to
prevent the air from entering at the sides ; thpy would also form a
rope, and fall uniformly according to the same law, a' though there is
here no cohesion in force ; it is true from the mere effects of gravita-
tion ; but in order to keep up a continuous stream, if I may use the
expression, the successive shillings must be dropped from a height
such as to impart to them the velocity wddch the column has already
acquired. In this case there is no cohesion, which causes ' one shil-
ling to draw the one immediately above it,' and, therefore, why ad-
duce this property of water to explain a (act when it can be ac-
counted for by gravitation alone which acts on all bodies ?

" I have already occupied so much of your valuable space, th.it I
must defer bringing forward many illustrations of the above truths
for some future period, hoping that you in the mean time will re-
member vour promise, and enlighten us on a subject at present in-
volved in so much obscurity. Since writing the above, I have met an
authority of such eminence and celebrity on subjects of this nature,
to support my views, that I cannot forbear quoting him at full length.
The authority I allude to is Belidor, in the edition of his 'Architec-
ture Hydraulique,' published at Paris in the year 1737, at page 170,
paragraph 429 and 430, it is stated, 'that when a vertical pipe, of
which the opening is equal to the base, is allowed to empty itself, the
surface of the water acquires in falling a velocity which increases as
that of bodies subject to gravity, which fall freely.' This is as you
stated. In the next paragraph, 430, he states, ' As it is always pos-
sible to render uniform a retarded or accelerated velocity, in taking
half of the greatest velocity, this must be done when we wish to
compare the discharge (la di-pense) of a pipe, such as the preceding,
with one always maintained full ;' and in paragraph 431, always al-
luding to pipes, ' the velocities of water are in the ratio of the square
roots of the heights ;' and further on he states that the velocity of
the issuing water in a pipe constantly full, is that due to the whole
height and not half; and also 'we can then, when it is convenient,
substitute for the velocity of the water of the column, the square
root of the height of the pipe.' I must conclude by requesting any
of your readers who are not satisfied with my arguments, to peruse
that part of Belidor from which I have quoted the above passages.
" I have the honour to be, Sir,

" Your obedient servant,

"T. F N."

P.S. " In addition to the extracts which I have already given you from
Belidor, I beg to add the following, in order to snow more clearly that
I have his support to my statement that the velocity is that due to the
whole height. Chap. 3, paragraph 438, ' We can then say that the
discharge (la dfpense) of a pipe or reservoir during the time neces-
sary for a body to fall freely from the height of the surface of the
water above the bottom, is equal to a column of water which has for
its base the orifice, and for height a line equal to the space which a
body can move over with an uniform velocity during the time of the
fall "with the acquired velocity.' Apply this to a pipe of 16 feet ; the
time is a second, the acquired velocity 32 feet per second, and not 16
feet, as stated in your remarks. l Nothing can be more to the point
than the above extract. It is true that Belidor has not remarked that
the velocity of the whole column, if maintained full, increases every
second, although it would appear that he was aware of the fact, from
his statement in paragraph 573, when in treating of the momentum of
water issuing from an orifice, be states that a pipe can never be main-
tained full by a reservoir unless the pipe be of such small diameter,
that the friction retards the water more than gravity accelerates it.

Placing out of consideration for the present, the minor point re-
specting the cohesion of fluid particles, we shall confine .ourselves

« It was the mean velocity we stated to be 16 feet per second, and uot the
final velocity.

124

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

strictly to the main question— tbe velocity of the water— and we shall
endeavour to answer our correspondent's objections seriatim.

The first objection is founded on the momentum of the issuing fluid.
We scarcely know in what manner it is intended to show the fallacy
of our arguments, by placing the subject in that light. Our corre-
spondent admits that the mean velocity of a column of water falling
through a vertical pipe 16 feet long would be 16 feet per second, and
surely if, as we contend, the issuing velocity of water from such a pipe
kept constantly full be the same, the momentum in both cases must
be equal. We do not see how this consideration proves any incon-
sistency in our arguments, nor that it gives any countenance to the
view taken by our correspondent.

On the next point— the velocity of the water tillering into the ver-
tical pipe— the whole question may be said to depend. Our corre-
spondent alleges that our "mistake " arises from not considering that
the water must enter the pipe as quickly as it issues from it. We
maintain, on the other hand, that his error consists in not considering
by what force this velocity is imparted to the entering fluid. The
water in the reservoir is, by the hypothesis, supposed only just to
cover the upper end of the pipe ; therefore the action of gravitation
on the water between the surface and the top of the pipe can have no
perceptible effect. The pipe is also supposed to be constantly full,
and the fall of the water down it to be uniform. By what force,
then, is the same velocity given to the water in the upper part of the
pipe, as to that which has fallen 16 feet ? Our correspondent asserts
that the velocity of the water at the top of the tube is 32 feet in a
second ; but we are left completely in the dark as to the nature of the
force by which this velocity, which is due only to a fall of 16 feet, can
be communicated to the water Honing into the top of the pipe. Ac-
cording to our view of the case, the force which communicates the
velocity to the entering water is derived from the action of gravita-
tion on the water falling down the pipe. Part of the force acquired
by the water in its fall towards the lower portion of the pipe is com-
municated to the more slowly moving water above. The tendency to
accelerated motion is thus continually checked during the flow of the
water by the loss of the motion communicated to the fluid in the
upper portion of the pipe, and the accelerated is converted into uni-
form motion. The laws of dynamics teach, that when accelerated
motion is rendered uniform, the resulting velocity is the mean of the
initial and final velocities, or one half of the latter ; therefore, in a
fall of 16 feet, the accelerated motion being rendered uniform, the
mean velocity will be 16 feet, which is half the final velocity acquired
by a body falling from that height.

In the illustration of the glass tube, when our correspondent says
that if the water be not poured in with a velocity of 32 feet in a
second, the tube will not be maintained full, he appears to forget that
water in pouring only obeys the laws of gravity, and that to pour it
into a tube with a velocity of 32 feet in a second, it must fall from a
height of 16 feet. In the illustration of the rope of shillings, it is
plainly admitted, indeed, that in order to obtain a uniform velocity of
32 feet in a second, the shillings must be dropped from a height of
16 feet before entering the tube ; therefore, even according to our cor-
respondent's own illustration of his case, a fall of 32 feet instead of
16, is requisite to communicate a uniform velocity of 32 feet in a
second. We may observe, in passing, that the illustration of the
continuous fall of shillings could never be practically exemplified, for
we cannot admit that a row of shillings, or of any other non-cohering
bodies, would fall in a uniform stream unless they were all allowed to
fall at the same instant of time, like a solid bar.

Towards the conclusion of his letter, our correspondent calls Be-
lidor to his aid; and he appears to imagine that thus supported, his
position is impregnable. For our own parts we do not see the utility
in any course of original inquiry of relying on authorities, however
celebrated, as guides where we are professing to take a new road
which they have never trodden. If old authorities were permitted
to decide new questions, all scientific researches would be limited to
the compilation of different and various opinions, and to the decision
of their relative values; and we should never advance beyond the

present limits of knowledge. The argument of authorities has this
further disadvantage, that the opinions quoted very frequently refer
to circumstances different from those to which they are applied, and
errors thus originating become the more dangerous by the apparent
sanction of authorities, which are, if properly understood, opposed,
to them. The apparent contradictions in the quotations from Belidor,
cited by our correspondent, are sufficient to show, either that they
refer to different circumstances, or that Belidor bad not paid special
attention to the velocity of water in vertical pipes, but had, like most
other writers, assumed without consideration that the efflux of water
from vertical pipes is the same as through orifices. To show the
contradictory nature of the opinions to be gathered from Belidor, on
the supposition that his words apply throughout to vertical pipes
and not to pipes and to orifices alternately, we will quote a passage
preceding those referred to by our correspondent. In paragraph 424,
he says, when speaking of the cause of the velocity of water flowing
through orifices, and contrasting such discharge with the flow of
water down vertical pipes, " as tbe force on the top of the water is
absolutely nothing as compared with that at the bottom of an ideal
column, corresponding in size with the orifice, it cannot be said that
it is this column constantly renewed from the surface which flows out,
but that, generally, all the water in the reservoir assists in the dis-
charge through the orifice." He then proceeds to show that if a pipe
were inserted in the orifice, and reached to the surface of the water»
the exterior of the pipe would bear the pressure of the water in the
reservoir, and that the water within tbe pipe would descend by its
own gravity alone, unassisted by the pressure of the other fluid. The
circumstances of the discharge in the two cases having been thus dis-
tinctly shown by Belidor himself to be so different, he could never
mean to assert that the quantities discharged in each case are the
same. It must be confessed that he has expressed himself in this
part of his work rather vaguely; but M. Navier, who was deputed by
the French Academy of Sciences, to superintend the publication of a
new edition of Belidor's Architecture Hydraulique, in 1S17, adds a
note to these passages, from which it clearly appears that lie consi-
dered Belidor to refer only to the discharge through an orifice, when
stating the velocity to be equal to that of a body falling from the
height of the fluid.

The authority of Belidor, therefore, would avail our correspondent
nothing, even were we disposed to admit that it has any weight in
the discussion of a question to be decided by reasoning from facts
rather than by opinions. As the flow of water down a vertical pipe
is assumed to be uniform, it is evident that there must be some other
force than its own gravity which communicates to the water entering
at the top of the pipe the same velocity as that which has fallen to
the bottom and is flowing out. No attempt is made by our corre-
spondent to show whence this force is derived, though according to
his estimate of the uniform velocity, it must be equal to the pressure
of another column of water of the same height as the pipe whence
it flows. In our view of the. case, the velocity of the entering water
is derived from the gravitating force of the water descending the
pipe ; and as the accelerated motion of the falling fluid is thus con-
verted into uniform motion, the velocity can be only the mean of the
initial and final velocities of a body falling from the same height.

Iron Dwelling-house. — A large iron mansion has been built by Mr. W.
Lavcock, of this town, in separate plates. It is to be sent to Africa, where
it will be used as a palace by one of the native kings. This singular building
has three floors, exclusive of an attic. The basement story is 7 feet high ;
the second, 10 feet ; and the third, in which is the grand suite of state apart-
ments, is 12 feet high. In these his sable majesty will give his state au-
diences. The principal reception room, the presence chamber, is 50 feet by
30, and ornamented throughout in a style of most gorgeous magnificence.
To counteract any annoyance from heat, the inventor has contrived the
means of admitting a current of air, which can be regulated at pleasure, to
pass through an aperture left between the outer plate and the inner panel. —
Liverpool million.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

12?

6. Floor. — To sittings, wood ; to open spaces, or chancel, stone or encaustic
tiles. If not undervaulted, it may be freed from damp by brick rubble, flints,
ashes, or furnace slag, laid to the depth of 12 or 18 inches under the floor.
Allowance should also be made for the future rise of the surrounding burial
ground ; the floors of many churches, originally above ground, are at this
day many feet below the surface, and have thereby become damp and un-
wholesome. It is desirable that the church floor should be raised at least
three steps above the ground line.

The distance between the joists of the floor should never exceed twelve
inches.

AH wood floors should be supported on walls, with a clear space of eighteen
inches in depth, well ventilated beneath.

No American timber to be used either in the floors or any other part of
the building.

Flagged floors should be laid on cross walls eighteen inches high.

7. Walls. — To be solidly constructed of stone, either squared, or rubble, or
flint : or of brick, where no good stone can be procured without great addi-
tional expense. If the walls are of brick, cased with stone or flint, the stone
or flint to be well bonded into the brick. As a general rule the thickness
must not be less than as follows ; —

Square stone of the Brick faced with Inferior stone,

best quality, or brick. Flint or Stone. Flint, or Rubble.

If less than 20ft. high.) ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.

and carrying a roof not J- 1 10J 2 0 2 3
exceeding 20 ft. span J
If 20 ft. or more high, oA

carrying a roof exceed- > 2 3 2 5 2 6
ing 20 ft. span J

If more than 30 ft. high 2 7§ 2" 9 3 0

The above dimensions are given on the supposition, that there are but-
tresses, of solidity and form suitable to the style adopted, placed opposite
the trusses or principals of the roof; where there are no buttresses, the
thickness of the walls must be considerably greater.

No cement or plastering of any kind to be used as a facing of the walls, or
of any external part of a church or chapel.

If a wall be built with two faces of stone, filled between with rubble, great
care must be taken that they be properly bonded together, as the wall will
otherwise not stand a partial settlement. Where good stone is scarce, a
thickness, otherwise perhaps unattainable, may be secured by this method of
construction.

Walls built of flint or rubble should have bonding courses of stone or brick,
and stone or brick piers at intervals, approaching at least within four inches
of the external face.

Whatever be the material of which the substance of the walls is made, the
dressings should, if possible, be invariably of stone.

The greatest attention should be paid to the quality of the mortar used.

8. Roof. — The btst external covering is lead, which should be not less than
seven pounds to the foot; — or copper of not less than 22 oz. to the foot.
Blue tiles, commonly called Newcastle tiles, or stone tiles, are perhaps the
next best covering. Westmoreland slates are better in colour than those
commonly used, but are, in most cases, expensive. All slates to be fixed
with copper nails.

Flat ceilings are inconsistent with Gothic architecture. Next to a stone
vaulted roof, none has so good an effect internally as an open roof, exhibit-
ing the timbers. It is desirable that this should be of high pitch, the trans-
verse section forming or approaching to the figure of an equilateral triangle.

If a wooden panelled roof be preferred, the panelling should not be made
to imitate stone.

In roofs of low pitch and wide span, horizontal tie-beams are necessary;
but in other cases, where the Society is satisfied that due provision has been
made for the safety of the construction without them, they may be dispensed
with.

If the distance between the principal trusses exceed ten feet, intermediate
trusses must be introduced. The distance between the common rafters should
never exceed twelve inches.

Wherever the ends of timbers are lodged in the walls, they should rest in
cast iron shoes or on stone corbels.

9. Windows.— In Gothic churches, where stained glass is not used, the glass
should be in small panes, those of a diamond shape being generally pre-
ferable.

Hopper casements are recommended, and they should be inserted in almost
all the windows, in order to secure due ventilation.

Where lead lights are adopted, copper bands to tie them to the saddle bars
are preferable to lead, being less liable to stretch and become luose by the
action of the wind.

The very unsightly appearance often occasioned by the wet streaming
down the window backs, can be prevented by fixing a small copper gutter at
the bottom of each lead-light, to receive the moisture produced by conden-
sation, with copper tubes to convey the same to the outside of the building.

This has also a tendency to keep the building dry, and to preserve it from
decay ; or the inside of the sills may be raised an inch and a half.

A good effect will be produced by keeping the sills of windows raised as
much as practicable above the line of the tops of the seats.

10. Tower anil Spire.— The usual place of the tower, in a church without
transepts, is at the west end ; or it may be placed about the middle of the
side. If funds are scanty, it is better to leave this part of the church to a
future period, than to attempt its immediate completion in an inferior
manner.

When the tower contains more bells than o",e, the timbers of the bell
framing or floor should not be inserted into the main walls, but should be
supported either on set-offs or on corbels.

11. Gutters.— Where necessary, to be most carefully constructed to carry
off the rain and snow into the perpendicular pipes, which are best of cast
iron, cylindrical, and placed an inch or two at least from the wall, so as to
admit air and keep it dry.

Dripping eaves projecting very far do not in all cases supersede the neces-
sity of gutters and pipes, even in very sheltered situations; but in exposed
places, eaves-gutters, and rain-water pipes will be absolutely necessary to
prevent the wet being driven against the walls, and thus rendering the build-
ing damp.

Eaves gutters may be made of cast iron ; but, unless very skilfully cast,
they will not preserve their level.

The lead for gutters must not be less than eight pounds to the foot.

Lead gutters must not be less than twelve inches wide in the narrowest
part, with drips at proper intervals ; each drip two inches deep at the least,
and the fall between the drips not less than one inch and a half in every ten
feet.

Outlets to be provided in parapets to carry off the overflowing occasioned
by rapid thaws or otherwise.

Drains on the roof should be protected by coverings, as it prevents the
melting snow from congealing in the gutter, and thus obstructing the water-
course.

Drains should be formed at the feet of all the rain water pipes.

12. Ventilation. — Ventilation cannot be always completely effected by win-
dows alone, without incommoding the congregation. In such cases foul air
may be expelled at or near the roof, either by horizontal or perpendicular
channels or tubes.

Where there is a ceiling, apertures should be made in it for the proper
ventilation of the roof.

All the original provisions for the ventilation of the building must be care-
fully looked after, and the apertures kept open.

13. Ckimntys. — If any be required, the utmost care must be taken to render
them safe from fire. They should never be brought within eighteen inches
of any timber. They should be as unobtrusive as possible, but not disguised
under the form of any ornamental feature of the building.

14. The Lord's Table. — Should be raised two or more steps above the floor
of the chancel, which should itself be raised a step or two above the floor of
the nave. Where the rails do not extend across the chancel, no seats should
be allowed between the rails and the north and south walls; and as much
room as possible should be left about the rails for the access of commu-
nicants.

15. Font. — To be fixed at the west end of the building, or as near as con-
venient to the principal entrance, but not so as to be under a gallery. Care
to be taken that sufficient space is allowed for the sponsors to kneel. The
font to be of stone, as directed by the Canon, and large enough to admit of
the immersion of infants. To be provided with a water drain.

16. Reading Pew and Pulpit. — The reading pew should not be so elevated
as to resemble a second pulpit ; and both reading pew and pulpit should be
so placed as to intercept the view of the east end as little as possible from
the body of the church.

17. Seats. — The seats must be so placed as that no part of the congregation
may turn their backs upon the altar. There must invariably be an open
central passage up the whole length of the church, from west to east. No
square, cr round, or double pews can be allowed, and as few pews as may be.
Much accommodation is gained by the adoption, instead of pews, of open
seats with backs.

The distance from the back of one seat to that of the next must depend in
great measure on the height of the backs and the arrangements for kneeling.
Where the funds and space admit, convenience will be consulted by adopting
a clear width of 3 feet, or even 3 feet 4 inches ; but the width of 2 feet
6 inches in the clear may be allowed if the back of the seat be not more than
2 feet 8 inches in height. This height is in all cases to be preferred, both for
convenience and for appearance. If a greater height be adopted, the distance
from back to back must not be less than 2 feet 1 1 inches in the clear. There
should not be any projecting capping on the top of the backs. Means for
kneeling must in all cases be provided. Hassocks are to be preferred to
kneeling boards, especially where the apace is narrow.

Twenty inches in length must be allowed for each adult, and fourteen for

17*

128

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

a child. Seats intended exclusively for children may be twenty-four inches
from back to front.

18. Galleries. — None can be permitted in any part of the chancel. Where
necessary, they should not enclose the columns against which they rest, so
as to break the upright lines of the shafts from the floor to the roof. Where-
ever placed, they should, as much as possible, be made to appear as adjuncts
and appendages to the architectural design of the interior, rather than as
essential parts or features of it. The Socipty will not sanction any plan
involving the erection of a gallery, unless in cases where it is distinctly shown
that no room is unnecessarily sacrificed, by inconvenient arrangements, on
the floor.

19. Vestry. — The vestry should have access to it from without.

20. Finishings. — Wall wainscoting, or wood linings to walls, to be avoided
wherever convenient. Wood linings to walls confine the damp, and fre-
quently occasion dry rot. For the same reason cement skirtings are to be
preferred to wood, particularly on the ground floor. Where the linings to
the walls are I f wood, holes should be perforated under the seats to allow
the circulation of air. As it is scarcely possible to prevent rot if any wood
is in contact with the w alls, the ends of seats next the walls should be omitted,
anil cement, painted, be substituted.

21. Excusable and Customable Articles. — Architects are particularly desired
to take care that an accurate account be kept of the quantities of customable
and exeiseable articles used, where the expense of enlarging or building a
church or chapel will amount to £500 or upwards, such as may be duly cer-
tified or verified by affidavit.

MR. VIGNOLES' LECTURES ON CIVIL ENGINEERING, AT THE
LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.

SECOND COURSE. — LECTURE XVII, AND LAST \ FOR WHICH lit ARE IN!i
TO THE "MINING JOURNAL."

Before proceeding to a summary of the second course, Mr. Vignoles ob-
served, that there was a material point connected with the subject which had
not been sufficiently discussed — viz, the motive power to be employed ; on
this greatly depended the principles on which a line of railway should be
laid out, the end and object being to convey the greatest extent of traffic at
the least cost : this cost was compounded — first, of the interest of the capital
expended, which should be considered a constant charge ; and second, of the
periodical working expenses — the work to be done being summed up in the
general expression of "overcoming all obstacles to facility of motion.''
What are these obstacles? They might be divided into two great heads —
Gravity and Friction. 1st. Gravity is a natural cause existing under all cir-
cumstances, and. affecting lines deviating from the horizontal, in direct pro-
portion to the sine of the angle of inclination. Engineers, therefore, have
considered that the first principle in laying out roads, should be (under
limits) to approximate as nearly as possible to the horizontal, in order to ex-
clude one of ihe great causes of obstacle ; since, with maximum loads, the
retardation arising from gravity is most felt. When such could not be
effected, then to distribute the total rise (or effect of gravity) along the easiest
ratio of slope. But, in practice, the occurrence of maximum loads, in ordi-
nary passengers and merchandise traffic, forms the exception, instead of con-
stituting the rule, and it is only when a regular and constant heavy trade is
to be anticipated that horizontal communications should be insisted on.
2nd. Friction, is a physical cause, varying according to the perfection of the
road and of the vehicles moving on it. In the practical working of a railway,
however, so many expenses arise under the heads of " conducting traffic,
management, &c." common to most.lines, whatever the gradient, that they
tend to make the cost of overcoming friction and even gravity (particularly
with the ordinary light loads) but a small fraction of the total charges.
Comparing the amount of obstacles on a railway with that on the ordinary
road (where the friction, meaning thereby axletree friction and surface re-
sistance, may be called sixteen to twenty times greater than on a railway),
and assuming the inclination on railway and road to be the same, the genera]
result is that the perfection of the railway surface moved over, and the im-
provement of carriages, or rather that of their wheels and axles, cause the
effect of gravity to be felt in the most sensible degree on railways ; while the
imperfection of the road causes it to be comparatively scarcely appreciated
Hence with the wretched surfaces of the old roads, and the clumsy wheels of
our primitive vehicles, the hills seem to have scarcely added to the obstacles
to be overcome. As the road surfaces and carnages improved, and increased
speed and heavier loads were introduced, the necessity for the greater per-
fection of the ordinary road became apparent, and the remedy was applied
in various degrees during the last 100 years until it was completed as far as
possible, in the extensive improvements by Telford and Macneill on our great
highways. But in carrying out this principle on railways we have run into

the opposite extreme. We should first take in one sum the retarding causes
of gravity and friction — viz., the friction, being constant, or nearly so.
putting aside the resistance of the air at high velocities, varying only in the
perfection of the wheel axles, and in the mode of lubricating. (Ihe surface
resistance on railways being, practically speaking, nothing), and the maxi-
mum gradient, or lather the gravity due to it : — their sum will be the con-
stant divisor for the motive-power, of whatever description that motive
power miglr be ; and. in considering the latter point, it must be the distri-
bution of the traffic, or what may be called the average hourly load through-
out the year which is to determine the question. In many instances, in this
point of view, it would probably often be found most economical to use ani-
mal power, (as is done on the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway), were not
velocity required — which, on railways, enters so materially into the calcu-
lation, that mechanical power in some shape becomes necessary ; and this
divides itself into stationary power, or when the mechanical means are fixed,
and locomotive power, or when the machine travels along with the load.
There are two serious difficulties connected with the latter system ; — first, a
great addition to the load, equivalent on the average to doubling it ; and
next, that the fulcrum through which the motive power must be transmitted
— that is, the rail on which the locomotive driving wheel impinges — is greatly
affected by atmospheric causes, occasioning great variation in the adhesion,
and consequent uncertainty from slipping of the wheel, so that, as explained
in a former lecture, the load after a locomotive engine is really limited by its
adhesive power, and not. as might at first he suppused, either by the cylinder
power or boiler power. Considered abstractedly, stationary power is cheaper,
and always would be so if the traffic were certain and regular, with maximum
loads and very moderate speed, even with the present obstacles of ropes,
sheaves, and all their contingent complicated apparatus ; but at high speed,
with a great length of rope, the experience of the working of the Blackwall
Railway has shown that for passenger trains only, there was, compared with
the most expensively worked lines on the locomotive system, to say the least,
no economy in the motive power, though other conveniences arising from the
peculiar arrangements on that line. were, perhaps, in this special case, more
than an equivalent. A most serious obstacle to stationary power, was the
necessity of absolutely stopping, and disengaging and refixing, the trains at
each station, which stations could not be conveniently, and certainly not
economically, placed further apart than three or five miles, for it could
readily be proved, than on a continued distance of six or seven miles of rail-
way worked by a rope, the power of the largest engine that could well be
erected, would be absorbed in moving the rope only. The Professor then
went largely inlo a consideration of applying stationary engines as the
motive power in working inclined planes under a variety of circumstances,
and recommended to the students to consult the valuable work of Mr. Nicho-
las Wood on this subject, and indeed on all the details of railway working,
of which, particularly in the third edition, there was m<>st of the latest in-
formation. In many situations, however, where water power could be ob-
tained, the stationary rope and pulley system might be advantageously intro-
duced. Gravity became the motive power, on what were called self-acting
inclined planes ; that is, when the gravity of a descending train of laden
carriages brought up a train of others empty or partially laden; or where
skeleton wagons, or water tanks on wheels, could be used as artificial coun-
terbalancing weights in either direction alternately ; the circumstances under
which self-acting inclined planes could be properly introduced were rare.
Mr. Vignoles then gave a clear account of various modes of working self-
acting inclined planes ; among these was described a curious and interesting
one near the great limestone quarries in North Staffordshire ; another on the
St. Helen's and Runcorn Gap Railway, which lie had himself put up. and
also the planes for the Great Portage Railway, across the Alleghany Moun-
tains, in the United States of America. Stationary power might also be used
to a greater extent on the atmospheric system, whereby, to speak metaphori-
cally, a rope of air was substituted for a rope of hemp or wire, and where no
pullies were required, nor any necessary stoppage at the intermediate en-
gines, where only the carriages had to be moved, and where nearly the whole
dynamic force generated was made available for motive power. This system
had already been explained to the class, and practically illustrated on a rail-
way thus worked, and need not be further alluded to. The Professor was
preparing for publication a separate lecture " On the Atmospheric Railway
System," to be illustrated with plates, and tables, and appendices, in which
that interesting subject would be fully gone into, and all the mathematical
and philosophical investigations given, with estimates of the cost of such
railways under various circumstances of traffic and gradient ; fully enabling
the value of the principle, as a motive power, to be appreciated. Although
modern practice had almost discarded the use of animal power from railways,
it might be proper to refer cursorily to it. A horse seems adapted to drag
vehicles, from the mode in which he adjusts his muscular action, so as to
throw the greatest effect on the line of draft ; in making an effort to draw a
carriage, the body of the animal is bent forward, throwing upon the latter
the part of its weight necessary to overcome the resistance, the muscular
force of the legs being employed in keeping up his traction and moving the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

125

TESSELLATED PAVEMENTS,

VNCIENT AND MOP! UN.

[A work has been recently published, at a great expence, under the direc-
tion of Mr. Blashfiekl, who is connected with the old established firm of Messrs.
Wyatt, Parker & Co. the cement manufacturers, for the purpose of exhibiting
to the profession what truly beautiful patterns may be adopted in tessellated
and mosaic pavements, by the aid of the small porcelain squares recently
introduced by Mr. Biashlield for that purpose. The work consists of ten
elaborate designs by Mr. Owen Jones, the author of the "Alhambra,"
splendidly printed in colours. These designs cannot fail in directing the public
taste to this admirable description of ornament, for the floors of halls, sa-
loons, conservatories, baths, &c. — we may also add the aisles of churches ; for
to our taste, it is far preferable to the dingy encaustic tiles. The following
essay on the materials and structure of tessellated pavements is by Mr. F. 0.
Ward who has devoted considerable research in collecting the information.]

The object of the following notice is to call public attention to a new
material for tessellated pavements, and to an improved method of construct-
ing the same, by the adoption of which this ancient and esteemed mode of
decoration may he re-introduced, at a moderate cost, for the embellishment
of our modern buildings. The improvements in question will, it is con-
fidently believed, enable the modern architect to execute mosaic floorings,
equal in point of extent and elaborateness to the most celebrated of the re-
mains that have descended to us from antiquity, and very far superior to
these in brilliancy and variety of colouring, in the accurate co-adaptation of
the pieces, and in the uniform durability of the surface.

In order to arrive at a just conclusion on this subject, it will be necessary
in the first place to bestow some attention on the materials and structure of
the old Roman tessellated pavements, as described by Vitruvius, and still to
be traced in the remains existing in various parts of the country, and in the
specimens preserved at the British Museum.

The materials of the best and costliest pavements at Rome (such, for ex-
ample, as those still remaining in the baths cf Caracalla), are coloured
marbles of various kinds, differing considerably from each other in hardness
and durability. The inferior pavements, found scattered through Britain,
France, and other parts of Europe, and along the northern coast of Africa,
are usually made of such coloured stones as the neighbourhood happened to
supply, with the exception only of the red tessera:, which are almost inva-
riably of burnt clay. Thus, in the celebrated Roman pavement which was
discovered in 1793, at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, the grey tessera? are
of blue lyas, found in the vale of Gloucester, — the ash-coloured tessera; of a
similar kind of stone, often found in the same masses with the former, — the
dark brown of a gritty stone, met with near Bristol, and in the forest of
Dean, — the light brown of a hard calcareous stone, occurring at Lypiat (two
miles from the site of the pavement) — and the red tessera?, as usual, of fine
brick. These materials differ from each other in point of hardness even
more than the coloured marbles of the costlier pavements at Rome ; and it
is evident that a surface composed of such heterogeneous materials must wear
unequally at different parts, and ultimately fall into hollows wherever colours
produced by the softer kinds of stone are employed.

If this remark should be met by a reference to remains of ancient pave-
ments, discovered in this country after a lapse of sixteen centuries from their
first construction, and still retaining a level unworn surface, it is obvious to
reply, that the mere length of their duration gives no force to the objection!
seeing that, during by far the greater portion of the time, these pavements
have lain buried ; and, further, that even when in use they formed floors to
the baths and best chambers of the residences of Roman provincial governors,
and were therefore, doubtless, subject to very inconsiderable traffic. The
entrance hall of a modern club-house would afford a much more trying test
of durability ; and it will hardly be disputed that a pavement composed of
heterogeneous materials would in such a position be liable to wear unequally.

The next point to be observed with reference to the Roman tessera;, is the
want of uniformity in their size and shape, and the consequent irregularity
of their junctures, especially in the more minute portions of the design.
Whoever will take the trouble to examine the choicest specimens of old
pavements at the British Museum (as, for example, one presented by Mr.
Lysons, which formed part of the Woodchester pavement referred to above,)
will perceive that the tessera?, instead of coming into contact by smoothly
ground and equal sides, are in many places separated by broad uneven lines
of cement. In some parts the intervals are of such width that the cement,
which in a good pavement should be scarcely seen, forms at least a fourth of

the visible surface. It is scarcely necessary to point out the effect which
this net-work of brown cement lines, running through the whole design, and
mixing a muddy hue with every tint, must have in diminishing the purity of
the colours, and in deadening the sharpness and brilliancy of their contrast.
It is much as if a picture, when finished, should be crossed and re-crossed all
over with lines of brown paint.

Proceeding from these remarks on the materials of the Roman pavements
to consider the mode of their construction, we shall find that, while the
effect produced was imperfect, the means employed for its production were
costly and inadequate to the end proposed.

Vitruvius, in the first chapter of his seventh book on architecture, after
describing the manner in which the foundation of the pavement should be
formed, goes on to say, that on the topmost layer of cement the tessera? are
to be laid — care being taken to keep the surface flat and true with the level ;
that, in the next place, ay unevennesses and projections are to be worked
down by rubbing and polishing ; and that, lastly, a layer of cement is to be
spread over the whole and scraped oti' again (in order, it would seem, to fill
up any cavities in the cement between the tessera,', and to render the surface
as smooth as possible all over).1

We need not dwell at length on the time and trouble that it must have
taken to set each tessera separately in the cement, and to try the surface
with the level after every few pieces were laid. With respect to the subse-
quent operation of grinding down and polishing the surface of the work, it
must have been in most cases (and particularly where stones of a hard and
gritty nature were employed) the most tedious and laborious part of the pro-
cess. We shall presently see that all these difficulties are obviated by the
employment of the newly invented material and mode of construction, which
we will next pioceed to describe — taking, however, in the first place, a rapid
survey of the various experiments which preceded this invention, and of the
successive improvements by which it has been gradually brought to per-
fection.

About forty years ago, a patent was obtained by Mr. C. Wyatt for a mode
of imitating tessellated pavements by inlaying stone with coloured cements.
Floors thus constructed, however, were found liable to become uneven in
use, in consequence of the unequal hardness of the materials ; which defect
prevented their general adoption. Terra cotta inlaid with coloured cements
has also been tried, and found liable to the same objection.

During the last ten years, cements coloured with metallic oxides have been
used by Mr. Biashlield to produce imitations of the ancient tessellated pave-
ments ; and, for work protected from the weather, the material appears to
have answered tolerably well ; but for out -door work, required to stand frost,
it has been found necessary to employ Roman cement, the dark brown of
which gives a dingy hue to all colours mixed with it. This, with some other
practical difficulties, has interfered with the success of the plan.

Bitumen coloured with metallic oxydes has also been tried by Mr. Blash-
field as a material for ornamental floorings. The groundwork of the pattern
was first cast in any given colour, and the interstices were afterwards filled
up with bitumen of various other shades. But this method was even less
successful than the former ; the contraction and expansion of the bitumen
soon rendered the surface uneven ; the dust, trodden in, obscured the pat-
tern ; and the plan, besides being ineffectual, was expensive.

Thrf e years ago, Mr. Biashlield succeeded in constructing an extensive and
elaborate inlaid pavement, on the plan of the Venetian Pise floors. It was
made after designs furnished by 11. S. Hope, Esq., at whose country-seat
Deepdine, in Surrey, it was laid down. It is still in good preservation.-'

In the same year (1839) Mr. Singer, of Vauxhall, obtained a patent for a
mode of forming tessera?, by cutting, out of thin layers of clay, pieces of the
required form, which are afterwards dried and baked in the usual way. His
patent also included an improved method of uniting the tessera? with cement,
so as to form slabs of convenient size for paving, lie has executed in this
maimer some very admirable mosaics, and his invention must be regarded as
one of the most important steps towards the revival of the art in this
country.

We now come to the discovery which led to the invention of the tessera?
particularly referred to throughout this treatise.

In 1840, Mr. Prosser, of Birmingham, discovered that if the material of
porcelain (a mixture of flint and fine clay) he reduced to a dry powder, ami

1 This is the general sense of the passage according to the best conimen-
tators. The phi iseologj In the original is here very obscure and has pro-
bably suffered from the carelessness of e: i J transcribers.

2 ^ flooi ufaverj similar kind was laid ilovvn al Mr. Hope's mansion, in
Duchess Street, abou J i ■■ ■ i i lo be still in excellent
condition.

17

126

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

in that state be subjected to strong pressure between stee! dies, the powder
is compressed into about a fourth of its bulk : it then undergoes a process
of serai-vitrification, and is converted into a compact solid substance, of
extraordinary hardness and density ; much less porous, and much harder than
the common porcelain, uncompressed.

This curious, and as it has since proved, very important discovery, was first
applied to the manufacture of buttons, to supersede those of mother-of-pearl,
bone, &c. The buttons thus stamped out of porcelain powder are capable of
resisting any pressure to which they are subject in use, and are more durable,
as well as cheaper, than buttons of the materials ordinarily used.

The applicability of this ingenious process to the manufacture of tessera;
for pavements soon afterwards occurred to Mr. Blashfield ; who made ar-
rangements with Messrs. Minton & Co. (the manufacturers appointed to work
Hr. Prosser's patent), for a supply of small cubes made according to the
new process; these he submitted to various trials and experiments, and
having found them in every respect suitable for the purpose, he has recently,
in conjunction with Messrs. Vyatt, Parker, & Co., carried out the invention
on an extensive scale. Tessera? of various colours and forms — red. blue,
yellow, white, black, brown ; quadrilateral, triangular, rhomboidal, hexagonal.
&c. — have been manufactured on this principle in large numbers ; pavements
of considerable extent have already been constructed with theni ; and they
have been found to possess the following advantages : —

First, being formed in similar steel dies, they are of uniform size and shape,
so that they can be fitted together accurately in the laying down of the most
complicated designs. Secondly, being all composed of the same material,
variously coloured, tbey are all of precisely equal hardness, so that pavements
made with them are not liable to fall into hollows in use. Lastly, owing to
the effect of the intense pressure under which they are made, they are quite
impervious to moisture, of a flinty texture throughout, and, in a word, to all
intents and purposes absolutely imperishable.

In these several respects, their superiority to the Roman tesserae, (which,
as we have seen, were shaped imperfectly by hand, and differed from each
other in hardness,) must be manifest to the reader. Nor less conspicuous is
the superiority of the modern process of uniting the tessera; to form pave-
ments.

For this purpose (instead of spreading the cement on the surface to be
paved, and laboriously setting each single tessera in it, according to the
directions of Vitnivius), the pavement is first put together, face downward,
on a smooth surface, so that the tessera- find their level without any trouble
to the workman ; and as soon as a sufficient portion of the design is finished,
it is backed with fine Roman cement, which is worked in to fill the crevices
between the tessera; ; the pavement is thus formed into smooth flat slabs of
convenient size (according to Mr. Singer's method), and these are laid down
on a foundation properly prepared in the usual way.

One peculiar feature of this process is, that private persons, if so inclined.
may set out their own pavements in the coloured tessera-, leaving it for a
■workman afterwards to cement aud lay down the slabs. Fine mosaic work
for the tops of tables, for illuminated monuments, &c. may be made in the
same manner with a superior kind of tessera;, glazed on the surface, and
richly ornamented in gold and colours.

Pavements thus constructed are singularly beautiful. The outline of the
design strikes clearly and sharply upon the eye, and the brilliant colours of
the tesserae are reflected from the level surface, uninterrupted by those broad
uneven lines of cement, which in the Roman pavements detract so much from
the general effect. The truth of every line and angle in the figure, aud the
just proportion of all its parts, however complicated and various, impress the
mind with an agreeable sense of order and precision. Such, indeed, is the
exactness and facility of the workmanship in these pavements, that the
oblique and intricate intersections of the Mauresque designs are as readilv
executed as the simple rectangular patterns of the Pompeiiau style. Even
the scrolls and twisted guilloches, the quaint emblematical devices, and gro-
tesque representations of horses, warriors, &c, found in the most elaborate
of the Roman pavements, may be accurately imitated with the new stamped
tessera;.

The Roman designs, however, have little to recommend thera to the mo-
dem artist, beyond their historical interest. Even the earliest of them,
which are the best, were produced subsequently to the Roman invasion of
Greece, when art was everywhere declining; and they abound with indi-
cations of the extravagant and licentious taste which grew up amidst the
general corruption of Roman manners, occasioned by the rapid influx of
foreign wealth and foreign habits of luxurious excess.

When designs after the antique are required, the elements of them should

rather be sought in the beautiful decorations of the Etruscan vases, and in
the admirable remains of Greek art in general, during its best period — i. e.
from about 400 to 200 B.C. or during the time of Phidias, Praxiteles, and
their immediate successors. (Such are the mode's which have guided the
composition of the magnificent tessellated pavement designed by Mr. Barry,
and executed under his direction by Mr. Singer, for the hall of the New
Reform Club ; a pavement so beautiful and so generally admired, that it can
hardly fail to give an impulse to the re-introduction of mosaic decoration,
hitherto so sparingly employed by modern architects.)

For Mauresque designs, the mosaic dados of the Alhambra may be advan-
tageously consulted. They are executed in glazed earthen tiles, variously
coloured, shaped with considerable exactness, and joined with cement. They
present many examples of ingenious arrangement and well-contrasted
colouring.

But, whichever of these various styles the architect may adopt, he will
find that, for the realisation of his conceptions, there is no material which
presents so many advantages as the compressed porcelain tessera; — whether
on account of their uniform size and shape — the purity and brilliancy of
their colours — or their extreme hardness, and unalterable durability.

NEW CHURCHES.

At the request of several architects residing in the country, we give the
following Suggei o u / notions, as amended May, 1842," of the
'• Incorporated Society fur Promoting the Enlargement, Building, and
Repairing of Churches and Chapels."]

1 Site. — Central, with regard to the population to be provided fur ; dry ;
if possible, rather elevated, but not on a high or steep hill ; — not near nui-
sances, such as steam-engines, shafts uf mines, noisy trades, or offensive
manufactories', — accessible by foot and carriage-ways, but not so ne;ir to
principal thoroughfares, as to subject the service of the church to the danger
of being incommoded by noise. The building to stand east and west as
nearly as possible.

2. Style and Fmn, — No style seems more generally suitable for an English
church than the Gothic of our own country, as developed in its successive
periods. The Norman (or Romanesque) style is also suitable, and offers
peculiar advantages under certain circumstances, especially v. hen the material
is brick. The Society earnestly recommend that, in the proportions and
great features, as veil as m the details, good ancient examples should be
closely followed.

For Gothic churches, the best form is cither the cross, consisting of a nave,
transepts, and chancel, or the double rectangle, composed of a nave, with or
without side aisles, and of a chancel. In a chapel, the single rectangle is
also suitable ; the length being at least twice as great as the breadth. If the
funds do not suffice to complete satisfactorily a design, otherwise eligible, or
if the circumstances of the neighbourhood render it probable that, at no
listance of time, the building may be enlarged ; it is better to le i,ve a
part of the original design, as. for example, side aisles or transepts, to a fu-
ture period, than to attempt the completion of the whole design at once in an
inferior manner. In such a case, the temporary walls and fillings up of
arches should be so built, as clearly to show that they are temporary, and
that the building is incomplete, but at the same time not without due regard
to ecclesiastical propriety,

3. Foundation. — To be surrounded, if requisite, by good covered drains. If
the soil wants firmness, the walls may often be better secured from partial
settlements by spreading the footing on each side, than by deepening the
four; lati n, or resorting to more expensive works.

In all irregular or doubtful suils, concrete is recommended for the foun-
dations, in preference to any other material.

No interment should be permitted under a church, except in arched vaults
properly constructed at the time of building the church, with entrances from
the outside only ; nor should any graves be made within 20 feet of the ex-
ternal wall.

4. Area. — It would tend much to the preservation of churches, and render
them more dry. if a paved opened area, not less than 18 inches wide, were
made round them, and sunk 6 or 8 inches below the level of the ground about
the church, with a drain from the area to carry off the water. Or the same
objects might be attained either by turning a segmental arch from the wall
outside the footing, or by bedding in the wall a course of slate in cement.

5. Basement. — The inequalities of the ground, the dampness of the soil, BsC
often render it desirable to have crypts under a church. Tbey should be of
a massive construction, turned upon semicircular or segmental arches, re-
sembling the early examples, entered only from without.

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131

of France and England, especially in the low lands of Lincolnshire and the
North, the spire and the tower are found to be the effective and all-sufficient
means of obtaining that sublime which man desires in architecture — that
conglomerate composition of small stones which a man may carry up a
ladder on his back, are in character with the style and the manner of
building.

But, recurring to the theory of the art, we find that Vitruvius (lib. i. c.
11.) lays down six principles : order, as addressing the understanding; dis-
position, as addressing the eye ; proportion ; symmetry ; consistency ; and
distribution, or economy.

Order, as evincing design, whether geometrical or moral, affects the mind
with the sentiment of sublime. Whoever considers the movements of the
planets, and understands the laws of their velocities, the curves which they
describe, the relations of the periods of their revolutions and their dis-
tances, will find himself wrapt in a sublime pleasure, and will recognize a
divine beauty of order; but if he turns his contemplation to the fixed stars.
in which he' cdn trace no order, and which appear to be disposed fortui-
tously, the same pleasure is by no means felt.

When a curve is formed by a certain rule and a constant law, as the semi-
circular vault and the apsis at the end of a church, both which shall be con-
centric, a great satisfaction is experienced ; if these are elliptical, the rule
and law is less easily understood ; but much more, if eccentric segments are
employed, the want of that uniformity is felt, and a kind of violence is done
to the eve and understanding. So the rhomboid, and much more the trape-
zium, displease by their anomalous and unequal angles. No predetermined
counsel, order, or industry are evinced, and the essential sense of order is
dissatisfied,

If the philosopher finds any natural production— a stone, or a root — as-
suming the regularity of a geometrical form, he judges it worthy of a place
in his museum : such is the love of order. Individuals in a mob have nei-
ther force nor effect, but ranged in regimental order they acquire a new
qualitv. So trees planted in avenue have, in many situations, an effect supe-
rior to the forest. The desire of imparting variety to his work, often mis-
leads the architect from this important principle of his art ; forgetting that
his building is to derive its chief effect from the contrast of its regularity
and order with the surrounding irregular objects and scenery, he seeks, too
often, to make his own building his picture, and to engraft upon it that
variety which the scenery ought to supply. Thence picturesque architec-
ture, which has diverted the student from the ancient principles, universal
amongst the old masters. Succession and repetition of impression by parity
of objects, by regularity and order, the isometrical colonnade or Gothic
arches of the nave, or equidistant windows along an unbroken front, have
more energy and effect than all the varieties of such features that can be
contrived. The surrounding irregularities make order tell by their contrast.

Vanbrugh was remarkable for this quality, and he knew at the same time
how, by the composition of his parts, to produce, from certain points of
view, the utmost variety of combination and picturesqueness, while, from
others, the whole was perfectly regular.

Perrault observed order rigidly, as did Wren ; while by the contemporary
fashionable architects amongst the Italians it was totally abandoned, as may
be remarked in the front of St. Peter's, and in the works of Bernini, Bor-
romini, and Maderno. Columns in groups, or at irregular distances, broken
entablatures, for the sake of a repetition of profiles, curviliuear fronts, and
such scenery as belongs to painting, established the novelty of picturesque
architecture — a solecism in art, and a contradiction in terms, unless by com-
binations from certain points of view as above.

If we call to mind the fact, that the greatest architectural efforts have
usually followed periods of political and moral disorder, we may recognize
in such works that natural love of order, which revolutions aud tumults
have denied. Certain it is, that after a long period of civil tranquility, ar-
chitectural efforts, especially of regular order, have ceased to be fashionable,
and the picturesque or the irregular is resorted to as a change.

Disposition or composition of the various features of an architectural
work, is the second principle laid down by Vitruvius. It consists, says he,
of the idea of the iconography ; the idea of the orthography, or elevation ;
and the idea of the scenognvphy, or view in perspective, taken on the angle.
" These," continues he, " are the result of thought aud invention ; thought,
full of attention, application, and vigilance, accompanied with delight ; and
invention, which is a solution of different problems by new applications
seized with promptitude."

Thus he proceeds as nature does : putting the purpose or the plan first, to
which the figure of the object adapts itself secondly, and thus each compo-
sition displays peculiar features ; and the appearance of his buildings would
be as various as their purposes ; whereas modern architects often reverse the
method, and they constrain the plan to a preconceived orthography. How
otherwise is it that we recognize the master the moment we see his work ?
The orthography ever the same, and the plan adapting itself as it can : so
we commonly put the cart before the horse.

But the exact conception of the ultimate effect of the building, the reali-
zation of the prophetic vision of the architect, are of extreme difficulty, and
subject to lamentable disappointment. They can be attained only by great
knowledge of perspective, and by careful models; and the greatest masters
have been r.iost remarkable for their reliance on such means.

" The architect," says Wren, "ought, above all things, to be well skilled
in perspective, for everything that appears well in orthography may not be

good in the model, especially when there are many angles and prefectures ; and
everything that is good in model may not be so when built, because a model
is seen from other stations and distances than the eye sees the building. But
this will hold universally true, that whatsoever is good in perspective, and
will hold so in all the principal views, whether direct or oblique, will be as
good in great ; if this only caution he observed, that regard he had to the
distance of the eye hi the principal stations."

In this last particular the methods of the different masters have varied
materially. For instance, Vanbrugh always supposed himself at a cti
of 500 to 1000 feet from his buildings; consequently his sky line ami con-
tour are well studied, but his details wholly neglected, and the pleasing effect
of his buildings in approaching them; whereas Adams supposed himself
from 50 to 100 feet only from his buildings; cousequently they have no
contour from a distance, but are full of elaborate detail on the approach.

The visual angle, extending at most to 45D, should he carefully applied to
the points of distance; and the scale of the drawing or study should he
correctly adjusted to this distance, so that no misconception should arise.
A study for a building to be seen at 100 feet distance only, will be on a large
scale, and occupy the whole height of the paper; whereas, seen at 500 feet,
it may be only one-fourth that size.

The Greeks were consummate masters of this branch of optics, as we
should doubtless have known had Aristotle's work on taste been preserved
to us. The terms synoptic and eusynoptic correspond with the points of
view which all their arrangements were calculated to afford.

The Parthenon and the Temple of Jupiter Olympius — indeed, almo I all
the great temples— were approached on the angle, the peribolus and the
propylea by which they were inclosed, concealing great part of them,
they could be contemplated to the utmost advantage from a synoptical point
of view. The plans of Palmyra aud Balbec, and those of Rome, preserved to
us by Palladio, are lessons, in these respects, demanding the most careful at-
tention.

It is obvious that street architecture, being seen chiefly in flank, should be
treated otherwise than buildings at right angles with the point of view, as
triumphal arches, or terminations to the vista.

In the 15th and 16th centuries perspective delineation became a new art
in the hands of Lombardi, Bramante, Peruzzi. Raphael, and lastly the re-
nowned Pozzi ; and though Vitruvius assures us that in the 5th century B.C.
Agatharcus wrote a treatise upon perspective, it is probable that the ancients
ne\er arrived at the skill attained by those masters.

But perspective calculation applied to architecture, and the adjustment to
the point of view, was undoubtedly better understood practically by the an-
cients than ourselves, as their remains abundantly prove. The vista which
shortens the length and discloses the eud at once — the exposure of the en-
tire object staring from a distance as well as near — the placing colossal ob-
jects in colossal places, are all modern mistakes. The temple at Luxor, the
colonnade at Palmyra, are deflected in angles, so that the bounds are con-
cealed, the successive columns disclose themselves by degrees, aud the length
seems interminable. The temple is partially hidden, and excites the imagi-
nation from the promise of its roof, entablature, and capitals, until it is per-
mitted to be seen in its overwhelming majesty.

The columns of Trajan and Antonine are placed in confined positions, and
the effect is tenfold.

Palladio was remarkable for the adjustment of his building to the position,
of which the Town Hall at Vicenza is one of the most remarkable exam-
ples ; and the surprise and admiration of the traveller who has known that
building only in the orthographic engravings can never be forgotten.

Vignola is said to have made his studies of his buildings at the points of
view from which only they could be seen.

It is quite certain that Sir W. Chambers was less master of this part of his
art than of many others. Any one visiting the front of Somerset House, in
the Strand, is satisfied with its scale and sufficiency in all respects ; hut
when he enters the spacious quadrangle, and looks on the back of the same
building, he experiences some disappointment ; he finds the scale too small
for the size of the quadrangle ; hut much more, when he observes the same
proportions from the opposite side of the river, he deplores their littleness
and want of mass and feature, the petty dome in the centre, and the con-
fusion of chimney shafts which disfigure the roof. Had Vanbrugh disposed
the river front, we should have seen those chimney shafts united in towers;
the whole outline or sky-line would have been marked and varied with em-
phatic features, suited to the scale of the river and the majestic position
given to the building.

" It is the part of a wise man," says Alberti, " to have the idea of his
work well fixed in his imagination. ' The ancients, therefore, not only by
perspectives, but by models of the whole, and of parts, submitted their
works to practised men before they laid a stone. Such models should not,
however, be prettv tovs, in which delicacy of workmanship draw, the atten-
tion from the merit of the design. Finally," continues Alberti, " when the
model satisfies the architects and practised judges. I recommend that there
should be no hurrv to begin, but if possible time should be allowed that the
conceit of the design may cool ; when, having laid aside the natural over-
weening affection for your own production, you may judge more justly of
its effect. Time discloses many counsels for the advantage of our under-
takings ; and many defects, which at first escaped attention, at length be-
come apparent." Scaroozzi used to say. that pretty little models were like
pretty little birds, no one could tell whether thty were masculine or ferui-

132

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April

nine ; but if made large, you might then discern which was an eagle and
which a crow.

Vitruvius, lib. vi. c. 11, and lib. iii. c. Ill, refers to optical effects.
Proportion is the third principle set forth by Vitruvius, the most difficult
and the most precious to the architect, and no less a golden rule in his art
than in that of the arithmetician. Symmetry, which is the fourth principle
or our author, is, by a vulgarism, often mistaken for proportion ; but the
etymology defines its meaning, as correspondence or parity of parts on either
side a centre ; at most it may signify proportion of aliquot parts. No part
of architecture has occupied the speculations of the ingenious more than
proportion, and those who have not found the analogy of the human form,
as set forth by Vitruvius from the Greeks, sufficient, have endeavoured to
find a more certain analogy in the laws of musical sounds : Blondel, Ouvrard
and others, may be consulted on this point.

To the artist observer of the proportions and forms of animal nature, the
Creek analogy seems to develop the science of proportion in the comparison
of animals of the same genus, but of various species, sufficiently to show
that beauty resides in inequalities ; the measure of those inequalities is, in-
deed, not so easily defined ; but the establishment of the fact may help the
architect to some valuable conclusions.

Thus, if we divide the human profile, the forehead, the nose, the upper
lip, and- the chin, into equal parts, we have ugliness : the profile of the
Apollo presents these parts in inequalities, and upon the nice variety of these
beauty depends.

The satyrus, or baboon, is ugly, compared with the man : amongst many
'jther reasons, for this, especially to the architect, that his proportions ap-
proach equalities. The baboon is six heads high ; his arms equal the entire
length of his body and legs ; the subdivisions of the arm, the hand, the
fore-arm, and os humeri, are nearly equal; so also the foot, the leg, and the
thigh. If these proportions are compared with the human form divine, in
which they are all in different and unequal lengths, the cause of beauty will
be at once apparent. The human figure is eight heads high, and is inscribed
by Vitruvius in a square, whereas the baboon is inscribed in a figure of less
beauty, namely, a parallelogram of six by eleven, such is the length of his
arms. Thus, again, if we inquire why the ass is so inferior to the horse, we
shall find the same answers. The one is little more than two heads to the
shoulder, while the horse is 21 ; the ears of the ass approach equality with
the head or neck. The scapula to the os humeri, in the ass, four to five, in
the horse is four to six ; the metacarpus to the radius three to five in the
ass, is 2\ to five in the horse.

The Professor exhibited drawings in illustration of these remarks, and
stated, that the same relations applied to vegetable nature, and that beauty
there, also, would be found to reside in inequalities ; and he proceeded to
show, that orthographic equalities in the vertical features of architecture,
both in the divisions of floors and orders, and in details, were always evi-
dences of the decline of taste. In Greek profile it would be found uni-
versally, that the inequalities constituted their charm; in the Roman they
were not so nicely observed ; in the Byzantine, the plain and moulded sur-
faces approached equalities. So in Gothic architecture, the period of the
thirteenth was far superior to any other in this respect ; of which the tran-
sept of Beverley Minster, and the order of Salisbury Cathedral were beau-
tiful illustrations. So in every other architecture, and informs of all kinds.
In fact, from the lung anil the short, the dactyle and spondee, hexameter
and pentameter, sapphics and iambics, the very term evpviiua (proportion),
Si by the Greeks, was di
Under the fifth head, Consistency, lib. i. e. 2, Vitruvius tells us. that cir-
:nce, custom, or fitness, and nature are to guide its. Temples to Ju-
Ccelus, the sun and moon, are to lie hypethral, because these divinities
are known to us by their continual presence night and day. Doric temples
I to be erected to Minerva, Mars, and Hercules, on account of their mas-
line character; Corinthian is proper to Venus, Flora, Proserpine, 8tc |
mic, as the medium order, is applicable to Juno, Diana, and Bacchus; all
these, says he, bear an analoni/ to the dispositions of the deities.

Again, in lib. iii. c. 1, he says, " the design of temples depends on sym-
• try. the rules of which architects should be most careful to observe;
symmetry arises from proportion, which the Greeks call avaXoym.'' He
then proceeds to describe the proportions of the human figure in detail, and
remarks its correspondence with the geometrical figures, the square and the
circle; even the measures used in buildings, the digit, the palm, the foot, the
cubit, called by the Greeks TtAeios, pro\e the analogy of architecture (con-
tinues he) with the human proportions.

In lib. iv. c. 1, Vitruvius describes the origin of the Doric, Ionic, and Corin-
thian orders, as derived from the proportions of the man, the matron, and
the damsel, by analogy; and although these analogies have been regarded
by some as fanciful, their resthetical propriety is more intelligible to the
artist, than their definition by language to the logical reader. For instance,
the ancient Doric, from five to six diameters in height, though low in its
proportions, assumes a dignity in its concentrated strength and solidity, its
rapid diminution, and its wide-spreading cap, which no one who has viewed
it at Pcestum and at Corinth can ever forget.

When Homer describes Priam as identifying the Grecian leaders from the
walls of Troy, he is made to inquire of Helen —

What's he whose arms lie scattered on the plain ;
Broad in his breast, his shoulders larger spread,
Though great Atrides overtops his head ?

Had Homer (always a painter) confined his description to the stoutness
and the shortness of Ulysses, we should have been at a loss for his heroic
dignity; he might have been a tub or an alderman, but the " broad shoulders
and spreading breast" imply the rapid diminution of the waist, and the
same healthful and vigorous character through every limb ; and Ulvsses
stands before us in all the energy of the Grecian hero —

Though some of larger stature tread the green,
None match his grandeur and exalted mien .'

no such peculiarity is attributed to " the great Atrides ;" the tall is not com-
patible with this rapid diminution : whenever these qualities, therefore, are
affected, as in the Parthenon, the temple of Nemea, or in the Roman Doric,
the upper diameter bears a larger proportion to the lower. So in the matro-
nal or the medium proportion, the gradation of form is much smaller; and
in the juvenile Apollo or the young damsel, the diminution of the limbs is
still less observable; and the Ionic or the Corinthian are proportioned ac-
cordingly. In the details the same analogy is observed ; the mouth, the eye,
and the features of the Hercules are as susceptible of delicacy as the Doric
echinus is of its small fillets and its fine contour.

The matronal or medium demands a sober ornament, and the Corinthian
all the young elegance which the acanthus and the graceful Lesbian profile
can communicate.

Thus the tall, the short, and the slender, are all types of proportion in
their proper places ; their eiccss makes them the awkward and ungainly, the
clumsy and shapeless, and the thin or meagre ; and there is no other course
by which they can be rightly embodied, than by the careful and intelligent
observation of those types, as exhibited in the works of nature — in the ani-
mal and vegetable kingdoms.

In this respect taste, like wit, consists in discovering resemblances and
unexpected congruities.

The history of the works of genius illustrates abundantly the reference to
analogy in the science as well as in the art of architecture. Smeaton, in his
work on the Light-House at Eddystone, after describing the former ones,
and showing their defects, proceeds to explain his original conception of
that celebrated work. "On this occasion," says Smeaton, "the natural
figure of the waist or bole of a large spreading oak presented itself to my
imagination. Its top, when full of leaves, is subject to a very great impulse
from the agitation of violent winds; yet partly by its elasticity, and partly
by the natural strength arising from its figure, it resists them all, even for
ages. It is rare that we hear of such a tree being torn up by the roots.
Let us now consider its particular figure. Connected with its roots, which
lie hid below ground, it rises from the surface thereof with a large swelling
base, which at the height of one diameter is generally reduced by an
elegant curve, concave to the eye, to a diameter less by at least one-
third, and sometimes to half, of its original base. From thence its
taper diminishing more slow, its sides by degrees come into a perpendicular,
and for some height form a cylinder. Now, we can hardly doubt but that
every section of the tree is nearly of an equal strength in proportion to what
it has to resist; and were wc to lop off its principal boughs, and expose it
in that state to a rapid current of water, we should liud it as much capable
of resisting the action of the heavier fluid, when divested of the greatest
part of its clothing, as it was that of the lighter when all its spreading orna-
ments were exposed to the fury of the wind. And hence we may derive an
idea of what the proper shape of a column of the greatest stability ought to
be, to resist the action of e\ternal violence, where the quantity of matter is
given whereof it is to be composed."

Sir C. Wren has given another tine example of this kind of analogy. In
the vast practice which the fifty churches of this metropolis and the exami-
nation of all the authorities which he had occasion to consult had given him,
he reflected that the hollow spire which he had seen or built in so many va-
rieties was after all but an infirm structure; and be sought that model which
should enable him to impart to it the utmost solidity and duration. Simple
was the original from which he adopted his idea. He found that the deli-
cate shell called turretella, though extremely long, and liable to fracture
from its base to its apex, by the action of the water amidst the rocks, was
rendered impregnable by the central column, or newel, round which the
spiral turned. Therefore, in his spire of St. Bride's, he establishes the
columella in the centre, round which he forms a spiral staircase to the top,
issuing on stages of arched apertures : thus giving us (if not the most beau-
tiful) certainly the most remarkable and enduring of any spire hitherto
erected.

One more instance equally remarkable may be given. When Brunelleschi
was charged with the erection of the dome of Sta. Maria, at Florence, of
nearly equal diameter with that of the Pantheon, but at more than twice its
height from the pavement, upon a base raised on piers, and by no means of
the strength and cohesion of the original model, the Pantheon, it was appa-
rent that in giving it the same solidity, the weight would be insupportable
on such a foundation. How was this object to be accomplished .; Brunel-
leschi was an observer of all nature's productions, and he reflected that the
bones of animals, especially of birds, possessed solidity without weight, by
the double crust and hollow within. But above all, he remarked that the
dome which completes the architecture of the human form divine wa6 con-
structed with a double plate, connected by the light and fibrous, but firm
walls of the hollow cancelli, so that strength and lightness were combined
in the utmost degree. Brunelleschi followed this model in his dome of Sta.

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129

body onward ; the effort of the animal being resolvable into these two parts
— viz. the action on the load, and that required to move itself by. It may
be gathered from writers on this subject that the force a horse is capable
of exerting, is that equal to about one-seventh or one-eighth part of his
own weight : or that, on an ascent of one in seven or one in eight, the exer-
tion required to overcome his own gravity, is a force equal to that he is able
to exert on a load on a level plane. Taking the average weight of a horse,
and considering that he is capable of occasionally exerting great extra power
on the load, still it seems to be satisfactorily ascertained,- that nearly seven
parts out of eight of the muscular power of a horse is required to drag
Ids own weight forward, leaving, of course, only one part applicable to
the load. But the criterion of a horse's power in practice is not the
occasional effort of which the animal is capable at a dead pull, or for a
short period : we must estimate his strength by what he can do daily, and
day after day for a long period, and without breaking him down prematurely.
If a horse is to travel at the rate of 10 miles an hour, his power of pulling
is greatly diminished, and he can work only an hour or so in the day : at
two miles an hour he may. give out a power of 1.30 lb. on the load : at 10
miles he has scarcely 331b. to spare, and at 12 miles an hour, he can seldom
be expected to do more than move himself. This was on the average of
horses— all beyond were exceptions Thus, the application of horses to
railways ?s the motive-power was very limited: and in laying out lines
where they are to be used, to full effect, gravity should be arranged to be
always with the load, or, at least, not against it; the rate of travelling only
2 or 2-1- miles per hour, and the traffic uniform. Mr. Vignoles proceeded to
an interesting comparison between locomotive and stationary power up in-
clined planes, taking the inclination of 1 in .30 as a maximum, and showed
that when the traffic was small, ami the loads consequently comparatively ligiit,
and the daila number of trains not great, locomotive engines, as the motive-
power, (taking into consideration all circumstances of first cost, and working
expenses — particularly the latter, of which the locomotive power was but a
small part), would not be so expensive as stationary engines, while they would
be certainly more convenient ; and that, with all the best modern improve-
ments in the locomotive engines, the system of working with large cylinders,
using the steam expansively on the level and falling parts of the railway,
improved boilers, &c, planes of 1 in 50 might be practically worked: the only
material drawback being, occasional slipping of the wheels en the ascent,
and the necessity of great caution and careful application of the brakes on
descents ; but on the whole, the balance, under the above circumstances, was
much in favour of the locomotive system. The Professor then entered into
a very long and minute comparison of the present system of working the
Blackwall Railway by stationary engines, with ropes and pullies, with what
would be the case if the motive power were locomotive engines— and by
tables, showed that while the working of the Blackwall Railway (3£ miles)
on the stationary system, was costing about seventy-two pence per mile per
train, the cost of working the Greenwich Railway (3^ miles) was only about
forty pence : — but, Mr. Vignoles admitted, that by the former, great accom-
modation to the public was afforded by the numerous intermediate stations.
while on the latter, there was only one stoppage. In concluding the general
comparison between the two principles of mechanical motive-power, the
Professor observed that on the locomotive system, a minimum of power need
only be provided in the first instance and the number of engines might be
increased gradually as the traffic required, which was a great consideration
when the first expenditure of capital had to be kept down to the very lowest
terms, at all future risks. On the stationary system, provision had to be
made, from the outset, for the maximum anticipated trade, which of course
increased the first outlay on the railway establishment, and depended on the
ultimate economy of future working to make up the difference. Having con-
cluded the notice of various descriptions of motive-power employed on rail-
ways, of which the preceding is but a mere outline, some general remarks
were made on the principles of laying out railways, in reference to the
several systems respectively.

In a concluding general summary, Mr. Vignoles observed, that in his first
course, at the latter end of 1841, he had fully considered the practical rules
for earthwork and constructions :— these were not peculiar to railways; the
theory and practice of bridge-building, applied to all internal communication,
and would be most conveniently considered in a separate illustrated course,
but he wished to recall to the class generally, that in proceeding to lay out
railways in ihe first instance, the engineer ought to enter much more deli-
berately into those previous inquiries, so absolutely necessary, than had
hitherto been done. A system of applying the same general rule of perfect
gradients alike to lines, of the least as well as of the greatest traffic, had
too much prevailed, and until more rational ideas were substituted, the
public would shrink from embarking in enterprises subject to all the contin-
gencies of extra cost beyond estimates which had characterised almost every
railway in this country. The earthwork and its consequences, regulated the
cost, particularly as regarded contingencies, and the utmost consideration
should be bestowed as to how far it was justifiable to encounter the expense
of these operations. The average cost of earthwork, and all consequent

works of art, &c, on the English railways was nearly £15,000 per mile, or
about 50 per cent, of the whole capital expenditure. Mr. Vignoles was de-
cidedly of opinion that in all future lines in this country, and pari,.-,,
tlie continent, the corresponding outlay ought not t<> exceed £5000 per mi/,-, and
that beyond that sum perfection of gradient would be bought too dearly.
In reference to the gauge of railways, Mr. Vignoles stated, distinctly, that
theoretical investigations and practical results led him to consider a six fool
gauge the best ; but the present 4:J foot gauge was certainly rather cheaper.
In respect of curves, he observed, that they were much less disadvantageous
than had been first supposed : that a half mile radius was now everywhere
admitted : and that he himself did not hesitate to adopt a quarter mile
radius whenever expense could be materially saved ; and if the atmospheric
system of motive power should be found to succeed on a large scale, the
curves might, on lines thus worked, be safely made still sharper. In regard
to the systems of constructing the upper works, he had in a recent lecture,
entered so lully into the comparison, that he need only now say, that if the
expensive and complicated system of heavy rails and chairs, and cross sleep-
ers, were preferred by engineers, then the ingenious improvements of Mr.
May, of Ipswich, in chairs and fastenings, applied by Mr. Cubitt on the
Soulh Eastern (Dover) Railway, with great care in laying, draining, and
ballasting, made that system perfect and complete. The Professor, however,
decidedly gave the preference to the less costly, and the more simple system
of lighter rails, without chairs, laid on continuous longitudinal balks of
timber of sufficient scantling, and fastened on Evans's principle, modified in
the manner shown by the models exhibited to the class; and several en-
gineers were adopting this opinion. On the continent of Europe, where
iron was dear, and timber cheap and abundant, Mr. Vignoles calculated a
saving of full £2000 per mile of double road would accrue from the adoption of
the latter system — which ottered a vast national economy. In reference to
the subject of working drawings, plans, and sections, the Professor it
the class of the importance he attached to having all such previously made
out on a large scale, that the cubic quantities might be accurately obtained,
and the just prices considered ; and thus, in proceeding to make the esti-
mates, nothing would be left to conjecture, and as little as possible left to be
afterwards altered. The period of time for the execution of the works
should be extended as far as consistently could be done. The two great
sources of the extra expenditure on railways had been, the extreme haste
with which the works had been pushed on, and the changes of every kind
from the original designs. These points being all carefully considered, even
before the plan was brought before the public in general, the estimates might
be better depended on. Mr. Vignoles then went through all the great items
of expenditure generally arising on first construction, and explained how the
accounts of measurements should be made out and kept under very distinct
general beads, subdivided into minor items, from the purchase of the land to
the last finish to the stations, and the entire fitting up and furnishing of the
carrying establishments. Sufficient experience had been attained in all these
matters to enable the engineer, in future, if the above rules were faithfully
followed out, to place himself beyond all chance of reproach for making er-
roneous estimates. In conclusion, the Professor observed, that he had se-
lected railways at the request of the class, as the theme for the course just
concluded ; but although so much consideration had been given to the sub-
ject, lie had only been able to touch in a very general way upon the chief
points ; yet it was to be hoped a sufficient idea had been given of the prin-
ciples of construction, and of their general application, to create an interest
in their minds. Should any of the students hereafter be employed to exe-
cute a railway, he trusted they would recollect these lectures with advan-
tage, while they would also probably better understand and appreciate them :
at the same time, he must not neglect to impress upon them, that it was not
at the college, in the lecture-room, or even in the office of an engineer, that
all the duties and knowledge necessary could be taught : the young aspirant
must pass much time in the work-shop, indeed, he must become a workman,
and acquire the use and skill in the handling of tools, and the erection of
mechanism of every kind— and passing to the actual works, ought to learn
to be able to direct personally the labour of the mason, the carpenter, and
the smith. " Above all," said Mr. Vignoles, "the student in engineering
must carry into life with him the constant remembrance of what I have so
repeatedly enforced, that the reputation of an engineer in this country is
based upon the success of his works, of his mechanism, and of all the efforts
of his mind and hand, in respect to, and in proportion to their being pro-
ductive of commercial and beneficial results, to those who, at his suggestion,
may undertake to provide the necessary funds : and he should consider how
this result can be best obtained, rather than study the splendour of his un-
dertakings. It is for Ihe architect to attend to the decorative and the beau-
tiful ; it is sufficient for the engineer to study proportions, and rely on the
simple grandeur of his works as a whole. It is related that Napoleon once
observed to the celebrated Carnot, " Lis ingenieuts doiient toujours avoir ■/, .
ide'es magnifiques ;" this is true as to their first conceptions, but in the rea-
lization, they must be sobered down by the rules of economy and judgment.
After the first burst of talent, after image and form has been given by the

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hand to the bright idea emanating from the brain, let it be brought down
to practical application only after a strict inquiry into the cost. Remember
what I quoted on a former occasion, when contrasting the two celebrated
light houses, the Eddystone, and the Cordouan— no unfit emblem of the two
celebrated engineers who erected them may I venture to add of their re-
spective nations — remember, I say, " 'tis use alone that sanctifies expense. '

ROYAL ACADEMY.

Professor Cockerell's Lectures on Architecture.

(From the Athenmum.)

Lecture V.

The love of fine art, and the lively discussion of its principles, which oc-
cupied the wits and the courts of Italy in the 15th and lGth centuries, em-
ployed the solitary reflections of literary philosophers in the 18th; and in
1730, Baumgarten suggested the title of esthetics, by which these studies
have been designated ever since, and many works remarkable for ingenious
criticism, learning, and taste, have resulted. These may be ranked in two
classes. The first resolves the questions of taste directly into an original law
of our nature, implying senses by which the qualities of beauty and sub-
limity are perceived and felt as their appropriate objects ; it is this species
of hypothesis to which artists and amateurs chiefly resort. The second
class of hypothesis arises from the opposite view of the subject : resisting
the idea of any new and peculiar sense distinct from the common principles
of our nature, this class supposes some one known and acknowledged prin-
ciple or affection of the mind to be the foundation of all the emotions we
receive from the objects of taste, and resolves them into some more general
law of our intellectual or moral constitution. Thus Socrates and Hume, and
others, resolve them into our sense of utility — Aristotle and St. Augustine,
into order and design — Diderot and Allison into relation and association.
But though in such discussions we recognize many truths, the partiality of
individual views renders them often dangerous.

When a philosopher can find
Some fav'rite system to his mind,
In every point to make it fit,
He'll force all nature to submit.

Language itself fails in defining those phenomena which elude ordinary
observation, and even when it approaches definition, the measure of quan-
tity, and quality, and circumstance, can alone be adjusted by the magician
genius.

The resthetical principles of architecture, as handed to us from the Creeks
by Vitruvius, concur with the notions of ancient philosophy, and have not
been controverted by the modern ; and though subjected of late years to
some rude attacks, they have never been superseded, and we can follow no
better text-book in the consideration of our subject. Those principles apply
to every style and invention of architecture which the world has hitherto
known; they belong to our physical and intellectual nature, and will never
change but witb an alteration in these.

When the works of Vitruvius were first discovered, they were accounted a
revelation to the craft, and called " divine " by Sulpitius, the first translator;
and, nearly 200 years after, Perrault, in his translation, calls them " a very
singular piece, and an inestimable treasure in the opinion of the learned."
Eighteen translations, iu 41 editions, are enumerated to this day. In 1802
the philologist Schneider republished Vitruvius. " My whole scope," says
he, " has been to purify the text, so as to enable men learned in art to re-
construct and understand the theories of Vitruvius, hitherto obscured by in-
terpolations and vicious translations." But he detracts from the merit of his
■work by a severity of criticism, as uncandid as it is derogatory to the cha-
racter of his author. He declines his apology, as " writing neither as an
accomplished philosopher, an eloquent rhetorician, nor as an expert gram-
marian, hut as an architect, laying down rules useful to those who build."
He calls his language obsolete and plebian, accuses him of pride and envy,
and rates him as a morose, inept, infirm old man, querulous and vulgar. But
Schneider was the less justified in such treatment, as being weak upon those
points in which his author was most strong, for he says, " on architectural
subjects, or that which has to do with the subtleties of the art, and the ques-
tions and disputes concerning them, I neither could nor would have anything
to say." So that the science has received no direct advantage from the labours
of Schneider, and yet how much was to be done might be understood by ten
discoveries in confirmation of the theories of Vitruvius, made within a few-
years, and chiefly by Englishmen, cited by the Professor in his previous
course on the literature of the art. Such discoveries suggested the desira-
bleness of a new English edition of Vitruvius, as highly honourable and
useful to this country. The last, by Mr. Gwilt, is a very useful one.

The slanders of Schneider had been adopted in this country with little
honour to the parties, and no advantage to architecture. Vitruvius remained
the father of our art, and was entitled to our respect, as the text-book of
our studies.

Having been appointed surveyor to the warlike engines and stores of the
empire by Augustus, Vitruvius was endowed with leisure ; and very probably
was instructed to collate the Greek authors on our art, whom he enumerates,
and who were collected and deposited in the magnificent library instituted
at that period. He appears then with singular advantage as transmitting
the well digested and received principles of the greatest masters who had
thought and written on architecture, to modern times ; and the principles
thus derived directly from the Greeks merit our closest attention.

But a few preliminary observations on external forms, in detail and in
general, were to be made. The universality of certain primordial forms iu
all styles, favours the notion of innate ideas, the cube, the sphere, the ellyp-
soid in solids ; the lozenge, the wave, cymarecta, and cymareversa, the ser-
pentine, the ovalo, the spiral, the volute, gradation or diminution of forms,
are common to the art of all times and people.

The pyramid is universal, from the compressed to the acute. Such is the
charm of the pediment, that " in heaven, where we may not suppose it to
rain," says Cicero, " the pedinvnt will surely be found ;" so in mountains,
trees, and fixed bodies, in which the laws of statics are observed, the pyra-
mid prevails; except in those forms in which dynamics demand a different
structure. The pyramidal inclination of the sides of buildings observed in
Egyptian, Hindoo, Gothic, and Mexican architecture, has, by the happy dis-
coveries of late years, been proved to exist in Greece also; and the inclina-
tion of the axis of the columns at the sides of temples (enjoined by Vitru-
vius, lib. iii. c. 3, long disputed,) is now beyond all doubt, and the pyramidal
inclination to buildiug is proved to be an universal principle.

Gradation of columnar forms, as in the limbs of animals, and in vegetable
productions, is universally approved ; the cylinder, the leg of an elephant,
are justly repudiated : " small by degrees, and beautifully less," has been de-
nied by an eminent critic (P. Knight), ''because," says he, "the same is
large by degrees, and beautifully bigger ;" but however smart the reply, it
does not controvert the principle. It is, however, to be observed, that such
forms should diminish from the eye, as a column does above the horizon,
and the leg of a chair or table below it.

The Doric cymatium, the cymareversa, the ovalo, the cavetto, or hollow,
are all calculated to express strength, as robust, and appearing to sustain.
The Lesbian cymatium, the cymarecta, in all its varieties, has not the same
purpose, (namely, to sustain,) and is suited to the more elegant orders. The
principle of the application of mouldings for beauty, is the opposition of the
curved to the straight surfaces, as well for light and shade as form ; and for
proportions and oppositions of such forms, constitute the art of profile — a
most difficult grace of architecture ; for by this, that variety of form and
grace may be given which the primary architectural masses and proportions
do not admit of. Variety in the details of sculpture and prufile is essential
to the relief of that rigorous geometrical order, which the larger features of
architectural composition impose : in all the arts, and even in architecture,
variety is an all-important principle, provided the masses are undisturbed.
Shakspeare describes Cleopatra as chiefly admirable for this quality \

Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale
Her infinite variety.

The Greek profile is general (more particularly in the Parthenon) is incal-
culably superior to any other in gradation, quantity, delicacy, and expression,
and should be the student's constant study. It was the observation of the
human, animal, and vegetable forms, by the sculptors of Greece, which gave
them that acknowledged superiority. The enrichment of these with homo-
geneous ornament, was no less remarkable, and deserves an especial treatise.
In fact, the elements of architecture, in the orders and their profile, consti-
tute the peculiar excellence of Greek architecture, which, as we have seen iu
history, did not extend to the composite and voluminous combinations which
subsequent ages adopted.

Having thus adverted to individual forms as applied to detail, the Pro-
fessor remarked upon general forms, as applied to the composition of build-
ings. The observations already offered upon the ancient system of building
" in large stones and costly stones, even great stones," doubtless contributed
much to the universal adoption of horizontal forms of building. But this
tendency, thus imposed by the mechanical construction, seems also to have
been an abstract principle of taste, which was consulted best by the contrast
of the long horizontal form, with the (generally) vertical outline of the
country in which they were employed. When the traveller, passing through
a mountainous region of rugged outline, discovers through some gap the
horizon of an extended plain, or of the ocean, a sublime sensation is expe-
rienced. In such a country the rocks and mountains afford elevations com-
pared with which the works of man are insignificant. The temple is planted
on the precipitous eminence, and it attains at once the elevation of St. Pe-
ter's or St. Paul's. So placed, the Doric members should be massive, simple,
and few ; the parts broad ; it seems to have grown spontaneously from its
rocky bed, and to partake lin its monolithic masses of the stony aboriginal
material on which it is established. Its horizontal outline and regularity of
order are admirably calculated to contrast with the surrounding scenery of
vertical and irregular forms.

On the other hand, when the road winds through interminable plains, the
traveller recognizes the sublime in the contrast of vertical forms of archi-
tecture ; for this reason, it may be presumed, the Babylonians in the plains
of Assyria, proposed to " build a city and a tower whose top may reach unto
the heavens." In the flats of Venice, in the Netherlands, in the champains

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133

Maria (in the manner displayed in a large section exhibited) ; and the tra-
veller now ascends to the lantern hetween the two crusts or plates forming
the inner and the outer domes.

Michael Angelo adopted this contrivance in the dome of St. Peter's ; and
almost all the subsequent domes are upon the same idea.

The Professor pointed out these instances of analogy as sufficient to show
that the architect might thus avail himself of the whole range of Nature's
works; and that the universe furnished him the inexhaustible models from
which his inventions might be drawn.

REVIEWS.

THE ANCIENT RUINS OF YUCATAN.
Rambles in Yucatan. By B. M. Norman. New York : 1843.

The last quarter of a century has been distinguished by the scien-
tific and successful researches which have been made into the mate-
rial and moral world of unrecorded ages. What the far-seeing pre-
dicted, but hardly hoped would occur, what the visionary exhausted
himself in vain efforts to ascertain, has now taken place ; the film,
the mist which concealed and disfigured the unknown past, is giving
way before the labours of men of science, and the long-hidden forms
of antiquity's infancy are becoming revealed to our eyes: while the
progress made is such that we can scarcely doubt of a glorious har-
vest of discovery in the end. While geology and palaeozoology have
shown us the rudiments of the physical world, portrayed its vegeta-
tion, and pictured the creatures which inhabited it, philology
and palestiology have thrown glorious light upon the early history of
the human race. While geology was pursued on a false system, and
theories were formed before facts were accumulated, its votaries
were the derision of the world ; nor did the philologists suffer less
deservedly : their wild speculations drew from Voltaire the definition
that their science was one in which "la consonne y entrail pour fort pen
de chose et la votjelk pour rien :" and Goldsmith sarcastically determines
from the resemblance of the letters, that Cox-fu-ci-us and Noah were
the same personages. This time, however, has now passed, and both
geology and philology, studied upon the principles of Bacon, have
become fixed sciences. From philology has sprung paleaetiology, or
the science of applying philological evidence to the history of the
human races, and Bopp, Pott, Raske, Prichard, Winning, and others
have successfully laboured in this department. In connection with
these studies is that of the early monuments of art, the elucidations
of which in Egypt, in Iranistan, in India, and America, deeply engage
the attention of men of science. If in the old world we are astonished
at the gigantic records of ancient civilization, we were totally un-
prepared to find the new continent as rich in these memorials as our
own. Records of a race which seems to have "died and left uo sign,"
works without a name, monuments bearing the impress of the fathers
of civilization in India and Egypt — they are calculated to awaken
the deepest interest, and to enlist the strongest sympathy of the artist
and the scholar. Humboldt and Lord Kingsborough prepared the
way in the study of Mexican antiquities, which Waldeck, Stephens,
and Norman have followed out: and the result is, the opening a field
of study in Yucatan, rich in architectural and artistical interest.

For a copy of Mr. Norman's work, we have been indebted to the
kindness of Messrs. Wiley and Putnam, and we proceed to give some
account of it and its author. Mr. Norman was led to Yucatan in a
chance excursion in the autumn of 1841, and commenced his re-
searches with no other instrumental aid than a knife and pocket com-
pass, and pencil and paper; yet, although he pretends to no scholar-
ship, he has produced a work, containing minute descriptions of the
ruins, with many notes derived from the works of his predecessors.
He seems to have been an active and energetic observer, and to have
gone about his task with all that poco-curautism for trifles, which the
wanderer in Spanish countries must possess if he would make himself
happy and useful. Mr. Norman's journal contains descriptions of the
manners and customs of the people, as well as accounts of the ruins,
which were the more especial objects of his visit.

Yucatan, we need scarcely remind our readers, is a peninsula,
remarkable for running from south to north, bounded on the east by
the English settlement of Honduras, on the south by Guatimala, and
on the south-west by Mexico, of which it was recently a province,
although now independent. The west coast is known to us as the
Campeachy shore, and was the scene of many an exploit in the log-
wood-cutting times of the early part of the seventeenth century.
The country itself presents but little to interest us in its modern state,
but in the northern parts have been discovered the ruined cities of
Uxmal, Kabab, Zayi, Ticul, Sisal, Chi-Chen, and Espita; and it will
be observed that not more than a third of the country has been as yet

imperfectly explored, while what the mountain regions of the interior
may present is unknown. The inhabitants are chiefly of Indian
descent, called Mayas, of whom we shall speak again hereafter.

Leaving Mr. Norman to speak for himself, the first place to which
he leads us is Chi-chen, of which a plan is shown below.

Fig. 1.— Plan of the Ruins of Chi-Chen.

n, temple ; b. ruins ; c, pyramid ; d, dome : e. house of the Caciques ;
/. house ; g. hacienda ; It, evidences of large and splendid structures ; i, cross
erected by the Indians ; o, church of the Indians.

" It was on the morning of the 10th of February that I directed my
steps, for the first time, toward the ruins of the ancient city of Chi-
Chen.1 On arriving in the immediate neighbourhood, I was compelled
to cut mv way through an almost impermeable thicket of under-brush,
interlaced and bound together with strong tendrils and vines; in
which labour I was assisted by my diligent aid and companion, Jose,
I was finally enabled to effect a passage ; and, in the course of a few
hours, found myself in the presence of the ruins which I sought. For
five days did I wander up and down among these crumbling monu-
ments of a city which, I hazard little in saying, must have been one of
the largest the world has ever seen. I beheld before me, for a circuit
of many miles in diameter, the walls of palaces and temples and pyra-
mids, more or less dilapidated. The earth was strewed, as far as the
eye could distinguish, with columns, some broken and some nearly
perfect, which seemed to have been planted there by the genius of
desolation which presided over this awful solitude. Amid these
solemn memorials of departed generations, who have died and left no
marks but these, there were no indications of animated existence save
from the bats, the lizards, and the reptiles which now and then
emerged from the crevices of the tottering walls and crumbling stones
that were strewed upon the ground at their base. No marks of human
footsteps, no signs of previous visitors, were discernible ; nor is there
good reason to believe that any person, whose testimony of the fact
has been given to the world, had ever before broken the silence which
reigns over these sacred tombs of a departed civilization. As I
looked about me and indulged in these reflections, I felt awed into
perfect silence. To speak then, had been profane. A revelation
from heaven could not have impressed me more profoundly with the
solemnity of its communication, than I was now impressed on finding
myself the first, probably, of the present generation of civilized men
walking the streets of this once mighty city, and amid

• Those temples, palaces, and piles stupendous,
Of which the very ruins are tremendous.'

For a long time I was so distracted with the multitude of objects
which crowded upon my mind, that I could take no note of them in
detail. It was not until some hours had elapsed, that my curiosity
was sufficiently under control to enable me to examine them with any
minuteness."

" My first study was made at the ruins of the Temple.2 These re-
mains consist, as will be seen by reference to the engraving (a, Fig. 3, &
Fig. 1), of four distinct walls. 1 entered at an opening in the western
angle, which I conceived to be the main entrance ; and presumed, from

■' 1 Chi-Chen signifies, mouth of a well. ' Itza.' said to he the Maya
name for one of the old possessors of these ruins, is sometimes added by the

natives. .... , ,

- 2 The names by which I have designated these ruins, are such as were
suggested lo me by their peculiar construction, and the purposes fur which I
supposed them to have been designed.

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the broken walls, ceilings, and pillars still stand-
ing, that the opposite end had been the location of
the shrine or altar. The distance between these
two extremes is 4 "'0 feet. The walls stand upon an
elevated foundation of about 10 feet. Of the en-
trance, or western end. about one-half remains :
the interior showing broken rooms, and ceilings
not entirely defaced. The exterior is composed
of large stones, beautifully hewn, and laid in fillet
and moulding work. The opposite, or altar end,
consists of similar walls, but has two sculptured
pillars, much defaced by the falling ruins — six
feet Only remaining in view above them. These
pillars measure about two feet in diameter. The
waii- are surrounded with masses of sculptured
and hewn stone, broken columns, and ornaments,
which bad fallen from the walls themselves, and
which are covered with a rank and luxuriant
vegetation, and even with trees, through which
1 was obliged to cut roy way with my Indian
knife. In the rear of the pillars are the remains
of a room, the back ceilings only existing: suffi-
cient, however, tu show that they were of rare
workmanship.

"The southern, or right hand wall, as you enter, is in the best
of preservation, the highest part of which, yet standing, is about
50 feet; where, also, the remains of rooms are still to be seen. The
other parts, on either side, are about 26 feet high, 250 long, an ! 1
thick, and about 130 apart. The interior, or inner surface of these
walls, is quite perfect, finely finished with smooth stone, cut uniformly
in squares of about two feet. About the eentie of the-" walls, on both
Slides, near the top, are pi;, red sfmip rings, carved from an immense
block, and inserted in the wall by a long shaft, > I projecting from it
about four feet. They measure about four feet in diameter, and two
in thickness — the sides beautifully caned.

"The extreme ends of the side walls are about equi- distant from
those of the shrine and entrance. The space intervening is filled up
with stones and rubbish of walls, showing a connexion in the form of
a curve. In the space formed by these walls are piles ol stones, evi-
dently being a part of them : but there were not enough of them, how-
ever, to carry out the supposition that this vast temple had ever been
enclosed. At the outer base of the southern wall are the remains of a
room ; one side of which, with the angular ceiling, is quite perfect,
measuring It feet long and 6 wide. The parts remaining are finished
with sculptured blocks ol -t. ne of about one foot square, representing
Indian figures with feather head-dresses, armed with bows and arrows,
their noses ornamented with rings; carrying in one hand bows and
arrows, and in the other a musical instrument similar to those th..t
are now used by the Indians of the country. These figures were in-
terspersed with animals resembling the crocodile. Near this room
I found a square pill n feet of which remained above the

ruins. It was carved on all sides with Indian figures, as large as life,
and apparently in warlike attitudes. Fragments of a similar kind
were scattered about in the vicinity.

The Temple — Chi-cben Ruins.

Fis

i '. the Hoi g i i the I aciquesi— Cbi-( I

"From this room, or base, I passed round, and ascended over vast

piles of the crumbling ruins, pulling myself up by the branches of

trees, with which they are covered, to the top of the wall: where I

door-way, filled up with stones and rubbish, which I removed,

ter much labour, effected an entrance into a room measuring

8 by 24 feet, the ceiling of which was of the acute-angled arch, and

perfected by livers ol Hit ston"s. The walls were finely finished with

square blocks of stone, which had been richly ornamented. Even yet

the heads of Indians, with shields and lances, could be distinguished

During,

" The square pillars of the door-way are carved with Indians, flowers,

borders, and spear-heads ; all of which I judged to have once been

coloured. The lintel, v. Inch supported the top, is of the zuporte

wood, beautifully carved, and in goud preservation. One of the

Indian head-dresses was composed of a cap and flowers.

" Immediately in front of the door-way is a portion of a column, to
which neither cap nor base was attached. It measured about three
feet in diameter, with its whole surface sculptured : but. it was so
obliterated bv tune, that the lines could not be traced. Four feet of
its length only could be discovered. It was, evidently, imbedded in
the ruins to a great depth. Numerous blocks of square hewn stones,
and others, variously and beautifully carved, were lying in confusion
near tins column.

" Of the exterior of these walls, a sufficient portion still exists to
show the fine and elaborate workmanship of the cornices and entabla-
tures, though the latter are much broken and defaced. They are
composed of immense blocks of stone, laid with the greatest regu-
larity and precision, the facades of which are interspersed with
flowers, borders, and animals."

*' I cut my way through the thick growth of
small wood to the' House of the Cachjues, and
by the aid of my compass was enabled to reach
the east front of the building. Mere 1 felled
the trees that hid it, and the whole front
was opened to my view, presenting the most
strange and incomprehensible pile of architecture
that my eves ever beheld — elaborate, elegant,
stupendous, vet belonging to no order now known
to us. The front of this wonderful edifice mea-
sures 32 feet, and its height 20, extending to the
main building 50 feet. Over the door-way,
which favors the Egyptian style of architecture,
is a heavy lintel of stone, containing two double
rows of hieroglyphics, with a sculptured orna-
ment intervening. Above these are the remains
of hooks carved in stone, with rais d lines of
drapery running through them: which, appa-
rently', have been broken off by the falling of the
heavy finishing from the top of the building;
over which, surrounded by a variety of chaste
and beautifully executed bonders, encircled within
a wreath, is a female figure in a sitting posture,
in basso-relievo, having a head-dress of feathers,
cords, and tassels, and the. neck ornamented. The
angles of this building are tastefully curved. The

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ornaments continue around the sides, which are divided into two
compartments, different in their arrangement, though not in style.
Attached to the angles are large projecting hooks, skilfully worked,
and perfect rosettes and stars, with spears reversed, are put together
■with the utmost precision.

" The. ornaments are composed of small square blocks of stone, cut
to the depth of about one to one and a half inches, apparently with
the most delicate instruments, and inserted by a shaft in the wall.
The wall is made of large and uniformly square blocks of limestone,
set in a mortar which appears to be as durable as the stone itself. In
the ornamental borders of this building I could discover but little ana-
logy with those known to me. The most striking were those of the
cornice and entablature, chevron and the cable moulding, which are
characteristic of the Norman architecture.

" The sides have three door-ways, each opening into small apart-
ments, which are finished with smooth square blocks of stone ; the
floors of the same material, but have been covered with cement,
which is now broken. The apartments are small, owing to the mas-
sive walls enclosing them, and the acute-angled arch, forming the
ceiling. The working and laying of the stone are as perfect as they
could have been under the directions of a modern architect."

Another description we take from him is that of the ruins of Zayi.

" The Ruins of Zavi are situated in the midst of a
succession of beautiful hills, forming around them, on
every side, an enchanting landscape.

" The principal one is composed of a single struc-
ture, an immense pile, facing the south, and standing
upon a slight natural elevation. The first foundation is
now so broken that its original form cannot be fully de-
termined ; but it probably was that of a parallelogram.
Its front wall shows the remains of rooms and ceilings,
with occasional pillars, which, no doubt, supported the
corridors. The height of this wall is about 20 feet,
and, as near as I was able to measure around its base,
(owing to the accumulation of ruins,) it was ascertained
to be 2G8 feet long, and 116 wide.

" In the centre of this foundation stands the main
building, the western half only remaining, with a por-
tion of the steps, outside, leading to the top. This
part shows a succession of corridors, occupying the
whole front, each supported by two pillars, with plain
square caps and plinths, and intervening spaces, rilled
with rows of small ornamented pillars. In the rear of
these corridors are rooms of small dimensions and an-
gular ceilings, without any light except that which the
front affords. Over these corridors, or pillars, is a fine
moulding finish, its angle ornamented with a hook si-
milar to those of Chi-Chen. Above this moulding is a
finish of small plain round pillars, or standards, inter-
spersed with squares of fine ornamental carvings; the
centre of the facade showing the remains of more ela-
borate work, concentrated within a border, the arrangement of which
is lost. There is an evident analogy existing between these orna-
ments and those of Kahbah, but order is less apparent. I could dis-
cover no resemblance whatever to those of Chi-Chen.

" Over these rooms of the main building is another terrace, or
foundation, in the centre of which is a building in similar ruins to

Fig. 5.— Plan of the Ruins of Uxmal.

those under it; having, also, broken steps leading to the top. It
stands upon a foundation, apparently, of six to eight feet in height,
occupying about two-thirds of the area; the residue, probably, form-
ing a promenade. There are three doorwavs yet remaining, the
lintels and sides of which are broken, and which have caused the
walls above to fall down. The w.dis of this part of the edifice are
constructed of hewn stone, without any signs of ornament. A plain
finished moulding runs through the centre; portions of the cornice
still remain, with three or four pieces of flat projecting stones, which
formed a part of the top finish.

" The whole extent of the rear is covered with confused piles of
ruins, overgrown with trees. Near by these are fragments of walls
and rooms, with a few ornaments yet remaining about them. Some
of the rooms appear to have been single, and apart from all other
buildings. There are also various mounds in the vicinity.

" A few rods south are the remains of a single high wall, with nu-
merous square apertures, like pigeon-holes, its foundation is ele-
vated ; around which the broken walls and ceilings are to be seen.
The summits of the neighbouring hills are capped with gray broken
walls for many miles around. I discovered no hieroglyphics or paint-
ings of any kind ; neither the extraordinary skill displayed in the
ornamental carvings, as at Chi-Chen. On my route to these ruins I

Fig. 4.-Zayi Ruins.

« a. Ruins ; 6, Governor's House ; e, Nun's House ; d. Snake ; e, Ring ; /. Pond
voir ; h, Pigeon House ; i i i, Pyramids ; m, Hacienda ; n, Sepulchres ; o, Mound.

made digressions from the road, and found, or. al! sides, numerous re-
mains of walls and ceilings ; also, mounds and small pyramids, co-
vered with the wild vegetation of the country."

Of Uxmal he gives a copious description, from which we extract
the following.

" The Governor's House is a vast and splendid
pile of ruins. It stands upon three ranges of terraces ;
the first of which is a slight projection, forming a finish.
The great platform, or terrace above it, measures up-
wards of 500 feet long, and 415 broad. It is encom-
passed by a wall of fine hewn stone 30 feet high, with
angles rounded, still in good preservation. In the centre
of this platform, upon which trees and vegetation grow
in profusion, stands a shaft of gray limestone in an in-
clined position, measuring twelve feet in circumference
and eight in height; bearing upon its surface no marks
of form or ornament by which it might be distinguished
from a natural piece. ' Near by is a rude carving of a
tiger with two heads; also, I saw excavations near them
with level curbings and smoothly finished inside, which
are conjectured to have been cisterns or granaries.
Along the southern edge of this platform are the re-
mains of a range of small pillars, now broken and in
confusion.

" Upon the north-west corner of this platform is an

edifice, which was, no doubt, from its location, connected

j, Reser- vtith the Governor's House. It is the smallest of all

I3<>

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

the ruins. Its ornaments are few and plain; the most remarkable of
which is a continuous line of turtles, cut from stone of about a foot
square, arranged under the cornices.

" The south-west corner has connected with it two piles of loose
stones, in the pyramidical form; one 80, and the other 100 feet
high, the sides of the bases measuring about 200 feet. Their tops
are broad platforms, over which, and down the sides, are scattered
the remains of edifices, of which these pyramids were once probably
the foundations. Here we found pieces of pottery, consisting of
broken pieces of vases, aud supposed cooking utensils.

" Upon the main terrace stands another of smaller dimensions, con-
stituting the foundation of the Governor's House. The measurement
of this terrace is 33S feet long, ^2 broad, and 30 high, hiving a ma-
jestic flight of stone steps, though considerably broken at the centre,
in front of the entrance.

" This majestic pile faces the east, is 272 feet long, 36 broad, and
24 high. The whole building is plain (unlike those of Chi-Chen)
from the base to the mouldings, which ran through the centre over
the doorwavs; above which, to the top, are ornaments and sculptured
work in great profusion, and of the most rich, strange, and elaborate
workmanship. It is divided into double ranges of rooms, from tront
to rear. Two of the principal are situated in the centre, 54 feet
long, 10 broad, and about 19 high, with an angular ceiling, occupying
one-half of the whole. There are 14 other rooms in the front and
rear; also, two rooms on each end, and one in front and rear of the
two recesses, of about one-half of the average size.

"The interior of these rooms is sometimes covered with a beau-
tiful hard finish, and at others presents a surface of uniform square
blocks of smooth stone. The floors are of stone, covered with a hard
composition, which, together with the stone is now much broken.
Fig. (i— I'xmal Ruins— (Moon light.;

Mr. Norman's work contains a sketch of the Maya language, and the
latter portion is devoted to speculations on the population of Ame-
rica, and on the history of the remarkable antiquities to be found in
different parts of the continent. The Maya language resembles the
Chole, a language of Mexico, and is of very remarkable structure,
the grammatical (ornis very much resembling the Engish, except that
suffixes arc used. A striking point is the use uf auxiliaries with the
verbs, a general indication of the descent of a language from one of
richer forms. The assumption of what we may call the auxiliary
state, is a remarkable and inexplicable philological phenomenon of
v b the instances are very frequent ; and we may mention Anglo-
Saxon and English, Hellenic-Greek and Romaic, Persian and modem
Persian, Sanskrit and Bengalee. We have neither had time nor
opportunity to compare the Maya language with many of the
American continent, but we have with the Aymara (Peruvian; some
of the Brazilian dialects, tie Paraguay Guarani and Abipone and the
Californian, and the result is no apparent resemblance with any of the
languages but the Aymara. The Brazilian and Guarani are .is closely
allied as Spanish and Portuguese, but seem to have no points of re-
semblance with the others, and use affixes instead of suffixes. The
Aymara, it is to be observed, is one very extensively spread in Peru,

" The lintels, which are of zuporte wood, are decayed and broken,
to which, in a great degree, the falling of the walls may be attributed.
The inner sides of the doorways are pierced, and hooks attached,
whereon doors were prob ably swung. There are, also, apertures in
the walls, where beams rested, to support hammocks, some of which
still remain, and show the marks of the cords. There were no fresco,
or other painting or decorations of any kind in the interior of the
building to be discerned.

"The front presents the most remarkable architectural skill to be
found about the building. The walls were of the most durable kind
of limestone ; and upwards of three feet thick, of fine hewn stone,
laid with the greatest care. There were eleven doorways besides
those of the recesses. The finish of the angles, generally, was as
smooth as though the material were cut with a sharp knife.

" The ornaments were composed of small square pieces of stone,
shaped with infinite skill, and iuserted between the mortar and stone
with the greatest care and precision. About two-thirds of the orna-
ments are still remaining upon the facade. The most elaborate were
over the centre or main entrance. These have fallen, and now are a
heap of ruins at the base. One of them was a figure of a man, with
a head-dress of feathers and tassels; part of which still remains,
with lines of hieroglyphics underneath. The ground-work of the
ornaments is chiefly composed of raised lines, running diagonally,
forming diamond or lattice-work, over which are rosettes and stars;
and, in bold relief, the beautiful Chiuese border.

" From the centre of the building to the recess, at the northern ex-
tremity of the building, the ornaments have mostly crumbled off, and
are now lying at the base in ruins; and the other parts, contiguous,
seem ready to follow the example. The rear of this edifice is more
plainly finished; the main part of the centre has fallen.

"Over the principal doorway are the
remains of a female figure, in a sitting
posture. The hands ami legs have fallen.
It has a tine head-dress of cap and tassels,
and neck ornaments. The waist looks
quite natural, and the whole was finely fi-
nished. On each side of this figure was
hieroglyphical writing. The inner rooms
of the centre of the Governor's House still
show the places of excavations, made some
years ago, by the curate of Ticul." * *

" A moonlight scene from the Gover-
nor's House is one of the most enchanting
sights I ever witnessed. The moon had
risen about half-way up from the horizon,
and was now throwing its strong silver light
over the whitened facade of our house.
Castles, palaces, and falling pyramids were
distinctly to he traced in the foreground.
At a distance, walls and mounds, rising
above the green verdure of the land, looked
like a multitude of small islands in a calm
snmmei's sea. All was quiet but the chirp
of the cricket, or the occasional scream of
some night-bird of the wood. It was a
scene of natural beauty such as I never
have seen realized upon canvass of the ar-
tist, or even in the pages of poetry."

and is spoken by the Canchis, Castas, Collas, Collaguas, Lupacas, Pa-
cases, Carancas, Charcas, and others, being the native language of the
Lupacas. This language has been a good deal cultivated by the mis-
sionaries, as the Maya has been, and a grammar of Aymara was pub-
lished at Rome as early as 1603, the first Maya grammar appearing
in 1560. The following words seem to show a resemblance between
the two languages.

May :-. Aymara.

Father hachyum Auquihana

Mother hachnaa tayca

Man uinic haquenaca

In construction there is also a considerable resemblance, the pro-
nouns being suffixed to the other uonls. The following is an example
of pronouns in the two languages.

Maya. Aymara.

My in na, ana, nahasa

Ours ca cha, cass

His u ru

Theirs an ana

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

137

The general resemblance between the Aymara and the Maya ap-
pears in actual observation to be as close as that of two families of
the Indo-European languages, but does not extend to general words,
only to some of the simple words, and to construction.

Into Mr. Norman's speculations we cannot enter, but we cannot re-
sist observing that the general evidence seems to bear upon the com-
mon origin of the civilized races of America, and their relationship
to the civilized races of the old world. When we trace the Indo-Eu-
ropean languages up to their common stock, we find in the Sanskrit,
Zend and Persian types, although many points of resemblance, many
points of diversity, and perhaps no greater difference exists between
the Japhetic, Semitic, and Hamitic languages, or whatever the clas-
sification may ultimately be determined to be. It certainly is the case
that although there is a distinct character of the Semitic ' and Indo-
European languages, that points of identity are to be discovered,
while among the scattered people of the Pacific ocean, many relics of
language are to be found, which may have a relationship with those
two great divisions. - There is nothing, therefore, to countenance
any departure in that respect from the testimony of the sacred records
as to the common origin of the several human races. Supposing the
American civilized races to have migrated from Iranistan, their route
might lay through southern Siberia (in which ancient and extensive
monuments are to be found), across the Pacific to the Columbia, by
the course of that river to the valley of the Mississipi, thence through
Mexico, to the western coast of South America. The circumstance
of a race not occupying the whole of a country, is frequently to be
found in the migrations of the Indo-European nations. Thus it is
questionable if Scandinavia and Ireland were ever occupied by what
Mr. Winning calls the Perso-European races, who pushed out the
Medo-European races. A subsequent Mongol invasion of the Ameri-
can continent, taking a different route, might have supplanted the
civilized population, and extended its settlements in the same way
that is familiar to us in the history of Europe. But we must leave
such speculations, and wait for the researches and labours of others
to reveal that fossil history of America, which will yet be digged from
its monuments, and collected from among the tribes of its children,
secluded in mountain fastnesses.

Martin Chuzzkwit. By Boz. London: 1843.

It must be confessed that we seem to go altogether out of our way
in bestowing any notice on a work of this kind ; still, as Mr. Dickens
treats the architectural profession rather cavalierly in this new pro-
duction of his, we feel ourselves called upon to be equally free with
him, and must tell him, that, as far as they have yet been shown, both
his Mr. Pecksniff and his Tom Pinch are errant caricatures — not only
over-drawn, but ill-drawn — fantastic creatures of one who seems to
mistake sheer extravagance for imagination. It now looks as if Mr.
Dickens had been quite spoilt by success, and accordingly fancies that
whatever he writes will be sure to take with the public. So far, he
may not be very much in the wrong, for we believe that had " Chuz-
zlewit " been given to the world without his name, it would have
been pronounced " sad stuff." What should be character is only
coarse caricature, and is laid on, not with the pencil of a master, but
with a troirel. Mr. Pecksniff might do for a "Gin-Palace" architect,
but for nothing better; and even then his barefaced hypocrisy, as
blundering too, as it is barefaced, is perfectly gratuitous, and by no
means a professional trait. We may therefore suppose, that such as
it is, that character is intended as an individual portrait, the original
of which we are quite unacquainted with. At all events, it is a
highly disagreeable and absurd one ; and wholly destitute of proba-
bility. It might be rendered a vehicle for wholesome satire, but not,
we fear, by Mr. Dickens, for to say the truth, he appears to know very
little either of architecture, or the profession. In fact, he evidently
shirks the former, otherwise he would have shown up the absurdities
of Mr. Pecksniff's own designs, and would have let the public see
what arrant humbug and quackery will impose upon it. Humbug,
however, is by no means confined to the architectural profession : at
the present day there is more than enough of it, on the part of those
critics, who would fain persuade us that we have got another Henry

1 We may note that vie have observed great resemblance between the
affixes and suffixes ol the Hebrew and Arabic and the Magyar, and in the
pronouns generally.

- It is curious to observe the wide spend of the roots mira (Sanscrit),
sea or water, and ship or skill',— words perhaps which boast ot the most
extensive diffusion ; and admitting the seat of the human race to be in Iran-
istan, easily to be accounted for by the neighbourhood of the Euphrates and
the Indus, the Persian Gulph, the Arabian and Caspian seas,

Fielding in Charles Dickens ; which we shall believe when we believe
that Tom Moncrieff is a second William Shakspere.— After all, we
may be mistaken in one very essential point, — namely, the authorship
of the work : inasmuch as it professes not to be written, but merely
edited, by Boz. Consequently he does not give it to the world as his
own, and has probably merely been employed to lick into shape some
other person's literary cub.

Ancient and Modern Architecture. By M. Jules Gailuabaud.
London : Firmin Didot, 1842. Parts 4, 5, 6, and 7.

The interest of this work continues unabated. We find in the
numbers before us, the Tower of the Giants at Gozo, Temple of Se-
gesta, St. Vital at Ravenna, the Cathedral of Freyburg, the Certosa
at Paira, the Mosques of Cordova, and Ebu Touloun at Cairo, and a
Gallery in the Church of the Madeleine at Troves. The two plates
of St. Vital and its details give as good an idea of that remarkable
monument as could be desired, and also another remarkable monu-
ment of very remote antiquity, the Tower of the Giants, is exten-
sivelv illustrated. The designs seem, indeed, to be executed with
that care which is requisite to give them value, as a work of re-
ference.

The Topographer and Genealogist. Part I. London : J. B. Nichols.

This is a quarterly work, which takes up a good position in a field
where much service" is to be done. In the first article on the Earls of
Lincoln, we recognize a spirit of critical research, which promises to
do much good in the weed-abounding field of genealogy; hut we
should have liked also a more comprehensive grasp of the historical
bearings of the subject. The catalogues raisoimees of brasses, monu-
ments, and new antiquarian publications, will prove invaluable to the
amateur and student, and makes stores of information readilv avail-
able, which now require unnecessary labour to reach. If this work
can but keep pace with the mass of scattered information constantly
springing up on the subjects of its research, and present regular di-
gests of them, as digests of cases are supplied to the legal profession,
antiquarian and topographical studies will be very much advanced.
We may notice a slight clerical error, by some mistake. Mr. Aker-
man's valuable Glossary of the Wiltshire Dialect has crept under the
head of works relating to Yorkshire.

Examples of Encaustic Tilts. Part III. London : J. B. Nichols.

This number contains some examples of heraldic tiles, which per-
fectly show the applicability of this material for such kind of decora-
tion. It also illustrates a series of wall tiles from Malvern, and the
curious tile from Worcestershire, bearing the following inscription
here slightly modernized.

" Think, man, thy life may not aye endure —
That diou dost thyself, of that thou art sure,
But that thou keepest, unto thy /actor's cure.'
And ever it avail thee, it is but adventure. J

Mr. Nash reads executor, but we should suggest factor or faiclair,
an agent, by which the applicability of the text is equally maintained,
and its language better preserved.

BADEN-BADEN.

The new Trinkhalie, or Pump-room, by the architect Hubsch, at
Baden, is spoken of in terms of very high commendation by a writer
in a German periodical. " I consider this building," he says, "to be
one of the happiest specimens of architecture that have been pro-
duced in our times. Delightfully situated, the structure itself is
beautiful in its form and proportions, and unaffectedly expressive in
character, — significant in design, and preserving a tasteful medium
between unmeaning decoration on the one hand, and bare and dry
scantiness of it on the other." The building is raised on a boldly
rusticated substructure, and consists of seventeen open arcades, whose
flattened arches spring from columns, which last are uot according to
any particular order, except that their capitals, being foliaged, par-
take of the Corinthian character; but the columns themselves are of

Care.

138

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

shorter proportions, and the angles of the abicus are cut oft so much
as to render that member octagonal. The centre consists ot tive
arches, resting on two ants and four columns, with steps leading up to
it, and is crowned by a pediment with a bas-relief by Reich, a young
sculptor now rising into celebrity. The merits of the design must,
however, be taken entirely upon trust, for there is very little amount-
ing to description in what Ernst Forster says of it. Some particulars
that might easily have been stated are passed over altogether, not-
withstanding that, for want of them, it is impossible to form any dis-
tinct idea of the structure. There is, for instance, not a single dimen-
sion given by which we might even guess at its size : nur is it even
so much as said whether it is an edifice of any magnitude. We are
again quite at a loss to understand whether the "seventeen arches"
spoken of belong only to the principal elevation, or nut. The
" description," in short, is of that kind which, though it may be clear
enough to those who have seen either the building itself, or drawings
of it, is unintelligible without such additional information, — a iery
common, but also a particularly provoking, fault.

DREDGING AND DREDGING MACHINES.

[The following communication describes a practice called radius
cutting, which has been recently introduced into several large dredg-
ing operations. In this new process a lateral sweep, or circular
motion, is given to the ladder, or bucket frame, which swings upon
its upper extremity as a centre, and in its action imitates that of a
scythe in mowing, — with this difference, that the scythe only cuts
from right to left, whereas the buckets cut both backwards and for-
wards, which is the meaning of our correspondent when he says the
machine cuts in both traverses. According to the old system of
working, which our correspondent styles trench cutting, the bucket
frame bag only a vertical motion, the effect of raising or loweriog its
inferior extremity by means of ropes and sheaves fixed at the bows of
the vessel. The machine could only cut right forward in straight
lines, and had to be hove up to its work or dropped down from it
when the buckets had done their work in the axis of the frame. Our
coi respondent contends that the zigzag motion from one cutting posi-
tion— that is, from one trench to the other— is inconvenient, and occa-
sions a loss of power ; that the buckets cutting iu trenches are very
liable to cut in holts where the bottom is already sufficiently deep;
and that after the dredging has been executed in parallel lines, there
are still ridges left between the trenches which must be worked off
by a re; etition of the process. At present we are not able to see
clearly how the two latter of these objections are obviated by the new
>vstem of radius catting. However, we insert the letter of OUT cor-
respondent in luil, and shall be happy to receive further information
as to the working of ibis system. — Ed.]

SlB — Having twice had to make out plans and specifications of new
ing machines .or works where I have been an assistant, I have
bestowed a good deal of attention on this subject; and recent acci-
dents to masonry where modes of cutting other than dredging have
been adopted, have induced me to send you the following remarks
on the new system of "Radius cutting," which has been found so
successful on one of the largest navigation improvements at present
going on.

In the ordinary method of "trench" cutting, the power applied to
lead the machine ahead into the cutting, has also to resist the reac-
tion of the buckets: so that in the Dublin machines it was thought
worth while to take the power trom the engine. In the Clyde boats
this process requires a great expense of manual labour, but Mr. Bald
has taken the power from the engine in the newest machine' (No. 5).

Now, in radius cutting, the chain from the bow of the machine is
not wound up while it is cutting, but is only shortened at each return
of the machine, which may be described as swinging on that chain
just like the "bob" on a pendulum: the machine being led laterally
to the cutting by the side chains. These side chains are compara-
tively easy to work, as the reaction of the buckets is mostly against
the radius chain.

There is no more difficulty attending the use of these lateral chains
in a harbour, or narrow navigation, than iu "trench" cutting, where
corresponding chains, or "guys," are required to keep the machine

in line, and these are necessarily used on both sides at once ; whereas
these lateral chains are only tightened on one side, — namHv, that on
which the machine may happen to be traversing ; and where it is
required to lower them, to allow vessels to pass, they have only to be
tightened up till the buckets fill again.

In the old system of working the boat ahead, it has to stop when it
has cut a trench, come back over the same ground, and be set again
to commence cutting another trench; and after the requisite breadth
is traversed, the machine must again work over the same breadth, in
the same zigzag manner, to cut the "ridges" which were left between
the "trenches." This is the most clumsy and unprofitable part of
the system, as these ridges yield before the buckets when soft, and
stand when hard, causing a continual raising and lowering of the
"ladder." Any engineer may satisfy himself of this, by standing to
see the soundings at the "well," which are so irregular that half the
full work is not performed: and there is no doubt of the immense
loss, by the machine cutting in what is termed "holes."

All these evils are greatly reduced bv working with a radius chain.
The machine cuts in both traverses, and carries the work clean before
it. The surface of the bank can be pared to any level, the michine
passing over the hollows and cutting only the heights, and so never
wasting time by dredgiug in holes.

There is no loss from taking the machine rapidly over the ground,
when such might be required to keep the buckets full; but in the old
system there would be a great loss in doing so, and paring only to a
certain extent at each run, — for the backing of the machine is a dead
loss of lime. Yet though this loss is obvious, there might be a
greater, from endeavouring to reduce it by keeping the buckets full
the whole length of the trencn, for then they might get into holes ;
and if a machine contin«e to lift quick stuff from a hole which may
happen to be near a hard part of the bark, it can do little good, as the
hole, if very quick, fills up of itself, or may soon be expected to
collect alluvial matter.

Although it may be true, that, to cut or trench a bank in the proper
current, will, by changing the currents and eddies, remove it by a
natural process; yet, as this is a point so difficult to hit upon, it is
generally allowed, that, to get lorge stones and rocks taken up, and to
cut the surface fair, is the surest way of reducing a bank, and of leav-
ing it iu the condition least liable to "silt up."

It is with these views of the advantages to be derived from the
judicious application of machines, that the preceding mode is brought
under the consideration of your readers.

There have been great improvements made in the machinery by
the practical engineer; but the civil engineer has not made any cor-
responding advancement in the working of the machine, although it
is his right hand instrument. By attention to the working of the
machine! much time and expense may be saved, which no improve-
ment in mere construction of the machinery could ever effect. Dredg-
ing machines seem just to be put into the hands of their captains and
engine-keepers, to make the best of them. And it cannot be doubted
that the performance of these machines might be greatly increased by
improved application ; indeed, the improvements here described go
far to prove this, as they effect a saving of at least one-fourth of the
power. When men of science bestow due attention on the subject,
farther advancement may yet be made, and the dredging machine be
found not only by far "the most safe and expeditious, but also the
cheapest mode of cutting.

The difference of construction in the machine for working on the
radius principle is very little, and need only be made at the lower
end of the bucket ladder. As the machine is led side-ways to the
stuff, the lower "tumbler" has no flanges, as in the ordinary t.imbler,
on which they are necessary to assist m keeping the buckets from
swerving as they are pressed forward; but iustead of the flanges
there are "snugs" on the tumbler between the chains to keep them
on. it would be useless to notice other parts of the construction in
this paper, as that is the characteristic difference. The four crab
winches usually erected on the deck of a machine serve with a snatch-
block to wind the traverse chains.

3U, Hope Street, Glasgow, W. C, c. e.

21** March, 1843.

' No dredging machine is complete unless the work of heaving the vessel
ahead be performed by the engine. It is one of the mosi obvious applica-
tions of '.he steam power by which the maehi e is worked, and « believe
some ot the earliest en-ines— for instance, those on '.he Caledonian Canal-
were so contrived, as to be hove forward by the engine when required— El).

Bell Rock Lit.HTiioisE. — The monthly return from this establishment for
February takes notice of a heavy sea upon the rock, from the north-east, on
the 14ih and three follow ing days, when the spray rose from 70 to 80 feet on
the lighthouse tower. On each of ihese days, says the return, " we felt the
building tremble but very little." Various of the travellers or boulder stones
upon the rock have been shilted from " Arrnston and Ulbster " ledges to the
west end of " Hope's'' Wharf. The boulders connected with the " Royal
Burghs " have also been tossed about ; one of these measures nine feet in
length. — Calethniun Mercury,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

i:w

ABERYSTWYTH HARBOUR.

Sir — In perusing "Blackford and Imray's Charts and Sailing Di-
rections for St. George's Channel, 2nd ed." lately published, at p. 40
I find an account of this harbour as follows : — "Aberystwyth Harbour
is a narrow creek, and not fit for vessels that draw above 9 or 10 feet
water, and these must have spring tides to go over the liar." From
the following account it will be seen what alterations have taken place
through engineering skill, which has completely set aside the above
description.

The Harbour of Aberystwyth is situated in the bottom of the Bay
of Cardigan, terminated by Bardsey Island on the North, and Strumble
Head on the South, and lies about 5 leagues E.N.E. from New Quay,
but more immediately between two points of land, the Castle Hill on
the North, and Alltwen on the South. Between these two points of
hind, the Rivers Rhydiol and Ystwyth empty themselves into the sea.
Aberystwyth Harbour may be distinguished at some leagues distance
by Pen Dinas Hill, which rises steep on the south end, also by the
ruinous castle near the town.

The sea coast here about is nearly N.N.E. and S.S.W. by compass
bearings ; the prevalent winds from the W., and more especially from
the W.S.W. produce the heaviest swells; for in that direction the
Abervstwvth coast lies exposed to the fury of the Western Ocean.

The Harbour, in its original state, was probably only the mouth of
a mountain river, the Rhydiol, which, after a course of about 20 miles
through a slate stone soil", falls into the sea. The Rhydiol, like other
mountain streams, is subject to sudden and violent floods, or freshes,
during rainy seasons, and a great quantity of slate, gravel, and other
matter is brought down the river by the effect of these freshes. The
foregoing observations equally apply to the River Ystwyth. The
"Sfstwytll having united its waters with the Rhydiol at the entrance of
the Harbour, these two rivers maintain one common outfall, through
the beach into the sea. The slate gravel brought down the rivers,
and the beach that was brought from the southward, accumulated, and
being thrown up by the action of the sea, a bank or bar was formed
at low water. This bar offered a constant obstruction to vessels, in
their ingress and egress, and often caused great destruction of life
and property.

Now to show what engineering has done. In the year 1S38, the
trustees commenced a substantial new stone pier on the south side of
the entrance of the harbour, to protect the harbour from the western
gales, and to prevent the beach from accumulating and forming a bar.
This pier is now (1843) extended from the beach 2G0 yards in the
direction of SSE and NNW, and as far as i* completed, has fully an-
swered their expectation. In the first place, it has stopped the pro-
gress of the beach, and deposited the same at the back of the pier.
Secondly, it has guided the rivers into a proper channel, by which it
has caused a deeper channel to be formed, and removed the bar.
Thirdly, instead of 9 or 10 feet water at spring tides, it has now ob-
tained that height or more at the neap tides, and an average of 16
feet at spring tides. Lastly, it has removed that danger to vessels
and mariners arriving or sailing or having to wait in the bay during
the neap tides, for water to enter the harbour. The portion of the
river Rhydiol and the harbour at high water, occupy an area of about
20 acres. On the pier is erected a powerful capstan, supplied with
ropes, and a store house ; and about 400 yards to seaward off the end
of the pier, are moored two large transporting buoys, lying in 4i fa-
thoms low water spring tides, for vessels to moor to or warp from,
and every facility is rendered vessels making or leaving this port, by
signals and lights at tide times; it is now considered by all mariners
th,it visit this port to he the best tidal harbour in the principality,
when, but a few years sincp, it was the worst.

Vessels visiting this port can be supplied with everv accommo-
dation for repairing, &c, there being two ship-building departments,
a rope walk, and sail makers, also bar and block warehouses. The
markets are well supplied, and sufficient stores can be obtained.

An Old Subscriber.

Aberystwyth, March 1st, 1843.

STEAM POWER.

Sir.— The detailed table of the values of the different degrees of
expansion in the engines of the Great Britain, which appeared iu the
March number of this Journal, afforded me much pleasure, since they
will tend to produce a conviction of the advantages in the minds of
owners of steam boats, who might disregard the form in which it has
been already advocated in your pages.

In consequence of an inadvertent change, of my expressions from
" a. cubic foot of water expended us steam, is equivalent to one horse
power per hour," to " the evaporation of a cubic foot of water is equal
to one horse power," you appear to have overlooked the limits I
intended to apply to the assertion. The w«>rds in italics, which had
been used in a few lines above as " expended as steam in the cylinder"
were inserted to exclude the power due to expansive action, as well
as the waste, 1st, in blowing off, 2nd, at the safety valve, 3rd, clear-
ance steam, and 4th, cooling. I happened to roughlv estimate these
losses at 1 lb. of water for an expenditure of 7 lb. of water as " dense
steam" doing work in the cylinder, while the communication with the
boiler remained open, making the boiler evaporation identical with
your assumption; and I feel assured you will grant me permission to
refer to this charge of inaccuracy, and to the standard of h^rse power
assumed in my remarks on nominal horse power in the Nautical Ma-
gazine.

I merely followed TredgoM in the assumption that steam of atmo-
spheric strength will produce 3,600,000 lb. pressure one foot high, and
consequently maintain dining one hour, a gross power on the piston of
60,000 lb. one foot high ; and I apprehend this assertion is equally tun-,
with a slight increase for higher steam, and a slight decrease for steam
below the atmosphere for the " dense steam" not worked expansively.

As a secondary assertion I added " this gross power is capable of
producing 33,000 lb. on the connecting rod," and perhaps in the best
engines from 40 to 50 per cent, more, still it is not competent to pro-
duce an excess of 73 per cent., and much less an excess of cent, per
cent, as due to 14lb.net pressure, which amounts to O'J.OOO lb. per
minute.

This standard of 00,000 Ih. gross pressure I had understood has
been occasionally used, or been recommended to be used, by civil
engineers in contracts, to prevent disputes with engine makers re-
specting the excess of power above nominal horse power to be sup-
plied, and it seems a fair mean. Moreover, it meets the difficulties
arising from higher steam, and the reduction of power due to expan-
sion, and it is equally applicable to non-condensing engines ("the esti-
mate of horse power of these engines seems somewhat undefined).

The employment of an indicator, the value of which you have ad-
verted to, is obviously required in estimates of the above nature ; and
though well adapted as a standard of comparative power and coal
consumption, yet nominal horse power might still be used as a mea-
sure of the size of the engine : which seems a good commercial unit,
of the same value as the diameter in inches, of the cylinder used in
Cornwall, where the loads vary from 51b. to 161b. per square inch,
and the strokes from 2 to 11 per minute in large engines.

Accustomed to refer to the "work performed " or duty, I concur
entirely in the appeal to the " wotk to be done" by the engines of the
Great Britain, especially as I anticipate the most favourable results
from the mode in which the designers of the Great Britain have
availed themselves of the condition that their capacities increase iu
a faster ratio than the areas of the midship sections of vessels.

I have the honour to remain, Sir,

March 10th. Your's, obediently,

John S. Enys.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Jan. 10. — The Pcekident in the Chair.

The business of the meeting was commenced by reading an abstract of
Mr. Davison's paper (No. 539) describing the mode adopted for sinking a
well at Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, Buxton, and Co.'s Brewery, which was
published in the minutes of proceedings of session 1842, p. 192, and the fol-
lowing observations were made.

Mr. Braithwaite described the difference between the method employed in
sinking the well for Messrs. Truman and Co., and that for Messrs. lieid and
Co. In the former the bore was small, and would therefore only produce as
much water as was procured from the veins through which it passed ver-
tically, while the latter, by its larger diameter, permitted lateral galleries to
be dnveu in the direction of the fissures in the chalk : thus forming feeders
for the well, and at the same time capacious reservoirs wherein the water
accumulated when the pumps were not a; v. oil,.

He attributed the comparative failure at Messrs. Truman's to errors in the
mode of sinking: the length of the cylinders which had been attempted
to be forced down was too great, and the lateral pressure had prevented
them from reaching the chalk, so that when the pumps were set to woi k an
undue quantity of sand was drawn up with the water, causing a cavity be-
hind the brick-work, which at length fell in. The water having been
pumped out to a lower level than was proper, the equilibrium between the
water and the sand around the cylinder had been disturbed, and the "blow"
of sand had ensued.

The New Kivcr Company had been advised to sink a well of sufficient

140

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

diameter to enable them to excavate lateral galleries, but they had sunk
their well in the Hampstead Road, of a small diameter, as described in the
paper by Mr. R. W. Mylne, published in the third volume of the transactions
of the Insttuition ; ' and although fissures had fortunately been traversed,
which gave an ample supply of water, many of the difficulties encountered
would, he contended, have been avoided by adopting the larger diameter,
and sinking the cylinders into the chalk, before the pumping was com-
menced.

The supply of water at Messrs. Reid's well had been sensibly affected by
the recent proceedings at the Hampstead Road well, which was now being
constantly pumped in order to sink it deeper.

Mr. Davison explained that a bore of small diameter had been adopted,
because it was calculated that a supply of water, sufficient for the wants of
the brewery, would have been obtained by it. The excavation to within five
fec-t of the chalk was suggested by the sudden dropping of the cylinder. He
believed that when (contrary to his express instructions) the level of the water
was reduced by pumping to below a given point, the sand from beneath the
oyster-bed rushed in to restore the equilibrium within the cylinder, and thus
caused the difficulties which he had to contend with.

During the last year the pumps had been at work 1616 hours, in which
time 300,000 barrels, or 50.000 tons, of water had been drawn from the
well.

Mr. Farey believed that the casualties in well sinking, generally arose
from the sources which had been mentioned. Mr. Voolf encountered them
when sinking the well at Messrs. Meux' (now Messrs. Reid's) brewery. The
pumping up of sand with the water was there carried to such an extent as to
cause an accumulation of sediment two feet deep in the liquor back, in 11
days, and ultimately the new well broke into the old one adjoining it.

Mr. Braithwaite explained, that, in the year 1814, the well at Messrs.
Meux was pumped " to clear the spring," which caused a cavity of nearly 40
feet deep from the sides of the well, and endangered the stability of the
buildings around. Piles were therefore driven to support the upper ground,
and upon them the brick steining was carried up. If the cylinders had in
the first instance been carried down to the chalk, before the pumping had
commenced, this accident would not have occurred.

Mr. Vignoles remarked that the same question, as to the relative merits of
boring or sinking, bad been discussed at Liverpool, for wells in the red
sandstone, and in practice it had universally been found that, by the latter
system, the best supply of water had been procured, particularly when side
drifts had been made.

Mr. Mylne said that the works at the well in the Hampstead Road, which
had been repeatedly stopped from accident, were now resumed as an experi-
ment ; the quantity of water obtained was more than could be drawn by a
pump 12 inches diameter, 6 feet stroke, making 10 strokes per minute
(=: 204 gallons per minute). The spring was struck at about 234 feet
below the surface of the ground, and when the engine was regularly at work,
the water generally stood at within 20 feet from the bottom of the well.
He coincided in the opinion of the advantage of a well of large diameter
over one of small bore, as it permitted side excavations to be made in search
of water. This plan had been pursued with success at Brighton.

Mr. Taylor observed that another of the advantages of the large diameter
was, that the proceedings could be watched, and accidents could be more
readily remedied ; the opinion of all practical miners was, that the large
diameter was cheaper, as well as better, than the small bore.

Mr. Clark promised an account and drawings of a well now sinking by
him at the Royal Mint. The advantages of a large diameter were manifest
to all practical men, particularly when the augur or " miser " was used, as it
enaliled the operation to be continued without pumping; the cylinder, in
lengths of not more than 30 feel each, followed the "miser" down regu-
brly, and as soon as they reached the chalk, the operation was considered
sale; and as the " miser" did not excavate more than was due to the area
of the cylinder, the equilibrium between the water within and the sand
without the cylinder was never disturbed. In a well sunk by him at Messrs.
Watney's distillery, the cylinders were 11 feet diameter; the "miser" used
was 5 feet diameter, and was turned by twelve men at a time.

Mr. Braithwaite concurred in the advantages of using the "miser;" he
invariably employed it, and generally with success.

Mr. Farey believed that the augur or "miser" was first used in this
country by the late Mr. Vulliamy,- of Pall Mall, for sinking an Artesian
well, into which there was an irruption or blow of sand, the effect of which
was onlv overcome by this instrument.

" An Experimental Inquiry as to the Co-efficient of Labouring Force in
Overshot Water-wheels, whose diameter is equal to, or exceeds, the total
descent due to the fall ; and of Water-wheels moving in circular Channels."
By Robert Mallett, M. Inst. C. E.

This paper is partly mathematical, and partly experimental. The investi-
gation which it details, the results of which are given in ten tables of experi-

1 Trans. Inst. C. E., vol. hi. p. 229.

2 Vide Nicholson's Journal of Philosophy, vol. li. p. 266,— •' An Account of
the means employed to obtain an Overflowing Well at Norland House in
1794," by Benjamin Vulliamy.

ments, had in view principally to obtain the definite solution of the following
questions.

1st. With a given height of fall and head of water, or in other words, a
given descent and depth of water in the pentrough, will any diameter of
wheel greater than that of the fall give an increase of labouring force (;'. e. a
better effect than the latter), or will a loss of labouring force result by so
increasing the diameter ?

2nd. When the head of water is necessarily variable, under what con-
ditions will an advantage be obtained by the use of the larger wheel, and
what will be the maximum advantage ?

3rd. Is any increase of labouring force obtained, by causing the loaded arc
of an overshot wheel to revolve in a closely fitting circular race, or conduit ?
and if so, what is the amount of advantage, and what the conditions for
maximum effect ?

The author briefly touches upon the accepted theory of water wheels, the
experimental researches of Smeaton, and the recent improvements in theory,
due to the analytic investigations of German and French engineers.

Smeaton, in his paper on water wheels, read to the Royal Society in May,
1759, and Dr. Robison, in his treatise on water wheels, iay down as a fixed
principle, that no advantage can be obtained by making tlie diameter of an
overshot wheel greater than that of the total descent, minus so much as is
requisite to give the water, on reaching the wheel, its proper velocity.

The author, however, contends that while the reasoning of the latter is
inconclusive, there are some circumstances which are necessarily in favour of
the larger wheel, and that conditions may occur in practice, in which it is
desirable to use the larger wheel, even at some sacrifice of power ; and that
hence it is important to ascertain its co-efficient of labouring force, as com-
pared with that of the size assigned by Smeaton for maximum effect.

The author states, first, the general proposition, " that the labouring force
(" travail " of French writers), or " mechanical power" of Smeaton, of any
machine for transferring the motive power of water " is equal to that of the
whole moving power employed — minus the half of the vis riva lost by the
water ou entering the machine, and minus the half of the vis viva due to the
velocity of the water on quitting it." He deduces from the theory, the
following results, coinciding with the conclusions obtained by experiment.

1st. If the portion of the total descent passed through by the water before
it reaches the wheel be giveu, the velocity of the circumference should be
one-half that due to this height.

2nd. If the velocity of the circumference be given, the water must descend
through such a fraction of the whole fall before reaching the wheel, as will
generate the above velocity.

3rd. The maximum of labouring force is greater, as the velocity of the
wheel is less j and its limit theoreticallv approaches that due to the whole
fall.

General equations are given, expressing the amount of labouring force in
all the conditions considered, and their maxima.

One of the principal advantages of using an overshot wheel greater in
diameter than the height of the fall, is the power thus afforded, of rendering
available any additional head of water occurring at intervals, from freshes or
other causes, by admitting the water upon the wheel at higher levels.

The first course of experiments is dedicated to the determination of the
comparative value of two water wheels, one of whose diameter is equal to
the whole fall, and the other to the head and fall, or to the total descent ;
by the head, being in every case understood, the efficient head, or that due
to the real velocity of efflux at the shuttle, as determined according to Smea-
ton's mode of experimenting.

The apparatus employed in tlus research consisted of two accurately made
models of overshot wheels, with curved buckets. These were made of tin
plate, the arms being of brass, and the axles of cast iron. Special contri-
vances were adopted to measure the weight of water which passed through
either wheel during each experiment, to preserve the head of water strictly
constant, and to determine the number of revolutions, and the speed of the
wheels.

One wheel was 25-5 inches diameter, the other, 33 inches diameter. The
value of the labouring force was determined directly, by the elevation of
knoun weights to a height, by a silken cord over a pulley; the altitude
being read off on a fixed rule placed vertically against a lofty chimney ; and
in other experiments, relatively by the speed of rotation given to a regulating
fly or vane. The depth of the efficient head was 6 inches in all cases.

The weight of water passed through either wheel in one experiment, was
always 1000 pounds avoirdupoise.

All the principal results given in the tables accompanying the paper, are
the average of five good experiments ; from the large scale upon which these
were conducted, the accurate construction of the apparatus, and the care
bestowed upon the research, which was undertaken with reference to an
actual case in the author's professional practice, be is disposed to give much
confidence to the results.

The weight of water contained in the loaded arc of each wheel is accu-
rately ascertained, and in the tables which accompany the paper, the results
of the several experiments are given at length.

The velocity of the wheels, under different circumstances, is carefully
noted and discussed with respect to the maximum force.

The author next ascertains the value of the circular conduits, and states
that generally, in round numbers, there is an economy of labouring force,
amounting to from S to 1 1 per cent, of the power of the fall, obtained by
the use of a conduit to retain the water in the lower part of the buckets of

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

HI

an overshot wheel, whose diameter is equal to the fall. The velocity of a
water wheel working thus, may vary through a larger range without a ma-
terial loss of power, and a steady motion is continued to a lower velocity
than when it is working in a free race.

The author finally arrives at the following general practical conclusions : —

1st. When the depth of water in the reservoir is invariable, the diameter
of the water-wheel should never be greater than the entire height of the
fall, less, so much of it as may be requisite to give the water a proper velo-
city on entering the buckets.

2nd. When the depth of water in the reservoir varies considerably and
unavoidably in depth, an advantage may be obtained by applying a larger
wheel, dependent upon the extent of fluctuation and ratio in time, that the
water is at its highest and lowest levels during a given prolonged period ; if
this be a ratio of equality in time, there will be no advantage ; and hence,
in practice, the cases will be rare when any advantage will obtain by the use
of an overshot wheel, greater in diameter than the height of fall — minus,
the head due to the required velocity of the water reaching the wheel.

3rd. If the level of the water in the reservoir never fall below the mean
depth of the reservoir, when at the highest and lowest, and the average
depth be between an eighth and a tenth of the height of the fall, then the
average labouring force of the large wheel will be greater than that of the
small one ; and it will of course retain its increased advantage at periods of
increased depth of the reservoir.

Dr. Robison's views, therefore, upon this branch of the subject, should, he
contends, receive a limitation.

A positive advantage is obtained by the use of the conduit varying with
the conditions of the wheel and fall, of nearly 11 per cent, of the total
power.

The value increases with the wheel's velocity up to 4^ feet per second, or
to 6 feet per second, in large wheels. Hence, he argues, that it is practicable
to increase the efficiency of the best overshot wheels, as now usually made,
at least 10 per cent, by this application. The only objections urged against
the use of the conduit are of a practical character, relating to the difficulty
of making it fit close, of repair, &e. ; but however these may have applied
to the rude workmanship of the older wooden wheels, with wood or stone
conduits, they are unimportant, as referring to modern water-wheels made of
iron. The conduits may be also made of cast-iron, provided with adjusting
screws, and hence of being always kept fitting, readily repaired, and capable
of being withdrawn from the circumference of the wheel in time of frost, &c.

The paper is illustrated by a drawing, showing the elevation and partial
sections of the experimental apparatus, and a diagram showing the full size
of the loaded arc of each model.

Mr. Farey observed, that the result arrived at by the experiments, appeared
to correspond nearly with those recorded by Smeaton, who had experi-
mented upon, and used practically both kinds of wheels. The buckets of
the model wheels used in the experiments did not appear to be of the best
form, and they were entirely filled with water ; hence an apparent advantage
had been obtained, by the use of the circular conduit to retain the water in
the buckets. But that would not be realized in practice, for as the form of
the bucket regulated the point at which the water quitted it, and it was the
practice of the modern millwrights to make the wheels very broad, in order
that the buckets should not be filled to more than one-third of their depth,
the circular conduits became less useful, and in fact were now seldom used.
Smeaton's practice was, to entirely fill the buckets with water, but he never
adhered to the slow velocity of revolution which he recommended theoreti-
cally in his paper to the Royal Society.

Mr. Fairbairn had adopted broad wheels with an improved form of bucket,
partially filled, and had obtained a more regular motion, particularly at high
velocities.

Mr. Farey promised to present to the Institution, a copy of the method of
calculation adopted by Smeaton for water-wheels.

Mr. Taylor corroborated Mr. Farey's statement of the advantage of using
broad wheels, with the buckets of a fine pitch and partially filled ; circular
conduits then became unnecessary : this was practised among the millwrights
in North Wales with eminent success, and a velocity of six feet per second
was given to the wheel.

Mr. Homersham believed that in Smeaton's latter works he increased the
velocity of his wheels to six feet per second.

Mr. Rennie gave great credit to the author for the ingenuity of the appar-
atus with which the experiments were tried, and for the clearness of the
tabulated results; but owing to the necessary limited size of the model
wheels, he feared the results could not be relied upon for application in
practice to large wheels. The experiments of Borda, Bossut, Smeaton,
Banks and others, were all liable to the same objection.

The best modern experiments are those by the Franklin Institute, by Pon-
celet, and by Morin.

The result of these might be taken thus :

Undershot wheels, the ratio of power to effect varied from 0-27 to 0-30

Breast wheels „ „ „ n n-45 to 0-50

Overshot wheels „ „ „ o-60 to 0-H0

Average „ „ „ H 0-60

The velocity of the old English water-wheels was generally about three
feet per second; the American wheels four feet, and the French wheels six
feet : this latter speed was now adopted by the best millwrights in England.
Mr. Hughes, at Mr. Oott's factory at Leeds, and Mr. Faiibairn, had found

advantage from it ; the latter also had a particular contrivance for carrying
off the air freely from the buckets.

It was important to regulate the thickness of the sheet of water running
over the shuttle upon the wheel ; four to five inches was found in practice
to be the maximum depth allowed.

The object being to utilize the greatest height of fall and the greatest
available quantity of water, by means of properly constructed openings and
such sluice-gates as were first introduced by the late Mr. Rennie for the
breast-wheels constructed by him, instead of penning up the water in a
trough, it was made to flow in a sheet of regular thickness over the top of
the shuttle, and by a self-regulating apparatus to adjust itself at all times to
the height of the water ; thus obtaining the advantage of the full height of
the fall at its surface, and obviating the necessity for the apparatus proposed
by Mr. Mallett.

Mr. Mallett begged to dissent from the validity of the objections which
had been made to the practical value of his experiments. With respect to
the form of the bucket, that used by him could not, he contended, be called
a bad form, although it might be susceptible of improvement ; but as the
experiments were altogether comparative, it was foreign to the question
whether the form was bad or good, the same having been used in both
wheels.

As it was shown that a certain relation subsisted between two water
wheels with the same total descent, but with different diameters, as to their
co-efficient of labouring force, a proportional relation would exist with any
worse or better form of bucket. The results considered as absolute measures
of effect, being obtained with a form of bucket which approached nearer to
the best forms now in use, than did those of Smeaton or any other experi-
menter, were more applicable to modern practice, and therefore he must con-
sider his results, as not without utility.

With regard to the custom of only partially filling the buckets, it must be
remarked that buckets of the best forms begin to spill their contents before
arriving at the lowest point of the loaded arc ; the partial filling could,
therefore, only palliate the evil which the circular conduit was designed to
remedy. He must, however, contend that a positive disadvantage attended
the partial filling. A permanent loss of fall was produced equal to the
distance between the centres of gravity of the fall, and of the empty portions
of the top bucket at the moment it had passed the sluice ; this distance
could be but little varied by the fineness of pitch of the bucket, and depended
more upon the depth of the shrouding. That there was a constant loss of
labouring force by a practical diminution of the effective leverage, or a re-
duction in the " moment " of the loaded arc. That as the wheel revolved,
the centre of gravity of the fluid contained in each bucket, as it approached
the lower portion of the loaded arc, was transferred to a greater distance
from the centre of motion even before the contents commenced spilling ; but
the angular motion of the centre of gravity of any one bucket was at first
that due to its distance from the centre of motion of the wheel, or to its
radius ; and as the radius increased, a greater angular velocity would be ac-
quired by the water which had changed its position on approaching the
lower point of the wheel ; but this increased velocity was given at the ex-
pense of the power of the wheel, and hence a partially filled bucket would,
he contended, be always attended with a loss of labouring force. To the
last objection, a full bucket was not liable.

From all these reasons, he felt justified in concluding, that the use of the
circular conduit was more advantageous than the practice of partially filling
the buckets.

With respect to the shuttle delivering the water over the top, where the
head of water and the fall were constant, no advantage could be obtained by
the use of a wheel greater in diameter than the total descent ; it was assumed
that this form of shuttle would be used in order always to deliver the water
as high as possible upon the periphery of the wheel ; but the question was,
" If the head be variable, what should be the diameter of the wheel to se-
cure the best effect ? " The paper showed that a wheel whose diameter was
equal to the total descent, when the head was a maximum, did not always
give the greatest average labouring force. The question was therefore inde-
pendent of the sort of shuttle used ; it assumed the power of always admit-
ting the water upon the wheel at the highest point of the total descent, and
sought to establish the best relation between the diameter of the wheel and
the whole descent when the head alone was variable, according to givea
conditions. The results of this part of the investigation, therelore, while
they admitted the full value of Mr. Rennie's shuttle, went further, and
pointed out the limits of its useful application.

He was fully aware of the prejudice which existed agaiust the circular
conduit, and once participated in it ; but his atteutiou had been forcibly
drawn to it in his practice, and having used them very beneficially upon
wheels of 40, 50, and 60 horses' power, which he had constructed for mining
purposes, he wished to draw the attention of the profession to the considera-
tion of their practical merits when adapted to good wheels.

Kngltsh Marm.e.— A bed of variegated marble has been discovered in a
limestone quarry, belonging to George PyLms, Esq., of Muldleton Tyas, near
Richmond, Yorkshire. A small piece has been dressed by a skilful workman ;
the pulish is beautiful, and the marble seems likely to be brought into gene-
ral use.

19

142

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[April,

THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH.

At the Royal Institute of British Architects, on the 6th ultimo, a letter
was read from Mr. Perring, containing some remarks on the great Pyramid,
accompanied by a model.

" The model is on a scale of 30 ft. in the inch, and represents the pyramid
in its original condition, — that is, immediately after the sarcophagus was
placed therein, and before the passages were filled with stone blocks closing
the entrance. From an examination of the ancient Egyptian cubit now
remaining, I deduced the length to be 1-713 English feet, divided into four
palms, each of seven digits. This measure, when applied to the pyramids,
agrees as closely as to render its correctness certain, and I proceed to men-
tion a few of the more obvious results in the edifice before us. The base
covered a square of 448 cubits on each side, which, from a statement of
Pliny, I take to have been equal to eight Egyptian jugera, or acres ; and this
supposition is somewhat confirmed by finding the second pyramid would then
cover seven, and the third, one and three quarters of these supposed jugera,
and so on with the other pyramids of Egypt. The height of the great pyra-
mid appears to have been 230 cubits, being a proportion of height to side of
base of 5 to 8 ; and I may here mention that several other pyramids have
the same proportions. This gives the following ratio on a direct section :
As half the base is to the perpendicular height, so is the apotheme, or slant
height to the whole base ; or for each side it may be thus stated as
Rad : Tang : : Sec : 2 Rad.

" Sir John Herschel having the angles only of the pyramids and their pas-
sages before him, gave his decided opinion that they'were " not connected
with any astronomical fact, and probably adopted for'architectural reasons;"
and the knowledge of the above proportions will I think lead to the same
conclusion ; for with the most solid and enduring shape possible, the builders
obtained a mathematical symmetry which no other proportions could give.
Although this pyramid was nearly 480 feet in perpendicular height of solid
masonry, the pressure of the enormous mass is so distributed, that the lower
courses have only to sustain about 25,000 lb. on the square foot, whilst the
material is equal to at least 1,100,000 1b.; therefore it is evident that the
main objects of the architect— viz., stability and eternal duration— were well
effected. The inclination of the entrance passage of the great pyramid was
regulated by a proportion of 2 to 1 : that is, two feet horizontal 'to one foot
perpendicular.

" The same mode of regulating the angles is observable in every instance ;
thus where inclined blocks were used to cover an apartment, a certain por-
tion of the width of the room was taken for the rise or pitch : as in the
queen's chamber, where the rise is a third of the width of the apartment,
and also the angle of the air passages leading from the king's chamber to the
exterior, have a rise of one perpendicular to two horizontal. From finding,
in even case, that the angles were thus regulated, I have come to the con-
clusion that the Egyptians, at the time of the erection of these mightv
monuments, possessed no knowledge of the division of the circle into
degrees, but that their angles were regulated by the proportion of base to
perpendicular height; in fact, the tangential measure of the angle, and not
its abstract measurement. That they learned to divide the circle into
degrees at a later period is highly probable, as thev were celebrated for their
astronomical knowledge.

" In every part of the pyramids evidences of premeditated and careful de-
sign are apparent ; but my present purpose is to draw attention to the more
striking points in the great pyramid only. The situation of the apartments
in the pyramid appear to have been regulated as follows

Height from base (external) to floor of passage of queen's

chamber

From the above to floor of king's chamber, or principal

apartment
From the above to top of upper chamber . . . . . . 40

From the above to apex of pyramid .. .. 160

40 cubits

Total

280 cubits

Making 280 cubits in perpendicular height, as above stated. The floor of
the subterraneous apartment was also 60 cubits below the base of the
pyramid."

ROYAL COMMISSION OF FINE ARTS.

Her Majesty's Commissioners hereby give notice :

1. That the cartoons or drawings intended for competition, according to
the notices published in April and July. 1842, will be exhibited in Westmin-
ster Hall whither they are to be sent between the hours of 10 and 5 on anv
day, Sunday excepted, during the first week in June next, when agents will

WataSSftftoTlS: them; """ D° draWiDg WiU ^ receivedaf,er
A^L E'acU c,andidate is squired to put a motto or mark on the back of his
hL „mn'„ a ,, °,rnd' t0gether with his drawing, a sealed letter containing
mark Zuf t?"' T1 h,vin« °n the °"^de °f its ™™ » »otto or
mark similar to that on the back of the drawing. The letters belonging to

the drawings to which no premium shall have been awarded will lie returned
unopened.

3. The title of the subject of each drawing, together with the quotation,
if any, to illustrate it, must be affixed either to the back or front of the
drawing.

4. Each drawing is to be sent upon, or accompanied by, a stretching-
frame ; but no ornamental frames in addition to the stretching-franie will be
admissible.

5. The artists or their agents may attend to examine the works sent by
them, and to re-stretch such drawings as shall have been detached from
their stretching-frames and rolled for the convenience of carriage.

6. No drawing will be allowed to be re-touched after having been received,
except to repair an injury occasioned by accident, and then only by the artist
himself.

.". Every possible care will be taken of the works sent, but in case of in-
jury or loss, the commissioners will not be responsible.

8. All the drawings will be exhibited, and catalogues will be published.

9. The names of the judges appointed to award the premiums will he
made known.

By command of the Commissioners,
Whitehall, March 24. C. L. EASTLAKE, Secretrjrv.

THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

REPORT FROM THE SELECT COMMITTEE.

That the committee have met and considered the subject-matter to them
referred, and have examined witnesses, and have come to the following reso-
lution, viz. : That considering the great inconvenience of the present House
of Lords, and that such inconvenience will be greatly aggravated by the pro-
gress of the new buildings before the commencement of the session of 1844,
no delay should take place in the building and preparing the new House of.
Lords beyond what is absolutely required for the safety of the work ; that the
architect he directed so to conduct his operations as to secure the occupa-
tion of the new House of Lords, with temporary fittings, at the commence-
ment of the session of 1844 ; that in case the architect in the progress of
the work of the new House of Lords shall find that more time will be
required in consequence of any apprehension of injurious consequences to
the building, he shall report the same to the Commissioners of her Majesty's
Woods and Forests, in order that such report may be communicated to this
house in due time ; that it does not appear to the committee that it is
advisable that any alterations in the ventilation of the present House of
Lords, which would lead to additional expense, should be adopted ; and the
committee have directed the minutes of evidence taken before them to be
laid before your Lordships. — March 13.

A return made to the House of Commons, published 27th ult., states that
the total amount already expended for building the new Houses of Parlia-
ment is .t'380,483 10*.; the amount voted has been £438,500, and conse-
quently .£58,016 10*. is in band unexpended, which will be required for
works now in progress of completion. It is estimated that a further sum of
£578,424 12f. 'Ml. will be required to complete the buildings. The total
amount of Mr. Barry's estimate will therefore be £1,016,924 12s. 9rf., be-
sides what will be required for completing the landing-places, making good
the pavings, furniture, and fittings, and for decorations by works of art.

The House of Commons, on the 2 "th ult., voted an additional grant of
£] 1(1,000 towards the works.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

DREDGE'S SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

The very economical, simple, and powerful principles of the lever in the
construction of bridges, may be illustrated thus. A bridge is two arms
united at the ends of the chains, the centre, where weight begins and in-
creases from thence progressively, as the chains increase in magnitude and
power to the points of suspension. This is effected by an oblique instead of
a vertical connection of the platform to the main chains, which fixes all
horizontal force in the horizontal line, and gives to the stability of a bridge
the most valuable assistance, as is proved by the numerous bridges already
erected upon the principle in various parts of Great Britain.

Its truth may also be easily understood by the following experiments.
Cut the chains in the middle and the bridge will stand as firm as ever, there
being no strain there; then cut the platform in the middle and it will be
separated into two independent brackets, each supported by the chains aud
the strength of the horizontal line against the abutment. The force re-
quired to resist this tendency, is a measure of the power conferred upon the
bridge, by reason of the oblique connexion of the horizontal line to the
chains-, independent of the advantage gained by tapering them. On the
other hand, cut the chains of a common bridge at the centre, it will destroy
the structure ; or cut the platform in the middle and leave the chains entire,
then it will be seen that there is no tendency of thrust against the abut-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

J 43

ments, nor any horizontal power in the platform, ami that it is the chains
only which sustain the structure. In a chain or rope in a pendent curve this
cannot he avoided, but in a bridge which consists of curved and horizontal
lines, it is clear that the vertical and horizontal forces should be divided, as
it is sufficient for the chains in any bridge, in their position of reduced
power, to support themselves, the platform and the transit loads ; and, inde-
pendently, it is very clear that the horizontal force should not be in the
chains to facilitate their destruction, but in the horizontal line, where it
cannot act in the direction of gravity, but where it is as essentially useful
towards the maintenance of the structure, as are the chains themselves. It
may be remarked that this system facilitates the manufacture of bridges,
out of the cheapest and most durable materials — it enables their strength to
be computed as easily as the contents of a block of marble is ascertained —
requires but one lamina of timber for the roadways, and presents but little
surface of resistance, therefore the wind cannot affect it, nor is any longi-
tudinal trussing required, as in other bridges, whose equilibrium is easily
affected by the slightest force, because they rest on their eenres, similar to
the logan stone.

A. Z.

IMPROVEMENTS IN METAL FOR SHIPS, &c.

Mr. William Fairbairn, of Manchester, engineer, has obtained a patent
for " certain improvements in the construction of metal ships, boats, and
other vessels ; and in the preparation of metal plates to be used therein." —
They consist in preparing or rolling the iron intended to be used in the con-
struction of ships and vessels, by forming at each edge, and the whole length
of the plate, a raised border, — or, in other words, the plate is made at each
side or edge, where the rivets pass through, something like double the thick-
ness of any other part of the plate: one side of the plate being plain, which
is to be the outside in the construction of a vessel, the other side having two
projecting edges, or borders. The rivet-holes on the plain side of each plate
are to be countersunk, so that the head of the rivet may be fiat or flush with
the face of the plate ; and in joining two or more plates together, they are
not to overlap each other, as hitherto practised, but the plates are placed
with their edges together; and behind the two is placed a metal band, bar,
or rib, perforated with a double row of holes, to correspond with the holes
in the edge of each plate, and the whole are firmly rivetted together so as to
form a water-tight joint ; and where greater security or strength is required,
the metal bands or bars are made in the form of a T, or with a projection on
the back side ; by this arrangement the resistance of a vessel in the water
will not be so great, and the plates at the parts where the rivets pass
through will be equal in strength to any other part of the plate ; whereas,
in those of ordinary construction, the plates are considerably weakened by
making the rivet-hoies, as such parts have always been found to give way
when the plate itself has remained entire. — Record of Patents.

IMPROVEMENTS IN CHIMNIES.

M. Eugene de Varroc, of Bryanstone-street, Portman-square, has ob-
tained a patent for " apparatus to he applied to chimnies to prevent their
taking fire, and for rendering sweeping chimnies unnecessarg." — This inven-
tion relates to the application of reticulated metal surfaces, at the com-
mencement, or near the entrance, of the chimney, in order to prevent the
passing of the flame, and also to intercept the soot. The apparatus consists
of two cylinders of wire-cloth, one within the other, but so constructed that
the surfaces of the two cylinders touch, or are in contact with eacli other.
The inventor prefers to make the cylinders of wire-cloth, having sixty -four
holes to the square inch, or closely perforated metal plates may be employed,
but such will not be found as useful as wire-cloth. The cylinder, which is
mounted upon an axis, is fixed in the chimney, as near the fire as convenient,
the flue or chimney being so constructed as to prevent any passage for the
smoke but through the double-wire cylinder, the wires forming the reticu-
late, or open work, of one cylinder, being made to cross those of the other
cylinder. By this arrangement the flames and soot will be prevented from
passing through the cylinder ; but there will be sufficient draught through
the cylinder for the fire, and the chimney beyond the apparatus will not be
coated with soot, the same being deposited on or about the apparatus, which
will require to be brushed off every morning, and, if desired, the cylinder
can be turned partially round, so as to present another part of its periphery.
A modification of this apparatus, composed of a number of perforated plates,
and arranged in a rectangular form, is shown, as being applied to the chim-
ney of a steam-engine boiler ; in which case there are brushes constructed
for clearing the same occasionally from soot. — Ibid.

A FIRE ESCAPE.
A correspondent suggests the followiug simple plan for a fire escape : —
1st. Two ropes of 40 feet in length, each attached to a small chain also
40 feet in length, the end of each chain armed with a spring hook.
2nd. A stout sack of incombustible material (like the fire-proof dresses),

open mouthed, with a metallic rim, about four feet deep, and wide enough
to hold two persons, with two spring books on the opposite sides of the
metallic rim, and connected therewith by a small chain of 9 inches long.

These articles should be brought to the spot on the first alarm of tire by
a police constable. One rope and chain should be carried into the house
next adjoining on the right of the one on fire, and while the rope is held
fast, the chain should be dropt from the upper window till it touches the
pavement ; and the same should be done with the other rope and chain from
the house on the left side ; the two chains should then be hooked together
by the policemen or neighbours. The escape sack should immediately be
attached to the centre of the combined chains, and be rapidly drawn up to
any window where a person may appear in danger. The moment the indi-
vidual has got into the sack, one rope must be eased off, so as to allow the
other rope to become perpendicular, when the rescued party may be taken in
at a lower window of the neighbouring house, or lowered to the pavement ;
the rescuers giving the rope a half turn round a bed post, so that the lower-
ing may be effected discreetly. It need scarcely be added, that this operation
may be repeated several times in a minute, if there should be more indi-
viduals to be rescued. The sack, when manufactured, should be steeped in
some solution prepared to resist combustion, and care should be taken that
the ropes are not unnecessarily exposed to flame.

FLAX MILL AT CASSANO, IN LOMBARDY.

A flax and power loom mill has been established at Cassano, which has ex-
cited a good deal of attention in Italy. It belongs to Messrs. Battaglia and
Co., and the works were erected by Mr. Albano, C. E., of London. The mill
is for flax and hemp, and is divided into three compartments, containing up-
wards of 8000 spindles, set in motion by a water-wheel worked by the Adda,
and 16 ft. in diameter, by 21 ft. or 24 ft. broad. This wheel is of cast iron,
except the floats, which are of sheet iron, and the whole weighs 36 tons.
To this wheel are attached apparatus for governing the velocity of the
machinery, lifting weights to the upper stories, and working fire-engines.
In the factory is also included a steam drying apparatus. Altogether the
arrangements of the establishment and the adaptation of the machinery are
looked upon as conferring great credit on the engineer, and has given great
satisfaction to all parties concerned.

THE THAMES TUNNEL.

This important undertaking was opened for foot passengers on the 25th of
March last. Thus, after many years of anxiety and difficulties, perhaps
without parallel in the history of great Public Works, the practicability of
forming a thoroughfare for carriages and foot passengers under a deep navi-
gable river, and without interruption to the navigation, is proved and exe-
cuted. The obstacles, which have from time to time impeded, and all but
stopped the progress of the Tunnel, have been numerous. The work was
commenced in 1823, but was stopped in 1828, by an irruption of the
Thames. From that time to the spring of 1S35 no progress was made. In
this year, uuder the sanction of an Act of Parliament, the Treasury allowed
the Exchequer Loan Commissioners to advance, out of the grant voted for
Public Works, the money necessary to complete the Tunnel ; and it was
again commenced and has been continued with few but inevitable interrup-
tions and delays to the present time, when, as the Directors have stated, it is
securely completed, and is now thrown open to the Public as a thoroughfare
for foot passengers. The two roadways for carriages under the river are also
perfectly completed. From its commencement to the present date there
have been but 11 years within which the excavation could be carried on.
And during this time, for nearly two years or ninety-nine weeks, the works
were suspended from circumstauces beyond the control of either the Di-
rectors or the Engineer. The work has been in fact executed in about 9 years
of actual work, at a cost of about £446,000, including property and ex-
penses of every kind, with the particulars of which the Proprietors have
been accurately and annually acquainted. The actual Tunnel of 1200 feet
was executed in eight years. The Carriage-way descents are now alone
wanting to complete the work. They are susceptible of being contracted
for in the ordinary way.

The Nelson Monument.— The whole of the leaves, roses, and parts of the
Corinthian capital, to be placed on Nelson's monument, Trafalgar-square,
have now been cast at the foundry in the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, with
the exception of four volutes. The latter ornaments are most elaborate in
their detail, and some idea of the difficulty of making a casting in one piece
may be formed, when it is stated that the mould, before it is put together,
has to be arranged from about 301) distinct parts, and great doubts are enter-
tained of the artist, Mr. Clark, being able to cast the requisite quantity of
metal in the peculiar form of this beautiful and graceful ornament. He is
resolved, however, to make the attempt, and confidently anticipates being
able to complete the undertaking with from 10 to 13 ewt. of brass. Had the
usual mode been adopted the casting could not have been effected with less
than about 40 ewt. of metal.

19*

144

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

WHITWORTHS PATENT SWEEPING MACHINE.

[Aprtl,

This machine, lately brought into operation in the town of Manchester,
where it excited a considerable deal of public attention, has lately been
introduced into the metropolis, and is now employed in cleaning Regent-
street. It is the invention of Mr. Whitworth, of the firm of Messrs. M'hit-
worth and Co., of Manchester, engineers, by whom it has been patented.
The principle of the inventiou consists in employing the rotary motion of
locomotive wheels, moved by horse or other power, to raise the loose soil
from the surface of the ground and deposit it in a vehicle attached. The
apparatus for this purpose is simple in its construction; it consists of a
series of brooms (3 ft. wide) suspended from a light frame of wrought iron,
hung behind a cart, the body of which is placed near the ground, for greater
facility in loading. The draught is easy for two horses, and throughout the
process of tilling, scarcely a larger amount of force is required than would be
necessary to draw the full cart an equal distance.

The following description of the machine by a reference to the accom-
panying engraving, will explain its action. The cart is constructed with
plate iron, and consists of two parts, A, A: the lower part A is suspended
to the upper part, and when filled is lowered and replaced with an empty
one. To the off-side wheel, 13, is attached, on the inside, a cog-wheel, C,
which works into a pinion, D, on the end of a shaft the length of the back
part of the cart, and fixed thereon are two pullies, 1 ft. diameter and 2 ft.
4 in. apart : two other corresponding pullies, E. are fixed upon a lower shaft,
which is suspended to the upper shaft by a wrought iron frame, and over
these pulleys pass two endless chains P, to which the brooms G, consisting of
29 rows, each 3 ft. 4 in. long, are attached. It will thus be seen, that when
the large wheel of the cart is set in motion, it will, by means of the large
spur wheel C, turn the pinion D, and with it the pulleys and the endless chain
and brooms that pass over them : and as these brooms come in contact
with the road, they sweep the mud up the inclined plane into the bottom
part of the cart A. For the purpose of raising the brooms from on" the ground,
there is an apparatus. 11, consisting of an endless screw working into a bevel
wheel upon a shaft which passes across the top of the catt : upon this shaft
are fixed two pulleys, to which are attached two chains, which pass along
the top of the cart and over the quadrants I, at the back, and there fixed to
the iron frame of the apparatus, — so that when the endless screw is turned
the chains are coiled round the pulleys, and raise the apparatus to any
height it may be requisite. For the purpose of removing or emptying the
lower portion of the cart, it must be raised to a horizontal position; as
this apparatus is raised, it throws itself out of gear by means of a lever
attached to a clutch fixed on the end of the pinion shaft U. To the apparatus
11 there is another motion attached for regulating the pressure of the brooms
on the ground, according to the state of the weather and the nature of the
surface, consisting of a series of weights in the box in front, suspended to
two chains, which pass over pulleys on the axle of a wheel that works into
another wheel on the same shaft as the first wheel described of the ap-
paratus H.

There is also another apparatus, K, for raising and lowering the lower
part of the cart, consisting of an endless screw working into a cog-wheel,
the shaft of which passes across the top of the cart, and on each end are
pulleys, ronnd which chains are coiled that suspend the cart on each side.

Provision is made for letting off the water collected in the cart, by means
of a pipe, having its interior orifice some inches above the level of the mud
after settlement : the cart, when full, is drawn to the side of the street, at
some distance from a sewer grid, and the pipe plug being withdrawn, the
water flows into the channel. A slight modification of the original form of
the machine, by bevelling the cogs of the large spur wheel, C, throws the
machinery more to the near side, and enables it to sweep close up to the curb-
stone of the foot-pavement ; and the hands before required to clean out the
gutters are now dispensed with. An indicator, attached to the side of the
sweeping apparatus, shows the extent of surface swept during the day, and
acts as a useful check on the driver. It also affords the opportunity of
hiring horses to work the machine over a given quantity of surface, the rate
of hire being per 1000 yards actually swept.— This will be found convenient

where parties working the machine do not keep their own horses, and wlil
tend to facilitate the introduction of the new system under management of
the local authorities.

Where provision cannot be conveniently made in large towns for deposit
in yards at proper intervals, the patent machine is constructed of two parts,
as above described, viz., an upper, A', carrying the sweeping apparatus, and
a lower, A, consisting of a loose box, suspended from the upper, and capa-
ble of easy detachment. Each machine having two or more of these boxes,
A. may be kept constantly at work, depositing the full box in a suitable
place, and taking up an empty box before provided, — a skeleton cart being
afterwards employed to convey the loaded boxes to the place of ultimate
deposit. No difficulty has been found to arise in the management of the
machine by ordinary drivers. It has been worked regularly on every kind
of street surface — the round and square set stone, — the Macadamized road,
— and the wood pavement ; all of which are found in the districts before
mentioned. Its peculiar advantage, as applied to wood pavement, in pre-
venting the slippery state of the surface so much complained of, has
attracted particular attention, and will, no doubt, tend to facilitate the gene-
ral introduction of that useful invention. By the use of proper precautions
in cleaning and oiling the machine before setting it to work, the friction of
the working parts may be materially reduced, — a point of great importance,
in reference both to the consumption of horse power and the cost of repairs.
The wear of the brooms, which at first was considerable, has been diminished
more than one-half, by the action of the regulating weights before men-
tioned. A product of South America, called by the Portuguese " Piassava,"
forms an excellent material for the beard of the brooms, having great pliancy
and strength combined, and also remarkable degree of durability.

Two machines are advantageously worked together, one a little in advance
of the other. Not onlj is the operation of cleansing a particular street thus
effected more rapidly, but the two drivers can occasionally assist each other,
and one of them (at higher wages) may exercise a supervision over both
machines.

The success of the operation is no less remarkable than its novelty. Pro-
ceeding at a moderate speed through the public streets, the cart leaves be-
hind it a well swept tract, which forms a striking contrast with the adjacent
ground. Though of the full size of a common cart, it has repeatedly filled
itself in the space of six minutes from the principal thoroughfares of Man-
chester. This fact, while it proves the efficiency of the new apparatus,
proves also the necessity of a change in the present system of street
cleaning.

Mim Great Blast at Dover.— On Wednesday. 1st March, about foul
o'cli ck, auothei steal blast took place at the South-eastern Railway works,
a little beyond the Rounddown cliff. This blast, as compared with that at
the Rounddown (when 18.500 lb. of gunpowder were instantaneously ig-
nited), was comparativel] insignificant; hut when we mention that 70t.O lb-
were fired at the present explosion, it will be seen that this insignificance
was only comparative. The present operations, like the blast on the 26th
January, were conducted by Mr. Cubilt, the engineer-hi-chief to the South-
eastern Railway, who. with Lieutenant Hutchinson and a lumber of the
directors ut the company, uere present to-day. witnessing the blast. The
effect of this blast lias been quite as successtul as that which affected the
destruction of Hounddown. About 50.000 yards of chalk have been du!>
ignition betn^ communicated bv the voltaic battery. Nine chambers wen
formed in the cliff, about ninety !e< t fn in its top, the object being to blow
away the crown of the cliff, to render it safe fur the railway carriages to
pass on the sea wall under it. Like the explosion on the 20 ih of January,
(he present was effected with very little noise and smoke. The instant
ignition was communicated the cliffs around trembled, and the immense
mass of chalk burst out with a low booming noise, and the ruins wen gently,
though majestically, thrown down on the beach below; but, instead of, like
those if the Rounddown, shoot out into the sea about 1,100 feet, they
scarcely, we should say, extended 200 feet in any direction,. after reaching
the base of the cliff. 4 __ „

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

UH

STEAM NAVIGATION

"VIRAGO" STEAM FRIGATE.

The Virago is one of the second class frigates belonging to our service.
Her dimensions are as follow: — Length between perpendiculars, 180 ft.;
keel, 156 ft. ; extreme breadth, 36 ft. ; breadth for tonnage, 35 ft. 8£in. ;
moulded breadth, 35 ft. ; depth in hold, 21 ft. ; tonnage, 994, M. n. She is
fitted with two engines, of the collective power of 300 horses, manufactured
by Messrs. Boulton, Watt, and Co., which are eminently novel in their
arrangement, occupying less space than any yet employed in her Majesty's
navy or otherwise; combining great strength with lightness of construction —
facility of access to all the working parts with a ready and simple mode of
handling them, being stopped and started with as much ease as if they were
intended for river use. Each cylinder is supported upon a foundation plate
connected with the condensers, situated in the middle line, forming one
casting, and containing the two air pumps, which are worked by an auxiliary
beam from a crank on the engine shaft ; this arrangement having been first
adopted by them as far back as June, 1841 (see our Journal, Feb. 1842),
and which arrangement they have patented with other improvements in the
oscillating engine. The steam can be expanded at various parts of the
stroke, and the valves for that purpose are simple, and work without the
usual noise attending those generally employed. There are four boilers,
situated close to each other, but having a clear passage round the sides of
18 inches in width. They have stop-valves to each, so that they may be
worked separate or together, as occasion may require. There are 16 fire
places, and two firing floors — one forward, towards the engines, the other
abaft — -to which access is afforded by the above mentioned passage of 18
inches. The chimney is surrounded by a water case, from which the boilers
are fed with water at nearly a boiling temperature, by which a saving of fuel
is effected, and the risk of fire diminished. This plan was originally adopted
by this firm shortly after the destruction of the Prince Regent by fire in
1817.

The entire of the boilers and steam-chest is covered with felt, two inches
in thickness, sewed on to canvas, protected by inch deal with iron tongues,
and finally coated with sheet lead to prevent any leak from the deck satu-
rating either the wood or the felt. On each side of the engine and boilers
are ranged the coal boxes, extending from bulkhead to bulkhead, and calcu-
lated to hold 23 days' consumption; the machinery is there protected from
shot by the thickness of the stratum of coal, while the greater part of the
engine is considerably below the load line.

The following are some of the principal dimensions of the engines : —
Diameter of cylinders, 64} in. ; length of stroke, 5 ft. ; connecting rod, 8 ft. ;
diameter of paddle wheel, 25 ft. ; boards, 8 ft. long in two widths, each
12 in. The entire weight of these engines, boilers, and coal boxes, are 15
tons under that given to the Admiralty in the tender, being little more than
13J cwt. per horse.

On the 11th instant an experimental trip, for a short distance down the
river, was made in the presence of the government engineers, with which we
understand they were perfectly satisfied. They will shortly proceed to
Chatham, to be fitted with her rigging, &c, when it is presumed she will be
forthwith commissioned.

The " Great Britain." — At a meeting of the Proprietors, held last month,
the Directors reported that The Great Britain is in a very forward state.
The frame ami hull are complete. The while of the upper decks, as well as
the decks of the forecastle, foreeabins, and aftercabins. are laid and caulked ;
nearly the whole of the state rooms, and oilier joiner's work, is finished.
The lorehold, afterhold, and iron coal decks before the boilers and abaft the
engines, are nearly finished. The boilers and funnel are fixed in their
places, as are the cylinders, condensers, air-pumps, and other weighty parts
of the engines. To add to her strength and diminish the apprehension of
(ire. the decks anil partitions of the body of the ship occupied by the en-
gines, &c.. will be fitted up in iron. Nearly all the masts and spars are
made, and should nothing unforeseen arise, she may be Moated out within
three months.— [The Directors take good care that the public shall be kept
in ignorance of their proceedings as much as possible; for they will not
allow any i ne to inspect the vessel or their works at Bristol, without an
order signed by two Directors, and a contribution of 5s. towards the sick
fund ot ihe workmen. Whoever heard of such a demand? Government
allow the public freely to view all the works that are going forward in the
public docks, an;! most of our first engineers will permit any respectable
person to visit their works without such an extortionate demand. Lately a
profes sional gentliman applied at the works for admission, and obtained an
order fr in the Managing Diiector tor his admittance, but was told by the
poller that he must first pay 5s. for his admittance, which he very properly
dcelim d to pay, and consequently left in disgust without seeing the vessel. —
EniTOR.]

The " Penelope"' Steam Frigate.— This large Man. of- War Frigate.
which lias been lei g'hened tor the purpose of converting it into a first-class
steam frigate, has been towed up the river Thames from Chatham to Messrs.
Seaw aid's Whurt at Limehouse, to receive her engines. The engines are
constructed on the (Jorgon direct action principle, und occupy, comparatively
speaking, a very small space lor engines of th»ir magnitude. The cylinders
are 92 inches diameter, and 7 feet stroke, at 17 strokes per minute, the col-
lective nominal power of the two engines is 6S0 horses, but she can Le

worked up to 750 or 800 n. e without incurring the slightest risk. She is
fitted with Hall's patent condensers, and an ingenious contrivance for altering
the throw of the eccentric rod whi h works 'he steam valves, by this con-
trivance the steam can be expanded to any degree, without the aid of an ex-
pansion valve ; the air-pumps are of solid brass ; there is also an ingenious con-
trivance for disconnecting the paddle-wheel shafts different to any be.ore
adopted. There are four boilers, whi h are tubular and only 9 feet lung ; to*
fire-grate is under the boiW ; the fire rises front the grate up the hick and
returns through the tube to the front, it then returns again over the top to
the up-take in the centre of the four boilers, which are placed in pairs, hack
to back. The chimney funnel is made like a telescope, the upper half slides
down. When the vessel is completed, we hope that w shall be able to give
a more minute description of the several improvements that we have now
but slightly alluded to.

The Hinoostan Steam-ship.— This steamer, it will be remembered, left
Southampton on the 24th September for Calcutta She arrived at Madras
on the 20lh of December, having, including delays at the various interme-
diate ports of call, made the passage in 87 days. The time she was und-r
stearn was under 6U days, leaving 27 for stoppages and delays. She averaged
200 miles per day. She had 110 passengers to the Mauritius, and landed 25
at Point de Galla, Ceylon. The Hindostan proceeded on to Calcutta, whence
she was to sail on the 14th of January for Suez. Captain Moresby, the
commander, gives the following account of her performance on the voyage
from England to India : — " This vessel is uncommonly easy in a heart sea
and contrary winds : she then shows off her power and good qualities to ad-
vantage ; she neither rolls nor pitches much, steers well, and is easily
managed in turning; sail when set does not increase her speed much, b.-yoml
what full power of steam will give her ; it has one advantage — sail when set.
the vessel requires less steam, therefore a saving of fuel. With a beam swell
she seldom rolls at all ; when s'eaming head to sea and wind, is very dry on
deck, and does not take in water forward— instance the voyage from Ascen-
sion to the Cape of Good Hope against a slrong south-east trade wind, she:
averaged against wind and current 10fl miles per A.i\ . The north-east mon-
soon from Ceylon (Point de Galla) to Madras lias been s rung with a head
sea against her and a current of 22 to 24 miles per day against her ; yet she
has made the distance in three days one hour."

Steam Navigation. — During the last month, a ne*J steam vessel, fitted
with a single engine of 30 horse power, has made several trips up and down
the river. She has been built for the Watermen's Steam Packet Company
by Mr. David Napier, of Millwall. whose two fast boats, the Eclipse, an I the
Isle of Tltanet. excited great attention on the Ramsgate and Margate station
last year. The hull of the new vessel is formed ot iron, and has a false bot-
tom, w Inch forms a condenser. The steam passes into the condenser, and
cold water under and over it. The machinery occupies a very small space,
and the consumption of fuel does not exceed a ton and a half per day. With
these very small means. Mr. Napier has succeeded in obtaining an extraordi-
nary speed. Her ordinary speed with the tide is stated to be 18 miles an
hour; but she is said to have actually proceeded down the river with the
ebb tide at the rate of 19 or 20 miles an hour. In one of her recent trips she
performed the distance from London Bridge to Greenwich Hospital, exactly
5 miles, in 16 minutes, and on the following afternoon the same distance was
effected in one minute less. She is to be called Waterman, No. 9, and is in-
tended to ply between the Adelphi pier and Woolwich.

The largest Steam Frigate in the Navy. — The Lords Commissioners of
the Admiralty last year approved of a plat) submitted by Mr. Oliver Lang, Mas-
ter-shipwright of the Woolwich Dockyard, ot a steam frigate on a far larger
scale of dimensions and power than any hitherto constructed, and ordered
her to be built at Woolwich, and named the Terrible. It is now contem-
plated that this splendid steam frigate shall be built at Deptford Dockyard
on the same slip from which the Worcester 50 gun ship will shortly be
launched. She is to be of the following dimensions: —

Feet. Inches.
Length between perdendiculars . . . . 226 0

Keel for tonnage 196 10J

Breadth extreme 42 0

Depth in hold 27 0

Burden in tons 1847

She is to be supplied with Maulslay and Field's patent double cylinder
marine engines of 800 n. p. The cylinders will be 72 inches in diameter, and
the erection ot the engines alone has been contracted for at the cost, in-
cluding the boilers, of the large sum of £40,250. The engine-room will be
of the following splendid dimensions: — 75 ft. long, 38 ft. broad, and 27 it,
deep; and the weight of the engines and requisite gear connected with
them will be upwards of 500 tons. The diameter of the paddle-wheels ,si
to be 34 ft. by 13 ft. in breadth. The coal-boxes will contain 800 tons of
coals; and altogether this great vessel will far exceed in length and other
important points the largest ship-of-the-hne ever constructed m this Coun-
try.— Times.

St. Petersburg.— A joint-stock company has been formed for the purpose-
of establishing a communication by steam boats along the south coast of
Lake Ladoga, between Sehrasselburg and Sermar, at the mouth of the Sadir,
and along the coasi of Friedland, between Schhisselburg and Seat bol • tin
boat to touch at Kexholm. and the coasts if Lennowetr. and Walgam. Al
present 800 vessels from Sermur annually navigate the lake.

Portsmouth Dock-yard.— The Hon. Captain Corry, one of the Lords of
the Admiralty, and Captain Brandreth, of the Royal Engineers, the Civil
Engineer to the Admiralty, hive visited this duck-yard during the last
month upon official business, it is understood that one of the objects they
had in view was to ascertain the most eligible position at the north part ol
the yard to make a basin lor steam vessel;, of the largest class, as the Com-
missioners of the Admiralty have it in contemplation to mike lb. spoil, as
well as Woolwich, a rendezvous for the equipment ol steamers. A site has
been selected which it is considered will answer the purpose. _

146

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[April,

MISCELLAXEA.

Improvements is Liverpool.- Most of our readers are aware of the con-
templated alterations in the vicinity known for many years as the New
Haymarket. which, being now numbered amongst the things that were, the
surrounding straggling houses, timber-yards. &c. are gradually disap-
pearing ami giving place to magnificent edifices, which will impress upon
strangers entering the town some idea of its immense wealth, extent, and
importance. The facade erected at the terminus of the Liverpool and Man-
chester and Grand Junction Railways, was the first great step towards for-
warding this desideratum. The well known skill of Mr. Elmes, of London,
having been called into requisition, (whose designs have met with universal
approval) we may with becoming pride and pleasure look forward to the
completion of the Assize Courts and St. George's Hall within the time stipu-
late). From the top of St. John's-lane, extending along the west side of
Lime-street to Ranelagh-street, a distance of between four hundred and five
hundred yards, the entire range of houses, sheds. &c, are to be pulled down,
the space widened, and buildings of suitable magnitude erected, which, when
accomplished, we may with some degree of pride point to this locality as the
centre of attraction in the good old town. Amongst the improvements above
alluded to. we have been favoured with an inspection of the plans and eleva-
tions for an extensive and first-rate hotel, in the plain Italian style of archi-
tecture, which will be situated at the corner of St. John's-lane and Roe-
street, the entrance facing the colonnade of the Assize Cous's ; and certainly
a more desirable situation could not have been selected. The arrangements
are to be on the mo t approved modern scale, and a handsome structure, we
have no doubt, will be erected. — Liverpool Mini.

Livekfool. — The works at the intended Albert Dock and warehouse, on
the west side of the Salthouse Dock, are rapidly advancing. Tin- operation
of piling is at present the principal occupation, and for this purpose several
steam-engines have been erected on the ground. Excavation is also going
on in the centre of the ground, and building in other parts. The entrance
into the Salthouse Dock is already formed, and the piling for the sea-wall
is advancing. Several hundreds of men are employed on the works, and all
seems to go on with great order, expedition, and precision.

The Royal Exchange.— Great progress is now making in placing the
sculptured coping above the columns, as well as over the other parts of the
building. The transition is more striking i n account of the elaborate work-
manship being all performed ere the stone is raised, and but a short time is
now required with the improved machinery at command to fix it at once in
its position.

The Art's — A canal is in the course of formation for the purpose of irri-
gating the plains of Provence, in the summer months, with the waters which
pour down from the Alps. Eight hundred labourers are at work on the
canal, on which 1,200.000 francs have already been expended.

Claughton and Birkenhead Waterworks. — The spirited company con-
nected with this enterprise, which will confer the most invaluable boon on
the inhabitants of Birkenhead, having, after immense labour, found abun-
dance of water, the first stone of the works about to be erected was laid by
Fohn Jackson, Esq., on Tuesday, 14th March. Hie engine, which is thirty-
horse power, is now in course of completion by Me srs 'ones and Potts, of
Neston. The buildings are to be erected by Messrs. Walker and Craven.

Grand Railway Junction. — A contract for forming the junction between
the Manchester and Liverpool and the Manchester and Leeds Railways, at
Hunt's Eank. has just been made between Mr. Paulina, of Manchester, and
the former body. It will be carried on arches some 18 or 20 feet above the
level of the streets : its route will be through Salford. Report states that
■bo col tract is for something mar £70,000, and that the work is to be com-
pleted :i all in September next. This will unite the towns of Hull and Liver-
pool by one continuous railway, and prove the means of saving at least ten
days in the transit of goods, when contrasted with the canal conveyance. —
Liverpool Mail.

M hinery for Exfortatiox. — We understand the machine-makers of
Lancashire and Yorkshire are busier than they have been for some years,
their orders being principally for the continental market ; indeed, ever since
the rider in council was issued permitting the free exportation of cotton ma-
chinery, the trade of machine-making for the use of our foreign rival man-
ufacturers has been more extensive than ever.

Mechanical Improvements. — An ingenious application of the common
reading-desk to the purposes of newspaper reading lira been recently con-
trived by a Mr. Joseph Schlesinger, an engineer, at Birmingham. It con-
sists of a sliding stand, which supports a ligh frame rued at a convenient
angle, and capable of holding one or several newspapers by means of an iron
cramp, which is opened by a lever. This apparatus will be a perfect luxury
for clubs and offices.

LIST OF NEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List. J

GRANTED IV ENGLAND FROM FEBRUARY 28, TO MARCH 24, 1843.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed,
John Heathcoat, and Ambrose Brewin, of Tiverton, lace manufacturers
for " improvements in the manufacture of ornamented net or lace." — Sealed
Feb. 28.

Gottlieb Boccius, of New-road, Shepherd's Bush, for " improved arrange-
ments and apparatus for the production and distribution of light." — Feb. 28.
George Bell, of Dublin, merchant, for "improvements in machines for
drying wheat, malt, corn, and seeds, and for bolting, dressing, and separating
flour, meat, and other Hie substances." — March 1.

John Frearson, of Birmingham, machinist, for " improvements in fastenings
for wearing apparel." — March 2.

Thomas Simpson, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " an improvement in
buckles." — March 2.

Masta Joscelin Cooke, of Gray's-inn-square, solicitor, for " improvements
in the manufacture of artificial fuel." — March 2.

John Keely, the younger, of Nottingham, dyer, and Alexander AUiott, of
Lenton, bleacher, for " improvements in machinery or apparatus for drying
or freeing from liquid or moisture, woollen, cotton, silk, and different fibrous
materials, and other substances, and also for stretchiny certain fibrous ma~
terials." (A communication.) — March 2.

William Walker, of George-yard, Crown-street, Soho, coach-smith, for
" improvements in the manufacture of springs and axles for carriages." —
March 2.

Charles White, of Noel-street, Islington, engineer, for " improvements in
machinery for raising and forcing fluids." — March 2.

Robert Stirling Newall, of Gateshead, Durham, wire-rope manufacturer,
for " improvements in the manufacture of wire-ropes, and in the apparatus
and arrangements for the manufacture of the same." — March 7.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improvements in
machinery or apparatus for making pins." (A communication.) — March 6.

James Pilbrow, of Tottenham, engineer, for " improvements in the appli-
cation of steam, air, and other vapours and gaseous agents to the production
of motive power, and in the machinery and apparatus by which the same are
effected."— March 7.

William Betts, of Ashford. Kent, railway contractor, and William Taylor,
of the same place, plumber, for " improvements in the manufacture of bricks
in id tiles." — March S.

William Kenworthy, of Blackburn, Lancaster, cotton spinner, for " im-
provements in machinery or apparatus called ' beaming or warping machines.* "
March 11.

Charles Chilton, of Gloucester-street, Curtain-road, and Frederick Braith-
waite, of the New-road, engineer, for " improvements in machinery for cut-
ting or splitting wood for fuel and other purposes." — March 16.

Arthur Chilver Tupper, of New Burlington-street, Middlesex, gentleman,
for "improvements in the means of applying carpets and other covering to
stairs and steps, and in the construction of stairs and steps." — March 16.

Alexander Angus Croll, superintendent of the gas-works, Brick-lane, Mid-
dlesex, and William Richards, of the same works, mechanical inspector, for
" improvements in the manufacture of gas for the purposes of illumination,
and in apparatus used when transmitting and measuring gas or other fluids."
March 16.

Angier March Perkins, of Great Coram-street, engineer, for " improve-
ment* in the manufacture and melting of iron, which improvements are appli-
cable for evaporating fluids, and disinfecting oils." — March 16.

John Thomas Betts, of Smithfield Bars, gentleman, for " improvements in
the manufacture of metal covers for bottles and certain other vessels, and in
the manufacture of sheet metal for such purposes." (A communication. —
March 16.

Frederick Cook Matchett, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " improvements
in the manufacture of hinges." — March 16.

Martyn John Ro'jerts, of Brynycairan, Carmarthen, gentleman, for"i'»i-
provements in the composition of ink, blacking, and black paint." — March 16.

James Malum, of Huntingdon, gas engineer, for " improvements in the
manufacture of gas retorts, and in the modes of setting gas retorts." —
March 16.

William Laycock, of Liverpool, merchant, for " improvements in construct-
ing houses anil such like buildings." — March 16.

Wakefield Pim, of the Borough of Kingston-upon-llull, engiueer, for
" certain improvements in the construction or formation of buoys or other
water marks." — March 18.

Alexander Simon Wolcott, of City-terrace, City-road, machinist, and John
Johnson, of Manchester, in the couuty of Lancaster, machinist, for " im-
provements in photography, and in the application of the same to the arts" —
March 18.

William Barker, of Manchester, millwright, for " improvements in the con-
struction of metallic pistons." — March 20,

Solomon Rolinson, of Dudley, Worcester, roll-turner, for " improvements
in the manufacture of shot." — March 20.

Joseph Needhain Taylor, of Chelsea, captain in Her Majesty's navy, and
William Henry Smith, of 33, Fitzroy-square, civil engineer, for " improve-
ments in breakivaters, beacons, and sound-alarms ; also in landing or trans-
mitting persons and goods over or through strata or obstructions of any
nature, all of which may be used either separately or in combination." —
March 21.

Andrew Barclay, engineer and brass founder, Kilmarnock, Scotland, for
" improvements in lustres, chandeliers, pendants, and apparatus connected
therewith, to be used with gas, oil, and other substances, which invention is
also applicable to other purposes." — March 24.

Gregory Seale Walters, of Coleman-street, merchant, for " improvements
in the manufacture of chlorine anil chlorides, and in obtaining the oxides and
peroxides of manganese in the residuary liquids of such manufacture." (A
communication.) — March 24.

Alfred Hooper Nevill, of Chicester-place, Grays-iun-road, corn dealer, for
" improvements in preparing lentils and other matters for food." — March 24.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

EMIGRATION.— LAND SURVEYING IN THE COLONIES.

MR. HENRY CASTLE, Lecturer on Land Surveying and Level-
lino;, at King's College. London, Author of a Treatise on the same
subjects, and formerly Boundary Commissioner to the Home District, Upper
Canada, is forming a FIELD CLASS on the Circumferentor and the method
of Surveying peculiar to new Countries.

Fee for the Course, to commence the 26th April, Five Guineas. Apply at
30, Queen-square, Bloomsbury.

P.S. The College Classes will be resumed at the same time.

LAWRENCE & CO., 55, PARLIAMENT STREET, WEST-
MINSTER, and 10. YORK PLACE. LAMBETH. Successors to the
Patentees and Manufacturers in Zinc to her Majesty the Queen Dowager.
Original makers of Malleable Sheet Zinc. Bars, and Wire. Drawers of Tubes,
and Sash-bars. Perforated Zinc, for Larders. Safes, and Blinds. Roofs and
Yerandas covered with Zinc. Rain Pipes. Chimney Pipes, Cowls, &c. Gut-
ters, Ridges, and Sky Lights. Baths and Zinc Door Plates.

Garden Lights, VVardian Cases, and Conservatories.

N.B. The Trade supplied. Patent Smoke-curers, and Chimney-shafts.
Fine Sweedish Steel, wholesale, retail, and for export.

TO BUYERS OF IRON CASTINGS.

UNDERGROUND PIPES, for Gas or Water, Railway Chairs,
Wheels and Columns. Beams or Girders for Buildings, Palisading and
Coping. Sash Weights, Furnace Bars, Hot Water Pipes, Large Doors. Piles,
Posts, and all sorts of heavy castings made very expeditiously to order or
pattern. — Apply to James Robertson and Co., Jamaica-street, Glasgow, or
G. O. Robertson, Esq., 6, Crescent, Minuries. London.

This day. in Svo., 14s., cloth, lettered. Simpkin and Marshall, London.

A TREATISE ON LAND-SURVEYING AND LEVELLING,
with copious Field Notes, Plans, &c, Logarithms and Traverse. By
Henry John Castle, late Boundary Commissioner to the Home District,
Upper Canada, and Lecturer on Practical Surveying at King's College,
London.

" Justifies the promises of the preface — a complete vade mecum.'' — Atlas.

" A very useful book — no pains spared to make it so." — Railway Mag.

" Invaluable to the young surveyor in our Colonies.'' — Shrewsbury News.

" A useful book on the general subject — a vade mecum."— Surveyor and
Engineer.

" Treated clearly — bids fair to be useful to the student.'' — Ath

THE ARTIZAN.
A Monthly Journal of the Operative Arts. Price Is.

No. 3, just published, contains the following: 1. The Association of the
Proprietors of Steam Shipping. 2. Sanitary arrangements in large towns.
3. Table of the dimensions and cost of Railway Bridges. 4. Expansion of
Steam in Locomotives. 5. Carpenter's Mechanical Philosophy. 6. Our Club,
No. 3. 7. Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 8. The London
Breweries. 9. Table of Railway Gradients, &c. 10. The Building Arts.
11. Metropolitan Improvements. 12. Report of the Railway Department of
the Board of Trade. 13. Anatomy of the Steam Engine. No. 3. 14. Physi-
ology of the Steam Engine, No. 3. 15. Analysis of Books. 16. Marvels of
the Day.

The two last heads are intended to contain all that is new in the literature
of the arts, and an account of all new discoveries, inventions, and construc-
tions. All the articles are original, and no letters are admitted
Opinions of the Press.

" Displays technical knowledge, literary ability, and searching investi-
gation.''— Spectator.

" We are indebted for this searching inquiry to a new scientific periodical
of great promise, entitled The Artizan. — Polytechnic Journal.

" The Artizan, a new Journal of good promise, devoted to the same sub-
jects as our own.' — Mechanics' Mag.

" No. 2 improves upon its predecessor; and the work does much credit to
all engaged upon it." — Monthly Times.

" We have been presented with the first Number of a London Periodical,
called The Artizan. a Monthly Journal of the Operative Arts. v. Inch we have
much pleasure in recommending to those of our readers who are engaged in
Engineering and Ship-buildii g. or who take an interest in scientific matters."

" A periodical that would give a decided and unbiassed opinion on those
subjects has been much wanted, as most of the scientific journals of the day
are too apt to state opinions favourable to the inventor or executor of a work
of art, without considering that in so doing they are deceiving the public.''
— Greenock Advertiser.

Simpkin, Marshall, & Co., and all Booksellers.

TRANSPARENT DRAWING AND TRACING PAPER.

REDUCED IN PRICE.— TO CIVIL ENGINEERS, ARCHI-
TECTS, & SURVEYORS.-] J. DIXON, after a number of years' study,
has made perfect a moat beautiful (Crystographic) TRACING PAPER, very
transparent, which will take ink, oil. and water colours, without running. The
price is very low, and the following are the sizes:—

30 by 20 ... . Double Crown .... is. per quire of 24 sheets.
40 by 30. . . . Double Double Crown . Is. 6rf.

Yellou Imitation of French 12s. „ ,,

Also, DRAWING PAPER MADE TRANSPARENT, for Tracing on,
all the dirlerent sizes from 20 by 15 to 66 by 47 in. Which can be sent to
any part ot the three Kingdoms, by a remittance of Cash, or a Post Office
Order. Address to the Manufactory. H. DIXON, No. 194, Strand, near
Temple Bar, London.

THOMSON'S IMPROVEMENTS IN HORTICUL-
TURAL HEATING, Sec.
J THOMSON, late Head Gardener to His Grace the Duke of
• Northumberland, at Syon House, and for many years in the Garden
Establishment of Her Majesty, has introduced an improved mode of applying
the Pipe Tank ami Trough System, for bottom and top heat to hothouses
and other horticultural erections, by which the perpetual nuisance and labour
attending the continual renewing of tan. dung, and other fermenting mate-
rials, commonly used to produce bottom heat, are obviated. The apparatus
can be fixed so as to produce a humid or dry atmosphere at will ; and the
expence does not exceed half that of any other plan of hot water.

F'9-S.

Pipes for Bottom & Top Heat. Troughs for ditto

The above plan of applying the Pipe T:ink and Trough System of Heating,
combined with his newly invented and economical boiler, has been adopted
by. and may be seen at, the two largest Horticultural Establishments in
Great Britain, viz., Messrs. Lees' Nursery, Hammersmith, and Mr. Wilmot's,
Brentford or Isleworth. — Designs and Estimates for warming horticultural
erections, public or private buildings, &c, may be obtained on application to
J. Thomson, Landscape Gardener, 4, Chapel Place, Hammersmith.

J. T. has applied the above system for bottom heat to pines, and for other
purposes at Lord Prudhoe's, and several other places in England, with great
success, within the last six years.

TO ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS, SURVEYORS, AND OTHERS.

WHOBCRAFT respectfully calls the attention of the above,
• and all persons requiring accurate Rules, Scales, and Mathema-
tical Instruments, that from the advantages he possesses, being a Manufac-
turer, he is enabled to supply them with goods of a superior quality, at
prices reduced considerably below those usually charged, by which from 15
to 25 per cent may be saved. Rules and Scales of every description for Me-
chanical and Scientific purposes made to order on the shortest notice. Le-
velling Staves, Optical and Philosophical Instruments, equally reasonable.
Merchants, Captains, and the Trade supplied on advantageous terms. Coun-
try orders, containing a remittance or an order for payment in London,
promptly attended to.

W. Hobcraft. 38, Princes-street, Leicester-square, London.
Books of Instructions, gratis, with Sbde Rules.

AMERICAN STEAM EXCAVATING (Ottis', New York) AND PILE
DRIVING MACHINERY.

COMPLETE DRAWINGS to a large scale, together with every
detail of these machines, may be had of

GEORGE SPENCER,
26th March, 1842. Draftsman for Machinery and Patents.

G. S. respectfully offers his services to the profession'and to patentees in
preparing working' or finished drawings of every description of machinery.

SEY'SSEL ASPHALTE COMPANY', " Claridge's Patent." Estab-
lished March, 1838. — The extensive patronage which this valuable
MINERAL production continues to receive from the most eminent ARCHI-
TECTS and ENGINEERS in this country and abroad, distinguishes it from
the numerous fictitious compositions which its reputation gave rise to, but
which having been found very inferior to the original material, most of them
have ceased to be used. Its merits being well known, it is only necessary to
refer to a few of the public works already executed and now in progress.—
On the London and Greenwich Railway, and Joint Station, London Bridge,
430,000 superficial teet ; several thousand feet at the Great Western, Bir-
mingham, Midland Counties, South-western, Brighton, Blackwall, and other
Railways: covering of Arches at the South Metropolitan. Highgate, and
Nunhead Cemeteries; the covering of the Casemates at the Perch Rock
Batterv, Liverpool ; the Pavement m Whitehall ; the Carriage-drives at the
Horse 'Guards, and at the entrances to the Park by A ps ley House ; the
Cells anil other apartments of the new Prison at Hereford : several works at
jhe Stations on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway ; and many other public
and private works in different parts of England. Ireland, and Scotland.

A Scale of Prices, with Books of Testimonials, can at all times be had at
the Company's Depot, where specimens of its various applications maybe
seen. J- FARRELL, Secretary.

Seyssel Asphalte Depot, Stangate, near Westminster Bridge.
March, 1843.

FROM "THE TIMES."

December 5, 1842.
" Many of our readers may, perhaps, remember that some years ago, ami
previously to the introduction of Asphalte into this country, we expressed
our admiration of the pavement, composed of that substance, in Paris, and
especially of that in the Place de la Concorde, the whole of which has been
long since paved with Asphalte. It now behoves us to point out the piece of
Seyssel Asphalte laid down in April, 1838. in Whitehall, opposite the Horse
Guards, as equal to the pavement in the Place de la Concorde, or in any part
of Paris, and considering that its thickness is only half an inch, its having
so long stood the traihc of so great a thoroughfare, without any apparent
change, except a greater smoothness of surface, is very remarkable."

ADVERTISEMENTS.

PRINCE'S PARK.

TO ARCHITECTS.

ONE HUNDRED GUINEAS will be paid in premiums for tbe
best designs for four Terraces to be ereeteil in the Prince's Park, no*
in progress near Liverpool— Plans of the ground and full instructions may
lie obtained by applying to

Messrs. Foster and Stewart, or 1 , ... , T. ,

Messrs. A. and G. Williams, [ Architects. Liverpool.

SMOKE NUISANCE.

THE METROPOLITAN IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY having,
on the part nf the public, determined to get abateil the long-existing
nuisances arising from furnaces used in the working of steam-engines within
the metropolis, are desirous of receiving INFORMATION from public
bodies, and ^also private individuals, who are suffering injury from such
NUISANCES, in order that indictments may be preferred against the
offenders ; the same to be forwarded to James Anderton. Esq . the Honorary
Solicitor of the Soc ety. 20. New Bridge Street. Blackfriars. cr to the Com-
mittee, at the Society's Office, 20, Bedford Street. Strand.

HENRY AUSTIN, Hon. Sec.

THE THAMES TUNNEL IS NOW AT ALL TIMES OPEN
TO THE PUBLIC as a Thoroughfare for Fout Passengers, at a Toll
of One Penny each.

By order of the Board of Directors,

J. C1IARL1ER. Clerk of the Company.
Company's Office. 2. H'albrook Buildings, City. 25th March, 1843.
N.B. — Steam Boats to Wappmg. from Hungerford. Adelphi. Temple Bar,
Blackfriars Bridge, Old Shades, Old Swan, and Adelaide Piers. London
Bridge ; and by Omnibusses to Rotherthe from the West-end. and from
Gracechurch-streel, at every half hour.

ANTI-DRY ROT COMPANY— KYAN'S PATENT.

THE DIRECTORS of this Company having removed one of thei r
60-ft. hydraulic presses to their Station, City Basin, City Road, desire
to draw the attention of the public to the great facilities they now oiler for
preparing timber of large calibre in a few hours. When the quantity exceeds
100 loads the Directors allow a considerable reduction in price.

GILLOTT'S PATENT FAN STOVE, for Heating and Ventilating
Churches. Courts of Law. Hospitals, and all large public Buildings-
It is particularly adapted for drying the walls of new ly-built houses, for
various manufactures where heat is required, without the possibility of acci-
dent by fire, as the apparatus is not required to be on the premises, but the
hot air may be conveyed into the manufactory by a pipe, or pipes, and it
would not ignite gunpower. It is invaluable also for ships, as warm or cold
air may be propelled into every part of them, either for warmth or ventila-
tion. May be seen in use at J. L. Benham's. 19. Wigmore Street, Cavendish
Square, and at 80. Great Queen Street. Lincoln's Inn Fields.

TO AMATEUR TURNERS, CONNOISSEURS, AND OTHERS
HARD Weens.
T> HENESEY, of lS'J, High Holborn, begs to announce that he
LV. has on hand STOCK of the choisest AFRICAN BLACK

WOOD, the only imp,, tation fur 30 years. This beautiful wood contains
no acid, has a remarkably line grain, is n t liable to rust steel, and on this
account is particularly recommended lo the notice of surgical instrument
makers- for eccentric turning its properties are invaluable. R. II. has always
on hand at hiswarelum.es Brazilian and French tulip, sandal, and violet
woods ; also the root of the olive tree, kiabooka, and a greater variety of
ainous ioreign hard woods than can be found in any other establishment in
the kingdom.

N.B. An immense assortment of veneers.

TO CARPENTERS AND BUILDERS.
Ealtic and American Timber. New and Old Oak Ground Joists and

Yellow and White Deals, Planks, Sleepers.

and Rattens. New Oak Sash Sills.

Yellow and Red Pine ditto. New Oak B ards and Planks.

.Spruce ditto, ditio. New Wide Oak Planks for Coffin

Yellow and White Dry Prepared Makers.

Floor Boaids. Fir Slating Laths.

Yellow and White Dry Prepared Fir Pantile Laths.

Battens, from ^-in. to l}-in. thick. Single and Double Fir Laths.

New Fir Scantling, all sizes. Double Fir and Oak Sawn Laths for

New Oak ditto. packing Wine.

Mahogany at Reduced Pnces.

Apply at WILLIAM CLEAVE'S Timber- Yard, 9, Smith-street,

Westminster.

ANTED, A PARTNER, in an extensive and well established
IRONFOUNDRY and ENGINEERING CONCERN, in full work,
in a populous manufacturing district in one of the Midland Counties. To a
practical man. with a capital of from £1000 to £2000, the above presents
■such an opening as is seldom to be met with.— Apply to C. Y., at Messrs.
I. Barber an. I Co.'s. Newhall Street, Birmingham.

TO ARCHITECTS.

A YOUNG MAN wishes to meet with an engagement in an
ARCHITECT'S OFFICE, or to superintend the erection of works.
Highly respectable relerences can be given.— Address, prepaid, to A. Z., Mr.
Elliott's, 268, High Holborn, London

SMOKE.— The following remarks on RODDA'S PLAN were made
at the meeting of the Leeds Smoke Committee, held Jan. 26, 1813 : —

The Rev. J. A. Rhooes said, that, if the meeting would permit him. he
would mention what plans he kne'v to be very effectual. He had been for
years annoyed at his residence at Mytholm by the smoke arising from the
mil] of Messrs. Robinson and Co.. at that place. He hail remonstrated with
them on the subject, but. being the owner of a mill himself, he thuught it
best to try to prevent smoke at bis own mill, in order that, if lie succeeded,
he might have good srrounds for his remonstrances with Messrs. Robinson
and Co. The mill of which he was the owner was that of Me-srs. Walker, at
Milshay : and at it Mr. Rodda was employed, and he had since seen that
gentleman's plan in full operation there, and had examined it closely, and
certainly the apparatus had been put up to his (Mr. Rhodes's) entire satisfac-
tion, and was quite effective in preventing smoke. — Mr. Maclea had had
Rodda's plan in use for six months, and he could testify to its good effects.

Mr. HoLDFoaTH said that he had found Rodda's plan better than rive or
six other plans that he had tried. He had persevered in the use of Ko Ida's
apparatus, which prevented smoke, effected a saving in the fuel, and had
other advantages — such as raising the steam quickly, and keeping it up a
regular height with very little attention on the part of the fireman. As soon
as ever smoke was generated, the apparatus possessed means of destroying
it; and the only time when there was smoke was when fresh coals were
thrown on the fire, and then there was not much smoke, and that was not
visible more than half a minute. The coals he was using were unriddled
slack, which he found to answer verv well, and his mill was quite free from
smoke. He believed thru Mr. Rodda's plan was applicable to dye-house pans
and to all sorts of furnaces except to the rotatory (Bruuton's) grates.

Mr. Atkinson inquired if any plan that was known could prevent a large
quantity of smoke being emitted when a fire was first lighted? — Mr. Hold-
forth replied that Mr. Rodda's did to a great extent.

Mr. LrcrocK said that Messrs. Pease and Heaton, and also Mr. George,
had applied Rodda's plan to their dye-pans, and found it to answer exceed-
ingly well. — Mr. Holtjforth had seen the plan in operation at Messrs. Pease
and Heaton's, and he could testify that it was quite effective. It was only
when Mr. Rodda's instructions were not obeyed that smoke was generated.
With regard to the best means of ensuring attention mi the part of firemen,
Mr. Huldforth stated how he did with his men. He went to the fireman and
said, when the plan was in effective operation, " Mow, you see there is no
smoke, and vou see. if the apparatus is properly attended to, there will be no
smoke.'' " Yes." said the man. " Well, then," replied Mr. Holdforth,
•• Hike notice and remember, that if I see any smoke coming out of the top of
the chimney, you must take that as a month's notice to quit." This he
found had the effect of making the man attentive to his duties; and if he
managed well, and to his (Mr. lloldlorth's) satisfaction, he occasionally gave
him a little reward.

R. RODDA is now in Leeds, and begs to inform the proprietors of steam
tv, \is. Sec . in Yorkshire. Lincashire, and elsewhere, that he has reduced
his prices, and is also furnished with numerous testimonials as to the jwrlect
success of his plan for CORSUHTNe sin ok k and savins rat i— Communications,
addressed to ll. Briggate. Leeds, attended to immediately.

DREDGE'S PATENT IRON BRIDGES.

THIS econoinic.il and powerful system of construction is founded
upon the principles of the lever — therefore, it is adapted for the hea-
viest traffic on rail and oilier roads, and for the largest or smallest spans in
all situations. It is no; ball' so expensive as timber bridges ; and, taking an
average on the old principles of suspension, this

system admits of the erection of 10 powerful bridges for one, there being so
much less material and labour in their const ruction. The Clifton-bridge,
upon this principle, ciuld lie erected for A'10, 000. in six months. The prin-
ciple was first used by the Victoria Bridge Company, over the Avon at Bath,
in 1836, in a bridge 150 feet long, and 19 wide. Afterwards, the government
adopted it in five bridges in the Regent's Park ; and Sir James Colquhoun,
Bart., used it over the Leven, in Scotland ; this bridge is 292 feet long and
20 feet wide. Another is erected at Wraysbury, near Windsor, for G. S.
Harcourt, Esq., and one across the river Froine. for II. Miller, Esq. The
elevation, plan, sections, and description of Mr. llarcourt's bridge is pub-
lished in the "Architect, Engineer, and Surveyor," No. 36. It is 100 feet
long and 17 broad, and its cost was less than the centering for a stone bridge
of the same magnitude.

*,* J. Dredge will undertakp the construction of bridges, and guarantee
their stability ; and he will take shares in any loll bridges he mav erect.

Bath, March 1.

BY HER MAJESTY'S ROYAL LETTERS PATENT.

GERISH'S PATENT DOOR-SPRINGS, FOR CLOS-
ING EVERY DESCRIPTION OF DOOR— Manufactory, 16, East
Road. Hoxton New Town.

these springs consist of parallel and rising hinges in Brass or Iron, and
swine centres for doors opening both ways.

These improved spring-hinges or door-springs merit general attention,
as they can be applied to any doi r. in every situation, without defacing the
wood-work ; their action is easy and noiseless, neat and not visible when the
door is shut, and are made to surpass the best now m use for nearly one half
the price ; they allow the door to go quite back, and are not likely to get
out of repair.

The Swing Centre possesses in a simple combination of power double the
strength of any hitherto invented in a much smaller size, and at little more
than half tbe expense.

LiTHIC ANTI-CORROSION PAINT, long known for its durable
qualities in all climates as a cheap out-door paint for covering Brick
Wood, or Iron. Manufactured in Stone or Slate Colours by J. B. WHITE
and SONS, Millbank Street, Westminster, Roman Cement Manufacturers.

KOOF iiVtiR THE RIDING SCHOOL,
NEWCASTLE ON TYNE.

1 843. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

147

THE AMERICAN STEAM EXCAVATING MACHINE.
(" YANKEE GEOLOGIST.")

( With an Engraving, Plate VI.)

This machine, winch is the invention of the late Mr. Ottis, of New
York, is an application of steam power to the purposes of excavation
ant) dredging; and for the former purpose, appears greatly superior to
any thing which has hitherto been achieved in excavating machinery.
The accompanying engraving, which has been made expressly for our
Journal, by Mr. George Spencer, Mechanical Draughtsman, from the
original working drawings in his possession, presents the principal
side elevation (Fig. 1) of the machine, which brings all the working
parts sufficiently into view ; Fig. 2, a plan of the horse-shoe pulley
and crane top; the dotted lines show the position of the lower framing
or stage and boiler; Fig. 3, shows the crank shaft and gearing;
Fig. 4, the main drum ; Fig. 5, the main drum for working the exca-
vator ; and Fig. 6, a plan of the excavator.

The whole of the details of this machine, which are very elaborate
and complete, of course cannot be attempted in an article of this
nature; we will, however, describe as much of the details and its
principal feature as are necessary to a proper understanding of the
several movements of the machine, and then describe each of those
movements separately. The machine consists of a strong horizontal
wooden framing or stage A, mounted upon two pairs of railway
wheels B, for locomotion, which run on temporary rails, laid down as
may be required ; on the one end of the stage is fixed a cylindrical
boiler C, and the gearing for turning the crane round. In the middle
is placed the gearing for working one of the motions of the exca-
vator D ; and, at the other end is placed the wooden crane E, in form
similar to an ordinary timber crane, on the diagonal brace of which is
placed a platform f, on which an assistant stands; and gearing U, for
working another motion of the excavator D. To support the machine
laterally, strong brackets or arms project on either side, the ends of
which are furnished with screws to adjust the machine to the ine-
qualities of the surface of the ground.

The excavator or shovel D, (Figs. 1 and 6,) is formed of stout
boiler plate, and is firmly rivetted together; it is of a box shape,
having one end open ; on the lower edge are four tangs or points,
which serve to penetrate and loosen the soil ; the other end is hung
on swivel hinges, and fastened by a spring d, which may be set at
liberty by means of the lever and rods a, Fig. 1.

The machine is made to perform three distinct movements; 1st, the
digging movement; 2nd, the turning movement, and 3rd, the locomo-
tive movvement.

The Digging Movement consists of two motions, one for drawing
the excavator forward, and the other for driving it into the ground,
both of which is done simultaneously ; the first motion is performed
in the following manner. On the horizontal stage A, and in front of
the boiler C, is placed a small high-pressure engine, (not shown in the
engraving,) the connecting rod of which acts upon the crank c, and
gives a rotary motion to the shaft L, and with it the pinion /, (Fig. 3,)
which works into the large wheel M, mounted on the shaft N, upon
which is fixed a large channelled barrel or drum n, (Figs. 1 and 4,)
round which the hauling chain O, is coiled; this chain passes upwards
through the hollow crane post, over the indented pulley P, to a double
pulley fixed at the jib head, thence round the blocks R, to which the
excavator is suspended, as the chain wound up draws the excavator
out of the ground both in a forward and upward direction, when
driven into the ground by the second motion. This last motion is
communicated by the chain traversing over the indented pulley P, to
another gearing. On the axle of the indented pulley P, is fixed a
bevelled wheel v, (Fig. 2,) which works into a similar one »', (Fig. ],)
mounted on to the upper end of the oblique shaft V, on the lower end
of which is a corresponding bevelled wheel v", working into another
w, fixed upon the shaft W ; upon this shaft is a pinion w', which takes
into the large spur wheel it', mounted upon the shaft U, upon which
is a channelled drum it, round which is coiled the chain s, attached to

No. 68.— Vol. VI— May, 1813.

the diagonal wooden arms S; on the lower end of these arms is fixed
an iron yoke, to which is suspended on pivots the excavator. By this
arrangement, as the main chain O, passes over the pulley P, motion is
communicated to the shaft U, for the purpose of forcing downwards
in a diagonal direction the arms S, and with them the excavator into
the ground. A man stands upon the stage/, for throwing in and out
of gear this apparatus, and to regulate the motion for lowering or
raising the excavator.

The next motion to be described, is for the purpose of turning the
crane round either to the right or to the left; this is effected by ano-
ther gearing in the following manner. On the first crank shaft L, is
fixed a bevelled wheel /', (Fig. 3,) which works into a similar wheel g,
mounted on to the end of a horizontal shaft G, upon which are placed
loose two bevelled wheels g' g", either of which can be thrown in or
our of gear so as to work, as may be required, into the large bevelled
wheel h, mounted upon the shaft H ; upon this shaft is a pinion h',
which works into the wheel j, fixed on the shaft J, upon this shaft is
fixed an indented pulley /, round which the chain r, is coiled, and
passes upwards over pulleys s, round either side of the horse shoe
pulley, to the ends of which it is fixed by iron bolts ; the horse shoe
pulley is fixed by means of strong iron stays to the crane, and when it
is made to revolve the crane jib is turned round on the stationary post
/, either to the right or to the left as may be required, and empties
the contents of the excavator into a wagon or barrow.

The Progressing Motion is effected by placing on the hind wheel
axle a strong wheel, shown by a dotted circle b, (Fig. 1,) which com-
municates with a pinion b', on the shaft i, by an intermediate pinion 6",
as shown by a dotted circle ; motion being given to the shaft H, by
the bevel gearing, described in the last motion, a forward or backward
motion of the machine is obtained.

We have no precise data as to the cost of the machine or the quan-
tity of work that can be performed by it, further than a short para-
graph we gave in the last November number of the Journal, wherein
it states that the machine is capable of digging 1000 cubic yards of
earth per day, and that a machine complete costs about 6000 dollars
in America.

ROOF OF THE RIDING SCHOOL AT NEWCASTLE-
ON-TYNE.

(With an Engraving ; see Plate VI.)

Sir — Having expressed your intention of giving some examples of
construction useful to the student, in the description of the roof of the
Polytechnic Institution, Vienna, in a former number of your excellent
work, I am induced to send you the enclosed sketch, on account of the
similarity of construction in the two, and they being the only cases
I know extant where support is obtained from the side walls of the
building on a line lower than the level of the tie beam, I shall first
describe the peculiarities of the Vienna roof, and then of the roof at
Newcastle. The former is 56 ft. span, and formed of curvilinear ribs
12 in. sqaare, standing on a set-off of the wall considerably below the
wall plate, and the crown of the rib rising about as much again above
it, the slope or pitch of the roof being made uniform with rafters of
smaller scantling. The ribs are cut out to the sweep of the curve, and
are not laminar ribs, by which mode much additional stiffness is ac-
quired. It is evident the arch is the principle of construction. The
covering is copper, the weight being about 100 lb. per square, whilst
tiles are 6501b. weight per square. The annexed engraving exhibits
the roof constructed over the circus or riding school at Newcastle,
erected in 17S9, under the superintendence of Mr. David Stephenson,
architect, who was a resident and practised in Newcastle; he Was the
architect of the Theatre Royal and All Saints' Church, and architect
to His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, &c. The span of the roof
is 64 feet in clear of the walls, the length about 75 ft., and the height
of the room from the floor to the crown of the arch, or horizonal beam
at the foot of king post, 30 ft. The tie beams and principals are 12 ft.
by 6ft. placed 104ft. apart. The struts from king post 8ft. by Sft.

20

14S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May'

The king post, straining collar (the horizontal heam) and struts from
side walls, 12ft. by 10ft. in two thicknesses and boiled together. The
purlins are 10 ft. by Gft. and about 9 ft. apart, being four in number on
each side of the span. The common rafters are 5 ft. by 2 in. and are
placed 3ft. apart from centre to centre. The ridge 12 in. by 2 in.

By a comparison of the two roofs, the simplicity of the Newcastle
roof over that with curved ribs, is at once apparent ; no wall plates
are used at the foot of the struts on the side walls, and at the level of
the eaves ; a pole plate and vertical posts at the foot of eacli rafter is
dispensed with. The braces are prolonged to the king post, and act
both as a tie beam and a counter strut to the main struts or portion of
the curb roof, resting on the side walls at a level lower than the eaves.
The principle of this roof is that of the common curb roof, as by in-
spection of the sketch it will be seen that the strongest scantlings are
so arranged. On a few of the couples or pairs of principals a curved
rib is affixed to the tie beam and strut, so as to give the roof a curvi-
linear form; but as it is dispensed with in some, it shows that it is
not essential to the stability of the structure.

I am, Sir,

Si. Jinn's, Nemcasile-on-Tync. Your obedient servant,

O. T.

ON REVERSING LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.
(With an Engraving, see Plate VI.)

Sir — Having by chance fallen in with a number of your Journal,
(the number for February, 1842,) I perceive in it a design
for reversing locomotive engines, [signed H. and P., upon which, with
your permission, I beg to make a few remarks, as the principle of it
is similar to one of my own.

In the latter part of the year lb42, I designed two plans for rever-
sing, the reversing valve being in the one case a slide, and in the
other a four way cock ; the former of these was published in a con-
temporary journal, > but having been forestalled in my design for the
latter, it was never published: the two grand objections to be con-
tended against in those designs, were, the pressure of the steam
against the under side of the slide when reversed, and the (as yet)
impossibility of obtaining double lead; to obviate the former of these,
I proposed the design enclosed, which is much more simple and less
complex than H. and P.'s plan. In the first place, the use of the four
way cock for changing the direction of the steam, does away with the
necessity of tilling up the smoke box with the piston valve, and is be-
sides, less expensive; secondly, the connexions between the pistons
in the icorkwg valve box, are mere rods, instead of the pipes used by
H. and P. ; thirdly, a loss quantity of steam pipes are required, as in-
stead of two sets of pipes between the reversing and working valves,
I use three short pipes crossing the bottom of the smoke box, con-
necting the centre of each box, and the aids individually.

For explanation of my design, allow me to refer you to the sketches
enclosed. — See plate VI.

A, is the steam pipe, which conveys the steam from the top of the
dome H, through the top of the smoke box, to the four way cock B,
from whence the pipes C and D, take it to the valve boxes, the pipe
C, connects the cock with the ends of each valve box, or that part on
the outside of the working pistons in it, and the pipe D, connects it
with the centres of each box or that part of the box let/can the pis-
tons, in Fig. 1 ; the four way cock (shown in section) is so set as to
allow the steam to proceed along the pipe D, to the centres of the
valve boxes, while the waste escapes up the pipe C, from the ends of
them, into the blast pipe ; there are three pipes between the valve
boxes E E, one of which is shown at F; the section of the valve box
in Fig. 2, shows the positions of these pipes, which enter the box at
K, K, K', the pipe D, being connected to the box opposite K', and
thence proceeding across to the other box, and the pipe C, being
connected opposite to the passages K K, and thence crossing to the
box on this side ; the mode of action of the valve is so simple, as not

1 The Practical Mechanic and Engineer's Magazine.

to require any explanation further than that the pressure is balanced
as effectually, as in H. and P.'s plan ; the dotted lines show the posi-
tion of the four way cock plug when reversed. Having, as I hope,
fully described by own plan, will you allow me to say a few words
respecting H. and P.'s mode of obtaining double lead, may I ask them
if this plan has ever been tried, and if so, if it was found to answer
the inventors' expectations, as it is my firm belief, that if it had been
tried before its appearance in your pages, it never would have made
that appearance. The mode of working two valves with one eccen-
tric, is an exceedingly ingenious one, and as far as I am aware, is
quite an original idea ; but it will not require much demonstration to
show the futility of the mode of obtaining lead, by the use of the
circular slots ; the mistake into which H. and P. seem to have fallen,
is by no means a solitary instance of premature conclusions, as witness
the propositions contained in the 3rd and 4th Vols. London Mechanic's
JWagazinc. I will take the same position of the eccentric, as given
by H. and P., thus in Fig. 3, let the perpendicular dotted line repre-
sent the position of the crank, being at half stroke, then (lead being
given) the position of the pin on the lever for working the valve, will
be at D ; but suppose thp steam passages to be reversed, the crank,
carrying with it the eccentric ring, will revolve in a contrary direction,
and the pin D, will not be moved until the crank arrives at C, as
shown in Fig. 4, consequently the valve will be just so much in arrear
as it had load in the former position, as the valve lever will not be in
the proper position for giving lead until the crank arrives at C,
whereas it ought to ho in the same position as in Fig. 3, which is at
half stroke. It is not, perhaps, generally understood, that the real
position of the valve to obtain lead requires no alteration, when re-
versed in this manner, but the relative position of the valve to the
motion of the eccentric must be altered.

I am, yours, obediently,
42, Great Avenham Street, Preston, William Johnson.

April 7, 1843.

VELOCITY OF WATER DOWN VERTICAL PIPES.

Sir — I have attentively perused the several articles which have
lately appeared in your scientific Journal, on the velocity of water
down vertical pipes under certain conditions; but I by no means agree
with your correspondent T. F. . . . n, who asserts, that the velocity of
water down a vertical pipe lb' feet long, under these conditions, will
be 32 feet per second. Nor does it appear to me, that the mutual
cohesion between the several layers or particles of water in the pipe,
is a force sufficient of itself, to account for the solidity of the issuing
stream, as stated in a late number of your Journal. — The following is
my humble opinion on this interesting subject. —

First, as to the velocity of water down a vertical pipe 16 feet long
the top of the pipe being considered to be always covered with
water. —

The following table extracted from " Grier's Mechanic's Dictionary,"
exhibits the natural velocity due to a body, alter having fallen through
the undermentioned distances : and will be found useful as a reference
in the following remarks. —

Space through Velocity acquired at Space through Velocity acquired at
which the body the eud of the time. which the body the end of the time.

feet per second.
. 24704/
. 25-9628
. 27-1232
. 28-2264
. 29-9786
. 30-3601
. 31-3176
. 32-2833
. 33-1975

It appears from this table, which is founded on the well-known law,
that " the velocity acquired by a body falling from rest in a free space,
is as the square root of the space fallen through," that the velocity of

falls in feet.

feet per second.

falls in feet.

1 ..

7-3103

10 .

2

.. 110637

11 .

3

.. 13-4165

12 .

4

.. 15-6562

13 .

5

.. 17-2903

14 .

6

.. 19-1725

15 .

7

.. 20-7078

16 .

8

.. 32-1435

17 .

9 ..

.. 23-4890

18 .

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

141)

water at the end of the 1st ft. is 7-3103 ft. per second, (and not 4 ft.

as stated by your correspondent T. F n) ; at the end of the 4th ft.

it is 15-6562 : and at the 16th ft. 31-3176 ft. per second : or, in round
numbers, 8, 16, and 32 ft. per second. If then the motion of the
whole of this column is uniform, whence has the power been obtained
to increase the velocity of water at the end of the first foot, from 8
feet per second, to, say, 16 or 32 feet per second ? Doubtless from
the superior velocity due to the lower parts of the water in the pipe.
If this is the case, then must the natural velocity due to the lower
portions of the water be diminished ; for nobody when in motion can
impart any motion to another body at rest, or increase the velocity of
that body if in motion, without a diminution of its own velocity, in
proportion to the respective momenta of the two bodies. — Therefore,
it is not possible that the water at the end of the 16 feet pipe, whose
natural velocity is 32 feet per second, can, after it has imparted a
quicker motion to the higher portions of water, still possess the
same velocity that it would have had, if it had not parted with a
portion of that velocity, in increasing the velocity of the upper parts
of this column. Consequently, it follows, that the velocity of the
water issuing from the pipe must, (if the stream fills the pipe and
flows uniformly through it), be diminished, and therefore be less than
32 feet per second.

Next, as to the cause of the solidity of the issuing stream. — Let us
first consider the phenomena of a stream of any liquids falling from a
height, but not down the interior of a pipe ; or even a continuous
stream of leaden bullets. For a short distance we perceive the stream
solid, till the increased velocity of the lower parts as they descend
causes them to leave those immediately above them, air filling up the
intervening space, and thus the solidity of the stream is broken. Now
let us turn to the pipe, and we see, by the above table, that the natural
velocity of a layer of water which has fallen one foot, is 7-3103 feet
per second, and of another which has fallen two feet, 11-1)637 feet per
second; why then does not this lower portion fall faster than the
higher one, and separate from it, and thus break the solidity of the
stream ? Simply because if it did so, there would be a vacuum
between these two portions of water, bacause the sides of the pipe
are impervious to the air ; and as the atmosphere is pressing on the
water at the top and bottom of the pipe with a pressure, say, of 14
pounds per square inch, these portions are kept together by this
pressure ; for no sooner does an under stratum of water try, as it were,
to leave the stratum above it, and form a vacuum, than the presure
of the atmosphere at the top of the pipe is brought into action, and
the velocity of the upper stratum increased ; while at the same time
a portion of the atmospheric pressure, being by the same tendency
removed from the upper surface of the lower stratum, the. full pressure
of the atmosphere is exerted upwards at the base, and the velocity of
this lower stratum is consequently diminished. This certainly appears
to account more satisfactorily for the solidity of the stream, than the
force of cohesion; for this force must have the same influence over
the particles of water whether they are in the inside or on the outside
of the pipe. — As a proof, that when water is descending in the
interior of a pipe, which is continually covered with water on the top,
the atmosphere has a tendency to rush in through the sides. I need
only mention the wellknown fact, that if in a pipe under these circum-
stances there happen to be a crack, or a hole bored through the sides,
the air immediately rushes in, and the solidity of the stream is
destroyed.

Lastly, to determine the actual velocity of this continuous column
of water. — Let us suppose the water in the pipe composed of an
immense number of laminae, eacli of the thickness of a particle or atom
of water, and consequently of the same thickness and weight; and let
«s take under our consideration the case of any two of these contigu-
ous laminae, and suppose that the velocity due to the higher one is,
say, one inch per second ; and the velocity due to the lower one is,
say, two inches per second. Then if these two lamina;, when moving
with these velocities, be at the same instant connected by the
pressure of the atmosphere, or otherwise, so that the one cannot move
on without the others moving along with it, it is evident, since the

quantity of matter in each is the same, that the resultant velocity of
the two will be one half of the sum of their original velocities, or one
and a half inches per second. If then we could obtain the natural
velocities due to each respective lamina, the average would be the
result and velocity for the whole column. On taking the average of
initial and final velocities due to the water at the end of each succes-
sive two feet, from the foregoing table, and then dividing their sum
by 8, we have 20-6077 feet as the. average velocity of the whole
column. And if by approximating rather more closely to the system
of atomic laminae, we take the average of the initial and final veloci-
ties due to each_/W of water, and divide the sum by Hi, the resultant
is 20-7265 feet per second.

Again, since " The velocity acquired by a body falling from rest in
free space is as the square-root of the space fallen through," the
space varies as the square of the velocity. — If then, we take the
spaces fallen through at the termination of each foot in the 16 feet,
(as in the first column of the above table) as abscissa, and the respec-
tive velocities (as in the second column) as ordinates, the resultant
curve will be a parabola similar to the figure below. —

i

3

_

3

_

4.

6

_

6

1

8

9

10
12

—

Vt

-

Feci}

IS

1

I

c

Let us suppose the line AB, represented in this figure 16 feet, or
the space fallen through, to be divided into an almost infinite number
of parts equal to the number of atomic laminae in the column of water;
then if we could find the length of the several ordinates at those
points, and divide the length of the whole by their sum, the
result would be the average length of all the ordinates, and con-
sequently the average velocity. This can be done by finding a
rectangle whose area is equal to the area of the parabola, and one of
whose sides is equal to AB. — Now, i x abscissa AB x ordinate BC
= area of the parabola = | X 16 X 31-3176 = 334-0544 ft. There-

334-0544 8x16x31-3176 „__Q. ., „

fore — = rj; = 20-8784 ; consequently the

two sides of this rectangle are 16 feet and 20-8784 feet, of which 1(3
feet represents the space fallen through and 20-8784 feet the average
of all the ordinates, and consequently the average velocity. 20-S784
feet therefore is the average of the natural velocities due to the
several atomic laminae composing this column of water. Again, it is
evident, that since the abscissa AB (or 16 feet), enters both into the
numerator and denominator of the fraction representing the average
velocity, it may be eliminated altogether; and the expression then
becomes § X 31-3176; or, "The velocity of water descending the
interior of a pipe 16 feet long, is equal to § of the natural velocity
due to a body, after it has fallen through a distance, in free space,
equal to the length of the pipe."

I. T N.

Shropshire Lunatic Asyi.sw.— We understand Messrs. Cooper, builders,
of this town, have entered into contract with the magisirates of the county
of Salop, for the erection of a Lunatic Asylum for that county. The build-
ing is from a design by Messrs. Scott and Moffatt, of London, in the
Elizabethan style. The extent of the front 280 feet, and arching 170 feet,
The plan is in the shape of the letter 11. The first part of the building will
cost £11,000.— Derby Repi

20*

150

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

THE AERIAL TRANSIT MACHINE.

Analysis of the projected Aerial Transit Machine, and of the principles
involved in its construction and employment.

From the earliest period of antiquity the desire to navigate the
skies has ever formed one of the most prominent passions of the
human breast. In the commencement, ere man had acquired sufficient
skill to be able to submit his ideas to the test of experiment, the in-
dulgence of this passion could only display itself in vain aspirations
or the wild effusions of an unrestrained and romantic imagination.
To this source may be traced some of the most elaborate conceptions
of the Heathen poets ; the fables of Daedalus and Icarus, of Perseus and
Bellerophon, the air-borne car of Medea, the winged heel of Mercury,
the Harpy, Chimara, Pegasus, and many others equally fanciful and
absurd, which characterise the history and mythology of the remoter
ages.

As the world, however, advanced, and some insight began to be ob-
tained into the nature and constitution of the surrounding atmosphere,
the reveries of the poet gradually gave way to those of the philoso-
pher, and men at length bethought themselves of imitating what, be-
fore, they had been contented to admire. Thenceforward to the
present period, all that human ingenuity could devise, has been con-
stantly arrayed in the pursuit of this favourite object, and the empire
of the skies has never ceased to be contested with an energy and zeal
almost as great as ever was displayed in the subjugation of the earth.
Of the schemes to which this interesting inquiry has given rise,
some, and those among the earliest, professed to operate after the
manner of birds, by the mechanical reaction of wings agcinst the
subjacent air. Such was the nature of the plans of Roger Bacon,
Fleyder, and others, too numerous to mention, some of whom attested
the insufficiency of their devices at the expense of their limbs, and
even of their lives, while some, more cautious, only projected expe-
riments, which they left to others to perform.

To schemes of this description, which may be termed the mechan-
ical, succeeded others based upon the physical or chemical principles
of the atmosphere, real or presumed. Of this nature were the de-
signs of Bishop Wilkins, and the Jesuit Lana, and that (more absurd
than either) which, proceeding upon the supposition that the particles
constituting the upper strata of the setherial mass were of a more
buoyant consistency than those below them, proposed to accomplish
its object by enclosing in a proper vessel a portion of air abstracted
from the very regions which itself was to offer the onlv means of ap-
proaching.

It would occupy more space than we could here afford, and serve
moreover no beneficial purpose, were we to attempt to recount, much
less to describe, all the schemes that have been successively proposed,
dilated upon, tried, found wanting, and subsequently abandoned, in the
prosecution of this interesting design. Suffice it to say that in the
one material point, namely, the procuring an elevation into the bosom
of the air, they all proved equally inefficacious, until the discovery of
the balloon by the brothers Montgolfier in the year 1782. Two in-
stances, indeed, and but two, are authentically recorded, in which the
attempt to fly by mechanical means has been attended with partial
success— that of the Marquis de Bacqueville, who, in the year 1742,
accomplished a flight partly across the Seine in Paris, and that of an
individual of the name of Degen, who, at Vienna, some years ago,
succeeded in raising himself to a height of about 50 feet by means of
the alternate reaction of large surfaces shaped after the fashion of an
umbrella, and worked by the exercise of the arms and legs. These
however, were but the more splendid failures; and the prospects of
aerial navigation may be said to have been at the very lowest ebb
when the ingenious discovery of M. M. Montgolfier, with the subse-
quent improvements of M. Charles, in which hvdrogen gas was made
to take the place of heated air, revived the drooping spirit of enter-
prise with the promise of a more easy triumph in the fields of air.
Abandoning the former mode of operating for the purpose of obtain-
ing an ascent, men now directed their attention entirely to the means

of controlling the motions of the machine, by the intervention of
which that, apparently the most arduous and perplexing condition of
atmospheric transport, had been so suddenly and unexpectedly accom-
plished.

In this, however, as in the more independent processes of flight by
mere mechanical reaction, human ingenuity was doomed to be de-
feated. With all the flattering prospects of success which an almost
unlimited power of support appeared to hold out, not only was there
no commensurate progress in the essential object of securing a defi-
nite direction, but even greater difficulties appeared upon further ac-
quaintance to stand in the way of aerial guidance by means of the
balloon, than were apprehended, before that instrument had brought
men into a more practical acquaintance with the character and con-
ditions of the element with which they had to contend. The magni-
tude cf the forces developed, owing to the necessary bulk of the ma-
chine, seemed to deride all attempts at control, while at the same
time the expenses attending its construction and employment, im-
posed a limitation upon the experiments, by means of which alone
these obstacles could be expected, if ever, to be overcome. Under these
accumulated and, perhaps, insurmountable difficulties, the balloon
gradually ceased to be regarded as an object of scientific interest, and
at length shared the fate of all other discarded favourites, in a neglect
as inconsiderate as it had formerly been courted and admired.

After a period of excitemeut, a state of lethargy is no uncommon
result; and accordingly when the first burst of admiration and won-
derment had subsided, and a succession of failures had begun to cha-
racterise the new art with something like a tinge of absurdity, the
public gradually settled down into a condition of apathy and disregard in
respect of aerial navigation, even the more profound from the greatness
of the disappointment to which they had so recently been subjected.
Occasionally, indeed, the rumour of some new improvement in the
art of "flying made easy," more plausible or presumptuous than the
rest, would startle them from their propriety, and, for a while over-
coming their antipathy to the balloon, awaken a languid spirit of spe-
culation, in which the dread of disappointment could plainly be seen
predominating over the feebler expectations of success. These, how-
ever, were but temporary excitements, which died away as soon as
they were felt, and the subject appeared to have been almost entirely
forgotten, except by a few of the most ardent cultivators of the art,
when the announcement of a really new project, totally unlike any that
had gone before, aud repudiating all connexion with the obnoxious
instrument by which they had been so often before deluded, has again
roused all their sympathies, and produced a fever of expectation
which a mouth of cool reflection has not yet been able to allay.

The first communication of this project in a tangible form, having
taken place since the publication of our last number, ' we were pre-
cluded from giving it that notice at the time which we would
otherwise have bestowed upon it; not only as in itself meriting
investigation, but in consideration of the intense interest and divided
opiuions it had certainly excited throughout no small nor uneducated
portion of the community. Ushered in with a somewhat more than
ordinary degree of pretension, backed by reference to experiments of
a most flattering description with models, and, to crown all, stamped,
as it were, with the authority of a bill in Parliament, it not only
justifies but imperatively calls for an inquiry which, to be available,
must be equally searching and exact. It is of no use to regard a
scheme of such complicated contrivance and involving such recondite
principles, in a superficial manner or in a general point of view. The
mere fact of a principle being correct is no proof of the practicability
of a scheme which is founded upon it; and if the success of a model
were conclusive in respect of the object it is intended to represent,
neither would Mr. Cocking have perished in the descent witli his
parachute, nor would this very question of aerial navigation have
remained undetermined to the present day. 2 In fact the working of

1 The public were first mailc acquainted with the details of Mr. Hemon's
patent tliroiiL.li the plans anil descriptions n hich appeared in the weekly
j.airn ils ut that rather ominous date, the 1st of April.

2 It is well known that Mr. Cocking had spent up« aids of 20 years in
framing and improving models of the m tchine In which he atterwards lost

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

151

a model determines nothing that cannot as well be determined without
it — the correctness of the principle, which is the proper subject of
mathematical research. With regard to the possibility of its con-
struction upon the great scale it would determine nothing, even if it
were, which in this case it is absolutely impossible it should be, in the
strict sense of the word, a perfect model, observing all the proportions
of strength, weight, bulk, power and dimensions as they will appear in
the real machine with reference to which they are contrived. The only
true and satisfactory mode of arriving at any thing like a correct
conclusion respecting the efficiency of the machine in question, or
any other of the like character, is by a critical examination of its parts
severally and with reference to each other, which is the course we
intend to pursue on the present occasion. To enable us to do this the
more intelligibly, we will begin by describing in a few words what
Mr. Henson's machine is, and what is the principle upon which it
is intended to act, so far as they can be collected from the statements
in the public press. In general terms, then, Mr. Henson's machine
may be described as an horizontally extended plane, 150 feet in length
and 30 in breadth, (consequently containing an area of 4,500 square
feet) across which, close beneath and in the centre, is suspended a
cuneiform car or body accommodated with a pair of circular flying
vanes, by the oblique impact of which against the air (upon the
principle of the archimedean screw) it is designed to be propelled,
and furnished with two caudal appendages like fans, one of a large
and the other of small dimensions, by means of which the vertical and
horizontal course of the machine is intended to be controlled. The
whole is proposed to be set in motion by an accession of extraneous
force acquired through the intervention of a preliminary descent
down an inclined plane, and maintained by the operation of a steam-
engine located in the body or car of the machine. Omitting therefore
the consideration of minor details, our attention will be directed, in
succession, to the suspending plane — the caudal appendages — the
flying vanes — the motive power — and, finally, to the principle upon
which the elevation in the first instance is intended to be secured.

And, first, with regard to the suspending plane. The object of this
contrivance, involving, in fact, the essence of Mr. Henson's patent,3
is, simply, to obtain a direction for a certain amount of weight different
from what it would assume if left to pursue its course according to
the unobstructed force of gravitation. This it accomplishes, or would
accomplish if efficiently constructed, by a progressive motion conferred
upon it at an angle inclined to the horizon, whereby a part of the force
generated by its opposition becomes resolved in a direction opposed
to its descent ; and the merit of it consists in this, — that a less degree
of force is required to produce this progressive motion than that
which the actual weight of the machine would require for its support.
A familiar mode of illustrating this has been adopted by Sir George
Cayley, in the Mechanic's Magazine for the first of April. It proceeds
upon an analogy with the suspension of spherical substances upon an
inclined plane, and cannot be better explained, as far as it goes, than
in his own words. "Suppose A B to represent an inclined plane,

rising one foot in ten; it is well known that if the ball F weighed
1001b., a force of 101b. applied horizontally would sustain it from

his life : and the public will not yet have forgotten the pleasing experiments
with Mr. Green's model of the balloon at the Polytechnic Institution last
year, in «hich the practicability of controlling its course by mechanical re-
action was so interestingly illustrated.

3 It is not our desire to detract from the merits of any individual who
seeks by bis ingenuity to extend the limits of our attainments in art or
science : but a regard to truth obliges us to observe that the idea of obtaining
an ascension by means of the inclined plane is not original or peculiar to
Mr. Hensi n's project ; being in fact the mo le to which all those who of late
years have thought to etlectuate an aer.al navigation by mere mechanical
reaction, have looked for the solution of this interesting question. In the
numfcr of the Mechanic's Magazine, for the 25th April, 182U, is a sketch of
an apparatus constructed entirely upon the same principle, and many more
might be referred to of an earlier as well as a more modern date.

rolling back. Conceive the same line A B to represent, also, the
section of a large surface, like the sail of a ship, and that C G repre-
sents a cord by which it is sustained from being driven back by a
horizontal wind in the adverse direction. If the sail contains 100
square feet of surface, and the wind has sufficient power to press with
one pound to the foot, 1001b. weight will be supported, and the ten-
sion on the cord will be only 10 lb. It is the same thing whether the
wind thus blows against the sail, or the sail be driven with equal ve-
locity horizontally in calm air; the 101b. propelling power will still
sustain the 1001b. in the air." It only remains to observe in what
manner it effects this ; namely, by producing such a rate of motion in
the inclined plane as, at the given angle, would generate a pressure of
one pound to the square foot.

Now to apply this to the case of Mr. Henson's machine. In the
first place, the area being 4500 square feet, and the weight (taking it
according to the statements in the public prints) being 30001b. sup-
posing the same angle of inclination to be observed as in the foregoing
illustration (that is to say, one in ten) if the wind move at a rate suffi-
cient to generate a pressure equal to two-thirds of a pound upon the
square foot, the resistance to its horizontal progress, and consequently
the force it would require to compete with that resistance, would be
one-tenth of its actual weight, or 3001b. If, instead of an angle of
inclination of one in ten, be substituted an inclination of one in twenty
(which is perhaps more nearly in the ratio observed by birds in their
flight, and consequently more consistent with the analogy Mr. Henson
appears most desirous of maintaining) the same result will be obtained
with half the force, or a resistance of 1501b.; and accordingly it is
upon this hypothesis that we shall proceed, in the next place, to in-
vestigate the rate at which the machine must be propelled in order to
enable it to realize this resistance.

The proposition which we here have to deal with is simply, "having
the pressure upon a plane surface at a given angle of inclination, to
find the rate under which that pressure is developed ; " and the so-
lution is deduced from a consideration of the rate corresponding to
the resistance the same plane would experience if perpendicularly
impinged upon.

We will not trouble our readers with entering into the details of the
equations by which the ratio of the forces generated by inclined planes
moving in fluid media has been determined ; but, content with refer-
ring them for the solution of these interesting problems to Whewell's
Treatise upon Dynamics (or indeed any other works of good repute
upon the same subject), proceed at once to observe that the resistance
experienced by an inclined plane in passing through the air with a
given velocity, varies as the cube of the sine of the angle of impact ;
and that, consequently, whatever be the ratio which this number bears
to the cube of radius (the sine of the angle of 90 degrees), the same
will be the ratio of the resistance it will experience at the angle
assumed, to that which it would experience at the same rate of motion
if perpendicularly encountered.

Now the velocity under which the plane in question, cont lining an
area of 4500 square feet, would develop the prescribed amount of
resistance, namely 30001b. by perpendicular impact (being at the rate
of two-thirds of a pound per square foot) is, according to the tables
of Messrs. Rouse and Smeaton, founded upon actual experiment, about
12 miles an hour. The angle of inclination at which we have agreed
to dispose the suspending plane, being one in twenty, may be Con-
sidered with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, as an angle of
3 degrees, the sine of which (radius being estimated at 1) is -05
As therefore 1J = 1 : -053 = -000125 : : 3000 ; .375 = the
resistance on the inclined plane at the rate of 12 miles an hour ; and
the resistance increasing as the squares of the velocities and conse-
quently the velocities following the ratio of the square roots of the
resistance, as ^/^JE ' = -o : V3000=55 : : 12 ; 1100, the number
of miles per hour representing the rate of the inclined plane required
to support it, in conformity with the conditions described.

The consideration of some of these conditions will, however, show
that this rate of motion, and, consequently, the amount of force by
which we have presumed it to be generated, is far from sufficient to

152

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Mat,

satisfy tbe exigencies of the case. In the first place, the data upon
which the calculations of the resistance of the atmosphere have been
grounded, are deduced from a consideration of the density under little
more than mean pressure, equivalent to the support of a column of mer-
cury 30 inches in height ; whereas it is well known that it frequently,
or at all events occasionally, falls to an extent of nearly two inches,
implying a reduction in the density equal to Jjth of its whole amount.
In respect of this condition alone, therefore, 25 miles per hour
would have to be added to the above to enable the machine to main-
tain its pristine elevation, but slightly removed above the surface of the
earth. But the mere retention of this elevation, without the power of
augmenting it at will, within certain limits, would be evidently very
insufficient for the purposes of a perfect aerial navigation. It is unne-
cessary to dwell upon the many occasions which the inequalities of the
earth's surface would present, in the extancy of the objects upon it,
both natural and artificial, when it would be necessary to assume a
higher course in order to escape a collision. Some of these, it is truei
could be gone round, and thus avoided, instead of being surmounted.
But there is still a great variation in the prominence or altitude of the
plains and large ranges of mountain country, which could not be so
dealt with; and in respect of these, a considerable allowance must be
made in the powers of the machine. No part, for instance, of the
Alps or Pyrenees, extending entirely across Europe, could be traversed
under an elevation of 8000 feet, and without the power of accomplish-
ing this, the use of the machine would be restricted to a very small
portion of our own continent, or forced to make a detour equal in some
cases to perhaps the entire extent of its intended route. Now for
every 1200 feet of elevation, in the beginning of the scale, a reduction
of one inch may be counted upon in the height of the barometrical
column ; so that if we only presume an elevation of 8000 feet, we shall
have imposed upon the aerial machine an obligation of conducting her
operations in an atmosphere the density of which will have been re-
duced to an extent indicated by a fall of the barometer to 23 inches;
from which, if we further subtract the amount of the variation from
mean pressure previously mentioned, we shall have a density of the
medium only (hree-fourths of that, upon the hypothesis of which her
former velocity had been assigned. Now the pressure, according to
the first law of resistances, being directly as the densities of the
media, by this condition, therefore, we shall have incurred a fresh
obligation of speed, following the ratio of the square roots of the den-
sities, the total amount of which will be determined by the rule of
three proportion ; thus, as V3 : V4 '• '• llnO = the number of miles
per hour necessary to accomplish the required resistance under mean
pressure : 124G miles (nearly), = the rate at which the machine must
be impelled to enable it to effectuate the same amount of resistance
under the reduced pressure to which, in its elevation, we have seen
it will have to be exposed. And this augmented velocity, be it ob-
served, arising solely out of the reduction in the density of the
medium, will be maintainable by the application of the same effectual
force, namely 1501b., by which the first assigned velocity was shown
to be determined.

Hitherto we have regarded the qualifications of the machine in
respect of rate and force apart from any considerations but the neces-
sity of securing an elevation in the air. But a velocity of 50 miles an
hour, however it might satisfy the conditions of support, would
evidently be insufficient to realize that progress independent of the
action of the winds which is necessary to the constitution of a certain
and serviceable mode of transport. For this purpose, something more
than the actual rate of the winds is the least amount of speed which
could be considered sufficient to meet the exigencies of the case.
>>ow, the average rate of the winds, in this climate at least, may be
stated to be about 25 miles an hour. This we are enabled to
determine, not from the observations of the meteorologist alone, but
also, (and what is more to the point because founded upon expe-
rience in that part of the atmosphere with which we have more
especially to do) from a consideration of the average rate of Mr.
Green's aerial excursions, " deduced from a series of 240 voyages,

•* " I he total distance which Mr. Green accomplished in the course of his

executed generally, of course, in the most favourable periods of the
year. From this we learn that 25 miles an hour is the mean rate at
which a body floating in the air may expect to be transported; to this
we must add. considerably more to secure a balance in favour of the
machine, for which an additional amount of force must be provided
over the amount assigned for its support.

The determination of this new quantity however depends entirely
upon data with which we have not been furnished. In the calculations
which we have hitherto made, we have regarded the machine as a
mathematical plane, altogether unproductive of any resistance except
what contributes to the counteraction of its descent. This, however,
it is scarcely necessary to observe, is an hypothesis which is not cor-
rect in fact; and the distinction will be seen to be of serious impor-
tance, when we consider that, fur every square foot of plane surface
made up of all parts and projections that receive the direct impact
of the air, the machine experiences, at the rate of 100 miles an hour,
a resistance equal to about 501b.; so that if we only suppose it to
present an additional extent of resisting surface equivalent to a plane
of 10 square feet, it will encounter an opposition equal to four times
what has already been assigned to it, and consequently involve a ne-
cessity for four times the amount of force which was previously re-
quired.

Now the conditions of force in the first instance prescribed might
have been considerably (almost indeed, indefinitely) reduced by in-
creasing the superficial contents of the suspending plane. For in-
stance, if instead of an area of 1500 square feet, it had presented a
surface of double the extent, (which it could have been made to do,
by doubling the breadth or adopting another form, without augmenting
the difficulties of construction,) the same degree of elevation would
have been obtained with less than half the force ; as will be evident
if we consider that while the resistance follows the ratio of the di-
mensions, the dimensions observe the ratio of the squares of the ve-
locities: so that in this point of view the suspending plane of Mr.
Henson's machine may be shown to be contrived without due regard
to the economy of the forces by which it is upheld.

But there is another purpose which the suspending plane is re-
quired to fulfil, and which must he taken into consideration in adjudi-
cating upon the plan before us. It is to be recollected that this eleva-
tion is maintained only by the exercise of a progressive motion, aud
that in order to effectuate a safe descent this motion must be suspended.
It is scarcely necessary to observe that a projectile force, however mo-
dified it might be, is quite incompatible with the preservation of hu-
man life under any mode of accomplishing a descent which could be
proposed; and that unless it can be accomplished by the independent
resistance of the suspending plane, it can never be safely accomplished
at all. There are two modes by which the actual rate of descent may
indifferently be ascertained. To one of these modes, which is an
inference from the pressure exerted by the air in motion at different
degrees of velocity, we have already adverted in determining the
speed at which, under perpendicular pressure, the plane in question
would generate a resistance equal to its weight. From this we have
seen that a rate of 12 miles an hour is exactly answerable to the con-
ditions of the case ; being that at which a plane surface develops the
resistance assignable to Mr. Henson's machine, namely, two thirds
of a pound to the square foot; and accordingly that number expresses
the rate at which the machine in question would descend through
the air if left of itself to fall.

In addition to this method, Dr. Huttou has left us a formula
by which the same may be calcjlated with sufficient accuracy
for practical purposes, and which it will be seen leads to a
result confirmative of the approximate correctness of our conclu-
sions. Taking W to represent the weight and D the diameter

of a circular plane of the given area, rrVw gives the number of

first 200 aerial excursions, a verj potation enables him a

GO00 miles; and t he time consumed in the performance at240houi
former of these two quantitise divided by the latter gives the result
Areanoutiai. page 298.

184.3.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

153

feet per second which constitutes the terminal velocity of the falling
body. In the present case, D being equal to 76 feet and the weight

30001b., we have =-\/3000 =: — x 55 = 19 feet nearly in a second,

or somewhat less than 13 miles an hour. It is unnecessary to point
out the insufficiency of this retardation to effectuate the safe descent
of human beings. It will serve to give some idea of the force and
necessary consequence of such a precipitation,, merely to suggest the
shock that would be experienced by an individual if he were to be
launched unprotectedly against a solid wall from the top of a vehicle
travelling continuously at the rate of 12 miles an hour. In this respect
therefore, the suspending plane of Mr. Henson's machine is particu-
larly deficient. It has been calculated, and no doubt upon good grounds,
that the least rate of descent which consists with human safety is 3
miles an hour ; and though if we could always command the conditions
of the descent so as to alight upon our legs, we might be able to sustain
a greater concussion without peril, yet, as a general principle, and
more particularly v. ith reference to the circumstances of the case before
us, we shall not be too exigent in requiring a power of retarding the
descent within double these limits. Now the resistance upon a square
foot of plane surface in motion through the air at the rate of G miles
an hour, is "17(3 of a pound ; and the whole weight to be sustained
being 3U00 lb., we shall have an apportionment of surface to weight
in the ratio of about G feet to the pound ; amounting in the aggregate
to au area of 18,000 square feet, or 4 times the actual size of Mr.
Henson's plane. The correctness of this estimate may be readily veri-
fied by reference to Dr. Hutton's formula before adduced, by which it
will be seen, that such is the rate at which such a plane so loaded
would make its descent through the air.

But for the continuation of these investigations we must refer the
reader to our next number.

THE CAUSES WHICH HAVE ENNOBLED ARCHITECTURE.

By Frederick Lush, Associate of the Institute of British
Architects.

A.N art which depends upon the cultivated powers of the human
mind must be necessarily slow in arriving at perfection. As it had its
origin in some simple want, its primary object is to satisfy the neces-
saries and promote the happiness of man, in whatever condition he
may be placed. The end of architecture, like all other works of im-
agination and taste, is to give pleasure; but it will fail doing so, when
this principle is lost sight of. On this account the expression of use
and fitness has been considered by all writers on art, as the chief ele-
ment of beauty : and we expect to find that the buildings of different
nations will be indicative, not only of their peculiar habits and cus-
toms, but also of the country in which their several styles originated.
There is no occasion to speculate on the influence which scenery and
climate exert upon the mind, and how they consequently operate
upon all the productions of man. The difference of opinion and de-
gree in which the sentiment of the beautiful has unfolded itself in
various parts of the globe, plainly shows that the temperature and
circumstances of one clime are more congenial for the practice of this
noble art than another. Nature scattered her beauties on the soil of
the Greeks with a liberal hand, and as they were quick to discern and
appreciate them, they were wrought by the sculptor on their temples
and monuments. The embellishments with which they were thus
supplied, were in harmony with surrounding objects; and we cease to
wonder at the fascinating works which emanated from this favoured
people, when we see that the finest models in nature were ever pre-
sent to their imagination. Among these resources, none gave them,
perhaps, 'greater power of conceiving what was beautiful, than the
various passions, attitudes and proportions, which they had the op-
portunity of studying during the exercises of their athlelae. Here
was exhibited to their astonished gaze the wonderful structure of the
human frame ; and it is when contemplating the character which man

sustains in the varied scenes of life, when watching the many ways
in which his hands are employed for advancing the good of his fellow-
creatures, or, when he breathes and speaks to us out of the marble
or canvass, that we recall to our memory the fine soliloquy of Hamlet :
" What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason, how infinite in
faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable ! in action,
how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a god ! the beauty of
the world, the paragon of animals!" Who can deny then, that an
anatomical knowledge of the human figure is the best education for
the eye, and the basis of all grace and propriety in invention and
design ? The student needs to be reminded that his art will never be
ennobled by only copying the orders of Vitruvius or Falladio. If the
works of nature had not been their guide, the ancients had never at-
tained to such perfection in architecture.

One of the most striking features in ancient art is grandeur. It
was an object with the builders of antiquity to give great permanence
to their works: a wish which sprung out of their natural love of
glory and desire to appear great and enterprising in the eyes of pos-
terity. An instance of the extravagance to which this passion carried
them, is recorded in the tower of Babylon. Such a failure, however,
occurring among men who were unguided by precedents aud blinded
to the consequence of their rash and presumptuous undertakings,
would have the most beneficial results, and lead them to view the art
of building for eternity, on more sound and philosophical principles.
Curiosity has ever been busy in inquiring into the causes of things;
and the most useful discoveries have arisen upon the errors of former
ages. Michael Angelo had never, perhaps, raised a dome so trium-
phantly, if the attempt had not been made by others with less success
before his time.

But although this sense of immortality is the first step towards a
grand style, it depends likewise upon the goodness of the materials
that are introduced, as it is these which give to buildings, whatever
may be the purposes for which they are intended, all their character
of strength and durability. Now, on these latter points, much of the
fame of an architect rests, and for want of attention to them, we owe
the ruin of many modern edifices: I allude to the one at Fonthili as
an example most familiar to the reader. Every one remarks the
great contrast between the size and dimensions of timber, for in-
stance, used in buildings of a bygone age, with those of the present
day : and the ditt'erence in their duration is equally great. The sys-
tem of contract, which has been so prevalent of late years, and the
heavy duty on materials of every kind, have operated powerfully in
the change ; and although in some cases the exorbitant proportions of
strength observed in old houses seem to indicate an ignorance of the
principles of construction, yet as they long outlast our feebler erec-
tions, and require force to raze them, we can scarcely blame what ap-
pears in some of their parts a want of geometrical skill. The ar-
chitectural merits of our ancestors must be judged by the circum-
stances of the age in which they lived. They had doubtless been
more sparing, and displayed more science in the use of their timbers,
had they been less abundant; or had they been compelled, by the
restraint of taxes, to make them answer their several ends with the
least possible expenditure.

With regard to stone, we have no cause to complain of its defi-
ciencies, or think lightly of the resources of our British quarries,
although we have not the granite of Egypt or the marble of Pente-
licus. Yet when we look on the dilapidated state of many of our
edifices — when we think of the ruinous appearance of some of the
colleges in ,the beautiful city of Oxford, the nurseries of so much
profound learning and eminent piety, we have reason to lament the
corrosive nature of the stones with which they have been constructed.
In these latter, their rapid decay is owing to the broad surfaces of
the laminae or cleaving grain being presented to the action of the
weather; and we see the result of placing them in a position con-
trary to that in which they lay in the quarry. One remedy for this
evil would be the establishment of a society for testing the capabili-
ties of stone and its fitness for durability, prevous to its being em-
ployed on public and national edifices.

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[May,

On the other hand the mild and equable temperature of the east
was favourable in effecting for the ancients that perpetuity at which
they aimed; they did not suffer from frequent frosts and sudden
changes; their beautiful statues were not injured by that quantity of
coal-smoke which accumulates in our dense cities ; nor did they see
a Parthenon or Erectheium perishing in the lifetime of its founder.
Instead of a few years altering the appearance of their temples, they
remained as firm and perfect as ever after the lapse of centuries,
and promised to be as lasting as the rocks out of which they were
originally hewn. The immense size and weight, moreover, of the
stones which their architecture demanded, contributed, independent
of the cement, to the stability and breadth of the masses. And
as the site of their cities was generally on the tops of lofty hills,
it being the custom with idolatrous nations to offer sacrifice on
such places, it is evident that to raise such huge blocks to the re-
quired height, betokened some degree of mechanical skill. Besides,
when they knew the grandeur of effect which would be conferred on
their buildings from an elevated position, and the advantages it would
give them over invaders, they needed not a further stimulus to exer-
tion; nor would they be slow in applying the principles of geometry
to the carrying forward those great works. The Egyptians were un-
questionably masters in this science. But their simplest and most
effectual method in transporting their vast monoliths (as may be
learned from one of their own paintings) was the use of rollers and
the incline; in fact they would sfcid these obelisks, and by means
of proper tackle, set them up just in the same way as modern
labourers.

If we consider their cement, we find, as in the aqueducts, it pre-
sents a hardness that is impenetrable to water; and this through no
less than 2000 years. The Romans and Greeks were particularly
careful in the making of their mortar and in the use of it; with us,
on the contrary, it is deemed a second rate consideration, especially
in house-building, and is usually committed to the least instructed
class of men. Allan Cunningham, in his life of Wren, speaking of
St. Paul's, says : — " Though the stones are hewn with the greatest
nicety, and the masonry seems all firm and compact, yet the mortar
which should unite the whole into one solid mass, is in many places
decayed and become as dust. This is the case even with some of
those piers against which the public monuments are erected ; when
the outer line of stone is cut through, the mortar comes gushing
through the aperture; the. sand is sharp and good, but the lime, like
too much of the lime used in London, has been deficient in strength."
Notwithstanding this defect, every one who knows that the architect
endeavoured to give permanence to his works and secure the praise
of posterity, will be glad he is deaf to the voice of his biographer.

Of the religious edifices of the middle ages, there are some which
retain, despite of time and tempest, so much of their original beauty,
that most of their ornaments and rich carving seem as if they were
the work but of yesterday. There are even preserved to us those
curious devices with which the early sculptors were wont to decorate
their handy works; and whether they alluded to the mysteries of
their craft, or were emblematic of some moral truth, were yet always
used to mark and identify a favourite subject. I regard their sacred
architecture with feelings of reverence; for cold, indeed, must be the
bent of that man who is insensible to the sublimity of the Gothic,
when looking upon the roof at King's College, the Minster at York,
or the magic groining and tracery of Henry Vll's chapel. There is
something so ennobling in this style, that it is peculiarly adapted to
our Christian churches. It is easy to point out its claims upon our
admiration. The Gothic architects, well knowing that devotion would
be heightened by great size, loftiness, and durability, preserved all
these characteristics of grandeur ; and it is when surrounded by them,
we are impressed with the religion of the place, and feel that we are
in a building dedicated to the worship of Jehovah. Everything is
calculated to excite the most profound emotions. Worldly feelings
die away, and piety grows warm when we view its consecrated walls
through the obscure and subdued light which streams through the
painted windows; when the voice of prayer alone breaks the stillness

of its ailes; and, as the sounds of the organ thrill through our souls,
we listen to the beautiful and affecting chaunt: —

Stabat mater dolorosa
Juxta crucem lacrymosa
Dum pendebat filius, &c.

During the period of the building of these magnificent structures
art was the favourite study of the monks, and the most eminent ar-
chitects were bred within the walls of the cloister. The abbeys,
the cathedrals, and conventual churches, were planned and superin-
tended by successive abbots and bishops; for learning then was a kind
of monopoly, and chiefly confined to the clergy, and the nobles of the
land. But this was a propitious era for architecture, inasmuch as
there was less fear of its being debased by illiterate men. The
knowledge of its principles, too, seemed to operate far more power-
fully, when concentrated in such a circle, than when scattered in
various forms over a whole community. It is thus that the noblest
style and the most perfect system of architecture, as seen and uni-
versally adopted throughout Europe, is supposed, and with every
probability, to have originated among the fraternity of freemasons.
For such could only have been accomplished by many different minds
acting in concert.

Nor were wealth and labour among the least causes which contri-
buted to this end. To command them is indeed the object of every
nation eager of renown, and desirous to distinguish itself by iU
public institutions and monuments. We admire the beautiful villas of
I t;il v, her lakes and gardens, her palaces and academies for the arts,
and we think of the rich cardinals and noble families who built them;
we look at other stupendous fabrics and are reminded of the wealth
of the Roman patricians. The prelates, too, of the great Catholic
churches, from being prohibited to marry, had no motive for accumu-
lating property, but expended it on the service of the altar; and
aided by the munificence of princes, the donations of the people, and
the revenues arising from monasteries, they were enabled to seek out,
from both at home and abroad, the most skilful artists, for the purpose
of making those edifices in all respects worthy of religion. Such a
capital was applied by the Gothic architects for their embellishment.
That unrivalled skill in construction — that elaborate ornament in
sculpture, and those beautiful allegorical and legendary decorations,
arose from this source. The interior of their churches became one
mass of splendour; to compose them, the priests exhausted their
knowledge of the passions ; and with it they exhausted their for-
tunes.

The time and labour which were bestowed upon them equally de-
serve our attention. In our contemplation of any object to which
genius has given all the excellence it is capable of, we seldom reflect
upon the numerous difficulties through which it has struggled to per-
fection; although what appears as the effect of enchantment or pro-
duced without any effort of the mind, is generally the fruit of many
years of painful toil. Those who witnessed the foundation laid of one
of these great piles, and those who saw the last stone raised for its
completion, were almost two distinct generations. During this long
interval, separate portions were built at different times and by dif-
ferent hands; and this was especially the case under the Papacy; so
that we find in the history of the cathedrals, a succession of bishops
who added some screen, shrine, tower, or transept, in the design of
which, they acquired great fame as architects.

This mode of building by degrees is at present rare amongst us.
It has been lately followed in one or two parts of England ; but the
recommendath n of it by the " Incorporated Society for promoting
the Building of Churches," is likely to lead to its more extensive
practice. The only evil that is to be feared will result from it, is the
want of unity in design; as we see it in St. Peter's anil other works
in which this system was pursued.

( Tv U coiUiruttd. )

1843.]

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155

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XLVIII.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. It is curious to observe how much fashion and custom prevail in
matters where they ought not to be allowed to have any authority.
It is still the fashion to talk of Michael Angelo as a "great architect,"
and he is accordingly considered quite a luminary in that character —
a mistake of which some of our now rather numerous Professors would
do well to disabuse the public ; at any rate those who can admire
him and his caprices have no right to turn up their noses at those of
Borromini. It is the fashion — with book-making tourists more espe-
cially— to extol Palladio, generally in " criticism pilfered from guide-
books." And as it is also the fashion to make no mention of Calderari,
or any of the buildings designed by him in the same city of Vicenza,
the unfortunate Count Ottone is treated as a mere nobody. For tour-
ists of the Trollope breed, who make trading voyages of their travels
abroad, and who are content to return home with as much gossiping
and blundering as will serve them for a book-making and book-selling
job — for such persons there may be an excuse, since, if ignorance
can be pleaded as a sufficient one, they may generally claim it most
amply; but that a professional man, and one who made architecture
the chief object of his journey, should not even so much as once men-
tion Calderari or any work of his either at Vicenza or Verona, is
almost incredible — certainly quite unpardonable. Nevertheless, after
speaking of Palladio's buildings in the last-mentioned city, Woods
says, "I will not trouble you with criticisms on other palaces, where
there is nothing particularly beautiful to render them objects of
studv." Pitiful and humbugging evasion ! Did he mean to say that
Calderari, a decided Palladianist in his style, produced nothing that
will bear any comparison with Palladio's own works? If such was
really the case, that should have been a reason for his entering into
the subject, and explaining wherein the great difference consists, and
to what it is owing that, with far fewer solecisms and defects,
Calderari's buildings are decidedly inferior to those of Palladio.
This might have been rendered a highly interesting and instructive
piece of criticism, therefore we may fairly suppose that Woods'
reason for passing over Calderari was not that which he has assigned,
but the unwillingness to " trouble " himself with any farther remarks
on the subject of the palazzo architecture of Vicenza. The only
mention at all I have ever met with respecting Calderari, in any Eng-
lish book, is — pace Joseph Gwilt — in an article on the " Palladian
Architecture of Italy," in the Quarterly Review, where it pleases the
" ignorant reviewer" to remark, "Ottone Calderari particularly dis-
tinguished himself by simplicity and elegance, and a knowledge of
the true principles on which the beauty of Grecian architecture de-
pends. The Loschi and Bessaro palaces at Vicenza, and the Semi-
nario at Verona, are noble specimens of his skill." Where then
were Woods' eyes — where those of the hundreds of others who have
visited Vicenza only to prate like so many parrots about Palladio ?
It is just as if a foreigner, visiting England, should extol Temple Bar
as a work of the " great Wren," and of course a perfect architectural
gem, yet should not bestow a syllable upon the palazzi of Pall Mall.
As to Buckingham Palace, the less any one, either foreigner or Eng-
lishman, says of that, the better. It is a thousand pities it was ever
built, and at least five hundred that it has not since been burnt down.

II. The plea of insanity is now becoming a very fashionable, and is
certainly a most convenient one. For some of the things they de-
signed, both Nash and Soane, not to speak of a good many others, de-
served to have been hanged ; and if tried could have escaped only on
the grounds of positive insanity. But then, those who employed them
ought to have been hanged too — at any rate, ought to have been shut
up in Bethlehem, as being equally insane. Oh ! the untold millions
squandered away upon lost opportunities! Let us not think of it, for
it is enough to drive us all mad, and qualify us for the glorious privi-

lege of insanity. Apart from their architectural phrenzies, there was,
however, little in common between Nash and Soane ; the one lived en
prince and died a beggar, the other lived very much like a hunks
and left a vast fortune, which he most assuredly would not have done
could he by any possibility have carried it away with him. I well
remember once being witness to a complete scena, in which Soane was
the actor. In reply to some complimentary remark about his house,
he burst out with " D — n the house ! curse the house ! Could I have
my mind, I would tear it all to atoms this very instant — yes, this very
instant. I am sick of hearing of it— I abhor it— I detest it— I loath
it — I abominate it. And so you are come to see the house ? — here is
a d — d dull day to come on such an errand. ' Tis as dark as pitch —
as black as Erebus. Confound the house, it is my eternal torment,
and a parcel of folks are continually coming here, to see the d — d
house : they don't come to see me — no, I am nobody, they only come
to stare at the d — d, infernal, abominable house !" After which fu-
rious explosion, and tempest, the old man suddenly became not only
tranquil, but very condescending, gracious, and chatty. If he was
really mad, there was also a certain degree of method in his madness,
and a most extraordinarily queer method it was. "Rich and rare"
are the anecdotes that remain to be told of Sir John Soane. I know
one who promised to give a collection of them to the public, but he
has not kept his word.

III. Independently of the egregious blunders with which it teems,
the English translation of Milizia's Lives of celebrated architects,
would disgrace a penny-a-liner. That work has been done into Eng-
lish, with a vengeance. It seems to have been done by way of exer-
cise while the translator was learning Italian, and in all probability
such was really the case. The best part of the book is the index,
which as matters go, is saying something in its favour, indexes, even
to books of reference, having now gone almost entirely out of fashion.
No matter, this is an age when, thanks to the march of intellect,
everybody reads and nobody studies.

IV. So Albert has actually shed the light of his countenance and
the glory of his presence on the Institute of British Architects ; yet
his visit to it turned out one of the dullest and flattest affairs imagin-
able. If the Institute really felt flattered or encouraged by it, they
must be the most easily satisfied mortals breathing. Of course all
was conducted very " properly -," no blunders were committed either
on the one side or the other. The Prince was exceedingly prudent
and discreet — which for a Prince, is saying something: he did not
attempt any compliments ; he did not pretend to congratulate the In-
stitute on their unwearied zeal, and on what they had done for the
advancement of architecture in this country. In abstaining altoge-
ther from blarney, his Royal Highness showed good taste, but he cer-
tainly did not manifest the slightest cordiality or sympathy with them.
The whole affair was mere matter of form and ceremony — at once
perfectly correct and intolerably chilling. The Prince seemed to con-
sider it a bore — how the others relished the taste they got of Royal
condescension and patronage, I pretend not to say. There was, at all
events, a paragraph for them in the newspapers and Court Circular;
but as to the patronage itself, that is likely to turn out a mere phan-
tom— of just as much real service to the Institute, as the Institute
itself is to the art and the profession.

V. " I cannot recommend frescos," says Mr. Eastlake, " for the
sitting rooms of dwelling houses ;" a very reasonable piece of advice,
now that we seem to be threatened with a fresco mania. If that mode
of painting is to be employed for the merely general decoration of
walls, it would soon sink to the level of paper-hanging, and its
greater pretension would chiefly serve to render ij all the more paltry
and unsatisfactory. On the other hand, if it is to be employed for
subjects upon a large scale, and with figures of the size of life, it
would be a most obtrusive and oppressive species of decoration. In
that respect painted ceilings are objectionable enough, but they are
comparatively quite removed from notice. Saints and virtues may
cut capers over our heads, and dance jigs in the clouds, without our
being compelled to look at them ; but it would be very different were
the walls of our rooms to be peopled with such figures — poetical or

21

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

historical, and converted into so many "scenes." Pictures in frames
do not force themselves importunately upon our attention: while
they contribute to general embellishment, they do not insist upon
being looked at; but we may do so or not according to the humour of the
moment. Few wou d relish dwelling in rooms where the same scene.be
it either solemn or the contrary, is constantly acted before their eyes.
However masterly the paintings themselves might be, they would soon
sicken of being shut up in a Miltonic "Paradise" or "Pandemonium,"
or a Dantean " Inferno ;" while a perpetual Elysium would be likely
to inspire them with the blue devils. Nay it is not everv picture
that one would care to have hung up in a drawing-room or other
domestic apartment: the "Lazarus" of the National Gallery, for in-
stance, would not be particularly desirable or exbilirating as a com-
panion in such a place. It is all very well to talk about fresco-paint-
ing and the grand style of art; yet it does not follow that we are
bound to admit them into our houses. They neither suit us, nor do
we suit them ; which may be unlucky, but is nevertheless the case.
The truth is, we are a very matter-of-fact people, and live in a verv
matter-of-fact age ; nor will all the arguing in the world render us
otherwise, for we might as well attempt to change the natural atmos-
phere, as the moral one which surrounds us. It is verv easy to say,
let us revive this, or revive that ; but how are we to infuse actual life
and vitality into that which has been extinct long ago ? The utmost
we can do is to conjure up the mere ghost of it, and for ghosts the
world has now little relish. The king of Prussia is now endeavour-
ing to revive the Greek theatre and Greek drama in their pristine
purity ; and he will do so — but how ? — precisely after the manner in
which Eglintouu brought back again the age of chivalry, with its
pageants and tournaments. It would perhaps be wrong to say that
art in this country is not yet ripe enough for fresco painting, since it
is more likely to be too rotten.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE

MORE EXTENSIVE EMPLOYMENT OF CONCRETE IN

DISTRICTS WHICH DO NOT POSSESS ROCKS

SUITABLE FOR BUILDING PURPOSES.

It is now many years since our active neighbours, the French, un-
dertook on a very large scale, the manufacture of artificial hydraulic
limes, with a view principally to introduce them as an ingredient into
that species of concrete which they have termed beton. Following
U) the track of Berthier, Vicat, ami Treussart, our own countryman,
General Pasley, has long since endeavoured to arouse the attention
of landed proprietors, engineers, architects, builders and others, to
the method of forming artificial cement, by the mixture of chalk and
clay in certain proportions, which should vary according to the quali-
ties of these two ingredients. Hitherto, however, notwithstanding
the perfect success which has attended the manufacture in the neigh-
bourhood of Paris, where it is carried on at this day on the very
same principles as those which General Pasley first had the credit of
introducing to this country, nothing has yet been done by ourselves to
carry out the practical application of a process which is evidently
calculated to afford a very fine field for the employment of labour, the
exercise of skill and ingenuity, and the profitable investment of
capital.

Under the general head of calcareous concretes may be classed all
those substances which are composed of fluid mortar mixed with
broken stones, gravel, pebbles, fragments of bricks and tiles, or such
other hard mineral substance as may be at hand. An ordinary con-
crete is that which is made from a common chalk or other lime stone
which does not possess the property of setting under water. On the
other hand, the quick setting limes, and those which possess hydraulic
properties, as the Barrow lime, the Aberthan, that of Lyme Regis,
and other places, as the lias formation, compose the species of con-
crete which is termed beton. Now it is known that all the limes
which have been mentioned, owe their hydraulic property principally

to the presence of a small quantity of flay in intimate combination
with the lime. Hence it is that Roman cement, which is burnt from
an argillaceous limestone containing more clay than any of the before-
mentioned, and indeed more than any of the rocks properly called
limestones, forms in concrete a more perfect kind of beton than any
other. Conceiving an ordinary limestone to form a simple concrete,
and conceiving Roman cement to form a true bJton, all other kinds of
limestone may be considered capable of forming a mixture interme-
diate between simple concrete and true beton, according to the pro-
portion of argillaceous matter they contain.

It is quite a mistake to suppose that the beton so much in use
throughout France, Holland, Italy, and other states on the continent, is
invariably composed of broken stones mixed with lime, &c Such
appears to be a mistake into which O. T. of Newcastle has fallen in
his paper on concrete, in the Journal of February last, since he ob-
serves " that beton differs from concrete in broken stone being used
instead of gravel, in the proportion of two of stone to one of lime or
pozzolana of Italy, &c." Now the truth is, that although broken or
angular stones are commonly used in the manufacture of beton, yet
gravel and pebbles are not unfrequently made use of; and the real and
true distinction between concrete and beton lies, as we have already
said, in the employment for the latter of a more or less hydraulic lime
instead of a lime made use of for ordinary mortar.

Among the best of the hydraulic limes employed for the French
beton, may be mentioned that of Metz and that of Senonche near
Dreux. The hydraulic limes of Tournay in Flanders and of Viviers
upon the Rhine, are also of excellent quality. The hydraulic limes
manufactured in the neighbourhood of Paris are composed of three
parts of chalk ground into powder, and made up into paste with two
parts of plastic clay. This mixture is formed into cakes, burnt in a
kiln, and then ground to powder.

Application of Concrete to building purposes.

The Romans extensively employed concrete not only in building
walls of every desciiption, but even constructed vaults and arches
entirely of this substance. Examples of this are found in the re-
mains of their baths, their theatres and temples. The arches in the
Coliseum, in the baths of Caracalla, in the temples of Peace, of Mi-
nerva, and of Venus, are mostly of concrete with an occasional rib
of brickwork.

The spherical vault of the Pantheon at Rome, which is 133 Roman
feet in diameter, and also a great vault at the baths of Dioclesian 74
feet iu diameter, were both built of concrete, and their condition is as
perfect at this day in point of stability as when they were first
erected. A more modern example exists in the great concrete vault
for the dome of *t. Peter's, which is S2 Roman feet in diameter, and
144 iu height. While admitting that the excellent preservation of
manv Roman walls in Italy, Spain, and the south of France, clearly
proves the almost imperishable nature of the concrete or beton of
which they are composed, it has been objected by many modem archi-
tects, that the variable climate of Great Britain is unfavourable to the
duration of concrete in exposed situations, and the opponents of con-
crete have not hesitated to affirm that, if those Roman monuments,
whose preservation we so much admire, had been tested beneath a
more changeable sky, and exposed to the rigors of a more northern
ciime, they would have furnished far different evidence, that is, far
less favourable evidence of the value of concrete for building pur-
poses. In replv to this, however, it will be sufficient to adduce nu-
merous old castles which were built in this country soon after the
Norman conquest, aud whose walls, consisting of irregular masonry,
which bears a close resemblance to beton, are found at this day in a
state of excellent preservation. The gre.it Pictish wall, which is well
known to have been executed by the Romans, is also a striking in-
stance of the durability of well cumposed betoa; and upon the whole
we are justified in concluding from ancient remains existing in our
own country, that where good hydraulic lime is employed, beton will
last even in the atmosphere of Great Britain, for at least as many
centuries as most of the stones at present employed for building pur-

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poses. We have observed in tbe walls of many old castles in England,
that the stones have been greatly decomposed and eaten away by
atmospheric influence, while the mortar joints stand out in relief and
indicate what was originally the face of the work. In such cases the
mortar has been obviously far superior to the stone, and this supe-
riority is further evident, by trying the relative hardness of the two.
While the stone will crumble away and yield to any metallic edge
applied to it, the mortar can only be impressed with considerable ef-
fort. Now we do not hesitate to affirm that the same excellence as
that for which the ancient mortar is so celebrated, has never ceased to
be within our reach in this country, which is fortunately favoured by
an abundance of the materials most proper for the purpose. In works
of this kind the ancients had no secret with which we are unac-
quainted, but on the other hand, the researches of modern chemistry
have brought to light a great deal connected with the subject of mor-
tars and cements which in all probability our ancestors knew nothing
about. The fabrication of artificial cements and hydraulic limes is
entirely a modern discovery, and one of which the Romans were per-
fectly ignorant.

It appears quite clear, from all we can gather on the subject, that
the superiority of ancient mortar depended chiefly on a judicious
choice of good stone for the purpose of burning into lime, and after-
wards upon careful attention to the manipulation of the calcined lime ;
and such being the case, there is no reason on earth why modern
buildings of every kind should be constructed of materials less im-
perishable than those which our Roman and Norman ancestors made
use of.

The great sea wall at Brighton, the dock walls constructed of
concrete at Woolwich, and a church said to have been lately built
near Brighton entirely of concrete, afford examples of what may
be effected by this material. It is quite certain, however, that several
circumstances have most unfavourably operated to retard the more
general employment of this most valuable substance. Among the
foremost of these, we cannot avoid referring to the patent which was
taken out a few years since for forming concrete into artificial stones.
The signal failure which attended the use of this artificial stone in
some government buildings at Woolwich and other places, has too
hastily led many engineers and architects to regard as impracticable
the employment of concrete or beton for building above the surface
of the ground. But let us observe the difference between small
blocks of stone formed of concrete and the firm cohesive body which
the substance presents when used en masse, as it always should be.
The stones which were manufactured of concrete were found, as
might have been expected, so tender and brittle at every corner and
arris, that it was almost impossible to preserve them with perfect
edges up to the time when they were set in the work. Tbe process
of setting them by mortar in the same way as ordinary stones, left
these tender arises still exposed to injury, and it was no wonder that
all along the joints a destruction of the walls took place to a very
serious extent. It appears to have been the practice, in forming these
artificial stones, to face them with a kind of plastering, which is said
to have pealed off in great quantities from the action of frost and
other external influences. We. repeat that this absurd project for
making concrete into blocks of stone has greatly impeded tbe real
advantages of concrete from being properly appreciated. We pro-
test, however, most strongly against any inference being drawn un-
favourable to a judicious use of concrete from the failure of this at-
tempt to form it into artificial stone.

According to the system of building with concrete, which we pro-
pose, the walls should in all cases have coins and coping of stone or
brick, so that only a smooth plain face of concrete will be exposed.
By adopting this method, no sharp corners or edges will be liable to
injury from external violence, and there will be no irregularity or
broken roughness in the work to admit the lodgment of moisture
and occasion that injury which always takes place when frost ensues.
To substitute a pile of separate cubical blocks of concrete for the
solid mass of which a building may be at once constructed, appears to
us in no respect more rational than the act of a man, who in proceed-

ing to found upon solid rock, should break the rock in pieces, and join
these pieces separately together, instead of founding at once upon
the solid material. It may be said that we employ stone and bricks
in cubical blocks of small dimensions, but this is a matter of necessity
not of choice. Nature furnishes in the quarry blocks of stone, which
have a fixed and limited size according to the natural beds, joints and
fissures by which the strata have been divided, and in the case of
bricks the convenience of manufacture, particularly with reference to
the condition of being properly burnt, limits the size to comparatively
very small dimensions. In building with concrete, however, no such
limits exist, and there can be no comparison between the expediency
of fabricating little detached pieces of concrete stone, and that of
raising the whole mass of any house, wall, or building, by united and
continuous layers extending without a joint over the whole area of the
building.

In seeking for another cause why concrete or beton has not been
successfully employed of late years in this country for building above
the surface of the ground, we are strongly inclined to the belief that a
fair and workmanlike attempt has never been made under judicious
superintendence to apply a good hydraulic lime to this purpose. It
is indispensable, in constructions of this kind, that the lime should
possess some degree of hydraulicity, in order that it may harden
before the injurious action of frost comes upon it. It is generally
admitted, that mortar which contains no hydraulic principle, that is,
mortar made from pure, or as they are technically called, fat limes,
require a very long time to set perfectly hard; and it has even been
asserted by experimentalists, who are well worthv of credit, that
mortar has been found in a soft pasty state several years after it had
been used in a building. On the other hand, hydraulic lime will
harden in a very short time — requiring, in fact, a period which varies
inversely with the strength of its hydraulic principle, this period,
in the case of Roman cement, the most hydraulic of all mortars,
seldom exceeding a few hours. The readiness with which concrete,
composed of strong hydraulic lime, is found to set, confers peculiar
value on beton for building purposes, because when once hardened, it
is no longer subject to be affected by atmospheric changes, and may
safely defy the influence of rain, moisture, frost, and the other des-
tructive means by which imperfectly hardened mortar is so speedily
destroyed.

As we have no wish to disguise or conceal what may be called the
unfavourable side of this question, it may be as well to refer in this
place to the opinions expressed by Lieutenant Denison and other offi-
cers of engineers, upon the use of concrete for building purposes.
The opinions of these gentlemen are hostile to the employment of
concrete, and are founded upon experiments and observations made
upon concrete walls at Woolwich and some other places. Now we
are perfectly ready to give every possible credit to the officers of en-
gineers, for the care with which these experiments were made, and
the fidelity with which these results have been recorded. We believe
them also to have been free from any prejudice against concrete in the
first instance ; but granting all this, we are greatly mistaken if they
have made use of the right material. Their experiments appear to
have been made upon a simple concrete instead of a true beton, and
owing to the long time which the former requires to harden in this
climate, it was found to have been dissolved by water, and to have
been shattered by frost before it had been allowed time to set. When
we look at the undoubted fact, that constructions of beton have actu-
ally been practised in France with great success, within the last few
years, there are only two ways of reconciling the anomaly which their
reputed failure in this country appears to exhibit. Either the expe-
riments have not been made with proper care and with good faith,
or they have been made upon the wrong substance. At once, without
a moment's hesitation, we reject the former supposition, and decide
that the latter must have been the case.

In order that no doubt may remain on the minds of the sceptical
with respect to the perfect success which has attended the use of
beton for actual building in France, and at the same time to convey
some knowledge of the process and style of building adopted, we

21*

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shall here lay before our readers some particulars of a dwelling house
lately constructed entirely of beton, by M. Jean Auguste Lebrun,
upon his estate at Marsac near Albi, in the department of Tarn. This
building consists of three stories, with three rooms in each floor, and
a large granary or garret at the top. Along the front of the house ex-
tends a gallery which has a height equal to that of the building itself.
Not only are the walls of this house composed of beton, but each
floor is supported upon arches of beton thrown across from one wall
to the other, so that throughout the whole building scarcely a particle
of timber is made use of. The arches which support the first or
principal floor have the following dimensions.

That for the gallery or passage, has a chord or span of 10 ft., a
rise of 1 ft. and a thickness at the crown of 4i in. The three arches
which support the three rooms of this floor are each 17 ft. 4 in. in
span, witli a rise of 3 ft. 3 in., and a thickness of 10 in. at the crown.
The roof of the building is formed by two semicircular arches, one
covering the granary already mentioned and the other covering the
gallery. The principal of these arches has a span of 20 ft. 3 in.,
with a thickness of 10 in. at the springing and G in. at the crown.
The smaller arch over the gallery is 10 ft. in diameter, with a thick-
ness of G in. at the springing, and of only 3 in. at the crown.

The beton was generally composed in the following proportions —
One part of lime slacked by immersion;
One part and a half of pure sand ;

And two parts of gravel or broken flints, from 3 to 5 in. in di-
ameter, according to the thickness of the walls in which they were to
be employed. Thus the largest stones were used for the thick ex-
terior walls, those of smaller size for the large arches, and the smallest
of all for minute arches and ornamental mouldings on the outside.

The beton was in the first place well mixed up by hand labour, and
then thrown into a framework or encaissement in regular courses of
lft. in thickness. This encaisement was simply composed of a few
uprights, to which were secured horizontal planks placed on edge one
above the other at the proper distance apart, so that when removed,
the beton filled in between them shall occupy the proper thickness
required for the wall. This method of raising the walls in courses
of about 12 in. deep, appears to have been practised by the ancients
in building with beton. The system will be quite familiar to those of
our readers who have even witnessed the building of mud or earthen
walls, as practised at this day in the Lyonnois and other parts of
France, in the eastern countries, and in a ruder form even in this
country and in Ireland. The arches for supporting the floors were
turned upon centres of the usual kind, and the exterior mouldiogs in
front of the house consist of beton filled into moulds prepared to re-
ceive it. A thin layer of lime mortar was plastered over the exposed
surfaces of the walls. This plastering was pointed to a sharp arris at
all the exposed edges, and seemed to give to the whole structure an
appearance of smoothness and regularity which could not be expected
from the naked beton.

In the summer time the beton of one course was generally suffici-
ently set in six hours to admit of the next course being filled in, and
about twelve hours were required in spring time. As each course
was regularly completed throughout over the whole area of the walls,
the part which had been first filled in was commonly set by the time
the course was finished, so that no delay took place on the completion
of the separate courses. The centres for the arches of the gallery
were struck at the end of a month after its completion, and those of
the large arches were removed at the end of two months and a half. It
was found that after this interval the beton had acquired so much
consistency as to produce no thrust upon the abutments.

The exterior surface of the front wall, and the outside of the great
arch which forms the roof, were painted with several coats of oil
paint. This was done as much for the purposes of decoratiou as to
enable the surface to withstand more perfectly the rain and frosts of
the succeeding winter. It was found afterwards, however, as far as
durability was concerned, this precaution was unnecessary, for those
parts which had not been covered with paint, perfectly resisted all
the rigors of the most severe seasons. |

Not only has M. Lebruce, the architect who constructed this build-
ing, declared its perfect condition, after the lapse of two years, but he
has accompanied a report, which he addressed to the Societi- d' Encou-
ragement, with certificates from the prefect of the department of Tarn
and the sub-prefect of the arrondissement of Gaillac, both of which
attest the perfect solidity of the building, and state that it presents all
the appearance of stone. In order to try the strength of one of the
arches supporting the principal floor, it was loaded three months after
the centres were struck, with a mass of earth 10 feet ki thickness, and
extending over the whele top surface of the arch. The weight thus
applied amounted to 1250 lb. per square foot, or about eight times as
much as that which a floor supports when a room is full of people,
aud this weight was borne without the slightest injury to the arch.

The great economy of this method of building is highly important.
It appears that the cost of the whole work was no more than 5s. 'id.
per cubic yard, which is about one-third the price of brickwork in
that part of France.

It may be necessary to explain that the process of slacking lime by
immersion, which is mentioned in a former part of this description, is
performed in the following manner. The lime stone, after being
burnt, is taken from the kilu and placed in a pan in pieces from the
size of a walnut to that of an egg. The pan is then plunged for a
few seconds into water, and withdrawn as soon as the lime begins to
emit heat. After this operation, the lime continues to heat and swell
and falls at length into powder. It is placed in this state in chests or
casks, where the heat being concentrated, and a great part of the
moisture being condensed and not allowed to escape in steam, will be
again taken in by the lime which is then more perfectly slacked than
otherwise. If the lime is intended to be kept any time before being
used, the chests or casks should be covered with straw and placed in
a perfectly dry place entirely removed from any danger of being
penetrated by any kind of moisture.

(To be continued.)

ARE SYNCHRONISM AND UNIFORMITY OF STYLE]

ESSENTIAL TO BEAUTY AND PROPRIETY

IN ARCHITECTURE?

An Essay to which tvas not awarded the medal of the Institute.
By a Student.

The question whether synchronism and uniformity of style are es-
sential to beauty and propriety in architecture, is so novel, that it
might have been well had the Institute of British Architects accom-
panied their proposition by some definition of the terms in which it is
conveyed — or at least set some limit to the sense in which they are to
be understood.

Of all the arts and sciences, none has ever been, or must necessa-
rily be, more strongly affected by the inexorable course of circum-
stances, than architecture. None has been found more essential to
the civilized existence of mankind. None has contributed more to
the comforts of the humble, to the grandeur of the mighty, or to the
gratification of the refined perceptions of those blessed with taste.
None has so perfectly attained the combination of the useful and the
beautiful. Since aichitecture assumed the conditions of an art, hu-
man genius has beeu on the stretch in every period and in every com-
munity, to bend its capabilities to existing manners and circumstances,
and to study the modifications dictated by climate, by religion, by
the comparative progress of the sister arts, by the state of me-
chanical science, and the minor effects exercised by soil aDd the
choice of materials.

That architecture, practised during a long succession of ages, and
modified by these and many other influences, moral and physical,
should have exhibited the most opposite extremes in style, seems a
necessary condition of its existence as an art. If, therefore, by syn-
chronism and uniformity is to be understood the strict adherence, at
the present period and in the locality of Great Britain, to any style

]843.]

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159

of architecture appropriate to any other period or any other locality,
such a condition seems primri facie not only not essential to beauty
and propriety, but to be utterly incompatible with any state of archi-
tecture worthy to be dignified by the name of art. It may be as-
serted that no such principle has ever obtained in any recognized
school of architecture, and its conception seems altogether due to the
new light, (or darkness visible,) thrown upon architecture some fifty
or sixty years since.

Widely as the styles of architecture, which the lapse of ages has
spread over Europe, may differ from each other — numerous as may
be the subordinate varieties to which the great divisions of style may
have given rise — the elements of all will be found few and simple.
The origin of the existing architecture of Europe, must be sought in
the works of the Greeks. The inventive faculties, and the fine per-
ceptions of that people, have produced the most perfect adaptation
of the m^ans afforded by architecture to the end upon which they
were employed, that has ever existed, and more perfect than can ever
exist again ; because the objects to which their architecture was adapted
■were compatible with its simplest forms. Until other nations have the
same objects to fulfil, they never can use the same simple means
with equal propriety, nor consequently produce by them the union of
usefulness and beauty in the same degree. The simplicity of Greek
architecture, its oneness, (to use a phrase of the cockney poets,) is the
element which not only forbids its reproduction synchromcally, but
defies the invention of its parallel. To the simple elements which
the felicitous genius of the Greeks reduced to the conditions of an
art, may be traced all the systems of architecture which have fol-
lowed in succession. From the Greek to the Roman, from the Ro-
man to the Romanesque, from thence to the Byzantine in one di-
rection, and to the Arabesque in another, from the Byzantine to the
later Romanesque, and from thence to the Gothic, from the Gothic
again to the Italian Renaissance, and from thence to the classical
Italian schools, and the French and English schools of the 17th cen-
tury, are transitions familiar to every architect who has studied the
history of his art. These are styles, every one of which, judged by
the circumstances under which it arose, and the purposes to which it
was applied, whether civil, military, or ecclesiastical, will bear the
severest test by which architecture can be tried — the test of useful-
ness, propriety, and beauty, mutually dependant upon each other.
But where among them is to be found what it is presumed the Insti-
tute mean by synchronism and uniformity of style? If the hypo-
thesis be founded that Greek architecture owes its origin to the
Egyptians, it is evident that it never could have existed at all had
the Greeks been infected with such a principle.

After ages of prosperity, English architecture languished in the
hands of the followers of Lord Burlington. To something analogous
to this synchronism we may perhaps trace its decay, since the unmi-
tigated imitations of Palladio by the Burlington school, ended by
driving the public taste to take refuge from their insipidity in the
frippery decorations of the Adams.

The publication of the discoveries of Athenian Stuart was hailed
as the means of a thorough regeneration of architecture. Greek and
Roman republicanism shortly after filled the mouths of the orators of
Europe, and the simplicity of the Greek style carried with it a pre-
judice that it might be " done chap." Under these circumstances
Greek architecture appealed forcibly to the vulgar. Those who
really felt and appreciated its exquisite purity and refinement, un-
fortunately overlooked the fact, that those very qualities rendered it
inflexible to the combinations necessary to adapt classical architecture
to modern requisitions. The Romans knew better. When they
adopted the orders of the Greeks, they modified them with consum-
mate skill, to fit them for combination with the arch and with each
other. The modern Greek school jumped to a different conclusion,
as logical as the sentence which annihilated the Alexandrian library.
Greek architecture, like the Koran, being perfection, nothing could
be necessary or expedient which was not contained therein, and in
this conclusion triumphed the principle of synchronism. A brilliant
popularity could scarcely fail to attend a doctrine pointing out a

royal road to architecture, rendering superfluous the tedious study of
the theory, the philosophy, nay, the very grammar of the art, and
conducting to the glory of a C dlicrates or an Apollodorus, every
possessor of a Stuart's Athens and a pair of compasses. Roman ar-
chitecture was rejected as spurious — the Italian schools dismissed
with contempt — Inigo Jones esteemed an ignoramus — Wren a bungler
— Vanbrugh a barbarian — Burlington a humbug — Chambers an im-
becile. They built no Greek! As reasonably may Burke or Canning
be decried for not declaiming in Greek. The principle would place
Chatham below the school-boy who spouts a Gref k oration by rote — ■
no inapt parallel to the architect who compounds his odds and ends
out of Stuart's Athens (not forgetting the supplements to eke out his
ready made portico, and looks with disdain upon Vignola and Per-
raulf. If we suppose the boy's oration to consist of unconnected
words like nonsense verses, the similitude may run a little closer.

Had Greek architecture been studied in a Greek spirit, important
advantages might have resulted from its revival, but it is by no means
certain that its peculiar forms and character will ever peruiit it to be
amalgamated into any such combinations as the Italians have effected
with the Roman, the flexibility of which, as displayed in their hands,
enabled it to become the universal style of modern Europe, (mo-
dified by each country according to its wants,) until the Greek mania
superseded it in Great Britain. Purity has ever been the ultimatum
insisted upon by the advocates of the Greek style ; but if a Greek
architect could rise from the dead he would scarcely admit the purity
of Anglo-Greek architecture. To face a building witli an ani>:t-
corps much below its height, for the sake of introducing a single
order — to back a Greek Doric povtico with two stories of windows,
or to flank it with arches cut into segments, and shorn of their impost
and archivolt, that if they are not Greek they may at least look like
nothing else — to associate the most decorative modification of the
Greek Ionic, with doors and windows mulcted of their architraves —
to condemn pilasters as a Roman invention, and to range Greek antae
on a wall — to force into combination two or three crude imitations of
Athenian buildings where one has been found unmanageable — our re-
suscitated Greek would surely not admit that either the letter or the
spirit of his art had been followed in such treatment of it.

These observations on Greek architecture, in its modern accepta-
tion, have been put forward, because it is to the introduction of this
style that the principle now recognized by the Institute under the
name of synchronism is chiefly due, and its failure most signally ap-
parent— so much so, that the argument may be thought levelled at a
by-gone subject of discussion. The error is not, however, so worn
out, but that designs may still be seen for purifying St. Paul's, by ele-
vating a couple of lanterns of Demosthenes at the west end — opinions
still heard, that Blenheim might be improved by the infusion of a
little Athenian detail — commiseration still bestowed on Sir Christo-
pher Wren, for the limited intelligence upon architecture in his time.
If these freaks of fancy be not so rife as they may have been at an
earlier period of the present century, they have been replaced by
others not more to the credit of British architecture, upon which
there will be a few words to say presently. In the mean time, it may
be observed, that if synchronism and uniformity of style be indeed
essential to propriety and beauty, then have the architects of the
world been in a long error of some three and twenty centuries.
Admit the principle of synchronism, and architecture ought to have
stood still since it attained perfection at Athens. The Coliseum, the
Thermae, the Basilicas, Santa Sophia, the Alhambra, the churches of
Amiens and Salisbury, the Vatican, the Palazzo Farnese, the Louvre,
and a few other works by a few other architects, to which and to
whom the world in general, down to the ultra-enlightened period of
modern Greek, have agreed to allow some meed of praise, must all
be denounced as worthless, should synchronism be essential to beauty
and propriety, since they have all arisen from the perpetual state of
transition of the art. What aberration from synchronism and uni-
formity is to be tolerated for the purpose of forming new styles '.
Where is the line to be drawn by which different styles ought to have
been set apart as worthy to afford a new starting point for synchronous

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treatment, or where are they to be separated for the future ? Or are
the architects of the present day alone to be limited to the servile
imitation of styles gone before, and their whole intelligence limited to
treating them synchronously, excluding invention and the study of
character and fitness as beyond their comprehension ? What style is
to be selected as best fitted to our exigencies — or are we to set up
here a bit of Greek, there a bit of Italian, Arabesque in this place,
Cinquecento in that, Gothic or Egyptian in another, to show how per-
fectly we have studied synchronism and nothing else! Forbid it ye
sacred muses! and forbid the Institute of British Architects to enter-
tain questions which expose them to the eyes of all Europe as plagi-
arists and imitators prepense .'

Of late vears, our ancient national architecture has occupied much
of our study, and the investigation of its transitions has done much
to fix this said principle of synchronism upon our practice. It is a
wretchedly narrow path which our architects have chosen, and it is to
be hoped that it may widen as it is pursued. It has certainly ex-
panded since a Gothic cloister of the 13th century was erected for a
ball-room (at Belvoir castle.) This work is executed with a know-
ledge of stvle and detail, with an attention to synchronism in one
word, which leaves nothing to be desired so far; and it is evident
that the clerical amateur architect, who has to answer for this per-
formance, was perfectly innocent of the knowledge that anything was
to be desired beyond it. Let us hope that such an error may not in-
fect our professional practice, and that we may not be too complaisant
in yielding to the prejudices and prepossessions, which a march of
ignorance, unparalleled in activity and impudence, is just now spreading
through the land in the shape of "a little learning." Our Gothic ar-
chitecture and the peculiar national modification of the Italian which
succeeded it, have been extinguished upwards of two centuries. The
reformation of the church in the first place, and the alteration in our
habits and customs since the erection of the last of those domestic
edifices which it is now the fashion to revive, point to the necessity
of some modification of the architecture of the middle ages, both
ecclesiastical and civil, not very consistent with the principle of syn-
chronism and uniformity. This consideration leads to a question
involving these principles in something like a dilemma.

How are we to dispose of the mixed style which forms the prin-
cipal stock in trade of this revival as far as domestic architecture is
concerned ?

The remains of the habitable portions of our great castles, and of
some few buildings of a more purely domestic character, show clearly
that in the earlier peno 1 of our architectural history, little attention
was paid to the internal fittings, which now constitute the necessary
comfort of our mansions, even of the most moderate class. Bare
walls and such inconveniences as attend grated windows and ill-closed
doors, were the general lot of those who could not afford the luxury
<.f tapestry. Wainscot linings were not unknown, but their use was
< ertainly not common, and none of an early date have survived. By
the time a demand for more habitable interiors became general, the
Gothic style was on the wane, and we may be troubled to find an in-
terior among our ancient mansions, fitted up in a manner approaching
even the commonest exigences of the present day, in which the wood
and plaster work does not bear another character, although the fabric
itself may be very unexceptionable Gothic. How fir this mixture
was carried, and how far it presently affected the fabric, it is unneces-
sary here to explain — but it may be observed, that the first Italian ar-
chitect whose works are still extant in England, exercised his discre-
tion in some very important modifications of the style he imported.
The works of John of Padua exhibit as genuine a specimen of the
school of architecture to which he belonged, as will be found in Lom-
bardy itself — but with this difference — he adopted the English window
and the English chimney. It did not enter into the mind of this distin-
guished architect, to condemn his clients to darkness and damp, for the
sake of following the arrangements expedient in his own climate — in
other words, he did not think synchronism and uniformity of style neces-
sary to beauty and propriety. The example set by John of Padua be-
came the type of the architecture of Elizabeth and James I, and the

question is, when we recognize this mixture as a distinct style, and
follow it, as the fashion now is, do we not set synchronism and uni-
formity in direct opposition to each other ?

Some modern examples there are, of interior fittings founded alto-
gether upon Gothic forms, but certainly possessing nothing of the
Gothic character. A plaster cornice bordering a flat plaster ceiling is
not Gothic, however scrupulously the mouldings may be profiled or
the foliage modelled — a sash window with its apparatus of folding
shutters is not Gothic, however artfully its structure may be disguised
—a door case with its architrave and cornice, rebated jamb linings
and butt hinges, is not Guthic, though its head may be pointed, and
most orthodox putty squeezes glued into the spandrils — and yet this
sort of internal architecture has been coined, in preference to adopting
what was considered an inconsistency, though practised boldly and
successfully by our ancestors of the loth century.

Perhaps we are held bound, when circumstances call upon us to
work out an early style of Gothic, to make everything cold and com-
fortless for the sake of synchronism and uniformity. This position
would undoubtedly solve the dilemma, and the architect would then
only have to persuade the inhabitants of his dungeon to dress them-
selves in the ancient costume and cultivate their beards, to speak
Norman French, pray in Latin, eat with their fingers, and drink ale
out of leather black jacks for breakfast, in order to earn immortal
glory as a restorer of the arts.

We may aptly conclude with the following observations of the late
Allan Cunningham —

" We never can lawfully become heirs to the fame of men who wrought
in other lands and died three thousand years ago. No poet will claim
as much merit from translating Homer or Dante, though he should
excel Cowper or Cary, as he would deem his due had he written a
Fairy (^ueen or a Task — but your architectural copyist takes a much
loftier view of himself — he imagines he has achieved something
truly grand, when he has persuaded a prince or a peer to have a
house, every pillar and architrave of which can be justified from an-
tique example. This servile spirit disgraces the architecture of our
country — Greece will never surrender to us the honour of her por-
ticos, or Italy of her elevations, and there is the more reason that we
should dwell on the memories of such men as Wykeham and Van-
burgh, whose genius, whatever else we may say of it, has at least
given us architecture that we can honestly call our own."

THE CHAPTER HOUSE OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.

Read before the Institute of Eritith Architects.

By T. H. Wyatt, Esq., Fellow.

Mr. Chairman & Gentlemen — I have always felt that there are
no subjects of communication which may be made more generally use-
ful to our members, than observations on points if questionable con-
struction, or propriety of style and date, occurring, as they frequently
must, in our practice. The paper read at our last meeting by Mr.
Granville, has strongly confirmed me in this belief; it was one which
could not fail to interest and instruct all who heard it. Acting, then,
on this strong conviction, I venture to lay before you the particulars
of a case which will, I believe, well repay its consideration.

The Chapter House of Salisbury Cathedral having fallen into a
neglected if not a dilapidated condition, and the Lord Bishop of that
diocese, being desirous to take upon himself the restoration of this inte-
resting building (and so far to assist the funds at the disposal of the
chapter, already hardly sufficient for the mere repair of the Cathe-
dral itself), did my partner and myself the honour to ask for a report
as to its present condition, and advice as to its entire restoration.

My first step was to inform myself of the history of this portion of
the Cathedral group, and I referred to a variety of works bearing on
the subject, and to such records as existed in the Cathedral library, at
all likely to assist in the inquiry; but the amount of information they
furnish is very slight, the Cathedral itself usurping, in all of them,
almost exclusive consideration. There is no record of the exact
period when this room (if I may call it so) was built, or in whose
bishoprick. It is supposed to have been commenced a few years

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161

after the completion of the Cathedral in 1258, and its design is attri-
buted to Bishop Bridport, who died in 1262. Price, in his history,
published in 1753, merely affirms, "that by several diligent searches
into and careful inspections upon the nature of the work, I find that
the Cloisters, Chapter House, and Monument Room, were not begun
till the Cathedral was considerably advanced, because the stone-work
is not bonded together, as it must have been had all been carried on
together, though manifestly by the same architect." But by whom-
soever built, it must have been, in its original state, "with its central
clustered columns, its vaulted roof and ramified ribs, its light, large
and lofty windows, all decorated with stained glass, its sculpture, and
a floor paved with richly glazed tiles," perhaps the most beautiful
room of its class in Europe; or as Gilpin says, "nothing in architec-
ture being more pleasing." The only paper or notice relating to it
which 1 can hear of amongst the Cathedral records, is the following
quaint report made in 1091, by a Mr. Thomas Naish, clerk of the
works to the fabric; with an estimate of the charge of bringing it
into good repair. "And first to begin with what threatens the sud-
denest ruin! The Chapter House is an octagon of 08 feet diameter
built with too slight abutments to support the thrust of the vaulting,
the least space of time fthe weight of the former being too little for
the thrust of the latter) were not the springers of the vaulting braced
together with 8 bars of iron united at the centre, and fixed in hooks at
each angle, which hooks are gutted with lead to fix them to the wall ;
but by the thrust of the arching several of these hooks are drawn
out of their first place, some six inches, some more, some less ; by
which means the vault is spread and hath rent the walls in several
places 3 in. or 4 in. wide, and drawn the columns which standeth in
the middle (being not more than 16 in. diameter) about 6 in. from its
perpendicular, and by a small declension further, must in all likelihood
fall to the ground. The roof is also decayed, and thrusts the malls
outwards and helps towards lis rum. Some of the buttresses are de-
cayed at foot, the stones being loose or scaled by frost. Part of the
walls between the vaulting and roof is by some former wet (qij. rent?)
so shattered that it scarce well supports the roof. The mullions of
windows also are scaled by the rusting of the iron bars that are fixed
in them, and some of the tracery work like to drop by the spreading
of the walls.

"The cure proposed is, a brace of iron round each buttress, fixed to
the bars which now are in the crooks, which need be 3 in. broad and
1 in. thick, and will weigh the whole eight, 21601b. at 6tf. per lb.
amounts to 54/.

"An iron band quite round the Chapter House on the top of the
windows, of the same dimensions, will weigh 2500 lb. at 6rf. per lb. =:
62/. 10s.

"Repairing the defective part of the timber work of roof, 40/.

"Repairing the walls between the vaulting and roof, new footing
the hutments where decayed ! Restoring the mullions that are scaled
and broken, and new pointing and keying of the walls and vaulting
where rent, and all mason's work, '.ID/. Total 246/. 10."

So much for the only official document existing ! The only portions
of restoration which I can give Mr. Naish credit for having carried
out, are as follows :

1st. Rendering the iron ties more effective than they could have
been when merely gutted in (although not done as he proposed;.

2nd. Certain repairs to the feet of buttresses. Of all his other
grounds of lamentation, 1 see no proof that thev were attended to.
The iron band round the head of the windows was never introduced.
The defective parts of roof, of walling between the roof and the
vaulting, and the tracery of the windows may have been repaired, but
certainly not in a manner to do credit to Mr. Naish's constructive
powers. 1 am at a loss to reconcile his assertion, " that without the
eight iron ties, the vault could not stand the least space of time," with
the current report that Sir Christopher Wren introduced these ties ;
seeing that the building must have been completed 400 years before
Sir Christopher reported in 1669. How far it is probable that the
author or authors of this beautiful design would have introduced so
clumsy a means of support, (even if they had subsequently imagined
their abutment weak) when they had under their eyes the "magic
flying buttress" so lavishly used in the Cathedral, i leave the admirers
of Gothic architecture to determine. In Sir Christopher Wren's
report on the Cathedral and spire, there is not a word as to the Chap-
ter House ; an omission not very probable if he had felt it necessary
to have recourse to such a remedy. They were probably introduced
at a period previous to his, and consequently to Mr. Naish's report,
when either the present injurious roof (or the high pitched one which
I doubt not originally exited) may have exercised a far more dan-
gerous effect in the central column than any thrust from the groin.
1 will now proceed to describe the state in which I have found this
building.

The present roof is a flat one, rising to the level of the parapet, as
at Wells and as at Lincoln (previous to 1800, when the high pitched
roof was restored). It is covered with heavy lead, by no means in a
weather-tight condition. The construction of the roof is of the most
primitive order, and has exercised a very injurious effect on the walls
and on the centre pillar. Its general effect is very much like that of
an open umbrella. From the solid spandiil on the centre column rises
a heavy octagonal post of oak, 16 in. diameter and 17 or 18 ft. high,
morticed into which are eight heavy beams about 12 in. square, taking
their other bearing on the solid wall over the buttresses. These
beams, which are 33 ft. long, are supported bv bent braces of all sorts
of form and substance. The outer ones, which spring from corbels
very low down, and only just over the spandril of the groin, have rent
the wall in some places, and have occasioned a considerable outward
thrust. These braces have become twisted and decayed ; some of
thpm have got out of bearing, and have allowed the strain on the
centre pillar to become most irregular. The space between these
eight main beams which I have described, is filled with soven heavy
timbers 12 in. by Sin. most injudiciously applied, the outer ends bear-
ing on a heavy plate about 4 ft. above the point of the window, the
thrust from which has much shaken the wall and injured the tracery
of the windows ; the other ends are wedged and skew nailed into
principal binders. Nothing can be more injudicious than this con-
struction; instead of throwing the weight of all these timbers on to
the eight main beams, and so weighting the abutments, their load is
thrown on the weakest part of the enclosing walls. The timbers are
of oak and Baltic fir, indiscriminately mixed, and are generally in a
pretty sound state.

The buttresses, which are of solid Chillmarke stone, are perfectly-
sound, and show hardly any symptom of decay or settlement; the
intermediate walling is not so free from injury, the spaces below the
windows showing indicatioi s of unequal settlement, from the greater
mass and weight of the buttresses. The tracery of the windows is
very much shaken, and the mullions have suffered considerably from
the action of the weather and the corrosion of the iron bars. Inter-
nally the masonry is much injured, the exquisitely sculptured capitals,
and the interesting series of scripture subjects commemorative of the
life of Joseph having been shamefully mutilated by the Parliamentary
Commissioners and their satellites, who quartered men and horses in
these sacred buildings. The walls and niches bear evidence of having
been highly decorated with colour and gilding, and there is still a
strongly coloured ornament diverging from the bosses at the junction
of the ribs. The stone seat running round the Chapter House origi-
nally occupied by the members of that body, is in a damp and perish-
ing condition. The encaustic tile paving which covers the whole
space of the floor is in a verv unsatisfactory state, the colour much
faded, and where the concrete foundation is carried round the walls,
andthe central pier does not extend, it has sunk considerably below the
original level. The windows have, alas, long lost the rich and glow-
ing colours which, little doubt, originally added to the beauty of this
exquisite room; the last remaining one having been taken down sub-
sequent to Mr. Britton's survey in 1812. Although of the frailer
material, wood, the old Chapter table (a most interesting relic) exists
with less apparent injury and decav than even the walls which enclose
it. The Purbeck shafts and capitals in the interior are, curiously
enough, more decayed than the Chillmarke stone ones.

The centre shaft, of Purbeck marble 1 ft. 6 in. diameter, surrounded
with its eight smaller ones, 4i in. diameter, from which springs the
groin enclosing the room, is still in good preservation, though it has
been thrust out of the perpendicular an extreme distance of 4| in. to
the east. The smaller shafts have perished considerably, and will
require to be replaced with new stone. The simple gioin which springs
from this shaft has its ribs of Chillmarke stone, 2 ft. deep, and about
12 in. wide : the intermediate groin being of chalk, 1 ft. thick, in the
upper surface of which is a coating of fine concrete or mortar, the
underside being plastered, and the joints of the stone m irked upon it.
I believe I have nothing to add to the description of its present state,
and I now pass to the consideration of its restoration.

The removal of the iron bars to which I have already alluded, and
which have a very prejudicial effect on the appearance of this room,
was the first point to which my attention was directed, and this has
naturally involved a difficult anil anxious consideration, resolving itself
however into this one point : Whether the abutment now offered by
the buttresses, with the additional power of resistance they will gain
by the whole weight of the roof being thrown upon them, instead of
being scattered over the whole enclosing walls, is sufficient to counter-
act the thrust of the groin itself; (for care will ef course be taken that
the new roof shall occasion no outward thrust). 1 was led to suppose
that, in the Chapter Houses of similar form and construction to this
one, as at York, Lincoln, Wells and Westminster, I might find prece-

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[May,

dent of some kind. The inquiry has confirmed me in my previous
belief, that the one at Salisbury was the lightest in construction of
this class. At York, the groining to the Chapter House is not less
deceptive than that to the nave and choir of the Cathedral itself,
being of wood, in one span, of 57 ft. diameter. Till lately, it was
enriched with painting and gilding ; it has, unfortunately, of late
years, been much injured by that worst vice in architecture, being
made to assume the appearance of a material it really is not. It has
been plastered and jointed and coloured in imitation of stone. With
a sort of prophetic dread of the march of desecration, the Rev. John
Drake, one of the Prebendaries, presented a view in 173 J, "lest time
or other cause should destroy or deface this magnificent structure."
The roof, which seems to be of very strange construction, almost with-
out any attempt at the principle of continuous trussing, has at least
the redeeming virtue of being held together by the tie beams. I have
been unable to get an accurate section of this building, which, how-
ever, is not of much consequence, as it bears so little on the object of
my inquiry. This Chapter House, which, I believe, was built in the
early part of the 13th century, would probably have been a few years
anterior to the Salisbury one.' The child certainly was not unworthy
of the parent. The Chapter House at Lincoln is not much more use-
ful to me, the excess of strength in this case being more puzzling.
The groin itself could never have required such buttresses, and we
can only imagine that the original roof must have been constructed
with some considerable degree of thrust, against which these immense
flying buttresses were brought into play. The present high pitched
roof, which was restored in 1S0O (one of low pitch having usurped
the place of its original one) must, if correct, occasion a considerable
thrust. This Chapter House is a decagon of GO ft. diameter, and is
supposed to have been the first built in tins country of polygonal form,
a variation from the square and oblong, as at Bristol, Glos'ter, Durham,
and Peterboro', supposed to have been suggested by the circular
churches of the Knights Templars. The Temple Church being dedi-
cated in 11S5, being 15 years before the completion of the Lincoln
Chapter House, Giraldus Cambriensis attributing it to Bishop Hugh,
who died in 1200. It undoubtedly must be considered a very perfect
work for so early an era. " St. Hugh was a native of Burgundy, and
may have obtained artists or designs from his own country." That
of Wells is an octagon of 57 ft. diameter, resting on a groined crypt,
Its height is considerably less than that of Salisbury, but like it, the
groin springs from a central column 3ft. diameter, surrounded by 16
smaller shafts, just doubling the size of the centre shaft, and the num-
ber of smaller ones at Salisbury. At first sight, the great dispropor-
tion between the abutments of this Chapter House and that at Sulis-
bury, seems unaccountable ; but on referring to the plan of the eroin-
ing, it will be found that this of Wells is much more elaborately
groined, and that the proportion of the stone ribs is as 0 to 3, il ribs
springing from each buttress at Wells, 3 from each at Salisbury,
naturally adding considerably lo the weight and thrust even if the
intervening groin was not heavier. I am not aware of the material
used for this purpose. I believe chalk is not a material fuund in that
part of Somersetshire : it is in all probability of stone instead of the
lighter material. And in these causes, 1 think, the apparent discre-
pancy between the abutments at Wells and Salisbury may be satis-
factorily accounted for. I do not know the exact date of the building.
In feature and general delail it is of the s.une century as those I have
alluded to ; although in all probability it is subsequent to them.
Whether it has gained in effect by reduced height and lightness, I
must leave to others to determine.

The Chapter House at Westminster, the last I shall speak of, is of
octangular form, and was a "remarkable instance of lightness and
richness of ornament." It was built in the reign of Henry III, proba-
bly about 1250. As at Wells there is a crypt, the groining of which
is of excellent workmanship. I believe that this building, in its ori-
ginal form, must have more closely resembled the Salisburv one than
any of those I have referred to; apparently of similar height and
width, its groin was originally supported by a central shaft having
eight smaller shafts surrounding it. The walls are not of greater
thickness than those at Salisbury ; and the projection of the buttresses
(where the flying buttress was not introduced) is as nearly as possible
the same as at Salisburv. These apply to those on the north-east,
north-west, and two to the west, where the cloister joins it. What
the character of the original stone groining was, I believe there is no
history remaining. Nor is it known exactly how long the monks held
it, but in 1377 the Parliament held their sittings there, the crown
having undertaken its repairs (well fulfilled) and it was so used till
1547, when Edward VI gave St. Stephen's Chapel for this purpose.
it was then occupied as a place of deposit for exchequer records. On
the 1th March, 1705, the House of Lords memorialized the Queen
(Anne) to have it put into repair, and this is stated to have been done

soon afterwards by Sir Christopher Wren, though I know not where
are the existing traces of such repair.

The springer of the groin still remains over the central shaft, and.
the boarded floor rests on the old encaustic tile.

With the exception of this last instance, my consideration of the
polygonal Chapter Houses has led to little satisfactory result; and if
it were not that I fancy there is to be traced in each, good cause for
the variations we find, I might become a convert to Mr. Gwilt's belief:
"That the investigation of the equilibrium of arches by the laws of
statics, does not appear to have at all entered into the thoughts of the
ancient architects; experience, imitation, and a sort of mechanical
intuition, seem to have been their guides. They appear to have pre-
ferred positive solidity to nice balance : nor have they left us precept
or clue to ascertain by what means they reached such heights of skill
as their works exhibit." I think if Mr. Gwilt had remembered the
Chapter Houses of Westminster and Salisburv, he would have made
them exceptions to his rule, and have ailowed that at least they have
worked as close to " nice balance " as in these examples they could
well do.

Having failed, then, to discover, in these works of similar form and
coeval date, any positive rules which could be a guide in determining
the question of sufficient abutment, I endeavoured to find, in the works
of those who have written on the theory of arches, some actual rule
which I could reduce to practise, applying to this case. In this search
I have not been very successful. The works of Peyronnet, Rondelet,
Gautier and other foreign writers on arches, apply generally to
bridges and other forms of vaulting rather than to groining as practised
by the early Gothic architects; and that their abutments would not
apply in one case is not very surprising when it is remembered that
"rib pointed vaulting," composed "ex lu^sde el lopho" has invariably
the actual rib thinner than the uniform thickness of the Roman vault;
and that the panels of the groin (the principal part in superficial
quantity) sometimes does not exceed one-ninth the rib in thickness.
A reference to their sections shows how light is the construction of
Lincoln and Salisbury Cathedral as compared with that of St. Paul's,
so much vaunted for the mathematical science it is said to display.,
The naves of St. Paul and Lincoln are the same height and width ;
the piers of the towers are double the diameter of the shafts in the
latter, and its continuous wall exceeds in thickness by one-half the
wall and buttress of Lincoln. Nor have I found anything in the works
of Ware, Hutton, Mosely, Gwilt and others, which actually bears on
this case. In the work of Durand, an old French writer on arches, a
curious problem is laid down to determine the abutment of an arch,
which, if not based on the soundest laws of statics, is at least ingenious
and plausible, adapting itself to every form of architecture; ::ie
French engineers, 1 am informed, rely upon it to a great degree. I
pleased with its simplicity, that I determined to test it by an
experiment on a large scale. Having to construct the clerestory wall
of a church, which was 50 ft. high, to the wall plate, with semicircular
arches springing from columns 2 ft. 3 in. diameter, at a height of
18 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and abutting against a pillar, (of the
strength of which some doubts were entertained,) I had formed in
brickwork, to a quarter the full size, an arch of this description, re-
taining only as an abutment the width which this problem gave. The
arch was loaded i in proportion) to the full height of the 50 ft., and
no deduction was made for the openings of the triforia or for the
clerestory windows, which in the original, would much reduce the
weight over the crown of the arch. This experiment was made in
a foundation of very questionable nature; it was carried up in mor-
tar, and the centres were struck within an hour or two of its comple-
tion. This arch stood perfectly, and until the period of its being
taken down, some weeks afterwards showed no symptoms of weak-
ness. Having more abutment than this problem called for, and taking
into consideration the reduction of weight effected by the openings I
have alluded to, the clerestory walls were completed, as originally
intended, and stand perfectly. This, then, is the most theoretically
practical rule I have found, and has confirmed me in the belief that
the vault of this Chapter House, would stand perfectly with the
abutment it has. It will be found that the width of the abutment, at
the level of the springing, is in the case of Salisbury, about one-fourth
the span of the groin itself. That at King's College Chapel, Cam-
bridge, although of a much flatter and more thrusting arch, has the
thickness of the abutment only 3J times the width of the arch.

Trinity Church, at Ely, has a stone vault of segmental form, which
has the abutments only one-fifth of the span of the arch, that arch
being of a very flat and thrusting form. Of these most complex the-
ories of the arch, so seldom brought to bear on individual cases, and
so seldom accordant, one is almost inclined to say with La Foutaine—
" Quand on 1'ignore, ce n'est rien,
Quand on le sait, e'est peu de chose."

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Unfortunately this discrepancy in theory extends itself to data given
as the result of practice and actual experiment, and adds infinitely to
the difficulty of arriving at anything like a satisfactory result in inqui-
ries of this kind. As instances, I may state that Rondelet, a French
writer of much celebrity, gives a force of 50001b. on the square inch,
to crush a piece of oak, and upwards of 6000 lb. to crush fir ; whereas
Mr. George Rennie, in his elaborate and detailed experiments, found
English oak to crush with 38G01b. to the inch, and fir with 1028. The
result of all experiments on wood, however, go to prove that the re-
sistance increases in a much higher ratio than the mere area of the
material.

Mr. Rennie found Portland stone to crush with 12841b. to the
square inch. Messrs. Bramah, in their experiments in 1837, found
10201b. crush it; whilst a central stone shaft at Anjou Cathedral,
which is considered a remarkable specimen of lightness, bears only
5001b. to the square inch, though calculated by Mr. Gauthy to be
equal to the resistance of 3-170 lb. to the inch.

It is probable that few experiments were made actually on the
same data, the stones are not of equal quality, the wood unequally
seasoned ; and when we remember that oak timber loses 30 per cent
of its weight in seasoning, these differences are to some extent ex-
plained.

Believing that one sound practical opinion would avail more in
this case than any theory, I have sought the opinion of those mem-
bers of our profession, and of those of the engineers, in whose
judgment on such points I have the greatest confidence, and they have
without one exception confirmed my belief, that if the outward thrust
of the roof is removed, these ties may be taken away. I had the
benefit of the opinion of Captain Dennison, (Government Engineer at
Woolwich,) who examined the whole building with me most carefully,
and who fully concurs in this view of the question. We tested the
upright lines of all the outer buttresses, and we found that with very
little variation, they had all gone outwards, from the perpendicular,
between 34 and 4 in. to the springing line, even those immediately
adjoining the staircase and cloister walls, where naturally the abut-
ment is greatest ; proving, as we think, that this must have been the
effect of one uniform thrust, when the centres were first struck, and
the whole groin took its bearing. We found the iron bars slack,
hardly any of them being strongly in tension.

The centre pillar has gone over towards the east considerably, to
the north-east 3| in., to the east 4| in., and to the south-east 3| in., an
injury we believed to have been much more caused by the irregular
thrust of the heavy roof than by any action of a groin, which from its
abutments having all equally decayed, must have been nearly " in
equilibrio." The stone ribs show hardly any trace of the necessary
contraction and exi>ansU>f which must have taken place when this
pillar went over ; and the chalk groin shows no settlement that gives
cause for alarm. Having then satisfied myself as far as possible of
the practicability of removing these iron ties, we propose to shove up
the centre column, these timbers having been brought to their bearing
(the weight they have to carry being 115 tons). I propose to take
down the present central shaft, with its eight surrounding ones, to
plumb a perpendicular line from the centre of the octagonal stone
above the capital, and from this centre to carry up, on the old foun-
dation, the central pillar, making good, with Purbeck marble, such
ones as may be found to have perished. This foundation is com-
posed of concrete of the best description, and evidently laid before
its reputed father, Sir R. Smirke, could have introduced it into this
country. This effected, and the groin left to its proper bearing, (the
iron ties still being untouched,) I propose to take off the present heavy
roof, and in its place to substitute, as I strongly hope, the high
pitched one, the feet of the principal rafters being laid into cast
iron shoes, held together, or rather in their places by eight wrought
iron tension rods, ]i in. diameter, having an eye at the end nearest
the centre, into which the suspension rod (thickened at its lower end
to 3 in. diameter) would fall, and hold up the tension rods. This
roof, if adopted, would render unnecessary the piece of timber now
resting on the centre column. The sprandrils of the groin I propose
to fill to the height shown by the red tint. That this was the original
form of roof, I believe there can be little doubt, a view in which I
have been confirmed by Mr. Pugin, who has carefully studied this Ca-
thedral, and who speaks most confidently to the point; to suppose it
otherwise, would be to imagine that in this building they had thrown
overboard the vertical spirit of the Cathedral roof, and of all roofs of
that size of which we have any trace. Having satisfied myself that
the further perpendicular weight which would by this means be
thrown on the buttresses, in addition to that of the groin, could have
no crushing effect, the weight each buttress would have to carry
being 62 tons, which distributed over the area of each, gives a weight
of 594 lb. to the square inch ; whilst the capabilities of Chillmarke

stone (taken at four-fifths the lowest given for Portland) would re-
quire 823 lb. to the inch to crush it. The centre shaft bears 10001b.
to the squ are inch. Rondelet says " there can be no danger in making
stone bear one-third the weight which would crush it;" it is therefore
fair to suppose there can be none in giving it one-fourteenth; and in
this calculation 1 have made no allowance for the increased tenacity
afforded by an increase of superficies. This risk being avoided, the
additional resistance thus afforded to the thrust of the groin by the
weight above, would be considerable. Of the value of this heavy
superstructure, Sir Christopher Wren was fully aware. In his report
on Salisbury Cathedral, he says, " As for the vaults of the ailes, they
are indeed supported on the outside by the buttresses, but inwardly
they have no other stay but the pillars themselves, which as they are
usually proportioned, if they stood alone without the weight above,
could not resist the spreading of the ailes one minute."

Should, however, the Chapter (whose consent to any plan must be
obtained) object to the high form of roof, and require the new one to
retain the pitch of the present one, and not to rise above the parapet,
their decision must be final, and in that case I should propose to adopt
this roof, which though simple enough in its construction, has at least
this advantage over its predecessor, that it causes no outward thrust.

In either case lead would form the covering. The roof being made
perfect, and all defects in the external masonry having been made
good, I propose gradually to loosen the nuts which are now attached
to the iron ties, watching most carefully if any fresh thrust follows.
Those bars I propose to re-introduce above the groin and immedi-
ately under the roof. They would form a perfect tie at this level, and
if unluckily any accident or failing shall take place in the cast-iron
shoes or tension rods of the roof truss, these bars would then come
into play, and would prevent the effect of any lateral thrust. The
internal stone work we hope gradually to restore. The stone seat
and step running round the Chapter House will be taken up, cleaned
and re-laid, making good with new stone. Under this seat, it is pro-
posed to form a Hue in brickwork, into which would be introduced
from a stove, to be built under the stairs, a current of warm air,
having vents through, and stone ornaments on each face of the oc-
tagon, thus keeping the building free from the damp which now
disfigures it.

It is proposed to relay the whole floor (containing 236 yards) with
encaustic tile paving, of similar design and colour to those now ex-
isting ; and instead of their being laid on the earth as at present,
which has tended to make the floor damp and irregular, I propose to
have a thin bed of concrete made with water lime formed over the
whole surface not occupied by the foundations.

The plastering to the soffit of the groin, which now exists, is in a
defective state, cracked and discoloured. It will be repaired and re-
coloured ; and as the chalk groin is of rude and irregular surface, it
perhaps will be desirable to reline it as it now exists, restoring the
present coloured ornaments which now diverge from the bosses.

I have now only to allude to the windows. It is years since the
last window of stained glass existed in the Chapter House. It was
then taken down and used iu the restoration of some of the Cathedral
windows. If there ever existed a building in which colour was an es-
sential ingredient, it is this ; and I have every confidence that if the
restoration, to which I have already alluded, can be satisfactorily car-
ried out, that it will not be a very distant period before these windows
will be filled with glass, whose colours shall be not less rich and
harmonious than those which originally decorated this interesting
building.

Iron Snips.—" The Iron Queen."— We find that iron, as a material for ship-
building, is fast gaining ground. For steamers, iron has been a favourite
for some time past; ami there is not now one wooden steamer building at
this pint, while we observe there are two iron ones, of the first class, nearly
completed, and, we understand, contracts are made for the building ol three
more. We are also now satisfied, that the only objection to sailing vessels ot
iron, namely, the getting foul during a foreiyn voyage^ :s ijumpK lely
removed.. This is prov

;giste

is proved by the result of two voyages ot the Iron <Jn;-:i.
This barque, 350 tons register, left the river Tyne in February 1842, with U 1
tons of coals for Havana ; from thence she went to Mobile for a cargo ol

.otton for this port. She has now completed another voyage, from this port
to Galveston, in Texas, carrying 300 tons of salt out, and a full cargo ol
cotton home. She has been in the Graving dock, where she was Visited by
many persons, and she is found not to have strained a single rivet, although
she struck heavily on Galveston Oar. There is no appearance ol corrosion,
the red lead being fresli on the plates; and neither shells, barnac.es. nor any
foulness, was on her bottom. This desirable result is caused by the simple
application of a compound of tallow, bright yarni !i. arseni . an I brim itoi e,
which effectually destroys marine, vegetable, and animal substani '

Iron Queen was built by Messrs. John Vernon and Co.. of Aberdeen, and h
proved very creditable to their skill as builders. The surveyors lor Lloyd's
here are so h ell satisfied that there is no corrosion that they have classed her
A. 1. — Liverpt ol i

22

164

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

IMPROVEMENTS IN LIVERPOOL.

(.The following observations by Mr. Rosson, were made upon a paper lately
read at the Liverpool Polytechnic Society, by Mr. Holme, on the improve-
ment of Liverpool; we regret that we have not been able to obtain Mr.
Holme's paper.]

Mr. Rosson said, that in compliance with the invitation of their respected
president, he rose to make some observations on the very interesting paper
tust read by Mr. Holme. Architecture had been one of his favorite private
studies for the last twenty years, and he had often lamented, during that
period, to see the little progress which this great commercial metropolis of
the north-west of England has made in exhibiting good specimens of con-
struction. This was the more remarkable, when the vast means of private
individuals, and the funds placed at the disposal of the corporation, were
taken into account. Reference had been made to the noble models of architec-
ture left by the ancient Greeks, whose remains which had escaped destruction
still excited the admiration of every traveller who looked upon them. The
Parthenon, for instance. Let us inquire by what means that transcendant
work of architectural genius was raised ? Why, it was raised because Phidias,
the prince of sculptors of antiquity, had a Pericles for a patron, and by the
influence of the illustrious sculptor, Ictinus and Callicrates were employed
as architects, though under the controul of Phidias. But, independently of
the good fortune of the Athenians in having a Pericles to judge and guide
them in the application of high art, the Greeks had a mode which he (Mr. R.)
would strongly urge the people of Liverpool to adopt, now that public com-
petition had become the rule to guide them in their choice of the artists who
were to execute from time to time the works that were to adorn their great
city. The practice among the ancient Greeks was to call upon a number of
distinguished architects to send in designs by a certain day, and when they
liad all been exhibited, to leave to the artists themselves the choice of the one
that was to bear away the palm. This was by giving each artist two votes:
one in favour of his own design, and. the other for the one he thought I
among the compositions of his rivals. The best of the whole always turned
out to be the one approved by the majority of the second votes, as a reigning
beauty, at a public ball, is always considered by every handsome girl in the
reora decidedly the handsomest present, after lurself. (A laugh.) Thus the
wisest of the people judged and appreciated artists, and artists themselves
judged and appreciated each other, in the face of all Greece, assembled on
great public festivals. And in modern times, a very remarkable instance of
public justice occurred at Rome, in the pontificate of Benedict XIV. That
distinguished pontiff invited a competition of designs for the improvement of
the Piazza del Populo, in which our, then, young country man. the late Mr.
Harrison, of Chester, entered the lists. The judges selected a Roman design :
against the decision the famous Piranesi protested. His holiness caused the
drawings to here-examined. The consequence was that the judgment was
reversed, and young Harrison received the gold medal. He (Mr. R.) lamented
to say that that distinguished architect, the greatest since the days of Wren
and Gwynne, chose afterwards to bury his fine talents in the little obscure
city of Chester, instead of settling in London, and correcting the bad taste
of Soane, Nash, and others. When a resident in the Temple, he (Mr. R.) had
joined with his hon. friend, the member for Scarborough, Sir Frederick
Trench, in the efforts made about fifteen years ago to construct the Thames
Quay. The society, however, they then formed, though under the immediate
protection of his late Royal Highness the Duke of York, and, indirectly, under
that of the crown itself, could not accomplish their great object, though aided
by many distinguished noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants, and by " the
unaffected grace." and elegance, and talents, and powerful patronage of the
late all-accomplished Duchess of Rutland. They, however, managed to erect
some good buildings, amongst which must be named Stafford House, in the
Stable-yard of St. James's Palace, the finest nobleman's town residence in
the empire. He (Mr. R.) was cognizant of every stone laid in the construc-
tion of that edifice. The staircase, the finest thing in London, was formed
on the model of that of Versailles ; and the house, with the recent additions
of the present noble proprietor, the Duke of Sutherland, formed decidedly the
finest private palace ever erected in England. Finding, how ever, that public
taste was not ripe for the quay, they intermitted their labours, as he observed,
fifteen years ago ; but he was happy to say that they had resumed them
recently, with every expectation that, with the aid of the government, and
the awakened taste of the age. and the labours of his friend Charles Barry,
at Westminster, on the new Houses of Parliament — all those combined, he
thought, would at length enable them to achieve the object of all their vow s,
and give a new character to the banks of the noblest river in our domestic
empire. At the period referral to, when they (the committee) were busily
engaged in their efforts, and publishing drawings, of which they were very
proud, aud were gradually drawing the attention of the London public, the
elder Mr. D'Israeli entered their council-chamber, and astounded them with
1he information that they could not establish any claim to originality— that
lie held in his hand a hook that se! at rest and put the extinguisher upon all

their claims as exclusive authors of the grand schemes they were projecting.
He (Mr. R.) had referred- to a " great unknown " of the name ol Gwynne.
Had any gentleman present ever heard of his name ? He dared say not ; and
yet G» ynne was one of the greatest architects that this or any other country
had ever produced ; the book Mr. D'Israeli brought was the work of that
illustrious architect, called " London and Westminster Improved," 1761 or 1763.
Every public improvement that had been made in London or Westminster,
during the last thirty years, was down in that book, with this especial
difference, that Gwynne's designs are infinitely better, exhibited greater taste,
elegance, judgment, imagination, and resources than the works actually
carried inio execution. For instance, a bridge was suggested in the very
place where Waterloo Bridge now stands, under the name of " George the
Third's Bridge," with approaches on each side the Thames, infinitely finer
than those erected. Regent-street appears under the name, I think, of
" Great George-street," with elevations much superior to those actually
existing — the bold cornice, the stone balcony, the harmony of parts, the
solidity, in fine, which all our streets want, were there to be found sketched,
giving a new character to London as it then existed. But that great man,
whose talents were appreciated by Edmund Burke, Dr. Johnson, and the
great men of the Literary Club formed by the great lexicographer, had the
misfortune to be born forty years too soon. The times were not germane to
his labours; public taste, from want of education, was not ripe; and his
work, which deserved immortality, and would have obtained it in a better
age, fell, still-born, from the press. His name would almost have been lost,
had it not been kept alive by a reference to him made by Boswell in his Life
of Dr. Johnson. But to return to the improvements of our " dear native
city." Liverpool— for, though not a city in liw. she was a city in fart,— he
(Mr. R.) entirely concurred with his friend Mr. Holme, in all the observations
made in his very excellent lecture ; but he must confess that when he came
down to the bottom of South Castle-street, he was much disappointed and
surprised to see him make a back somerset, as it were, and avoid all mention
of the New Custom-house. He (Mr. R ) never looked upon that building but
with sorrow and disappointment — sorrow, that that erection completed the
destruction of the finest inner harbour formed by nature in the kingdom
(and in this he was confirmed by the opinion of the greatest engineer now
living, whose name was another name for science in civil engineering), and
disappointment, that so noble an opportunity of displaying architectural
genius had been thrown away, by the erection of a building whose compo-
sition was full of bad architectuial grammar, and whose vastness and solidity
alone relieved it from absolute contempt. It was faulty in composition and
in position, and its bad material excited the amazement of every one who
knew that the vigilant jealousy of government was generally exercised with
reference to the materials wherewith every specimen of architecture, civil or
naval, was constructed. Look (said Mr. R.) at the basements of the columns.
No geologist, deserving the name, would consider such material ston, , but
rather a conglomerate of sandstone in its primitive formation, full of cracks,
and threatening to fall to pieces: the columns in ten pieces, instead of two.
The joints will be the first part ot the building to decay : posterity will have
to replace them sooner than the present generation imagine. Walking round,
you may almost thrust your thumb into holes filled up with clay and rosin!
Alas! all this arose from irresponsibility, and the absence of competition.
It was a bad thing for the architect himself. His (Mr. It's.) friend. Charles
Barry, competed with all the rising talent of Britain both for the Houses of
Parliament and the Reform Club-house,— the finest private palace, for its
purpose, perhaps in Europe. To return to the Custom-house. In point of
composition — the utter want of distribution of light in the rooms and corri-
dors produced a " darkness visible," which, independently of its perpetual
inconvenience in a place where so prodigious an amount of business is trans-
acted, gave the whole the appearance of the gloomy chambers leading to the
catacombs of the dead. Indeed, said Mr. R., I have long denominated it
" The Tomb " of the inner harbour of the port of Liverpool. Mr. R. proceeded
to say, — " I speak this in sorrow ; but just censure is the tax which all public
servants must pay, especially that portion of them who have been largely
endowed by the public press, and ha\e not returned their money's worth in
public service." But he wou'd now turn to a more pleasing subject. He
begged to congratulate the society ou the prospects before them. Liverpool
had at length obtained the aid of an atchitect, whose talents were of a high
order. He hail been recently introduced to him in London — was delighted
with his designs, and pleased to find him so young a man. Liverpool had
nothing, as yet, but her docks to exhibit to the stranger : those would pass
muster with the greatest engineers. But they had now to look forward to
the erection of a Place (as the French called it) that would firm the capital
of the city, containing a street and courts of justice of surpassing beauty.
That would be the era from which posterity would date the commencement
of an architectural style worthy of the second commercial city in the empire,
and, consequently, in the world ; and he felt justly proud, encouraged, and
animated by the approaching triumph.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

165

BLASTING OF THE ABBOTS CLIFF AT DOVER.

Another of those remarkable engineering operations which have already
attracted the public attention, in connexion with the South Eastern Railway,
took place on Tuesday. April 18th, at a distance of about three miles to the
westward of the town of Dover. In order to afford an outlet to the Abbot's
Cliff Tunnel, and a platform on which the rail could be laid down between
that and the Shakspeare tunnel, it became necessary to remove a portion of
the projecting cliff. From the success that had attended former operations
of the kind, and especially the recent blast at Rounddown Cliff, it was re-
solved to remove it by the aid of gunpowder.

The surface of the cliff acted upon by this explosion lay to the westward
of the Rounddown Cliff, and its remaining cliff forms the face of the ter-
minus of Abbot's Cliff tunnel. It extended 300 feet in length, and the height
of that portion which was directly acted upon was 200 feet. The object of
the operation was to slice off. as it were, a large portion of this surface, so as
to make that which was before rugged and uneven, and which projected far
too much in the way of the proposed line along the side of the cliff, perfectly
flat and smooth, and fit to afford a sufficient platform for the road to be laid
down upon, and to prepare the terminus of the tunnel. The "slice"' to be
removed varied in thickness, according to the extent to which the surface
projected beyond that which would be convenient to the operations ; at some
points it was 60 feet, and at others 30 feet, and the quantity of powder in-
troduced at the different parts was, therefore, proportioned to the thickness
of cliff to be removed, regulated, of course, by the degree of resistance
which, from the greater or less nearness of the surface to the chambers in
which the powder was deposited, would be offered to the action of the pow-
der. The quantity of powder in each chamber was calculated according to
the line of least resistance. Cubing the line of least resistance, one-half the
number of feet is the number of ounces of powder used. The arrangements
made for the introduction of the powder and the simultaneous ignition (if
possible) of the different charges were simple, and, at the same time, inge-
nious in the extreme. There were altogether 100 barrels of powder, or
10,0001b. This quantity was distributed in various proportions in 15 different
chambers, at nearly equal distances. To form these chambers the rock was
perforated at those nearly equal distances, and the different proportions of
powder were introduced on Saturday last, and "tamped up'' close. There
were two separate lines of these chambers of powder, and therefore two
series of charges ; one being near the top of the cliff, about 200 feet from
the summit, the other about 100 feet lower down. Thus a space of about
150 feet from the bottom of the cliff remained altogether untouched by the
explosion, that being required as a platform for the road to run upon at the
entrance of the tunnel. The apparatus for igniting these different charges
was placed to the eastward, about 2000 feet from the nearest, and about 500
feet from the furthest chamber. It consisted of six batteries of 20 plates each,
and by an ingenious invention of Mr. Hodges, the assistant to Mr. Wright,
the resident engineer of the line from Ashford to Dover, they were all fired
simultaneously. Simple as the invention is, it is not so easy to describe it on
paper. Suppose a triangular skeleton chair ; what would be the seat of it
is suspended by a common string at the distance of about an inch or more
from a framework beneath (resting on the legs of the chair), in which are
fixed the batteries and connecting wires. Immediately under the string
which suspends the other poriion of the battery is placed a circular trough,
in which there is a "blue" light. Through this light is passed a fuse, 12
feet long, and taking some minutes to burn down. This fuse was fired by Mr.
Hodges, who had time to get away from the spot before the string was burnt.
The moment the string w:as severed by the flame, down went the upper
framework, the voltaic action was performed, and the electric fluid commu-
nicated to the wires. These wires were two, one for the upper, the other for
the lower range of chambers, each extending the whole length of the surface
to be operated upon, and attached to them were other supplementary wires
communicating with the chambers of powder. The ends of these additional
wires were of course formed in the usual way, with a piece of platina wire
affixed, which on ueing made red hot by the electric fluid ignited the gun-
powder in what are called the bursting charges— small portions of powder in
cases surrounding the ends of these wires, which again immediately fired the
larger quantities of powder contained in the different chambers.

Thus within a few moments after the ignition of the blue light, the upper
framework of the skeleton chair above described fell down, the voltaic action
was completed, and in almost an equal period of time the explosion was
effected. And yet how remote to all appearance the connection between the
turning of a short piece of string (a foot long) and the fall of that immense
mass of cliff!

The operations at the Rounddown cliff were carried on under the advice of
General Pasley and Lieutenant Hutchinson, who also took a great interest
in the proceedings on the present occasion ; but the whole of the arrange-
ments for the explosion of to-day were under the controul of Mr. Wright,
the engineer, assisted by Mr. Hodges, as already mentioned. As far as the

practical effect of the operation was concerned all was successful ; but as a
mere sight the affair was unfortunate, in consequence of the thick fog that
hung over the cliff, and made it impossible to see the arual fall.

At 4 o'clock, the hour appointed for the blast, many thousand persons
were collected to witness it, but the thick fog obscured all. I took a beat,
and approached as near to the shore as was allowed, but could see no more
than the crumbling mass falling down into the water beneath with a sound
resembling the roar of artillery beard at a distance, and the noise of the surge
breaking on the sea shore. In respect of the noise created, this explosion
differed from that at the Rounddown Cliff. There no noise whatever was to
be heard, or scarcely any, and the mass of r..ck glided almost silently into
the sea like a mighty wave ; but in the Abbot's Cliff blast there was much
more noise, and it was more prolonged.

Those who were on the cliff were sensible of a shock a few moments before
the detached portions of the cliff fell. Explosion is an inappropriate term to
use ; for, in fact, as far as hearing is concerned, there is nothing of the sort ;
—the operation of the powder is internal, and the effect only known by the
fall of the fragments. Mr. Hodges, the assistant engineer, fired the fuse
in connection with the battery. He had four minutes in which to get away,
but had calculated that he could run down the ladder in two and a half. He
was the last person who left the range of the batteries.

Beside the multitude of persons collected on the cliffs and on the adjacent
shore, the sea was covered with boats of all sizes and shapes. There were
also two large steam-boats filled with visitors.

Although in consequence of the thick fog or mist the spectators were
deprived of much of the gratification which such a sight would have afforded,
the operation, in a scientific point of view, was held to be decidedly success-
ful. All the chambers of powder were ignited simultaneously (or nearly so),
and the immense mass of disturbed chalk and earth fell slowly and equably
into the sea. The exact results, however, cannot of course yet be ascertained.
— Times.

ROYAL ACADEMY.

Professor Cockerell's Lectures on Architecture.

(From the Athenmtm.J

Lecture VI, and last.

Proportion, and the application of its golden rules, as they affect the ex-
ternal forms of architecture, had occupied the latter part of the preceding
lecture ; the avaKoyia. of the Greeks, delivered to us by Vitruvius, that ana-
logy, by which all the conformations of artificial bodies were derived from
natural bodies, seemed to be a principle of obvious importance and utility to
the architect, and should be attentively considered.

It appeared that the animal kingdom furnishes clearer lights for our
guidance than the vegetable, because organized nature was more constant in
her proportions, and enabled us always to re-establish the whole from a
part; thus the hand of a Grecian statue, of the Hercules, the Apollo, or of
the Venus, or a fragment of any one of the Grecian orders of architecture,
enabled us to restore the whole ; indeed, the proportion by aliquot parts by
a modulus, a principle of the Greeks, as explained by Vitruvius, lib. i. c. 11,
lib. iii, c. 1, was still practised in India, and seems founded in organized
nature.

Not so in the productions of the vegetable kingdom, fragments of which
would never enable us to comprehend the whole : however indebted to this
part of the creation for the graces of ornament, and various essential analo-
gies, architecture found a less sure guide of proportion in this than in the
animal kingdom : in fact, all architecture so derived was anomalous, as the
Egyptian and the Gothic, in which no fixed laws of proportion have ever
been applied or attempted. Columns or supports might be from five to fifty
diameters in height, and were only bounded by possibility. The stunted
pollard, the spreading cedar of Lebanon, the aspiring poplar, or the attenu-
ated cane, were extremes equally at the disposal of the architect.

But that guide, which the face of nature furnished to the architect for his
external forms and proportions, was wanting for the internal — as of areas,
squares, courts, and open places ; or of internal capacities (height as well as
area) ; as of temples, halls, apartments, &c. ; in these we must appeal to the
relations of reason, purpose, and convention.

Vitruvius (lib. vi. c. 2, 3, 4, C, lib. v. c. 1, aud c. 2.) gives us the experi-
ence of the ancients on this important subject. The Greek forum, says he
was a square, but the Roman was three by two, because the gladiatorial,
shows were exhibited there ; courts should have the proportions of five by
three (the favourite of the learned Palladio), sometimes three by two, or
sesquialteral, or the diagonal of the square will Ue the length. lie lays
down the proportions of all the apartments of the Greek and Roman house :
atria, aire, tablinium, and peristylium, triclinia, ceci, exedrai et pinacotheae.
He does not, however, establish any principle, and his rules are wholly em-
pirical. But the great Alberti, not content without a principle, adopts the
Pythagorean doctrine of universal harmony, aud agreement between sounds
and numbers, namely, that what pleases the ear pleases also the eye ; he lays

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166

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

down, therefore, his harmonic proportion, in which Blondel, Ouvrard and
others have followed. The notion of musical proportions is common, and
has occupied many ingenious minds already versed in that art. Describing
St. Peter's, Byron, in this feeling, observes

Vastness which grows, but grows to harmonize,
All musical in its immensities.

Alherti was the first also to establish the rules of arithmetical and geome-
trical proportions (lib. ix. b. 3, 4, 5, 6), applied to all the varieties of areas
and capacities. He is followed by Palladio in the arithmetical and geome-
trical rules, lib. i. c. 23.

It is a comfortable conclusion to the practical architect that the empirical
rules of Vitruvius, the harmonic, the geometrical and arithmetical rules of
Alberti and his followers, agree in the main, so that either may be adopted
without material deviation from correctness; but the neglect of these rules,
in which lie that bidden charm that every one must be sensible of when
examining a finely proportioned room, has been common of late years, as if
the principle were of no value; the zealous student therefore should care-
fully note that consent of t lie ancients and the most illustrious masters of
the moderns, here set forth ; and he will soon learn devoutly to repeat the
denunciation of the Hindu Vitruvius (Ram Raz, Asiatic Society, 1834, p. 15),
" Woe to them who dwell in a house not built according to the proportions
of symmetry."

It is true, that the climate of this country and our habits do not often
permit the finer Italian proportions; thus the arithmetical rule of proportion,
common with our greatest masters, in our best mansions, 36 by 1'4, should
give us 30 feet high to the vault, but we commonly limit it to 18 feet. To
correct the defect of lowness, so frequent with us, the illusions of perspec-
tive painting, after the admirable Pozzo, may well apply ; but even the ar-
rangement of the trabeation and plaster enrichments, offer to the ingenious
architect, versed in perspective, many resources for the increase of the ap-
parent height, and for the attainment of an artificial proportion. But a
manufacturing people are prone to carpets, rugs, curtains, gilded frames, and
mahogany furniture, while the low ceiling is a sheet of paper stretched like
a drum, at most of a neutral tint, of indurated fog, with a gilt moulding:
while the artistic Italian opens a window of perspective in his ceiling,
through which a canopy of poetry and distance delights the eye, and de-
ceives the understanding; but the floor is paved with tiles.

Again, in our modern churches, a ceiling, 60 by 80, has often been fear-
lessly stretched in one unbroken surface of plaster, in defiance of the fine
examples of Charles's and Queen Anne's churches, in which a cove, after the
Italian manner, has the eft'eet of reducing the ceiling, and of rectifying the
proportion in the simplest and most graceful manner. The student should
well reflect on this important field for architectural skill and effect. lie
maybe a good builder and cheap, but he can have no pretensions as an artist
who throws away his time and his character in such condescensions as this
mechanical employment of his talent implies.

The rules hitherto referred to, have the beautiful for their object. Beauty
in architecture depends, ither causes, especially on the exact and

graceful proportions of the parts and of the whole. But the sublime de-
pends upon other causes, in which ndes cannot prescribe ; to the latter not
only the rules of the former do not apply, but they are destructive of it. If
the beautiful resides in the proportionate, it would appear that the sublime
often resides in the disproportionate. The principles and the rules of beauty
and sublimity are distinct. If we stand under au arch of London Bridge,
the vaulted soffitc, so vast and extended, sustained from such distant abut-
ments, produces a kind of sublime; no doubt aided by its comparative low-
ness. The Pantheon is inscribed in a cube, its height equal to its diameter ;
no one standing under its prodigious cupola has ever denied its sublimity.
But when that same Pantheon is raised into the air (in equal dimension) at
St. Peter's, it may have become beautiful, but has lost its quality of sublime.
When Byron apostrophizes the Pantheon, he feels the peculiarity of its
merit : —

Simple, erect, severe, austere, sublime,
Shriue of all saints, and temple of all gods,
From Jove to Jesus, spared and blest by Time.
Looking tranquility !

As the dome of the Pantheon is raised at St. Peter's into a proportionate
height, at the expense of its sublime, so the nave (nearly twice as wide as
that of St. Paul's Cathedral), also raised proportionately, loses all effect of
magnitude ; and the common and universal observation is, that as respects
this important effect the architect has laboured in vain ; and the work stands
self-condemned.

The noble poet coincides with the received opinion, and is obliged to
supply by poetical moonshine that dignity and interest which it was his ob-
ject to give to the Vatican. He says —

Er.ter, its grandeur overwhelms you not,
And why ? it is not lessened ; but thy mind,
Expanded by the genius of the spot,
Has grown colossal ; and can only find
A lit abode wherein appear enshrined,
Thy hopes of immortality !

Sometimes this failure has been attributed to its proportion, which (from
its justness, it is said) takes from its magnitude; a criticism at once the
most severe and just that can be. In fact, no increase of a proportionate
object will ever give it magnitude and the sublime ; these depend on extra-
ordinary relation and excess of parts and proportions.

Some years ago a French giant, upwards of nine feet high, exhibited him-
self in London, but so just were his proportions that no one would give credit
to his dimension, till they stood beside him ; he was therefore accounted a
kind of fraud, and the exhibition failed. But had he been disproportioned,
his head small, his shoulders high, and his members excessive, he might have
succeeded, even had he been a foot shorter. Had the nave of St. Peter's,
77 feet wide, been 00 feet high only, instead of 145 ; or if we were to sup-
pose a stage raised mid-height and place ourselves upon it, we should be
sensible of its vast latitude, and the effect of magnitude would have been
produced as under a bridge. The Barriere de l'Etoile, from the same rea-
sons, though as large as the front of Notre Dame — the arch itself 4S by 95,
equal to the height of the nave, but of ordinary proportions and great sim-
plicity of parts and members — loses its effect ; the arc monstre is glorious to
the rirande armp'e. but not to the arts of their day ; and is infinitely less ar-
tificial in its combination that the arches of St. Martin and St. Antoine, de-
signed by the accomplished Blondel.

If, then, the architect cau obtain latitude, he should seek to carry out its
effect by quadrate and comparatively low proportions ; but if he adds alti-
tude to his latitude, he loses his expense and pains, and he may find too late
that half his dimension might have attained the same effect ; since proper-
magnitude defeats itself.

But as extreme latitude gives the sublime, so does its opposite extreme of
altitude : in Cologne and Beauvais, the naves of which are three and a half
diameters in height, though scarcely more than half the actual width of St.
Peter's nave — limited, therefore, in their dimension to the usual cathedral
width, yet nearly double the usual proportion — the sublime is completely
attained ; and disproportion again appears to be the efficient cause.

But the optical consideration of the visual angle in which these several
proportions present themselves is exceedingly important. Thus to the spec-
tator of the dome of the Pantheon, the visual angle is 9.V:, while the same
dome raised into the air at St. Peter's is only 30". In the nave of St. Pe-
ter's, the visual angle is 48°, that of St. Paul's Cathedral is 37*, while the
vault of Cologne is only 22°, Since then the effect of magnitude is mea-
sured by the number of degrees in the visual angle, the architect will advert
to this consideration as of extreme interest.

We come, then, to the important conclusion, that the sublime and the
beautiful are to be found in the proper adjustment of proportions, rather
than in dimensions ; and we may infer, that no increase of scale to the beau-
tiful will ever make it the sublime.

But the sublime is of rare occurrence : the use, however, to which these
reflections may be turned by the practical architect, under limited means, is
remarkably illustrated in the Casino at Chiswick, where the very circum-
scribed area of the rooms is compensated by their extraordinary height, and
the accomplished Lord Burlington has given a nobility to very small apart-
ments which no one could believe on seeing the plan alone, without visiting
nt work.

Magnitude is the great object and result of design, and this quality is only
to be attained by the fine adjustment of relative proportions in magnitude
and order. Architecture consists in magnitude and order (says Aristotle),
to yap ko\w tn neycBtt koi ra{ei eori. (Poet. p. xi. s. 4.) The works of
man, compared with those of nature, display our insignificance. The pyra-
mid-, -een in the clear sky of Egypt, or St. Peter's at Rome, are proverbially
disappointing to the first gaze of the beholder: it is only after he has insti-
tuted comparisons and admeasurements that he becomes sensible of the
greatness of these human efforts — and his memory will supply him with
many instances in which objects of very inferior dimensions have surpassed
them in impression of magnitude upon his mind. It is plain, therefore, that
art alone can produce the full effect of magnitude, and to this the architect
should direct all his skill : the ancients will be found consummate masters
in this as well as in ev:ery other department of our art. It is, indeed, a fine
art which enables the accomplished artist to raise ideas of magnitude and
grandeur of composition on a piece of paper no bigger than your hand ;
while a less able one shall cover a vast canvas without executing any compa-
rable notions. Worthy of all inquiry and solicitude is such an art, for it is
the whole art of design and proportion. Pliny cites a statue of Hercules, so
small that it might In- lifted by the hand, which, however, conveyed more
grandeur, magnitude, and strength to the mind of the observer, than a Co-
lossus would have done. How great must have been the science of the
master ! and if, with such small means, he could affect the miud with these
impressions, how great the economy of cost and material to the employer !

Burke, whose notions, however, of proportion are vague and erroneous,
says admirably on this point (sec. x.) — " A true artist should put a generous
deceit on the spectators, and effect the noblest designs by easy methods.
Designs which are vast only by their dimensions, are always the sign of a
common and low imagination."

In the last lecture it was attempted to show that magnitude, breadth, and
proportion of parts were best found in inequalities ; but the consideration of
magnitude, as respects composition of the whole, seems to depend on other
principles: first, it appears that, to make a great whole, there must be many
parts ; secondly, to appreciate that whole, the point from which it is per-
mitted to be seen should be eusynoptic, namely, so contrived as to fill the

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107

angle of vision of 43-0, and occupy the whole retina with multiplied im-
pressions fairly and agreeably presented.

With reference to the first proposition, it may he observed, that in a young
tree bursting from the ground, two or three branches with upward tendency
grow from the polished bark ; the subdivisions are few, and we may count
the leaves. By and bye, with age and maturity, the bark becomes rough
and corrugated, the base is surrounded with excrescences and roots, which,
partly above the ground, indicate the hold it has on alt the surrounding
space ; the branches now shoot out at right angles with the bulky stem,
each limb becomes a tree, the subdivisions of these are infinite, and, in all
degrees of size and proportion, the leaves are countless. So the young
animal, simple in parts, and smooth, expanding with age and strength, de-
velops features and subordinate parts never dreamt of before ; furnished
and complete, the measure and fullness of strength and beauty is at length
filled up. So in architecture, the tetra-style portico can never look large,
though, in St. Peter's, the columns have eight feet in diameter. The Heca-
tompedon, burnt by the Persians, was not inferior in the scale of its parts to
the present Parthenon, but Ictinus judged that, by increasing the number of
parts — making that octo-style which had been hexa-style only— greater
magnificence would result.

The temple of the giants, at Agrigentum (hepta-style) was the largest
Doric of antiquity, but to give it all its value, a number of new features,
never seen before, accompany its increased growth and vastness. It is raised
on a platform of many steps, a base of novel design surrounds the colmuns,
and these vast masses themselves, each a tower of thirteen feet in diameter,
built of many stones, told by its many parts and its elaborate construction
the cost and grandeur of the undertaking. So the columns at Pcestum have
twenty-four instead of the usual twenty flutings ; in short, examples are infi-
nite to show that, to convey the full effect of real magnitude, an artificial
magnitude must be superadded, or it is lost labour.

Gradation and repetition of features of the same general resemblance in
various sizes, the major and the minor, are main sources of magnitude ; the
artist will see, in the satellites surrounding the planet Jupiter, the best reason
for the title of the Father of the Gods ; the western towers of St. Paul's give
magnitude to the dome. The same principle was to have been applied to
St. Peter's, but the western towers fell down. In the admirable church of
the Salute at Venice, the minor dome over the high altar, and again the still
smaller towers accompanying this, are foils to the great dome. Byron ad-
mirably enforces the number of parts : —

" Thou seest not all; but piecemeal thou must break,
To separate contemplation the great whole ;
And as the ocean many bays will make,
That ask the eye— so here condense thy soul
To more immediate objects, and controul
Thy thoughts, until thy mind hath got by heart
Its eloquent proportions, and unroll
In mighty graduations, part by part,
The glory which at once upon thee did not dart."

Vhilde Harold, c. iv, v. 157.

So Palladio (as already remarked) characterized his style by the inter-
penetration of the larger order by a smaller.

In decoration we are careful to put a small scroll in juxta-position to the
larger, to give its full effect ; and so the painter, to give size to his principal
figures, interposes women and children in various gradations ; the wreath or
swag which shall contain flowers or fruit, all of the same size, will be mean,
or look like a string of onions ; the whole secret of proportion and whole
purpose of magnificence is attained, by satellites, and by gradation of the
major and the minor.

With reference to the second proposition, the consideration of the point
of view of architectural works, the ancients, as has been already observed,
were consummate masters, and cannot be too carefully studied. The labour
of the architect is vain, if he miscalculates the point of view, and the pic-
ture which he is to present on the retina of the spectator. As well might
the painter consent to a had light for his work, as the architect be careless
on this point. The genius loci will insist upon a peculiar composition ; each
position requires its own adaptation ; we should have proper things in proper
places. A design good in one place may fail in another, and the unskilful
approach and point of view may ruin the best scheme. It is not enough to
be right, but to show that you are so : the "/aire valoir " is a fine economy
which runs through the architecture of life, as well as of every step in brick
and mortar. The architect must be well versed in this part of optics : the
synoptic, the eusyuoptic, the deceptio visits, should be his constant observa-
tion ; like a skilful general be must manage and manoeuvre his masses to im-
pose upon the spectator, and by their skilful disposition he may often gain
that ascendancy which his real forces may not warrant. A familiar instance
of this is seen at St. Paul's, and often practised upon the green-horn mason,
who visits London for the first time. Of the two orders which decorate the
exterior, the lower one forms the great order of the interior, in the same
precise dimension; but the angle of view in the interior being so much
larger, the spectator is persuaded of its larger dimension. The roguish cice-
rone engages the novice in dispute on this question, enforced by a bet, which
on proof is always to Lis disadvantage and the penalty of his pot of beer.

Sometimes accident does more for us than wit. St. Paul's, constrained,
and crowded amidst narrow streets, produces on the unsophisticated a mag-

nitude and interest which would be lost if the pedants had their way, and
large areas and terraces were to expose it from Farringdon Street and the
Thames.

While considering magnitude, we must not forget that (the most difficult
of all) which arises from greatness of conception — a quality which every
one habituated to contemplate fine buildings, must often have been impressed
with. But much more the ingenious architect, who in his practice has had
opportunities of comparing his own design with those of others more able
than himself, and still more in canvassing the various modes in which a work
might be performed, will remark the difference between one mind and ano-
ther. He will find all the moral qualities of the artist exhibited in his per-
formance. " By their works ve shall know them ;" greatness of soul, or
contractedness of spirit, a folly or a vice, the specious, the clumsy, the re-
fined, the honest, are written in characters quite legible to those who have
learnt to decipher the language of design.

We might show the character of Wren in the lineaments of his work —
sublime in his mathematical attainments, clear, original and comprehensive
in his combinations above all men; but in his exterior unobtrusive and timid,
small and elaborate, concealing the art (as Nature does) revealed only on our
nearer examination to our wonder and delight. We plainly see "the Nestor
of Athens, not only in his profession the greatest man of that age, but who
had given more proof of it than any other man ever did ; he was in a
manner the inventor of the use of mechanical powers; and they record of
him that he was so prodigiously exact, that, for experiment's sake, he built
an edifice of great beauty, and seeming strength, but so contrived as to bear
only its own weight — so that it fell with no other pressure than the settling
of a Wren.' But such was Nestor's modesty, that his art and skill were
soon disregarded, for want of that manner with which men of the world
support and assert the merit of their own performances : and for want of
that natural freedom and audacity, necessary in the commerce of life, his
personal modesty overthrew all his public actions." — Parentalia, p. 341.

In the works of Jones we see the beautiful and specious, the sensual
beauty of the tasteful artist, but no mathematics, no sublime combinations
of structure, but generous, and free, and highly ornamental, we discover the
director of the masques of the splendid court of the Stuarts — the " Marquis
Would-be."

In Vanbrugh we have the dramatist throughout ; his theatre and scenery
are everywhere, imposing with a pompous grandiose, the spectator is at first
captivated, till he peeps behind the scene, and the illusion vanishes.

In short, it is plain that the architect must have moral as well as intellec- ■
tual qualities, to acquit himself duly of the high charge intrusted to him ;
and no argument can more effectually convince the student, that in ordering
his studies he must first order his own character and conduct; and that no-
thing can come from him of great and noble, unless from a pure fountain
and a well-regulated stream. We must endeavour to sustain that rank in
society which both sacred and classical antiquity have assigned to the archi-
tect (see Isaiah, c. iii. v. 1, 2, 3 ; and Cic. Off. p. 42.)

But an important principle in the assthetical as well as in the real ends
and purposes of our art is solidity, the result of equilibrium between the
forces of gravity. Nothing can be beautiful which is not strong, or is not
adequately strong for its purpose. The impression of duration is indispen-
sable to that satisfaction and repose which the mind seeks in a well-ordered
work of architecture. According to the simple notions of the ancients, it
was the essence of the grandiose and beautiful. The temple of the eternal
was to breathe the spirit of eternity — strong in its entire structure, it was te
be strong also in its component parts, its " great stones." Energy, menta
and physical, and stability, were the expressions most desired in architec-
ture ; voids were to be above voids, solids above solids ; the area even of the
supports, and the incumbent weight (orthographically considered) in most
instances of the finest temples are, or approach to, equality.

To this end the whole composition of the edifice was pyramidal, the sides
being inclined (as has already been observed) in every style of architecture
known to us. The quoins and piers of the angles which inclose the work
are larger than those towards the centre; and we may be sure that the ex-
pression of strength and duration given to a building is often of itself suffi-
cient for beauty, without other adventitious ornament ; as we may also be
certain that the want of this quality cannot be repaired by any expedient
which the architect may apply. In fact, the qualities of solidity and equi-
poise impose ou the understanding the same awe and conviction with reason,
justice, and truth; as inspiring that security, stability, and peace, without
which all is flimsy conceit and vain ambition.

But this rational propensity is sometimes in jeopardy from the love of the
marvellous and the exhibition of skill in the artificer, from whom, while we
deprecate the hazard, we cannot withhold our applause ; and if assured,
either by the nature of the material or the quality of the structure, of the
security the mind demands, we are easily reconciled to the wonder. But
this temptation is often a severe trial to the ambitious architect; and without
a sober taste, chastened by modesty and reason, it may be often more than
he can resist.

We delight in the suspended arch of a bridge or in the enormous vault
which covers the Pantheon, or the baths of Caracalla, or the Temple of
Peace. We are reconciled to those of the Gothic cathedral, so long as their
stone props or buttresses continue to perform their duty. Not so in the
grove at the east end of Salisbury Cathedral, which, like the banyan tree,
seems to be composed of pendants from the roof, indifferent dimensions,

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rather than columns to support it ; beautiful, indeed, but so fragile that the
blow of a stick or the movement of an awkward visitor would put the whole
fabric in peril. If, instead of a friable stone or marble, these shafts were
made of brass, the mind would relapse into that security which is ever the
first requirement of our art.

The love of the marvellous is dangerous ; exaggeration is the first sign of
a mind indifferent to the value and beauty and sufficiency of truth, and the
surest sign of depravation of judgment. Truth must ever be the best found-
ation of taste, and can alone be constant and enduring —

Rien n'est beau que le vrai ; le vrai seul est aimable !
II doit regner partout, et meme dans la Fable.
De toute fiction, l'adroite faussete,
Ne tend qu'a faire aux yeux briller la verite.

Boileau, Ep. ix., v. 43.

The Egyptian, the Roman, and sometimes the Greek, indulged in the gi-
gantic, with a view to the expression of a prodigious energy. But the
middle ages were prone to the marvellous, surprise was the great scope of
the Gothic architect. /Esthetics were not, indeed, likely to have been stu-
died under the education to which the mind at that time had access. Mira-
cles infatuated the understanding ; superstition was the foundation ; a domi-
nant hierarchy was little communicative of the lights of science it possessed.
The poetical vein received its chief aliment from the east; our scholars
brought home from Cordova the Arabian taste for excess and hyperbole.
The chastening counsel of a Locke, a Newton, or a Bacon, were wanting to
regulate that exuberant and uncultured fancy, and that enterprising skill
which the practical experiments in building promoted at so much cost anil
zeal in those ages.

The two styles of building, till the 15th century, were termed more Ro-
mano, in semi-circular arches, which followed the old basilica model of St.
Peter's and St. Paul's, and more Germano, in which the pointed arch was
employed after the 13th century; it was in the latter taste that the greatest
works were executed.

However great and admirable, in many respects, the specimens which have
been left us by those able practitioners, it is not believed by the most com-
petent judges that theoretical science was cultivated to any extent. From
Cesare Cesariano, the architect of Milan cathedral, and one of the earliest
translators of Vitruvitis, doubtless one of the most learned architects of his
day (1524), we may learn something of the principles which guided the
middle ages, which were full of the mystical terms of the pseudo-science of
the Freemasons. They consisted of a series of triangles or pyramids, no
doubt in allusion to the triune, which guided the plan, elevation, and section;
see D'Agencourt's architecture, plate 46, in which the sections of Milan and
Bologna cathedrals illustrate those doctrines. The minster at Bath appears
to have been built after this theory (1503) by Dr. Oliver King, who was a
skilful architect and politician, and had been employed in France to conclude
a peace with Charles VIII., and who, therefore, would be acquainted with
the most approved art of that day on the continent.

The middle age church was wholly founded on superstitious associations.
According to more Romano, it was enough that the plan described the cross,
the universal symbol in " hoc vince." But according to more (lermano, the
Saviour himself was to he figured ; the choir, therefore, was inclined to the
south, to signify, that " he bowed his head and gave up the ghost," John,
c. xx, v. :>0 ; and there are few cathedrals in which this deflection in not re-
markable. The nave represents the body, and the side, which " one of the
soldiers pierced," (John, xix. 34), considered to be the south as the region
of the heart, is occupied at Wells by a chantrcy, at Winchester with the
chap- 1 of William of Wyekham, and is constantly the pulpit from which the
faithful were reminded " to look on him whom they had pierced," Zech. xii.
10: who " was wounded for our transgressions," Isa. liii. 5. For the same
reason the south was considered the most holy : the Old Testament was
represented on that side, while the New Testament, and the local or national
Hagiology, was placed to the north. The same superstition still gives value
to the south side of the churchyard for burial. At the head of the cross
was the chapel of the Virgin, at the Fountain of Intercession with her son.
At the foot, the west end, was the " Parvis," supposed by some to be a cor-
ruption of " i'aradis," that happy station from which the devout might con-
template the glory of the fabric, which was chiefly illustrated in this front
and from whence they might scan the great sculptured picture, the calendar
for unlearned men, as illustrative of Christian doctrine and of the temporal
history of the church tinder its princes and its prelates. Three great niches
leading into the church, the centre one often above forty feet wide, were
adorned with the statues of the apostles and holy men, who " marshal us
the way that we should go ;" in front the genealogy of Christ, the Final
Judgment, the History of the Patriarchs, &c.

The details, indeed, display the degraded state of the fine arts, and of
course, of the artists themselves, in the quaintness and disproportion of the
sculpture. But extending our indulgence to the performers, regarded in
illiberal times only as workmen, we shall admire their native genius, strug-
gling with their moral condition, often on the verge of dignity and grace in
execution, and in point of conception frequently reaching an elevation alto-
gether original. It must be confessed that the continental churches, espe-
cially those of Amiens, Rheims, and Paris, surpass the magnificence of our
own cathedrals, both in the extent of plan by their double ailes, as well as
by their height. But it may be questioned whether a more complete and

correct picture of Christian doctrine and dispensation, and Christian history,
is to be found anywhere than in Wells Cathedral.

But the same want of cultivated judgment which is apparent in the
sesthetical of the arts of the middle ages, is traced also in the imperfection
of their statics and stereotomy, in which again solidity is sacrificed to super-
stition. The indispensable figure of the cross is a striking example. The
arches of the nave in the northern basilica, found their abutment abundantly
in the western termination, which was commonly fortified by prominent
buttresses (called by the early commentators of Vitruvius, tetra-style, or
hexa-style, according to their number) ; but at their eastern termination,
towards the lofty pillar of the transept, no such abutment existed. And
though the pointed arch was eminently calculated to obviate lateral pressure,
yet the smallest failure of foundation or superstructure, threw so much weight
against these pillars as to occasion them to bend. To counteract this, and
secure their stability, the principle of that age, of " pondus addit robur,"
namely, the weighting the pillars of the transept with a tower or spire, was
resorted to very commonly ; but this often increasing the evil, the last dis-
figuring remedy, the construction of a reversed arch between them, was em-
ployed.

Similar criticisms apply to all parts of the middle age architecture, mixed,
however, with redeeming excellencies of peculiar skill hitherto unsurpassed.—
See sections 1 to 8 of Wren's surveys, in the " Parentalia," 204 to 309.

The fifth of those principles of Vitruvius, which the Professor had at-
tempted to illustrate, was Decor, usually considered to refer to that important
part of architecture, ornament ; but our author rather appeared to refer to
consistency of character, fitness of style and ornament to the Deity, and the
purpose or the rank to which the work might be dedicated, quoted in the
preceding lecture. But as no part of the art required a nicer judgment, tact,
and reasoning than this of character and special physiognomy, so was none
more commonly transgressed in many modern buildings ; and a stranger
might be conducted to some of them, and defied to guess whether he beheld
a library or a town hall, a church or a music room, a theatre, a prison, a
brewhouse, or a floor-cloth manufactory, a gentleman's mansion or a union
workhouse.

Appropriateness and fitness of character is the special recommendation of
all the great critics, from Aristotle to Pope. If, says Horace, to a horse's
neck a human head is joined, or a female head and breast should terminate
in a fish, you will despise the painter ; or if upon the stage you exhibit the
graces and the levities of youth, hashed up with the manly strength of middle
fife or the rigour of old age, the audience would yawn, and at length over-
whelm you with indignant hisses. It is, in fact, the significance and appro-
priateness resulting from the coincidence of use and beauty, the one the ex-
planation and plain result of the other, which we adore in the works of
Nature, and which the great artists have best known how to imitate in
theirs.

Sir C. Wren remarks on the Temple of Peace — " It was not, therefore,
unskilfulness in the architect, that made him choose this flat kind of aspect
for his temple; it was his wit and judgment. Each deity had a peculiar
gesture, face, and dress hieroglyphically proper to it, as their stories were
but morals involved ; and not only their altars and sacrifices were mystical,
but the very forms of their temples. No language, no poetry can so describe
Peace, and the effects of it in men's minds, as the design of this temple natu-
rally paints it, without any affectation of the allegory. It is easy of access,
and open, carries an humble front, but embraces wide ; is luminous and
pleasant, and content with an internal greatness, despises an invidious ap-
pearance of all that height it might otherwise boast of; but rather, fortifying
itself on every side, rests secure on a square and ample basis." On the
Temple of War, he says, " As studiously as the aspect of the Temple of Peace
was contrived in allusion to Peace and its attributes, so is this of Mars appro-
priated to War; a stioug and stately temple shows itself forward, and that
it might not lose any of its bulk, a vast wall of near 100 feet high is placed
behind it ; (because, as Vitruvius notes, things appear less in the open air ;)
and though it be a i-in-rle wall, erected chiefly to add glory to the fabric, and
to muster up at once a terrible front of trophies and statues, which stand
here in double ranks, yet an ingenious use is made of it, to obscure two ir-
regular entrances," &c.

The German Moller, who is as true and as accomplished an artist as any
of modern times, on this point says, " On comparing the elevation of the
Merchants' Guildhouse, at Mentz, with the church of Oppenheini, which
was finished in the same year, we see how anxious the ancients were, and
how well they contrived to impart to every building its peculiar character.
Just as the merit of historical painting, and of every art of design, (without
which all the rest is valueless,) consists in the importance and peculiarity of
its character, so they are principal requisites in buildings, whenever the
latter lay claim to the appellation of works of art. In the church at Op-
penheini, all the parts are lightly towering up, so that the eye of the spec-
tator in the interior is involuntarily raised, and the elevated richly orna-
mented windows, and slender aspiring pillars, promise from the outside
already a beautiful and sublime interior. But in the Merchants' Guildhouse,
the whole exterior announces at once an object very different from that of a
church. The few and small windows are easily closed against fire and rob-
bers; and their battlements again, with their projecting canopies and angular
enrichments, clearly show that the destination of the building is to preserve
and to protect. And in the same way as the main forms correspond with
the object of the structure, so likewise do the ingeniously designed orna-

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

109'

lnents. On the pinnacles or battlements are the figures of the emperors and
electors in full armour. The emperor, who, at that time in alliance with
the electors, had confirmed the commercial union of the cities on the Rhine,
aud taken them under his protection, appears with them here, as the guar-
dian and bulwark of the house. In the midst of the princes, is the figure
of St. Martin, the patron of the city, dividing his cloak with his sword, to
give it to the poor. Thus, the leading forms announce the destination and
solidity of the building ; the figures of the princes, the protection it enjoys ;
St. Martin, that beneficence which ought to be the attendant of wealth ;
aud the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus, over the entrance, the higher
safeguard which the Divinity grants only to the just." Thus says the ac-
complished Moller.

It is a fine observation of Aristotle, that " a noble building without orna-
ment is like a healthy man in indigence." Competence, if not wealth, must
be added for the accomplishment of his happiness.

The sculptor's art affords the noblest ornaments to the architect. By his
aid. the expression which he has been labouring to give by other associa-
tions, and which before was mute, or scarcely audible, becomes parlant.
Sculpture may be called the voice of architecture. Unhappily a Protestant
country, with the holy fear of image-worship, discourages this generous and
most essential art ; and perhaps the want of character complained of in ar-
chitecture may be mainly attributed to this proscription.

But the carver and the decorator are highly serviceable to the architect,
not only as multiplying images for the delight of the eye and the explanation
of the subject, but as greatly magnifying the scale of the whole by these
means, and giving value and distinction to the plainer features. Our mistress
Nature is prodigal in ornament, and the expression of every animal and
vegetable is increased by a texture of endless detail spread over the whole
Surface of her works.

Finally, Distributio, the omovoiuo. of the Greeks, the sixth principle, is ex-
plained by Vitruvius, drily, as economy in the use and cost of materials ; but
doubtless the great masters from whom he borrowed, considered economy,
in the larger sense, as the adjustment of means to the end ; as the wise
and fine thought, contrivance, and supply, of all the requirements and appli-
ances of the building art ; in which the highest intelligence is displayed ;
such, indeed, as by that figure of speech which designates great subjects by
small titles, applies to the Creator himself that of the great architect.

The diligent observer of architectural works will find the greatest strength
combined with the least material, beauty united with use, and resulting from
it, exact equilibrium, provisions for the accidents of time and climate, se-
lection of materials best adapted, in short, a prescience of every want and
consideration : throughout the contrivance admiration almost sublime is
occasioned ; we feel that the work has, as it were, been self-created by the
influences and the wisdom of nature, and as if the architect had only followed
her instructions. " I am not," says the heifer of Myron, " the work of
Myron — he only delivered me from the marble" in which I was inclosed.

Having thus reviewed the theoretical rules handed down by Vitruvius from
the Greeks, as far as the limits and means permitted, the Professor pro-
ceeded to offer some observations to the students, with reference to their
future advancement, which it was the object of these lectures, and the ardent
■wish of the members of the academy to promote.

First, with respect to drawing, which was the very language of the art, it
was extremely important that the distinction between the painter and the
architect should be clearly understood. He deprecated the vain ambition of
making pretty drawings, especially on a small scale, as effeminate and unin-
structive; as also of pretensions to aerial perspective, which was a separate
art. Much time was commonly occupied in this captivating study, which
was wholly irrelevant, and at the expense of that valuable time which should
be employed in the more essential accomplishments of the art and science.
It might, indeed, improve the hand, but not the head; of which the archi-
tect had so much need. Drawing after the manner of painters had un-
doubtedly been an abuse and misdirection.

The orthographic drawing or elevation was conventional : it represented
the proposed building from an immeasurable distance — the object being to
define those proportions and profiles which constitute the merit of the work
— such lights and shades as should more clearly display these forms, and
show their relief where necessary ; but whatever disturbed these paramount
objects, as colour, or such cast shades as might confuse the profiles and pre-
tend to illusion, were impertinent.

Perspective, in the most accurate delineation, was, indeed, a most desirable
accomplishment, but it should be wholly linear, assisted with one tone, or
two at most. Sciography should be used with great reserve, since the harsh
outlines of cast shades were apt to disturb the form and outline ; and the
finest architectural perspectives, those of Pozzo especially, left them softened
and undefined on this account. It was certain that such had been the prac-
tice of the great Italian masters, specimens of which, by the bands of San-
sovino, (the front of Sta. Maria, at Florence, in the possession of Woodburn,)
of Michael Augelo, Raphael, and others, and especially the designs for White-
hall, by Inigo Jones, the Professor had exhibited in a former course. Exquisite
perspective, proportion, and profile were more scientific, difficult, and much
more profitable to the student. The coloured picturesque was a pandering
to a depraved taste, and it was a duty to inform the public on this head,
and lead them to the appreciation of the true intent of architectural deline-
ation. The draftsman should be habituated to a large scale, and a manly
drawing of profile and detail, such as a builder would comprehend and work

from. The Professor exhibited a specimen of the architectural drawing of
the actual school in Paris, which, though not wholly to be approved, as being
rather too minute and elaborate in effect, still showed a more careful atten-
• tion to outline, and a better system than used by ourselves.

The architectural room in the annual exhibition was at great disadvantage
in the neighbourhood of the splendours of the sister art; the vain attempt
at vying with her productions in architectural drawings, had both corrupted
our style and exposed the utter futility of the attempt. The true course
would be a closer adherence to the province of the architect in a more cor-
rect delineation of profile and proportion, and in the most accurate linear
perspective; a tasteful employment of these resources would probably more
effectually uphold the interest of that room than any other means that could
be devised.

Constant observation and travel were essential to the architect ; but the
interesting objects of our own country should be seen before those of others.
Much time was often lost in foreign travel by misdirection and the dangerous
novelty of the student's position.

In examining architectural works, the student should bear in mind an im-
portant rule of criticism, which was, to account in precise terms, for the
motives of approbation or dislike which he might experience. By applying
a just expression on all occasions, he would soon cease to take one tiling for
another — the beautiful for the sublime— quantity for quality — cost for mag-
nificence— and either of these for proportion or fitness — ornament for art.
He would learn to apply characteristic terms to every gradation, quality, and
style: and so, by degrees, he would form a just and discriminating taste.

In an art and science essentially referable to association, this discrimination
' was peculiarly necessary : the emotions arising from sight, like tnose from
music, would often be found irrespective of the intrinsic merit of the per-
formance, as loyalty in hearing " God save the Queen," union and patriotism
in the " Marsellaise." Often patriotic, historical, and romantic associations
will blind us to forms and styles, otherwise both unfit and unworthy our age ;
often quantity, extent, and quality of material would impose that approba-
tion which ought only to be accorded to elegant and just proportions ; ela-
boration would often usurp the praise which was due only to a well-ordered
work.

To hide by ornament the want of art,

should not deceive the experienced critic ; and the painter " who would
make his Venus fine, not knowing how to make her beautiful," would be
ranked as he deserved. The discernment of merits rather than defects will
be found more difficult, and much more profitable, because those we shall
appropriate, while the latter are only to be rejected. Such a habit will exer-
cise the better qualities of the mind, and lead to originality. The works of
men who have long enjoyed reputation, should be the peculiar objects of our
critical examination ; they will seldom be found frauds ; the inquiry will
commonly justify their fame, and like the conversations of original inventors,
they will reveal secrets which can else hardly be discovered.

The antiquary should be distinguished from the architect, and he should
be careful to separate the available experience, from research into the curious
and obsolete.

The student was recommended especially to cultivate that manly indepen-
dence of mind which became a thinker, and the leader of an art ; he should
have a settled distrust of fashion; although he would find himself sometimes
constrained in some measure to bend to it. Those " who live to please,
must please to live ;" he should, however, courageously but respectfully re-
monstrate.

There were two rocks, which the art was expressly liable to ; the first was
the presumption of absolute novelty; the second, the indolent and servile
imitation of former styles. The latter was the peculiar vice of these times
throughout all the civilized countries of Europe. Grecian, Gothic, Byzan-
tine, Italian, Revival, French, were indifferently employed. There was no
attempt at a style which should express to future ages the century in which
we live ; and posterity will be at a loss to recognize in the buildings of our
day, that character which a country great and glorious at the present period,
the bulwark of civilization, the arbiter of the world, and the great exemplar
of political government, morals, and useful science, should impress upon its
architectural productions. Shall it be said that this great people, original
and free in other respects, adapting aud expanding itself in an unexampled
manner to times and improvements, was stationary, or rather retrogade, in
the arts alone ? That though science and capital and mechanical skill were
daily furnishing new engines for our art, with prodigality, that our invention
alone in these walks of genius was at a stand ? that our skill as artists was
the only deficiency in the march of our age? That they crudely adapted
the models of ancient Greece to modern Loudon, the sunny palaces of Italy
to the foggy atmosphere of England : the niched and canopied architecture
of a religion peopled with images of saints and martyrs, sibyls, angels, and
holy men, to a Protestant religion, which, admitting none of these, must
leave the niches and the canopies tenanlless : like well-guilt frames adorning
an apartment, the pictures being omitted : the pride and pomp of heraldry,
armorial shields and crests, to an age in which chivalry was exploded, and
quarterings had dwindled to insignificance? What .should we say of Harry
the Sixth, if, instead of that admirable and most original chapel of King's
College, at Cambridge, be bad limited his artists to the style of the Con-
queror, or any other imitation ; or if Henry the Seventh bad concluded on
carrying on the style of the cathedral of Henry the Third, and so on, saving

170

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[May,

all further trouble of invention and criticism, should we not contemn their
poverty of spirit and negation of mind ? Would not the historian, the ar-
tist, and the tasteful observer, have to deplore the absence of that internal
evidence and hieroglyphic character of the times, which adds such a relish to
the architectural remains of our fair and beloved country ?

But let us suppose that either of these monarchs had been enlightened by
the art of a Raphael or a Michael Angelo, or by the sculptures of a Phidias,
which he might even affect to appreciate and to be proud of; and that we
should learn by historical record that he had said — " We are so anxious to
carry out the style of former days that we shall shut our eyes to those ex-
cellencies of sculpture and of fine art, and force our artists to copy the ob-
scenities and senseless carvings of those barbarous times ; simply that we
may carry out the imitation of the style in all respects."

Restoration, indeed, is a different consideration, and the happiest result of
this taste is, that we reinstate, for centuries to come, those venerable anti-
quities to which we have so many reasons of attachment. The restoration
of the Palace at Westminster may find under this consideration a sufficient
apology. But for works altogether new such a system of imitation is not
reconcileable with our pretensions to genius and enlightenment ; and it does
appear that there is in it a vice of mind or of industry for which posterity
will visit us. Such an indifference as to choice of styles indicates, in fact,
an absence of culture and perception of the really fit, and beautiful, and
great — a state of mind which, in religion, politics, or morals, would be ac-
counted fatal to improvement, and the sure forerunner of every heresy.
D'Ageneourt attributes to this spirit of imitation tinder the Emperor Had-
rian the decline of taste in Rome.

The learned in Paris deplore it not only under this apprehension, but as
the imposition of anachronisms on posterity, and as the falsification of the
pages of history, in its most interesting and characteristic traits. " Have
we not," as says Isaiah, " a lie in our right hand ?"

It is very important that the merits of that question should be debated in
a candid spirit, and that the true grounds of a style should be investigated
by the rules of sound criticism ; as how far architecture has ever been and
should be the picture in which all the discoveries of mechanics, of materials
and of industry, are to he exhibited and recorded; and whether the suc-
cessive changes of style have not been chiefly owing to the progressive dis-
coveries and improvements on workmanship, materials, and convenience.
How far the combinations of this art are capable of displaying the intellec-
tual character of an age and people, and what should be the just bounds and
limits of association, authority, and imitation.

Finally, let us never forget the pregnant saying of the great Schiller: —

The artist is the son of his time ;
Happy for him if he is not its pupil ;
And happier still if not its favourite.

In conclusion, the Professor expressed the gratification he had felt in
the attention paid by the students to this course of lectures; not as it re-
flected upon himself personally, but as it gave the strongest possible evi-
dence of the ardour and assiduity with which they pursued their studies:
for he could with great sincerity assure them that, amongst the achievi
of a very long period of singleness and devotion to his profession, he should
consider that the most glorious, which bad contributed to the instruction,
and warmed the enthusiasm of those rising talents destined perhaps in future
ti:i s to adorn and illustrate our country.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

Feb. 7. — The President in the Chair.

"Description of a Drawbridge at Bowcomle irrvk, near Kingsbridge,
Devon." By George Clarisse Dobson, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

This drawbridge spans one of five openings in a stone bridge, built across
a navigable branch of Salcombe Harbour; it is in one leaf, 15ft. 9in. wide,
and 32 ft. long, from out to out, supported upon a cast iron shaft or axle,
placed 7ft. Gin. from the inner end, working in the abutment pier, which is
built hollow to receive it, and thus the part within the axle end acts as a
counter weight. To the centre of the end cross-beam of the counter part, a
chain is attached, and after passing over cast iron sheaves in the masonry of
the face of the abutment, is coiled on a drum fixed on a horizontal shaft,
carrying on one end a pinion, worked by a rack, attached to the piston of
the hydraulic press ; by this means, motion is given to the shaft and drum,
and consequently to the leaf of the bridge. Balance boxes are hung to the
counter end, by which the shutting is regulated. The struts for supporting
the leaf, when raised, are also thrown in and out of their places by a rack
and pinion. The hydraulic press used for opening and closing the bridge, is
simple in its construction, and the whole works so easily, that a female can
open and close the bridge in about 15 minutes without difficulty. The fresh
water used for the pump is contained in a cistern beneath, and seldom wants
replenishing, as it is returned into the reservoir every time after being used.
The bridge was designed and erected by Mr. J. M. Rendel, about 12 years
since, when he was engaged in improving the turnpike road in the south of
Devon. The expense of repairing, oiling, packing, &c, since its erection, has

averaged under "/. per annum, including a small salary to a neighbouring
millwright for occasional inspection. The communication is accompanied bv
a drawing, showing a plan and sectional elevation of the bridge and the
machinery.

On Frictiox.

" An Investigation of the comparative loss by Friction, in beam and direct
action Steam Engines." By William Pole, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

In consequence of the comparatively recent introduction of direct action
steam engines on board the steam vessels of the Royal Navy, the attention
of engineers has been drawn to the advantages or disadvantages they possess,
when viewed in comparison witli those constructed with side levers. The
object of this paper is to investigate the value of an apparently formidable
objection which has been frequently urged against the direct action engine,
namely, " that from the more oblique action, consequent upon the shortness
of the connecting rod, the loss by the increase of friction is so considerable
as to constitute a serious objection to this form of engine." After explain-
ing to what extent mathematical analysis is applicable for determining the
amount of friction, the paper proceeds to show that it may be satisfactorily
used in the present case, as it is only the friction caused by the strain, or
load, which is involved in the objection, and this is more adapted for theo-
retical than experimental determination.

The three general laws of friction, as established by the best experiments,
are,

1st. That the friction caused by one solid body rubbing upon another, is
independent of the velocity with which the rubbing surface moves.

2nd. It is also independent of the area of the rubbing surface.

3rd. It is proportional to the pressure upon this surface.'

From these it will follow, that if the pressure upon a moving body be
nndtiplied by a certain co-efficient of friction (whose value is dependent upon
the nature of the rubbing surface), the product will be the resistance from
friction; and this multiplied again into any space the rubbing surface moves
through, will give the amount of " power, work, or labouring force," ex-
pended in overcoming the friction through that space.- If the pressure upon
the moving body be variable throughout its motion, the differential calculus
must be employed, but the principle of calculation is still the same.3

The paper proceeds to deduce general mathematical expressions for the
amount of friction on each bearing of an engine, by finding, first, by ordinary
statical rules, the pressure thrown on each particular hearing by a given force
applied to the piston, and then combining this with the space through which
the rubbing surface moves. This is done for the beam engine, and for three
modifications of the direct action engine. Equations are also added for the
oscillating or vibrating engine, and for an arrangement in which the con-
necting rod is supposed to be indefinitely lengthened. The numerical values
of the expressions for friction thus found, are then calculated for an engine
upon each of these different constructions, supposing them to be similar in
all other respects, having the cylinders tiG inches in diameter, with a length
of stroke of 6 feet j and the results are shown in a table, distinguishing the
friction of every bearing. From this it appears that as respects the friction
caused by the strain, if the beam engine be taken as the standard of com-
parison—

The vibrating engine has a gain of .. l'l percent.

The direct action engine with slides loss .. 1*8 „

Ditto with rollers gain . . 0-8 „

Ditto with a parallel motion gain . . 1-3 „

This difference being so trifling, it is contended that the objection to the
direct action engine, on the ground of its alleged increased friction, has,
when investigated, no adequate foundation.

Mr. Field believed that the paper was correct in its view of the comparative
amount of friction of the two kinds of engines. He was of opinion that an
excessive allowance for friction had hitherto been generally made in calcu-
lating their effective power. It was found practically, that when the pressure
upon the piston was about 121b. per square inch, the friction did not amount
to more than 1 lb. or 1 Jib. per square inch. This was easily ascertained by
the indicator, when the engine was working without a load, but when loaded,
he knew of no accurate experimental mode of showing it. At the engines of
the Blackwall railway, the experiment had frequently been tried, by casting
oft" all the load, and so regulating the steam, that the engines should make
only the regular number of strokes per minute ; the result had invariably
shown about 1 lb. per square inch for friction.

Mr. Taylor confirmed the preceding remarks ; it had been the custom for-
merly in large pumping engines to allow one-fifth for friction, but modern
practice had shown that this was not necessary, particularly since greater
precision had been introduced into the construction of all kinds of ma-
chinery.

Mr. Miller agreed that the friction of engines generally had been over-

1 Poisson, Traite de Mecanique, 2nd edition, art. 456.

2 If »i =the co-efficient of friction, P= the pressure, and S = the space
moved through, then the power expended = tn PS.

' Let x be any space moved through : let X represent the variable pres-
sure, expressed in terms of x, then the power expended -m/X </.<-.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

171

rated ; he believed that as a simple comparison of the friction of the main
parts of two kinds of engines, the results arrived at in the paper might he
received as correct ; but there were several other questions which must he
considered, if it was intended to establish a general comparison between the
beam and the direct action engines ; this, however, he believed was not the
intention of the author.

Mr. Murray contended that the second proposition in the paper, which
assumed that' " friction was independent of the area of the rubbing surface,"
although supported by Coulomb and the early experimenters, bad been
proved^ by Vince and others to be incorrect ; it was natural to suppose that
in proportion to the hardness and smoothness of bodies, there would exist
a different ratio for the best proportion of surface to weight for every diffe-
rent body ; if a surface carrying a given weight was of less than the due area,
the surfaces would cut into each other, become rough, and thus increase the
friction ; on the other hand, if the surfaces were unduly enlarged, there must
be a loss from the additional amount of friction caused by the extended sur-
face. He conceived that the calculations in the paper must be affected by
the incorrectness of the data upon which they were based. The simple mode
of comparing the beam engine with the direct action engine appeared to be,
to suppose two engines of the same length of stroke and diameter of cylinder;
the proportions being good, it would be indifferent whether the power was
transmitted through a direct connecting rod or through side levers ; the
cylinders, air pump, arrangement of parallel motion, &c, being supposed to
be alike, the friction of these parts would be alike in all cases, and the com-
parison would be limited to the parts employed in transmitting the power
from the piston rod cross head to the crank pin ; both connecting rods have
the same number of bearings, which in both cases travel with friction over
nearly the same distances : it is allowed that the bearings of the shorter con-
necting rod have a larger amount of friction, and that from the greater angle
it assumes, more friction is thrown upon all the bearings of the parallel mo-
tion, on account of the greater force required to retain the piston in a vertical
position. To counterbalance the increased friction on these parts of the
direct acting engine, allowance must be made in the beam engine for the
friction of the beam centres and of the top and bottom necks of the side rods.
The friction being directly as the distance moved through, and the distance
in the side red ends being so very small, it follows that the amount of friction
must be very trifling. The distance travelled by the beam centres is greater,
but it is not of importance, as it is the angular distance due to the vibration
of the beam, measured on the circumference of the gudgeon. Under these
considerations Mr. Murray was disposed to give the preference (if any ex-
isted) to the side lever engine. In a pamphlet4 published in 1840, by Mr.
John Seaward, it is stated that four-fifths of the whole friction of an engine
were absorbed by the packings of the piston and air-pump bucket, by the
slide valves and by the different packings or glands ; consequently one fifth
was due to the whole of the necks or bearings throughout the engine. Now
on considering the large proportion of this amount of the friction that is due
to the hearings of the main shafts, of the crank pin, and of the bottom end
of the connecting rod, and of all those other bearings common to both sorts
of engines, it must be evident that the total amount of the friction due to
those parts in which a difference between the engines exists, must be but a
small portion of this one-fifth. Taking one-tenth or ten per cent, of the
whole power of an engine, as the amount of power required to overcome the
friction of the engine itself, which was allowed to be ample, one- fifth of this
would be two per cent., and therefore the degree in which either engine could
surpass the other in the amount of friction, could only be, as already stated,
a small portion of this two per cent. In comparing the efficiency of these
engines, it would thus appear that neither could be said to possess advan-
tages over the other, as regards friction, in such a degree as to be appreciable
in practice, or to render the point of importance in a choice between the
engines ; and that if the one kind of engine had advantages over the other,
they must arise from other causes than difference in friction. Having taken
this view of the case with a supposed side lever engine, of the same length
of stroke and diameter of cylinder as the direct action engine, if manufac-
turers varied in a slight degree from this proportion, it was for the purpose
of obtaining a better proportion of stroke and diameter of cylinder, and con-
sequently a better engine than the one supposed to exist for the purpose of
making the observations.

Mr. Vignoles looked upon the second propo'sition assumed by the author,
as being overthrown by the results of the experiments of Wood and others,
as to the ratio of friction to the area of rubbing surface ; and it was well
known practically, that the application of various unctuous substances ma-
terially altered the amount of the friction. A certain proportion was requi-
site between the area of the surface exposed to the friction and the pressure
upon it, to bring it within the general law. For practical purposes, he sub-
mitted that the law should be received with limitations.

Mr. Gravatt said, that even allowing, for the sake of argument, that the
second proposition assumed by the author was incorrect, still as the paper
was only a theoretical examination of the comparative friction of those parts
of two kinds of engines, which were most subjected to strain, supposing them
both to be of similar power and dimensions, equally well proportioned and
constructed, and the same sort of lubrication of the bearings employed, he

4 " Description of the engines on board the Gorgon and Cyclops steam
frigates, with remarks on the comparative advantages of long and short
connecting rods, and long and short stroke engines." By J. Seaward. Lon-
don, 1840.

would contend that the circumstances being equal, equal results would he
obtained, and that the conclusions arrived at by the author should be re-
ceived as correct.

Mr. Pole observed, that the objections brought forward were important, as
they referred principally to the fundamental laws of friction. He would first
give some explanation respecting the communication itself. The investi-
gation was commenced at the request of his late friend Mr. Samuel Seaward ;
it was originally intended to have especial reference to the Gorgon engine,
but had subsequently been extended to others. The paper, necessarily con-
taining much mathematical reasoning, could only be read in abstract, and
might, therefore, have been partially misunderstood, both as to its objects
and results. The object was, not to enter into a discussion of the whole
question of the respective merits or defects of beam and direct action engines,
but simply to ascertain the value of the one objection named.

The whole friction of an engine at work with its load upon it, might be
divided into two distinct parts. 1st. The friction due to the engine itself, or
such as would be produced by the working of the engine, if unloaded.
2nd. The additional friction caused by the strain consequent upon the load ;
for it must be evident that when the engine had its work upon it, the friction
upon the bearings through which the strain passed, must be increased, and
additional friction produced, beyond that which would exist when the engine
was working without a load. The latter of these alone required to be cal-
culated, and to this mathematical analysis was more peculiarly adapted. The
friction of the engine unloaded, might he ascertained by the indicator, as
described by Mr. Field; but as he had remarked, there was no practical
method of finding what was the additional friction when the load was applied ;
indeed, it would be as difficult to find the latter by experiment as the former
by theory.

He then explained the manner in which the amount of friction upon each
bearing had been calculated, and engines of different constructions compared
with each other. He had adopted precisely the plan suggested by Mr. Mur-
ray, namely, by taking engines of the same length of stroke and diameter of
cylinder, supposing them to be equally well proportioned and constructed,
and in equally good condition. But instead of assuming, as Mr. Murray bad
done, that there was somewhat more or less friction on any particular bearing,
his object had been to ascertain what was its actual value. If it were im-
possible to measure the pressures and spaces moved through, an approxi-
mation might be received ; but since these quantities were ascertainable, it
was more satisfactory to obtain results deduced from them. The conclusions
drawn from the paper accorded, however, with Mr. Murray's, viz. that
" neither construction could be said to possess advantages over the other, in
such a degree as to be appreciable in practice, so as to render the point of
importance in a choice between them." The difference between Mr. Mur-
ray's process and that in the paper, was, that what the former only assumed,
the latter endeavoured to prove.

Mr. John Seaward's pamphlet on the Gorgon engine had been referred to.
The conclusions he there drew were more favourable to the direct action
engine, but were derived, like Mr. Murray's, merely from approximate con-
sideration, rather than from strict investigation. Mr. Seaward confessed,
that the friction caused by the strain was difficult to be calculated, and had
therefore contented himself with assuming, that those gudgeons through
which the strain passed, had three times as much friction as was due to the
others. He also assumed that the friction was proportional to the area of
the rubbing surface, a principle which no experiments had ever shown. On
these grounds, it was contended that Mr. Seaward's results were open to
objection.

Mr. Pole then proceeded to notice the objections urged against the funda-
mental laws of friction which be had stated, and to give authorities for them.
The first of these had not been questioned since the days of Vince, by whom
it was proved ; it might therefore be considered as established. "With regard
to the second aud third, it must be noticed that they depended, in some
measure, upon each other, for it could be proved that if the third was true,
the second must be true also. The principal experiments which had been
made upon the friction of solids, were those by Amontons, in 1699 ; Cou-
lomb, in 1779; Vince, in 1784; Wood, in 1818; Rennie, in 1828; and
Morin, in 1831, 32, and 33. Amontons was the first who devoted any con-
siderable attention to the subject, and be found that friction was not aug-
mented by an increase of surface, but only by an increase of pressure. ' Cou-
lomb's researches were more elaborate, the experiments were on a large scale,
and were submitted to a great variety of trials ; they fully proved that the
friction was proportional to the pressure, and that the extent of surface did
not affect it." These results were further confirmed by the experiments of
De la Hire, Ximenes, Boistard, Rondelet, and others. Mr. George Rennie's
experiments were very valuable, as having been conducted on a large scale,
and with much care ; they were also of a comparatively recent date. The
results were conclusive on the point in question, for he found that when the
surfaces were to each other as C-22 : 1, the friction remained the same,7 and
one of the general conclusions be deduced was, " that the amount of friction
was as the pressure directly, without regard to surface, time, or velo
The last and most extensive series of experiments were those by M. Morin ;
they were conducted at Metz, by order of the French government, and ex-

s Vide Phil. Trans., 182'). [,. 145.

» Mem. des Savans Strangers, 1781. Vide also Ency. Brit. New Edit.,
Art. Mechanics.
i Phil. Trans. 1829, p. lot). " Ibid. p. 170.

23

172

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

tended over a period of three years (1831, 1832, and 1833), no expense or
trouble having been spared to render them conclusive and satisfactory. ,J The
results were given by Professor Moseley, in his new work on the mechanical
principles of engineering. , „ They proved that "the friction of any two sur-
faces was directly proportioned to the force with which they were pressed
perpendicularly together,," and that " the amount of friction was, in even-
case, wholly independent of the extent of the surfaces of contact."1 ' The
before mentioned experiments all agreed, that the friction was proportional
to the pressure, and was independent of the extent of surface. In opposition,
however, to these, stood the experiments of Professor Vince, of Cambridge,12
which led him to the conclusion that the friction increased in a less ratio
than the pressure, and that it was not altogether independent of the area of
surface. These experiments were probably conducted with care and accu-
racy j but it was also probable that equal precision had been used in those
which proved the contrary ; and if this was allowed, the majority of coincid-
ing experiments might, as in all other cases, be safely received in preference
to one dissentient. But if the particulars of Professor Vince's experiments
were examined, many circumstances appeared which would render them less
worthy of regard than others. It was not shown that he experimented upon
metals, but that he used pieces of wood, either hare or covered with paper,
and the experiments were on a small scale, the moving bodies being at the
utmost a few ounces weight ; while Coulomb, Renuie, and Morin, had ex-
tended their trials to all kinds of materials, and had used considerable
weights. Professor Vince himself, although satisfied with the method of
conducting his experiments, did not seem equally so with their results, as
regarded the influence of surface and pressure, for he had remarked, " that
no general rule could be established to determine it, even for the same
hody."

Quotations were then given from Gregory, Brewster, and others, corrobo-
rating this view of the inconclusive and unsatisfactory nature of Vince's ex-
periments. The law of the influence of pressure and surface upon friction,
was occasionally modified by accidental circumstance:,, two of which might
be noticed, as they had been expressly treated of by Rennie and Morin.

1. It was only applicable within the limit of pressure which would not
injure and abrade the surfaces ; for when heating and undue attrition com-
menced, it was natural that the law would not hold good. Well-constructed
machinery, however, was never supposed to pass this limit, and therefore this
cause of irregularity might be rejected in calculation.

2. Another modification was produced by the application of unguents; this
was treated of by Mr. Wood,11 whose experiments showed that when un-
guents were introduced, there was a certain area of bearing surface, propor-
tioned to the weight, which was peculiarly favourable as regarded the loss by
friction, but that when this area was preserved, the friction was in strict ratio
to the pressure.

It could not, however, have been Mr. Wood's intention, from these results,
to impugn the applicability of the established general laws to the purposes of
calculation, hut only to show the existence of modilying circumstances under
certain conditions; for the formula he had given14 assumed the friction to
be as the weight, and had no element in it expressing the area.

Mr. Rennie and M. Morin had also examined the influence of the an-
guento, and had found that their introduction did not materially alter the
general laws of friction, but only affected the value of the co-efficient or
multiplier to be used in ascertaining its numerical amount.

Having thus brought before the meeting the result of the principal experi-
ments on friction, Mr. Pole concluded by adducing the testimony of writers
on mechanics, who guided by these results, had promulgated the laws deduced
from them. He gave quotations from the following authors in corroboration
of his \iews, viz. — Emerson,1"' Playfair, 10 Trcdgold,1 ? Barlow,1 8 Larduer.11'
Farey,20 De Pambour,21 Poisson.--' Pratt,8' Whewell,9* And Mosi
With the last mentioned author Mr. Pole bad taken an opportunity of con-
versing upon the points in question, and the principles adopted in the paper
had received the Professor's full approbation as corresponding with those
made use of in his own treatises.

Mr. Vignoles thought that great praise was due to Mr. Pole, for the re-
search and mathematical reading exhibited in treating the questicn of com-
parative friction. In the former remarks he had made, it was not his inten-
tion to impugn the accuracy of the abstract proposition, " that friction was
independent of tlie area of bearing surface," any further than to qualify it in
its practical application, with the proviso, " that proper proportions were
maintained between the area and the pressure, according to the description
of mechanism, subjected to friction." He therefore desired to consider the

" Mem. de l'lnstitut., 1833. 1834, and 1838.

10 The Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture. By the
Rev. H. Museley. M.A. 8yo. Longman and Co. 1843.

' ' Ibid. pp. 138. 139. ' -' Phil. Trans., 1785. p. 16.1.

1 ■■ Treatise on ELailn ads. 3rd Edit. p. 396. et seq. ' " Ibid., p. 355.

' ■■ Mechanics, 1760. Prop. 62. 10 Outlines of Nat. Phil.. 1834. Art. 159.
17 Treatise on Railroads. 1825, p. 46. 1B Math. Diet.. Ait Friction.

19 Library of Useful Knowledge, Mechanics, 3rd Treatise, Art. 7.

20 Treatise on the Steam Engine. 1 1-27. p. 60.

-' Treatise on Locomotive Engines, ISiO, chap. viii.
"Trailede Mecanique, 183:;. Art. 156.
23 Mechanical Philosophy, 1836, Art. 118.
2* The Mechanics of Engineering, 1841, Art 101.

25 Mechanical Principles of Engineering, 1S43, Art. 133, and Part 3rd,
passim.

question, as to how far iu practice one kind of engiae varied from the other
in the general amount of friction, and to examine how far the areas of the
bearing surfaces, were in proportion to the insistent weight, caused either by
the strain of any angle or by the direct weight on any of the journals of the
moving parts ; this inquiry should precede the abstract mathematical inves-
tigation. The friction of different substances would not follow the mathe-
matical rule, unless the due proportion between area and pressure was ascer-
tained and observed ; these proportions would be very different in heavy ma-
chinery, such as marine steam-engines, and the axles of railway carriages.
With these qualifications he aereed with the general propositions laid down
by Mr. Pole.

Mr. Murray agreed with Professor Vignoles in thinking that the extent of
surface in machines materially affected iu practice the amount of the friction.
He did not mean to advocate the correctness of Professor Vince's experi-
ments, but he would draw attention to the results quoted by Dr. Gregory,26
in which the difference of Vince's experiments and those of other writers on
the subject, was attributed to their not taking into account the cohesion of
the bodies experimented upon. Their experiments were made with inclined
planes, which were raised until the bodies began to move, and the amount
of friction was then deduced from the angle of inclination that had been
given to the plane : from this mode it was contended that no definite laws
could be laid down. Mr. Murray acknowledged that on dry surfaces,
within certain limits, the amount of friction was not influenced by the extent
of surface ; but he contended that in practice, as different kinds of unguents
were used, the cohesion arising from the impurity and clamminess of these
lubricating substances, must be considered and allowed for.

Major-General Pasley said that when he was quartered at Malta, he tried
some experiments on friction, by having a slab of .Maltese stone, which re-
sembled the oolite of Bath, rubbed smooth and placed horizontally ; other
pieces of smooth-faced stone of the same quality, but of different areas, were
then attached to a cord which was weighted and passed over a pulley ; the
weights which were just sufficient to give motion to the several pieces of
stone, were then noted, and it was found that the area of the surface was
not important, the friction being directly in proportion to the insistent weight
of the stone. He could therefore corroborate Mr. Pole's propositions.

Mr. Farey considered that Mr. Pole had treated the subject of friction so
well, and bad selected his authorities in such a manner as to establish his
position incontroverted) ; be would therefore only remark, that iu collating
the friction experiments for his work from Dr. Gregory and others, he had
in a measure rejected those of Vince, as being on too small a scale, and not
of sufficient importance to rely upon as authority. It must be admitted, that
viewing the question practically, there were circumstances which would in-
fluence the proposition. If the surface of a journal was so small as to drive
out the unguent, or to cut into the lower bearing, the friction would be
unduly increased, and the theoretical position would no longer hold good.
The use of unguents would not interfere with the general proposition,
although in practice, any substance used for lubrication, which, when cold,
solidified and became adhesive, might, for a time, produce an increase of
friction ; this of course would be avoided, but it would not bear upon the
general question.

Mr. Rennie corroborated the position assumed by Mr. Pole, "that friction
wa- independent of the extent of the rubbing surface;" his experiments,
which had been tried on a large scale, and with various substances, gave uni-
formly this result, within the limits of abrasion ; when that commenced, the
bearings heated and there was an end of the theoretical position. The
texture also, of the rubbing surfaces altered the condition ; for instance, any
light body covered with cloth opposed a considerable resistance by the friction
of the raised nap ; but if the body was weighted, it again came within the
limits of the law. became it more nearly resembled hard substances, which
alone were considered in theory. Hard and soft woods varied, of course, in
the same manner. The friction upon each other of metals of different degree
of hardness, caused in practice, some little variation, but it was so slight,
that the rule quoted, might be safely received as correct.

Mr. Davison stated that he some time ago made several practical experi.
ments with an Indicator, constructed by Messrs. Maudslavs and Field, for the
purpose of ascertaining the power required to drive various kinds of ma-
chinery, in Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, Buxton, and ( o's Brewery.

1st. lie found, that an engine which indicated 50 horses power when fully
loaded, showed, after the load and the whole of the machinery were thrown
off, 5 horses, or one-tenth of the whole power.

2nd. 190 feet of horizontal, and 180 feet of upright shafting, with 34
bearings, whose superficial area was 3300 square inches, together with 1 1
pair of spur and bevel wheels, varying from 2 feet to 9 feet in diameter,
required a power equal to 765 horses.

3rd. A set of three-throw pumps, C inches in diameter, pumping 120 bar-
rels per hour, to a height of 165 feet, = 4'7 horses.

By the usual mode of calculation, (viz., 33,000 lbs. lifted one foot high
per minute,) it would appear that there was, in this case, friction to the extent
of 13 per cent.

4th. A similar set of three-throw pumps, 0 inches in diameter, pumping
160 barrels per hour, to a height of 140 feet, = 6 2 horses.

By the same mode of calculation as before, there was here, friction to the
amount of 15 per cent.

• Gregory's Mechanics, vol. li. p. 25.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

173

5th. A set of three-throw pumps, 5 inches in diameter, raising 80 barrels
per hour, to a height of 54 feet, = l horse.

By calculation, as before, the friction amounted to 12 J per cent.

6th. A set of three-throw " starting" pumps, pumping 230 barrels of beer
per hour, to a height of 48 feet, = 4-87 horses.

By calculation as before, the friction amounted to 15.V per cent.

7th. Two pair of iron rollers and an elevator, grinding and raising 40
quarters of malt per hour, =8-5 horses.

8th. An ale-mashing machine, made by " Haigh," of Dublin ; mashing at
the time, 100 quarters of malt, = 5-68 horses.

9th. Two porter-mashing machines, made by " Moreland," mashing at
the time, 250 quarters of malt, = 10-8 horses.

10th. 95 feet of horizontal "Archimedes screw," 15 inches diameter, and
an elevator, conveying 40 quarters of malt per hour, to a height of 65 feet,
= 3"13 horses.

Mr. Davison promised to continue these experiments, and to communicate
the results to the Institution.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
March 7. — J. Shaw, Esq., in the Chair.

A paper " On the contemplated Restoration of the beautiful Chapter House
at Salisbury Cathedral," was read, by Mr. T. H. Wyatt, Architect to the
Salisbury Diocesan Church Building Association, which is printed in full in
the present number.

Mr. Ferrey read a paper " On an old staircase at Tamworth Church
which has fallen into decay." It is a sort of double corkscrew stair, winding
in such a manner over each other, that two persons may go up and down
without meeting, although both are circulating in the same well-hole. Mr.
Ferrey offered some remarks as to its probable purpose. It is said to be a
solitary instance of this exact kind of stair in England, but we remember to
have seen one at Cologne.

April 3. — His Royal Highness Prince Albert, the Patron of the Institute,
presided at a general meeting of the members, and presented the medals
awarded during the session, for essays and drawings. His Royal Highness
arrived punctually at the time appointed, attended by Colonel Bouverie ; he
was received by the Vice-Presidents, and the Honorary Secretaries, and con-
ducted to the Library, where the other members of the Council being as-
sembled, were severally presented. The Prince then presided at a Council,
at which some ordinary routine business was transacted ; and, subsequently,
having inspected the various antiquities, casts and models in the collection,
proceeded to the large room, where his Royal Highness took the chair, and
the business of the day was commenced. The minutes having been read, and
some donations announced, Mr. Donaldson, Foreign Secretary, read letters
from Italian and French correspondents, at Milan, Coblentz, and Paris.

Mr. Fowler, Honorary Secretary, read Bacon's Description of a Princely
Palace ; and Mr. A. Johnson was presented to the Prince as the author of
the best design founded on that description, and received the Soane medal.
In like manner his Royal Highness presented to Mr. E. Chamberlain, of Lei-
cester, the medal of the Institute, for his essay on the subject proposed,
•" Are Synchronism and Uniformity of Style essential to beauty and propriety
in Architecture ;" and to Mr. J.W. Papworth, the medal of merit, for an
essay on the same subject.

Mr. Bailey announced the subjects for essays and drawings, for which the
Council propose to offer the medals for the ensuing year, and then read a
communication from Mr. C. Parker, " On the modes usually adopted in
forming Foundations in the city of Venice,' the soil of which city is of a
nature to require the greatest care, and yet where failure is seldom if ever
seen.

At the conclusion of the proceedings Mr. Barry addressed the Prince in
the name of the Institute, and expressed, in a few words, the grateful sense
entertained by the members, of the honour conferred on the body by the
gracious manner in which his Royal Highness had acceded to their wishes in
presiding on the occasion : to which his Royal Highness very graciously
replied, that he had felt much pleasure in taking part in the proceedings of
the day.

THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

The Commisioners on the fine arts, of which Prince Albert is the head,
having called upon Mr. Barry, as architect, to furnish them with a report as
to his views relating to the " internal decorations, additions to building, and
local improvements," that gentleman transmitted his report to his Royal
Highness and the Commission last month. Judging the subject as likely to
inteiest ouS readers, especially as many of the suggestions offered by Mr.
Barry will nndoubtedly be carried out, we place the following particulars of
the proposed decorations, &c. before our readers, for which we are indebted
to the Mommy Herald.

" As presiding over her Majesty's commissioners for encouraging the fine
arts in connection with the rebuilding of the new Houses of Parliament, I

venture to address your Royal Highness, and, in compliance with the instruc-
tions of the commission, to offer the following suggestions relative to the
internal finishings and decorations of the new Houses of Parliament, the
completion of the exterior and local improvements, which are, in my opinion,
necessary to give full effect to the new building ; and by way of illustration
of the remarks I have to make on these subjects, I beg to transmit the ac-
companying plan of the principal floor of the new building, a general plan of
part of Westminster, in which the new building is shown in connection
with various improvements proposed to be made in its locality, and two
drawings relating to Westminster-bridge.

THE DECORATIONS.

" With reference to the interior of the new Houses of Parliament generally,
I would suggest that the walls of the several halls, galleries, and corridors of
approach, as well as the various public apartments throughout the building,
should be decorated with paintings having reference to events in the history
of the country ; and that those paintings should be placed in compartments
formed by such a suitable arrangement of the architectural designs of the
interior as will best promote their effective union with the arts of sculpture
and architecture. With this view, I should consider it to be of the utmost
importance that the paintings should be wholly free from gloss on the
surface, that they may be perfectly seen and fully understood from all points
of view. That all other portions of the plain surfaces of the walls should he
covered with suitable architectonic decoration, or diapered enrichment in
colour, occasionally enlivened with gold, and blended with armorial bearings,
badges, cognisances, and other heraldic insignia, emblazoned in their proper
colours. That such of the halls as are groined should have their vaults
decorated in a similar manner, with the addition occasionally of subjects or
works of art so interwoven with the diapered ground as not to disturb the
harmony or the effect of the architectural composition. That such of the
ceilings as are flat should be formed into compartments by moulded ribs,
enriched with carved heraldic and Tudor decorations. That those ceilings
should be relieved by positive colour and gilding, and occasionally by gold
grounds with diaper enrichments, legends, and heraldic devices in colour.
That the screens, pillars, corbels, niches, dressings of the windows, and
other architectural decorations, should be painted to harmonise with the
paintings and diapered decorations of the walls generally, and be occasionally
relieved with positive colour and gilding. That the door-jambs and fire-
places should be constructed of British marbles of suitable quality and
colour, highly polished, and occasionally relieved by colour and gilding in
their mouldings and sculptural enrichments.

" That the floors of the several halls, galleries, and corridors should be
formed of encaustic tiles, bearing heraldic decorations and other enrichments
in colours, laid in margins and compartments, in combination with polished
British marbles ; and that the same description of marbles should also be
employed for the steps of the several staircases.

" That the walls, to the height of from eight to ten feet, should be lined
with oak framing, containing shields with armorial bearings emblazoned :n
their proper colours, and an oak seat should in all cases be placed against
such framing. That the windows of the several halls, galleries, and
corridors should be glazed doubly, for the purpose of tempering the light and
preventing the direct rays of the sun from interfering with the effect of the
internal decorations generally. For this purpose the outer glazing is pro-
posed to be of ground glass, in single plates, and the inner glazing or" an or-
namental design in metal, rilled with stained glass, hearing arms and other
heraldic insignia in their proper colours ; but so arranged as that the ground,
which I should recommend to be of a warm yellowish tint, covered with a
running foliage or diaper, and occasionally relieved by legends in black letter,
should predominate, in order that so much light only may be excluded as
may be thought desirable to do away with either a garish or cold effect upon
the paintings and decorations generally. Practically, I consider that the
double glazing will be of essential service in carrying out the system of
warming and ventilating proposed to be adopted in the building generally ;
which system renders it unnecessary that the windows in those portions of
the building above referred to should be made to open, so that all prejudicial
effects upon the paintings and other decorations, which might be caused by
the dampness and impurity of the atmosphere, and much practical inconve-
nience, and probably unsightliness in the means that would be necessary to
adopt for opening and shutting casemeuts would lie avoided.

" That, in order to promote the art of sculpture, and its effective union
with painting and architecture, I would propose that in the halls, galleries,
and corridors, statues might be employed for the purpose of dividing the
paintings on the walls. By this arrangement a rich eftect of perspective,
and a due subordination of the several arts to each other would be obtained.
The statues suggested should, in my opinion, be of marble, of the colour of
polished alabaster, and be raised upon lofty and suitable pedestals, placed
close to the wall, in niches, surmounted by enriched canopies; but the
niches should be shallow, so that the statues may be as well seen later.
in front. . , . , . . , .

" The architectural decorations of these niches might be painted ot such
colours as will give the best effect to the adjoining paintings, being relieved
in parts by positive colour and gilding ; and the backs of them might be
painted in dark colours, such as chocolate, crimson, or blue, or they might
be of gold, for the purpose of giving effect to the statues.

" Having thus described the views I entertain as to the character of the

23*

174

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

decorations of the interior generally, I now proceed to notice in detail the
special decorations and arrangements which I would propose for the several
halls, galleries, and principal apartments.

WESTMINSTER HALL.

" I would propose that Westminster Hall, which is 239 feet long, 68 feet
wide, and 90 feet high, should be made the depository, as in former times,
for all trophies ohtained in wars with foreign nations. These trophies might
be so arranged above the paintings on the walls and in the roof as to have a
very striking and interesting effect.

•' I would further suggest that pedestals, 20 in number, answering to the
position of the principal ribs of the roof, should be placed so as to form a
central avenue, 30 feet wide, from the north entrance door to St. Stephen's
porch, for statues of the most celebrated British statesmen, whose public
services have been commemorated by monuments erected at the public ex-
pense, as well as for present and future statesmen whose services may be
considered by Parliament to merit a similar tribute to their memories.

" The statues (26 in number) which have already been proposed to be
placed against the walls, between the pictures, I would suggest should he
those of naval and military commanders.

" The subjects of the paintings on the walls, 28 in number, 16 feet in
length and 10 feet in height, might relate to the most splendid warlike
achievements of English history, both by sea and by laud, which, as well as
the statues that are proposed to divide them, might be arranged chronolo-
gically.

" To give due effect to those suggested decorations, it is proposed that the
light should be considerably increased by an enlargement of the dormer
windows in the roof, by which also that extraordinary and beautiful piece of
decorative carpentry of the 14th century may be seen to much greater ad-
vantage than has ever yet been the case.

" This noble hall, certainly the most splendid in its style in the world,
thus decorated by the union of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and
aided by the arts of decoration as .suggested, it is presumed would present a
most striking appearance, and be an object of great national interest.

st. Stephen's hall.
" I would suggest that this hall, which will he 90 feet long, 30 feet wide
and 50 feet high, and have a stone-groined ceiling, should be appropriated
to the reception of paintings, commemorative of great domestic events in
British history, and statues of celebrated statesmen in past, present, and fu-
ture times. The paintings may be 10 in number, 15 feet long and 10 feet
high, and 12 statues would be required as a frame to them. In the upper
part of the hall, 30 niches will be provided for statues of eminent men of
the naval, military, and civil services of the country.

the central ii.m i .
" This hall will be an octagon of 60 feet in diameter, and 50 feet high,
covered with a groined ceiling in stone. As each side will be wholly occu-
pied with windows, and arched openings of access, paintings cannot form
any part of its decoration. It may, however, with good effect, be exten-
sively decorated witli sculpture. In the centre of the pavement might be
placed a statue of her present Most Gracious Majesty, upon a rich pedestal
of British marble, highly polished, and relieved in parts by gold and colour.
The niches in the walls and screens might be filled with statues of her Ma-
jesty's ancestor.^, in chronological order, even up to the period of the Hep-
tarchy. In front of the eight clustered pillars in the angles of the hall,
might be placed, with good effect, sedent statues of some of the great law-
givers of antiquity.

THE VICTORIA GALLERY.
" This gallery will be 130 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 50 feet high, with
a flat ceiling, and will admit of both paintings and sculpture. The subjects
of the paintings on the walls, 16 in number, which may he 12 feet long and
10 feet high, might relate to some of the most remarkable royal pageants of
British history or other appropriate subjects. Statues of her present Most
Gracious Majesty might till the central niches at the ends of the hall, and
the other niches, as well as the pedestals between the paintings, might be
occupied by statues of her Majesty's ancestors. These statues might, with
good effect, be of bronze, either partially or wholly gilt.

(ORRIDORS OF ACCESS THROUGHOUT THE BUILDING.

" The principal corridors of access to the various apartments of the build-
ing will be 12 feet wide, their ceilings will be flat, and they will be generally
lighted from windows near the ceiling. The walls may be decorated with
portraits as well as paintings, illustrative of some of the most remarkable
events in the history of the country, or in the lives of its most eminent per-
sonages. For this purpose about 2.600 feet in length of wall, by a height
of about seven feet, may be appropriated on the principal floor : 900 feet in
length, by a height of about seven feet on the one-pair floor; and about 400
feet, by the same height, on the two-pair floor. These paintings may be
divided into subjects at pleasure, by margins or borders of architectonic
decoration in accordance with the style of the building.

THE HOUSE OF LORDS.

" This house will be 93 feet long. 45 feet wide, and 50 feet high, will have

a flat ceiling in panels. As the fittings for the accommodation required for
the business of the house, together with the windows, which are necessary
for duly lighting it, leave little space of plain wall, paintings cannot, with
good effect, form any part of its decoration. Niches, however, will be pro-
vided, which might be filled with statues of royal personages. The archi-
tectural details of the ceiling may be enriched and relieved with gold and
colour, and the windows filled with stained glass as before described. The
whole of the fittings are proposed to be of oak, with appropriate carvings.
The throne will be highly enriched and relieved by colour and gilding, and
the back lined with cloth of gold, containing the royal arms emblazoned in
colours.

THE HOUSE OK COMMONS.

" This house will be 83 feet long, 46 feet wide, and 50 feet high, and will
have a flat ceiling. It is proposed to be finished in the same style as the
House of Lords, but with less enrichment, and less of colour and gold in its
decorations. The nature of its designs, and the extent of its fittings for the
accommodations required, will not admit of either painting or sculpture.

THE aVEEN's ROBING-ROOM.

" This room will he 38 feet long, 35 feet wide, and 20 feet high, and have
a flat ceiling in panels, richly moulded and carved, and relieved with gold
and colour. The ground of the panels of the ceiling is proposed to be of
gold, covered with a diaper enrichment, and blended with legends, genea-
logical devices, badges, cognisances, and other heraldic insignia, and in
colour.

"The wall-fittings of the room are proposed to be of oak, richly carved
and moulded, and enriched with heraldic and other decorations in positive
colour, relieved with gold. Compartments will be formed in the wall-fram-
ing, which might be filled with paintings referring to events in British
history in which the Sovereign has personally taken a conspicuous part, or
with other appropriate subjects.

THE ANTI-ROOM. OR GUARD-ROOM.

" This room which adjoins the Queen's robing-room, will be 38 feet by 38
feet, and 20 feet high. The ceiling will be of oak, with characteristic deco-
rations. Oak framing, eight feet high, with heraldic decorations, and a seat
at the foot of it, will line the room. The walls are proposed to be covered
with representations of battle-scenes, and pageauts of English history, in
which an opportunity would be afforded of displaying the warlike costumes
of its several periods.

THE CONFERENCE HALL.

" This hall, which is in the centre of the front towards the ri\er. will be 54
feet long, 28 feet wide, and 20 feet high, and will have a flat ceiling. The
walls are proposed to be lined with oak framing to the height of about 6
feet, above which they might be covered with paintings representing cele-
brated state trials, anil extraordinary sittings of Parliament, conferences, eic.

AS TO THE APARTMENTS APPROPRIATED TO THE PRIVATE AND PUBLIC
OSES OF EACH HOUSE.

" These rooms consist of libraries, refreshment rooms, robing rooms, state
officers' rooms, and committee rooms.

•' Niue rooms are appropriated to libraries, six of which are fifty feet long,
and 2S feet wide ; two are 33 feet long, and 28 feet wide ; and one is 32 feet
long, and 23 feet wide. The refreshment rooms are four in number, of which
one is 60 feet long and 18 feet wide ; two are 28 feet long and 18 feet wide ;
and one is 34 feet long and 18 feet wide. The robing rooms for the arch-
bishops and bishops are three in number, of the respective sizes of 30 feet by
20 feet, 20 feet square and 16 feet square. The robing and other rooms
for state otiiccrs are seventeen in number, averaging in size about 24 feet by
IB feet. The committee rooms are thirty-five in number. On the principal
floor, five of them will be 37 feet long by 28 feet wide; two 35 feet by 20
feet ; and one 32 feet by 23 feet. On the one-pair floor, two will be 42 feet
long and 33 feet wide; one 54 feet by 28 feet ; four 36 feet by 28 feet ; ten
34 feet by 28 feet ; and two 34 feet by 22 feet ; and on the two-pair floor
the number will be eight, averaging in size 28 feet by 20 feet. The whole
of these rooms are about 20 feet in height, with the exception of those on
the two-pair floor, which will be about 11 feet high, and will be lighted by
windows of the usual height from the floor.

" The ceilings will be flat and formed into panels by moulded and
carved ribs, relieved by characteristic and suitable carvings.

" The floors are to be of oak, with borders and inlays.

" The fire places and door jambs are proposed to be of British marbles,
highly polished. The doors, frontispieces, linings of walls, and fittings, will
also be of oak. In some of the rooms it is proposed that the wall framing
should be carried to the height of six or eight feet, in others that it should
be of the full height of the room, and with panels for paintings, portraits,
&c.

" The plain surfaces of the walls might be covered with paintings of his-
torical events, and the panels in the wainscoting might contain portraits of
celebrated personages in British history.

•' The architectural details, both in'stone and plaster, might be painted
in positive colours, occasionally relieved with gilding ; and the armorial
bearings, badges, and other heraldic insignia which will enrich the wood-
framing, might also be relieved with gold and colour.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

175

THE SPEAKERS RESIDENCE.

" This residence, being designed for state purposes, might also be adorned
with paintings. The style of its finishings, fittings and decorations will be
in accordance with the best examples of the Tudor period.

"Its principal rooms for the purposes of state are as follows: — A
reception-room, 34 feet by 23 feet ; a library, 34 feet by 23 feet ; a dining-
room. 45 feet by 2 1 feet ; a drawing-room, 38 feet by 22 feet ; and a corri-
dor of communication, 8 feet wide, surrounding an internal court.

"With respect to any further encouragement of the fine arts in the
exterior of the building, I am not aware of any opportunities that offer, as
arrangements have already been made for all the architectonic or conventional
sculpture that will be required to adorn the several elevations. Equestrian
statues of sovereigns in bronze might, however, be placed with considerable
effect in the proposed quadrangle of New Palace-yard, the Speaker's quad-
rangle, and the royal court.

" I have now described, in general terms the whole of those portions of
the building that might, I think, with propriety and effect be adorned with
works of art, and the arts of decoration ; but in making the several sugges-
tions which have occurred to me, I should wish it to be understood that I
have merely stated my own views on the subject, as far as I have hitherto
been able to consider it in its general bearings, and with a view to show how
the objects for which the commission has been established may, if desired, be
carried out in the decorations of the new building to their greatest extent. I
should not however, wish to be strictly confined in all cases to the adoption
of even my own suggestions, as upon a more mature consideration of the
subject iu detail hereafter, when the shell of the building is completed, I may
be induced to vary and modify some of the views which I entertain at pre-
sent, and which, I fear, I have but imperfectly communicated in this paper.

A3 TO THE COMPLETION OF THE EXTERIOR.

" It has ever been considered by me a great defect in my design for the
new Houses of Parliament that it does not comprise a front of sufficient
length towards the Abbey, particularly as the building will be better and
more generally seen on that side than any other. This was impossible,
owing to the broken outline of the site with which I had to deal. I propose,
therefore, that an addition should be made to the building for the purpose of
enclosing new Palace- yard, and thus of obtaining the desired front. This
addition would be in accordance with the plan of the ancient palace of West-
minster, in which the hall was formerly placed in a quadrangle, where, in
consequence of its low level, it must have been seen and approached, as it
would be, under such circumstances, to the best advantage. The proposed
addition would, in my opinion, be of considerable importance as regards the
increased accommodation and convenience that it would afford in addition to
what is already provided for in the new building as hitherto proposed.

" It has long been a subject of serious complaint and reproach that the
present law courts are most inconveniently restricted in their arrangements
and accommodation. If it should be determined to retain the courts at
Westminster, the proposed addition would admit of the means of removing
this cause of complaint; it would also afford accommodation for places of
refreshment for the public, for which no provision has been made in the new
building, also for royal commissions and other occasional purposes required
by Government, and now hired most inconveniently, in various parts of the
town, at a considerable amount of rental : or for such of the Government
offices as may, without inconvenience, be detached from the rest, such as, for
instance, the office of woods, or for a record office, and chambers or residences
for public officers. It will also afford the opportunity of making an impos-
ing principal entrance to the entire edifice at the angle of Bridge-street and
St. Margaret-street — a feature which is at present required, and which would
add considerably, not only to the effect of the building, but also to its
security in times of public commotion.

"Of the several local improvements suggested, none, in ray opinion, is of
greater or more pressing importance than that which I have to suggest in
respect to Westminster-bridge. The anomaly of the size, outline, and cha-
racter of that bridge, considered, as it ever must be from its proximity, as an
adjunct to the new Houses of Parliament, must have forcibly struck every
one who has passed over or under it since the new building has risen into
importance ; and the steep and dangerous declivities of the roadway, as well
as its want of width for the traffic that passes over it, have constantly been a
subject of public complaint.

" In order, therefore, to remove these serious objections, I propose that the
superstructure of the bridge should be rebuilt upon the old foundations,
which are now in course of being repaired and extended under the able
superintendence of Messrs. Walker and Burgess. As it is, in my opinion, of
the utmost importance, both as regards the effect of the new Houses of
Parliament when viewed from the bridge, and the convenience of the public
in passing over it, that the roadway should be made on the lowest possible
level, I would recommend that the form of the arches of the new bridge
should be pointed, by which great facility would be afforded for the accom-
plishing that very important object, namely, by materially reducing the
thickness of the crown of the arches within what is considered necessary for
arches of the circular form. I am induced also to recommend this form of
arch on account of another very important practical advantage which it
offers, namely, the elevation of its springing above the level of high water,
by which the water-way through the bridge will be the same at all times of
tide ; whereas at present the spandrels of the arches offer an impediment to

the water-way at high water nearly equal to I-20th of its sectional area,
occasioning rapid currents, with a considerable fall, and sometimes much
danger to craft in passing through the bridge, under the influence of high
winds. I consider it also of the greatest importance in an artistic point of
view, not only that the bridge should be materially lowered, but that it
should be made to accord with the new Houses of Parliament, in order that
both in composition as well as style the ensemble should be harmonious and
effective. Upon a rough estimate which I have formed of the cost of the new
superstructure, I am satisfied it could be erected for about £120,000 beyond
the cost it will be necessary to incur to carry out Messrs. Walker and
Burgess's design for widening the present bridge to the extent proposed."

Mr. Barry, in continuation observes, it is clearly to be understood he has
no desire to interfere with the employment of the engineers who are now
engaged in the repair and extension of the foundations, whom he stronglv
recommends should be left to complete it. He expresses a hope that the
commissioners, if they should think fit, will at their earliest convenience
make a formal and urgent communication to the Government in accordance
with the above views he has laid before them, as an early decision would be
of great importance, in order that the works in hand may not be proceeded
with farther than is necessary to carry out those views if they should be
ultimately adopted.

The embankment on both sides of the river, from Vauxhall-brid"e to
London-bridge, he considers next in importance to the rebuilding of the
superstructure of Westminster-bridge. He says : —

" As there would, doubtless, be serious objections to a public road upon
the embankment on the north side of the river, I confine my observations to
the southern side, where, if a road could be obtained, it would afford a suc-
cession of fine views of London, and the best situation for views of the
principal front of the new houses of Parliament. Having maturely considered
the subject, I think it would be practicable to obtain a public road of ample
width upon arches, from the termini of the South-Eastern and Dover and
the Brighton Railroads, at the foot of London-bridge to the terminus of the
South-Western railway at Vauxhall.

" The road might be raised upon arches to a level that would coincide
with the levels of the roadway of the several bridges which it would inter-
sect, by which means the water-side frontages of the several wharfs need
not be interfered with in any material degree ; indeed, the extent of such
frontages might, by the means of docks of convenient form and size, be very
considerably increased, and the archways might, to a great extent, be ap-
propriated, if desired, to warehouses and other purposes of trade. By
extending the archways to a sufficient depth to the south of this road, a
frontage for building might also be obtained, particularly opposite Privy
Gardens and the new Houses of Parliament, where, if the houses were
designed in masses, with reference to architectural etfect, they would form
an agreeable and striking view from the north side of the river, and effectu-
ally screen the present low and mean display of unpicturesque buildings on
the Surrey side. The proposed houses, from being raised to a considerable
elevation, would have a line command of the river, and the principal public
buildings of the metropolis, and having, in addition to these advantaejes, a
southern aspect, would form very agreeable residences, such as would proba-
bly be eagerly sought for by the owners of adjoining wharfs, either for their
own occupation, or that of their principal agents. Taking into consideration
the private accommodation to the several wharfs, and the value of the new
building frontage, the proposed work would probably yield a very consider-
able return for the capital expended upon it, and, when effected, would not
only form one of the most striking improvements of an ornamental character
of which the metropolis is susceptible, hut would materially conduce to the
convenience, the comfort, and the recreation of the public. It would also
perhaps render unnecessary the Hue of road that has been projected from the
termini of the railroads at the foot of London-bridge, through Southwark to
the foot of Westminster-bridge, for the convenience of the west end of the
town, as the distance to that part of London would be materially shortened
by taking the proposed erabaukment road, and passing over Waterloo-
bridge."

Of the local improvements immediately contiguous to the new Houses
of Parliament and the approaches, Mr. Barry in continuation remarks : —

"Old Palace-yard is proposed to be considerably increased in size by the
demolition of the houses which now occupy that site, as well as the houses
on both sides of Abingdon-street, by which means a fine area for the conve-
nience of state processions, and the carriages of peers and others attending
the House of Lords, as well as a spacious landing-place adjoining the river,
would he obtained. The Victoria Tower, as well as the south and west
fronts of the building, would thus be displayed to the best advantage. The
Chapter house would be laid open to public view, and if restored, would form
a striking feature in conjunction with the Abbey ; and a considerable extent
of new building frontaje that would be obtained by this alteration might be
occupied by houses of importance, in a style of architecture in harmony
with the Abbey and the new Houses of Parliament, by which a grand and
imposing effect as a whole would be produced. As one means of improving
the approaches I propose that the noble width of street at Whitehall should
he extended southwards by the removal of the houses between Parliament-
street and King-street, by which the Abbey would be wholly exposed to
view as far as Whitehall Chapel. The houses on the north side of King-
street should be removed for the purpose of substituting houses or public
buildings — if required, of an improving style of architecture.

17G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

" Miilbank Street is proposed to be widened and improved in order to
make it a convenient and effective approach from Miilbank Road to the Vic-
toria Tower and Old Palace Yard. Totbill Street is also proposed to he
widened and improved in order that it may be made an equally convenient
and striking approach to the Abbey, the Houses of Parliament and White-
hall from the west-end of the town. St. Margaret's Church, if suffered to
remain in its present position should be improved in its external decoration,
in order that it may not disgrace, as it now does, the noble pile of the Ab-
bey, which rises above it."

Mr. Barry concludes the enumeration of all the principal improvements he
judges to prove most effective to the building on which he is engaged, by
the hope, although some might be considered impracticable, that at no dis-
tant period the rebuilding of the superstructure, the embankments of the
river, the enclosure of New Palace Yard, and the enlargement of Old Pa-
lace Yard, may be accomplished as " improvements of the utmost impor-
tance, whether as regards the beauty of the metropolis, the effect of the new
Houses of Parliament, or the convenience, as well as the enjoyment of the
public."

THE IPSWICH COMPETITION AND IPSWICH CUSTOM-
HOUSE.

Sir— Notwithstanding that so very much has been said on the sub-
ject of competition generally, and also in regard to particular cases of
it, never has a more striking proof of the manner in which such mat-
ters are managed, been brought forward, than that furnished by the
competition now in progress for a new Custom-House at Ipswich.
This I think will be admitted by every one on reading the following
statement and correspondence, for which 1 solicit insertion in your
Journal, in order that the profession and the public may be acquainted
•with the whole affair, and clearly perceive how monstrously absurd
are the so-called " Instructions to Architects," sometimes put forth
on such occasions. No doubt this Ipswich affair is a very trumperv
one in every meaning of the word — most remarkably so ; and on that
very account does it call for strong animadversion and exposure; since
it is owing to so many things of the kind being quietly passed over,
as too insignificant for notice, or because it is worth no one's while in
particular to make any "fuss" about them, that they at length become
an established system. Silence on the part of the profession looks
like acquiescence, and local "committees," relieved from the whole-
some fear of committing themselves, perfectly irresponsible to public
opinion, and at liberty to act just as they please, no matter how capri-
ciously, how arbitrarily, or how absurdly. Bodies of that kind have,
like private individuals, most unquestionably the right of pleasing
themselves — that is, if they can, and also that of serving their own
particular views and their own particular friends; but then it should
be done in a different manner: for when they invite to competition
by public advertisement, they become pledged to perfect fair dealing
and impartiality, and bound to act with something like discretion.
At all events, it may be supposed that they themselves have a I
bly distinct notion of what it is they do want, and ought, accordingly to
express it as distinctly as they can: otherwise, the vagueness of their
"instructions," either betrays their own incapacity, their inability to
explain themselves in the first instance, and therefore, it may be" in-
ferred, their incompetence to judge afterwards on the designs admitted
to them, or it very naturally excites a suspicion that all is not quite so
fair and straightforward as it professes to be, but that the "instruc-
tions" have been conveniently mystified, in order not to enlighten
people too much on the subject. Obscurity, we are told, is one source
of the sublime; and if so, the committees who preside over competi-
tions must be some of the subliinest people in the world.

One motive for my thus bringing forward this Ipswich affair, is the
hope that the attention of the Institute of British Architects will now
be called to it. It certainly is what it ought to take up ; but although
I belong to that body myself, I must own that it has hitherto shown
itself by far too supine in all such matters: it is sadly deficient in that
heartiness and zeal which, only exerted, would correct many abuses,
and would no less directly than essentially benefit both the act and
the profession. It ought not to leave to individuals in the latter, the
onerous and not particularly gracious task of trying to effect what it
is beyond the power of individual zeal and energy, however well di-
rected to accomplish. The Institute, it may be presumed, possesses
a certain degree of authority with public opinion: if so, let it exert
that authority to some purpose, and beneficially. Let it convince the
p-.iblic that it is something more than a mere name, and that its influence
extends beyond the wads of its own council-room. Unfortunately,
however, those who have most weight and influence there, are least
ol all interested in bringing forward or promoting measures having

for their object the interests of architecture and of the profession
generally. That such should be the case is, perhaps, natural enough:
why should those who are not at all personally affected by them, give
themselves any concern about grievances and abuses which they do
not feel, heavily as they may press upon and depress those who have
to contend with them? The tranquility with which they view — for
hardly can they be ignorant of them, may look like philosophy — like
Mahommedan assignment to unavoidable evils; yet though their in-
difference may be very justifiable, all very prudent and proper, it cer-
tainly says nothing for their zeal, their generosity, or their public
spirit ; nor does it at all tend to raise the character of the Institute as a
body in public estimation. Tout au contraire, it exposes it to animad-
versions all the more severe, because well merited. Perhaps I am
now expressing myself rather strongly, and may besides be thought
to spin out these remarks too largely, for I began them merely by way
of preface to what follows, and to what I will now let follow at once
without any further comment. " "

" Instructions to Architects desirous of submitting designs for
the proposed new custom house, ipswich, suffolk.

" To Architect*.

" The Corporation of Ipswich, propose to erect a public building
upon the common quay, in that town, as a Custom-house and Excise-
office ; to comprise also, suitable offices for the accountant and col-
lector of the dock commissioners, and other public business of the
town connected with the mercantile and shipping interests; accom-
modation will also be required for the lessees or occupiers of the
common quay wharf, which is the principal landing place for goods in
the town, and anv spare rooms may be adapted for private offices or a
bonding warehouse.

" Cost. — The expenditure not to exceed iMOOO.

"Premiums. — Twenty guineas will be given for the first selected
plan, and ten guineas for the second. Such two plans to become the
property of the corporation. The architect whose design is selected
will most probably be employed to superintend the erection of the
building, provided he can produce satisfactory testimonials as to his
ability, &c

" Slit:. — The site for the proposed building is an open space, mea-
suring about 240 feet by 130 feet, with a water frontage.

" MOTTO. — The different drawings, See., are to be distinguished bv a
motto, and the name and address of each architect to be sealed up in
an envelope bearing the same motto as his design, which letter will
be returned, unopened, to the unsuccessful competitors.

" The plans, &c, to be delivered at the town clerk's office, Ipswich,
on or before the 1st of May next. The selection of the premium de-
signs will be duly advertised in the local papers, after which, the re-
maining designs will be returned to their respective authors, on their
writing for the same, stating the motto affixed to their various draw-
ings, &c.

" S. A. Nolcutt, Jux.,

" Town Clerk.

'• Ipswich. March 1S43.''

" 11th April, 1843.

" Sir — I shall feel obliged by your favouring me with replies to the
following queries relative to the competition for the new Custom-
house, Ipswich.

" 1st. Is it necessary for the competitor to see the ground previ-
ously to preparing his desings ?

" 2nd. What is the nature of the foundation ? will it be requisite
to use piling or concrete, or is the natural soil sufficiently solid to bear
the ordinary foundations of a building of the size and nature re-
quired, without any extraordinary outlay for this part of the work ?

" 3rd. What accommodation will be required for the Custom-house
and Excise-office, and what dimensions will be required for the
rooms ?

" 4th. What is to be understood by 'suitable offices for the account-
ant and collector of the dock commissioners ;' are there two or more
rooms: and about what dimensions will they be required ?

" 5th. What accommodation will be required for the ' lessees or
occupiers of the commou quay wharf?'

" bth. What spare rooms are expected to be provided for offices
and bonding warehouse, and what dimensions are they required to be?

" 7th. Are all the rooms, warehouses, &c, contained in the first
paragraph of the 'Instructions to architects,' to be included in the
expenditure of £4000?

"8th. What distance is the wharf or water from the site of the
proposed building

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

177

«' 9th. For the premiums, is it expected that the architects should
furnish the requisite number of drawings in order that the corporation
may form a just decision on the comparative merits of the various
designs? Will it be necessary that they furnish the following? viz.
" Elevations of the four fronts ; plans of the different stories, foun-
dations and roofs ; six or seven drawings ; one longitudinal and two

or three transverse sections ; one or two perspective views, about

16 drawings; a specification of the work and a detailed estimate

of the cost.

« 10. What scale are the designs to be drawn to ?

" 11. Are the elevations to be coloured, tinted in the sepia or only
to be drawn in outline ?

" 12. Are the perspective views to be taken from any fixed points ?
And are they to be coloured or tinted in sepia?

" 13. What materials are to be used in the construction of the out-
side walls, and in whatever decoration the limited funds will allow?

" 14. As the architect whose design is approved will 'most pro-
bably' be employed to erect the building, may I ask if any designs
have been laid before the corporation previously to the competition
being proposed?

" 15. Have the corporation an architect, or any one possessing a
knowledge of architecture in their employ?

" 16. Will any means be adopted to ascertain that the designs can
be executed for the sums estimated ?

" 17. Will the corporation undertake to lay aside all designs whicli
cannot be executed for the sums estimated '.

" lb. Bv whom are the designs to be examined and selected ?

" 19. Are the parties who examine and select the designs well
acquainted with the principles of composition in architecture, as re-
gards unity of style, fitness for the end in view, and harmony to which
1 may add" the principles of construction, and the proper application
of materials?

" 20. Is the approved design to be in strict conformity to ancient
precedent, or to be an original composition, possessing all the requi-
sites of a work of fine art?

" 21. In case the corporation should consider it necessary to call in
the aid of a professional architect to assist them in the selection of
the designs, will his report be delivered in writing, and will it be
published or otherwise be made known to the competitors, in order
that thev may have an opportunity of reflecting any opinion therein
contained ?

" 22. The time for sending the designs is exceedingly limited. It
would be of considerable benefit to the corporation as well as the ar-
chitects that a greater length of time was allowed for preparing the
design ; can the corporation grant such a request ?

"23. Is it intended that the designs should be publicly exhibited
previously to the decision of the corporation?

" 24. Who are the members of the corporation that are to form the
judges in the competition?

"I have to apologize for taking up so much of your time; but
without the information herein required it will be impossible to furnish
suitable designs for the proposed building.

" Your earliest reply will oblige,

" Yours, &c,

" Ipswich, 13th April, 1843.
" Sir — I have your letter of yesterday. It is quite impossible for
me to give the answers you require. £4000 is the total sum to be
expended. The dock commissioners would only require two rooms,
and these not large. The architect may choose the site of the build-
ing in the area, the dimensions of which are furnished in the paper
already sent to you, except that a roadway of 30 feet from the water's
edge must be left free of any building. There is no limit as to scale.
The time for sending in drawings cannot be extended.
" I am, Sir,
" Your obedient humble servant,

" S. A. Nolcutt, Jun."

" 14th April, 1843.
" Sir — I am exceedingly sorry to be so troublesome to you, but
without the requisite data, it is impossible for any architect to prepare
suitable designs for the Custom-house at Ipswich. If it is impossible
for you to give me the information required, you may probably inform
me to whom I am to apply. In the printed instructions to architects,
there is so little information, that the whole accmomodation required
for the Custom-house is quite undefined; and whether the offices are
for one or two clerks or more persons is not mentioned. I respectfully

submit that the architect's answers to the queries I sent on the 11th
instant shou'd be given by the committee, who of course are fully
aware of the accommodation they require. I shall feel obliged by an
early reply.

" I am, &c,

" Ipswich, 15th April, 1843.
" Sir — I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 14tb,
and regret that I can afford little more information than has been al-
ready furnished to you in common with thosp gentlemen wdio have
stated their determination to send in plans for the new Custom-house
here.

" I can only say, generally, that the business of the port in both
departments, custom and excise, is not likely to be very considerable,
and the dock commissioners would not require more than a couple of
moderate sized rooms. The limited expenditure must of course govern
the extent of the accommodation.

" I am, Sir,
" Your obedient humble servant,

" S. A. Nolcutt, Jun."

" 17th April.

" Sir — I should be wrong in expressing an opinion that the corpo-
ration of Ipswich were the only body who have published such vague
instructions, when they require architects to prepare certain designs
for the buildings they have it in contemplation to erect; was this the
first instance of the kind, little could be said upon the subject, but as
it is now the usual proceeding in most occasions of this nature, the
profession, as a body, ought to complain ; yet us s. body, they do little,
it therefore rests with individuals to do something.

" I would not for a moment suppose that the corporation have al-
ready decided who is to be the architect of the building, nor do I
suppose that each member of that body has his particular friend to
support, and therefore all the information he possesses is necessarily
reserved for this friend, I say I cannot presume that this is the case,
but the very great difficulty I have experienced in obtaining the ne-
cessary information so as to prepare the required designs, naturally
creates a suspicion, especially as the numerous results of such pro-
ceedings confirm those suspicions. I presumed, when I wrote to you,
that officially you had the power of answering all necessary questions,
and that if you had not such power, at least you could direct me to
some person who must have known what was required, better than a
stranger, for the commercial business of the port. The dock commis-
sioners, the accountant, the merchants, who are interested in the ship-
ping, the occupiers of the common quay wharfs, the town clerk, and
others interested or connected with the custom house, must individu-
ally have some idea of the accommodation; surely it would have
been no great or difficult task to collect such information, in order
that the. corporation should get the most suitable design for their
building — or if they do not know what they want, they can want no-
thing—this is a natural inference, and perhaps the least requiring an

" I have to thank you for your letters, although you were unable to
give me the information I required. It is my intention to publish in
some periodical, the ' Instructions to Archiects,' my queries, and the
correspondence I have had with you on this occasion, my only wish
being to obtain, in business of this' nature, all the information that the
subject may require, and in which I have been so unsuccessful in this
instance.

" The most extraordinary thing in this competition appears to r.ie
to be that the corporation are to select the most suitable design for
their building, yet admit through their official organ, that they do not
known what is required, at least I must come to this conclusion, as the
information I required on the most important subjects could not be
obtained.

" I am, &c,

South-Eastern Railway— (Folkstone.)— The works at this place are
rapidly progressing under the contractors for the works, Messrs. Grissell and
Peto, "who it is expected will he able to place the line soon in the hands of
Mr. Betts, the contractor for the permanent way, and there is now no doubt
that the line will lie in operation within seven miles of Dover before the end
of July next, neither now is there any doubt expressed as to which will he
the direct line to France.

178

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[1VL

REVIEWS.

MR. PUGIN'S NEW WORK.

<dn Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture in England.
By A. Welby Pugin, Architect, Professor of Ecclesiastical Anti-
quities at St. Marie's College, Oscott. Small 4to., Ten Plates.
London, 1843. Weale.

To recommend this production to the notice of our readers, would
be almost superfluous, since it is one which can hardly by any possi-
bility escape notice, or fail to obtain greater attention than usually falls
to the lot of architectural publications in general, or even of such as
have more than ordinary merit to recommend them. Any thing pro-
ceeding from the author of the " Contrasts " and " True Principles,''
is certain of being taken up with curiosity, and with not the least
degree of it by those in whom that feeling may be more or less mixed
with apprehension, and who are therefore anxious to discover whether
they themselves come in for any remarks from a pen that is not
always exercised very gently. In one respect, Mr. Pugin is quite
alone, not only from all other architectural writers, but from nearly all
other writers whatever ; lie is no respecter of persons, but speaks as
one having authority — openly, boldly, without any observance of the
saaviter in inodo, without attempting to conciliate any one, and with-
out caring what individuals he may offend. Mawkish liberality and
excessive "good nature" are not among Mr. Pugin's foibles; so far is
he from excusing himself upon grounds of "delicacy," and saying as
little as possible in regard to living architects and their productions,
that in speaking both of the one and the other, he goes to an extent
quite unprecedented, except it be either in anonymous criticism, or
hostile literary controversy. Neither is there any thing apologetic in
his tone ; he does not offer his opinions as merely those of an indi-
vidual, but as positive and unquestionable dogmas, no less implicitly
to be adopted than they are fearlessly proclaimed without the slightest
misgiving on his part.

Whether it be altogether prudent or becoming in an individual,
let his ability be what it may, to set himself up as a sort of oracle, and
'o assume a self-elected dictatorship over all the rest of the profes-
sion, is a point we leave others to settle. Be it either with or without
" right," such is in a manner the case ; nor have we to read far in his
book before we find, that however unwarrantably it may have been \
usurped, Mr. Pugin is determined to exercise his office with a high
land. We do not know if this new volume of his is the same in sub- '
stance with a series of architectural papers announced some time ago
under his name, in the Art Union, but which never appeared. It is |
not altogether unlikely, for there certainly is much which not every
editor would care to sanction ; nor is Mr. Pugin a writer very submis-
> editorial control, or disposed (o expunge or qualify or soften
down what may be objected to as offensive and unsafe opinions and
expressions.

Like another Sir Huon, Mr. Pugin plucks a Sultan by his beard, the
^ultnn in this case being no other than the Professor — aye, the
"living" Professor — of Architecture at the Royal Academy, whom
he treats not at all more ceremoniously than he did Sir John Soane,
when he showed up the "Professor's Own House." "It is a perfect
disgrace to the Royal Academy," he says in a lengthy and piquant
note, at his third page, " that its Professor of Architecture should be
permitted to poison the minds of the students of that establishment by
propagating his erroneous opinions of Christian architecture. The
influence which his position naturally gives him over their minds is
doubtless considerable, and the effect of his instructions proportionably
pernicious. Not content, however, with the disparagement of ancient
excellence, which he introduces in his official lectures, he is practi-
cally carrying out his contempt of pointed design in both Universities,
and in a manner that must cause anguish of soul to any man of Catho-
lic mind and feeling. The ancient buildings of King's College, models
of perfection in their way, are actually being demolished in order to
make room for a monstrous erection of mongrel Italian, a heavy, vul-

gar, unsightly mass, which already obscures, from some points, the
lateral elevation of King's Chapel, and which it is impossible to view
without a depression of spirits and feelings of disgust. A man who
paganizes in the Universities deserves no quarter." !

We need not quote further, but may leave the remainder as a tit-
bit in store for those who feel their curiosity wetted, bv the " taste "
we have given them of this formidable note, merely remarking here
that it hints at "gin-palace design " at Oxford, and prophesies that
those, and many other works of the present day, " will be the laughing
stock of posterity." Still, though we are inclined to admit that the
buildings Mr. Pugin so mercilessly reprobates are decidedly bad, yet
not perhaps quite so much so as to occasion "anguish of soul," and
actual " depression of spirits ; " we consider them such, not because they
are not of " pointed design," but because they are very tasteless and
excessively poor in themselves — strangely crude and patched-up
abortions, without any manifestation of study bestowed upon them,
and egregiously defective, not only in regard to taste, but as buildings,
and devoid of all unity of plan and composition. In falling foul of the
professor for " paganizing " in the universities, Mr. Pugin is perhaps
rather too severe, and somewhat unguarded, for there has been a good
deal of " paganizing " elsewhere before now, and the example was set
by the very fountain head of orthodoxy, the apostolic city, and by the
very successors of St. Peter. The Vatican itself is most dreadfully
and scandalously pagan; its galleries are a perfect rendezvous of
heathenism. We are, therefore, at liberty to fancy that, although he
has not had the candour to admit as much, Mr. Pugin devoutly damns
"Leo's golden days," and the "paganism" of Popes and Cardinals,
who, to make use of his own expressions, poisoned the minds of archi-
tects, artists, and students of all countries, by propagating erroneous
opinions of Christian architecture and art. Certain it is that he could
not point to that quarter, to Catholic Rome itself, as a model of Chris-
tian and Catholic purity, or else he would most assuredly have done
so in the language of triumphant argument : whereas it may fairly be
suspected, he is tolerably conscious that the less said on that head,
and the more it is kept out of sight, the better, since he would, no
doubt, be puzzled to reconcile the gross laxity of Rome, with his own
rigorous ultra-Catholicism in architecture. Why, then, does he keep
continually harping upon that string '. why is he for ever taunting the
profession and the public with a reproach which, however well de-
served, and how great soever he may consider it to be, cannot possibly
have any effect upon either? He tells them that architecture is no
longer •' the expression of our faith, or government, or country; " and
they reply by laughing at him in his face, as a crack-brained enthu-
siast— an arrant Don (Quixote, the champion <> I'uutrancc of a chime-
rical Dulcinea. He lays by far too much stress on what are now re-
garded matters of perfect indifference, and not without reason so — on
the mere externals and paraphernalia of religion, which both have
been and are substituted for religion itself where not a particle of the
latter exists. The attaching so much importance to the costume of
devotion is dangerous, for it leads to a species of mummery and moun-
tebankery which disgraces what it professes to honour.

It might be more discreet on the part of Mr. Pugin were he not to
dwell so emphatically and so exclusively, on what forms the staple of
his writings, and renders them quite as much polemical as architec-
tural. Most certainly we should have been better satisfied had he
obtruded upon us fewer of his religious opinions, and favoured us
with something more in the shape of tangible criticism. Of the last
we obtain but very little; it may, perhaps, be said to be in the.
"pointed" style — and so far appropriate enough: yet it is too bare
and indiscriminate, and is in manner what would be termed down-
right verbiage and flippancy in a reviewer, or a magazine article. By
denying all merit to, and endeavouring to convict of absurdity what-
ever does not belong to the only style of the art he is disposed to
tolerate, he overshoots the mark altogether, and deprives his stric-
tures of efficacy. He gives — at least leaves, us to understand, that
our former English style is the only one at all suitable for us, and
that all buildings in any other, are, without further inquiry into their
merits, to be condemned as naught. The consequence is, the sweep-

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

179

ing invective becomes a most harmless, if not inoffensive tirade : fal-
ling all alike, it affects no one in particular more than another, but
leaves all, the best and ablest as well the most imbecile and the mean-
est, involved in the universal disgrace. So that the latter may even
take consolation to themselves, by finding that their superiors are
brought down to their own level, and made to appear just as incom-
petent as themselves.

With respect to Mr. Pugin's remarks on what has been done in ar-
chitecture within the last twenty years, we do not complain so much
of their severity and of want of patriotism, as of the indiscriminate
censure manifested in them. It would seem, that all is bad alike —
that is nothing for exception — that the Italian style is quite out of
place in the Travellers' and Reform clubhouses, and treated without
either propriety or gusto. We cannot, indeed, for a moment suppose
that such is really Mr. Pugin's opinion — for in that case his opinion
would be perfectly valueless, but what he says implies nearly as much,
though he has reserved to himself the power of explaining a good
deal of it away by saying that it is to be understood in a qualified and li-
mited sense. At all events, what he does say, amounts to little more than
the expression of uniform disapprobation : let him make what excep-
tions he may, he reserves those for the ear of his father confessor, who
is not likely to divulge them. While, however, we agree with him
that, notwithstanding the enormous sums they have cost, many of
our public buildings are decided architectural failures, we are of
opinion that the mischief is not so much to be attributed to the style
adopted for them, as to the incompetence and want of artist-like feeling
with which it has been treated. We are far also from believing that
the style, so exclusively advocated by Mr. Pugin, would have been at all
more appropriate or more efficacious, in the majority of the instances
alluded to. The merely adopting a style does not confer genius ; so far
from it, that were we to judge of any particular one by the use which
is made of it, we should be compelled to confess that the "pointed"
is the most barbarous a balaam style conceivable, according to a great
many modern samples of it.

Not content with advocating the claims of the pointed style for
ecclesiastical and collegiate structures, Mr. Pugin seeks now to re-
commend it, exclusively of every other, for modern buildings of all
kinds — for street architecture, dwelling houses and shops, although
the specimens he gives are not at all calculated to enforce his argu-
ments. Had anyone else ventured to propose "Gothic" for shop
fronts and windows, he might have been fancied to be quizzing.
Nearly arrant masquerade in itself, such a system would tend to de-
teriorate the style most deplorably. Unless none but artists were
employed, it would in a short time become a mere parody of the
original — maimed, barbarous, and not to be beheld without "anguish
of soul," by those who have any feeling for the original itself. No :
the present negative style of our street architecture is infinitely pre-
ferable, inasmuch as no smell at all is better than a stink. Dull and
monotonous as they are, the walls and holes in them for windows
which form our streets, are preferable to what the author of the
" Apology " recommends ; there is no more to admire in them — no
more design or variety than in the pavement itself, but there is also
nothing to offend, nothing that solicits notice merely to disappoint
and disgust.

There are, indeed, particular occasions where the pointed style
might be applied, not only with propriety and consistency, but with
admirable effect, although they have not been referred to by Mr.
Pugin; — we mean, covered markets, and covered avenues of shops.
For the former, an open timber roof would be perfectly in character
while a cloister gives us almost a direct model for a Gothic "arcade,"
requiring no further modification than as regards matters of detail.
In such cases, while the design could be kept up consistently, without
the slightest interference from individual fancies and caprices, there
would be nothing to detract from or neutralize the effect of the en-
semble— nothing to clash with it — nothing "over the way," altogether
different in physiognomy to jar and jnmble with it, in preposterous
discord. For houses in the country, the Gothic style is sufficiently
accommodating: they are generally built for the actual occupiers — at

least for the family to whom they belong, and allow of greater study
being bestowed upon them, and the style being properly kept up ; but
widely different is the case with houses built by wholesale as mere
trading speculations. Supposing that indispensable detail, string-
courses, copings, weather mouldings, &c, added nothing to the ex-
pense, and that carved decoration could be had for very little, yet
family devices, heraldic ornaments, mottos and legends must be
omitted, unless they could be changed with every change of tenant,
since otherwise their incongruity — supposing such things to have any
meaning at all, might occasionally prove more ludicrous than agree-
able. We might further object that the lofty roof and gable shown
in one of the specimens for domestic or street architecture at the
present day, would be far from being any improvement upon the,
system of building rtow in vogue. Undoubtedly such things tend to
give character externally, but then it is after a manner almost at direct
variance with the normal principle laid down by Mr. Pugin himself —
that every building should be natural, without disguise or conceal-
ment, and that nothing should be introduced that does not recommend
itself by obvious propriety. It cannot, indeed, be said that in this
case there is any disguise, yet there is surely the other error of load-
ing a house with a steep roof — the rooms within which can evidently
be but mere garrets — merely because it produces a better effect. Ex-
perience has taught that such pitch is quite unnecessary — at least for
mere dwelling houses; therefore, to re-adopt it again, would be some-
what preposterous, since it is certainly attended with increased ex-
pense— and perhaps with no inconsiderable increase of danger too in
case of fire, unless it be intended that iron should be substituted for
timber, because otherwise the flames would quickly extend themselves
along a whole range of lofty timber-framed roofs.

If such roofs therefore be, as Mr. Pugin will probably contend, so
essential to the true character of the style, that it cannot be properly
kept up without such feature, it then becomes a very natural question :
" Why seek to bring into general use again a style which is so ill-
accommodated to our actual wants and purposes, that it will not admit
of being modified according to them V We hardly know if we are
to assume as a matter of course that it is intended the interior cha-
racter should be in perfect keeping with the external elevations, and
not only in regard to the architecture and fabric itself, but fittings-up
and furniture. That is a point which Mr. Pugin passes over altoge-
ther, without giving us any kind of remark, instruction, or caution
relative to it; and yet it is one which calls for them all, it being one
in no small degree embarassing. It is true the Gordian knot may be
easily cut through, by saying: so that the fronts be of antique and
quaint physiognomy, no matter what the inside of the houses be ; —
they may be in any style, or no style at all. We cannot, however,
even for a moment suppose that Mr. Pugin himself would consent to
get over difficulties and objections in that way, since that would be
converting his elevations into mere "pointed masks," and sham archi-
tecture. No one knows better than the author of the " Apology,"
that in order to have all in due keeping, furniture and fittings-up re-
quire quite as much study as the architecture itself — perhaps more,
at least more research first, and contrivance afterwards, there being
few models for our express guidance. No one is more alive to the
absurdities and " monstrosities," foisted upon their customers, by
cabinet-makers and upholsterers, under the name of "Gothic furni-
ture," for he has indulged in a good deal of bitter pleasantry on the
subject, in his "True Principles." Nevertheless, he now recommends
what would inevitably lead to greater extravagances and absurdities
of the kind ; for if they have not been avoided where expense has
been no consideration, where superior workmen have been employed,
and where more than ordinary attention— albeit not directed by intel-
ligence— has been bestowed, it is but reasonable to suppose that
abominations still more flagrant would be perpetrated, were it at-
tempted to render such style of furniture universal.

Important, however, as this portion of his subject is in itself, Mr.
Pugin treats it so very summarily that all he says on it does not ex-
ceed our own comments, in lenglh. We regret this, because we
hoped to find and were curious to learn, how the pointed or old English

180

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[May,

style, could be peculiarly applicable to "civil architecture " generally,
as the heading of the section led us to expect. It is a view of the
matter, which while it has hardly been touched upon at all, affords a
very wide field for remarks and critical inquiry ; we are willing there-
fore to hope that Mr. Pugin will now pursue it much further, and give
us an entire volume or separate essay upon that particular subject.
We would further hint to him that his criticism partakes too much of
mere assertion and opinion ; and he, is withal, apt to bestow too much
notice on downright paltrinesses which no one pretends to defend, or
on minor defects. He complains for instance, that the kitchen court
of Lambeth Palace, into which, it seems, he accidentally found his
way, is not at all in keeping with the external elevations, the architect
having there laid aside "his gothic domino ;" whereas, in our opiuion,
it would have been far more to the purpose to examine the " gothic
domino" itself, which most egregiously disappointed us when we first
beheld it, for it is exceedingly pale, — passably enough correct, hut
deplorably spiritless and insipid.

We would further advise Mr. Pugin in future to give us less ding-
dong about Catholicism and Protestantism. It looks as if the professed
subject was made a mere "stalking horse" to something else: for
aught we know, it may be all very good policy lor himself, but hardly
for his book. If he really expects to gain converts to his own creed,
by any thing he can say in its favour, he must have as good a conceit
of himself as the Quaker who undertook a journey to Rome, in the
hope of converting the Pope. In his zeal for Catholicism, Mr. Pugin
may be very sincere, but the world will not give him credit for being
perfectly disinterested; therefore, it might be more discreet in him
not to challenge in the manner he does, inquiry into his motives.
There is besides no occasion for his going out of his direct and proper
course, because that affords ample matter — more than he has on this
occasion given consideration to. Wc shall always be happy to meet
Mr. Pugin as an architectural writer ; as a polemical one we can spare
him, nor will all his pomp of words gain him one convert among
Protestants, to " the the trumperies and mummeries " which he
identifies with christian architecture, and with Christianity itself.

Instruction in Draining for the use of Elementary Schools. By

Butler Williams, C.E., F.G.S., &c.
A Manual for Teaching Model Draining from Solid Forms, combined

toiih a Popular viae of Perspective. Bv Butlek Williams, C.E.,

F.G.S., &c. London : .Mm W. Parker.

We have not space to enter into any lengthened notice of these
works in the present journal, we can only now state, from a hasty glance
at both volumes, that they appear to have been compiled with consi-
derable care, and that much attention has been bestowed to render the
teaching of drawing less irksome than is usually practised.

ROE'S IMPROVED PUMP.

English Patents for 1842. By Andrew Pritchard, M.R.I. London:
Whittaker and Co.

This useful work contains an alphabetical list of all the Patents,
amounting to 7u8(.', granted in England during the last year; there is
also a classified index, and a concise account of the Law of Patents in
Belgium.

Ancient Irish Pavement Tiles. By Thomas Oldham, A.B., F.G.S.S,
L. & D., Dublin : John Robertson.

Wc have already noticed a work on Encaustic Tiles taken from
examples in England, to this work the one before us forms an excel-
lent companion, it contains no less than 32 patterns of tiles after the
originals in Ireland, existing in St. Patrick's Cathedral, and Howtb,
Mellifont, and Newton Abbey.-. Mr. Oldham, in his introductory
remarks, informs us that there are three distinct kinds of Irish speci-
mens—1st, Impressed; 2nd, Encaustic ; and 3d, Tiles in Relief.

Tuknpike Road through the Potteries.— This contract is let to Messrs.
Bowers ami Mondy, at about £2.500. The competition was so clute that
other partus were within fifteen pounds.

The improvement consists in that part of the pump called the stuf-
fing box, rendering such a box of no utility, and introducing in its
stead a joint composed of leather, or any other flexible substance,
such as indian rubber, cloth, webbing, &c. The material employed is
cupped sufficiently large to allow the lever of the pump working the
piston without any tension whatever taking place.

The joint, it will be perceived from

the diagram, is fixed upon the side of

the pump barrel, so that when a head
is placed on the pump, the head forms
an air vessel, and it becomes a powerful
fire engine without any extra expense.

A, the leather cup shown on section;

B, the handle passing though it ; C, C,
the part bv which the joint is secured
to the pump barrel. For deep wells
this is an invaluable invention, as it is
impossible that any leakage can take
place; and all acquainted with the com-
mon lift pump will at once see the im-
portance of the improvement. By it,
also, much labour is overcome, as in
the old method in a very short time
the rod works a large space in the
packing, and much of the water flows
back into the well, which, by the new
method, is safely brought to the surface.

A further important improvement is, that friction is by this means
removed. Instead of the piston rod being screwed up tightly in the
tow, &c, the rod works quite easily in the joint. One of these fire
pumps we are informed has been fixed at St. James's Palace and
another at the House of Commons.

DREDGING MACHINE.

Sir. — Perhaps you will allow me to make the following observations in
your Journal with reference to a letter upon Dredging in your last number,
by a person signing himself W. C. And which I think you will more readily
do, as it appears to me you have yourself inadvertently misunderstood the
improvement intended to be described by W. C. —

You state in your editorial remarks, that " in this new process, a lateral
" sweep or circular motion is given to the ladder or bucket frame which
" sw ings upon its upper extremity as a centre, and in its action imitates
" that of a scythe in mowing, &c.;" whereas, / do not understand from W.
C's. description that the bucket frame has any such motion witli regard to
the dredging machine, but that the whole engine moves radially ; the length
of the head rope (perhaps one or two hundred yards) being radius, and its
anchor the centre of motion. — If I correctly understand W. C's. description,
I have to observe that this is no new process at all, that this method was
adopted at least 23 years ago by Mr. Cubitt (one of the vice presidents of
the Institution of C. E.) in dredging a cut of considerable extent in the
Ipswich river,1 and since that time in a new and more complete dredging
engine for the Norwich Navigation. The latter machine having been for
some time past under my management, I can vouch for the excellence of
its working, and I flatter myself that if \V. C. had ever seen such an engine
he would not have said that tne civil engineer has made " no advancement
in the working of the machine," a well arranged dredging machine being

1 Whether this method was first introduced bf this gei.tlem.iu or not I
do not know.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

181

already to the civil engineer, what the planing machine is to the engine
maker.

I will mention as an instance of the accuracy with which dredging can be
performed by engines like that I have alluded to, that I have been in the
habit periodically of removing a large accumulation of mud with it from
the rails of one of Morton's patent slips, touching each rail throughout and
leaving the whole clean, and without the slightest injury from one end to the
other.

I am, Sir,

York Chambers, Adelphi, Your obedient servant,

April 15, 1843. George Edwards.

[We are obliged to Mr. Edwards for his correction ; upon inquiry we find
that the radius cutting described by W. C. in the last month's Journal, is
the same as that given by Mr. Edwards in the above communication. —
Editor.]

THE SELF-REGULATING EXPANSION SLIDE VALVE.

Sir — In a late number of your Journal, I perceive that there is a com-
munication from Mr. II. II. Edwards, of a plan for working steam engines
expansively, by means of a plate at the back of the slide valve, which is
regulated in the extent of its motion, by means of arms worked by the
governor. It is stated that when the plate is held fast by the arms, the
steam will be cut off to the greatest extent. Now a very slight examination
of the drawings will show that though the steam is cut off as soon as the
port of the cylinder is half open, admitting steam during rather less than
one-fourth of the stroke, yet on the return of the valve, the port will again
be opened, and will allow the steam to pass into the cylinder during the last
quarter of the stroke. The same will take place, in a less degree, in every
position of the arms until they are at a distance equal to the width of the
small ports from both ends of the plate, which is the only place in which
they can be of any service, so that of course the plan of altering them by
the governor fails.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant.

Glasgow, \&th April, 1843. Throttle Valve.

FLAX MILL AT CASSANO, LOMBARDY.
Sir — I observe in your excellent number for April, a slight mistake, in an
article headed — " Flax Mill at Cassano, Lombardy.'' Mr. Albano, C. E., of
London, is therein stated to be the erector of the works, which may be cor-
rect, inasmuch as he was the superintendent of the building of the mill.
The mechanical work, that is, the water-wheel and mill-gearing, were solely
constructed and erected by Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester; the greatest credit
is therefore due to that eminent engineer in regard to the execution of the
mechanical part. Fiat justilia ruat caelum.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
London, Tuesday, April 4, 1842. S. N. S.

RESPONSIBILITY OF CONTRACTORS.

In the Court of Exchequer, Saturday, April 22, 1843.— Sittings in Banco at
Westminster.

TOWNLEY, CLERK, V. COLEMAN.

The Attorney-General moved ill this case for leave to enter the verdict for
the defendant upon facts found by the award of the arbitrators to whom the
cause had been referred, or to set aside that award, and for a new trial.

This was an action in which the plaintiff, who is a magistrate for the
county of Norfolk, sought to recover damages on behalf of the county from
the defendant, who is a builder, under the following circumstances : — The
magistrates having determined to erect a bridge near Downham, procured
certain plans from an eminent architect usually employed on such occasions,
and then advertised for tenders. The defendant became the successful com-
petitor for the job, and, according to the usual course, entered into a con-
tract, to which were attached the plan and specifications. One of the cove-
nants in this contract was, that the bridge should be finished within a speci-
fied time, and '■ kept in repair by the defendant for one year afterwards."
Wheu the bridge was completed, the architect and engineer certified that the
work had been executed to their satisfaction, and the claim of the defendant
was forthwith liquidated by the county treasurer. Little or no repairs were
required at the hands of the builder during the early portion of the year, but
towards its close the bridge gave symptoms of instability, and just before
the expiration of the time, it fell in altogether. When called on to comply
with his covenant, the defendant refused, on the ground that the failure of
tbe bridge was not owing to the insufficiency of the work executed by him,
but to the inherent vice of the original plan, which, as he averred, was of a
nature altogether insufficient and vicious. Not satisfied with this, the pre-
sent action was instituted, and having been referred to a learned gentleman
and two architects, the present award was afterwards made, in which certain

facts were found, which fully bore out the above answer of the defendant to
the action, and damages were assessed contingently upon the opinion of this
Court as to the sufficiency of that answer in point of law. The learned
gentleman now at great length urged upon the Court the hardship of attach-
ing the penalty for the architect's defective plan upon the shoulders of the
builder, who, ex confesso, had honestly and fairly performed his duty. If the
plan were of a character which militated against the laws of matter, and
was such as to insure its own defeat, it was the fault of the engineer, and
not of the builder, whose contract could only be held to extend to a covenant
to make good those casual defects which might he caused by wear and tear,
or by the insufficiency of his own work. The defendant, therefore, submitted
that he was entitled to the verdict on these facts ; but at all events he trusted
that the award might be set aside, and an opportunity given to him to go
down to trial with certain pleas averring those facts on which he relied, in
order that the solemn decision of the court of error might be obtained on the
case.

The Court, however, without much hesitation, unanimously refused the
rule. The law of the case was too clear to admit of a doubt. The defend-
ant hound himself to keep a bridge in repair for a period within which it fell
down. Prima facie he was bound to rebuild it, and the only question was
whether that construction could be varied by the context of the contract.
The language, however, did not appear on examination to admit of such a
solution. The defendant had the plan before him, and and the specification
too, and though it was probable that he confided in the skill of the engineer,
and never for a moment contemplated the possibility of the bridge falling
down through the defective nature of the plan, yet if he meant to guard
against such a state of things, he ought to have done so expressly. It might
be a hard case ; but the law was so, and the defendant was bound to make
good the bridge. With regard to the second branch of the application, it
was enough to say that it could never he listened to except in cases of
doubt. Here there was no doubt whatever on the bench as to the liability
of the defendant, and it would be idle to allow further litigation with such
a view of the case on the mind of the Court. For these reasons, therefore,
there must be no rule.

Rule refused.

MISCELLANEA.

New Houses of Parliament. — Mr. Barry, Mr. De la Beehe, and Mr.
Charles H. Smith, the three Commissioners who were appointed by the
Crown in 1 S39, to examine and report upon the quarries of this kingdom, and
to select a proper stone suitable for the New Houses, which report is to be
found in our journal, vol. 2, 1839, have received instructions to make another
inspection of the quarries of Great Britain, both of stone and British marble,
and to report upon the qualities of the stone already used in the New Houses,
and as to the sufficiency of supply for the remainder of the building, or if
there be any other stone more suitable than that now used, either for the
exterior or the interior. We anticipate much valuable information in this
report, which if unly equal to the first, will be received with high approbation
by the profession — the three Commissioners have already started on their
tour of inspection.

Iron Frigates for the Navy. — We are glad to announce that Government
have given orders for the immediate construction of two iron steam frigates,
one of 9U0 tons to be built by Messrs. Ditchburn and Mare, of Blackwall,
and furnished with engines by Messrs. Maudslays and Field, and the other
vessel, of 1300 tons, to be built by Mr. Laird of Liverpool, and furnished
with engines by Messrs. Fawcet and Co,

Steam Navigation in France. — A letter from Brest states that the five
steam frigates which are intended for the trans-atlantic navigation between
France and the United States, are ready for sea, and will commence service
in the spring ; and that the French West India Steam Company are going to
have a reguiarline of packet ships between Havre and the Brazils, besides
touching at all the West India Islands. The first packets will commence
running in May next.

The West India Mail Company's Steamer " The Severn."— This vessel
is reported to have made a trial trip at Bristol, from King's-road to llfra-
eombe, and it is slated she steamed at the rate of 9 to 10 knots an hour.

The Red Rover. — This fine steam vessel which runs between London,
Heme Bay and Margate, has undergone a thorough examination, and consi-
derable increase of speed has been obtained ; the engines are by Messrs.
Boulton, Watt, and Co. This vessel bus always proved to be of the first
character.

Norwich and Leamington Railway.— This branch (if the Birmingham
Railway is about to be commenced and pushed « ith vigour during the ensu-
ing summer.

The Thames Tunnel.— In the first month alter the opening, 450.000
passengers have passed through.

Bristol and Exeter Railway.— This line will be opened to the public in
a few days, to Beam's Bridge, two miles to the South of Wellington.

Value of Manure in Large Towns.— A new contract has recenfly been
signed, by which the contractor agrees to give £22,000 per annum for the
contents of the cess-pools of the city of Paris, which are at present deposited
in a place in the suburbs, called Monfaucon, but are about to be conveyed by
a new drain five miles further from the city.

Sir John Guest and Co have contracted with the Russian government for
45.000 tons of railway iron, and it is not improbable that this order will be
doubled,

182

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[May,

Turkey. — Messrs. William Fairbairn an 1 Co. have furnished designs for a
large building, to be erected for (he Grand Sultan in Turkey, for the purposes
of a woollen mil, dye-works, &c. It is to be built of iron and wood.

A New Kind or Gas. — The Censeur, of Lyons, states that, at oue of the
late sittings of the municipal council, a trial was made ol a new portable gas,
to which its imentor has given the name of " hydroluminous." The appa-
ratus, says this journal, is very simple, and applicable to the smallest candle-
sticks, as well as to the largest and most splendid candelabra. The light it
gives is very fine, and it is so portable that it can be carried about with the
common hand candlestick. Nothing is said of the comparative cost of this
new lit,ht.

The Iron Colonnade at Manchester intended to carry the Liverpool
and Leeds Junction Railway over the valley at Hunt's Bank, Manchester, is
738 feet in length and 24 feet wide, supported on 52 cast-iron columns, each
weighing four tons, carrying 46 main girders, averaging fii tons each ; on
these rest the longitudinal girders 86 in number, varying from i'J to 5\ tons
each, eighteen feet above the level ot the street below. The whole will be
fenced oft on the side next the prison by a cast-ir. n screen, eleven leet high,
the top of which « ill be seven feet above the rails. The style adopted, and
which is in accordance with the massiveness required, is a modification of the
Egyptian. The columns, with the mushroom-formed head, from which
spiings ihe favourite reeded capital of Egyptian architecture, slan 1 upon
stone basements, which project about one loot above the pavement, and give
firmness and solidity to the whole appearance. The quantity of iron in the
whole structure will be about 1,020 tons.

Bradford Water Works were let to Messrs. Brook and Hardy, for the
sum of nearly £6,500.

A very rich vein of lead ore has been disco\ered at the Shropshire Bog
Mines on the properly of Henry Lyster Esq.

The grand staircase now building at Devonshire-house will be entirely
composed of Italian marble. The estimated expense is £10,000.

An enormous Pumping Engine. — A sieam engine is now in course of con-
struction at the celebrated Bayle foundry in Cornwall, lor the Government ot
Holland, to drain the Lake of Haerlera. which is of far larger dimensions
than any yet built. We have seen a sketch of the engine, which consists of
a double cylinder, one within the other, the external cylinder is to be 144
inches in diameter and 12 feet high, and to have an annular piston with 4
piston rods ; in the centre is a smaller cylinder ol the same height 84 inches
diameter, with a piston rod 13 inches diameter ; in this last cylinder the steam
is to be first admitted under the piston at a high pressure, and then allowed
to escape into the external or larger cylinder, and act upon the upper surface
of the piston, the five piston rods support an immense cast-iron cap said to
he weighted to equal to 18 Ions. The steam cylinders stand in the centre of
eleven pumps, each pomp is 03 inches diameter, 12 feet ft inches long, and
10 feet stroke ; the present pump rods are suspended to the ends of cast-iron
beams 32 :eet long placed radially lo the centre of the steam cylinders, and
the other end ot these beams come in contact with the under edge of the
steam cylinder cap, so that as the cap descends it depresses one end of the
beams and raises the other end, and with it the pistons of the rumps. The
weight of v. ater lifted will be equal to 83 tons per siroke, if all the pumps
were in work at one time.

LIST OF NEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.J

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM MARCH 2.1, TO APRIL 27, 1843.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Nicholas Henri Jean Francois, Comte dc Crony, of the Edgware-road,
Middlesex, for " improvements in rotary pumps and rotary steam engines." —
Sealed March 25.

Robert Faraday, of Wardour-street, Soho, pas fitter, for " improvements in
ventilating gas burner), and tamers for consuming oil, tallow, or other mat-
ters." i A communication.) — March 25.

Sir Samuel Brown, knight, of Blaekheath, commander in Her Majesty's
navy, for " improvements in the construction of breakwaters, and in construct-
ing and erecting lighthouses and beacons, fixed and floating, end in apparatus
connected therewith, and also in anchors for mooring the same, which are
applicable to ships or vessels." — March 27.

John S3 lveater, of Great Russell-street, Middlesex, engineer, for " improve-
i~"> ■ ti m 1 reducing ornamental surfaces on or with iron, applicable in the
manufacture of stoves and other uses, and for improvements in modifyinti the
transmission of heat.' — March 28.

Arthur Dunn, of Rotherhithe, soap boiler, for " improvements in treating,
purifying, and bleaching fatty matters." — March 28.

James Fletcher, foreman at the works of Messrs. W. Collier and Co.. engi-
neers, for " in protements in machinery or apparatus for spinning cotton and
other fibrous substances." — March 30.

Frank Hills, of Ueptford, manufacturing chemist, for "improvements in
steam boilers or generators, and in locomotive carriages.

Paul Provost Urouillet, of Hadley, Middlesex, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in apparatus for wanning apartments." — March 30.

John Aston, of Birmingham, and William Elliott, of the same place, button
manufacturers, for "improvements in the manufacture of covered buttons." —
April 4.

Joseph Browne Wilkes, of Chesterfield Park, Essex, Esq., for " improve-
ments in treating oils obtained from certain vegetable matters." — April 4.

George Johnston Young, of Bostock-street, Old Gravel-lane, Wapping,
engineer, for " improvements in the construction of capstans." — April 5.

Edwin Whele, of Walsall, Stafford, for " an improvement or improvements
in machinery for preparing tricks used in the mating of candles." — April 6.

James Boydell, junior, of Oak Farm iron works, near Dudley, iron-master,
for " improvements in manufacturing bars of iron with other metals."—
April 7.

Robert Hawthorne and William Hawthorne, of the town of Neweastle-on-
Tyne. civil engineers, for " improvements in locomotive engines, parts of which
drr applicable to other steam engines." — April 7.

John Michell, of Calenick, Cornwall, for " improvements in extracting cop-
per, iron, lead, bismuth, and other metals or minerals from tin ore." —
April 11.

James Napier, of Hoxton, Middlesex, dyer, for " improvements in preparing
or treating fabrics made of fibrous materials, for covering roofs and the bot-
toms of ships and vessels, and other surfaces ; and for other uses." — April 1 1 .

Moses Poole, of Lincolu's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements m the manu-
facture of ornamented lace or net. (A communication.) — April 11.

Uriah Clarke, of Leicester, dyer, for " improvements in the manufacture 0/
narrow elastic and non-elastic fabrics of fibrous materials." — April 11.

William Tindall, of Cornhill, ship owner, for " improvements in the manu-
facture of candles." — April 11.

William Runwell, of Bowling-green-row, Woolwich, artist, for " improve-
ments in machinery or apparatus for registering or indicating the number of
persons which enter any description of carriage, house, room, chamber, or
place, and also the number of passengers and carriages that pass along a
bridge, road, or way." — April 13.

William Henry Smith, of Fitzroy-square. civil engineer, for " improvements
in the construction and manufacture of gloves, mitts, and cuffs, and in fasten-
ings for tlie same, which may be applied to articles of dress generally." —
April 19.

Charles Tayleur, and James Frederick Dupre, of the Vulcan Foundry, Lan-
caster, engineers, and Henry Dubs, also of the Vulcan Foundry, engineer, for
"improvements in boilers." — April 19.

James Byrom, of Liverpool, engineer, for "an improved system of con-
nexion for working the cranks of what are commonly called direct action
steam engines." — April 19.

Carl Ludcwick Farwig, of Henrietta-street, Covent-gardeu, tin-plate worker
for *' improvements in gas meters." — April 19.

John George Bodmcr, of Manchester, engineer, for " improvements m loco-
motive steam engines and carriages to be used upon railways, in marine
engines and vessels, and in the apparatus for propelling the same, and also in
stationarg engines, and in apparatus to be connected ttierewith for pumping
water, raising bodies, and for blowing or exhausting air." — April 20.

John Hand, of Howland-street, Fitzroy-square, artist, for "improvements
in the manufacture of tin and other soft metal tubes." — April 20.

Edward Cobbold. of Melford, Suffolk, master of arts, clerk, for " improve-
ments in the means of supporting, sustaining, and propelling human and other
bodies on and in the water." — April 20.

Thomas Oram, of Lewisham, Kent, patent fuel manufacturer, and Ferdi-
nand Charles Warlich, of Cecil-street, gentleman, for " improvements in the
manufacture of fuel, and in machinery for manufacturing fuel." — April 20.

James Johnston, of Willow-park, Greenock, esquire, for " improvements in
the construction of steam boilers, and machinery for propelling vessels." —
April 20.

Richard Prosser, of Birmingham, civil engineer, and Job Cutler, of the
same place, civil engineer, for " improvements in the machinery to be used in
manufacturing of pipes and bars, and in the application of such pipes or bars
to various purposes." — April 20.

John M'l'uncs, of Liverpool, manufacturing chemist, for "improvements
in funnels, for conducting liquids into ressels." — April 20.

Francois Constant Magloirc Viollette, of Leicester Square, Middlesex, late
advocate, for " improvements for warming the interior of railroad, and other
carriages." A communication.) — April 22.

Richard Greville Pigot, of Old Cavendish-street, gentleman, for " improved
apparatus for supporting the human body when immersed in water, for the
purpose of preventing drowning." — April 25.

James Moon, of Mihnan-street, Bedford-row, surveyor, for " improvements
in the manufacture of bricks to be used in the construction of chimneys and
flues." — April 25.

William Brockendon, of Devonshire-street, Queen's-square. Middlesex,
gentleman, for " improvements in the manufacture of waddinq for fire arms."
—April 25.

William Mayo, of Lower Clapton, Middlesex, and John Warmington, of
Wandsworth-road. Surrey, gentlemen, for " improvements in the manufacture
of aerated liquors, and in vessels used for containing aerated liquors." (A
communication.) — April 25.

Charles Forster Cottcrill, of Walsall, Stafford, merchant, for " improve-
ments in the progressive manufacture of grain intojlour or meal, the whote
or pari or parts of which improvements mag be applied to the ordinary me-
thod of manufacture." — April 27.

John Winspear, of Liverpool, ship-smith, for " an improved mode of reefing
certain sails of ships, and other vessels." — April 27.

ANI CAT HE BRAIL, AffiifflEKJIA,

J R.Mlu,.

*..'■'.:.««■'<;■ '. ,4; If'^^^Tl

1843.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

183

ANI CHURCH IN ARMENIA.

Description of a church at Ani in Armenia, translated from the " Revue
Generate de I' jSrchi/ecture," 1842,/;. 102.

C With an Engraving, Plate VII.)

By Professor Donaldson, Vice-President.

(Read at the Royal Institute of British Architects.)

Amongst the ruins of Ani are two churches in an almost perfect
state of preservation, upon which Armenian writers have expressed
both their censures and praises. We can form a sufficiently correct
notion of the extent and character of the monuments mentioned in
history. From the enthusiastic manner in which the Armenian au-
thors speak of the metropolitan church at Ani, it would appear that
it was considered one of the chefs d'ceuvre of Armenian architecture,
and that this temple was the type of all the religious edifices after-
wards erected throughout Armenia.

At the time that the princes of the family of Pagratides were in
tranquility, they removed their seat of dominion to Ani. Aschod I.
received the royal crown of Armenia from Osdigan Ysa, in the for-
tress of Ani, in the year 885 of our era. Ten years later, Sempad,
his son, added fresh possessions to his inheritance. He was, however,
taken prisoner by the Arabs, carried to Tovin, where he died in tor-
ture. The throne of Ani was not, however, shaken by this blow ;
the Greek emperors signed a treaty with Aschod II., and the Arme-
nian princes redoubled their exertions to render Ani a formidable
station. Its situation was naturally strong, and they added fresh forti-
fications. I shall now examine in detail the most important edifices
of these ruins. So long as Armenia was addicted to the supersti-
tions of the East, she was the more naturally led to borrow from the
arts of Persia, the elements of her national architecture. But when
the preaching of Gregory the Illuminator had had its due effect,
when the Armenians abandoned their ancient faith and adopted with
ardour the Christian religion, a breach arose between the two people,
which was signalised by wars and massacres, which terminated in an
interested, if not sincere, alliance between the Armenians and Greeks
of Byzantium. Whatever concerned the new religion, became an object
of common interest to the two Christian nations. The Armenians
had, perhaps, outstripped the Greeks, in their submission to the new
law, but the ardent spirits of the latter were not satisfied with a mere
speculative faith ; they built churches and monasteries in all parts of
the country, which came within the communion of the faithful. It
was like a forcible possession, which the reactions of Paganism some-
times shook, but which they could never recover. We may trace in
the progress of Byzantine architecture, the gropings of the first
Christians to find a temple, which might give as a whole a striking
symbol of Christianity. During five centuries, the Christians sought,
without appearing to be satisfied. Hence it arises that in the reli-
gious monuments of the four first ages, is found the greatest variety,
if not taste. They are, in fact, ancient temples, with the porticos
closed to form the nave. At other times all the peristyle of the
temple is enclosed within an exterior wall, and thus the Pagan edifice
becomes an immense basilica. Some bishops built circular churches,
or rather, as at Hieropolis, the church is formed of a certain number
of beams simply covered by a roof, such as are now used for ware-
houses and sheds. After the fifth century, light broke in upon the
Christian artists, which tradition expressed, saying that an angel had
appeared to Justinian, in order to trace out for him the plan for his
new temple, which model has been alone imitated, to the exclusion of
all others throughout the whole Byzantine empire. There is no trace
amongst the Armenians of this natural progress of an original genius.
Being always the vassal empire of a foreign people, it yielded uncon-
sciously to the influence of its neighbours, and adopted their arts and
literature. We are unacquainted with the style of the Christian art
in Armenia during the first seven or eight centuries of our era. The
undecided character of the people was evident in all their composi-
tions. Some of them are, however, not devoid of elegance, but in all
, No. 69.— Voi. VI.— June, 1813.

there is a deficiency of strength and severity of character. The
chief defect among the Armenian artists, was their ignorance of
what we may call feeling for proportion, and not knowing how to
adopt with propriety the ornaments of the masses of which they
formed the decoration. Hence it results that the aspect of their
buildings presents a cold and mean appearance, for there is no play of
light and shade to give value to the large surfaces which only present
small columns, without relief, on which the eye may repose.

This defect was not chargeable to the Byzantines, who generally
sought in the facades of their buildings to produce striking effects of
light and shade, by. placing some harmonious relief between the sur-
face of the solids and voids. The delicacy of detail was generally
sacrificed to the mass, the proportions of the columns were rather
heavy than slight, and they endeavoured to gain the height by raising
the semi-circular arch one-fourth of its diameter above the springing.
We recognise this character particularly in the edifices of the period,
of Basilicus and of Coustantine Monomachus. The Armenians evi-
dence in their choice of ornaments, more of the Arab than the Roman
taste. All their details are executed with great delicacy. The use
of columns is very restricted, they are usually engaged and take the
place of pilasters. One of the edifices in the town of Ani, in which
is found isolated columns, was constructed during the period when
the Arabs were masters of Armenia; it is the monument near to
which is a minaret, which I consider the principal mosque. Other
columns belonging to the porch of a church, also, have capitals of the
Arab character.

Upon surveying the circuit of the walls of the town, we recognise
the exaggeration of the chroniclers of the times. Matthew d'Edessa
thus expresses himself, in speaking of the royal city : " In 1064 the
sultan Alp-Arslan, brother of Toghrul Bey, determined to conquer
Armenia, and encamped before the royal city of Ani, which was then
in the possession of the Greek Emperors. This town contained an
immense population, and a thousand and one churches where mass
was said." John Alathir, the Arab historian, records the same fact,
but only mentions five hundred churches. " Arslan fixes the siege of
Ani in the year 10G4. This town was protected by two deep vallies;
it contained some magnificent monuments, and one might count in it
more than five hundred churches." To judge from the present ruins,
it would be difficult to conceive that the number of temples dedicated
to the Christian religion exceeded fifty, even including the baptiste-
ries and the altars of cross-ways with their pictures.

But this people, who never had the instinct for great works, were
satisfied with admiring monuments which are useful to study as the
history of art, but which must not be compared to the edifices of the
East, to the vast Latin basilicas, nor even to the mosques of Ismalism,
erected by the Turkish or Seldjioukides sultans.

The peculiar character of the religious architecture of the Arme-
nians, is the exclusion of the spherical cupola, which is replaced by a
conical ceiling. This species of construction applied to the edifices
of Ani, is also found in a great number of Arab tombs, in Cappadocia,
which was in the possession of the kings of Armenia for severa*
centuries. As these monuments are of a more recent date than those
of Ani, there is reason to believe that the Seldjioukides adopted the
spirit of the Armenian monuments.

The plan of the metropolitan church of Ani is composed of a nave,
with transepts, in the centre of which is placed a dome, and side
ailes. The entire length of the church is 105 feet, and its width
05 feet 6 inches, that is to say, the proportion of the edifice does not
exceed those of some of our village churches. The dome is sup-
ported by four pillars composed of a group of shafts (feiseaux) which
run up to the impost, and which are carried up so as to form a Gothic
arch.

The lateral arches, which separate the nave from the side ailes,
have their imposts at half the height of the large isolated pillars,
and the higher arches spring from engaged pillars, the shafts and pro-
jections of which correspond with the isolated pillars. The choir is
composed of a hemicycle, which is decorated with ten small niches,
divided from each other by double columns. The altar is placed in

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

the centre of the hemicycle, as is customary in the Armenian rites.
A wooden screen, called by the Greeks Khangelon, extended from one
extremity of the hemicycle to the other; it is to this screen that the
curtains and tapestries, of which mention is frequently made, are at-
tached. To the right and left of the hemicycle are two small sacris-
ties, one to preserve the gospels, the other to contain the sacred
vases; such is the simplicity of the plan of this edifice. Its deco-
ration consists in paintings, which, however, time has destroyed;
there now only remains in the choir some traces of the figures of the
twelve Apostles. The whole of the interior of the church was co-
vered with stucco, which has fallen off gradually. The central lan-
tern is at this time dilapidated, the fragments have accumulated in
the centre of the church ; it is possible to recognize the greater part
of the exterior decoration, and the system of covering is precisely
the same as that of a neighbouring church, of which the lantern is
still perfect.

The stucco in falling has laid open the stone used in the construc-
tion of the pillars. It is a volcanic tufo, which has the property of
hardening on exposure to the air. The courses of the pillars are
formed of alternate yellow and black stone, which recal certain con-
structions of the thirteenth century in Italy. This taste of zones of
various colours was very general among the Mussulmen of Syria and
Egypt. In Cairo, they are still careful to paint on their mosques
horizontal bands with slacked lime and red ocre, but in other towns in
the East these zones are made with different coloured stones. The
first impression which is produced on entering this half destroyed
nave, is a feeling of melancholy, on witnessing the nakedness of the
stone and the coldness of the lines. The narrowness of the side
ailes apparently increases the thickness of the pillars. But painting
formerly enlivened these high walls, and the small quantity of light
shed on the nave when the cupola was complete, must have given to
the interior of this temple a melancholy and austere tone, which was
in harmony with the grave character of the people who frequented it.

Those, who have observed the progress of the arts in the middle
ages in Europe, will be disposed to consider this edifice as a work of
the thirteenth century; it indeed bears the characteristics: but the
date inscribed on the portal proves it to be far more ancient, and that
the pointed arch was in use in Armenia at the period when the Roman
style was the only one which was adopted in Europe.

The facade of this church, constructed with remarkable simplicity
and decorated with great reserve, presents, however, an interesting
subject, as it may be regarded as the type of the German architecture
of the middle ages. It is easy to explain why, throughout this coun-
try, is found the dome with the conic roof peculiar to the Armenian
architecture. After the taking of Ani by the Mussulmen, a great
number of the citizens abandoned the town. They could not retire
into Persia, where they would have been received as enemies. The
Greeks in Byzantium, being equally hostile to them as the Persians,
it was towards the North country they directed their steps. They
were received by the kings of Georgia, and spread themselves over
Moldavia as far as Poland, where they formed different establish-
ments. All these countries, which were still immersed in ignorance,
availed themselves of the knowledge brought to them by these new
comers. Although a religious spirit was dominant among the Arme-
nians, they were too timid to make any effort to promulgate their doc-
trines. The rising Christianity of those countries borrowed of them
what they could adopt of their arts, but remained faithful to the
ritual of the Greek church. The style of this architecture progressed
by degrees towards the North. It was from them that the Russians
imbibed their first elements.

The facade of the church is in harmony with the simplicity of the
plan. All superfluous ornament is excluded. Slight engaged co-
lumns on the face of the walls support circular arches, which are
raised a little above their centre. The middle arch, on the contrary,
approaches the pointed form. Two semicircular panels to the right
and left of the window, present to the eyes of the faithful the image
of the cross, placed in the middle of an hexagonal star, surrounded
by a foliage of flowers.

The three divisions of the nave are indicated outwardly bv a pedi-
ment, which adjusts itself with the wall of partition of the cross, and
by the two slopes of the roof which cover the side ailes.

This arrangement of the upper part was often emploved in the
churches of the middle ages in Europe. It is the most simple and
logical arrangement. The cornices a>-e composed of slightly pro-
jecting mouldings, separated by a rather broad fascia, decorated with
a Greek scroll. Below the summit of the pediment there is another
bas-relief, in the middle of which is a Latin cross placed in a richly
sculptured frame.

This grouping is frequently repeated in various ways on the doors,
monuments, and exterior walls. It was not only at Ani that this cus-
tom prevailed, the principal towns of Armenia were also decorated in
the same manner. Ibn Alather, in his chronicle, makes frequent men-
tion of this peculiarity. The town of Matian Neschin was surrounded
by a wall composed of large stones, and ornamented with crosses fixed
with lead and iron. The quarries of Ani furnished materials of va-
rious colours ; they availed themselves of this opportunity to execute
crosses in yellow and black mosaic. The facade of the church par-
ticipated in this polychromatic decoration; but we cannot conceive
what induced the builder of the church to work in, in an irregular
manner, black and yellow stones promiscuously in the wall of the
elevation. The quarries which produced the stones for the church
are sufficiently abundant to have furnished all the materials they re-
quired. Three windows afforded light to the nave ; that in the
middle is square, surrounded by a broad framework, the two side
windows are hardly wide enough to give light to the side aisles.
There is au inscription on one side the door in the Armenian language,
which states that the metropolitan church of Ani was built by '^ueen
Gadramia, wife of King Kakig, the first successor of Sempad who
laid the foundations of the edifice in the year 1U10 of our era.

Hence it appears that at the time the pointed arch was unknown
in Europe, monuments of the Gothic style were constructed in Ar-
menia. At Diarbekir there is a very remarkable monument, which is
now converted into a mosque, also constructed in the Gothic style.
The Armenians call this edifice the palace of Tigranes, and there is
nothing to disprove its having been the residence of this prince. The
ground floor of this palace is embellished with columns in the Roman
style, with Corinthian capitals of tolerably correct workmanship; these
columns support a range of Gothic arches. The order of the first
story is also Corinthian much enriched; the frieze and cornices are
formed upon the principle of the Roman arch in the fourth century;
the Gothic arch is, however, mixed up with this architecture, so as to
iudicate its common use in these countries. Although it is difficult to
fix the precise date when the pointed arch was first used in architec-
ture, we cannot form any positive conclusion as to the date of the
monument in which it is found. Up to the present time this question
is far from being decided, but it is very certain that the pointed arch
is of eastern origin, since it may be traced in Mesopotamia long before
it was known in Europe.

As to the arch greater than the semicircle, which we are accustomed
to regard as Saracenic, it is of such rare occurrence in the West, that
its eastern origin cannot be contested. It appears certain that it was
first introduced into Europe by the Moors, but it may be observed in
the eastern buildings, even before the birth of Mahomet. The Ar-
menian church of Dighour presents a remarkable example of this
kind of arches, their curve or rather the elevation of the centre above
the line of impost is much more decided than in the church at Ani.
It bsars the date of 1104.

The lateral front of the metropolitan church at Ani is constructed
in the same style as the principal front. The gable end of the cross
is enlightened by a circular window, as on the facade: under this win-
dow is a kind of tympanum or table with a Gothic arch. This table
projects very little, and has no particular decoration. To the right
and left of the door there are two very elongated niches, or rather two
species of sinkings, which correspond with cavities in the engaged
columns. The same adjustment may be observed in the back elevation
of the church. But there it is more defined, as it disengages the cir-

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cular end of the hemicycle from the two side sacristies. This disposition
is characteristic of the architecture of Ani. It may be noticed in the
other church, which is in much better preservation than the cathedral,
but which was not so much esteemed by the Armenians. No traces
are to be found amongst these ruins of any staircase, nor of any vaults
for purposes of sepulture. It was, however, the custom of the Ar-
menians to inter the dead in churches, for we read in the geography
of Vartan, that " the body of Gregory the Illuminator was brought from
Constantinople, and was placed in a grave under the four columns of
the church." The same author mentions a great number of relics found
in the churches and monasteries.

One striking circumstance in this architecture is the ingenious
manner in which the inhabitants availed themselves of the materials
placed within their reach. The roofing is constructed with an art
equal to that, which has produced the finest monuments of antiquity.
The large tiles made of lava have their edges turned up at right
angles, like the tiles of marble used in the temples; these two ends,
applied one against the other, are covered by a continuous capping,
and the whole is supported upon a stone vaulting. Hence it arises
that in the construction of the edifice no wood has been employed;
and although abandoned for five or six centuries, the edifices of Ani
have suffered little from the effects of time. It is, in my opinion, a
remarkable feature in Armenian architecture, to have been conceived in
accordance with the materials so immediately within reach. Wood
being scarce in the country, the use of it was entirely excluded. As
lime is a substance very uncommon in volcanic formations, they learnt
to do without it ; whilst tufo of different consistence and divers colours
were cut, chiselled, and sculptured in walls and capitals, in columns
and vaultings, in great variety.

The century which followed that of the erection of the cathedral,
witnessed the decline of the town of Ani, which fell into the hands of
the Byzantine princes, who already possessed Kars and Erzinghan.
The church, which was situated close to the river, appears to have
been consecrated to the Greek ritual, as they had added before the
entrance a portico or vestibule, which was always placed in front of
the churches of this communion.

The two lower courses only remain of the lantern, but all the other
fragments are heaped up in the nave. The lantern has been restored
from these fragments, and from those of a neighbouring church which
is exactly similar to that of the cathedral. The dressings of the door
are also very little injured ; the rest of the edifice is in perfect preser-
vation. The whole of the monument is constructed of yellow and
black lava.

ON THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.

Observations upon the very marked and varied style of composition
exhibited in the capitals appertaining to the Temples of Jupiter Stator,
and of Mars Ultor, and to the interior of the Pantheon at Rome.

By A. W. Hakewell.

The first and paramount duty of the architect being to select an ap-
propriate form or outline for his building, he next considers the detail,
with a view to give to the outline a suitable expression.

It is proposed, in the following observations, to take into consider-
ation the subject of detail only, moreover directing attention to one
sole feature of ornamental detail, viz., that triumph of human inven-
tion, the Corinthian Capital ; with a view then to show how bent
the ancients were upon giving expression to their works, in order that
these, if it may be so expressed, should speak a peculiar and suitable
language, it may be well to cite those admirable examples of the
Corinthian Capital, left us by the Romans. But prior to entering
upon the merits of particular examples of the Corinthian Capital, it
may be allowable to refer to the composition itself, commencing with
the account of its origin; and here we are indebted to Vitruvius for
a simple and elegant story, the spirit of which, it must be confessed,
is quite in harmony with the beautiful object to which it relates, and

if not taken too literally, but on the contrary, properly entered into,
will be found like most of the allegories of the ancients, to contain
an important truth.

We are told that a maid of Corinth having died, her devoted at-
tendant seeking consolation in the last sad offices, collected the fa-
vourite trinkets of the departed into a gracefully elongated basket,
which she carried to the tomb, and secured there, by placing upon it a
square tile ; it so happened that a young acanthus shot up close to the
spot, and entwined its leaves round the basket,

" Flexile around its sides the acanthus twin'd,
Strikes as a miracle of art the mind."

Theocritus.

that the ends of the delicate stems meeting with resistance from the
overhanging stone at the top, bent gracefully down, resolving them-
selves into spirals, which altogether produced so much of symmetry
and variety of form, that the artist Callimachus, who chanced to see
the composition, made a representation of it, and reduced it to the
Corinthian Capital.

The graceful spirit of this metamorphosis will, of itself, secure to it
an abode in our minds, but its utility gives it the greatest claim to our
attention; linked as the story is with so masterly an invention in the
ornamental department of architecture, it reminds us forcibly that art
to be striking, must spring from the contemplation of nature ; but
not exactly from that species of contemplation inferred by this in-
genious tale, which can be viewed in no other light, than as a
graceful fiction setting forth the first principles of invention; it is to
contemplation of a far more mental and abstracted kind, that we stand
indebted for the ingenuity and grace exhibited in the design under
consideration ; we leave no scope to intellectual vision in this affair,
and wholly discard originality, if we view it as a matter of fact; and
yet there have not been wanting those who have inserted this story
in their works, as a credible manner of accounting for the origin of
the Corinthian Capital, whilst others have gone still further, and ren-
dered it ridiculous, by graphically illustrating the subject, presenting
us with the whimsical group of Callimachus with his basket of leaves.
The inventive faculty requires no such broad hints, nor such palpable
suggestions, but suggests powerfully itself, and from the slightest in-
cidents ; the primary objects which inspire an artist's thoughts, stand
in no nearer relation to his matured conceptions, than do the juices
gathered by the bee, to the honey to which she finally converts them.

First principles form the basis of his conceptions, but the power of
combining is wholly dependent upon originality of feeling, and when
taste and judgment are united to invention, then it is that the objects
created assume that natural and easy aspect which prompts us to as-
sign their origin to some production of nature ; thus the graceful
Ionic capital is said to be in imitation of a peculiar style of female
headdress; the groined vaulting in Gothic architecture to the inter-
lacing of the boughs of a grove of trees ; and because the Corinthian
capital does not exist in nature, we go about to make up a most im-
probable story, we require a trick, a harlequinade on the part of na-
ture, merely because we are unwilling to admit the truth, and pay
just homage to tlio inventive faculty of man.

While discoursing upon the Corinthian Capital, it may not be amiss
to remark upon the simplicity of the design itself— simplicity, that
essential quality, the inseparable concomitant of all that is beautiful
in nature and art, enters largely into the composition of this graceful
work ; nothing can be more easily understood than the plan of the
Corinthian Capital ; two circular tiers of leaves, one tier placed above
the other, the centres of the upper leaves, corresponding with the
spaces separating those of the lower tier; a stem giving birth to spi-
rals jutting out at each of the four angles, the whole surmounted by a
slab, concave on its outer edges, constitute this striking architectural
feature; albeit the parts are few, still the effect is great; there is no
appearance of effort ; this is the result of simple intelligent arrange-
ment. These are the lessons which teach us to value the sentiment
so winningly expressed by the poet, when invoking simplicity he
savs —

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progress was a voluntary accomplishment, independent of its support,
and not the veritable means of that support itself, determined by the
conditions of the case alone. These conditions we have shown to be
the might and superficial dimensions of the suspending plane : and
bv these conditions, in the present case, observing an inclination of 3°,
we are referred to a velocity of 240, or more properly 280 miles an
hour. A modification of these conditions, involving an enlargement
of the surface or a diminution of the weight, is therefore, and abso-
lutely, the only existing means by which any part of this velocity
could be effectually dispensed with; a modification which, moreover,
we showed to be equally necessary to its success in another point of
view ; the accomplishment, namely, of its descent, consistently with
the preservation of human life, or even of the integrity of the ma-
chine itself. It only remains, on this head of inquiry, therefore, to
make a few remarks respecting the particular/oral which Mr. Henson
has adopted for this important portion of his aerial apparatus.

Where so much more is required to be done than can be easily ac-
complished, and the utmost that we can reasonably hope to arrive at
is a very limited reduction of the essential difficulties of the case, a
lack of proper economy in the disposition of our resources becomes
a grevious error, and inevitably leads to the conclusion that chance or
mistaken analogy rather than the legitimate inductions of science
have had a share in determining the choice. To those who have not
considered the matter or made it the subject of actual experiment, it
may not readily suggest itself that the really effective obstacle to the
accomplishment of an aerial navigation, upon the principle of the
plan before us, consists in the difficulty of constructing a rigidly ex-
tended surface, of sufficient dimensions and sufficiently light to answer
the purpose required of it. Apart from this there is literally nothing
that interferes, nothing that has to be overcome: for in the attainment
of this object are merged all the obligations in respect of
which the want of it alone imposes, aud which constitutes in its de-
fault the existing obstacle to success. The difficulty which is here
alluded to, and which, be it observed, is interposed by nature herself,
in the essential properties of matter, depends upon the ratio in which
weight, or rather, its effects in pressure, increase in respect of the
distance at which it is suspended from its fulcrum or point of support,
and the impossibility of counteracting these effects by the interven-
tion of any means which do not also add to the forces, by the ope-
ration of which their adoption in the first instance was required.
The conditions of weight, and consequently the obligations of support,
increase, as we all know, in the ratio of the leverage, or horizontal
projection ; and this with such effect, as very soon to confound the
best directed efforts of the most ingenious architect to combine
solidi'y and lightness with extension in a plane of any magnitude that
is devoid of extrinsic sources of support. With these inherent and
inevitable peculiarities, it scarcely needs to be observed, the main
ob;< ct to be aimed at by those who have occasion to construct a sur-
face in which the qualities in question are required to be carried to
their extremest degree, is to have a form for that surface the most
compact, in which the largest area is contained within the least re-
mote limits ; an advantage which the circular alone of all others is
pre-eminently calculated to afford. In Mr. Hensou's scheme, however,
this has been entirely lost sight of, and, for what purpose it would be
hard to conjecture, a form has been adopted, in which the smallest
extent of surface is obtained in conjunction with the fullest develop-
ment of all the natural difficulties by which the case is peculiarly
beset. The stringency of this observation will be the more readily
perceived when we consider that the utmost amount of surface which
Mr. Henson has been able to accomplish, (for we will not suppose he
has stopped short of his ability in this most essential ingredient of
success,) involves an extension of 75 feet on either side the centre of
support, within which limits, had he adopted the circular form, he
might with equal facility have comprised an area of exactly four
times the extent ; the very quantity we have already shown to be the
least with which it would be possible to enable it to come with safety
to the ground.

Besides this, there is another objection to the shape of Mr. Hen-

son's plane, which deserves to be noticed ; namely, the superfluous
amount of horizontal resistance to which it is calculated to give rise.
The force of resistance, it is well known, depends upon the direction
of its development— is greatest when it is perpendicular, and dimi-
nishes with the obliquity of the impact. Now the whole of the re-
sistance experienced by the opposing front of Mr. Hensou's plane, is
of the former description, and consequently the greatest it could by
any possibility be made to encounter. Without pretending to form
any estimate of the actual amount of this force, we shall merely ob-
serve that by the adoption of a circular or even an elliptical form,
the greater part of it would have been effectively avoided.

Nor must the question of danger be altogether overlooked in criti-
cising the properties of Mr. Hensou's plane. Depending entirely for
its stability upon the due strength and tension of the cords by which
it is supported, it is easy to see how precarious must be that form of
structure which at once involves the fewest number aud the greatest
length ; where the whole weight, situated in the centre, is sustained
by levers in one direction only, aud where, consequently, the rupture
of a single line of braces must be attended with the collapsion of the
whole mass and its unrestrained precipitation to the earth.

To complete this survey, we will only add one more objection,
which, though we have placed it last, is by no means the least charac-
teristeric of those to the charge of which Mr. Henson's plane, in its
present form, is liable ; we mean the obstacle to its rectilinear motion,
arising out of the exaggerated inequality of the forces which it is
calculated to develop in its progress. If the opposite sides of the
suspending plane be in any way productive of different amounts of
resistance in passing through the air, (and no precision attainable by
art can prevent this conclusion iu some degree,) this difference acting
continuously and through the intervention of a lever of 75 feet in.
length, will create a re-action destructive of the regularity of its pro-
gress, which it will require the application of considerable powers to
be able effectually to counteract. Supposing, for instance, (what may
inevitably be apprehended,) that a dislocation or distension of any of
the numerous bracings by which the rigidity of the plane is to be se-
cured, should occur on either side of the machine more than on the
other, an alteration in the obliquity of the presentation of the sides
must ensue, and a disturbance of the equilibrium of resistance, which
if it be only equivalent to ten pounds (and at the rate of 210 miles
an hour, the perpendicular resistance upon a single square foot of
surface, would be equal to 288 pounds) at the distance of 75 feet from
the centre of motion, would influence its course with a diversion
equivalent to a pressure of 750 pounds, and acting continuously, oc-
casion a constant tendency to move iu the circumference of a circle,
only to be resisted by a rudder of suitable dimensions ; to the mani-
fest retardation of its speed, and the consequent expenditure of a
considerable amount of power.

Why Mr. Henson should have fixed upon this form for the con-
struction of his suspending plane, we cannot pretend to surmise. All
we. can say is that, if it has been designed with a view to preserve
any analogy with the bird whose wings appear to be similarly ex-
tended in flight, the design is founded in a mistake. The bird re-
quires its wings to be laterally extended, that they may operate to
the greatest advantage in effectuating its propulsion through the air.
This purpose, however, in Mr. Henson's plan, is intended to be an-
swered by another expedient; namely, the revolving vanes. Tore-
tain the form after the purpose has been superseded, is to defeat not
to sustain the analogy designed.

We have not stopped to examine the various modifications which
have been proposed in different quarters by way of improvement
upon this part of Mr. Hensou's machine. Two only of these mo-
difications we would particularize, because they have emanated
from, or obtained the sanction of, one justly celebrated for his scien-
tific attainments, and especially in matters relating to the present
subject: the first consists in doubling the amount of surface, by
placing tico planes, one over the other; and the second, in the adop-
tion of a conical or curved surface, as it were sunk a little in the
I middle, instead of one perfectly plane, with a view to escape the os-

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dilations which are otherwise apprehended to ensue. With regard
to the former of these, there is no doubt the conception is just; but
a closer consideration shows it to be impracticable. We have no
hesitation in declaring that it would be absolutely impossible to con-
struct two planes of sufficient magnitude, sufficiently remote from
each other to allow them to be freely impinged upon, with sufficient
strength to maintain that position so completely as to form but one
object with reference to the power by which it is to be moved, con-
sistently with any thing like the lightness that would be necessary to
qualify it for the purposes of mechanical flight. With regard to the
second, if it is meant to propose as a model the plan, of which a
sketch is given in the number of the Mechanic's Magazine for the
8th of April, the same objection would apply. It would be quite im-
possible to construct it, or anything like it, of the proper size and
strength, within the limitation of weight required by the essential
conditions of the case. To which we would add, that we are inclined
to consider the provision itself uncalled for. If a plane could be con-
structed of any form sufficiently light and large to serve the purposes
of flight, it would be difficult to prevent it from assuming of itself a
form analogous to that proposed. But we are, moreover, sceptical as
to the properties ascribed to it, and the advantages which it is said to
hold out. The freedom from oscillation which bodies of that form
are stated to display in their progress through the air, and for the il-
lustration of which we are referred to the case of the shuttlecock,
we conceive arises partly from the additional distance of the centre
of gravity below the plane of suspension, (which its form obliges, but
does not restrict,) and partly from the diminished resistance it otters to
the descent; no very great recommendation, one would suppose,
where that propensity is the main difficulty to be overcome. But, in
truth, the simplest form in all these cases is the best; and if a circular
or elliptical surface cannot be made to answer the purpose required
of it, it will be in vain to seek for it in a more elaborate construction
or a more complex form. And thus much for the suspending plane.

II. The next in order of the parts of Mr. Henson's aerial apparatus
which we have proposed to discuss, are the controlling appendages or
fan-like expansions, the purposes of which are, as we are given to
understand, to regulate the vertical and horizontal movements of the
machine, and present an obstacle to the oscillations to which it is ex-
pected to be subjected in its course. And first with respect to this
latter purpose, the appropriate instrument of which is a vertical wsb
of considerable superficial dimensions, extending from the front to the
back of the machine, bisecting the suspending plane, the mode by
which it is designed to operate is, we presume, by the resistance to
its displacement, which it would experience in the re-action of the
surrounding air. Now this resistance, be it observed, is entirely in-
dependent of the particular position of the resisting surface, and
■would have been equally attainable, had it been horizontally instead
of vertically displayed ; in other words, had the projector, instead of
appropriating to that end a special instrument, made an equivalent
addition to the suspending plane. To this must be added, that by a
vertical arrangement, an opposition is afforded to the oscillations,
■which tend to occur in one direction only; whereas, had the latter
alternative been adopted, all the oscillations which could occur would
have been equally provided against, while at the same time additional
efficacy would have been conferred upon that part of the machine
where it is most required. To have devoted a large, or any portion,
of his resources to the accomplishment of a single purpose, and that
of doubtful and secondary importance, when it might have been made
equally conducive to another, and that most exigent and essential,
argues a great neglect of economy in those particulars in which its
unqualified observance is absolutely necessary to success, and a disre-
gard, to say the least, of those principles upon which the operation
of the chief members of the machine depends. It is exactly as if a
person having only two horses, and a carriage which their united
efforts were but just sufficient to move, were to keep one of them
always in reserve, for the purpose of attaching it behind occasionally,
when the carriage was going down a hill.

By the intervention of the second of these controlling appendages,

we are likewise informed, is to be governed the ascent and descent of
the machine in its onward course, and the mode in which we are
given to understand this is to be effected, is by some disposition of it,
similar to that of the tail of a bird, enabling it to regulate within
certain limits the horizontal inclination of the suspending plane.
Now in respect of this, the least we can say is, that it is an expedient
equally unnecessary and inapplicable with the preceding. The posi-
tion of a plane suspended in equilibrio, is a matter so readily affected,
that he must have strange notions of the conditions of the case, who
conceives it necessary to make a provision for the purpose in an ex-
tensive and cumbrous apparatus. It is not in fact by any modification
of construction or application of special machinery that the object in
view is necessarily or properly to be accomplished ; but by a dispo-
sition of the appended weightequally simple and secure. A few
shovels full of coal thrown from the front to the back of the fire, or
the transfer of any of the aerial passengers from one part of the car
to another, would at any time effect a change in the position of the
whole floating mass, far more necessary, indeed, and difficult to guard
against than to accomplish; and from the smallness of the angle of
inclination, more than sufficient for the purposes which could ever in
that behalf be required. For it is not, in truth, by any such modifi-
cation of the position of the suspending plane that the ascent and
descent of the machine is to be properly governed, but by a modifi-
cation of the force with which it is propelled. The suspension of the
machine in transitu, being the result of the development of a certain
amount of resistance in the air opposed to gravitation, which resist-
ance varies with the rate, and consequently with the force under
which it is generated at a given angle, the conditions of this suspen-
sion, affecting the level of the machine's course, follow the exercise
of this power; so that having a force equal to the propulsion of the
machine at its highest elevation, its reduction to a lower level is the
natural and simple consequence of a reduction in the energy of the
force employed, and vice versa ; any modification in the obliquity of
the plane which might be necessary to second this movement, being
more than sufficiently attainable by the occasional disposition of the
appended weight as before explained.

But the adoption of this device, sufficiently extravagant, even if
conceived with a just notion of its effects, becomes doubly preposte-
rous, when viewed in the light of a contrivance, not only unnecessary
and inapplicable to the purposes for which it was intended, but abso-
lutely producing its effects in direct contravention of the anticipated
results of its operations. For what are the consequences of the mo-
dification in the obliquity of the suspending plane, to be brought about
by the agency of this caudal appendage, as described by Mr. Henson,
in the specification of his machinery, and inconsiderately adopted by
all those, without exception, who have taken upon themselves the
office of enlightening the public upon this interesting subject '. To-
tally overlooking the circumstances upon which the actual suspension
of the machine depends, and regarding it as it were a body endowed
with the power of following with equal facility any course towards
which it might happen to be directed, all alike concur in considering
the disposition of the inclined plane as giving (so to speak) the cue
to the appended body ; so that having attained an elevation in the
bosom of the air, all that is necessary to increase that elevation is to
augment the angle of inclination, and, vice versii, to diminish the ele-
vation, it is only requisite to decrease the inclination of the sus-
pending plane. Now the whole of this reasoning is false, and the
consequences in fact directly contrary to what they are here repre-
sented. So far from the direction of the plane indicating and con-
trolling the course of the machine in the way described, paradoxical
as it may appear, the modifications in question would be productive of
exactly opposite results ; as will be evident to those who consider the
conditions upon which the support of the plane in transitu is really
dependent. The resistance developed upon the under surface of the
plane and resolved in a direction opposed to gravitation, which is the
true grounds of its support, following the ratio of the squares of the
sines into the cosines of the angles of inclination, while the horizontal
resistance, which is the measure of its propulsion, varies as the cubes

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of the sines of the same angles, any alteration in the obliquity of the
plane must affect the latter more extensively than the former, and
determine a balance in favour of that condition which is mor.t in con-
formity with the change ; if it be to diminish the horizontal resistance
(which is the result of a diminished angle of inclination), increasing
the relative effects of the vertical, which is the medium of support;
and if to increase the horizontal resistance, (which is the consequence
of augmenting the inclination) to disparage the vertical resistance,
and incontinently subtract from the ascensive powers of the machine.
Accordingly, therefore, if the machine be progressing with a given
force, and it be desired to rite, this result will be accomplished by
reducing the inclination of the suspending plane, and on the other
hand, if the angle in question be enlarged, it will immediately begin to
descend; the rate in the former instance increasing and in the latter
diminishing with the alterations in the obliquity of the plane, and the
accompanying alterations in the level of its course.

With regard to the remaining purpose of these controlling appen-
dages, corresponding to the horizontal steerage, of the aerial vessel,
but little needs to be observed. Having no forces to contend with
which operate to favour one direction more than another, except such
as may arise from the unequal resistances occasioned by the opposite
sides of the machine itself, any amount of artificial resistance beyond
what is thus indicated, if properly applied, is sufficient to give a pre-
ponderance to any course which may be chosen ; the only advantage
of a more liberal supply being in the limitation of the space within
•which it enables the aeronaut to effectuate his purpose — an advantage,
of no great consideration in the abundant regions of the sky. In this
respect the case of the aerial machine is most favourably distinguished
from that of the ship at sea, pursuing her course under the influence
of the wind; where the force by which she is propelled being fre-
quently oblique, and in a sense adverse to the direction of her route,
she requires a given power, not only to obtain a course but to hep it,
and the conditions of which are governed by those of the force to be
opposed.

It only remains to observe, in answer to the objections of those
who imagine that, in the tenuity of the medium, exists an im-
pediment to the efficiency of the rudder, that these objections are
founded upon an imperfect consideration of the principles of the case
involved. The impediments to the efficiency of any instrument are
equally dependent upon the obstacles to be overcome as the means of
overcoming them. Where these arise out of the same conditions,
there can be nothing in the conditions themselves to influence in
either way the success of its operations. And this is the case exactly
with respect to the guidance of the aerial machine by means of the
rudder. The obstacle to be overcome and the means of overcoming
it are the same — namely the resistance of the air; in proportion as
the weakness of this condition operates to disparage the powers of
the rudder, in exactly the same proportion does it operate to dis-
parage the forces by which the action of the rudder is opposed.

III. We now proceed to examine the third subject of investigation
which we proposed to ourselves in the outset; namely, the revolving
apparatus, by the reaction of which the impetus is to be maintained,
which is to determine the progressive motion of the machine. These
instruments may be most succinctly described as both in form and
operation resembling the rotatory portion of a windmill, only con-
sisting of six arms instead of four, about 10 feet long (the breadth not
stated) and inclined to the plane of their revolution at an angle of
45 degrees. Being two in number (one on each side of the centre of
gravity) in the same plane, and facing the direction of the intended
route, that part of the resistance they are calculated to generate by
their forced rotation which is perpendicular to the plane in which
they revolve, becomes available to the propulsion of the machine, and
constitutes, in fact, the measure and the means of its success. As it
is clear, by the obliquity of the impact a certain quantity of the force
which is developed becomes resolved in directions not favourable to
the object in view, before any thing can be pronounced with certainty
as to the efficiency of the means at command, it must be determined
how much of these means is really turned to account— how much is

realized and how much lost in the process by which it is conveyed
from the source to the object upon which it is intended to act.

In determining the efficiency of any system of impinging planes,
there are three elements concerned in the constitution of the force
developed, which require to be considered — the angle of inclination,
the maAer, and the tize of the impinging surfaces.

Of these elements there is one only the actual amount of which is
independently determinable — we mean, that does not regard the other
conditions of the case, but has its maximum effect assignable with re-
ference to itself alone — and this is the angle of inclination. Whatever
tins be that may be found to be best suited to the purpose, it will still
continue to be the best under all modifications of size and number,
rate of motion and condition of medium, which may happen to charac-
terize the case. Now this angle, (that whereat an inclined plane is
calculated to develop the greatest amount of resistance at right angles
to the direction of the impinging force,) has been already determined,
both by mathematical induction and actual experiment, in a strictly
analogous case; namely, that of the windmill, in which the conditions
both of the object and of the means are precisely the same : for it will
not be considered to constitute any difference, whether the plane be
impelled against the air or the air be directed to act against the
plane. In both cases the object is to develop the greatest amount of
atmospheric resistance at right angles to the direction of the impact;
and the angle at which this is complete has been established to be an
angle of 54c 44'. The arguments, both mathematical and experimental
by which this conclusion has been sustained, may be found in most
works upon pneumatics ; but we abstain from quoting them here,
because we have a shorter way, and more open to the comprehension
of the general reader, by which the same is ascertainable, and which,
moreover, by the almost perfect coincidence it presents with the re-
sult deduced from other sources, serves at once to illustrate and con-
firm the correctness of the general inference. We have already had
occasion to observe that the ratio of the degrees of vertical resistance,
developed by inclined planes moving horizontally, (which is exactly
analogous to that the conditions of which we are now investigating)
follows the ratio of the squares of the sines into the cosines of the
angles of inclination. Accordingly whatever be the angle of which
the sine squared, multiplied by the cosine, is the greatest, the same
must also be the angle most favourable for the production of the re-
quired resistance. This actual computation enables us to fix at
54 16', differing only by tin minutes from that otherwise assigned;
as any one who pleases may verify for himself by consulting a table of
natural sines, and applying the test to the corresponding sines and
cosines of the angles, differing only by one minute on either side,
taking four places of decimals in the estimation of the quantities
concerned.3 By what process of reasoning Mr. Heuson was led to
adopt, for his impinging vanes, an angle of 45Q we cannot presume to
conjecture ; unless, observing that in the opposite conditions of perfect
parallelism and direct uniformity of plane, answering to the angles
of 90D and 0°, no available resistance at all was generated, he came
to the conclusion that the proper resting place was the half way house
between. Be this how it may, by assigning an angle of 45° as the
inclination of his impinging planes, he has exactly sacrificed one twelfth
of the wdiole amount of his resources, as may be seen by comparing
the sines squared multiplied by the cosines of the angles of 45" and
54" 46' respectively, which are subjoined in the note below.4

With regard to the two remaining elements of the case referred to,
the number and size of the impinging planes, the amount of their
effects in action being not only governed by an indefinite power of
arrangement (being themselves unlimited in extent by any specific
terms), but moreover, (in theory at least) entirely subject to the influ-
ence of another condition — the rate of their operation, it is clearly

3 The products of the sines squared multiplied by the cosines of the an-
gles of bi" 15', 54c 46' and 54c 4 7', are respectively -38483, -38488, and
•3847"; whence it is apparent that the turning point is the intermediate
angle.

4 The sines squared multiplied by the cosines of the angles of 45° and of
54c 46' are respectively -3534 7 and'38488, which is very nearly in the ratio
of 11 to 12.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

191

impossible precisely to define tlie actual quantities or proportions of
each wliich are calculated to produce the greatest amount of resistance
available to the purpose in view. But though we are thus precluded
from appointing any specific terms to the size and number, in like
manner as we have been able to do with respect to the obliquity of
the impinging planes, yet are there certain considerations by which
these conditions are affected, and under which a rough estimate may
be formed of their efficiency or aptitude to perform the work assigned
to them. These considerations are drawn from the properties of the
medium, and the obligations of speed imposed upon the aerial vehicle
by the already stated exigencies of its support. It is well known and
easily conceivable, that when surfaces of any specific dimensions are
set in motion, a disturbance of the equilibrium of the density of the
air must ensue proportioned to the extent and speed of the impingiu g
planes. Now if the system of planes by which this disturbance is
effected, should be so constituted as that they come iu succession into
the same or adjacent portions of the atmosphere before this equilibrium
shall have been restored, they no longer operate in or act upon a me-
dium of equal resistance to that by which the other conditions of the
case are governed, and upon the hypothesis of which their own effec-
tive power has been calculated ; and in fact, if this state of things be
extreme, so that either by reason of the proximity of the planes or the
rapidity of their succession, they pass over the space allotted to them
in the same or less time than the air takes to rush into a vacuum (which
is at the rate of about 1339 ft in a second) they would no longer have
any medium at all to act upon, and consequently be productive of no
amount of reaction, however great their number or their size. To
mitigate these consequences there are two modes of proceeding;
either to increase the distance between the planes, or to diminish the
velocity with which they are impelled. Now to the latter of these
we are precluded from having recourse by two considerations ; firstt
by the general consideration that, as rale is the condition of impact
upon which the actual amount of the resistance of a given plane en-
tirely depends, to subdue the rate is to impair the efficiency of the
machine essentially and without regard to any particular disposition
of its parts ; and, secondly, because a rate of motion the highest, pro-
bably (if not indeed higher than any) that will be found attainable, is
required by the condition of rate assigned to the aerial vehicle itself
which rate must at all events be equalled by that of the instruments of
its propulsion; for it requires no great process of reasoning to perceive
that by no appointment of propulsive machinery can a body be in-
dued with a greater rate of motion than that at which the propelling
agents are themselves proceeding; so that it will be readily admitted
the contemplated relief cannot with propriety be expected from the
diminished speed of the impinging vanes. To increase the distance
between them is therefore the only available means of sustaining the
propulsive energy of the revolving apparatus, which in a construction
of prescribed dimensions can only be accomplished by restricting the
number; and the only question that remains for our discussion is,
whether this condition has been sufficiently regarded in the plan be-
fore us. Now this question can be answered satisfactorily by refer-
ence to experiment alone ; to experiment, with the particular machine
in the process of its construction, or to general experience in ope-
rations of the same description. To the former of these, of course,
we have no means of referring, but to the latter we have happily
some pretensions; and in accordance with that experience, we have
no hesitation in alleging a very great redundancy in the number of the
impinging vanes in Mr. Henson's propelling apparatus, viewed with
reference to the special object for which they are designed. Indeed,
so convinced are we of the prejudicial influence which even one su-
perflous member in a system of revolving vanes is calculated to exer-
cise over the effective product of their impact, that we feel quite
assured that had the number of arms been but three or even two, in-
stead of six, in each compartment, they would have realised under
the prescribed conditions of the case, a very superior amount of at-
mospheric reaction ; perhaps the greatest that with an equal amount
of surface it would have been possible to have accomplished. We
know that to this it may be answered, that in truth the modifications

alluded have been tried, and that it was not until the superior efficacy
of the larger number had been attested and approved, that the pre-
sent arrangement was ultimately adopted. But before we admit any
force to this conclusion, we must be satisfied that the experiments
upon which it is based, embrace all the modifications to which the
conditions of the case are liable ; that not only has the proper angle
of inclination been equally retained throughout, but that the efficacy
of the machine has been tested in all cases at its utmost speed, and
subject to an equable distribution of surface according to the varying
circumstances of the case ; for there is no doubt that with a subdued
rate of motion a larger number of the like planes will produce a
greater amount of resistance, or that a larger number of planes will
produce a greater amount of resistance than a smaller number of the
same planes, where the rate of their motion is not such as to require
an augmented interval between them to preserve the integritv of the
resisting medium.

And here, in concluding this branch of our investigations, we
would just briefly warn our readers against a very common and falla-
cious mode of regarding the operation of this particular sort of in-
strument, (which may not inaptly be termed the "aerial screw,") by
which many are led to overlook or reason away the obstacle here set
forth to its success; namely, that this obstacle, arising from a rapid
action of the parts in a circumscribed space, would be avoided by the
anticipated result of the operation — the progress conferred upon the
machine — whereby they would be constantly introduced into fresh
portions of the resisting medium ; in other words, that the ultimate
success of the undertaking will be an efficient means of removing the
difficulty by which that success is mainly threatened. The argument
is absurd to a degree. It is a petttio principii of the most flagrant
character ; because, not only is the insufficiency of the grounds of the
progressive motion of the machine (the impoverishment of the me-
dium) here set forth as the thing to be cured by the result of its own
operation, but, the truth is, the very progress of the machine, apart
from the operation of the vanes, is itself a main contributer to that
deficiency, the effects of which it is expected to repair, in the with-
drawal of the medium by the advance of the body within it, imposing
fresh obligations of speed upon the agents of its propulsion to enable
them to realise the prescribed amount of resistance. It is an argu-
ment not merely in a circle, but (if we may be allowed to coin a figure)
in a spiral, in which the premises are rendered even less consequen-
tial by the conclusion which they are intended to support.

We have now left, of the questions we originally proposed to con-
sider with reference to Mr. Henson's scheme of flight, the power by
which the parts are to be indued with motion, and the principle upon
wliich a first impetus is expected to be acquired. The insufficiency
of the one and the fallacy of the other we purpose to expose in our
next number.

NEW FLAX MILL AT CASSANO D'ADDA, IN LOMBARDY.

(With an Engraving, Plate VIII.)

We give in this number a plate showing a perspective view of the
Flax Mill atCassano in Lombardy, erected under the immediate direc-
tion of Mr. Albano, C.E., of London, and which at present is exciting
much attention on the continent. To us it has additional interest, as
attesting the wide diffusion of English industry, the whole of the mill-
wright work having been supplied from the works of Mr. W.Fairbairn
of Manchester, after the designs of Mr. Albano. It serves to show
at the same time the field of employment open to the English manu-
facturer, and the resources available to foreign enterprise, who are
thus able to carry out their own plans, and to profit by the proficiency
and talent of the best factories in the world.

The following description of the manufactory we extract from a
report of Giulio Sarti, the government engineer, who with his col-
leagues surveyed the building at its completion, on the 31st of De-
cember last.

192

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

" The general plan of the manufactory consists of three buildings
a large one in the centre containing three floors, and two lateral of
two floors each ; one of the small buildings serves to deposit and to
prepare the raw materials, the centre one for the spinning, and the
third for power-loom weaving. This separation into three buildings
is requisite, by the diversity of the processes to be worked, which
could not be mixed together in a single building. The ground floor
of the whole building contains an area of nearly 40,000 square feet,
and are constructed fire-proof; of this, the main building is formed of
two rooms, with a central staircase, the interior dimensions of each
being 90 feet in length and 45 feet in breadth, with 16 columns in
two rows, 14 feet in height, of granite shafts and cast-iron Doric
capitals, supporting cast-iron beams, and brick vaults. The first floor
is formed of two rooms with cast-iron columns 12 feet 6 inches in
height, with tasteful Egyptian capitals, and a floor above it, 12
feet high, in the roof of which advantage has been taken to
make reel rooms, which are very convenient in a large manu-
factory. In consequence of the superior arrangements of the building,
it is capable of containing S000 spindles. The motive power of the
whole manufactory is an hydraulic breast wheel, worked by water
taken from the river Adda, which runs through the building, and has
a fall of 9 feet; this wheel is a stupendous piece of mechanism, tit
for a model to any manufacturing establishment of the kind. It is
16 feet diameter and 21 ft. wide, the whole of cast and wrought-iron
of about 36 tons weight ; she takes and discharges the water with the
most perfect regularity : on each side there is a large tooth segment,
each working a pinion, which transmits the motion to the three dif-
ferent buildings. The regular speed of the wheel and transmission
of motion are regulated with true perfection, and the mode in which
the fixings and supports are fastened to the buildings is such as to
guarantee their position unalterably.

" The cast-iron sluice, which admits water to the channel, prevents
anything floating into the wheel ; the cast-iron cistern and shuttles,
(which supply the water to the wheel, according to the greater or less
number of machines at work,) together with the speed of the wheel,
are regulated by a centrifugal governor; the elevating machines
which carry the whole work from one floor to the next above it, the
means to supply the boiler with water, and the fire-pump in case of
fire, &c, are all improvements which manifest the superiority of
such an establishment.

" The spinning machines were chosen after mature consideration,
among those possessed by the most celebrated spiuning establishments
in Europe, that can give in the greatest quantity and finest work, and
among these, the preparing ones are admired for containing the most
recent improvements."

We regret that a misunderstanding arose as to the original designs
of the machinery, in consequence of a letter signed S. N. S. in our
last number, wilfully misrepresenting the facts. On the present oc-
casion we beg leave to call attention to the following correspondence,
fully asserting and confirming Mr. Albano's claims, which ought never
to have been disputed.

Sir — My attention has been drawn to a communication signed S.N.S. in
the last number of your interesting Journal, page 181, relating to the Flax
Mill at Cassano in Lonibardy, in which the anonymous writer commences
by attributing to you a slight mistake, by stating in a preceding number,
at page 143, that Mr. B. Albano, C. E. of London, was the erector of the
works, in order to subjoin the gratuitous assertion, that Mr. Albano was the
superintendent of the building of that mill, whilst the mechanical work, mill-
gearing, ivc, were solely constructed by Mr. W. Fairhairn of Manchester.

In the name of justice, Sir, which has been scandalously invoked by S. N. S.
in utter disregard of truth, (and as Mr. Fairhairn promptly wrote" to Mr.
Albano, saying " / beg to state, that I am m ho way connected with siich a
communication, nor do I know anything of the writer") 1 beg to submit to
you a short account of the real facts of this case, in which I have been acting
as agent in this country for the proprietors of the said mill, and consequently
I am fully qualified to place all parties in their right position.

As far back as 1830, I have been commissioned by the director of the said
proprietors, to procure of several professional gentlemen in Belgium, Leeds,
and London, information and estimates for the construction of a flax-mill,
and to that effect I appbed also to Mr. B. Albano, who furnished full par-
ticulars. His plan and report having met with the sanction of the directors,
I was further requested to send Mr. Albano to Milan, in order to

survey aud fix on the proper site for the establishment, which he did, on the
express condition, that the direction and execution of the whole work should
be entrusted to him without any interference, and accordingly he completed
in Milan the required plans, and obtained full sanction thereto, with ample
power to execute the work according to his own design.

This preliminary will, I trust, be sufficient to contradict the first part of
S. N. S.'s assertion, and I can easily prove the second part equally wrong,
when I inform you that upon Mr. Albano's return from Milan, specifications
of the required millwright work were sent out to several manufactories in
London, Manchester, and Dundee, for their estimates, and on Mr. W„ Fair-
hairn calling at Mr. Albano's office, the plans were shown to him, in my
presence, to which he suggested some organic alterations, but on Mr.
Albano's observing that they would increase the expense, and be otherwise
objectionable, were soon set aside, and Mr. Albano, then proceeding with
his own plan, in all its details, chose, with due regard to perfection and eco-
nomy, to give the order to Mr. W. Fairbairn.

To that effect a contract was entered into, the first clause of which stands
thus : " With the sanction of B. Albano, Esq., C. E. Directing Engineer of
the said Company, &c, the machinery contracted for in the present agree-
ment will comprise the following articles of millwright work, &c, for the
organization of the flax and hemp mill of the said company, now in progress
of construction at Cassano in Lombardy, under the immediate direction of the
said engineer, B. Albano. The whole of the following millwright work appa-
ratus. KC, are to be executed strictly according to the disposition shown, and
dimensions marked, in Mr. Albano's drawings, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7,
aud the following specification respectively signed by Mr. W. Fairbairn,
contracting party, and the above engineer."

The mere quotation of the clause demonstrates, that the merit of the
designs for the whole machinery alluded to belongs solely to Mr. Albano, and
I may further add, that the whole design is different from the mode gene-
rally adopted by Mr. \V. Fairbairn in constructing mills, as the architectural
style, proportions, &c. of the buildings, and arrangement of the water wheel
and machinery, are essentially original and distinct, erected under Mr.
Albano's immediate direction, and pronounced by the body of Government
engineers (whose report of their official inspection of the mill I beg to
enclose) to be replete with great ingenuity, and conferring the greatest credit
to the directing engineer.

The directors likewise, highly satisfied with his ability, energy, and per-
sonal assistance, from the commencement to the last, testified their gratifica-
tion on the starting of the mill by presenting Mr. Albano with an elegant
and valuable gold snuff box, bearing an inscription to that effect, and in-
trusted to his care fresh extensive orders.

Having so much trespassed upon your indulgence, I shall trust to your
kind desire to do justice to all parties, the insertion in your publication of
this statement of uncontrovertible fact.

J, White Hart Court. (Sty, Your obedient servant,

May 22, 1843. ' Henry Pagans

Sir. — My attention has been directed to a letter signed S. N. S. in your
last Journal, wherein it is stated that Mr. Albano, C. E. had appropriated to
himself nearly the whole, if not the whole of the merit belonging to the
erection of the Flax Mill at Cassano.

Now, in justice to that gentleman, I beg to state, that I know nothing of
the writer of the letter above alluded to, and although I may have assisted
Mr. Albano in the mechanical arrangements of the mill, I must nevertheless
disclaim any connexion with the original project or designs which were ex-
clusively his.

I am, Sir,
Your very obedient servant

Manchester, May 17, 1843. W. Fairbairn.

SUBSTITUTE FOR GLAZED FRAMES IN HOTBEDS.
In the Rheinlandische Gartenzeitung is described a substitute for the
glazed frames of hot-beds and green-houses, which deserves the attention of
florists. Instead of glass the frames are covered with a fine white cloth of
cotton. In order to render this more transparent, and enable it to resist
moisture, it is covered with a preparation, the ingredients of which are four
ounces of pulverised dry white cheese, two ounces of white slack lime, and
four ounces of boiled linseed oil. These three ingredients having been mixed
with each other, four ounces of the white of eggs, and as much of the yolk,
are added, and the mixture is then made liquid by beating. The oil com-
bines easily with the other ingredients, and the varnish remains pliable and
quite transparent. The expense of a forcing bed arranged in this manner is
inconsiderable, and it yields at the same time many other advantages. Such
a hot-bed needs not the anxious attention required by the ordinary one
covered with glazed frames. During the strongest rays of the mid-day sun.
they do not require any particular covering or shade; the atmosphere therein
preserves a nearly equable temperature almost the whole day, and requires
only to be changed from time to time, according to circumstances. If such
a bed is provided with a soil of horse-dung, and a proper thickness of some
fertile, finely sifted heath mould is spread thereon, layers of all sorts of
flowers, early vegetables, and other plants, may be reared from seeds in it.

1843.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

193

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS XLIX.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. Many others besides myself have, no doubt, frequently been not
a little disappointed, on finding how very poor a building, that has
promised tolerably well during its progress, has eventually turned out
to be. So long as it was encumbered with scaffolding, and nothing
could be made out distinctly, there was room for the imagination to
work upon it; but when all is cleared away, then also does the po-
verty of the design become exposed to view — all faults and defects
become apparent; and perhaps you find that when completed, the
structure is altogether unfinished. Yet "finish " is one great secret—
and truly a far greater secret than it ought to be, in architectural
composition. Nor is "finish" to be confounded with decoration, for
there may be the first with little of the latter; and a very great deal
of the latter, with nothing at all of the first. Without finish, deco-
ration generally looks trumpery and meretricious, and what is in-
tended for simplicity, shows no better than inconsistent parsimony,
and therefore shabby meanness. In fact, finish is essential to simpli-
city ; and of this, Grecian architecture might long ago have con-
vinced us, had we studied it in an artist-like spirit, instead of merely
consulting its orders as so many patterns of columns. One rule worth
a hundred of those usually given in architectural books, is, never at-
tempt a higher degree of decoration than you can finish up to in
every respect ; since otherwise, do as much as you will, the ensemble
will always be unsatisfactory. There may be both tasteful ideas and
beautiful parts — but they will be only parts, causing by their very
beauty all the rest to displease. Attention to what seem trifling matters,
is a most important matter itself in architectural design, for it fre-
quently constitutes the chief difference between what is excellent and
what is poor — between what is captivating and what is dull common-
place. Yet because it happens to be what people call " Only that,"
little regard is paid to it, although the onlyness of it, renders the
neglect of it all the less excusable. Oh ! if we had but all the " only
thats " which people give us to understand they could easily accom-
plish, did they but think it worth while to attend to such trifles, how
very superior we should become in art!

II. Of opportunities in architecture there are two sorts — the most
obvious and intelligible one, that of having a building to execute
which affords some scope for design or the display of taste — the
other, that of being not only permitted but encouraged to treat the
subject con amore, and to satisfy oneself. To talk of an architect's
being left to satisfy himself — though some, by-the-bye, seem to be
very easily satisfied with themselves — may sound strangely to those
who look upon him as little better than a tradesman — not as a profes-
sional adviser in art, but a sort of apothecary, who has merely to
make up their own prescriptions; nevertheless, it is so essential an ar-
chitect should have such liberty granted to him, that he who shows
himself indifferent to it, almost forfeits the name of artist, showing
himself to be little better than a mere hireling. Of course, this is to
be understood grano satis, according to the circumstances and im-
portance of the case; neither is it to be supposed that employers and
their wishes are to stand for nothing in the matter, as if it were of
very little moment, whether they were satisfied or not. Let employers
explain their ideas, and urge their own particular views, but let them
also listen patiently to those of the artist himself, otherwise they
show either that they more t han doubt his capacity, or that they shrink
from listening to arguments that may convict them of ignorance or
of obstinacy. Architects themselves, on the other hand, might some-
times profit by the hints and remarks of their employers, and should
feel rather inspirited— certainly not discouraged, when they find their
designs strictly scrutinized, instead of all their merits being detected at
a glance ; in which latter case it may be presumed the merits are rather
superficial and not very numerous. Excellently well it is observed by

Chateauneuf: "undoubtedly it is very pleasant to an architect to
meet with an employer disposed to give him carte-blanche and per-
mission to follow out his own ideas unrestrictedly ; yet it is still more
delightful to meet with one, who instead of merely passively acquies-
cing, assents from conviction, after deliberate study of the ideas sub-
mitted to him, and from the lively interest he takes in them."

III. Whatever the Pecksniff's may think of the matter, certain it
is, that though the more obvious features of a style may be copied
mechanically by any one, to give the true and the better spirit of the
style itself requires an earnest study of it, and a kind of study which
instead of being to be got out of books, must be brought to thein.
That such should be the case is rather consolatory than otherwise,
since it proves architecture to have some pretensions to rank as a
fine art, not only in regard to the works it produces, but co the mode
in which it works. In architecture, very much depends upon conven-
tional forms, and conventional as well as mechanical rules : yet though
indispensable in themselves, rules are of little mote than negative
value : they instruct us to do just that which they can teach any one
else to do equally well — and no more. They bring us up to the point
where the many stick fast, and beyond which only the few can pass
who possess within themselves that finer instinct called genius or
talent. Though such opinion may appear somewhat paradoxical, by
no means does it follow that a building or design which exhibits the
more direct and standard features of the style it professes to be in,
gives us the spirit of the style itself ; for instead of doing so at all, it
may fail to manifest any of its better qualities, and of its latent powers
may indicate nothing. Mere correctness and no more, is not much
matter for boasting of, the merit attending it, whatever it may be in
itself, being but a second-hand one. Much less is it any merit to be
correct only in parts — in the commonplace features of the style pro-
fessed to be followed, while everything else is all but in direct variance
with it.

IV. Professor Cockerell has been denounced by Professor Pugin as
the man "wot" paganizes in the universities, but there was another
paganizing Professor before Cockerell at work in them — at least at
Cambridge — namely Wilkins, the author of that mass of architectural
mawkishness, ycleped Downing College, as which James Wyatt's
design would have been as good. Colleges are not built every day,
therefore when an opportunity of the kind does present itself, it
should be prized accordingly, and made the most of; yet it is lament-
able to perceive how often some of the best opportunities have been
converted into mere jobs. King's College in the Strand is such an
arrant architectural nullity, that its insignificance in that respect
shields it from criticism, no one considering it worth while to ani-
madvert upon or even mention so miserable a piece of design.

V. Much as it is the fashion to talk about style and styles, we
generally content ourselves with their mere rincings out — with sadly
deluted, sickly watery stuff, that has neither flavour nor body in it. Of
such quality is most of our modern Anglo-Grecian, and our recent
Early English. The original spirit is so weakened aud rendered so
"wishy-washy" by the insipidity poured into it, as to be scarcely
perceptible. Yet such dilutions of style are palmed upon us as
being quite pure and unadulterated, although they are so only inas-
much as no other spirit or flavour of any kind has been infused into
the style nominally adopted; the consequence of which is that we
get only the purity of pure insipidity.

Bavaria.— Munich.— The Pompeian House.— We mentioned in our last
the project of the King to erect a Pompeian House near his residence of As-
chaffenburg. This plan advances towards realization ; the director of build-
ings, Von Gartner, is instructed to employ the drawings brought by Pro-
fessor Zahn from Pompeii in 1839, for its construction. It was in this house
that the beautiful painting on the walls was found, representing Achilles
found by Ulysses among the daughters of Lyoomedes ; also the groups of
fauns and bacchantes, on a blue ground ; Hypolitus and Phaedra, Ceres,
Hygeia, Venus, and Adonis. All these will be carefully copied for the Pom-
peian House at Aschafienburg, with the rich bronze altars, marbles, and in-
scriptions found in the house of Castor and Pollux ; so that the visitor will
find himself completely in the domus of an ancient Pompeian.

26*

194

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS, ROYAL ACADEMY.

A change has taken place this season in regard to the Architectural
Room, inasmuch as it has been removed to the "opposite side of the
•way," that is, instead of being on the right, it is now the one on the
left hand of the staircase ; but as both rooms are of precisely the
same size, nothing is gained by the change, in point of increased
accommodation, and in other respects matters continue nearly in statu
quo; for we perceive no improvement whatever in the system of
hanging the drawings, of which we have said so much on former
occasions, that we are sick of the subject. Neither is there, we are
sorry to be obliged to say, any improvement at nil in the general cha-
racter of this part of the exhibition — rather quite the reverse — an
obvious falling off; and however it may be regretted, this will hardly
be wondered at when we find that a very great proportion of those
who have hitherto generally contributed to the attractions of the Ar-
chitectural Room, have this year sent nothing.

The architects want old Soane among them again, to give them a
fillip, for as to the present Professor of Architecture at the Academy,
the walls might exhibit a blank, it seems, for aught he cares. There
was not a single design or drawing of any kind of his last season : and
it is just the same now. We do not say that this is very greatly to
be lamented in itself, but it is rather lamentable to find that lii<
example is now contagious. It has been followed by Barry, Basevi,
Blore, Burton, Donaldson, Ferrey, Poynter, Salvin, S. Smirke, Tite,
Wild, ar.d many others whose names do not immediately occur to us.
There is very little to inform us what has lately been done, or what is
either actually in progress or about to be commenced. Among other
things of the kind we had reckoned with some confidence upon seeing
the design for the new Conservative Clubhouse, by Basevi and S.
Smirke, nor is that by any means our only or chief disappointment,
there being, among many others, the new Chapel Royal at Bucking-
ham Palace, which we are bound to suppose well worth seeing. We
should like, too, to have found the design for the facade of the British
Museum, which we are told is on the eve of being at length com-
menced ; — how we should like the design itself is a different matter —
we suspect, not very much ; yet, at all events, Sir Robert Smirke has
had ample time for studying it, and improving upon his first ideas ;
nor can he very well fail to be aware that architectural taste has un-
dergone some change for the better within the last twenty or five and
twenty years, and that consequently his once admired "classical
purity" is not likely to be at all relished — perhaps hardlv endured
now, but be in very great danger of being voted dull, frigid, and stale
common-place. Sir Robert Smirke may be quite as able as ever he
was — a rather ambiguous compliment, by the bye — but that wont suf-
fice: what was talent yesterday, is not always looked upon as such
to-day: if he has been standing still all the while, others have not ;
and even the public have now got a-head of him. Most numerous
and ample have been the opportunities afforded him during his career
— quite equal, with one exception, to Barry's; but he has frittered
[hem all away ; and instead of making, ss the latter has done, archi-
tectural gems out of small buildings — the Traveller's Clubhouse, ' for
instance — he has made large ones, very little in manner, and exceed-
ing meagre in taste. This, however, is a sort of par pare n thine, which
our readers are at liberty to skip, and we therefore go on to say that,
on the other hand, there are a great many subjects in the present ex-
hibition that we cculd very well have dispensed with altogether, they
being terribly stale, and withal, most unattractive as drawings. Who
cares to look at a frame rilled with such nothingness as a parcel of
Corinthian columns, merely because they are called "The Temple of
Jupiter Olympius"? — or at an architectural bulletin informing us what
was the exact state of the " Erechtheum " last summer ? What pre-
tensions, again, have such things as mere architectural portraits —
views of buildings in the metropolis, and those tolerably well known —
to be admitted into what professes to be an exhibition of original
productions, and which, if not strictly confined to them, ought at least
to give us only unedited subjects ? Exceptions might, perhaps, be
allowed in particular cases, where a building that has never been sa-
tisfactorily represented before, receives for the first time the attention
it merits, and the want of positive novelty in the subject is amply
made up for by tastefulness of execution as well as mere fidelity of

2 Speaking of this small bin certainly no; least work of Barry's, the Poly-
technic Review says, "A chaste specimen of the Italian style, the more it
is examined the more it becomes the subject of admiration," and tu some al-
most of adoration. Barry has had the good fortune to have this monument
described by (he pen of one of the first architectural critics, by one who is
no less qualified for any task by the extent of his knowledge than the sound-
ness of liis judgment, and who has perhaps done more by his writings for
the promotion 01 sound architectural pijnciples than most men have by their
works.

likeness. This, however, is by no means the case with such things as
No. 11S7, "Perspective View of St. Pancras Church," or No. 1284,
' Interior of St. Martin's in the Fields." If we cannot have what is
much fresher and better, far rather would we meet here again with
some of the works that have delighted us on former occasions, and
to renew acquaintance with which would be refreshening. So impos-
sible is it to discover any sort of system in the management of the
architectural part of the Academy's exhibitions, that we fairly con-
clude there is no system at all, but that the whole is left to " Provi-
dence" and the porters. That St. Peter is not one of them, is evi-
dent enough, for had he the keys of the architectural room in his
keeping, hardly would he admit such architectural Balaam and rub-
bish as we have seen here hung up ; not this season more particularly,
but more or less every season. It would seem that any thing in a
frame and glass will pass muster so long as room can be found for it,
or it serves to fill up an obstinate gap into which no other sized frame
can be fitted : — which is by no means a very Jilting practice in itself;
at any rate we would rather encounter a few blanks on the walls, than
such prizes. It is really grevious to observe some of the Pecksniff
things that are permitted to show themselves at the Academy, and
there stare us full in the face, unless good luck has so well managed
both for them and for us, that they happen to be put out of sight.
We could mention more than one or even two specimens of the kind
in the present exhibition, but the authors of them would hardly thank
us for calling attention to them, or feel flattered by coming in for
such share of our notice. It is possible that some of the productions
of this stamp may be in themselves meritorious, since they may be
the works of mere tyros — the first essays of " tender juveniles," who
have just learnt to make use of pencil and compasses; but then
schoolboy exercises should be kept at home for home admiration, and
not publicly paraded, at the risk of being pelted at.

What seems not lea<t of all strange to us is, that there should uni-
formly be so many things, which professing to be mere designs or
ideas, show themselves so barren of ideas — so devoid of any origi-
nality either as to conception or treatment. In such cases, it is to be
presumed, a design is intended as a display of talent, and to manifest
what its author is capable of doing, provided opportunity be afforded
him. To produce things of that kind merely'to show average taste,
and what, if quite as good, is not at all better or more striking than
what has been done again and again before, and may be seen almost
anywhere, is hardly worth while: nevertheless, we find that it is often
done, for be the drawings themselves ever so satisfactory as such,
there is very little thinking put into them. Of that description,
however, there are very few designs this season — very little in the
shape of Projects, or what professes to be merely ideal.

Except that it is upon the whole less striking and attractive than
usual, it is difficult to say what is the character of the present exhi-
bition, or what class of designs predominate in it. Scarcely ever,
indeed, is it possible to form any such general conclusions, or to judge
which is the style in particular that seems to be best treated ; and
this is in no small degree owing to the very great diversity of manner
in execution, anil the degree of ability displayed in it; for while in
some instances things that are rather of mediocre quality in them-
selves are rendered striking by the taste or spirit with which they
are represented, others which are superior as designs, or at least con-
tain superior ideas, are so indifferent as mere drawings as to seem
altogether insignificant, more especially when seen along with others,
and hastily judged of by the " first sight" impression they make upon
the eye. So far, then, an exhibition room is not the very best place
of all for forming impartial comparisons, and for judging of the intrin-
sic architectural merits of the different designs. In order to do that,
it would in fact be requisite that they should be all upon the same
scale or very nearly so, all in the same style as to drawing and colour-
ing, and moreover, what is not the least important matter, that they
should all be to be seen equally distinctly. This last, it must be ad-
mitted, is almost an impossibility, since, in order to be so seen, they
must all be hung upon the same level, that is, just upon the " line,"
and that line would require to be a very " long yam " — about as long
as the front of the National Gallery itself, to accommodate the num-
ber of subjects we here meet with. Still some little more judgment,
or common sense might be exercised than is done at present; and if
the suitable accommodation for them cannot be obtained in proportion
to the number of drawings, this last ought to be reduced so as to cor-
respond in some degree, with the accommodation.

Of either Grecian or Rouian design there is this year very little,
though there is at least one of great merit, and all the more welcome
because intended for execution, viz. No. 12'JO, " Interior of St.
George's Hall, Liverpool," J. L. Elmes. It is indeed a most noble
specimen of Greco-Roman interior architecture, beautifully imagined
in its general composition and arrangement, and tasteful and well

]843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

195

studied in its details, so as to be perfectly homogeneous in character,
and to combine sober grandeur with richness, and with a far more than
ordinary degree of picturesqueness and scenic effect also. The de-
sign, moreover, engages entirely by its own merits, for though care-
fully and ably executed, the drawing itself is not at all striking or
showy, and has not even the ordinary allurement of colour to attract
the eye to it. Not always is it that a public structure which is of
imposing architectural character externally, presents a corresponding
one within ; but in this instance the whole will be of a piece, and not
only as regards the degree of effect, but also the species of it. In this
Corinthian hall, not only is the style of the exterior kept up in regard
to the order and decoration, but also in regard to what is a happy
novelty in itself, namely, the closing up the lower part of the inter-
columns with ornamental screen walls.

Of Grecian design we have another specimen in Nos. 1102 and
1322, the former being " A south-west view of the mansion now
erecting at Silverton Park, Devonshire, for the Earl of Egremont," the
other of the " Central hall in it," by J. T. Knowles. The first, being
placed over a door, is unfortunately too high to allow us to see more
than its general composition; for though the drawing itself is of con-
siderable size, the architectural scale is but moderate. Speaking of
the mansion, in the last No. of the Gardener's Magazine, Mr. Loudon
says, " it is eminently classical, abounding in colonnades and porticos
without a single vulgar feature externally ; " and that there are co-
lonnades and porticos we can plainly see, but that it is therefore
"eminently classical" we will not decide, because we cannot make
out the other features very distinctly, nor can we judge at all of the
quality of the detail. The interior, Mr. L. informs us, he had not an
opportunity of seeing, and so far we have the advantage over him in
some degree, being here shown what is, no doubt, the most striking
part of the interior — perhaps is made rather more so than it ought to
be. This " Hall " is carried up the height of two floors, and on the
level of the upper one has a peristyle of Corinthian columns. Taken
by itself this arrangement is effective enough, though not particularly
novel ; but we are of opinion that the general design would have been
more classical had the lower order in pilasters been omitted. We do
not approve of the introduction of two orders, particularly of two such
distinct ones as Doric and Corinthian, in interior composition. To us
it generally seems to destroy that degree of unity which we naturally
look for in an apartment, and to cause its sides to appear too much
like external elevations. We think, too, that in the present instance
the Doric pilasters carry with them an air of plainness that contrasts
rather harshly with the richly decorated and painted ceiling. The
best excuse, perhaps, for the introduction of them is, that they serve
to divide the walls on which the upper gallery rests, into compart-
ments, each of which is occupied by a large figure on its pedestal (ten
of them in all, or five on each side;. Though decoration has not been
spared, it strikes us that there is a certain poverty of feeling and
poverty of form — perhaps owing to the endeavour to obtain sim-
plicity, in some of the separate parts ; the doors, for instance, would
have borne to be made more important and richer features.

One of the principal subjects in the Grecian style is No. 1197,
"Design for an alteration of the National Gallery by effecting, at a
small outlay a more imposing elevation." — D. Mocatta. The " small
outlay" is somewhat questionable, nor is the alteration here suggested
so satisfactory, upon the whole, as it might have been rendered by the
outlay of a little — by which we mean a good deal more study upon it;
still we think it would produce a decided improvement with regard
to the portico and centre of the facade, bestowing on that part of the
composition greater loftiness and also greater importance in other
respects, though the dome is removed ; but that is a feature that can
very well be spared, because while it contributes scarcely at all to
give the front any dignity in regard to height, it is in itself as insig-
nificant as it is tasteless. In order to increase the altitude of the
portico, the columns are here elevated upon a podium added to the
present stylobate, by which means their capitals are raised to the
same level as the cornice now is, so that the entablature of the octa-
style would clear that of the rest of the front. Thus the centre would
be more conspicuously marked in the general outline, and the pitch
of the pediment being somewhat increased, and bold acroteria and

f roups of sculpture being placed above it, the augmentation as to
eight would be considerable, at least as far as effect is concerned.
Besides the embellishment just mentioned, the pediment itself is
filled with sculpture ; and it would, in our opinion, be a further im-
provement were some enrichment of the kind bestowed on the podium
on which the columns are raised ; for while it would give the portico
a very unusual and here most appropriate degree of richness, sculp-
ture in that situation would show itself to very great advantage, and
would serve to give importance and finish to the plain wall or" stylo-
bate below the portico, to which it would become an ornamental

crowning frieze. Another very considerable alteration here proposed,
as regards the portico, is the covering in the ascent up to it on each
side, by carrying the steps behind columns so placed as to form wings
or loggias immediately attached to the centre octastyle, but retiring the
space of an intercolumn. Thus the whole of the centre, if not exactly
the portico itself, would thus be greatly extended in breadth, and be
rendered a picturesque piece of polystylar composition. So far we
are very well satisfied with Mr. Mocatta's suggestions, but in his
alterations of the rest of the facade he has been by no means so happy.
Instead of being at all improved, the windows are made little better
than bare apertures, therefore, instead of contributing at ail to beauty,
tend rather to impoverish and impair the general effect. Of this de-
sign we have spoken somewhat minutely, because it possesses, for
ourselves at least, an interest of a peculiar kind, being not merely a
work of fancy, but an attempt to correct a rather important public
building which is now very unsatisfactory in many respects. What is
good in Mr. M.'s project seems worth consideration ; we should, there-
fore, like to see a model of the centre compartment on an enlarged
scale.

Besides the subjects we have mentioned, there are scarcely any in
the Grecian style, and not very many in the Italian; for Gothic of
various kinds, Tudor and Elizabethan, greatly preponderate, and of
designs for churches, mansions, almshouses, &c, in those styles we find
more than the average compliment: and among those for churches
are several interiors, one of the most striking of which is No. 1185,
" Design for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Trinity, Hull,"
T. Allom. As may be supposed, the subject loses nothing of its in-
terest by being treated by so able a pencl as that of Mr. A., but it is
also an attractive one in itself, and of a character likely to be consi-
dered most horribly extravagant by "Church Commissioners." Not
knowing what the structure actually is in its present state, we are
unable to say what is and what is not the work of restoration; we
presume, however, that the fittings-up — pulpit, seats, &c, are entirely
so, and they are of a superior kind.

On looking over the catalogue again, and seeing how many names
there are of designs for churches, we almost reproach ourselves for
negligence in having marked so very few for notice of any kind —
either for approbation or the contrary ; yet such being the case, it is
evident that unless put out of sight, the productions of that class did
not strike us as possessing in general more than negative merit — that
of being not bad, without being positively good, at least not in regard
to any fresh ideas. No. 1247, "Interior of the church about to be
erected at Whitstable, Kent," R. C. Carpenter, is of better character
than ordinary, plain, but neither impoverished nor tame ; on the con-
trary, marked by considerable vigour of style, and by much pleasing
expression. No. 1274, " Design for a church in the Norman style,"
Gough and Roumieu, shows some fancy, and as represented in the
drawing, is a more picturesque composition than usual. No. 1317,
" Interior of the Cemetery Chapel erecting at Cambridge," E. B.
Lamb, is, though small as a structure, of very superior quality as a
design, and is, withal, characteristic of its purpose. Excepting the
painted window and the inlaid pavement there is little of actual de-
coration. Although few, the features are so well marked, so well put
together and contrasted, as to give value to each other, and produce
a degree of artistic effect, that we could wish to find much more
frequently than we do where the means for obtaining it seem to have
been far more liberally afforded. This design furnishes an excellent
idea for a small private or domestic chapel in the same style.

( To be continued.)

Sinking of the Caspian Sea. — A communication was lately received at
the Academy of Sciences from M. Hommaire-Dehel, on the difference of the
level between the Caspian sea and the sea of Azof!'. Several scientific men
have been charged by the Russian government to ascertain the level between
these two seas ; but the results have differed su much that a verification was
necessary, and this was undertaken by M. Hommaire-Dehel, in 1838 ; but it
was not until September, 1839, that he could establish his points of survey.
M. Hommaire-Dehel now reports that 1830 metres is the difference of level
between both seas. It results, from the observations made by M. llommaire-
Dehel on the shores of the three seas of southern Russia, at the mouths of
the different rivers and streams in the steppes of Astracan, and at the sea of
Azofl', that the Caspian sea had formerly a much higher level, and that it « as
united with the Black sea at a period anterior to any existing historical re-
cords. Already this idea as to the junction of the two seas has been main-
tained, but it was said that the Black sea had become luwer by piercing its
way through the Bosphorus, and shedding its waters into the sea ot Siar-
mora. The sinking of the Caspian sea has been accounted tor by the lower-
ing of the basin, but M. Hommaire-Dehel gives an explanation ot this, which
he conceives more natural, by observing that the Caspian sea has very few
tributaries, and that a diminution in the waters of the Oural and the Volga
has been_a sufficient cause for the lowering of the level of this sea.

106

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Junk,

ON THE PERFECT VENTILATION OF LAMP BURNERS.

In consequence of the injury sustained by the books in the library
at the Athenaeum Club, amounting almost to the entire destruction of
the bindings; and the complaints of the members of the vitiated state
of the air in the rooms, causing headache, oppressive breathing, and
other unpleasant sensations ; Professor Faraday's attention as a mem-
ber of the club, was drawn to the subject of ventilating lamp burners
in houses ; and he was induced to suggest the trial of various plans
for affecting the removal of the products of combustion, produced by
sources of artificial light. All substances used for the purpose of illu-
mination, may be represented by oil and coal gas ; although tallow and
■wax are also greatly employed, yet as until they are rendered fluid
like oil, they cannot be burnt, they may for all practical purposes be
classed with it. Now, oil and gas both contain carbon and hydrogen,
and it is by the combination of these elements with the oxygen of the
air, that the light is evolved. The carbon produces carbonic acid,
which is deleterious in its nature, and oppressive in its action in closed
apartments, and the hydrogen produces water. A pound of oil con-
tains about 012 of a pound of hydrogen, 0-73 of carbon, and 0- 1 of
oxygen ; when burnt it produces 106 of water, and 2*86 of carbonic
acid, and the oxygen it takes from the atmosphere is equal to that
contained in 13-27 cubic feet of air. A pound of London coal gas
contains, on an average, 0-3 of hydrogen, and 0*7 of carbon ; produces
■when burnt, "2-7 of water, and 2-5t> of carbonic acid gas ; consumes
4-26 cubic feet of oxygen, equal to the quantity contained in 19*3 cu-
bical feet of air. So a pint of oil, when burnt, produces a pint and a
quarter of water ; and a pound of gas produces above 2i pounds of
water; the increase of weight being due to the absorption of oxygen
from the atmosphere, one part of hydrogen taking eight by weight of
oxygen, to form water. A London Argand gas lamp, in a closed shop
■window, will produce in four hours, two pints and a half of water, to
condense or not, upon the glass or the goods, as it may according to
other circumstances happen. Also, a pound of oil produces nearly
three pounds of carbonic acid, and a pound of gas, two and a half
pounds of carbonic acid. Now carbonic acid is a deadly poison, an
atmosphere containing even one-tenth of it, is soon fatal to animal
life. The various accidents from lime and brick kilns, from brewers'
vats, occasionally from the sinking of wells, as at Cheltenham, and
from the choke damp in coal mines, attest the extreme danger con-
tingent upon the presence of this substance. A man breathing in an
atmosphere containing 7 or 8 parts of carbonic acid, would suffer, not
from any deficiency of oxygen, but from the deleterious action of the
carbonic acid. M. Leblanc has recently analysed carefully the con-
fined air of inhabited places, and concludes, as stated in his Memoin,
that the proportion of carbonic acid gas in such places, may be re-
garded as measuring with sufficient exactness, the insalubrity of the
air ; that in the proportion of one part to a hundred of air, ventilation
is indispensable for the prevention of injury to the health ; that the
proportion of carbonic acid gas had better not exceed a five hundredth
part, though it may rise without inconvenience, to a two-hundredth
part. If a lighted taper be applied to the top of a lamp chimney, it
will be instantly extinguished, or a glass jar held over it will become
immediately filled with air, in which a light cannot burn. Also sul-
phurous and sulphuric acid, are contained in the water which results
from the combustion of coal gas, and are products injurious to metals
and articles of furniture.

It will now be understood, that the object sought to be attained in
the ventilation of lamp burners, is the entire removal of all the noxious
products of combustion. And with this view, at Professor Faraday's
suggestion, the gas lights of the chandelier in the library at the Athe-
naeum, were ventilated by pipes dipping into the lamp glasses, and
conjoining at a short distance upwards into one central pipe, which
carried away all the burnt air out of the room. In this first practical
experiment, many things were learned as to the mode of arranging
the pipes ; the disposal, when the pipes were very long, of the water
produced, &c; but the objects sought for by the ventilation, were
at once and perfectly obtained. This principle may be illustrated by
a simple experiment, showing the difference between allowing com-
bustion to give its products to the air of a room, and carrying off these
products as soon as formed to the exterior, let a short wax candle be
placed burning on a plate, a glass jar put over it, and the upper aper-
ture of the jar closed by a globular cork, through which passes a piece
of glass tube, about half an inch in diameter, and twelve or fourteen
inches long ; the tube descending to the top of the candle flame, and
being placed just above it. Under these circumstances there will be
plenty of air passing into the jar, between it and the plate, and out
by the tube, to supply all that is needed for combustion, and keep the
glass chamber sweet ; the consequence is, that in this position it will

go on burning for any length of time, and the jar remain quite clear
and bright ; but on moving the cork a little, so that the tube shall no
longer be over the flame ; all these results will change, though the
air way remains exactly as before. The candle will now give the
products of its combustion to the general air of the glass chamber, the
glass will immediately become dull, from water deposited upon it, the
air itself will become worse and worse ; the light become dim, and
in a few minutes will go out. But if arrested from doing so by the
tube being again placed over it, signs of recovering will appear, the
light will return to its former brightness, and after a short time, even
the dew will disappear from the glass; all in consequence of the
proper ventilation of the light. These effects, though striking, may
easily be understood by any one who will think of the difference of
lighting a fire in the middle of a room, instead of under, or in right
juxtaposition to a chimney.

Then came the desire of modifying the system, by removing the
ascending flue from its place over the lamp, not from any deficiency
in action, but for appearance sake only ; and finding that there was
sufficient ascension power in the main part of the metal chimney, to
allow of a descending draught over the lamp, the tube, in place of
going directly upwards, was made to turn short overtha edge of the
glass, to descend to the area or bracket, to pass along it, and then
ascend at the central part of the chandelier, or against the wall if ap-
plied to a single light. To this succeeded another form, which is
exceedingly beautiful, and appears to be the perfection of lamp ven-
tilation. It is in fact, a beautiful application of the principle of a
descending draught to a lamp burner. The gas-light has its glass
chimney as usual, but the glass holder is so constructed as to sustain
not merely the chimney, but an outer cylinder of glass, larger and
taller than the first i the glass holder has an aperture in it, connected

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1. — a, is the burner; b, the gas pipe leading to the burner ; c, the glass
holder, with an aperture in it opening into the mouth-piece rf, which is
attached to the metal chimney, i ; e, the ordinary glass chimney ; /, an
outer cylinder of glass closed at the top by a plate of mica, g, or still
better, by two plates of mica, one resting on the top of the glass, and the
other one, h, dropping a short way into it j they are connected together by
a metal screw and nut. which also keeps them a little apart from each
other, thus forming ;i stopper which cannot be shaken off the glass chim-
ney, but is easily lifted on and off by the small metal ring or knob at the
top ; i, is the metallic tube chimney ; k, a ground globe, which may lie
applied to the lamp, and which has no opening except the hole at the bot-
tom, where it rests on the glass holder; but any other form, as a lotus
glass or a vase, may be substituted at pleasure.

Fig. 2, is a plan of the glass holder, showing the burner, a. in the centre, per-
forated with jets, with openings round it to allow of a free admission of
air to the flame, and the aperture rf, which opens into the mouth-piece,
connected with the metal chimney, i.

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197

by a mouth-piece with a metal tube which serves as a ventilating flue,
and which after passing horizontally to the centre of the chandelier,
there ascends to produce draughts and carry off the burnt air.

The burnt air and results of combustion, take the course indicated
by the arrows, and are entirely carried away by the chimney. Now
with a lamp burning in the ordinary way, the products of combustion
issue out as a torrent of aerial impurity from above, but if the above
arrangement be applied, on closing the top of the outer glass cylinder
by a plate of mica, all the soot, water, carbonic acid, sulphurous and
sulphuric acid, and a portion of the heat, are entirely carried away by
the aerial sewerage, and discharged into a chimney or the open air,
and the air in rooms may thus be kept in the same sweet and
wholesome condition, and fit for the purposes of respiration, as if
artificial light were not being used.

A curious but important result of the enclosed lamp, is the increase
of light produced, amounting to from 10 to 20 per cent, according to
circumstances, the same quantity of gas being consumed as before.
If the current of air through a lamp glass, when the gas is burning in
the usual manner, be diminished, the flame rises in height, and the
light is increased in amount, but is of a redder colour; the combustion
in fact is not so intense, because the access of air is retarded ; the
particles of carbon which give the light, are not so highly ignited, but
are more abundant, and are ignited for a longer time, thereby causing
an increase of light.

The advantages of the above plan are many; it is not in the least
objectionable in architectural appearance, the ventilation is perfect,
the heat given to a room is modified and pleasant, and may be either
sustained or diminished at pleasure ; the light, for good philosophical
reasons, is increased considerably for a given portion of gas, and in-
creased safety from accidents is obtained ; as in the event of any
leakage from the pipes, or from a gas cock being inadvertently left open,
the gas, instead of mixing with the air of the room, and becoming
explosive, would be almost inevitably carried off by the metal tubes.

We understand that Professor Faraday has transferred his right to
this invention, to bis brother, a gas-fitter, who has secured it by a
patent.

REVIEWS.

MODEL DRAWING.

Ji Manual for Teaching Model Drawing from Solid Forms. By
Butler Williams, C.E., Director of the Drawing Classes at Exeter
Hall, Professor, &c. Under the sanction of the Committee of
Council on Education. London i Parker, 1843.
We have before had frequently to advert to the subject of instruc-
tion in design, feeling that we had a double responsibility imposed
upon us by our two classes of professional readers; in the first place
to advocate the necessity of the proper instruction of workmen, in the
next place to watch the interests of art. The want of instructed
workmen is a great inconvenience to the professional man — a great
obstacle often to the proper execution of his plans, and a knowledge
of drawing is essentially requisite in order to enable the mechanic or
artizan adequately to execute the designs of his employer. The
general progress of art and the creation of a true and sound taste for
art, are indissolubly connected with the advancement of architecture
and its due appreciation. What is the good of the architect throwing
pearls to swine, what stimulus can he have to his exertions from the
applause or censure of an ignorant or tasteless mob? The painter,
the sculptor, execute their small works for the pleasure of a single
individual, or the inspection of a restricted number of visitors; but
the architect is called upon to erect monuments which are the delight
or disgust of millions. For one man who sees the Loggie or the Sis-
tine chapel, ten see St. Peter's ; for one who has the happiness to see
Barry's Adelphi pictures, thousands and tens of thousands daily con-
template St. Paul's. The architect, then, has perhaps more at his
disposal the means of elevating public taste, than the painter, the
sculptor, or even the engraver ; it is his to convey those general im-
pressions of art, and that catholic love for it, which the painter and
the sculptor are to profit from in their more detailed works. Can we
imagine a people living amid the glories of the Parthenon and the
other wondrous works of Athenian architecture, without acquiring a
deeply rooted sympathy for art — can we suppose men living in sight
of the luxuriant monuments of the middle ages, without manifesting a
love for beauty of form in every object? We know they did not ; we
know that the Athenian city, which Pericles built, cultivated every
branch of art — we recognize, in the commonest relics of the middle

ages, the labours of the artist. When one department of literature is
at its height, you have a general proficiency, when one department of
art, a stimulus is given to other pursuits. When we had a Shaks-
peare, then had we Spenser, Jonson, Sidney and Drayton — when Mil-
ton, Dryden, Butler, and Denham — when Pope, De Foe, Addison,
Swift, and Steele. There is an excitement in a multitude, there is a
stimulus in a crowded amphitheatre, which brings out the greatest
efforts of the mind; and if you wish literature, if you wish art, if you.
wish science to flourish, you must not seek to nourish one branch, but
to give the greatest scope to all. We therefore cannot pass over in
silence anything which so nearly concerns the general interests of art,
as the education of the people in design, and the more so at the pre-
sent period, when an endeavour is at last being made to establish
drawing as an indispensable branch of primary instruction.

The work before us is under the authority of the Committee of
Council on Education, and published as a text book, which all the
schools under their control are to adopt as a normal rule for their
guidance. It is drawn up by Professor Butler Williams, C.E., the
Director of the Normal Drawing Classes, and describes the course fol-
lowed in them. It would consequently be well worthy of our exami-
nation, if it were only to assure ourselves that the artistic instruction
of the country would be properly conducted, but it becomes impera-
tively necessary to do so, when principles are introduced which
appear pregnant with danger to the prosperity and progress of art.
With Professor Williams individually, we have on this occasion
nothing to do; he seems to have executed the task assigned to him,
ably, honestly, and zealously ; we shall therefore direct our attention
to the system of which he is the expositor.

Among the ancients, drawing was carefully cultivated among work-
men, and if we wish to see how extensively and how successfully, we
find abundant examples in the unfinished and the complete specimens
of the clay vase. Certain it is that the potter of the modern day, is
as inferior to his Greek predecessor in artistic proficiency, as perhaps
he may be superior in mechanical skill. The use of drawing too was
widely spread among the people at large, because among a people
uninstructed in writing, delineation becomes both an amusement and a
necessity. The Polynesian thus records memorable events, decorates
his war-boat, his weapons and his hut, and amuses himself and his
comrades with caricatures on the topics of the day. Thus it must be,
even among people more advanced in civilization, while unlettered ;
and if it were on account of the caricature only, design would be
resorted to. The numerous examples of this to be found in ancient
history, and on the monuments of the people, show how general was
the practice of drawing, and what a strong hold it had among the
people. We trace this also in the middle ages; we see grotesque
sculptures even in sacred edifices ; we find satire lurking often in the
missal, and we know that commotions were often as much excited by
the rude delineations of a Cola di Rieuzi, as by the eloquence of a
popular orator. Perhaps the general spread of letters no less shook
the lower and more popular use of art, than did the Reformation
strike mortally at its higher efforts. The player, the ballad- singer,
and the news-monger, strove successfully for the annihilation of rustic
art, and the grim visages on the corbels, and the rude chalkings on
the wall, lost their wonted charm, and with them much of the love of
art and of its practice. Certain it is that in the middle ages, art
entered more into the pursuits of life than it did subsequently, and
into the labours of every artisan. Clothes, weapons, furniture, were
more elaborately decorated than they have since been, or than the
simpler habits of modern times will ever allow them again to become.
It was to this proficiency on the part of the workman, that the mediae-
val architect was indebted, for the luxuriant finish given to his design,
and the rich profusion of ornament which sustained the character of
the general conception. How rare, how difficult, has it been in those
days, to be able to follow in his step ; the machine is the only means
of enabling us to imitate at humble distance this luxury of the past.
The revival of architecture in England by Wren made this want to be
strongly felt, and the establishment of a school of design by Mr. Bap-
tist Lens, as detailed in our Journal, (Vol. V, p. ."3,1 was the conse-
quence. From that time little progress was made until our inferiority
to foreign nations and our economical loss, became so painfully mani-
fest as to induce the establishment of schools of design throughout the
country. With regard to the Royal School of Design at Somerset
House, it was our duty early to point out the gross and lamentable
errors in the system of instruction. We then pointed out the danger
of copying from drawings, and the necessity of a greater attention to
figure and ornament, if we wished to make the establishment useful
to the country or the people capable of competing with their foreign
rivals. These views of ours and of those who coincided in them, met
with the strongest opposition from the Directors of the School, and
from artists, and but little attention from the public' They have,

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

however, finally prevailed, and the result is that in the general system
of elementary instruction in drawing, propounded by Professor Butler
Williams on" the part of the government, the error of copying from
drawings is stronglv reprobated, and is excluded from the plan. The
Professor says :

Drawing from Copies.

In the first place we observe, that the pupil is almost universally made
to draw from copies.

This fails to exercise the judgment. The drawings which serve as copies,
exhibit a symmetrical disposition of lines in true perspective, as also varieties
of tint and shadow duly laid and harmonized : they are imitated mechanically
by the pupil without his understanding or reflecting upon the means whereby
certain effects are produced. His hand alone is exercised ; he fails to acquire
a habit of observing and seeing correctly, and is unable, after years of labour
spent in these purely mechanical exercises, to represent correctly the simplest
natural objects. The Chinese cultivate the art of drawing according to this
plan ; they copy from copies, and produce fac-similies of any work of art;
but this is performed solely as a piece of laborious imitation ; and their sig-
nal failure, when they undertake to design original compositions, is the eon-
sequence of the faulty system which aims at training the hand alone to
works of the highest skill. High finish in the drawing cannot compensate
for glaring inaccuracies of perspective, and even the individual forms, al-
though elaborately brought out, are devoid of expression, exhibiting labour
and pains without intelligence, the consequence of following out details with-
out comprehending the scope of the whole design, and of exercising the hand
without the guidance of science and understanding.

Drawing from Copies a delusire Had of industry.

Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Second Discourse, says, " I consider general
copying as a delusive kind of industry ; the student satisfies himself with the
appearance of doing something ; he falls into the dangerous habit of imitat-
ing without selecting, and labouring without a determinate object : as it re-
quires no effort of the mind, he sleeps over his work ; and those powers of
invention and disposition, which ought particularly to be called out and put
into action, lie torpid and lose their energy for want of exercise. How in-
capable of producing anything of their own those are who have spent most
of their time in making finished copies, is an observation well known to all
those who are conversant with our art.''

Moreover, the drawings presented to the pupil as models, are not always
perfect, having themselves probably been copied from other copies, which
may also have been made without direct reference to nature. The drawings
of all are more or less characterised by mannerism, and thus, a defect in the
original imitation is imitated with care by the pupil.

Exclusive, therefore, of a certain mechanical facility of touch, the pupil
acquires little real knowledge by drawing from copies. After years of study,
he will be capable of making highly-finished fac-similies of engravings or
drawings; and, if he be endowed with a retentive memory, he will have
learned a set of unvarying conventional signs for the representation of natu-
ral objects in their numberless variations.

The reprobated, the discarded system of drawing from copies, well
represented as "a delusive kind of industry," was that adopted in the
school at Somerset House, and tenaciously clung to by the Council.
It was by the practice of this mischievous svstem that our artizans
were to be hrought up to compete with the better instructed work-
men of the Continent, and our proficiency in those arts and manufac-
tures where design is used, was to be ensured. It has been our good
fortune, alone among the press, to have assisted in exploding it, and it is,
therefore, with the greater feeling of confidence we approach the
subject of model drawing, which is, in our opinion, no less erroneous
and mischievous, and in which we shall, perhaps, find equal difficulty
at first in producing conviction on the part of its advocates, though
we doubt not of success in the end.

The common practice of commencing the svstem of instruction
by copying from drawings, received its first grand assault from the
eloquent pen of Rousseau, in his Emile, who proposed, as a substi-
tute, that the child should commence by drawing the human figure
from the life. This was considered too bold, anil the well-known
educationist, M. Jacotot, modified it, by suggesting the study of
figures from the antique. Neither of these systems, however, had
justice done to it, and M. La Croix, among others, suggested drawiug
from models of the simple forms. Tins has been carried out by M.
Dupuis of Paris, under whose auspices it has sprung up into a re-
cognized mode of instruction, and has served as an example for the
Committee on Education here. This system proposes for models, the
delineatiou of the square, the triangle, the circle, the simple geome-
tric figures, and solids and assumes the merit of greater success, of
greater accuracy and greater simplicity. Now such a system is likely
to gain many converts among those who have prepossessions on the
subject, or who have not had practical opportunities of appreciating
its relative advantages and defects. It is very well to declaim on this
subject, to talk about analysis and synthesis, but the question is of a

mental operation and effect, and there, we opine, individual ex-
perience and individual imagination can be but of little value. How
little by the examination of our own minds have we been able to learn
of the mental organization of mankind ; how little has the ability and
acumen even of a Dngald Stewart been able to effect; and in what a
state of uncertainty are the ontological sciences — indeed, what ought
to be the highest science is the most unsettled and obscure. This
then should teach us the danger of trusting to individual impressions,
and induce us to apply to experience, the only proper and trustworthy
guide.

Now looking at the matter in every light, we feel ourselves
unable to concur with the judgment of those who have adopted the
system of model drawing; we are not convinced it is the best, we are
not convinced it is the safest. If drawing were like writing, if it
were an assemblage of conventional signs, we should be willing to
recognise the necessity and utility of an artificial process for its in-
culcation, but drawing is an art of representation which admits of the
least arbitraries, which addresses itself to the representation of na-
ture, and the earliest efforts of which should consequently be directed
in the path of future exercise. We cannot understand a priori, and
the whole of Mr. Butler William's reasoning on this subject is a priori
— we cannot understand ii priori, why nature is to be abandoned in the
study of drawing; it will be granted that the ultimate end of drawing
is to copy nature, why should not its novitiate be so directed. We have
not heard of any valid defections to this obvious course; we have no
experience of its impracticability, and we think it at least deserved
due attention. Not only then do we believe that drawing from nature
is the course in which our efforts should be directed, but we have
strong grounds for fearing that model drawing is attende dwith serious
evils. It is well to say that forms in nature are modelled upon the se-
vere outlines of geometrical figures, but such severity is rarely to be
met with in the luxuriance of creation. The inculcation then of con-
ventional forms, must be pregnant with danger. What is the mis-
chief of the system of copying from drawings — that it perverts the eye,
and renders the pupil incapable of adequately seeing natural objects ?
The study, however, of natural objects, is a great means of training the
eye and the mind. What cm we expect must be the result of putting
a child through a preliminary course calculated to dull his apprecia-
tion and beauty, but to stunt the artistic faculty, and render him less
capable of estimating the beauties of nature '. That such will not
be the result of model drawing has not been proved; and even if the
danger be imaginary, care should at least be taken to ascertain that it
is so, and not run unprepared into a career of mischief. We, how-
ever, say boldly, and we speak from experience, that there is no diffi-
culty at all in teaching a child to draw from natural objects, and no-
plea satisfactorily proved to us for putting it through an artificial
course. We believe, moreover, that the mechanical sysrem of the
committee of council on education, must tend seriously to the injury
of the general taste of the nation, and to the consequent jeopardy of
the progress of the higher branches of art. At present the nation is
aninstructed in art — it is now going to be perverted — and what hope
can there be for the development of taste and genius in the mecha-
nical nation, which it is the effect of this system of model drawing to
produce? We say, therefore, that on every ground it is well worthy
of consideration whether we are to quit the natural method for one
not possessing any adequate advantages to compensate for its striking
defects. The training of the eye of the pupil, in the first instance,
is evervthing — that is well known — and all that we want is that it
sliail not have a false bias. To go the full length of recommending at
once the study of the living human figure we do not, but we must say, that
if an objection exists to the human figure, on the plea of complexity,
there are abundance of simple natural objects of still life, particularly
in the vegetable kingdom, affording unobjectionable examples. Why
the study of a leaf or of a fruit should be less capable of affording
correct instruction to the eye than a circle or a square we cannot
understand : and sure we are that more interest would attach to the
natural object than to the wire or cardboard model. Indeed, Mr.
Williams is obliged to confess to the power which natural objects
have on the uncultivated mind, though he qualifies his admission by-
deprecating the greater love of the lower classes for luxuriance than
for simplicity of form. We consider the system of model drawing
as unjustified by reason and experience ; and we think it was at least
the duty of the government, with the ample means at their disposal,
to have tried sufficient experiments on the comparative merits of the
several systems of instruction in design. The system, now adopted,
we are strongly of opinion, will turn out like that at the School of
Design, productive of great mischief, and characterised as a serious
blunder, happy if, as in the case of the School of Design, it be reme-
died in time.

On Mr. William's book we could have said a good deal, but we

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

I no

lmve thought it our duty at this lpngth to enter our protest against
the mischiefs likely to result from the adoption of the system he pro-
pounds, and to which we hope the attention of all who desire the
sound progress of art, and the proper education of their countrymen
will he directed. In parting, we beg to have it understood that our
ohjection does not extend to the proprr application of the svstem of
model drawing, hut only to its adoption as the means of teaching de-
sign in the first instance. We think (hat at a subsequent period, as a
simple means of teaching practical geometry and the elements of
perspeclive, that it is calculated to be highly useful ; but it is to the
preliminary use we objpet, as calculated to blunt the mind, instead of
to strengthen it, and with such feeling we call the earnest attention of
our readers to it.

Now that we possess the advantage of two competent commissions
on national art, namely — the Commissioners of Fine Arts, and the
Council of the School of Design, we think it is incumbent on the
government to obtain their opinion, before further progress is made
with the new system.

Arts, Antiquities and Chronology of Ancient Egypt. By George
H. Wathen, Architect. London: Longmans, 1813.

Egypt is a theme so much wrought upon as a staple for book-
making, that we have little temptation to take up a new rtchauffee
of the same suhject. Relations of discoveiies we can read with
pleasure, or any masterly attempt to solve the mystery of its ancient
history, but Mr. Wathen's book gave little promise from its an-
nouncement, and bears little fruit on its perusal. An architect
may do much in Egypt for the information of the archeologist and
professional man here, and Mr. Wathen, we believe, has ability
enough, but instead of giving us any great account of what he saw,
the book is a medley formed from the labours of others. First we
have a miscellaneous preliminary chapter showing the common rela-
tionship of the priests of Memphis, the knights templars, heralds and
freemasons, with a considerable portion of the apocryphal MS. pur-
porting to be a conversation between Henry VI. and some freemasons,
upon which, as Mr. Wathen lias brought it in a propo* of Egypt, we
shall remark that it is a very extraordinary thing that curiosity should
have been dormant as to the proceedings of the freemasons from the
time of Henry VI. until the end of the 17th century, and that the
regal MS. should be brought to light and transmitted for the exami-
nation of Locke, in the time of Christopher Wren. Vtrbam sal. The
language of this document favours very much the suspicion of forgery,
and the legend is so suggestive of doubts, that it would be safest to
put it down to the account of some Chatterton of the 17th century,
who have never been wanting at any day. That Locke was at all de-
ceived by it is not wonderful, Chatterton and Ireland deceived better
antiquaries. The masonic MS. immediately precedes a long article
on the chronology of ancient Egypt, in which confusion is worse con-
founded, and although we have some glimmering that Mr. Wathen is
occasionally right in the new views he propounds, he shows himself
so illqualified for a guide, that we do not like to trust to his leading.
We certainly wish he had left the subject alone. The next section
of his book treats of the arts anil antiquities of Egypt, and contains
full accounts of the principal buildings and monuments, but chiefly
derived from other sources. We regret this, as Mr. Wathen shows a
power of observation, which might have been usefully employed in
preparing a book of his own. This section contains, in defiance of
order, a kind of journal of Mr. Wathen's tour in Egypt, which pre-
sents many points of interest, and is the only part of the book which
he ought to have published. If we thought it worth while to
exercise ourselves upon our author's antiquarian dissertations, we
could do so to the satisfactory disproof of many of his positions,
though not perhaps much to the gratification of our readers. As a
specimen how little light the author is qualified to shed upon Egyp-
tian lore, we refer to pages 50 and 170, 220 and 230 of his book. While,
however, we thus object to his having put into his book what he
could better have supplied with the results of his own observations,
we are bound to admit that for those who desire information on
Egypt in a compendious form, and particularly as relates to its archi-
tecture, a belter book than Mr. Wathen's can scarcely be chosen.
We extract from his pages the account of Karnak.

Next to the Pyramids the most wonderful relic of Egyptian art is undoubt-
edly the great Hall of the temple-palace of Karnak. From the inscriptions
we learn that it was founded by Menepthah-Osiri I., father of the great
Ramses, who was on the throne about the middle of the 15th century b. c.
Its superficial area, 341 feet by 164, is sufficiently spacious for a large quad-
rangle. Majestic in ruin, what must it have been perfect ! The massive

stone roof is supported by a phalanx of 134 giant columns, ranged in to"
rows. Most of these are 9 feet in diameter and nearly 43 feet high ; but
those of the central avenue are not less than 11 ft. G in. in diameter and
72ft. high; the diameter of their capitals at their widest spread is 22ft.
The walls, columns architraves, ceilings— every surface exposed to the eye
is overspread with intaglio sculptures — gods, heroes, and hieroglyphics,
painted in once vivid colours. It is easy to detail the dimensions of this
building, but no description can convey an idea of its sublime effect. What
massive grandeur in its vistas of enormous columns ! What scenic effects in
the gradations of the chiaroscuro and the gleainings of accidental lights
athwart the aisles ! As you move on. new combinations unfold themselves

every moment. Wherever the eye wanders it is filled with picture rank

behind rank, vista beyond vista. Here your eye runs along a pillared avenue
end rests upon a vast column at the end, torn from its basis and thrown
against the next — now it " is led a wanton chase " through a labyrinth of
columns, which from another point fall into regular succession.

The roof is formed of ponderous blocks stretching across the aisles. The
three central avenues rise above the general level like the nave of a Gothic
cathedral, and the spaces between the upper piers are filled with close-set
loopholes. Besides these, the only openings for light appear to have been
the great doorways at the ends of the middle avenue and a few slits in the
roof of the remote aisles. Thus while a solemn gloom reigned through the

interior generally — so grateful to the eye in this land of glare and glitter

the nave was strongly lighted and brought into prominence as a master line
bisecting the hall ; and a fine gradation of shade, passing off thence into the
obscurity of the distant aisles, heightened the effect of the perspectives.

All the resources of Egyptian architecture are here displayed in perfection;
— its enormous masses, its long, close files of columns, its deep seclusions,
and its rich pervading sculptural decoration. Burke could not have wished
for a happier illustration of that part of his theory which refers the sublime
in architecture to succession and massiveness.

The demolition of some of these masses excites even more wonder than
their erection. Solid pylons of enormous bulk are broken up or riven in
twain. Vast built columns seem to have been dragged from their foundations
en masse. Architraves many tons in weight, wrenched from their place, now
impend over the aisles, suspended by yet heavier masses which have perhaps
been thus nicely poising them for ages. One might believe they were giants
in those days,

" Giants of mighty bone and bold emprise ! "
But the Hall of Columns was but a part of this wonderful fabric. Im-
mense pylons, half buried quadrangles and halls, granite obelisks, and tre-
mendous piles of fallen masonry once formed a range of buildings upwards
of 1200 feet in length. The chief entrance was through the gateway of the
west front, 03 feet high. Besides these there were other isolated and sub-
ordinate buildings. The whole appear to have been separated from the din
of the city by an outer peiibolus of unburnt brick, inclosing an area about
580 yards in length. A succession of four great propyla led across this area
to the side of the chief structure. The outermost, as it was exposed to the
view of the city and first received the advancing procession, was the most
magnificent. Its length or base line is about 225 feet, its solid width 40 feet;
the central gateway is of the granite of Syene. * *

An avenue of colossal sphinxes appears to have been continued from
Luqsor up to the outer precinct of Karnak. The few that now remain are
mutilated and half interred : but how imposing the effect of such a vista
extending nearly a mile and a half over the plain terminated by the great
fayade of Luqsor ! How exactly adapted for the pageantry of processions !

The illustrations, often from the drawings of the author, are of
much interest, aud we cannot but regret that he has not used his
pencil mure than his pen.

On the Laying out, Planting, and Managing of Cemeteries, witli fifty
Engravings. By J. C. Loudon. London : Longmans, 1343.

The establishment of Cemeteries throughout the country, must be
gratifying to all who take an interest in public decency and public
health, while they possess the extrinsic advantage of affording greater
scope to art, and contributing to the healthful exercise of the people.
The churchyard is an opprobrium in a civilised community, neither
h irmonizing with the respect due to the dead, or to the care requisite
for the living, and the appropriation of eligible places of interment,
is a great step towards a better system. Few of our large towns are
now without their cemetry, or city of the dead, and the metropolis has
the advantage of being girt with many picturesque and interesting
establishments of this kind. Starting from Earl's Court, the circle is
continued by Kensal Green, Highgate, Abney Park, the Tower Ham-
lets, Nunhead, and Norwood, each possessing its peculiar beauties
and forming an embellishment to the metropolis, of which several of
them enjoy views not to be equalled in the world for grandeur or in-
terest. What more fitting abode for the dead, than looking down on
the wide-spreading city in which their lives were passed; hovering,
as it were, over the scene in which their loved descendants move, and

27

200

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

awaiting their presence. How much better is this than the Hades of
an Egyptian tomb! With the extension of cemetries, attention has
been called to the principles on which they are to be founded, and it
has fortunately induced Mr. Loudon to take tip the subject. Those
who know his accuracy, his minuteness, and his completeness, will be
prepared to acknowledge the merit of the present work, which, with-
out wandering into idle and useless details, treats the subject compre-
hensively, so as to afford every information which is essentially
requisite with regard to it. While attending to the professional use-
fulness of his work. Mr. Loudon, with his usual good feeling, has not
failed to call attention to the necessity of any improvements in the
mode of interment. He urges most strongly the necessity of no corpse
being interred with less than six feet of earth over it, and supports it
on every ground of propriety and necessity. He suggests also several
improvements as to the mode (flaying out cemetries, and remodelling
churchyards, and in tine, the reader will peruse his work with interest
and instruction.

with Introductory Remarks.
Dublin : Robertson.

r.v

Ancitnl Irish Partmtnt Tile*
Thomas Oldh.am, A.B., F.G.:

This work is of the same value with regard to Irish examples of
encaustic tiles, as Mr. Bowyer Nichols' is as to ihose of England, and
shows a laudable desire on the part of the sister country, to draw prolit
from her antiquarian relics.

The Irish specimens of tile are of three distinct kinds. First, im-
pressed tiles; second, encaustic tiles; and third, tiles in relief.
Of the first class, Mr. Oldham states, that the Irish specimens are
principally of the ordinary red colour of the clay, the surface being
coated with an opaque varnish or glaze, generally of a greenish yellow
Colour, but occasionally of a dark purplish black, and extending equally
over the indented pattern. Although similar examples liave been
found occasionally in England, in which the hollows were rilled with a
different substance, removeable by washing, our author observes, that
he has seen no such case in Ireland, and thinks it exceedingly impro-
bable that such ever was the case in Irish (iles. In the encaustic
variety, the surface is quite smooth and tl.it, the pattern being pro-
duced by a differently coloured substance inlaid. The colours are ge-
nerally bright red and yellow, or purplish black and pearl grey, and
sometimes of purplish black and deep red. The third variety has the
pattern formed in low relief. To this latter variety Mr. Oldham
assigns the later date, considering it referable to the Tudor times ;
some of the other examples are Mowever as old as the middle of the
twelfth century.

Mr. Oldham mentions some curious facts with regard to the Irish
tiles. He says, the identity with English specimens is uften recog-
nizable. Thus several of the patterns now remaining at St. Patrick's,
Dublin, are nearly identical with some from Malvern, in Worcester-
shire, and it is of additional interest to find, that about the probable
date of these tiles, a connection existed between the two places, for
in 1225, the year in which St. Patrick's was made a cathedral, the
prior and brethren of Malvern the Less, re-granted to it one half of
the tithes of Cast.eknock, which had been given them in 1221. A

[J t'NE,

kiln, it appears, has been discovered at Malvern, with portions of
tiles in the several stages of the progress, and the tiles there used
were manufactured on the spot ; whence Mr. Oldham conjectures, that
some of the Irish tiles were also derived from the same source. The
water communication by the Severn and Bristol with Ireland,' would
favour this idea. Notwithstanding occasional importations, our author
is however of opinion that the majority of the Irish tiles were made
on the spot.

The following anecdote with regard to the early use of ornamental
tiles, is entertaining. The author says: —

But if, on the other hand, our supposition that the pavement tiles at Mel-
hfont were laid down at the time of its erection, (1142—1157) by monks
from Normandy, be correct, it would then appear more probable, that the
first knowledge of these tiles was derived from thence; and bearing in mind
that Mellifont and Bectivewere both Cistertian establishments ; the followinrr
r.otice, obligingly communicated to us by the Rev. Richard Butler, is ext
tremely interesting. In Martini's Thesaurus Anecdotorum, among the " Se
lect statutes of a general chapter of the Cistertian order" is one— " Anno
1210 Let the Ahhat of Beaubec (in Normandv) who has for a long time
allowed his monk to construct, for persons, who do not belong to the order
pavements, which exhibit levity and cariosity, be in slight penance for three
days, the last of them on bread and water ; and let the monk be recalled
before the feast of All Saints, and never again be lent, excepting to persons
of our order, with whom , let him not presumeto construct pavements, which
do not extend the dignity of the order." These pavements must have been

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

201

either mosaics, (tesselated pavements) or tiles; probably, from the manner
in which they are described, the latter. In either case, it proves that orna-
mental pavements had been a long time in use prior to the beginning of the
thirteenth century. Nor should the fact be overlooked of the jealousy with
which the use of them was sought to be confined to this monastic order.

Of some of the tiles, by the kindness of the author, we are able to
give specimens, and we beg to observe, that the work is a valuable
contribution to our knowledge of that branch of art.

The Student's Guide to the Practice of Measuring and Valuing Arti-
ficer's Work. By a late Eminent Surveyor. London: John Weale,
1843.

To the student this will be found a very useful guide, as far as it
goes, but it is not sufficiently extended to be of that benefit the title
led us to expect. It does not explain in what manner the student is
to set about measuring or estimating a building, in commencing and
proceeding from the foundation to the top in brickwork, and from the
roof downwards to the lowest floor in carpentry, or the method of
proceeding on each floor in the joining, first with the floor, then the
skirting, windows, doors, &c. ; nor in the plasterer's work commencing
with the ceiling, then the cornice, partitions and walls: we have just
given this slight and hurried sketch to show that there is a system
adopted by all surveyors of any practice in measuring a building, and
without such a system, the tyro will get himself into a labyrinth of
difficulties, and probably omit some important part of the works. We
may probably at a future opportunity be induced to give some Instruc-
tions on measuring, for we have often seen attempts to lay down rules
for that purpose, but none of them appear to us to be of that satisfac-
tory character which we think suitable to the student — however, the
work now before us, for the present we recommend, as we consider it
the best that has hitherto been published, and will render some assist-
ance in valuing and making out builders work, and give some insight
into the abbreviations, method of entering the measurement, the ab-
stract and drawing out the bill of quantities.

A course of Practical Geometry for Mechanics, by W. Pease. — This book
contains the principles of Geometry, which the author has condensed very
satisfactorily into a small space, so as to render the work both cheap and
useful to the student.

The Guide to Hayling Island near Ifavant, Hants. — To the visitors of this
watering place this guide will be useful.

PROPOSED EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CITY OF
LONDON.

At the last Court of Common Council, the Special Committee appointed to
report upon the proposed improvements in the city, presented their report,
which certainly contains numerous suggestions, but we fear it will be several
years before they can be carried into effect ; they observe that :

It has long been the subject of public complaint, that Newgate-street,
Snowhill, and llolboni, the great thoroughfare to the north-western, and
that of St. Paul's Churchyard, Ludgate-bill, and Fleet-street, to the western
part of the metropolis, are both quite inadequate to the immense traffic of car-
riages, wagons, and vehicles of every description which throng in those
directions; and the numbers of wagons and carts which convey provisions
to and from Newgate-market frequently choke that thoroughfare, creating
delays and inconvenience to the mail-coaches, and other impediments to the
Post-office arrangements. The special committee having examined carefully
those plans which have been suggested to the Commissioners of Woods and
Forests for a new thoroughfare, commencing in the neighbourhood of Lei-
cester-square, through Lincoln's-inn-fiekls into the city, crossing Farring-
don-street by a viaduct, next considered the practicability of forming a
street which would connect the end of Cheapside with such a thoroughfare
at Lincoln'sinn and with a branch diverging into Holborn, which would
effectually relieve the great pressure of the public traffic in the thoroughfares
alluded to, and at the same time render a viaduct at Holborn-bridge unne-
cessary. They were of opinion that the formation of a street combining
these desirable objects was d< cidedly practicable, the street to commence at
the east end, and continue along Paternoster-row, through Amen-corner,
across Farringdon-street to the south-west corner of Farringdon-market in
a straight line, the main line to continue across the middle of Fetter-lane
to the city boundary, and a branch to diverge from the corner of the market
to the end of Fetter-lane, at the summit of the hill in the wide part of
llolborn. The special committee having had the levels in this proposed new
line accurately taken, find that the greatest ^inclination of any part of it
would not be more than about 3 feet in 100, and thai only for the distance of
370 feet. It occurred to them in pursuing the investigation, that this new

line would be still greater improved by the removal of the whole of the
houses between the north side of St. Paul's Churchyard and Paternoster-
row, from the end of Cheapside as far as Ave Maria-lane, which could be
done for the additional sum of £150,000. Should this be effected, that mag-
nificent structure would terminate a vista of upwards of one-third of a mile,
and the whole would, in addition to the increased facility and convenience
which would be afforded to the growing commercial traffic of the city, form
one of the grandest improvements of an architectural character, yet achieved
in the metropolis.

The order in which the special committee have classed the improvements
« hich they consider called for, is according to the relative importance of
each, and as follows : —

A. From the east end of Paternoster-row to Fetter-lane, and a branch
street to Holborn, commencing with the houses at the west end of Cheapside,
projecting beyond the line of St.Martin's-le-Grand,all between Paternoster-
row, St. Paul's Churchyard, as far as Ave Maria-lane, Amen Corner, cross-
ing the Old Bailey, to Farringdon-street, to Shoe-lane, Printer-street, Great
New-street, to Fetter-lane to the city boundary ; and the branch street from
Little New-street, to the north end of Fetter-lane, Holborn, about 3360 feet
in length. The great st acclivity in the whole of this line will not be more
than 1 in 31, and that for only about 370 feet.

B. From the north end of Dowgate-hill to the east end of St. Paul's
Churchyard, thence to Earl-street, Blackfriars, through Tower Royal. Little
and Great Distaff-lane, crossing the Old Change into St. Paul's Churchyard,
about 1360 feet in length, and from the Old Change, through Knight-rider-
court, Carter-lane, Godliman-street, Bell-yard, Addle-hill, to the east end of
Earl-street, about 1200 feet in length.

C. Watling-street, from Aldermary Church to the west end of St. Paul's
Churchyard, about 1055 feet in length.

D. The Poultry, on the north side, to the Old Jewry, and 100 feet of the
north side of Mansion-house-street, about 1055 feet in length; from the
Mansion-house across Bucklersbury and Size-lane to Queen-street, from
Watling-street to the east end of Basing-lane, the east side of Queen-street
from Watling-street to Thames-street, about 1400 feet in length.

E. Lime-street, east side, from Cullum-street to Fenchurch-street, Lea-
denhall-market from Fenchurch-street through to the south end of Graee-
cburch-street, about 800 feet in length ; Aldgate, south side, from the Sara-
cen's Head to Jewry-street, and the east end of Leadenhall- street at its junc-
tion with Fenchurch-street.

F. Broad-street buildings to the Curtain-road, through Halfmoon-street to
Sun-street, thence to Skinner-street, and on to Worship-street, about 1550
feet in length.

G. From Aldersgate-street, opposite the end of Jewin-street to Smithfield,
and from the corner of Little Britain across Bartholomew-close, to commu-
nicate with the above line of street to Smithfield, about 1280 feet in length.

II. Threadneedle-street, north side, at its junction with Broad-street, and
south side, from the church of St. Benet Fink, to Finch-lane, about 265 feet
in length.

I. Holborn -bridge, north side, about 90 feet in length. Butcherhall-lane,
east side, about 85 feet in length. St. Martin's-le-Grand, north-east corner,
Angel-street.

K. Maiden-lane, north and south sides, about 275 feet in length; Jewin-
street, south side from the corner; Redcross-street to Redcross-square, and
north corner next Aldersgate-street ; Aldermanbury, the west side of the
south end ; Milk-street, east side next Cheapside ; White Rose-court,
Coleman-street, and Mason's-alley, Moor-lane, south side, east corner, and
north end, west side, from White-street to Type-street, and south end,
Milton-street, east side ; New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, through Tudor-
street to the Temple.

" Having thus detailed these improvements, the special committee turned
their attention to that part of the reference whereby we were directed to
report our opinion as to the best means of accomplishing these objects, and
having had under consideration the various improvements which have been
carried out during the last 12 years, as connected with the avenues and ap-
proaches to London-bridge, ascertained that our expenditure in this respect
has averaged about £150,000 per annum ; a sum which they apprehended, if
the same could be provided for a few years, would enable all the proposed
improvements to be carried into effect; and fevling that the corporation have
not the means at their disposal of effecting these improvements, however de-
sirable the same may appear to be, the special committee were of opinion,
as Her Majesty has been graciously pleased to appoint a special commission
for the purpose of considering of further metropolitan improvements, which
commission is now sitting, that a favourable opportunity exists for drawing
the attention of the G ivernment and the commission as to the best means to
be adopted for raising the requisite funds for these purposes, and recom-
mended that we should be empowered to ci.nfer>ith them upon this desi-
rable object ; and we agreeing with the special committee in the said report,
submit the same to the hon. court."

The report was signed by 21 members.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Jl'NK,

THE TWEEDDALE PATENT DRAIN TILE AND BRICK MACHINE.
Fig. 1. Tile Machine.

These machines, the invention of the Marquis of Tweeddale. have recently
undergone very considerable improvements, and are now made to he worked
hy manual power, and are so portable that they may be removed and placed
in any part of the tile sheds or brick fields. Formerly the machines were
worked only by steam power, which in many cases was found to be highly-
inconvenient and expensive, as it was necessary to have the machines fixed
and the clay brought to them sometimes at a considerable distance. The
new machines, exhibited in the above engravings, can he worked by one
labourer independently of the filler and attendants to remove the bricks as
they are made.

The machines act with great simplicity, yet with the utmost accuracy.
The one used for tile making, Fig. 1, consists mainly of two iron cylinders,
over which webs or bands of moleskin, or other suitable cloth, are made to
pass. By this arrangement the clay is pressed into a web of uniform thick-
ness, without adhering to the cylinders. It is then carried over a covered
wheel, slightly curved on the rim, and begins to assume the bent shape of a
draining tile; a tendency which is increased by several inexpensive but effec-
tual contrivances ; and the tiles are polished and finished by passing throuuh
three graduated iron moulds of horse-shoe form, as seen in the centre of the
machine, being at the same time moistened from a cistern on the top of the
machine. The tiles are then cut off, with mathematical accuracy, to such
length as may be required (fifteen inches being generally recommended as
the most profitable and convenient), and then they are conveyed to any re-
quisite distance by an endless web, and from thence are placed by two lads
on the drying shelves. Flat tiles, or soles, are formed in precisely the
same manner; except that they are partially divided into two portions while
passing through the moulds, the quantity of clav required for one draining
tile being the same as for two soles. The tile machine will make from 10 to
15 bricks per minute.

The brick machine, Fig. 2, is on the same principle, but varied to suit the
different character of the article required. The clay is placed in a receiver or
" hopper" above the two cylinders; and it descends between them into a mould
or box, in such a way as to become perfectly formed and pressed into the
shape of a brick in the transit. By a recent skilful improvement, a series
of palate-boards is borne along by an endless iron chain ; and the adjust-
ment is so correct that at the exact moment of passing under the mould,
each hoard is lifted to receive the new formed brick as it is emitted fnm the
mould, and separated from the main body of clay ; the palate board then
drops again into its place with the brick, and is conveyed horizontally along
the web just mentioned ; hence it is removed on to barrows by the barrow-
men.

It is not the least of the merits of both machines that, although acting
with the accuracy of clockwork, they are not liable to derangement ; and
that, while they are suitable for the application of steam or other power
when very large quantities are required, yet they are so simplified as to he
also within the management of a couple of common labourers, with the
assistance of two or three boys to remove tiles, or the like number of men is
the case of bricks.

The quantity of articles produced is not limited by the machines, as they
will manufacture any number that can be conveniently taken away. The
general range is from 15 to 20 bricks or tiles per minute, when hand labour
is employed to work the machines.

Several of these machines are now in operation in different parts of the
United Kingdom, and on the Continent. The principal portion of the bricks
for the rebuilding of that portion of Hamburgh destroyed hy fire, are, we are
informed, made by these machines. One of the machines may be seen at
the Company's wharf, Millbank, Westminster, near Vauxhall Bridge.

1843-]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

203

THE XANTHIAN MARBLES IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Amongst the valuable, though to the public taste not the most at-
tractive, additions to the contents of the British Museum, are the
marbles brought from Lycia, and which have been placed temporarily
in the two rooms leading to the Elgin marbles. These treasures not
being as yet entered in the synopsis, or presenting to an ordinary ob-
server no striking or remarkable feature, have not yet attracted that
notice which their importance demands. Still they have not been al-
together unnoticed by the crowds of holyday folk who have thronged
to the Museum during the last few days, and who seem unanimously
to regard them as "very ancient" and "very curious."

These marbles, which were discovered by Mr. Fellowes, while tra-
velling in Asia Minor, in 1838, are said to be the most remarkable
and important accession received by any European museum for many
years, and have been obtained and brought to England in conse-
quence of the greatest enterprise and self-denial on the part of the
gentleman by whom they were discovered, and in consequence of
whose representations respecting them they have been lodged in the
British Museum. The marbles already secured to the British nation
are but a small portion of those that abound in the interesting country
from which they have been brought; they are, however, very valu-
able, and some idea of their quantity may be obtained when we
mention that they were brought to England in 78 large and heavy
packages.

The Xanthian, or Fellowes marbles, as it has been proposed to have
them called, illustrate the mythology, the modes of warfare, and a
variety of interesting features in the manners and customs of the
ancient inhabitants of Asia Minor, who were originally settlers from
Crete.

As might be expected, these sculptures do not, as works of art,
rank with the Elgin marbles, but they are highly interesting as illus-
trating the state of sculpture in a much earlier age. They are sup-
posed to include some of the earliest efforts of Greek art which have
come down to our times.

The principal objects in the collection are those which Mr. Fel-
lowes describes as the bas-reliefs representing the legend of the
daughters of King Pandarus being carried away by the harpies, which
were around the high square monument, which was called the harpy
tomb. The marbles belonging to this tomb are placed in the centre
of the grand central saloon, arranged as they were before being taken
down. Near them is placed a model of the tomb, which was sup-
ported by a shaft 17 feet high, and weighing SO tons, standing on a
plinth G feet high. The tomb itself was 3 feet 3 inches in height,
surmounted by a cover which weighed from 15 to 20 tons. The cen-
tral saloon also contains some very beautiful frieze work, representing
in bas-relief a bear hunt: all the figures, the horses and horsemen, the
dogs, and the unfortunate bear itself, are very spirited and bold, but
not highly finished specimens of art. Some of the figures on the
harpy tomb, and those placed on the under ledge of the same large
framework, bear a considerable resemblance to the figures on the
monuments of Egypt; we may mention particularly the gods seated
on chairs, one smelling a lily, and another giving a helmet to a war-
rior. In the anti-room there are several very rich friezes. One
represents a sacrifice ; the fire is burning on the altar, and a number of
persons are approaching with various offerings, both animal and
vegetable, and in cases the offering may be readily distinguished.
The siege of the walled town forms in itself an interesting subject ;
the walls are defended by warriors armed with stones, which are also
the weapons in general use among all the combatants; on the walls
are a number of females, whose countenances indicate great distress,
as they well may, for the artist has introduced an escalade, which is
sufficiently indicative of the danger of the inhabitants. The friezes
and the pediments in this room contain some figures, which for vigour
of design, if not for beauty of execution, may vie with the Elgin
marbles. Mr. Fellowes, in his account of the transmission of these
marbles to England, remarks that the frieze so accurately illustrates
the description given by Herodotus of the capture of the early city,
that he could almost fancy that the neighbouring historian had written
his history from it, commemorating an event which happened about a
century before his era. We understand that a room is to be pre-
pared expressly to receive this valuable addition to the antique sculp-
tures with which our great national collection is enriched. — Times.

DREDGING AND DREDGING-MACHINES.

Sir — As to working a machine a-head by the engine, although, as
you remark in your foot note to my communication on this subject, in
the last number, it is one of the most obvious applications of the en-
gine power, yet it is not equally so under all circumstances. Where
a machine is used to keep a harbour dock or navigation clean, the ap-
plication is most obvious and advantageous, as the traverse of the
machine may be quite uniform ; but where the natural bottom has to
be dredged out, the advantage is not so great. Indeed, in such a case,
it is impossible to apply a constant power to the bow chain in trench
cutting, (or the lateral chains in radius cutting,) else the machine
would be broken by natural interruptions, such as stones and roots of
trees occurring. But if the engine power be applied to a crab-winch,
and the chain be brought with about three turns round the winding
barrel, so as to give it just sufficient friction to drag the machine
under the ordinary resistance to the buckets, and of course allowing
the end of the chain to coil upon the deck, an intermittent motion
may be had. If, however, a man attend to this crab-winch while the
machine is at work, and on the given signal from the captain, throws
a slack of chain on the winding barrel to cause it to slip, and so stop
the advancement of the machine, this motion may be rendered quite
as manageable as if performed entirely by manual labour. It would,
of course, be an object to dispense with the attendance of a mau at
the crab-winch or with the winch also, and to wind the chain on a
barrel at the engine, but then no friction straps or the like could pro-
duce such a motion as that given by the man letting the chain slip or
lose hold entirely, as required. A fast and loose gearing would
scarcely do, but, with friction cones, it would certainly approximate
to a hand motion, sufficient for ordinary cutting.

In my communication last month, I did not say what motive power
I would apply to the lateral chains therein proposed, but the above
remarks apply equally to them as to a bow chain. Where the motion
of the machine (i. e. the progressive motion of the machine or boat to
the stuff) may be uniform, the application of engine power would be
an additional saving, as they would only require an occasional in-
spection, but in the case where the motion must be intermitted, the
method of "radius cutting" reduces the labour of winding so much,
that if a man attend to the chains he can also wind them. In a small
machine, about 50 feet long, one lateral chain on each side may be
sufficient.

As the reduction of the number of hands required to work dredging
machines must be an object with every engineer whose works require
the use of them, in as much as it is creditable to raise the stuff at the
least expense which local and other circumstances will permit, many
ingenious arrangements might be thought of. In those machines in
which the bucket ladder is placed in the centre of the boat, there are
levers at hand, by which the captain, while taking the soundings in
the well, can raise and lower the ladder. In the same manner, when
engine power is applied to the crab winchs, rods might be brought
from their fast and loose motions, so as all to be at one point. Always
adapting the machine to the nature of its work, I am not aware of
any works where the machines are divided and adapted to different
sorts of work, which has made me keep this point in view in my pre-
ceding remarks.

If each machine be adapted both for light and heavy work, there
must be a waste of power ; but more on this again.

W. C, C.e.
30, Hope Street, Glasgow,
26th April, 1843.

Paris.— The monster elephant which has for 30 years guarded the Plac
de la Bastile, in memory of Napoleon's Egyptian exploits, is about to be cast
in bronze, for the decoration of a grand fountain to be erected in the Place
du Trone. The giant animal is already caged, for the purpose, within a sys-
tem of boardings forming a vast workshop, and at once exciting and baffling
the curiosity of the Parisian street hunters. The papers also state, that the
commission for erecting the tomb of the Emperor Napoleon has come to a
decision that the baldachin of the altar at the lnvalides, with its gilded co-
lumns, shall be suppressed ; that the equestrian statue of the Empeior shall
be erected on the Esplanade, and not in the tour Royale, as designed by the
architect, and that the figure of the Emperor shall be in his historical dress,
and not in the Roman costume. The Minister of the Interior has given com-
missions for twelve statues, to be placed in the niches of the prineipaliacade of
the new buildings at the Hotel de Ville. The following are the subjects :—
Frochot, Voyerd'Argenson, Etienne Robert, Vincent de Paule, L'Abbe de
1'Epee. Robin, Jean Aubry, Hardouin-Mans.ird, Guillaume Bude, Mathicii
Mole, Michel Lallier, and La Vacquerie.

204

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

C. W. WILLIAMS' ARGAND FURNACE.

Questions relative to the effect of C. W. Williams' Argand Furnace, as answered by the Commanders and Engineers of the undermentioned

Steamers, 28M March, 1843.

Steamers.

HlBERNIA.

Bali.inasloe.
Nottingham.

AtHLONE.

Royal Adelaide

Royal William.
Prince.

Princess.

How long
since the ap-
paratus was Did your furnaces make
introduced much smoke before they
into your were altered .'

Vessel.

Do they male less smoke
since they were altered .'

12 months. A great deal of smoke
7 months. \ Not much smoke.

19th April, Yes — a very
1841 — say black smoke,
two vears. ,

thick

Birmingham.

Oriental.

(From Alexandria)

A great quantity of
smoke was made pre-
viously.

Yes — we smoked very
much.

Nov.23,1843 Made much smoke
with the former boilers.

Always to : Smoked much with
these boilers, former boilers.

9 months A great quantity of
dense black smoke

Going before the wind
they smoked consider
ably — at other times not
so much.

At times thev smoked,

A dense black smoke.

Yes — we smoked con-
siderably, as much as
any vessel of our class.

Hindostan.
(From Calcutta.)

SlI.WDON.

CGlaspow.J

D.edalus.

CLiverpool.J

Put in on ar

rival at
Southampton

Much less smoke,
scarcely any to be per
ceived.

Since the alteration
there is less smoke than
before.

No smoke is now
made except when tires
are first lighted, or coals
are being thrown on.

No smoke is now made
after the fires are put in
good order — a light
smoke when men are
firing.

Only when fires are
first lighted, or with bad
coal.

Had you a sufficient

supphf of steam before

the furnaces were

altered.

Does the use of this
Hore yon as good or ! Apparatus effect any
better command of steam saving of fuel, and to
since the alteration f wha' extent .'

Yes — but
much.

No — scarcely enougl
of steam.

Rather insufficient in
steam.

Yes — a great deal bet-
ter, and was enabled to
blow off copiouslv

I should say a better
command of steam,
though we have new
cylinders of larger di~
mensions.

YVe have now an abun-
dant supply of steam.

We have now a very
plentiful supply of steam.

Voyage from Liverpool
to Southampton, smoked
much, from both funnels

Very little smoke now.

Vc have made very-
little smoke since the
commencement, with
present boilers.

They now make
scarcely any smoke after
the fires are well lighted.

No smoke except when
tiring up or making the
fires, and then only
short time.

No black smoke now
appears while under way
but sometimes a little
gray colour a few seconds
after firing.

Much less smoke.

After all is warmed
t h rough we do not smoke,
only when firing up or
aking, and then only a
slight volume for a few
seconds.

Smoke is now seldom
or never seen.

No — we had but little
except with very good
coal — then with great
exertion we worked to
full power.

The apparatus attached
when the present boilers
were pnt in.

Apparatus always at-
tached to present boiler:
plenty of steam at all
times.

We had sufficient he
fore the alteration.

We always had a good
command of steam.

A great quantity of
smoke.

A great deal of smoke

Smoke nearly done
away with, except
firing, and when raising
steam from cold water.

No smoke now except
when the fire is lighted.

We are convinced we
have, and particularly
with good coals.

Sufficient supply o
steam.

Apparatus always at
tached — plenty of steam
at all times.

We have quite suffi
cient, as we had before.

1 have always a suffi-
cient supply of steam.

No, we had not suffi
cient steam.

We were always pretty
well for steam when
using good coals.

Not over abundant

Not half enough.

We have better com-
mand of steam ; if the
coals are good, we can
make any quantity of
steam with the greatest
ease.

At all times a sufficient
command, and are now to ljcwt. per hour,
enabled constantly to
blow off steam.

On the average of trips
we save at least 3 cwt.
per hour.

Consumption much
about the same as before,
notwithstanding about
16 horses power added
and an increase of two
revolutions.

Consumption of fuel
the same as before.

About four tons of
fuel less is now consumed
in the trip than before
the alteration.

Yes — this is experi
enced when burning
good coals, hut not when
with a bad quality.

Apparatus always ap
plied to these boilers.

Apparatus always at-
tached, therefore cannot
say.

Without the air

pipes we made

16 voyages .. 371 hrs.

Coals consumed 571 tons

With the air

pipes we made

16 voyages .. 379 hrs.

Coals consumed 522tons

Saving . . . . 49tons

To the best of our

judgment, about 4 cwt

per hour.

We save about 1 cwt

Very much better.

We consider that we
have a much better sup
ply with the air appa
ratus — there is no ques
tion of it.

Sufficient steam now.

Much about the same,

From the nature of
our service I cannot say

We think we are saving
from three to four cwt
per hour. For many
voyages our consumption
averaged 26 cwt. per
hour. It was 30 cwt
previously.

The air boxes are a
great saving, both
fuel and supporting the
bridges.

From 13 to 20 per
cent, of fuel is saved

Y'es, at least one-third

.Since the above was printed, the Queen Victoria (in Liverpool) and the Bronda (in Glasgow) have been added to the list, in both of which

the apparatus has been successfully applied.

18-13.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

205

C. W. WILLIAMS* PATENT SMOKELESS ARGAND FURNACE.

Sir — As the application of Mr. C. \V. Williams' Argand Furnace
to marine boilers has been questioned, we beg to request your giving
room to the accompanying tabular view of its adoption on board
several steamers, and to add that the apparatus continues to be applied
to such boilers as from their construction are susceptible of im-
provement.

I am. Sir,
May 5, 1843. Your'a obediently,

Dircks & Co.

P.S. By the returns in the foregoing table it will be seen that the ad-
vantages are greater in some vessels than in others. This difference
is chiefly attributable to the construction of their boilers. In marine
as well as land engine boilers, the arrangement of the flues frequently
renders them incap.ible of improvement; such arrangement not only
injuring the draught, but tending to obstruct, rather than aid, the
natural and chemical process of the combustion of the gaseous matter
of the coal. In some of the boilers in the above table, there appears
to be a considerable saving of fuel where there had been a sufficiency
of steam. In others, the advantage of the apparatus is shown by ob-
taining a better supply of steam from the same quantity of fuel. In
all, the great evil of smoke is avoided. Where furnaces are properly
attended to, by having the bars kept thickly and uniformly covered
with fuel, smoke will be prevented, and more heat generated. Any
deviation from this, by having the fire bars too long — by improperly
feeding the furnaces or allowing the fuel to burn in holes or irregu-
larly— or by heaping the fresh coals in front, and allowing the back
part of the bars to be uncovered or without the full supply of fuel,
will be attended, either with the generation of visible smoke, or the
escape of the gases unbumt, though invisible, with a loss of heat, and
consequently a diminution of steam. It is here to be noted, that the
absence of visible black smoke is no test of the combustion of the
gases. What is called the " combustion of smoke " is not unfrequently
the effect of the mismanagement of the fuel, by which its inflammable
gases pass away in an invisible form. Smoke is the result of the
imperfect process of combustion of the gases, and as the process can-
not be twice performed in the same furnace, the " combustion of
smoke " is hence a chemical absurdity. Dr. Ure, writing to Mr.
Williams, says, "I quite agree with you in considering the prevention
of smoke to be the true mode of curing the nuisance; for when the
carbonaceous particles become deposited, it is impossible effectually
to burn them, so as to destroy the smoke which they occasion, or
rather constitute." Professor Brande says, "As to the quibble about
burning smoke, it is, in other words, burning what is to be presnmed
has already been burned, and therefore cannot be burued twice over,"
&c. "I can see nothing that in the least invalidates your views re-
specting the prevention of smoke, by the combustion of that which
would become smoke, if you mould let it."

NOTES ON THE USE OF SUBLIMATE OF MERCURY AND SUL-
PHATE OF ZINC, AS PREVENTIVES TO DECAY IN TIMBER.

Various attempts have been made by different individuals to render tim-
ber indestructible, both as regards fire and the hand of time, also to render
limbers of inferior qualities equal in hardness to those of the best descrip-
tion ; for the two latter purposes a solution of pyrolignite of iron and chlo-
ride of lime have been employed, and for the former, solutions of the sul-
phates of copper and iron. It has long beeu known that the saturation of
skins of birds and anatomical preparations, in a solution of corrosive subli-
mate of mercury, tended to their preservation, and it was suggested by Sir
H. Davy and also by Mr. Chapman, that the same solution was capable of
preserving timber ; but it was reserved for Mr. Kyan to bring the subject to
bear in practice, who, as long ago as March 4, 1828, submitted some timbers
to his new process, and the first examination of which took place in three
years afterwards, and the second in July, 1833, five years afterwards. Since
then the use of sublimate as a preventive of dry rot and decay has been
termed Kyanizing, after Mr. Kyan, who, in 1832, took out letters patent " for
a new mode of preserving certain vegetable substances from decay," and in
the same year had some specimens of timber, prepared with the solution,
tested in the fungus pits of Woolwich dockyard, which stood the trial satis-
factorily. In 1835, the paling of Regent's Park, in London, was so prepared,
and in the same year Sir Robert Smirke employed Kyanized timber in the
erection of the Oxford and Cambridge Club, and Messrs. Grissell and Peto,

the builders, erected tanks and purchased the use of the patent, and Mr. Samuel
Beazley, the architect, reported, in Jan. 1831, favourably of the paling in the
Regent's Park, which had been submitted to the process. The above au-
thorities, I have no doubt, gave the system of Kyanizing an impetus of
which it has not yet lost the beneficial effect. Above twenty railway com-
panies used the patent for the preparation of the sleepers of railways, both
for cross and continuous bearings ; it was used on the viaducts of timber on
the North Shields Railway, by Messrs. Green, and also by the Honourable
Commission for the repair of the Menai Bridge. The Kyanizing system has
been introduced into Holland, where the Commissioners of the Dutch govern-
ment made a favourable report in May, 1838, and it has also been used for
the Austrian railways. A company is now using the patent in England
under the title of " The Anti-Dry-Rot Company."

An improvement on mere saturation was suggested and acted upou by Sir
William Burnett, in Aug. 1836, and being favourably reported on by the
Admiralty, a tank was erected at Portsmouth, being of wrought iron, 52 ft.
long, and 6 ft. diameter, and another was erected by the Hull & Selby Rail-
road Company, 70 ft. long C ft. diameter. The Anti-Dry-Rot Company, under
Kyan's patent, has also a 60 ft. tank and hydraulic apparatus, at their works,
City Road Basin. The timber is piled inside these tanks with interstices,
and the air is exhausted by a pump to a vacuum of 25-J in. of mercury, and
the solution then admitted, and submitted to a pressure of 100 lb. by a force
pump, by which means the saturated solution is forced into the pores of the
wood. Some doubts have been expressed as to whether the proper effect is
obtained by this mechanical process, the action being chemical, and time for
saturation being required.

The report of the Committee appointed by the Lords of the Admiralty
printed by order of the House of Commons, July 9, 1835, contains the fol-
lowing observations, founded upon some experiments made at Somerset
House. The solution used for preparing the timber, contains 224 lb. of
the corrosive sublimate to 1062 gallons of water, or about 1 lb. to 5 gal-
lons, and the cost of the sublimate 3s. "id. per lb., and that the solution
diminishes in bulk and not in strength by use.

Professor Faraday delivered a lecture at the Royal Institution on dry rot,
in Feb. 1833, Dr. Birkbeck at the Society of Arts, Dec. 9, 1834, and Robert
Dickson, Esq., at the Institution of British Architects, April, 1837, and a
pamphlet was published by J. C. Adlard on Kyan's process, all approving of
the process, which show the prominence this subject has assumed within
late years.

The following is the cost of Kyan's process as first promulgated in Janu-
ary, 1836 : —

Licence per load of 50 cubic feet . . . . . . . . 5

1 lb. of corrosive sublimate to 10 gallons of solution . . 5

Labour to 1 load of timber, filling and emptying tank, and

unloading . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 5

Risk and profit, 25 per cent. . . . . . . . . 5

Cost of a load of 50 feet . . 20*.

Deals require to lie in the tank three days, and an extra day for every inch
in thickness.

The largest tanks for mere saturation that I have any account of, were
erected for the Great Western Railway Company, at Bull's Bridge, near West
Drayton, under the direction of the engineer to the Company. These tanks
were 9 ft. deep, and of an oblong trough shape, the size at the top was 84 ft.
by 19 ft., and at bottom 60 ft. by 12 ft. 8 in. The sides were of 4 in. plank,
American pine, supported on sills 12 in. by 10 in., and upright framing lOin.
by 10 in., and with sloping diagonal braces, 8 in. by 8 in., of which framing
there were 9 sets in the length of the tank. The whole was sunk into the
ground nearly level with the surface, the uprights standing about 2 ft. above
the sides, to which were attached transoms to keep down the timber in the
solution. The tendency of the timber to float was so great, that notwith-
standing the bearing was only 19 ft., and the transoms loin, by 12 in., they
were cambered or bent upward nearly an inch and a half, and in one instance
the whole tank was disturbed from its seat -, the thickness of the sides being
only 4 in. plank, the solution escaped, and ran into a ditch which communi-
cated with a fish pond at a distance of about 600 yards from the tank ; and
notwithstanding the reduction in strength, the fish in the pond were killed.

The sublimate was dissolved in hot water, and added to the water in the
tanks, the hydrometer being used to test its strength. At the end of the
tank a mast was erected with a traversing boom, so as to be used as a derrick
in filling or emptying the tank of timber. As a test whether the solution

28*

206

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Jl'NE,

had penetrated to the centre of the timber, hydrosulphuret of ammonia was
used, and if the solution had penetrated sufficiently into the prepared timber,
ben)" touched with the test a black stain would soon become apparent, al-
though I must say I have not seen it act successfully when the timber was
split far from the surface.

The preservation uf timber from the dry rot is at the present moment
attracting considerable attention, in consequence of Sir W. Burnett's process
having superseded Mr. Kyau's in the good opinion of the authorities of the
navy. The United Serrice Journal for April has an article on naval im-
provements in the 19th century ; from the fourth notice on dry rot,
is condensed the following account of Burnettizing. It appears that Sir W.
Burnett, Physician General of the Navy, knowing that the precipitate caused
by Kyanization was soluble in sea water, substituted water saturated with
the chloride of zinc, with decided and beneficial effect ; and " we trust," says
the editor of the Journal, " the day is not far distant when not a load of tim-
ber or a bolt of canvas will be used in Her Majesty's service without being
Burnettized." The principle of Burnettizing was reported upon by the
Master of Woolwich Dockyard and his assistant, 15th July, and by the Ad-
miralty, 26th July, 1841. Tanks are established at each of the dockyards,
at Portsmouth, Plymouth and Chatham ; that at Portsmouth is 6 ft. diameter,
and 52 ft. long, and proved to a pressure of 2001b. on the inch. In conse-
quence of the successful results of all the experiments, Sir William was in-
duced to take out a patent. In the above named Journal, amongst the cor-
respondence, is a letter from the Liverpool Registry of Shipping stating that
rock salt filled between the timbers of the frame of a ship, is a preventive or
cure for dry rot, even after it has made its appearance. In the Mining Jour-
nal. March 18, 1843, from a letter by J. Murray we learn that he applied
sulphate of iron and a partial vacuum, caused by steam injection, to assist
the penetration of the solution, 10 years before Kyan's process ; through the
same channel, he also states that salts of copper will coagulate albumen as
well as chloride of mercury. The tanks of t lie Hull and Selby Railway,
previously noticed, are more fully described in Vol. 5, page 202 of the Jour-
nal, being an account of the meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
March 8, 1840, where it is stated that 50 out of 70 of the prepared sleepers,
used at the West India Dock warehouses, after being down for five years,
were rotten, they bad been prepared by simple immersion or saturation; and
it is also stated, that some tanks of the Anti-Dry-Rut Company, in which the
solution was kept, had decayed, and that the action of corrosive sublimate
would be prejudicial to the use of iron bolts in Kyanized sleepers.

In the application of Kyanizing to railways, Mr. Giles was the first to
applv it on the Southampton Railway ; and of its application to building,
Sir Robert Smirke at the Temple in 1833, also at the Custom Douse, Bristol,
the Oxford and Cambridge I lab, and the British Museum; also by Mr. Wilkin?.
in the erection of the National Gallery, and by Mr. Barry, at the College of
Surgeons, in 1S34, and in the same year by Mr. Abraham, at the Westminster
Bridewell; and it has been also employed at Ramsgate Harbour by Andrew
Turnbull, C. E. The above enumeration of works, in addition to the atten-
tion bestowed at the meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, is, I
think, evidence enough to show that Kyanizing has not been superseded in
public estimation by Burnettizing without a fair trial of its merits. Both
processes, I think, will fall into desuetude, not from any defect in principle
or not answering the end in view, but from the first cost of the tanks, the
delay in time, the vessel not being capacious enough, and the extra delay
and expense in delivery and cartage of the materials from place to place, or
from the tanks to the works where the materials arc required. This, I
know, that the Kyanizing has signally failed in taking root in the provinces,
and I could specify at least ten places where it has been given up. With
respect to a railway with two lines of road where it is used, the cost per
mile will be as follows : where cross sleepers are employed, each sleeper con-
tains from 2 to 2^- cubic feet, and costs from I2d. to I3rf. each for Kyan-
izing, exclusive of cartage from the place of delivery to the Anti- Dry-Rot
station, and from thence to the works where they are required for use. The
cost of sleepers of Scotch fir is about 4s. each, and of larch 5s. ; price, of
course, is ruled by the locality, taking, however, the cost of Kyanizing and
cartage at Is. dd. per sleeper, and a double way, and placing the sleepers
3 feet apart, (although recently they are placed only 2 feet 3 inches apart,)
and there being 17G0 yards in a mile, the total cost of Kyanizing will be
£132 per mile, which on some of the long lines amount to the sum of
£20,000, an amount which ought not to be too rashly entered on without

ue inquiry.

In conclusion, I beg to be allowed to state that I was engaged in the use
of the Kyanizing when Messrs. Grissell and Peto employed it ; also, in the

erection of the tanks of the Great Western Railway Company, and in the
superintendence of the process, when performed by local establishments, o
the Anti-Dry-Rot Company. I state this, to show that my opinion is no*
rashly formed, when I say that Kyanizing is grown into disuse, and that
probably Burnettizing will also share the same fate, perhaps, without having
so long a trial. With the concluding remarks of the Lecturer on En-
gineering at King's College, as given in a late number of the Journal, I
cordially agree, viz., " 'tis use alone that sanctifies expense." Although this
paper may not possess the merit of being thoroughly original, yet I think it
may claim no lack of inquiry into the writings of previous inquirers as to the
merits of this question of preventives to decay in timber. To yourself
my thanks are especially due, for your liberality and condescension in no-
ticing my previous efforts, as a correspondent to your valuable periodical,
amongst the genera) notices, as being the results of labour, and as valuable
communications, but more especially for the particular notice in Vol. 5,
page 397, where my efforts are designated as " practical and of great utility."
Your kindness has given my study and reading an object, which is to employ
my leisure profitably in the advancement of knowledge, and becoming of
practical utility to my fellow men.

St. Ann's, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

O. T.

NEW PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING LIME, &c.

A Patent has been granted to William Edward Newton, of Chancery
Lane, for " improvements in manufacturing lime, cement, artificial stone, and
such other compositions, more particularly applicable to working under voter,
and in constructing buildings and other works, wh'ch are e.rposed to damp."
(A communication.) — Sealed the 3rd of April, 1841.

This invention consists, Firstly — in the formation, by certain new pro-
cesses, of an hydraulic lime and cement, which has the property of becoming
hard and solid, when under water, or exposed in damp situations. Secondly —
in the application of the same principles to the hardening of soft stones, for
the purpose of making hard artificial stones. Thirdly — in the employment
of the same process for hardening wood, and preserving iron from the effects
of damp, Sec.

The following is the principle upon which the invention is founded, and
the methods employed for carrying it into effect : The property which cer-
tain sorts of lime possess, of being hydraulic, or hardening under water, is
caused by a certain combination of the lime with silica, alumina, and some-
times also with oxide of manganese, and oxide of iron. The object then of
this invention, is to facilitate the combination of the lime with those oxides,
by means of agents not hitherto employed. Thus, in operating by the dry
method, as is generally the case, instead of calcining the lime-stone or lime
with sand and clay, the inventor, in order to facilitate the combination of
the silica and alumina with the lime, introduces a small quantity of potash
or soda, in the state of carbonate, sulphate, or chloride, or of any other salt
of these bases, susceptible of decomposition, or becoming a silicate, when
such calcination takes place. The salt of potash or soda, the quantity of
which varies from three to six per cent, to the quantity of lime, is employed
in the state of solution, so as to penetrate and mix better with the alkaline
salt in the chalk or slacked lime. Calcination effects the rest, in the ordi-
nary manner.

In order to combine or incorporate more equally, by the dry method, the
alumina, and the oxides of manganese, and of iron, with the lime, the sul-
phates of these bases are first decomposed by the slacked lime, by making a
paste with a solution of the sulphates, mixed with the lime. This paste,
into which the sulphates in question enter, in the proportion of from six to
ten per cent, of the lime, is then calcined, in order to produce an hydraulic
lime. All sorts of lime are made hydraulic, by the humid method, by mixing
slacked lime with solutions of alum or sulphates of alumina; but the best
method consists in employing a solution of the silicates of potash, or of
soda, called liquor of flints or soluble glass. An hydraulic cement may also
be made, which will serve for the manufacture of architectural ornaments, by
making a paste of pulverized chalk, and a solution of the silicate of potash,
or of soda : in working with this plaster, it becomes much harder than or-
dinary plaster.

These same silicates of potash or soda, dissolved in water, will also harden
chalk, or soft and porous stones, and transform them, artificially, into hard
stones. In order to do this, these soft stones, either rough, or cut into their
proper forms, must be soaked in a solution of the silicate, either warm or
cold, and allowed to remain there a longer or shorter time, according to the
degree of hardness which it maybe necessary to give them ; after which,
they must be taken out and left exposed to the air. At the end of a few
days, stones, tints prepared, will have acquired a hardness equal to that of
marble ; and this quality, in a little time, pervades the whole mass ; for if,
for the purpose of polishing, the outer coat or surface be removed, the inner
one, which at first is not so hard, will harden in its turn, by exposure to the
air. This takes place as far as the silicate has been able to penetrate. A
more superficial harduess is obtained, by applying the solution of the silicate

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

207

of potash or soda, by means of a brush. It is in this manner that walls,
constructed of chalk and mortar, may he hardened. Sculpture, and various
Other objects, which may he made or prepared in chalk, may be hardened,
and afterwards serve for decorating buildings, and other purposes, without
the fear of their becoming injured by frost or damp. Chalk, hardened iu
this manner, may also be used as a substitute for the stones now employed
by lithographers. Plaster models may also be hardened, by placing them,
for some time, in a solution of the silicate ; but it would be still better to
add a portion of the solution to the paste, at the time of making the model,
or using the plaster. The silicate of potash or soda is prepared by fusing
one part of white siliceous matter with from one and a half to two parts of
potash or soda, in the ordinary reverberatory furnaces, or in a glass-maker's
or iron crucible. The solutions may be used of any density for plaster ; but
they should be weaker for chalk. In the last place, the inventor has found
that the silicates of potash or soda, when dissolved in water, decompose
spontaneously in the air, and cover the objects, to which their solution has
been applied, with a strong covering or layer ; therefore, by applying the
solution of silicate of potash, or of soda, to polished iron, and allowing it to
dry in the air, the metal is preserved from oxidation. By soaking wood
many times in this solution, and allowing it to dry in the open air, every
time after it has been placed therein, it becomes so much penetrated with
silica, that it acquires a considerable density and degree of indestructibility.

The solution of the silicate of potash is not the only substance which, by
being injected into porous bodies, tends to harden them. A mixture, made
from a solution of bicarbonate of ammonia, and of chloride of magnesium,
may be successfully employed ; or a mixture of the solutions of ammonia
and chloride of calcium may be used. Iu these latter cases, instead of
having siliceous injections, they are either magnesia nor calcareous. Soft
and porous stones may also be considerably hardened, and defended from the
action of damp, by first well drying them, and then dipping or steeping
them iu sulphur, or some natural or artificial resinous or bituminous sub-
Stance, rendered liquid by heat.

The patentee claims, Firstly — the application of certain new means, to
change or convert all descriptions of lime into hydraulic limes and ce-
ments, or such as become hard under water, or when exposed in damp
situations, by combining these limes and cements, with silica, alumina,
the oxide of manganese, or the oxide of iron, either by the dry or
humid method. Secondly — the manufacture of hard artificial stones from
chalk, plaster, and all porous stones in general, by injecting into them,
or imbuing them with silica, or the carbonates of magnesia or lime,
by any of the above-described processes ; or by causing them, by virtue of
their porous nature, to absorb either melted sulphur, or bituminous, resinous,
or fatty matters, properly liquified by means of heat. Thirdly — in the em-
ployment of the silicates of potash or soda, for making or forming a stony
plaster or coating upon a variety of substances ; thereby preventing iron
from becoming rusty or oxidized, and rendering wood and other organic
matters harder, and not liable to decay. — [Inrolled in the Petty Bag Office,
September, 1841.] — London Journal.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

February 3. — The President in the Chair. — (Continued.)

The Thames Tunnel. — Sir M. Isambard Brunei presented a design intended
to illustrate the mode of securing the poliug-hoards of the shield of the
Thames tunnel. The poling-boards, shown in the drawing, he described as
being intended to close the whole area of the excavation in the front, as the
side and top staves were intended to secure the sides and top of it. The
shield (weighing nearly ISO tons) in passing over the ground, served mate-
rially to compress it, and make a firmer foundation for the tunnel. When it
was considered that the mass of ground removed weighed 63,000 tons, while
the brick structure by which it was replaced weighed only 26,160 tons;
some idea might he formed of the difficulties which had been encountered in
the progress of this undertaking. It would be seen by reference to the early
reports, that 540 feet of tunnel had been made in the course of sixteen
months, viz., from the 1st of January 1826, to the 27th of April 1827. At
that period the miners and bricklayers struck, without even securing their
work. In this emergency, after standing still a week, new hands were en-
gaged ; the result was, that on the 11th and 12th of May, the ground
showed symptoms of giving way, and on the 18th the river broke in and
completely filled the tunnel ; the length of brickwork then completed was
about 550 feet. He was convinced that no irruption would have occurred
but for the desertion of the men, for at no previous period had so much work
been done; the average progress being 12 feet per week for sixteen weeks,
and having at that time the advantage of his son's services and those of ex-
perienced assistants, the work might have continued, and the tunnel would
have been finished in about four years. After this irruption, an advance of
only 50 feet was made within the period of the year 1827, and in conse-
quence of a second irruption, the work was totally abandoned. In the year
1835, after a lapse of seven years, being liberally assisted by the Govern-

ment, a new shield was provided, and the work was resumed in the begin-
ning of March 1836. The work, however, proceeded very slowly as con-
trasted with former periods. On the llth of June the water broke in and
continued to trouble the works for six weeks. Having succeeded in repelling
this attack, the progress for the whole year amounted to 117 feet. Fore-
seeing that he should at some future period, have to account for the causes
of these delays, Sir Isambard instituted, in the course of the year (1836;,
distinct sets of records for every branch of the service, afloat as well as
underground, in order to place beyond doubt, the circumstances which might
not otherwise be credited. These registers enabled him to give the minutest
details of the work, and would, he hoped, he found useful in any future
similar undertaking. Through the whole of the year 1837, the progress was
only 28 feet 4 inches, a rate which hardly exceeded that of a fortnight of
the year 1827. Two irruptions took place within the range of eight feet,
owing to the looseness of some portions of the strata, which were so fluid,
that the only expedient for advancing, was by forcing forward some of the
polings with the screws. The frequent bursts of gas at that period, and in
1838 and 1839, had moreover such an eflfect upon the men, that some of
them fell senseless at their post. There was therefore great risk of the
poling boards falling down, as had been the case before, and causing a total
disruption of the ground. In this dilemma, the expedient of connecting the
poling boards with each other by hooks was resorted to, forming by this
means a complete panel in the face of each of the 36 cells of the shield ;
the top poling being suspended to the head of the cell, the panel could not
be disturbed even with a cavity in front of it ; there was likewise an addi-
tional means of supporting the polings, by iron spurs resting upon the floor-
plates and going into the ground. Notwithstanding the apparent increase of
labour occasioned by this addition to the poling-boards, good progress was
made, amounting to 240 feet in the course of twelve months, and the hook-
ing was found so safe iu its service and its results, that were another tunnel
to he constructed, Sir Isambard stated, that be would make the system of
attaching the poling-boards, an essential part of the organisation of the
shield, being convinced that it might by this means, be worked through the
worst ground, with a certaintv of safetv and success.

February 14. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of Mr. Clay's new Process for making Wrought Iron direct
from the Ore ; as practised at the Shirva Works, Kirkintilloch, Scotland."
By William Neale Clay.

In this communication, the author first describes the various stages through
which the metal passes, between the reduction of the ore and its arriving at
the state of malleable iron, by the ordinary mode of manufacture ; and then
he explains the process which he has invented, and introduced practically at
the Shirva Works.

By the ordinary system of iron-making, the ores are reduced into the state
of carburet of iron, and then, by refining and puddling, the metal is de-car-
buretted, thus making it into malleable iron by a number of processes, which
are recapitulated : —

1st. Calcining the ore.

2nd. Smelting in a furnace, by the aid of blast, either cold or heated,
with raw coal, or coke, for fuel, and limestone as a flux.

3rd. Refining the " pig " into " plate " iron.

4tb. Puddling, shingling, and rolling, to produce the "rough," "puddled,"
or No. 1 bars.

5th. Cutting up, piling, and rolling, to produce " merchant," or No. 2
bars.

6th. A repetition of the same process, to make " best," or No. 3 bars.

Seeking to diminish the number of manipulations, by the new process a
mixture of dry Ulverstone, or other rich iron-ore (Haematite) is ground with
about four-tenths of its weight of small coal, so as to pass through a screen
of one-eight of an inch mesh. This mixture is placed in a hopper, fixed
over a preparatory bed, or oven, attached to a puddling furnace of the or-
dinary form. While one charge is being worked and balled, another gradu-
ally falls from the hopper, through the crown, upon the preparatory bed, and
becomes thoroughly and uniformly heated ; the carburetted hydrogen and
carbon of the coal, combining with the oxygen of the ore, advances the de-
composition of the mineral, while by the combustion of these gases, the
puddling furnace is prevented from being injuriously cooled. One charge
being withdrawn, another is brought forward, and in about an hour and a-
half the iron is balled, and ready for shingling and rolling. The cinder
produced, is superior in quality to that which results from the common
system ; it contains from 50 to 55 per cent, of iron, and is free from phos-
phoric acid, which frequently exists, and is so injurious, in all the ordinary
slags : when re-smelted, it produces as much No. 1 and No. 2 cast-iron, and
of as good quality, as the ordinary "black band" ore of Scotland. The
cast-iron produced from the slag (amounting to one-third of what was ori-
ginally contained in the ore) is mixed with the ore and coal in the puddling
furnace; and thus, while nearly all the iron is extracted from the ore, as
much wrought iron is produced iu a given time, and at the same cost of fuel,
as by the old system. The first process, producing puddled bars of superior
quality, is consequently on a par with the fourth stage of the old system, aa
it avoids the necessity of the preceding separate manipulations. From the
absence of all deleterious mixture, by once piling and reheating the rough

20S

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND|ARCH1TECT S JOURNAL.

[June,

Scale i inch to a foot.

A. The Hopper to contain the charge oi

ore anil coal.

B. Preparatory oven or bed.
( . Wheels to regulate the supply of the

mixture.
D, Shaft to which the perforated bottom

E is attached.
F. Chimney, nearly double in area to that
which is require 1 on the old system of

puddling.

Scale J inch to a foot.

I m at**

bars, iron is produced, of a quality in every respect equal, and in powers of
tension superior, to that which results from the second piling and reheating
in the common mode; it is therefore contended that the two processes pro-
duce from the hsematite nearly one-third more iron, of as good a quality as
is usually obtained by the six processes of the old system. The iron thus
produced bears a high polish, is very uniform in its texture, is ductile and
fibrous, having more than an average amount of tensile strength, and at the
same time appears to be more dense, as it possesses a peculiar sonorousness,
resembling that of a bar of steel when struck. It has also been converted
into steel of a good quality.

The paper is illustrated by a drawing of the furnace necessary for the pro-
cess, and by specimens of the iron and steel produced.

Remarks. — Mr. Clay contended that the ordinary method of making iron
was neither so scientific, nor so practically good as there was reason to ex-
pect it would have been, when iron formed so considerable an item in the

productive industry of the country. His invention was in some degree based
upon the old Catalan fire, wherein malleable iron was produced direct from
the ore, although by a considerable expenditure of fuel : by his process the
ore was also reduced at one operation into the state of malleable iron, by
combination with a large portion of carbonaceous matter; and as the deoxy.
dation of the ore could proceed simultaneously in an adjoining preparatory
bed, through which the flame of the puddling furnace traversed, there was
necessarily a great saving of time, labour, and fuel in the production of the
metal, while the quality was at the same time improved. He argued, there-
fore, that if the system was generally adopted, a large portion of the capital
now sunk in the expensive constructions of blast furnaces, blowing engines,
&c, would be dispensed with.

Mr. Taylor observed, that the process appeared to be only applicable to
the rich qualities of iron ore, which were now used in comparatively small
quantities, as a mixture with the clay ironstones of the coal fields, from which
iron was generally produced in this country. There existed large quantities
of haematite in Great Britain, equal in quality to that of Nassau, or of the
Hartz mountains, from which so much iron was made, for converting into
steel. The mines of Ulverstone alone now produce 50,000 tons annually,
and at least 25,000 tons more could be shipped from Cornwall; and if a de-
mand existed, there was scarcely a limit to the quantity that could be raised.
He apprehended that the iron made by this process could be converted into
good steel : this was very desirable, as it would render this country indepen-
dent of Sweden and Russia, whence nearly all the steel-iron was now im-
ported.

Mr. Heath had examined Mr. Clay's process of iron-making, and found
that the wrought iron produced from a mixture of Scottish pig-iron and
haematite ore, was of a superior quality, bearing severe tests without injury.
The iron made by this method, from India pig-iron and specular iron ore
fper-oxyde of iron) from Devonshire, which was identical in quality with the
celebrated Elba ore, when converted into cast steel, by a process which he
had accidentally discovered, possessed the quality of welding like shear steel,
without any of its defects. The method he alluded to, was to combine man-
ganese with the cast steel in the crucible, and when drawn out under the tilt
hammer it could be worked and welded to iron, like shear steel : the conse-
quence of this discovery was, that the latter quality of steel was almost
abandoned for cutlery, and the former was now generally used, as it did not
exhibit the laminated appearance when polished, which shear steel frequently
did. The metal was sounder, and fewer wasters were made. All the brown
haematites contained manganese, anil there was little doubt that, by selecting
the proper kinds of ore, malleable iron might be made in Great Britain by
this process, as good for converting into steel as any of the Swedish iron.
There was abundance of specular iron ore on Dartmoor, equal to the Elba
ore, and which would (he had little doubt) produce as good iron as that from
the Dannemora ore.

Dr. Faraday remarked, that the process invented by Mr. Clay was
founded on sound chemical principles. It was desirable to abandon the use
of limestone as a flux : it was proved that the purest limestones contained
phosphates, which, although advantageous in agricultural processes, were de-
trimental in iron making.

Mr. Fox had tried some specimens of Mr. Clay's iron, and found them to
bear severe tests, as well as the best cable bolt iron made in the ordinary
manner.

Mr. Clay explained that Mr. Heath's process was not indispensable for
converting into steel the iron made by his method ; and also that argillaceous
iron ores, after calcination, could be treated in lus furnace, like the haematite
ores, but not so advantageously.

Mr. Taylor said that 25,000 tons of steel were converted annually in this
country, and of that quantity not more than 2500 tons were made from the
best Swedish iron; for the remainder, inferior qualities of iron, such as Rus-
sian iron, marked CCND, from the forges of Monsieur Demidoff, were used.
All that iron was made with charcoal, and could only be called inferior when
compared with that made from the Dannemora ore. If Mr. Clay's process
was successful in treating the haematite ores, as had been stated, it was of
great importance, as it would emancipate the country from a dependence
upon foreign products. He had recently seen in Germany, a process of pro-
ducing steel by stopping the operation of puddling pig-iron at a certain
point, or intermediate state between cast and wrought iron, and hammering
the mass at once into bars. The operation was one of much delicacy, and
depended entirely upon the skill of the workman.

Mr. Heath believed the manufacture of steel was involved in unnecessary
mystery; it was the general opinion that foreign iron was essential to pro-
duce good qualities. Iron as now made from coke furnaces certainly con-
tained too much foreign matter to be used for steel, and it would require
more attention to the selection of the materials, before pure iron coedd be
obtained; some of the Low Moor iron, the good quality of which was uni-
versally admitted, had been made into blistered steel, but although the
springs made with it appeared perfect, it was said that they did not answer
so well as those made with steel from charcoal iron. The Sheffield manu-
facturers required that steel should possess " nature and body ;" the first
quality to enable it to be rolled and drawn out without cracking, and the
second that it might receive and retain a fine edge. Steel made from Garn-
derris iron (South Wales) possessed " nature," but if made into cast-steel it
fled into pieces in working, as it did not possess " body." Steel from Ger-
man ores appeared to have " body," K"' —■»♦•* " nature "

but wanted " nature." Steel from

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

209

Indian iron, although difficult to work, stood better than other kinds when
once reduced into form ; this he attributed to the purity of the magnetic
ore from which it was produced ; there was not the slightest trace of phos-
phorus, arsenic, or any deleterious foreign matter. He was convinced that,
with a mixture of Indian pig-iron (which could be produced very cheaply)
and Devonshire ore, by Mr. Clay's process, iron could be made of excellent
quality for converting into steel at such a reduced price as would render the
introduction of Swedish and other foreign iron unnecessary.

Mr. Taylor believed that improvement in the quality of steel, rather than
reduction in the price, was the object to be sought. In the large quantity
used in the mines under his direction, the dearest steel was found to be the
more economical. He had seen as many as 12 dozen borers used to make
one blast hole, and unless the tools kept their points well, the labour of the
meu was thrown awav.

February 21. — The President in the Chair.

Mr. Giles presented a plan and sections of London Old Bridge, made from
his surveys of it in 1820, by order of the Committee of the Bridge Lands,
with descriptive notes.

The plan represents the stirlings, piers, parapets, and roadway of the old
London Bridge, its low-water channels, called locks, with the soundings
through the locks. The sections represent an elevation and levels of the
stirlings, piers, arches, roadway, and locks, with levels of the tides observed
at the bridge in September and October, 1820; the datum to these levels
being the Trinity high water mark of London, which is recorded on a stone
let into the lower external wing of the Hermitage entrance of the London
Docks. '

From the plan it appears that —

Ft. In.
The aggregate waterway between the piers above sterling height was 524 2
The width occupied by the piers .... 406 10

Making the total length between the abutments of the bridge . 931 0

The aggregate waterway below the stirlings at low-water was . 230 1 1
And the aggregate distance occupied by the piers and sterlings at

low-water was ...... 700 1

Ft. In.
2 0

6i under ditto.

The level of the tides shows —

The extraordinary high-water mark of springs to be
The average high-water mark of springs between

23rd September and 25th October, below bridge
The same above bridge . . . .12 „

Making the high-water of spring-tides above bridge

l\ inches under the same high-water below

bridge, owing to the obstruction which the piers

presented to the tides attaining their full height

above bridge : and this difference was found

commonly to be 8 inches.
The average high-water mark of neap-tides above

bridge was . . . . .43 „

And the difference of high-water of neap-tides below

and above bridge was not observable.
The average level of low. water mark above bridge

was . . . . . 14 5 ,.

The average level of neap-tides low-water mark be-
low bridge was . . . .16 6 „
The average level of spring-tides low- water mark was 18 9 „

Thus the average fall of water through the locks of the bridge at neap-
tides was 2 feet 1 inch, and the same at spring-tides was 4 feet 4 inches.
But an extreme fall of 5 feet 7 inches was observed through these locks on
the occurrence of a high land flood, and a spring-tide ebb.

Having completed the surveys of old London Bridge, Mr. Giles subse-
quently took the levels of the tides from thence to Teddington lock, and
found that in the absence of high winds and land floods, the high-water of
spring-tide on the upper side of London bridge attained its level or height
at all the London bridges, also at Battersea, Putney, Kew, and Richmond
bridges, and at Teddington lock.

" Account of a series of experiments on the comparative strength of solid
and hollow Aries." By John Oliver York, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The author first describes the causes of fracture in railway axles, which he
attributes to the sudden strains and injury produced by concussion and vi-

1 Low-Hater mark is 17 feet 10 inches below the lower edge of this stone,
settled by the Corporation of Trinity House, August 1800, (39 and 40 Geo.
III.! cap. 17, sec. 55.)

bration. Those resulting from concussion are chiefly ascribed to a defective
state of the permanent way, any sudden obstacle opposing itself to the pro-
gress of the train, and the severe shocks arising from the wheels coming in
contact with the blocks and sleepers when thrown off the line. The force
of vibration and its certain effect to produce fracture in a body so rigid as a
railway axle, is then fully explained; the evil arises from the impossibility of
diverting from the axle the continued series of slight blows or vibrations to
which it is subject, or of causing a free circulation of them through its entire
length, since the naves of the wheels being fixed tightly on to the axles,
form a point on either side for the vibrations to cease, and the particles of
iron composing the axle at this point become dislocated by the continued
and unequal strain, and ultimately break ; the same action' is described as
taking place in the journal of the axle, and hence the fact that an axle seldom
breaks excepting at the journal, or at the back of the nave of the wheel.
The twisting strain to which railway axles are subject is next considered, and
a calculation entered into, to prove that upon a circle of only a few feet in
diameter and assuming a first-class carriage on four wheels to' weigh six tons,
the strain resulting from this cause is so slight as to be unworthy of consi-
deration in the inquiry. The paper next proceeds to point out, how and why
the hollow axle is better able to resist the strains before referred to, than the
solid ones now in use.

First, by the process of manufacture, by which the crystallization of the
iron is avoided, and it is left in a better state for sustaining sudden strains
and continued action. Secondly, by the position of the metal composing
the axle, since the comparative strength of axles are as the cubes of their,
diameters, and their comparative weights only as their squares, conse-
quently, with less weight there must be increased strength ; and thirdly,
that the vibration has a free circulation through the length of the axle, no
part being subject to an unequal shock from the vibration, and the axle would
therefore receive much less injury from this cause. In conclusion, it is sub-
mitted that a railway axle should possess the greatest possible degree of
rigidity between the wheels, to prevent it from bending or breaking from
concussion, combined with the greatest amount of elasticity and freedom in
the particles of iron within the axle itself, to prevent the injurious effects of
vibration.

The details of a numerous set of experiments are then given, to prove the
superiority of the hollow axle in all these respects, the average of the whole
of which is thus stated. As regards rigidity to sustain a dead weight. The
axles being supported at the ends, and the weights applied in the middle.

Hollow Axle.

Solid Axle.

Weight.

Deflec- , Perma-
tiou. nent set.

Weight.

Deflec-
tion.

Perma-
nent set.

Tons.
7
9
9

Cw t.
14
2
16

Qrs.

Lb.
6

Inch.
tV

s

Inch,
s

Tons.
7
8

1

Cwt.
14
1

Inch, j Inch,
fir 1 TE
1 j T&

As regards its capability to resist a falling weight.

5 cwt. 3 qrs. 6 lb. falling from a height of 16 feet ou to the centre of the
axle.

Hollow Axle.

in.

Solid Axle.

in.

1st blow, deflection

• H

1st blow

deflection

• U

2nd „

. 2i

2nd „

ii

• 3J

3rd „

• 3}

3rd „

ii

. 4 J

As regards the elasticity and fibrous quality of the journals.

Hollow Axle. Solid Axfe.

Number of blows to destroy | Number of blows to destroy

journal (average) . . 28 | journal (average) .

Proportions of axles.

Hollow Axles.

Solid Axles.

Diameter

4 inches

3{ inches.

Weight

1 cwt. 2 qrs. 20 lb.

. 1 cwt 3 qrs. 24 lb.

The paper is illustrated by specimens of the broken axles, both hollow
and solid, and by diagrams of the mode of manufacturing the two kinds of
axles.

Remarks. — Mr. Geach presented a series of specimens of ends broken
oft' solid axles, made by the Patent Shaft and Axle Company, Wednesbury ;
they have borne severally 886, 148, 293, and 278 blows of a sledge ham-
mer, weighing 38 lb. before they separated from the body : above twenty
more ends had been broken off, the weakest requiring 138 blows. The di-
ameter of these journals was 2\ inches. An n\le was exhibited which had
been bent nearly double under an hydraulic press, with a prewttre

210

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Junk,

tons : the journals (2£ inches diameter) were also bent in opposite direc-
tions, by repeated blows of the sledge-hammer, without any signs of frac-
ture being perceptible. The firm, which Mr. Geach represented, had made
upwards of 2500 axles, and had tried a very large number by breaking them :
they almost uniformly found them of good quality, which might be attri-
buted to the mode of manufacture. Around a centre bar of iron were placed
eight bars rolled to a proper form to complete a circle ; they were then
welded together by rolling, and fiuished under the hammer; the fibre of the
iron, it was contended, was thus worked, and remained in its most favourable
position. He was not opposed to the principle of hollow axles, but he
wished to prevent any unnecessary prejudice against solid ones by inferences
from anyone set of experiments; he would therefore suggest that another
series of experiments should be made between the relative strength of the
two kinds of axles, for which he would contribute the necessary number of
solid ones.

Mr. York described the manner in which the solid axles had been se-
lected for the purpose of experiment. Having obtained General Pasley's
consent to be present on the occasiou, he ordered axles from the Patent Axle
Company, and another eminent maker, and selected also several other axles
supplied by the Patent Axle Company to the London and Birmingham Rail-
way ; these axles were new, never having been under any carriage ; he con-
tended that the result of the experiments afforded a fair specimen of the
axles generally in use, and were such as the public were in the habit of
riding upon. The axles which had since been made by the Axle Company,
and were then exhibited to the meeting, showed a quality of iron which
could not be surpassed : if this was the usual quality made use of by that
company, it still more forcibly proved his position as to the uncertainty of
manufacturing solid axles, for while one specimen took a great number of
blows to break it, the majority of them were fractured by a slight force ; it
was this uncertainty which he proposed to avoid, and he contended that it
was inseparable from the method of making axles described by Mr. Geach,
for in passing the faggot through the rolls to weld the bars together it fre-
quently happened that they were only united to a depth of one-half or three-
quarters of an inch, hence it was to a certain extent hollow, and partially
avoided the injurious effect of hammering; if, on the contrary, they were
perfectly welded, the iron became crystallized, as in any other solid axle ;
this fact was proved by the specimens before the meeting, those that were
solid having been broken by very little force, and the unsound ones requiring
a great number of blows to produce fracture. In the experiments, the hollow
axles had broken under a different number of blows, but this was owing to
their having been made of larger diameter in the journals than the solid
ones (but with only an equal quantity of metal in them) and afterwards
turned down to the same diameter, which left them of unequal thickness
and too thin for a fair test; still, however, with less metal than in the solid
ones, they were stronger; this might be accounted for by the mode of man-
ufacture, as by retaining the axle hollow the crystallization of the iron was
avoided. The present mode of making the hollow axles he described to be
by taking two trough-shaped semicircular pieces of iron, bringing their
edges together, and welding them under a hammer between swages. He
however dissented from the process of hammering, and intended to finish
( is hollow axles by compression only. This, he contended, would avoid the in-
jur)- done to the iron by the present mode of manufacture, anil that with the
same quantity of iron, the strength of axles being as the cubes of their di-
ameters, and their weights only as the squares, a hollow axle must possess
considerable advantage over a solid one. Hollow axles had long been con-
sidered desirable, but the expense of making them had hitherto prevented
their use; he had reduced their cost by his process to the same rate as the
solid ones, and felt confident that in bringing them under the consideration
of the profession, through the Institution, they would be fairly treated and
i timately adopted.

General Pasley confirmed the correctness of the results recorded by
Mr. York, and the satisfactory nature of the experiments, which had im-
pressed him with a favourable opinion towards hollow axles. It was of im-
portance to avoid deflection, as it was almost as fatal as fracture in causing
accidents. After the late accident on the North Midland Railway, he ob-
served a solid axle bent into the form of the letter C, and the upper por-
tions of the periphery of the wheels nearly touching each other. The hollow
axles would certainly resist deflection better than solid ones of corresponding
weight.

In answer to a question, Mr. Y'ork said that the iron was chiefly injured
by the amount of hammering which it received in forging.

Mr. Taylor remarked, that the question of the amount of injury received
by iron in working, was discussed at the meeting of the British Association
in 1842, and the effects of vibration and electricity had also been treated of
by foreign engineers. It appeared to be generally admitted, that the great
source of mischief was the cold swageing, which the iron received, in order
to give the work a good appearance. In order to test this, Mr. Nasmyth
subjected two pieces of cable bolt iron to 160 blows between swages and
afterwards annealed one of the pieces for a few hours. The unannealed
piece broke with five or six blows of a hammer, showing a crystallized frac-
ture; while the annealed piece was bent double under a great number of
blows, and exhibited a fine fibrous texture. The fact of the fibre being re-
stored by annealing was well understood and practised by smiths, particu-
larly in chain-making.

Mr. York could not entirely subscribe to the great benefit of annealing,
as he had found that after annealing one end of a hollow axle for 48 hours,

it was broken off by 82 blows, while the other (unannealed) end of the same
axle resisted as far as 78 blows.

In answer to a question from Alderman Thompson, Mr. York said that he
had found as much mischief arise from over-heating iron as from over-ham-
meriug it ; but the difference of the appearance of the fracture, indicated
immediately when iron had been burned.

Mr. Taylor said that in Mr. Nasmyth's experiments, the over-heated iron
was almost as fragile as glass.

Mr. Gravatt believed that vibration, whether caused by the smith in
working the iron, or by the use to which the bar was appropriated, was the
reason of its fracture, and it was certain that a constant change was going
on in all manufactured iron. At the Thames Tunnel the •' fleeting bars "
used as levers for turning the large screws for forcing forward the shield,
never lasted longer than three or four weeks, although they were very strong,
and were made from the best materials by careful smiths. They were only
used occasionally, and then without any concussion, having only the power
of eight men exerted upon them : yet they broke constantly, and the fracture
exhibited a bright crystallized appearauce. It was found at last, that in
order to give them duration they should be left rough, and not hammered
much in working.

Mr. Newton observed that full 10 years since, Dr. Church had used hollow
axles for his experimental steam coach on common roads, being convinced of
their superiority.

Mr. Fox was an advocate for the hollow axles, but he did not consider the
present experiments quite conclusive, as there were differences in the relative
dimensions of the axles experimented upon; he would suggest another
series of trials, upon a larger number of axles, as the subject was one
of great importance, not only to manufacturers but to the public, whose
safety in travelling depended upon the goodness of the axles under the car-
riages. He had used upwards of 5000 axles made by the Patent Axle Com-
pany, and bad made many experiments by breaking them ; the average re-
sult was equal to that quoted by Mr. York. He agreed in the danger arising
from over-heating iron, as also from over-hammering it, and for some time
past he had caused all the axles to be made six inches longer than was ne-
cessary, in order to cut three inches off each end, to try the quality and the
appearance of the fracture of the iron.

The President remarked, that there could not exist a doubt as to the
greater strength of a hollow axle, as compared with a solid one, both con-
taining the same weight of material; the principal question to be considered
was, that of vibration, and its effect upon the cohesive strength of the
metal; whether the action upon the particles was more irregular in the solid
body and more distributed in the hollow one; he recommended this investi-
gation to some of the mathematicians who were present ; the result of their
inquiries might materially aid in the development of truth from the prac-
tical experiments.

February 28. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of the Roofs over Buckingham Palace, covered with Lord
Stanhope's composition." By Peter Hogg, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The mixture invented by Lord Stanhope, and used by the late Mr. Nash,
for covering the nearly flat fire-proof roofs of Buckingham Palace, is des-
cribed in the paper as being composed of Stockholm tar, dried chalk in
powder, and sifted sand, in the proportions of three gallons of tar, to two
bushels of chalk, and one bushel of sand, the whole being well boiled and
mixed together in an iron pot. It is laid on in a fluid state, in two separate
coats, each about three-eighths of an inch in thickness, squared slates being
imbedded in the upper coat, allowing the mixture to flush up between the
joints the whole thickness of the two coats, and the slates being about an
inch. The object in embedding the slates in the composition, is to prevent
its becoming softened by the heat of the sun, and sliding down to the lower
part of the roof, an inclination being given of only 1-} inch in 10 feet, which
is sufficient to carry off the water, when the work is carefully executed. One
gutter, or water-course, is made as near to the centre as possible, in order to
prevent any tendency to shrink from the walls, and also that the repairs,
when required, may be more readily effected. It is stated, that after a fall
of snow it is not necessary to throw it from the roof, but merely to open a
channel along the water-course, and that no overflowing has ever occurred ;
whereas, with metal roofs it is necessary to throw off the whole of the
snow on the first indication of a thaw. These roofs have been found
to prevent the spreading of fires, and it is stated, that on one occasion,
to test their uninflammability, Mr. Nash had a bonfire of tar barrels lighted
on the roof of Cowes castle. Another advantage is stated to be, the facility
of repair which the composition offers, as if a leak occurs, it can be seared
and rendered perfectly water-tight, by passing a hot iron over it ; and when
taken up, the mixture can be remelted and used again. The author proposes
to obviate the disadvantage of the present weight of these roofs, by buildiug
single brick walls at given distances, to carry slates, upon which the compo-
sition should be laid ; instead of filling the spandrils of the arches with solid
materials, as has been hitherto the custom.

The reported failures of this species of covering at Mr. Nash's house in
Regent Street, and iu other places, are accounted for by the composition
having been used in one thin coat, laid upon an improper foundation of laths
and tiles. The durability of the roofs, which were carefully constructed

3843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

21

day (16th May last) brought into operation for nearly 20 miles on the Great
Western Railway.

It is no slight proof of the energy with which Mr. Cooke followed up his
great object, in contradistinction to the proceedings of others who had been
experimenting with the subject for many years, that within three weeks of
his first conceiving the idea, he had constructed at Frankfort two galvano-
meter telegraphs, capable of giving 26 signals ; he had also invented the de-
tector, by which injuries to the wires, whether from water, fracture, or con-
tact, were readily traced, an instrument which Mr. Cooke still retains in
constant use; and without which, indeed, an electric telegraph would be im-
practicable : he had also invented the alarum, on the same principle as one
of those in use at the present day.

But the leading feature of the invention at this early period, and which
still most strongly distinguishes it from that of Messrs. Cooke and Wheat-
stone's telegraphs, and all others since exhibited in this country, consists in
this, that the telegraph did not merely send signals from one place to
another, but included a reciprocal system, by which a mutual communication
could be practically and conveniently carried on between two distant places ;
the requisite connexions and disconnexions being formed by pressing the
lingers upon keys similar in their action, and the signals being exhibited to
the persons sending as well as to the person receiving the communication.
This was and still is effected, by placing a system of keys permanently at
each extreme end of the circuit of wires, and by providing a draw-bridge by
which the circuit is completed for the electricity to pass when signals are
received, but which is withdrawn when the signals are to be sent.

This united and reciprocal property is the basis of the electric telegraph,
and, inseparable from the practical system, and must be borne in mind when
the operation of these instruments is explained. Mr. Cooke has since
extended this instrument to any number of intermediate instruments in-
cluded in the same circuit — as on the Blackwall line, where there are two
sets, of five telegraphs each, working together — and also to the portable
telegraph to be carried by the trains, and temporarily introduced into the
permanent line of communication when required.

By Mr. Cooke's telegraph, eight simple signals can be given, and a suffi-
cient number of compound ones, to admit of the 26 letters of the alphabet
being used ; in addition to which, by further conventional signs, those letters
are made to represent figures, and by a mixture of both systems, as was
shown, a mixed sentence, consisting of passages from a code, spelling and
figures, could be telegraphed together.

Mr. Cooke first adopted the plan of laying the telegraph wires in iron
tubing on the Great Western Railway, and afterwards laid down a double
line on the Blackwall Railway, and others on the Leeds and Manchester,
and Edinburgh and Glasgow Railways. This plan, though perfectly suc-
cessful, was extremely costly and difficult to repair when injured, though by
aid of an instrument, the detector, less difficulty than could he supposed
offered itself to the detection of the injured part, though buried and out of
sight. More recently, Mr. Cooke invented, after extensive experiments at his
own residence, and carried out on the Great Western Railway, a plan of sus-
pending the conducting wires in the open air from lofty poles. Its leading
advantages are — 1st. Diminished cost; 2nd. Superior insulation; 3rd. Faci-
lity of repair. The old plan consisted of laying copper wires, covered with
cotton, and carefully varnished into smooth iron tubing — with frequent ar-
rangements for obtaining access to the wires, and for the facility of exami-
nation and repairs. The tube, after being carefully tarred, was either buried
in the ground or fixed on low posts, and covered with a wooden rail. This
plan will still be occasionally applied in conjunction with the new one, in
tunnels, towns, &c.

The cost of the original plan stands nearly as follows.

£ s. d.
Prepared J tube, varnished within and without, 5Jd. per foot . 115 10 0
Six copper wires, covered and varnished, at £ 6. 15s. per mile . 40 10 0
Labour and carriage, per mile . . . . . 27 0 0

Iron fittings, boxes, &c. 12 0 0

Tar, pitch, paint, rosin, and sundries 15 0 0

Posts and rails, at ${d. per foot, including fixing . . 77 0 0

The total cost of the original plan per mile . JE287 6 0

To which a per centage for casualties, profit to the contractor, and the
price of instruments remains to be added.

The cost by the present plan of suspension may be estimated thus.

£ s. d.

Drawing posts, with winding apparatus, per mile . . . 48 0 0

Cast-iron standards, with insulators, (22 in a mile) . . . 52 0 0

Labour in fixing and painting 12 6 0

Anti-corrosion paint and tar 110 0

Carriage, tools, and sundries . , 13 0 0

Contingencies r 13 0 0

£149 6 0

Making a reduction of about 50 per cent, in favour of the present plan —
and a still greater advantage in favour of the permanency of the work.

The present method of proceeding in laying down the telegraph, is first,
to fix firmly in the ground, at every 500 or 600 yards, strong posts of timber

from 16 to 18 feet in height, by 8 inches square at bottom, and tapering oft'
to 6 by 7 inches at top, fixed into stout sills and properly strutted. Attached
to the heads of these posts are a number of winders for stretching the wires,
corresponding with the number of conducting wires to he employed ; and
between every two of such posts, upright wooden standards are fixed about
60 or 70 yards apart. A ring of iron wire, (No. 7 or 8,) which has been
formed by welding the short lengths in which it is made together, is then
placed upon a reel carried on a hand barrow, and one end being attached to
the winder at one draw-post, the wire is extended to the adjoining draw-post,
and fixed to its corresponding winder at that post; by turning the pin of
the ratchet wheel with a proper key, the wire is tightened to the necessary
degree, thus the greatest accuracy may be attained in drawing the wires up
till they hang perfectly parallel with each other. To sufficiently insulate the
wires so suspended at the point of contact with the posts, is an object of
indispensable importance, as the dampness of the wood during rainy weather
would otherwise allow the electric fluid to pass off freely into the" earth, or
into an adjoining wire, and thus complete the circuit without reaching the
distant terminus at which the telegraphic effect is to be produced. To effect
this object at the draw-posts, wooden boxes are employed to enclose that
portion of the post to which the winders are attached, and small openings
are left for the free passage of the wires, without risking any contact with
the outer box. The standards are furnished either with covers parted off
by an overhanging fillet between each wire, and again between the lowest
wire and the earth, or by a series of metal shields. An eye of metal, with a
slit on the upper side, forms a hook to support the wire, and to insulate the
wire from the hook, which might otherwise act as a conductor to any damp-
ness in the wood, a split quill is slipped over the wire on which it rests.
The whole is then carefully painted with several coats of anti-corrosion
paint; or asphalte varnish may be employed for the wires. When the wires
are to be varnished, they are unhooked from the upper ends of the stand-
ards, and lowered to nails temporarily fixed to receive them toward the
bottom of the posts. A painter furnished with a can of paint, hung on his
shoulder, a brush, and a piece of felt, takes each wire and rapidly coats it,
when it is again hooked up in its position at the top of the standard.
This is the simplest and cheapest method now adopted. But for long
distances Mr. Cooke employs earthenware or glass for his insulation, and cast
iron standards and posts with ash tops for drawing and suspending the con-
ductors, which, instead of single wires, will be strands of six or more wires
twisted together ; for very great distances, when very superior conducting
power will be needed, a copper wire will be placed in the. centre of the
strand, and whilst it adds but little to the weight, it will more than double
the conducting power thereof, the iron wire still giving the necessary strength
to resist tension. The relative conductive powers of copper and the softest
iron wire are nearly as seven to one. Various methods are adopted in pass-
ing under bridges, which answer the purpose of draw-posts, the winders
being fixed to a piece of wood partly let into the brickwork to avoid damp,
the greatest enemy to electric conduction. These earthenware insulations
are introduced between the winder and wire. Mr. Cooke also intends to use
caps or boxes of earthenware to surmount the iron standards. At Slough,
for half a mile in approaching and passing by the station, cast iron standards
and draw-posts are employed, the effect of which is remarkably light and
elegant; a line of six wires is there completed, and in crossing over a car-
riage shed immediately opposite to the station, the wires are stretched over
a length of 438 feet without any intermediate support, and so accurately are
they arranged, that no difference is perceivable in their parallelism: the
draw-posts in this instance are half a mile apart, although the line is slightly
curved. In passing over a station, or an accommodation road, or in crossing
the railway, loftier standards are employed, which abruptly lift the wires to
the height of 25 or 30 feet in order to clear objects passing below. In the
latter case lighter wires are employed, that the tension out of the direct
line of strain may not draw the standard from the perpendicular.

The last advantage which need be noticed in connexion with this very
important step in the invention, arises from the very perfect insulation from
the earth. This allows of the employment of the earth as half of the con-
ducting circuit, without risk of the current finding a shorter course through
some imperfectly insulated point. For nearly two years Mr. Cooke has tried
this plan successfully on the Blackway Railway, and since on the Manchester
and Leeds Railway ; but where, as in these instances, the wires are enclosed
in an iron pipe, there is always danger of a contact, either partial, from a
few drops of moisture, or perfect, from the metals of the wire and pipe
touching, in which case, as before observed, the electricity takes a short
course instead of performing its entire circuit, and no signal is given at the
distant terminus, though appearing very strong at the point whence it sets
out. With the wires suspended in the air no such danger exists, whilst two
advantages spring from the employment of the earth as a conductor. 1st,
one wire is saved in each circuit, thus diminishing complexity and cost ; and
2nd, the earth acting as a great reservoir of electricity, or as some think as
an excellent conductor, the resistance oft'ered to the transmission of the
electricity is vastly diminished, and the battery is able to work through a
much greater distance with a smaller conducting wire. It is thus that the
apparatus exhibited can he made to work with two wires only.

Mr. Whishaw then explained the model of the telegraph. Upon moving
the handle the poles of the battery are immediately brought in contact
with the extremities of two wires, one of which passes forward to make coils
around the galvanometer frame, in which the magnetic needles are suspended,
and then proceeding to the distant apparatus to make similar coils there ;

29*

214

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

the other branch goes in the manner I explained to the earth. Thus, sup-
posing the electricity really to find its way through the earth, it enters the
corresponding branch at the distant apparatus, and passes into the wire
which makes coils around the magnets, returning to the battery by the con-
ducting wire, and producing the same divergence of the magnetic needles in
botb galvanometers, and indeed in as many, and wherever situated, as the
electric fluid encounters in its course. When the handle is in the position
of repose, the ends of the conducting wire and branch wire to the earth, are
always in contact, forming a bridge for the electricity to pass from one to
the other ; but when the handle is turned the bridge is broken, and the wires
are pressed in contact with pins connected to the battery poles ; upon re-
storing the handle the battery is disconnected, and the bridge restored for
the passage of the electricity from the other end. By reversing the move-
ment of the handles the previous contacts with the batten- are also reversed,
the current passes in a contrary direction, and the needles change their devi-
ation.

The simple signals are given by the movements of the needles either
singly or combined ; if both converge upwards A is meant, if downwards
the stop. These signals are the same as in Professor Wheatstone's diagram,
the remaining signals are additional. The left hand needle moving to the
left gives E, to the right I ; the other needle gives 0 and U ; both pointing
parallel W and Y. The consonants most in use are given by two movements
of the needles, and those very rarely required, such as J, Q, X, Z, by three
movements. C is used for K.

The following is a reduced diagram of the dial now in use upon the Great
Western Railway, between Paddington and Slough. It has been proved to be
capable of giving the twenty-six letters, numbers and various conventional
signals at the rate of thirty per minute, it is worked by two handles in the
centre between the two needles.

Up Train.

A

1

EALING

4
HANWELL

BB

zzz

SOUTIIALL

8
W. DRAYTON*

B-

'I

O*

,,TJ

cc

KKK

Not understand
2 No!

GG
J J J

Understand
2 Yes!

HH

? P ?

Figures

2 Letters

NN
V V V

Code
2 Priv. Signals

W"

sy

pp

TT

QQQ

XXX

Wait

Go on

X

Down Train.

Tm; Patent Street-cleansing Machine of which we gave a detailed
account In our April Dumber, has continued in daily operation in Regent-
street. All parties express themselves perfectly satisfied with its perform-
ance, and anxious to see it generally introduced. A public company is now
forming for working the machine in the metropolis and its vicinity.

METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACT.

We refrained last month from offering any opinion on the Bill now be-
fore the House of Commons, entitled "A Bill for the better regulating
the Buildings of the Metropolitan Districts, and to provide for the
drainage thereof," in consequence of not having had sufficient time to
peruse it with that attention which such an important Bill requires.
We have since carefully perused the whole of the Bill, and maturely
considered it clause by clause, and we cannot do otherwise than at
once pronounce it the most monstrous interference with public conve-
nience and private rights, which was ever attempted by members
of the English legislature, and if it be allowed to pass in its present
state, we sav fearlessly that it will be a disgrace to the architectural
profession, for we understand that the Bill is the production of some
half-dozen architects, to whom it was submitted to draw a new Bill to
supersede the present Building Act.

This Bill appears to have been studiously framed to see how far the
builder might be trammelled with expence, difficulties, fines and
penalties; it not only contemplates enormous additional costs in the
erection of buildings, but also taxes them with exorbitant fees to be
paid to district surveyors, and a new fangled board to be called offi-
cial referees, together with numerous other charges which we must
submit in detail as we proceed with an analysis of the Bill. We shall
not follow the Bill exactly in the order as the clauses stand, for they
do not appear to be properly connected, but must connect them in
such a manner as appears most desirable for the purpose of a proper
understanding of the Bill. The number of the clause we have placed
at the commencement of the observations, and those words within
parenthesis, in italics, we propose to introduce, instead of the words
previous.

4. The Bill proposes to extend the present district of the Building
Act to the suburbs of the metropolis, and will comprise the following
additional districts: — Fulham, Kensington, Hampstead, Hornsey,
Stoke Xewington, Stratford, Poplar, and Bromley, in Middlesex;
in Ket,t, Woolwich, Charlton, Greenwich, Deptford, Lee, Lewisham,
and Plumstead ; in Surrey, Wandsworth, TootiDg, Streathani,
Clapbam, and Battersea.

119. The magistrates to appoint the new surveyors, as heretofore,
but the surveyors must not be less than thirty years of age; the present
district surveyors to retain their present appointments.

15. There are to be three official referees to he appointed by the
Secretary of State for the Home Department, for the purpose of de-
termining the questions directed to be referred to them, and the
determination of any two of such referees shall be binding on all par-
ties; and if the parties agree, may be referred to one of such referees
only, whose decision shall be binding in all respects.

It proposes to alter the present method of rating the size of the
buildings, and instead of allowing the superficial contents of the build-
ing of dwelling houses, to regulate the rate, thev are to be governed
by the heights of the walls and the number of stories they contain,
which part of the Bill, with some alteration, will be far superior to
the present absurd system of ascertaining the rate by the plan.

5 and 6. There are to be eight rates of buildings, and the floors of
all buildings are to be counted from the foundation inclusively, but
exclusively of the rooms in the roof (if any), and the height, except
in 5th and 7th rates, shall be measured from the surface of the lowest
or first floor to the top of the wall or parapet of any one of the fronts
thereof.

Here we must decidedly object to the rooms in the roofs of dwelling
houses being excluded in the clauses, as it will keep up the present
very equivocal mode of building by introducing curb roofs, which
are nothing more than an evasion of the present art. We therefore
propose that the rate of dwelling houses should include the rooms in
the roof, and that an additional story, and a few feet in height, be
added to each of the four following clauses; the alterations we propose
are in italics.

7. First Rate. — Dwellings containing more than four (five) floors, and
fifty-seven (sijty) feet high and not seventy [eighty) feet, and other build-
ings, not dwellings higher than 40ft. and not 50ft.

8. Second Rate. — Dwellings containing more than four (five) floors, and
forty-seven (fifty-three) feet high, and not fifty-seven (sixty) feet, and other
buildings 30ft. high and not 40ft.

9. Third Rate. — Dwellings containing three or four (five) floors, and
thirty-three (forty) feet high, and under forty-seven (fifty-three) feet, and
also every dwelling of a lower height with more than three (four) floors, and
other buildings higher than 22ft. and not exceeding 30ft.

10. Fourth Rate. — Dwellings not having more than three (four) floors,
and less than thirty-three (forty) feet, and other buildings not higher than
22 ft.

11. Fifth Rate. — Every budding not a dwelling, brewery, distillery,

1843. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

211

with good materials, has been, it is contended, fully proved at Lord Palmer-
ston's house, which was covered with the composition in 1807; Lord Ber-
wick's, in 1810; Sir James Langham's, in 1812; the Pavilion at Brighton,
in 1816 and 1823; and nearly the whole of Buckingham Palace, in 1826
and 1829; the latter roofs are stated to be in perfect order at the present
time, and have scarcely demanded any repairs since their completion.

The paper is illustrated by a drawing, showing the mode of constructing
the roofs, and the improved method proposed by the author, with specimens
of the composition, with slates imbedded, taken from the roof of the palace
during some recent alterations.

Remarks. — Mr. Poynter presented a drawing of the mode of setting the
pots for moiling and preparing the composition, the proportions of which
he stated somewhat differently from those given in the paper. Three mea-
sures of ground chalk, dried and sifted very fine, were mixed and kneaded
up with one measure of tar ; these ingredients were melted in an iron pot,
set in such a manner that the flame should not impinge too violently upon it.
The first, or " skimming" coat of the covering being laid on of a thickness
of -^ inch, the finishing coat was composed by adding to the former mixture
three measures of hot sifted sand, well mixing the whole together; the com-
position was laid on with a tool similar to a plasterer's trowel, but much
stronger. Mr. Nash, when he first tried the composition, found that the
surface became disintegrated by exposure to the weather ; he therefore added
the slates imbedded in the second coat, and subsequently never used the
mixture without them.

Mr. Nixon, in reply to questions from the President and other members,
stated, that he was employed under Mr. Nash when the palace roofs were
executed, and he could bear testimony to their durability and soundness.
The roofs at East Cowes castle, which were covered with the composition in
the year 1808, and those of the Pavilion at Brighton, in 1816, were now in
as good a state as when they were finished. The failure at Mr. Nash's house
in Regent Street, arose from the roof having been originally composed of
mastic, which soon cracked. One coat of the Stanhope composition was
spread over it, to stop the leaks, but it was insufficiently done, and ultimately
Mr. Rainy had a new roof, properly constructed, with two coats of compo-
sition, which had remained sound to the present time. The price of these
roofs, when well constructed by the person who did those of the palace,2
was about five guineas per square.

Mr. Hogg observed, that the chalk was only exposed to such a heat as
would evaporate any moisture it contained. The weight of the two coats of
Stanhope composition, including the slate imbedded in it, was about 12 lb.
per superficial foot.

Mr. Sibley considered the Seyssel Asphalte, when carefully laid, preferable
to any composition of a similar nature ; he had used it extensively, and was
well satisfied with it, both for roofing and paving.

Mr. Hogg objected to the use of asphalte for roofing, as it was liable to
injury, being of a brittle nature ; it was not elastic, and it shrunk from the
walls, thereby causing leaks. Lord Stanhope's composition did not possess
these faults, and he did not consider that it was superseded by asphalte.

Mr. Moreland had covered the roof of the tread-mill at Giltspur Street
Compter with asphalte, and had found it answer perfectly. It was laid on
in a thickness of |-inch upon roofing boards, f-inch thick, with canvas nailed
on them, with an entire fall of only 9 inches ; there was not any appearance
of leakage.

Mr. Davidson had caused a school-room to be floored with asphalte, four
years ago, and up to the present time there was no symptom of wearing
down, although the stones which were let into the floor, for supporting the
desks, &c, were considerably abraded. He believed that the only failures of
the asphalte had occurred from the use of inferior ingredients. Gas tar had
been used instead of vegetable tar, and in those cases the result had not been
successful.

ON BRIDGES.

At the ordinary general meeting of the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects, held on Monday evening, the 15th May last, Professor Hosking illus-
trated and explained his proposal to improve the design of arched bridges,
by the introduction of a transverse arch, groined into the longitudinal arch,
or series of arches; and showed the effect of this and of other suggestions
he has made for the improvement of bridges, in a design for re-modelling
Westminster Bridge.

Mr. Hosking began by stating that the closely attentive consideration of
the subject of bridge designing and building, rendered necessary by his en-
gagement with Mr. Weale to supply a practical treatise for the extensive
work on the Theory and Practice of Bridges, now lately published, gave rise
to some suggestions of improvements in design and construction, which he
believes to be novel, and knows to be (as far as he is concerned) original.

His object, on that occasion, was to explain and illustrate the more im-
portant suggestions he had made, that they might not be misunderstood,
and might be more extensively known than they were likely to become
whilst they rested within the covers of a professional library book.

On a former occasion in that room he had made some remarks upon the
subject of bridge building generally, and had urged that the piers of bridges
were built of much greater substance in thickness than was necessary for

2 Mr, Millson, No. 6, Frances Street, Tothill Fields, Westminster.

either safety or agreeable effect ; that they might therefore be greatly re-
duced in bulk both for economy and for their effect upon the water way, and
without diminishing their efficiency. It had been objected to him, however,
at that time by some of the members — with the too common fault of ar-
chitects, who would sacrifice use to effect, instead of compelling the useful
to be effective — that his proposal tended to destroy the due proportion in
appearance of the pier to the opening. The eye that had been accustomed
to the bridges upon the Tiber at Rome, of which the piers are rarely less
than one-third the span of the larger of the two arches resting upon them
respectively, would be offended by the absence of that proportion of solid to
void in London and Waterloo Bridges, in which the same relation is but one
sixth ; whilst the eye accustomed to the bridges upon the Thames at London,
would condemn the bridges at Staines, and the bridges of Jena and Neuilly
on the Seine, of which the piers are but one-eighth, one-ninth, and one-
tenth of the span of the arches resting upon them. Nor have we yet
reached the limit to which the diminution of proportion may be reduced
with safety anil good effect. Further to justify such further reduction, was
one of the ends to be answered by the arrangement he was then to explain,
which has the effect of reducing also the weight to be sustained by the
piers of an arched bridge. The idea had occurred to him, and he had ma-
tured it so far, as to be able to speak of it with confidence on the former
occasion alluded to above, but as he was then unprepared with illustrative
diagrams, he had thought it better to withhold it for the time.

The proposed improvement consists in groining a bridge arch, or in car-
rying a groined transverse arch through the length of a series of arches ;
and the advantages derivable from this plan consist in lessening the weight
of the bridging constructions ; in reducing the thrust upon the abutments,
and consequently confirming the stability of both arches and abutments ;
in diminishing the liability of the bridge constructions to vibrate under the
action of pulsating or of rolling bodies ; and generally in greatly reducing
the cost of construction.

The weight is obviously lessened by the difference between the massive
haunches of the main vaults, and of the requisite backing to them through
the extent of the transverse arch, and the comparatively light inner trans-
verse arch, which being of slight span, may be of stones of much less
depth than the main vaults require ; the thrust of the main vaults is clearly
dissipated throughout so much of the width of the bridge as the inner
transverse arch occupies, and so that if the latter occupy the proportion of
the width that might be given to it, the abutments of the bridge may be re-
duced to mere wing walls ; the vibrations arising from the traffic upon the
bridge are checked at the groin points as at nodal points in a vibrating cord
— and the groins lie directly under the carriage road where alone any action
that could be felt in a heavy mass of masonry can arise ; — and the cost of
construction is reduced by the reduction in quantity of the materials in the
piers and in the vaults — by the reduction of labour required for the softer
stone available for the inner transverse arch, and by the lighter centering
sufficient for the same.

He had endeavoured to illustrate his suggestions by applying what he
proposed upon a compartment of London Bridge, as a familiar instance, but
without anv idea of reflecting upon the existing condition of that magnificent
work. [Here Mr. Hosking explained the diagrams, which were merely en-
largements of the plate which illustrate the same subject in the Treatise on
Bridges.]

The only indication of such an arrangement as that he suggested, in any
existing work with which he was acquainted, is in Perronet's Bridge of St.
Maxence, where low arches are introduced over the divided parts of the
piers transversely of the bridge, to take the springings of the great longitu-
dinal arches, but these have neither the intention nor the effect of what is
proposed, and are a source of weakness and expense rather than of economy
and endurance. [The diagrams which illustrated this, showed that the
transverse arch was low and flat, instead of rising to the lull height of the
great longitudinal arches, and must therefore exert a great thrust upon the
divided portions of the piers which abut it ; and as the vaults spring upon
the backs of these transverse arches, there is no relief either in thrust or
weight, by groining.]

He was well aware that the suggestion he had made was exposed to con-
troversy upon the presumption that the transverse arch may not have suffi-
cient abutment within the length of a pier, transversely of the bridge, and as
the theory of the groined arch has not been satisfactorily determined, if in-
deed it have been really investigated, he must claim to refer to experience
and assert upon example that the inner arch, as he had drawn it in the dia-
gram, was superflously abutted. Under any circumstances, indeed, it can be
only a question of greater or less span of the inner transverse arch with
reference to the abutments afforded to it by the springings of the outer and
greater longitudinal arch to which it is groined, since there can be no ques-
tion but that if the abutments are sufficient to restrain the arch, the opera-
tion may be safely carried out. In the example the transverse inner arch
occupies but half the length of the pier, leaving the minimum abutment equal
to half the span of the arch, with the means of increasing it to almost any
extent by raising buttresses upon the heads of the cutwaters.

Numberless instances exist of arches of far less rise in proportion to their
span than the present example shows, abutted only by the piers on which
they rest, or rather by a substance upon their haunches extending only to
the thickness of their piers ; the piers being far less in proportion to the
span than in the example, whilst the proportion of abutment to span should
increase a.s that of rise to span diminishes. Trajan's Bridge over the Tagus

29

212

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[June,

at Alcantara, the Pons Palatinus or Ponte Rotto upon the Tiber at Rome,
the ruins of Augustus's Bridge at Narai, are cases in point, and every ca-
thedral chapter-house in England in the pointed style of architecture, and
every arcaded cloister, furnishes another instance to the same effect.

Another question may arise as to the sufficiency of the area of the bearing
surface upon the piers at the springings of the arches, for very much less is
allowed than it has been usual to give in such cases.

Perronet calculated upon experiments, that the stone of which his Neuilly
Bridge was built, is capable of sustaining twelve times the weight imposed
upon it in the piers of that bridge. The area of the bearing surface of the
piers of Neuilly Bridge, is about one-tenth of the area covered by the two
half arches resting upon the piers respectively. In the supposed case, the
weight of the superstructure, as compared with Perronet's, is diminished by
the introduction of the perforation in the arches, longitudinally of the
bridge, and the stone of which London Bridge is built, being stronger than
the stone used by Perronet, in a much greater degree than the difference of
their specific gravities would indicate ; the substance of the arches built of
the stronger stone, may be relatively reduced. These circumstances operate
to such an extent, that the weight of the superstructure is reduced as coin-
pared with Perronet's work, nearly, if not quite, one-fourth ; and as twelve
times the sufficient strength is, besides, very much more than enough for the
extremest contingencies, it is not too much to assume that the area of bear-
ing surface of the arches at the springings, or on the piers, may be taken at
one-fifteenth the area covered by the two half-arches. In justification of
this assumption, it may be added that, without the same reason for it, but
with flatter arches, certainly, than at Neuilly, Perronet made the area of the
bearing surface upon the piers at the springings of the arches in the Bridge
of St. Maxence, and with the same stone of Saillanconrt. less than one-
seventeenth the area in horizontal section of the space, covered by two half
arches.

But the granite used in L ondon Bridge, is of considerably more than
twice the strength of the Saillancourt freestone in the bridges of Neuilly
and St. Maxence, and upon which Perronet's experiments were made ; and
therefore the area of the bearing surface of the arches at the springings, may-
be one-thirtieth the area in horizontal section of the space covered by the
two half arches resting upon any pier.

This is the proportion allowed in the case supposed, and the area of bearing
face is upon the calculations regarding Neuilly Bridge, and having reference
to the different powers of resistance of the two kinds of stone, more than
enough for ten times the load it would be called upon to bear. Having re-
ference, however, to other instances of the powers of stone to resist crush-
ing piessure in the central pillars of some of the cathedral chapter houses, it
may he safely concluded that experiments upon small pieces of stone give
results much within the strength of the material in the block ; so that having
counteracted the tendency of the traffic upon a bridge, to induce vibration in
the structure by the introduction of the deep transverse arch, groined to the
flat longitudinal arches ; it is believed that the bearing surface at the
springings of the arches, and consequently, the piers under them, might he
reduced, not merely with perfect safety, but with great advantage, very much
beyond what he had now endeavoured to justify, in the example before the
meeting.

Mr. Hosking then proceeded to explain the advantages of corbelling out
the parapets on bridges, according to the method he has proposed in his
treatise on Bridges ; and read some passages in explanation of them, from
that work : and showed, by diagrams, the manner in which the work might
be composed constructively, and as to decoration, either plainly corbelled
or enriched faces to the parapet. He then resumed his remarks, and
stated that in closing his observations upon the design and arrangement of
bridges, he could not avoid noticing a pressing instance of an important
work, within the personal knowledge of all who live in, or have ever visited
London, rendered by circumstances which have grown up around it, alto-
gether unfit, both in its design and arrangement, for the position it occupies.
In September last he wrote, in the Treatise on Bridges, as follows : —

" It is difficult to close a Treatise on Bridge Architecture, w ithout remark-
ing the increased unfitness of the present superstructure of Westminster
Bridge. The arches spring at a level very little above that of low water,
where the tide rises and falls from 15 to 18 feet, so that the water-way is
nearly 50 feet, or about one-sixteenth less at the height of ordinary spring
tides, than at the level of low water in the river. The arches contract the
way for navigation much more than it is at all necessary they should, even
upon the present piers, and there is more than twice the height from the
soffits of the arches to the level of the roadway, than there need be ; the
parapets are alike offensive, by their great height from the roadway, and by
their ugliness in detail, and injurious by the drafts induced by the perforations
of the balustrades ; and the solid counterfort buttresses over the cutwaters,
and their inclosed and cupolated heads, add needlessly to the weight upon
the piers. The bridge is unfortunately near to the magnificent buildings of
the Houses of Parliament, and its great height renders this proximity more
injurious than it might otherwise be. In all probability some abatement will
be made of the height of the bridge in the process of the works now (1842)
in hand for securing the pier, and doubtlessly the same good sense which
Opened a view of the river from Blackfriars' Bridge will open the magnificent
prospect Westminster Bridge can command, by substituting parapets, which
shall be truly so, for the perforated walls which now hedge in the road-way ;
but the arches will still continue to render the navigable water-way narrower

and more inconvenient than even the multiplicity and thickness of the piers,
or the condition of the work, impose. The character of the work, too, will
still remain inconsistent with its position at Westminster. It ought, therefore,
to be completely remodelled. As the piers are now in process of being re-
paired and secured, and so as to be free from any danger, founding new piers
is out of the question, and the piers cannot be reduced in number without
imposing additional weight on those which may be left ; a condition which
the original defective foundging, and the badness of the original structure,
forbid. The whole of the superstructure might be removed, however, and
the piers being carried up from the level of the present springing to that of
high water, of the substance which the cutwaters now show within that
range, flat pointed arches might be sprung at that level, and the whole
superstructure re-constructed in accordance with the prevailing style of the
Abbey, Hall, and Palace of Westminster. The longitudinal central groining
hereinbefore proposed might well he adopted with excellent effect, lightening
the upper works, relieving the thrust of the arches, and greatly economizing
the reconstruction, as the old stone would work in well for this purpose,
whilst the faces and main vaults were of new. The widening of the water-
way by the removal of the springings of the arches out of the water would
allow characteristic abutments to occupy the space now taken up by the two
first arches of the series of thirteen, as well as the site of the two small land
arches, without affecting the current injuriously; and as the flat pointed
arch would give much more freedom to the navigation than the semi-circular
arch affords, independently of the increased lateral space in every bay, the
vertical head-way might be taken at an average of that now afforded by the
central group. Moreover, the increased space at the approaches obtained
by obliterating the useless land arches would allow the accesses to the
bridge from the low ground on either side to be greatly improved, and the
ascent eased by dividing tbem to the right and left over the abutments, ami
so to disrtibute the rise over a longer space, and give the means of dividing
the going and coming traffic.

These observations, continued Mr. Hosking, coincide in a very remarkable
degree, with those upon the same bridge, in the report lately presented by
Mr. Harry, to the Commission on the Fine Arts, in connexion with the
Houses of Parliament. It was true that his suggestions stood alone in the
particulars in which it was almost certain they would be peculiar ; as it
regards the introduction of the inner transverse arch groined to the main
vaults ; the increase of the span of the arches upon the same piers, (for he
did not understand Mr. Barry's report to contemplate that) and in widening,
winding and dividing the approaches for the double purpose of use and de-
light. It was quite clear, however, that as his remarks were written in Sep-
tember of last year, and — with the wood. cut illustration of the subject which
appears with the text — printed in October, though not published until February
of this year, he might claim some credit for having taken the same view of
subject that had already, he doubted not, presented itself to the mind of the
their eminent contemporary, whilst it might be held to strengthen, in some
degree, the view they had both taken, that it had occurred to both Mr. Barry
and himself, without communication or knowledge indeed, of each other's
doings, to support it by the same train of argument.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

Mr. Wushaw, the secretary, read a paper at the Society of Arts, on Wed-
nesday May 17, explaining Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraph.

The practical electric telegraph comprizes two modes of applying elec-
tricity to telegraphic purposes : — 1st. The " Galvanometer, which acts by the
deflecting power of galvanometer coils on magnetic needles," and 2nd. The
" Mechanical form which gives its signals through the agency of the Electro-
Magnet on Mechanism." Every instrument yet employed may be classed
under one or other of these heads ; and it is only fair to Mr. Cooke to ob-
serve, that he had, previous to his acquaintance with Professor Wheatstone,
worked out in detail, and made several instruments of both descriptions,
and that he has alone thoroughly worked out the entire system on which
these instruments are arranged for the purpose of making them act recipro-
cally.

Mr. Cooke, by profession a military man, having served in our Indian
armies several years, was in March 1836, engaged at Heidelberg in ana-
tomical researches in connexion with the interesting pursuit of modeling his
own dissections from nature, for the embellishment of his father's museum,
a professor of the Durham University. In this self-taught art he had been
engaged several months. An occurrence about this time gave, however, an
entirely new direction to his thoughts. Professor Moencke of Heidelberg,
had invited Mr. Cooke to witness some experiments with a simple apparatus,
intended to illustrate the idea of giving signals by electricity — an idea, by
the way, which had at that time been before the scientific world for several
years. So powerful was the impression produced on Mr. Cooke's mind by
these experiments, and so convinced was be of the possibility of applying
electricity to the practical transmission of telegraphic intelligence, that
abandoning his other pursuits, he devoted himself from that hour to the
present moment exclusively to the practical realization of the electric tele-
graph— with what success, let those judge who have seen it working on the
Blackwall Railway, for the last three years, or as now extended, and jester-

J 843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

217

and heard in defence ; we therefore direct special attention to all the
penal clauses, for the purpose of correction.

We must also direct attention to the subject of notices, which in
many cases it says shall be served upon the owners; now, who is
to determine the owner, and if he is known and residing 200 miles
from the metropolis or in the country, how is a notice to be served ?
We consider that,*if the notice be served upon the occupier, or the
receiver of the rents if residing in London, it should be quite suffi-
cient.

There are many other most objectionable clauses compelling occu-
piers to do repairs, &c, how they are to be done by many poor in-
habitants who cannot raise sufficient to buy a loaf, we cannot tell ; it is
true that they can deduct the amount from their rent, but many of the
repairs and other works requisite to be done must be done instanter
on the occasion, subject to heavy penalties — besides, where will they
find builders that will undertake to do the repairs, &c. for these p oor
tenants, without first having the money paid down.

We must now direct attention to the fees to be claimed by the
district surveyors, which are more than double those allowed by the
present act, which are now maximum fees.

New Buildings.
£ . s. d.

First Rate 7 7 0

Second " 6 6 0

Third " 5 5 0

Fourth " 4 4 0

Fifth " 2 2 0

Sixth " 6 6 0

Seventh" 0 10 6

And for every alteration or addition one half the above fees — and
also if any addition, although carried up at the same time as the main
building, is to be separately rated, according to the heights, and a fee
paid upon it.

These fees must be reduced to one half, or the amount of the pre-
sent fees inserted.

We have already directed attention to the fees for eighth rate
buildings.

There is one other evil attendant upon this bill — which is, that
should a party lose a cause, he is to be mulcted in double costs of
suits, in one case treble costs — this is a denial of justice ; it is quite
sufficient to deter parties from bringing actions vexatiously to amerce
them in the payment of single costs of suits, which are rarely less
than £ 100, if not double that amount on both sides if he loses ; we
must therefore urge that these inflictions of double and treble costs
be omitted; besides, who is to be entitled to these additional costs?
are the lawyers the parties to benefit ?

We have now directed the attention of our readers to the principal
clauses in this Bill, and pointed out many serious objections ; there
are others which we cannot now find space for, but we shall consider
it our duty to submit a copy of the Bill, with our remarks and proposed
amendments, to the Noble Lord who has charge of it in the House
of Commons, and we must urge upon the profession, to come forward
and remove the objectionable parts, or it will be a stigma upon the
profession, with whom it is said to have originated.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

HER MAJESTY'S ROYAL STEAM YACHT "VICTORIA Si ALBERT."

The launch of this singularly beautiful and magnificent steam vessel took
place at Pembroke, on Wednesday, 26th April. The following are the prin-
cipal dimension: —

Feet, inches.
Length, extreme . . . . . . . . 225 0

Length on the deck . . . . . . . . 205 0

Length hetween perpendiculars .. .. .. 200 0

Length of keel for tonnage .. .. .. 181 2

Breadth outside paddle boxes .. .. .. 59 0

Breadth for tonnage .. .. .. .. 33 0

Breadth moulded .. .. .'. ., 31 11

Depth in hold .. .. .. . .' ..' 22 0

Burthen in tons, 1,049. She is divided into five water-tight compartments,
and her engines by Messrs. Maudslays & Field, are of 450 horse power.

Her construction is entirely novel, and according to designs prepared by
the Surveyor of the Navy ; she is considered by competent judges to be su-
perior, in point of beauty, buoyancy, and strength, to any other description
of steam vessel ever produced in this country. Some idea may be formed of
the novel and peculiar style of her construction, as well as of her great
strength, when it is stated that she is built only with plank •, the first two

layers being of oak 1 \ inches thick, placed across each- other diagonally at
an angle of 45 degrees, the outside plank being of larch three inches thick,
lying longitudinally or with the sheer of the ship, and the whole being bound
up with vertical and diagonal iron bands. Between each layer of plank the?
surface is covered with thick tarred felt; the vessel therefore cannot leak,
nor be in the least degree damp inside ; and being divided into five compart-
ments by four water-tight bulkheads extending as high as the state deck, it
is impossible for the body ever to sink, although it might be bilged in any
part from accident. Her keel was laid on the 9th of November, 1842, the
anniversary of the birth of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, by Mr.
William Edye, the master shipwright of the Royal Dockyard at Pembroke ;
and the greatest praise is due to Captain Superintendent Sir W. O. Pell, an
officer of distinguished service and merit, and to the respective authorities,
for the skilful arrangements and extraordinary exertions made in building
tlvs ship in the winter months in the short period of only 23 weeks. She
would, however, have been completed in much less time, and been ready for
launching by the 1st of March, but for the loss of a vessel with stores for her
completion, in her passage round from the eastward, and the unavoidable
detention of other vessels by the tempestuous weather in their voyage from
the eastern dockyards to this port. She was brought round from Pembroke
to the river Thames, and towed up the river to the East India Docks, Black-
wall, on the 8th ult. and is now being fitted with her engines.

The Screw Propeller.— The Mermaid, (lately fitted with Messrs. Rennie's
Stern Propeller, and by the same firm, with engines and boilers,) has made
several experimental trips down the river, in order to ascertain her speed
which was found (at the measured mile Long Reach) to be equal to 12j miles
per hour through the water; after trying her at the measured mile, she was
put alongside the Red Rarer, (Heme Bay Steamer) which is said to go 1325
miles through the water, but in running her from Long Reach Tavern to
Gravesend (about 10 miles), the Mermaid gained about 300 yards on her op-
ponent. These experiments fully prove that the "Screw" is nearly equal,
if not quite, to the paddle-wheels. The engines of the Mermaid are of the
nominal power of 45 horses each, her immersed midship section about 48 ft.
We may observe that the lines of the vessel are not what they should be, for
going 12j"miles per hour; in fact, when she was built (4 years since), she
was not considered a fine form for speed.

The "Peiki Tijaret."' — (The Precursor of Trade.)— This fine vessel, built
for the Ottoman Steam Navigation Company, for the conveyance of the
mail and passengers between Constantinople and Trebison, made an experi-
mental trip down the River Thames, from Blackwall to Gravesend, on Mon-
day the 29th ult. There were present! the Turkish Ambassador and Consul,
the Egyptian Consul, and numerous distinguished foreigners, and a party of
scientific gentlemen. She is the seventh vessel built in England for this
spirited company. The vessel was constructed from the designs of Messrs.
Ritherdon and Carr, by Mr Fletcher, and fitted with engines by the cele-
brated firm of Messrs. Miller, Ravenshill, and Co. Her dimensions are,
length between perpendicular. 168 ft., beam 26 ft. 6 in., depth of hold 16
ft. 6 in., and draft 10 ft. 6 in. ; burthen 568 tons o.M. She has a pair of beam
engines of 90 horse power each; and are a beautiful specimen of Messrs.
Miller and Go's superior workmanship ; they worked with remarkable ease,
and gave great satisfaction, as well as the build of the vessel, to all parties
on board. Her performance at the " Measured mile " was equal to U§
miles through the water; considering her immersed section, this was an
excellent performance. On the return of the vessel to Blackwall, the Com-
pany retired to the "Brunswick" where a sumptuous entertainment was
provided, which was attended by his Excellency the Turkish Ambassador, and
the Consuls and other parties who were on board.

The Screw-Propeller. — We see by the Lverpool paper, that Messrs.
Mather, Dixon, and Grantham, have been very successful with an iron vessel,
the " Liverpool Screw " fitted with their patent improvements. The screw is
worked direct without the intervention of spur wheels by the aid of a steam
engine and boiler on the. locomotive principle, consisting of two cylinders
13 in. diameter, and 18 in. stroke, and when light the screw makes about
85 revolutions per minute, the pressure of the steam in the boiler is about
501bs., and is used expansively. The vessel is 65 ft. long, 12 ft. 6 in. beam,
and draft 3ft. 9 in., the trials of her power in comparison with other vessels
is said to be most satisfactory.

MISCELLANEA

Payne's Patent for preserving timber from the ravages of the dry rot,
insects, &c, is now likely to b; brought into extensive operation ; the process
consists of impregnating timber with a solution of the sulphate of iron,
and afterwards with the muriate of lime, which combines with the iron, and
forms an insoluble chemical preservative, and byjthe process adopted, impreg-
nates the timber to the very centre: this is effected by placing the timber
in large iron tanks with the solutions, and then first exhausting the air, and
afterwards readmitting it, and then using a force-pump, with a pressure of
2001bs. on the square inch, to force the solution into the heart of the wood,
which it does very effectively. Iron, as a preservative to timber, has long
been known, and it is now, through the ingenious process adopted by Mr.
Payne, likely to become very extensively adopted. The Company is now
preparing the timber to be used at Claremont, for the royal stables, by com-
mand of the government.

A Congregational Chapel, at Derby, was opened on Wednesday, April
12th, designed by Mr. Stevens, architect, of Derby. The general plan is an
oblong parallelogram, with a Tetrastyle Corinthian Portico at the entrance

218

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JUNB,

front and a deep recess at the opposite extremity. It is eievated upon a
stvlobate, which irffords a sufficient height for Schools and Class-rooms under
the whole area. The Portico is approached in its whole extent by a flight of
nine steps; the columns are 2 feet 10 inches diameter at the base, and the
Eustyle intercohimination is adopted : it projects eleven teet. and is connected
with the end of the building by sqirre pillars, with corresponding antae at
the four angles of the building. The flanks are brought out to the face of
the antie, and have each five large semi-circular headed windows, with
archivolts springing from continuous impost. The whole entablature of the
order is continued round the building. A large arch under the Portico leads
into a recess, which affords access on each side to the Lobbies, Staircases,
and Chapel, The entrances to the Schools are screened in the tront by a
bulustrade. The Chapel is 70 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 42 feet high,
including the lobbies and entrance recess, over which the gallery is continued.
The recess is filled by a Vestry, and gallery over, which is
the body of the Chapel by a bold elliptical arch springing from the impost.
The Chapel is calculated to seat 700 persons, and admits of the acci
tion being increased one half by an extension of the end gallery, and the
addition of other galleries on the sides.

Lifbig's Compost Manure. — This distinguished chemist gives the fol-
lowing description for preparing a compost manure, which is adapted to
furnish all the inorganic matters to wheat, oats and barley ; it is made
",y mixing equal parts of bone dust and a solution ot silicate of potash,
(known as soluble glass in commerce.) allowing this mixture to dry in the air.
and then adding ten or twelve parts of gypsum, with twelve parts of common
salt. Such a compost would render unnecessary the animal manures, which
act by their inorganic ingredients. The silicate of potash employed in the
preparation of the compost, must not deliquesce on exposure to the air, but
must give a gelatinous consistence to the water in wh'ch it is dissolved, and
dry to a white powder by exposure. It is only attractive of moisture when
an excess of potash is present, which is apt to exert an injurious influence
upon the tender roots of plants. In those cases where silicate of potash
cannot be procured, a sufficiency of wood ashes will supply its place."

Birmingham Canal Navigations.— The Bentlcy Canal, which has lately
been executed by this company, under the direction of their engineers,
(Messrs. Walker and Burgess,) was opened for traffic on the 28lh of April.
It connects the summit level of the Wyrley and Kssigton Canal, near Wed-
nesfield, with the Walsall, or lower level of the Birmingham Canal, near
Darlaston. and both shortens the distance from the Walsall level to Wolver-
hampton, and opens up the nvnes about Willenhall and Bentley. Although
the weather was unfavourable, a considerable number ot the committee and
principal officers of the company were present; R. Scott, Esq., M.P., acting
as chairman pro tern. In proceeding along the line in the company's pleasure
boat, the committee complimented Mr. Walker on the excellence of the work
done by the contractors, and expressed much satisfaction at the quickness, and
at the same time, the steadiness with which the boat rose in the iocki. The
total distance between the two canals, nearly 31 miles, and 10 lucks, (6 ft. 6
in. each r se) was performed by two horses in 57 minutes, the time occupied in
passing through each lock having only been 45 seconds. The advantage of
speed and steadiness combined, in working these locks, has been attained by
making large paddles with improved machinery, and by introducing the
water through culverts, extending under the side walls for their entire length,
having a number of long shallow openings into the locks.

Iron Ships.— The Iron Queen.— We find that iron as a material fur ship-
building is fast gaining ground. For steamers iron has been a favourite for
some lime past, and there is not now one wooden steamer building at this
port, while we observe there are two iron ones of the first class neaj
pleted, ami we understand contracts are made for the building of three more.
We are also now satisfied that the only objection to sailing vessels of iron —
namely, the getting foul during a foreign voyage— is completely removed.
This is proved by the result of two voyages h\ the Iron Queen. This lark.
of 350 tons register, left the river Tyne in February, 1M2, with 424 tons of
coals for Havannah, whence she went to Mobile for a cargo of cotton for
this port. She has now coi pleted another voyage, from this port to Gal-
veston, in Texas, carrying 30U tons of coals out and a full cargo of cotton
home. She had been in the graving dock, where she was visited by many
persons, and she is found not to have strained a single rivet, although she
struch heavily on Galveston bar. There is no appearance of corrosion, the
red lead being fresh on the plates, and neither shells, barnacles, nor any
foulness was on her bottom. This desirable result is caused by the single
application of a compound of tallow, bright varnish, arsenic, and brimstone,
which effectually destroys marine vegetable and animal substances. — Liver-
pool Albion.

THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal.

Mean Magnetic

Declination.

Dip at 9 a.m.

Dip at 3 p.m.

1843 January . .
February
March . .
April . .

23 11 31

23 9 56
23 7 17
23 4 48

68 59
68 59}

68 58J

69 0

68 59*

68 59*

69 1}
69 0}

LIST OP NEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.)

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM APRIL 29, TO MAI' 27, 1843.

Six: Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

James Stewart, of 3, Gloucester-crescent, Saint Pancras, pianoforte-maker,
and Thomas Lambert, of 91, Albany-street, Saint Pancras, pianoforte-maker,
for " improvements in the action 0/ pianofortes. — Sealed April 29.

Moses Poole, of Lincolu's Inn, gentleman, for "improvements in making
decoctions of coffee and other matters." (Being a communication.)—
April 29.

James Hesford, of Great Bolton, Lancaster, millwright, for "improvements
in the manufacture of certain bowls and rolls." — May 2.

Josiali Longmore, of Regent-street, Keni.ington, silversmith, for " im-
nts in jims, pen-holders, and pencil cases, part of which improve-
ments are applicable to oilier useful purposes." — May 4.

Edward Morewood, of Thornbridge, Derby, merchant, and George Rogers,
of Chelsea, gentleman, for " improved processes for coating metals."— May 4.
Francis Daniell, of Camborne, Cornwall, assay master and analytical che-
mist, and Thomas Hutchinson, of Rosewarne, in the same county, esquire,
for " certain me/hods of obtaining or manufacturing lime from a substance or
substances nut hitherto made use of for that purpose." — May I.

John Turnbull, of Holywell Mount, Shoreditch, card-maker, for "im-
provements in the manufacture of horse-shoes." — May 6.

James Uoose, of Wednesbury, Stafford, for " an improvement or improve-
ments in the mode or method of manufacturing welded iron tubes." — May 9 ;
two mouths.

William Edward Newton, of Cbancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improve-
ments in the construction of botes for the axles or axle'rees of locomotive
engines and carriages, and for the bearings or journals of machinery in gene-
ral, and also improvements in oiling or lubricating the same. (A communi-
cation.)— May 15.

John Tappan, of Fitzroy-square, gentleman, for " improvements in ma-
iiring anil spinning hemp and such other fibrous materials as
I lie sunn is applicable to. (A communication.) — May 15.

Robert Alexander Kennedy, of Manchester, cotton-spinner, for "improve-
ments in machinery for grinding and sharpening cards used in carding cotton,
or other fibrous material." — May 15.

John Lucena Ross Kettle, of Upper Seymour-street, Portman-square, es-
quire, and William Prosser, junior, of Shaftshury-terrace, I'imlico, gentleman,
for " improvements in the construction of roads, and in carriages to run
t hereon." — May 16.

Joseph liurch, of the City-road, engineer and machinist, for " improve-
1 machinery for printing on cotton, sfflk, woollen, paper, oil-cloth, and
other fabrics and materials, and certain apparatus to be used in preparing
the moulds and casting surfaces for printing, end for certain modes of pre-
paring surfaces previous to the design being delineated upon them." — May 16.
William Mills, of Foster-lane, glove- manufacturer, for "improvements in
fastenings for gloves and other wearing apparel, and in the mode of attaching
the same." — May 1 li.

John Thompson, of Albury, near Guilford, doctor of medicine, for " im-
provements in bedsteads and couches for invalids." — May 16.

Joseph Mazzini, of King's-road, Chelsea, gentleman, for " improvements in
typographical printing, combining the advantages of moveable types with the
stereotype process by substituting for distribution a special font for each new
work, Ini menus of a pneumatic machine for casting, and a uniplanc machine
for composing." (A communication.) — May 16.

John Winter Walter, of Stokc-undcr-Ham, Somerset, glove manufacturer,
for " improvements in the manufacture of gloves." — May 16.

Robert Walker, Jun., of Glasgow, merchant, for " improvements in pro-
peUing ships andboats." — May 18.

Charles Maurice Elizee Sautter, of Austin-friars, London, gentleman, for
" improvements in the manufacture of borax. — May 22.

Christopher Nickels, of York-road, Lambeth, gentleman, for " improvements
in the manufacture of fabrics made by lace machinery." — May 22.

Alfred Poole, of Momington-place, Cainberwell, New-road, for " improve-
ments in dryiny malt and grain." — May 25.

Moses Poole, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements in the de-
position of certain metals, and in apparatus connected therewith." (A com-
munication.)— May 25.

John Gillett, of Brailso, Warwick, farmer, for " an improved machine or
apparatus for cutting or boring ricks." — May 25.

John Bushby Gibson, of Nantwich, Chester, Esq., for " improvements in the
manufacture of stilt." — May 25.

F.lij 1I1 Galloway, of Seymour-street, Euston-square, civil engineer, for " im-
provements in the machinery for propelling ships and other vessels." — May 25.
Alexander Bain, of 326, Oxford-street, mechanist, for " improvements in
producing and regulating electric currents, and improvements in electric time-
pieces, and in electric printing and signal telegraphs." — May 2 7.

Richard Henry Billiter, of Maze pond, Southwark, oil merchant, for " im-
provements in filtering oils." — May 27 ; two months.

Arthur Hill, of the Slad Parsonage, near Stroud, Gloucester, clerk, for
" an improved shower bath." — May 27.

1843-]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

215

manufactory or warehouse, containing only one floor, and not exceeding 12ft.
above the footings to the top of the wall.

It will be seen hereafter, in consequence of the additional thick-
ness of the walls for fourth rate buildings to what they now are, that
it will be a very serious detriment to the construction of small houses
with only two stories, of which there are many thousands in the vici-
nity of London, and which we consider far better for the poorer inha-
bitants than having several families huddled together in one house
containing numerous rooms; we therefore propose to meet this class
of dwellings, and have them rated on the fifth class of buildings, for
which purpose we propose to add to this clause the following words :
Every dwelling house mh-ch shall not hare more than two floors, and
nhich shall vol exceed the height of 20 feet.

12. Sixth Rate. — Every building 20ft. from any street or alley, and
detached from any house, or building, or ground, not in the same possession,
50ft. The walls or inclosures (except chimneys) may he built of any mate-
rials, but if of brick or stone, shall be built according to their height, of the
thickness required for the five preceding rates.

13. Seventh Rate. — Every building for the purpose of trade, or the
collection of toll, detached, 15ft. from any other building, and which does
not cover more than 100ft. square of ground, and is not higher than 12ft.
from the ground to the highest point of the roof, may be inclosed with any
materials except roof and chimney.

14. Eighth Rate. — " All churches, chapels, and places of public worship,
theatres, exhibition-rooms, aud other buildings whether included in the afore-
said rates or not, used either solely or at stated periods tor purposes of
public business, instruction, debate, diversion or resort, and also all brew-
eries, distilleries, manufactories or warehouses which shall be more than 50ft.
high, and also all dwelling-houses which shall contain more than seven
floors or seventy (eighty) feet high : all such buildings to be built with
party and external walls 4£ in. thicker, and when the carcase is built, the
owner shall give 21 days' notice to the surveyor and to the official referees,
who shall survey the saiil buildings, and within 7 days certify their approval
of the same; or in case any part shall appear defective or insufficient, notice
to be given in writing within 7 days to the owner, who shall forthwith alter
aud strengthen such defective or insufficient parts, and shall not cover up
any such parts, until such surveyors and referees shall be satisfied.

128. And upon completion of such building, the owner, shall give 21 days'
notice to the surveyor, and such surveyor, together with the official referees
shall survey the same, and shall certify that such building has been built to
their satisfaction , and such certificate shall be immediately filed by the clerk of
the peace, and then it shall be lawful to use such building, and if used before
the certificate is satisfied, the owner or occupier shall, on conviction before
two justiecs, forfeit not less thau five pounds, nor exceeding five hundred
pounds daily (! !) until the filing of the record of such certificate. Provided
always, " that if within 20 days from the assessing of such penalty such cer-
tificate of satisfaction shall not have been filed as aforesaid, such house or
building shall be Uable to be abated as a nuisance, under the powers in this
act contained." —

(129.) The surveyor's fee for surveying such building, in addition £ . s.
to a first rate fee . . .'. . . . . ..10 10

First rate fee . . . . . . . . . . ..77

To each of the referees who shall have assisted in the supervision,
and signed the certificate £10 10s. (three referees) . . 3110

49 7
And it is doubtful whether the official referees could not claim a farther
fee, for clause 130, says —

" They shall in addition to the fees before mentioned have, and be entitled
to, the following fees "

For every survey

For every certificate

For every award
the amount of the fees being at present left blank. We have now
enumerated the leading features connected with this precious piece
of legislature, regarding the eighth-rate of building, and we know
not words strong enough to express our disapprobation of clauses
most monstrous, whether we regard the exorbitant penalty of £500
a day, or the litigious spirit which breathes through all the clauses, or
the extortionate fees which they propose. As clause fourteen now
stands, it contemplates every school, literary institution, beer shop,
public house, or tavern, all being places of public instruction, diver-
sion or resort; banks, insurance offices, or in fact the offices of any
joint-stock company, coming, it is to be supposed, under the class of
buildings devoted to public business, are all to be classed within this
rate of building; and it will be difficult to construe what is and what
is not a building for public business. Although the district surveyor
is appointed to inspect the works as they proceed, and stop them if
they be not constructed to his satisfaction, yet when the building is
covered in he has still, in conjunction with the referees, the power of
ordering any part of the building to be taken down. If we are to
have district surveyors, we must suppose them to be persons capable

of performing their duties, and if so, why have the two special sur-
veys directed to be made at the time of covering in the building, and
when it is finished ? The clause does not either compel the surveyor
or referees to file their certificates with the clerk of the peace, and we
cannot, therefore, think that any part of the clauses regarding the
eighth rate of building will be allowed to remain in the bill, but be
expunged in to/o, as they ought to be, for the clauses of the rates and
thicknesses of the walls is quite sufficient for all the purposes that
the public have a right to expect for their protection: besides that,
the proposed clause entails a delay of nearly, if not quite, two months
in giving notice and waiting for the certificates. The effect of this
delay in the case of a railway station will be palpable to our readers,
very often entailing the postponement of the opening of the line until
another season. As to the fee of 49/. 7s., what the church commis-
sioners, the national school society, and the friends of education will
say to it we scarcely know ; 500/. is often the extent of the money
which can b' expended on a place of worship, school, or literary in-
stitution, and a tax of 10 per cent, on this amount is to be imposed.
Where the architect often is not paid, and always insufficiently, it is
rather too bad that money should be wasted on surveyors.

16. Attached buildings to be separately rated, and the external walls to be
of the rate of which such attached building would he, if not so attached, hut
so far as regards the party walls, shall be held to be of the rate of the build-
ing of the highest rate to which such party walls shall adjoin when such
attached building shall be completed.

This part relating to party walls is rather ambiguous, we suggest, that
those words in italics be omitted, and that the words " on either side of"
be introduced, instead of " to which."

Thickness of Walls. — It must be recollected, in reading over the num-
ber of the floors, that the lowest floor of the building is reckoned the first
floor, and in consequence of our proposal (see ante) that the rooms in the
roofs of dwellings shall be counted, we suggest that the party walls above the
upper room floor of the first and second rate buildings need not be so thick
as provided, we have therefore given in italics our own propositions, and also
an alteration for the thickness of the party walls of third rate buildings.

49. Footings of External and Party Walls. — Footings to he nine
inches thicker than the walls above, and four courses high, and the top
twelve (six) inches below the surface of the lowest floor, or six inches below
the surface of the lowest ground.

50. First Rate external walls, 1ft. lOiin. thick, from footings to under-
side of the fourth floor, and 1 ft. 5 in. from thence to the top of the gutter
plate, and the remainder 8.J in.

51 and 52. Second and third rate external walls from footings to the un-
derside of the second floor 1 ft. 5 in. thick and from thence to the gutter
plate 13 in. and remainder 8£ in.

53. Fourth Rate external walls from footings to top of gutter plate (of
upper room floor) 13 in. and remainder %\ in.

51. Fifth Rate external walls to have 2 course of footings, and 1ft. Gin. and
lft. l^in. thick, and above the footings %\ in. thick.

79. Party Walls of first or second rate from footing to the underside of
the second floor, 1 ft. 10 J in. thick, and thence up to the top (of the upper
room floor) of 1 ft. 5 in. [and thence up to the top of such party «>a«13 in.)
and the party wall of the third rate from footing to the underside of the
fourth (third) floor 1 ft. 5 in. and from thence to the top, 13 in.

80. Party walls of fourth and fifth rate to be 13 in. thick above the foot-
ings, excepting in a warehouse of the fourth rate, when it is to be 1 ft. 5 in.
thick to the ceiling of the lowest floor.

56 and 82. Materials of External and Party Walls. — To these
clauses we must call the special attention of our readers. They are to be
built solid, of good sound well-burnt bricks or good sound stone, excepting
such iron work as may be required for bonds and corbels, and excepting the
ends of girders and bresummers, or tiers of door cases to warehouses, and
the frames of doors and windows in external walls, all of which shall be fixed
at the distance of 4 in. from the external face of such wall ; and excepting
such wood and iron work in the lowest or first floor and in the ground floor
as may be required for brestsummers, girders and story posts, and excepting
in party walls, flues, and such iron work as may be required to carry the
ends of girders, brestsummers, trimming joists, and principal timbers of roofs,
and the ends of all such girders, brestsummers and other timbers (in party
walls) shall be carried upon iron shoes or stone corbels, built into the wall
at least two-thirds of the thickness thereof to receive them, as shall aho_ all
trimming joists laying against such party wall. In another clause (-17; it
enacts that every girder or brestsummer which shall have a bearing on a
party wall shall be laid upon iron or stone templates 6 in. thick, and the end
of every such girder or brestsummer shall not he fixed into, and shall not
have its bearing solely on the party wall, but shall be supported by a brick
or stone pier, or iron column or timber story post, fixed on a solid foun-
dation.

Now let us consider the serious effects of these two clauses; as
they now stand, no place bricks can be used in any part, the conse-
quence of which will be that the. brick-makers will have great diffi-

lty in disposing of them, and must therefore increase the price of
"ock bricks. We consequently suggest the insertion of the words in

216

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[June,

clause 56 and 58, " place bricks may be used internally above the third
floor of the first and second rate — and the second floor of the third,
fourth, fifth and sixth rates of building." Neither can there be inserted
into either party or external walls any timber for bond, lintels, plates,
wood bricks, nor the ends of joists, or in fact any timber what-
soever, excepting as hereafter mentioned, the consequence is that the
ends of joists, &c, mnst be notched on or framed into plates, and the
plates must be carried by iron shoes or brackets, which will cause the
plates to project into the rooms below the ceiling line; and it is a
well known law that timbers whinh are fixed at their ends, as when
let into walls, will bear double the weight, as when the ends are laid
loosely on the bearings, as the case would be if the joists were laid on
the plates, clear of the walls ; nor are the plates so strong on brackets
as when they are bedded into the walls, or the walls so securely tied
in; we must therefore have an exception for the insertion of all ne-
cessary timber, for bond, plates, lintels, ends of joists, and wood
bricks requisite to fix the joiner's work ; but no such timber shall be
inserted in the walls within four inches of the face of the wall, cr
within 12 inches of any flue, or inserted in any party wall more than
five inches beyond the face; and by clause 47 above enumerated,
for the purpose of supporting the ends of girders there must be a pro-
jection into the rooms under for the story posts or piers, which in
dwelling houses will be a great eyesore.

65 and 66. Chimneys.— No part of the chimney breast or stack will be
allowed to overhang or oversail any lower part of the brickwork, either on
the front or sides thereof, excepting a single chimney above the ceiling of
the fifth floor of a first and eighth rate; or above the ceiling of the third floor
of the second, third, and fourth rates, and it is also provided that no jambs,
breast, and back of any chimney, and the front, hack, or with of every flue
shall be built at least 8^ in. thick, and all the insides rendered or pargetted.
The effects of these two clauses will cause nearly the whole length
and height of party walls to be at least three bricks thick, as the
party wall on the upper story is generally filled with chimneys and
flues; these clauses must be altered and a proviso inserted that chim-
neys shall not overhang more than 12 in. on the side iu each story,
and that the thickness of the flues be reduced to 4£ in., and also that
they shall be rendered or pargetted both internally and externally
where they are below the roof, the rendering them externally we con-
sider a far safer mode against fire than the increased thickness.

43, 44, 45, and 46. We have four clauses regulating the strength of tim-
bers. They enact that no joists, rafters, or quarters, shall he more than
twelve (thirteen) inches apart, and no joists have a longer bearing than 15ft.
nor any rafter or purlin more than lift., and that no girders shall be so laid
that the joists bearing thereon shall be more than 12ft. bearing. It is then
enacted that the joists shall be not less than the following scantling.
Joists Trimmers

bearing depth thick. depth thick.

6 ft. to 8ft GJ 2 6 3

8 .. 10 8 0 8 3J

10 .. 12 9 2| 9 3J

12 .. 15 10 2J 10 4

Heams and Girders with a hearing
9ft. to 12 ft

15

21 .. 24 13 10

It is perfectly absurd to attempt to regulate the scantlings of timber,
for there are such a variety of ways of framing timbers, and of com-
bining them with iron, that it is impossible to meet all cases; besides,
as the above clauses now stand, iron could not be introduced, except-
ing the girder be the same scantling as provided above, for the clause
says, no joist, beam, or girder, shall be of less scantling than the above.
The same remarks apply to the regulations of the scantlings of the
roof and partitions. We therefore consider that these clauses must
be withdrawn.

36 to 42. Regulations respecting the drainage of houses. The walls
of any building must not be built higher than 10 feet before drains
are properly built, and made good into the common sewer, if any
within 100 ft. distance, into which it is lawful and practicable to drain
or otherwise, into proper cesspools, so as to render such drains avail-
able for the drainage of the lowest floor ; and the Commissioners of
Sewers can also, upon giving one month's notice, compel every house
already built and not drained, to construct proper drains.

These clauses respecting the drainage, had better be omitted until
the proposed inquiry into the metropolitan sewers be concluded, and
a Bill brought in for the regulation of the drainage and sewage of
the metropolis, for as the clauses now st.ind, builders will be put to
enormous charges, for constructing sewers as now compelled by some
of the commissions, and the expense of draining a house into a sewer

100 ft. off may involve an expense of £100, for we conceive the sewer
commissioners would not allow a small drain to be carried along under
the streets, but compel the formation of a sewer which, in the West-
minster division, will cost 1/. per foot for the second size (the smallest)
sewer.

23. This clause enacts that, in any house already built, or which shall be
hereafter built, it shall not he lawful to let separately except as a warehouse
or storehouse, nor to occupy nor suffer to be occupied for hire as a dwelling
place any room containing less than one square, nor any underground cellar
or room of any dimensions, unless every such room shall have a window in
the same to an open area and fire-place with flue, and an open area adjoining
to such underground cellar or room, under a penalty of twenty shillings per
day, the said cellar or room shall be so occupied.

25. No room less than eight feet high shall be used as a dwelling.

We consider these clauses require some explanation, and the word
(hulling defined, whether a kitchen below ground used for domestic
purposes during the day is considered as a room used for a dwelling,
or whether it means a room in which a person sleeps; if the latter,
we then conceive it will be better to introduce the word sleeping place
or room instead of dwelling. We also consider it a great hardship to
prevent the use of any room for a dwelling less than one square, or say
10 ft. square, or 12 ft. by 8 ft. 4 in. or 8 ft. high, of which there are
many hundreds in the metropolis. This is carrying the provision for
health rather too far, and will very considerably increase the expences
of the poor for rent. If the word dwelling is construed so as to in-
clude a kitchen, then nearly every shop in London will have the base-
ment rendered useless.

20. Hereafter no street shall be of a less width than 30ft., nor alley less
than 20 ft. wide when such alley shall have two (one) open entrance thereto,
at opposite .sides or ends at least 20 ft. wide, nor of a less width than SO ft.
when only one entrance, anil which entrance shall be at least 30ft. wide ; and
the width of every street or alley shall be ascertained by measuring such
width only as shall he given up to or used by the public.

This clause will increase the ground rents of small houses; we re-
commend that all those words in italics be omitted, and that the mea-
surement be taken between the fronts of the houses, otherwise it will
materially prevent the formation of areas and fore courts ; the latter
we consider better in alleys than having the whole space paved,
which will render the repairs more expensive to the parish.

27. It shall not be lawful to carry on in any building, or in the open air,
at a less distance than 50 ft. from any other building or grouud not in the
same possession, any trade or business such as that of a soap-boiler, tallow-
melter, slaughterer of cattle or horses, blood-boiler, bone-boiler, fellmonger,
oil-cloth painter, manufacturer of gunpowder, detonating powder, lucifcr
matches, or varnish, gas works, chemical works, tire works, or any other
trade or business which is or shall be considered by two justices to be dan-
aeroua as regards fire, or dangerous or offensive or obnoxious as regards all
persons, more especially those persons living or passing in the vicinity thereof;
nevertheless it shall be lawful for all such trades as now established to be
carried on in their present situation, for a term of 30 years — every person
who shall he convicted before two justices of carrying on such dangerous or
offensive trade, shall forfeit any sum not exceeding fifty pounds, as the said
justices may determine.

We pronounce this clause to be the most unconstitutional one
which was ever submitted to the English parliament. Here we have
the power of magistrates to determine what is an offensive business.
Every baker, butcher, fishmonger, oil shop, and mauy other trades
that perchance may be in the vicinity of any litigious person may,
without notice, without summons, without a hearing, or without the
power of appeal to a jury or to a quarter sessions, be ruined, their busi-
ness stopped, and a fine inflicted of 50/. by two justices, — who may meet
in their own private parlour, or in the house of some influential per-
son who may demand their services, and expel any business which
they think proper. That part of the clause given in italics must be
omitted, and the other part altered.

We must now offer some observations regarding the magisterial
clauses ; the interpretation clause says :— " Two justices of the peace
shall mean two justices of the peace for the county within which the
building or other subject matter is situate;" it does not provide in
any part of the Bill that they shall be in petty sessions assembled,
wliich we consider most essential, otherwise cases may be heard at
their own private dwellings, at any time and at any hour, — which we
consider most objectionable : we would rather, that if the house be
within the district of the metropolitan police offices, that the case
should come before one of the stipendiary magistrates in the public
police court; for here we have some responsibility, and a person
by education brought up for judicial decisions; they will be called
upon to adjudge upon severe fines and penalties, many of them are
most enormous, but which no doubt will be altered. Nor is there pro-
vision that the parties committing an offence shall be first summoned

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

210

OSCILLATING MARINE ENGINE.

Patented by Messrs. Mather, Dixon & Grantham, of Liverpool.

( With an Engraving, Plate IX.)

We have given a drawing of a pair of marine engines, on a plan
lately patented by Messrs. Mather, Dixon and Grantham, of Liver-
pool, for an improved method of driving screw propellers; and we
shall endeavour in a future number to add another arrangement show-
ing nearly the same form of engine, but suited to vessels having a
deeper hold than is required for the engines we now present to our
readers.

Fig. 1, shows the half-side elevation of the engines, with one air
pump and condenser.

Fig. 2, shows the other half elevation, with the engine turned
round, representing the side opposite to the air pumps.

Fig. 3, is a ground plan of the whole arrangement, the cylinder on
one side being removed.

It will be readily understood that these engines have oscillating cy-
linders, placed at right angles and opposite to each other, the piston
rods being each attached to one crank. In the annexed drawings the
cylinders are represented as working downwards, the object of this
evidently being to allow the propelled shaft to be placed near the
bottom of the vessel.

The engines are constructed with a foundation plate to which are
attached the side frames that carry the cylinders; the pedestal of the
main shaft is attached to the bed plate having the condensers cast on
it; a small counter shaft is employed to work abeam which gives
motion to two air pumps; one gudgeon of the beam rests on one of
the side frames of the cylinders, and the other is supported by a small
standard rising up from the condensers. It is intended to have short
stroked engiues, and to work them faster than is usual in sea-going
steam vessels, but not faster than is now usual on the Thames; by this
means we shall presently endeavour to show that high velocities may
be obtained without employing multiplying gearing.

It is unnecessary to enter into a more detailed description, as in all
minor points nothing new is contemplated, the proportions and mode
of working, which is found favourable with engines driving paddle
wheels, will be equally applicable to these engines, excepting that
the makers prefer having two air pumps with a short stroke instead
of one.

As the advantages which may be expected from the employment of
the screw propeller are of very great importance, and as the plans,
which we are now considering, seem likely to remove many of the
obstacles which have hitherto impeded its progress, we shall not he-
sitate to present to our readers some additional particulars of the
plans by which Messrs. Mather, Dixon and Grantham propose to
carry their project into effect, as well as an account of what they
have already effected in a small vessel built by them, which has for
some months been at work on the Mersey. It is from these results
that they have founded their calculations of what may be effected in
vessels of large dimensions.

We gave a brief notice of this vessel in our last number, and are
promised the particulars of some accurate experiments which it is
intended shall be made with her. We need only now say that she
has more than realised the expectations of the builders, and from
their report it appears to be the most satisfactory trial yet made on
the screw as a means of propelling vessels. The propeller employed
was patented by Mr. Woodcroft, in 1830. We hope in another
number to be able to give a description of this also.

The mode of constructing the screw, supporting the shaft, the ap-
paratus for regulating the endward pressure of the shaft, and other
details, will come under our notice as we proceed. All, in our opi-
nion, being matters of deep interest and importance to those concerned
in steam navigation, when on the eve, as we firmly believe, of a great
improvement to this truly national question.

We will now only add a few remarks on the principal features of

No. 70.— Vo l. VI.— July, 1843.

the improvements here proposed, to show that it will not be necessary
to introduce any system of working that has not under other circum-
stances been advanfageously applied before, although not in the same
combination. From the results given by the " Liverpool screw," it is
stated that the advantage over paddle wheels, is fully 25 per cent,
when under the most favourable circumstances for the latter, but that
in towing and in rough weather, the gain by the screw when applied,
as now proposed, is found to be nearly 50 per cent. It is therefore
presumed that for general purposes two-thirds the engine power only
will be requisite for the screw, that is necessary in paddle-wheel ves-
sels, to give a certain speed. It is also found that if the pitch of the
screw is made 2£ times its diameter, a very reduced amount of slip
varying from 5 to 10 per cent, will take place, and that it is probable
for light vessels and high velocities the pitch may be made three
times the diameter of the screw. It is also clearly established that no
disadvantage results from placing the screw one-third out of water.
The steering is not perceptibly injured by it, and the loss from slip
not increased, and it is expected that instead of its being an objection,
it will be fouud more convenient for ordinary practice than when the
screw is entirely immersed. This point we shall discuss when we
describe the construction of the screw itself.

THE AERIAL TRANSIT MACHINE.

Analysis of the projected Aerial Transit Machine, and of the principles

invoiced in its construction and employment.

( Concluded from page 191. J

Throvghout the preceding portions of this inquiry, which have
appeared in succession in our last two numbers, our purpose having
been to illustrate the operation of the parts, rather than to determine
the efficiency of the whole, we have taken a view of the case simpli-
fied in a manner which, if it were the true one would, however appa-
rently exaggerated the obligations, represent the object as neverthe-
less within the reach of art to accomplish, even with the means, be
they ever so moderate, which the projector might have at his disposal.
The unlimited declension of the force by which the machine, regarded
as a mathematical plane (incapable of generating any resistance but
that which belongs to it as such) would be opposed in its horizontal
progress, in a degree proportioned to the angle of its inclination,
would, however remote, still indicate a point at which this obstacle
would have been so far reduced that any power, however feeble,
would be adequate to the accomplishment of the rate necessary to
produce the desired result. In theory it is perfectly true that a
mathematical plane of any proportion of weight and dimensions hypo-
thetically assignable, could, by the exercise of any amount of propul-
sive energy (sufficient to overcome the friction of the parts) be made
capable of sustaining itself in the air ; a rate of motion equivalent to
the production of a vertical resistance adequate to its support being
as surely attainable at some angle of inclination, as any effect is surely
consequent upon its cause where there is no force in operation to pre-
vent it. But the difficulty of the matter lies here — the machine is not
a mathematical plane, nor by any mode of construction could ever be
rendered so ; and the interference of its solid parts, in the resistance
they experience in the air, however restricted by the contrivances of
art, introduces a new ingredient of opposition, which, not following
the same rule of reduction, but on the contrary, increasing with the
process by which the former is nullified or avoided, puts a limit to the
extent to which that process with its attending advantages may be
carried, and thus removes the case out of the category of results
necessarily attainable by the exercise of art. Before, therefore, any-
thing can be positively concluded with respect to the success of any
particular scheme of flight upon the principle of the plan before us,
we must be satisfied that a power is at command competent to the pro-
duction of a velocity equivalent to the support of the machine,
restricted by this new element of resistance — »he interference of its
solid parts,

3D

220

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

IV. And this brings us to the consideration of the fourth subject of
our inquiry; namely, the power of steam which Mr. Hensou purposes to
employ for the occasion. It is not our intention in this analysis to
enter into any examination of the particular construction of ma-
chinery by means of which Mr. Henson has sought to apply this
power to his present object. This has been sufficiently largely done
in other publications, as well as, more particularly, in the specification
of his plans drawn up under his own authority. Upon this point we
would merely observe that the main difficulty, to the removal of which
Mr. Henson's efforts have been principally directed, is the reduction
of the weight of the engine in relation to its effective force. In all
modes of developing power, the nature of the process imposes upon
the machinery by which it is elicited a certain degree of weight pro-
portioned to the force produced. Wherever there is a tension or
pressure, there must be of necessity a counter-pressure or resistance
in the parts of the generating apparatus ; resistance cannot be expe-
rienced without strength of material, and strength of material cannot
be had indefinitely without weight; and it is in the relative reduction
of this weight that Mr. Henson's ingenuity is presumed chiefly to
display itself. l Whether this has been done successfully, that is to
the extent claimed, consistently with the retention of the necessary
degree of strength, it is impossible for any one to determine apart
from actual experiment. According to the published accounts, Mr.
Henson's engine has been constructed to produce a resistance equal
to the power of ten (some say twenty) horses, within the limits of
6001b. weight. If this be true, he has certainly accomplished a very
considerable abatement of that which has hitherto constituted a main
obstacle to the establishment of a successful aerial navigation; and
taking it for granted that such is the case, our intention here is to
deal with the question upon these premises, and endeavour to test
the applicability of the power so claimed to the purpose for which it
has been designed.

We have said that a solid body cannot be moved through the air
without experiencing a certain amount of resistance. Now this re-
sistance has been determined to follow the ratio of the squares of the
velocities under which it is generated ; and a table has been con-
structed upon experimental data, in which the effects of this force
upon a given extent of plane surface perpendicularly impinged upon,
are set forth in terms corresponding to different assigned rates of
motion, varying from one to one hundred miles an hour, with, of
course, a power of extending the scale indefinitely, subject, however,
to a consideration which we shall disregard at present, but which if
taken into account would only magnify the exigencies of the case
which we are endeavouring to define; namely, that at high rates of
motion, this resistance increases even more rapidly than the ratio of
the squares of the velocities otherwise assignable. Without regard
to this qualification, however, we are enabled to ascertain that, at the
rate of 240 miles an hour, prescribed to the machine as necessary to
its support at an angle of 3" of inclination in the suspending plane,
every square foot of plane surface perpendicularly directed, or equi-
valent amount of oblique surface, would experience an opposition
equal to a force of 28Slb. avoirdupois; so that if we can conceive
such a machine constructed so as to present to the impact of the air
no larger extent of surface than what would be equal to 10 square
feet perpendicularly exposed, the aggregate resistance it would ex-
perience to its progress at the rate in question, would amount to
2S80 Ib.+the horizontal resistance belonging to the plane as such,
and which we have stated in round numbers to be, for that rate and
degree of obliquity, about 1501b.2 Unless therefore the power at

1 The improvement of the machine in this particular does not merely
regard the reduction of the weight of the engine itself, but also of the
means whereby its energy is maintained — the water and fuel necessary for
its use. In the modifications by which a saving of these may be effected, a
further step is gained in the same direction, which, however, more properly
concerns the question of the duration of the flight when it shall have been
accomplished, than its abstract possibility.

- These numbers are not strictly correct. They should have been stated
at 223 miles an hour for the rate, with an horizontal resistance equal to
15/ lb., as subsequently represented in table. The difference arises, partly
from the omission of the cosine of the lesser angle in determining its pro-

command be adequate to the development of a reaction equal to this
resistance, the machine could not be impelled at the rate with the
angle prescribed ; and we should be driven to adopt either a slower
rate of motion at the expense of an increased angle of inclination,
and of the increased horizontal resistance by which the plane itself,
at that increased angle would be encountered, or else a more rapid
rate of motion due to a reduced angle of inclination, at the cost of
the increased resistance due to the solid proportions of the machine
with this additional impulse — whichever should be found to be pro-
ductive of the least amount, in the aggregate of this resistance.

To apply this with mathematical accuracy to the illustration of the
case before us, is clearly impossible, because we are entirely unpro-
vided with anything like a proximate definition of the main force to
be overcome; namely, the capacity of the solid parts of the machine
for effecting resistance. In assigning 10 square feet we have no
doubt that we are keeping far within the limits of the truth; and
were we to assign a higher figure we might be met by a denial of our
premises which no reasoning, apart from actual admeasurement, and
that of the most complicated description, could enable us to dispose
of. Fortunately, however, for the purpose of our investigations, we
are not put to such an alternative, as we shall readily see that the ex-
igencies of the case, even upon the mildest hypothesis, are so far
beyond the means appointed to satisfy them, that there will be no oc-
casion to suspend our reasoning upon so disputable a point as the
correct estimate of the resisting surface of the machine.

In order, however, to be able more satisfactorily to elucidate this
position, it will be necessary to take into account the elements of the
force we are considering in relation to the process by which it is pur-
posed to be developed. In estimating the actual amount of any force
generated or required, it is well-known that, equally with the weight
to be moved or the resistance to be overcome,3 is comprised in the
constitution of the force the velocity at or under which this result is
to be accomplished. Without regard to this condition it is as im-
possible to give an intelligible definition of any force as it is for the
force itself to exist or be exercised. A body cannot be moved unless
it is moved through some space; and as every operation occupies
some time, the time in which through a given space, or the space
through which in a given time, the body is to be moved, are as essen-
tial ingredients in the constitution and definition of the force em-
ployed as the weight or resistance of the body which is the object of
its application. Thus it is clear that before anything can be pre-
dicted with distinctness as to the actual value of any force in action,
or the adequacy of any contemplated power, the rate under which it
will have to be exercised must be included in the terms of the propo-
sition. In taking therefore the resistance which a given plane is cal-
culated to develop in opposition to its course at a given rate, as the
measure of the force which is required to produce it, the rate must
be specified, not of the body so moved, but of the instruments of its
propulsion, by the operation of which that resistance is to be called
forth ; and the reduction of this rate becomes exactly as important an
object in the economy of the forces employed, as the reduction of the
actual resistance, to the constitution of which it contributes. Now the
minimum rate of action that could be assignable to the instruments of
a progressive motion is obviously that required to be conferred upon
the machine itself, as the ultimate result of their operation ; for, it is
clear, by no appointment of surface, or other expedient, could the
machine be propelled at a greater speed than that at which the agents
of its propulsion were themselves accomplishing their reaction.
Whether the conditions of surface, by which alone this conclusion

portion of vertical resistance, and partly from the adoption of a rate in round
numbers, 12 miles an hour, as that at which a plane surface generates a re-
sistance by perpendicular impact equal to two-thirds of a pound to the
square foot, instead of 11-666, which is its true denomination. The re-
sults in the table further on are all based upon the actual quantities, and
are mathematically exact.

8 It seems scarcely necessary to observe that in mechanical operations a
resistance to be encountered is the same thing with a weight to be raised ;
the rate of development in the one case being exactly analogous to the rate
of elevation in the other.

18J3-]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

221

would be rendered attainable, have been observed in the appointment
of the propelling apparatus in Mr. Henson's machine, we shall not
stop to inquire, (though from a consideration of their apparent di-
mensions and the angle of their impact, we should conclude most as-
suredly otherwise;)-' but, giving them full credit for their competency
to that effect, proceed to show that even so, with a measure of resist-
ance the least assignable, and a rate of impact the least under which it
could be developed, the power in question would be utterly incompe-
tent to enable the machine to maintain its elevation or continue its
course, even for a single moment, at any angle of inclination at which
it might be disposed. This we shall do by means of a table calcu-
lated for several angles of inclination, exhibiting at a view the several
rates at which a machine of the proportions of weight and surface
assigned to Mr. Henson's, would have to proceed at the corresponding
angles of inclination, in order to generate a resistance opposed to
gravity equal to the support of its weight, and the amount of hori-
zontal resistance it would experience (considered as a mere plane) at
each degree of the scale so impelled, expressed in pounds avoirdu-
pois. In another column is shown the resistance which the solid parts
of the machine would develop at the corresponding rates, supposing
them to be so contrived as to expose an extent of surface not more
than equivalent to a plane of one square foot perpendicularly im-
pinged upon. In the next column are given the products of these
last two quantities multiplied by the velocity assigned in miles per
hour, representing the actual forces developed, reduced to the same
standard, and consequently, the proper measure of the power commen-
surate with such results. The last column contains the expression of
this force in horse-power, or the number of horses which it would take
to answer this demand, according to the conventional mode of calcu-
lating the force of steam ; that is, reckoning the power of a horse to
be equal to a resistance of 320001b. at the rate of one foot in a mi-
nute, or 363 lb. at the rate of one mile per hour.

Obli-
quity

of
plane.

Velocity

Horizontal

Ditto extra

Total ditto re-

Equivalent
horse power

in miles

resistance to

for one

duced to a com-

per hour.

plane.

square ft.

mon standard.

0 ]

40103000

•872

7912592-00

317318710357000

87415624300

1

668 600

52357

219936

1505497 986

414737

2

334432

104707

550-27

219045268

603-43

3

223089

157-210

244-76

89675 085

24703

4

167 463

209-769

137-97

58233-416

160 42

5

134-121

• 262-461

88-50

47071240

129 66

10

67 700

528-936

22-54

37335-125

102 81

15

45 892

804 812

10-36

37409 863

103 06

20

35187

1091-932

609

38636-100

10643

25

28-996

1398845

• 413

40680663

112 06

30

25071

1731-921

318

43500792

11963

35

22473

2100-658

2-48

47263820

13020

40

20-736

2517180

2-11

52239997

14391

15

19-621

3000-206

1-89

58905-302

162-27

50

18-996

3575-592

1-77

67955-5'8

187-20

54 40

18-804

4247-429

173

79901-185

220 11

60

19050

5195-784

1-78

99013-59*

272-76

70

21 223

8238-362

2-21

174889-650

481-79

80

28 451

17017-921

3-97

483949-383

1333-19

85

39 679

34310433

7-74

1361710 780

3751-27

89 56

684-000

10313149000

2301-85

7055768381000

1943737800

Upon reference to this table it will be seen that the conditions of
flight which, under the circumstances prescribed, would be attainable

Supposing the propelling agents to be able by their rotation at a given
rate to generate a given amount of resistance, the machine being at rest ;
when motion is conferred upon it, the condition of the.medium, as far as
the instruments of its propulsion are concerned, being altered bv the conse-
quent abstraction of the air, they would no longer operate with the same
effect at the same rate of impact, but must either be worked with additional
speed to enable them to overtake the retiring particles, or else proportionably
increased m magnitude to enable them to take in a larger quautitv of them.
It is to this relation between the superficial dimensions of the "propelling
agents and that of the effective opposing front of the machine, that we refer
as governing the relation of their respective resistances to their respective
rates of motion, and by the due appointment of which, (regard being had
to their form and direction of impact,) an equality of resistance becomes as-
signable to an equality of rate when the machine is in actual progression.

with the least expenditure of power, are those which attach to an
inclination of about 10 degrees ; and for this a force would be requi-
site, equal to the power of above 100 horses. At any other angle of
inclination, a greater amount of horizontal resistance in the aggregate
would be experienced, and the requirements of power be propor-
tionately enhanced.5

V. Now it is to be observed that the opposition which is here
set forth as the measure of the propulsive power of the machine, is
not a force only concerned in the initiation of its motion, which might
be expected to vanish or become less influential after its first efforts
had been subdued, like the passive resistance of mere weight, the
ris inertia, or the resistance of adhesion, which when once suspended
or overcome ceases to affect, but a force always in operation, always
the same under the same conditions, and requiring always the same
amount of power to compete with while it endures. And with this
observation we might have been content to let the matter rest, as in-
controvertibly determined, were it not that a principle has been set
up, implied in the proposition of a certain contrivance, which strikes
at the very root of our conclusions, and, were it correctly conceived,
would equally invalidate any inference that might be deduced in dero-
gation of the scheme, from the consideration of any deficiency of
power, however extravagant, that might be alleged against it. Sen-
sible of the inadequacy of their means, in the abstract, to the whole
effect which it is intended to produce, and under the impression
that this deficiency might be supplied by the intervention of a force
not inherent in the means themselves, a part of their plan, upon
which the greatest reliance has been placed, which has been put for-
ward with the greatest pretensions, and which has elicited the great-
est .share of the public admiration and approval, is to invest the ma-
chine at its first starting with a certain amount of velocity or mo-
mentum, by means of a preliminary descent down an inclined plane,
which, however unable to originate, its inherent power, it is expected,
will be sufficient to maintain. And this obliges us to devote a few
lines to the consideration of the principle involved in this contri-
vance, which is the fifth and last point to which in the outset we pro-
posed to direct our inquiries.

5 This table may be made available to determine the conditions of flight
assignable to any machine upon the same principle, whatever the proportion of
its weight to the dimensions of its suspending plane, subject to the following
considerations. In the first place, the velocity necessary to effectuate its sup-
port depending upon the relative and not the actual quantities, any weight
may be assumed as a standard, and the modification necessary to maintain,
the proportion, referred to the size of the suspending plane. Let the case,
therefore, be reduced to the standard of weight ascribed to Mr. Henson's
plane, namely 3000 lb., and the surface determined accordingly. Now as the
resistance, ceteris paribus, varies in the simple ratio of the areas of the im-
pinging surfaces, and the squares of the rates of impact, the rates, ceteris
paribus, must vary inversely as the square roots of the areas. If, therefore,
the velocity assigned to any augle in the table above be multiplied by the
square root of the area of Mr. Henson's plane, the product divided by the
square root of the newly assigned surface, will give the rate at which it must
be propelled in order to effectuate its support, as by a common rule of three.
The horizontal resistances, depending upon the real quantities, may be de-
duced in like manner from those ascribed to Mr. Henson's plane at the same
angles, by simply substituting the new rate assigned, in the ratio of the
squares of the velocities, and the true surface, in the simple ratio of the di-
mensions; and thus all the conditions of flight depending upon these data
may be ascertained. For example, if we suppose the suspending plane to be
magnified to 10 times that of Mr. Henson's, affording an area of 45,000 in-
stead of 4500 square feet within the limits of the same weight, the velocity

67-7 x A/-t500
necessary to its support at an angle of 10 would be

67-7 x 67-082

^45000

212-132

= 21-108 miles an hour. The horizontal resistance in this

case, the weight being the same, would stand as in the table, at the same
angle of inclination ; the rate of development diminishing exactly as the
surface is increased. If to this quantity be added the perpendicular resist-
ance due to one square foot at the newly assigned rate = 2-254 lb., and the
sum be multiplied by the rate in question, we shall have 11271-71.") lb. as
the representative of the whole resistance to be encountered; which, divided
by 363, the power of a horse in steam at the same rate, gives upwards of 31
as the number of horses, or the measure of horse-power, which would be
requisite to enable it to accomplish or maintain its elevation in the air.^

30*

222

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

Were it not that this principle and the mode by which it is in-
tended to be applied, had got hold of the public mind by some of
those fatalities, by which the most preposterous opinions occasionally
get disseminated and established, we should not have held ourselves
justified in administering a formal refutation to a position so exceed-
ingly absurd, that a reference to the first rudiments of the physical
sciences is more than sufficient to overset. For what, after all, is the
principle which this position is calculated to uphold? Simply, that
a body can be sustained in motion against a given amount of opposi-
tion by a less degree of force than what is actually required to es-
tablish it. That this is a true statement of the principle which is in-
volved in this hypothesis, and that it is utterly fallacious and inane,
we trust we shall not be at much pains to demonstrate ; and the mode
we purpose to adopt with this view, is to examine the forces which
are inherently concerned in the establishment of a given motion, and
those concerned in its continuance, to show that a perfect equality
exists between them, and consequently that nothing less than what is
required for the former would satisfy the exigencies of the latter.
These forces, by which the induction or contiruance of motion in any
degree or direction, are solely affected, are reducible to four heads;
the attraction of gravitation— the pit inertia of matter— the friction
of the parts in contact — and the resistance of the medium in which
it is moved.

1. Of these forces, the first, assuredly, opposes no impediment to
the induction of motion which it does not equally oppose to its con-
tinuation. Acting in one direction only, and (appreciably at least)
with equal force in that direction at any elevation attainable by man,
it is clear that whenever it interferes at all, it can never operate with
less force in one than in another stage of the same proceeding. To
initiate, therefore, or establish a given motion even in direct opposi-
tion to gravity, not a particle more force is exerted than is required
for its continuance. In an horizontal direction, however, with which
we are here more immediately concerned, the attraction of gravita-
tion literally interposes no obstacle whatever either to the induction
or perpetuation of motion to any extent in any body, however ponde-
rous and inert. This might, indeed, have been concluded, without
reference to principles, from a simple consideration of its effects; as
in .. vertical or upright direction gravity oppose* the induction of
motion with its mholt power, and in a contrary or descending direction
it favours the same in exactly the same degree, so in a direction
which partakes of neither, but is intermediate between both, it fol-
lows as a matter of course, it can really exercise no influence at all.
The weight of a body has in fact nothing to do with the difficulty of
imparting to it an horizontal motion, except in so far as it increases
the friction, in regard to (he medium of its support; a property
which, as the weight is not altered by its translation, it must exert
with equal efficacy in the ultimate as in the preliminary stages of its
progression. So far, therefore, as the attraction of gravitation is
concerned, it is certain that the exigencies of the aerial machine in
respect of power, are not a whit less for the maintenance than the es-
tablishment of the motion which is sought to be conferred upon it.

2. Wit!) regard to the second of the forces enumerated, the pit fa.
cr/nr literally opposes, of itself, no definite obstacle to the induction or
continuation of motion in any direction whatsoever, and literally re-
quires n.. definiti amount of power to overcome. Every body which
is pressed against by another must reciprocate the pressure, and,
unless restrained by some extrinsic impediment, must participate in
the motion which is the measure of the force applied ; the only con-
dition affecting the establishment of a given rate of motion, so far as
this property is concerned, being that a certain time must elapse be-
fore the operation be completed. In all transitions from quiescence
to motion, or from motion to repose, a certain time is due to the trans-
action in respect of and proportionate to the quantity of matter which
is the subject of the change ; and the only obligation which is imposed
upon the force employed, so far as regards the Pit inertia, is that it be
continuously applied. With this reservation, there is no limit to the
effects which can be produced, however great the mass to be moved,
or small the force employed to move it. A flv attached bv a human

hair to a ton of marble, would not only invest it with motion in an hori-
zontal direction, if it were possible to suspend it free from all friction,
but, presuming the absence of atmospheric resistance, bring it up, by
continuous effort, to any rate of motion at which it could itself proceed .
nay, the mighty globe of the earth could be propelled round the
universe by an infant as fast as its legs could carry it, if it could find
a path to walk on, provided the pressure was continued a sufficient
time to allow all the particles to be indued with motion at the rate
required. These results in relation to the hypothesis involved in Mr.
Henson's scheme, may be conveniently and familiarly illustrated by
the case of a man towing a heavily laden barge in still water; where
the counteracting forces, friction and the resistance of the medium,
being indefinitely assignable, and the impulse in an horizontal direc-
tion, the pit inertia is free to display its peculiarities without ambi-
guity or interference. Here is no question as to whether the strength
of the individual be sufficient to enable him to set his load in motion,
or bring it up to that rate in which his own powers shall be equal to
the extrinsic forces developed in the operation. As soon as he begins
to pull, the boat begins to move, slowly at first, and increasing gradu-
ally until it reaches that point at which the friction and resistance it
develops is equal to the power he is able to employ : nor would he
accomplish anything by obtaining additional assistance in the com-
mencement, which he would not immediately forfeit by its discon-
tinuance, except a more speedy attainment of the same result. No
one, not even the most unintellectual of bargemen, ever dreamt of be-
ing able at any time to drag his boat at a greater rate than he could,
by his own unaided efforts, have brought it up to; or with let
culty at the same rate, because he happened to have had the assist-
ance of a friend to enable him to begiu. And yet these are only the
conclusions which the adoption of Mr. Henson's hypothesis requires
us tu admit. All, in fact, that the mediation of any extrinsic tempo-
rary force can effect, is to dispense with a part of the time that would
otherwise be required to produce the result due to the inferior power
alone ; and it is to the forced limitation of this element of invested
motion that are to be ascribed those appearances in certain familiar
cases which have been so triumphantly referred to as affording illus-
trations and attesting the correctness of the hypothesis upon which
Mr. Henson's scheme and the hopes of his friends are founded. The
circumstances of the horse straining to drag into motion a heavily
laden cart, which he afterwards appears to draw with the utmost
facility, of the railway train and steam vessel, with so much difficulty
seemingly set agoing, and ultimately proceeding with so much appa-
rent ease, together with others of the like description, are all owing
to the neglect of this consideration in the attempt to invest large
bodies with motion at a given rate, in less time than is due to the
proportion between their masses and the forces employed to move
them. The conclusions, therefore, which have been drawn from these
premises are utterly fallacious. Not a particle, absolutely, more
power is required to initiate or establish a given rate of motion in
any bodv than is requisite to compete with the extrinsic forces, the
friction and resistance, developed at the rate in question ; neither in
the beginning, nor subsequently at any stage of the proceeding, there
being anything over to be accounted for on the score of, or by which
to measure the effects of, the vis inertia in respect of the motion so
superinduced and established — a certain proof that, so far as this also
of the forces enumerated is concerned, no more power would be re-
quired to produce, and, therefore, no less would suffice to maintain,
the rate of motion assigned to the aerial machine as necessary to its
support, than what is due to the exlrimic forces, the resistance and
friction, developed at the rate required.

:i. Now the friction, it is well known, is a force in no way affected
by the rate under which it is developed ; but is just as great in •' State
of quiescence, however strange this may appear, as under the extrem-
est condition of velocity. So far, therefore, as regards the question
before us, this may be considered as a neutral element; interposing
no more obstruction to the establishment of n given motion than to
its continuance, and requiring, therefore, exactly as much power to
keep in subjection, if we may so speak, as originally to subdue.

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2-2.i

4. But if friction be a force which does not regard the condition of
motion, such is not the case with the resistance of the medium, which
yet remains to be noticed. Unfortunately, however, for Mr. Henson's
hypothesis, this force really pursues a directly opposite progression,
being absolutely none or of no effect in the first induction of motion,
and increasing in intensity and requirement of power in proportion as
it is more fully developed. It needs no laboured comment, therefore,
to point out how little colour the consideration of this force is calcu-
lated to give to the principle which Mr. Henson's contrivance is in-
tended to set up. And this completes the list of all those elements of
opposition which are called into play in the process of investing a
bodv with a given rate of motion. There are, it is true, other forces,
or as they may be more properly termed, accidental conditions, by
which a bodv may be detained at rest against the exercise of a greater
power than would be competent to continue it in motion after they
had been overcome. If a cart heavily laden, for instance, be left
standing for some time upon an imperfectly hard foundation, the
vheels will create for themselves a rut out of which they will require
to be extracted with a degree of force, the necessity for which is then
immediately dispensed with; or if it has to be dragged over such a
kind of road, the retardation of its course affected by the depression
of its wheels, which is greater the slower the rate, indicates the ne-
cessity for an accession of force to bring it up to a rate of motion in
which this condition is overcome, when it may, without prejudice, be
discontinued. Again, an object may be so circumstanced as not to be
able to exercise its means of propulsion to equal advantage in the
beginning as in the subsequent stages of its progress, and may there-
fore require the employment of a greater degree of power to acquire
than to maintain its destined condition of velocity; as exemplified in
the case of the larger birds labouring to ascend from the ground,
where the height of their bodies not permitting the full action of their
wings, they are obliged to make up the deficiency by the more forcible
and frequent repetition of the stroke, producing that appearance of
disproportionate exertion which has contributed to maintain, if not to
suggest, the delusion implied in Mr. Henson's expedient to supply the
inherent deficiency of his moving power. These, however, are all
obstructions of a kind which do not enter into the constitution of the
forces with which the aerial machine upon Mr. Henson's principle has
to contend. These forces, with which alone we have any concern, are
simply those enumerated above, of which we have seen there is not
one that offers any more opposition to the induction or establishment
of a given rate of motion than it does to its continuance, and conse-
quently imposes no obligation in respect of power to begin with, that
it does not equally exact during the remainder of its career.

Had we had to deal with the contrivance proposed by Mr. Henson
alone, we should not have had occasion for all this elaborate investi-
gation in order to prove its insufficiency for the purpose ascribed to
it. The force acquired by a descent, however accomplished or
applied, must be assuredly inadequate to the production of any effects
that could extend to a condition of elevation superior to that from
which it had originated ; as might be concluded at once from a con-
sideration of the properties of the pendulum, which, in so far as re-
gards the infkience of gravity in communicating motion, is a parallel
case with that which we are supposing before us. But here the
parallelism ends ; nor can any inference be drawn, as so confidently
contended for (see Mechanic's Magazine, &c.) Irom the continuance
of the motion in the one case to its continuance in the other by the
instrumentality of a power inferior to what is required for its original
establishment. The pendulum is not, in fact, kept in motion by a
power at all less than that by which it has been started, as a little
consideration will evince. The force which puts the pendulum in
motion is that employed in raising it to a certain height, from which
it is allowed to descend by its own gravity. In this descent it acquires
a force which would be equal to the original, and by which it would
be carried up to an equal height on the other side, and thus recipro-
cate the movement without extrinsic assistance, were it not for the
resistance of the air it encounters, and the friction of the parts in
contact by which a part of it becornps expended or consumed. This

portion is supplied by means of a spring. But it is not the spring
that maintains the movement of the pendulum, but the attraction of
gravitation conjointly with it, which together are exactly equal to the
original impulse. Here, however, is nothing analogous to the case
of Mr. Henson's machine, acquiring a momentum by means of a single
descent down a plane, not to be repeated, and unprovided with a
power equal to the counteracting forces, the friction and resistance of
the air, with which it has to contend.

Having now conducted our readers through the mazes of this intri-
cate, but we trust not uninteresting nor profitless inquiry, we would
conclude with a few observations touching the prospects of that
" consummation so devoutly to be wished for," — the establishment of
a successful mode of navigating the skies. One thing is clear; that,
upon the principle of the plan we have been investigating, it is to-
tally out of the question. The obligations imposed by the necessities
of support, are of so exaggerated a character, that by no modification
of construction, or application of new resources, can it ever rationally
be expected to fulfil them. In an early part of this analysis we had
occasion to point out the conditions in subservience to which these
obligations are imposed. We there showed that the circumstance
upon which the difficulties of the case really depended, was the rela-
tion of the weight of the machine to the superficial magnitude of the
suspending plane, whereby alone the rate of progression was ascer-
tained, to which all the requirements of power are ultimately refer-
able. By a reduction of the one or an enlargement of the other,
therefore, is this principle solely improveable to the attainment, of
of success ; and that, to an extent which a retrospect of past expe-
riments and a general consideration of the nature of the case alike
evince to be far beyond the reach of art to accomplish. Referring to
the process by which the calculations in the preceding table may be
applied to determine the conditions of flight assignable to other ma-
chines of the like principle, as detailed in the note annexed, it will be
seen that the smallest sized surface which could be made effectual to
support the weight of Mr. Henson's machine, with the exercise of Mr.
Henson's power, taking it at the greatest, would require to be upwards
of 100,000 square feet in extent ; or somewhat more than 22 times
the area which Mr. Henson has provided for the purpose. Nor can any
argument in contravention of this conclusion be drawn from the pro-
portion between the weight and superficial magnitude of the wings of
birds, upon which so much reliance is wont to be placed by those who
have hitherto written upon the subject. There is, in truth, no analogy
whatever between the cases ; neither consequently can any inference
be legitimately drawn from what is effected in the one to what is
possible to be effected in the other. The weight of birds in propor-
tion to the size of their wings, may or may not be as great or greater
than that attainable by art as between the weight of the aerial ma-
chine and the superficial contents of the suspending plane. Their
purposes are entirely distinct, and accomplished through the interven-
tion of essentially distinct properties. The bird possesses a power
of unlimitedly increasing the reaction of its wings by their voluntary
impact, which the rigidly suspended plane is devoid of, and which, by
affording a compensation for any deficiency of size, neutralises all ar-
guments founded upon a consideration of the relative proportion of
weight, and removes the case out of all analogy with the machine
constructed upon the principle of the plan before us.

Disappointed, therefore, in our expectations of success in this
quarter, it may be asked, whither are we to direct our attention in
order to discover the means of solving this perplexing but still inte-
resting problem? The answer will most naturally suggest itself from
a consideration of the circumstances to which the failure of all the
attempts to navigate the atmosphere by mere mechanical impulse, the
present among the rest, is entirely to be ascribed. These circum-
stances we have already specified in the exaggerated nature and
amount of the obligations of support, occasioned entirely by the
tenuity of medium and the force of gravitation; in the teeth of
which we feel no hesitation in declaring our opinion, no process
founded upon simple mechanical reaction ever can succeed; for even

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if it were possible to contrive and construct a system of machinery
by which the force required could be accomplished and applied, the
violence with which it would have to operate in order to effectuate
its purpose, (admitting its practicability,) would be such as to pre-
clude the possibility of its employment.

To the balloon then, as affording the legitimate and only probable
means of grappling with these difficulties, are we naturally referred :
and that, by its means, success could be attained to such an extent,
as to satisfy the scruples of the most incredulous, we are fully pre-
pared to prove; not by the proposal of any crude and complicated
contrivance, the operations and effects of which are neither defined
nor definable, neither adjusted by the strict laws of science, nor re-
concilable with practice, but by a mode at once simple in the extreme,
susceptible of an examination as critical and close as that with which
we have been sifting the scheme before us, and above all, answering
the obligations imposed upon it by means so far within the limit of
its attainments, as to leave no doubt as to its ultimate success, in some
degree corresponding with the purposes which it might be expected
to subserve. This, should our readers still continue to feel an interest
in the subject, we may take an opportunity of laying before them
upon a future occasion.

A SIMPLE METHOD OF COMPUTING THE SPHERICAL
EXCESS, WITHOUT THE AID OF LOGARITHMS.

By Oliver Byrne, late Professor of Mathematics at the College for
Civil Engineers ; author of " The new and improved System of Lo-
garithms," " The Doctrine of Proportion," " The Practical, Complete
and Correct Ganger," Sec.

Although Professor Dalby's rule for calculating the spherical excess
is simple, yet in many instances it is inconvenient, especially when
logarithms are not at hand, or when the tables are limited ; moreover,
when the radius of curvature at the place of observation is greater or
less than 365154-6 X 57-2957795 feet, a more appropriate constant
logarithm than that given by Dalby might be used. However, it will
be found in practice, that the spherical excess can be determined in all
cases, by the method here explained, in one half the time usually em-
ployed to find the number corresponding to the difference of the lo-
garithms mentioned by Dalby, (of which we shall speak by-and-bye,)
and therefore the trigonometrical surveyor will in this particular cal-
culation economise one half his time, at least.

The following table will be sufficient from 90" down to -j-^Vj of a se-
cond, and can be increased or decreased at pleasure by multiplying or
dividing by 10, if this range be not extensive enough; the change is
easily effected by increasing the number of perpendicular lines to the
right and left of those already drawn. Such an alteration may be ne-
cessary in speculative inquiries, but can never be required in practice.
This method of calculating the spherical excess, which depends on the
succeeding table, may be better explained by a few examples than by
a written explanation.

Examples.

I. The area of a triangle is 1764724375 square feet; what is the
spherical excess in seconds ?

Area 1764721375

Nearest in the table .. 1697710640 -8-- headed tenths.

Remainder

Next nearest in the table

Remainder

Next from the table

67013735
63664149

3349586
2122138

•3* headed hundredths.

.1 headed thousandths.

Therefore the spherical excess :

&c.

0"-831..

•831

O

Tens of seconds.

Seconds.

to

Tenths of seconds.

Hundredths of "

Thousandths of "

1

2122138

3

0

0

6

2

4244276

6

0

1

2

3

6366414

9

0

1

8

' 4

8488553

2

0

■:

4

! 5

10610691

5

0

3

0

6

12732829

8

0

3

6

, 7

14854968

1

0

4

2

8

16977106

1

0

4

8

9

19099244

7

0

5

4

II. Suppose that in the trigonometrical survey of Ireland, under the
superintendence of Colonel Colby, the county of Wicklow, which
occupies 2 19SG4065SS square feet, to be taken up with one large
triangle, what would be the spherical excess.

219864 '.n;,".SS Area in square feet.
10-0000 .. 21221383006 which terminate in the column headed
tens of seconds, opposite ].

•3000

•0600

765113582
636641490

126472092

127328298

which terminate in the column headed
tenths of seconds, opposite 3.

answering to six hundredths of a se-
cond.
1H37M4
•0005 .. 10610691 there are no thousandths of seconds,

i but 5 ten thousandths, found by

10"-3605spl. excess. &c. curtailing another figure.

in. The lengths of the chords of a spherical triangle on the surface
of the earth are 13, 14, and 15 miles respectively ; the area of the
triangle formed by these chords is 23417S56O0 square feet, (which
may be taken as the area of the corresponding spherical one, on
account of the sides being very small compared with the radius of
the earth.) The three angles of the plane triangle are 53° 7'
48 '-358, 59=29' 23 '-136, and 67 22 48"«606, required the sphe-
rical angles.

23417-

1-000 .. .. 2122138300 .. for 1 second.

•100

•003

219647300
212213830

7433470
6366114

, , for -pj of a second.
■ • for TTfin; of a second

1-103 seconds the spherical excess.

One third of the spherical excess must be added to each of the plane

triangles to obtain the spherical angles. Therefore 1"-103 divided

by three = 0 "*36S nearly, hence we have,
Plane angles 53° 7' 48"-358 59" 29' 23 "-136 67° 22' 48"-506

Third of exs

•368

•368

53 7 48-726 59 29 23-504 67 22 48-874
In this exa mple the excess is distributed equally among the angles,
because there is no reason to believe one of them to be more erro-
neous than another. But if one of the angles be suspected to be less
correct, or less to be depended on than the others, to this angle must
be applied a greater or less portion of the whole correction, according
as it is thought to be in excess or defect.

Dalby's Rule. — From the logarithm of the area of the triangle taken
as a plane one, in feet, substract the constant logarithm 9-3267737,
and the remainder will be the logarithm of the excess above 180°, in
seconds, nearly. By this rule let us work the second example just
given:—

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

225

Logarithm of 21986496588
Constant logarithm

10-3421561
9-3267737

Logarithm of 10"-3605 . . . . 1-0153824

Dalby's rule, from the simplicity of the wording, and from the few
figures exhibited in the operation, appears to be more convenient
in practice than the one which we have given as an improvement, but
this is not the case ; for to find the logarithm of 219811496588, or the
number corresponding to 1-0153824 from a table of logarithms, will
employ more time than the complete working of the problem by the
method here proposed, which may be thus investigated.

Let E be the area of a triangle in square feet ; r=the radius of cur-
vature at the place on the earth's surface where the triangle is situated,
and A°, B°, C°, be the angles of the triangle considered as spherical,
reckoned in degrees and decimal parts of a degree. By the well-

known theorem of Gerard, 2 £. = 4*7- '

■{'

360

} (A)

Suppose the triangle to be one employed in the trigonometrical
survey of England, then the length of a degree may be considered
equal to 60859-1 X 6 feet, without involving much error. Therefore
the circumference of the globe to which this triangle is supposed to

„ „ . 360 X 6x60859-1
belong = 360X 6 X 60859-1, and r = 5

, (A) becomes
.'. 2E =

2-tE

,2E=4-r(

360x6x60859

2t
360 X 6' X (60859-1)'

•>)■(-

+B°+C°— 180°

360
(A° + B° + C° — 180°)

„ - = A° + B° + C° - 180r, which we shall call
360 X 6- x (60859- 1)2 T T

e, or the spherical excess in degrees and decimal parts of a degree,
■which when reduced to seconds will stand thus: —

q«00 , - 3600 X 2*E _ .E

ow _ g60 ^ 6,x (60859.1)2 — 1>8 x (Go859-l)2

but «• = 3-1415926 &c.
E

" ' 1-8 X (60859-1)2 1-8 X (60859- If (182577-3)2
3-1415926 15-707963

(B)

but (1^l57/'fi- = 2122138300-6, from whence the rule is derived.
15*707963

It is evident that Dalby's rule is in error when half the length of a

degree is greater or less than 182577-3 English feet in the place where

the triangle is measured; for by putting (B) into a logarithmic form

we have Dalby's rule. But the constant divisor or its logarithm can

be readily attained by substituting (B) for 182577-3 feet, half the

length of any other degree in feet. However, the difference must be

very great when the spherical excess is effected, of such triangles as

occur in practice.

LIFE OF SIR DAVID WILKIE.

Poor Allan Cunningham ! he had a poetical imagination and a
grateful heart. He never forgot an obligation, and felt every kindness
so warmly, that it was natural he should overestimate his friends who
were interested in his welfare ; he loved Sir Walter Scott, he adored
Chantrey, and believed Wilkie (if the truth were confessed) to be
greater than Raphael. The basis of biography is fact, bare, naked ,
disinterested, unqualified, undistorted, unpoetized, unexaggerated fact.
Unless all the facts connected with the character described be correct,
the conclusions must be false, and confidence destroyed. I fear the
manufacturers of reminiscences, conversations, and biographies of late
years have not been remarkable for adherence to this essential prin-
ciple.

"When Foote tells me a story," said Johnson, "it makes me laugh,
but it passes from my mind from its falsehood; when Reynolds tells

me anything, I have an idea the more, for I know it to be a true repre-
sentation of nature." Let every biographer print these words in
letters of gold over his study door, and let him read them with atten-
tion whenever he feels inclined to give his imagination the reins at
the expence of his understanding.

It may be said of all Cunningham's lives of artists that there is
scarcely an anecdote told of. any of them which happened in my
time, which is not so poetically treated as to amount to a misrepre-
sentation, though nothing was further from his desire or his principle.
In the very first volume he states Wilkie was refused admission
into the Academy of Edinburgh by Mr. George Thompson, and I, as
well as others, felt the injustice as well as ignorance of Mr. Thompson.
Now Mr. Thompson is ilive, and luckily he is so, and he has given,
in the Morning Chronicle, a flat contradiction to the assertion, and
says it is " not true." Sir George Beaumont told me Boswell would
race the town for days to ascertain the correctness of yes or ho ; as
Mr. Thompson was alive, it was Mr. Cunningham's duty to have ascer-
tained the fact, before he made so unjust an attack on a very worthy
person.

No. 8, Norton Street, says Cunningham, was Wilkie's first residence,
then a coal shed ; now it was not a coal shed at the time, 1806, but a
little front parlour! Wilkie's bed-room, sitting-room, and painting-
room, and there he painted the Village Politicians.

He says again : something of Wilkie's reputation preceded him to
London, for Jackson wrote to Haydon, &c. then in Devonshire. We
never heard a word of him till he came to the Academy, and when
he came, Jackson wrote to me. "Touched with Jackson's letter,
Haydon came to London and went to the Academy. Wilkie, the
most punctual of mankind, was there before him," says the author.
Now Wilkie did not come the fast day at all, and the next day not till
near one — one hour and a half after his time ! Because he painted to
get his living, always before he came to the Academy, and Jackson,
whom Lord Mulgrave maintained, and my father maintaining me,
enabled us to be much more punctual than Sir David.

" Haydon," says Cunningham, " is an admirer of the grand stvle ;
but Wilkie, with a wider reach of mind, used to argue, " that
though the rose excelled in beauty all other flowers of the field,
we were not to despise the daisy, which had a loveliness of
its own." Very like Wilkie's conversation. I imagine my dear
old friend at that time, pale, thiu, shrewd, legal, unpoetical and
cold, talking the purest Fifeshire, scarcely understood in Auld
Reekie, alluding in a strain of poetical language to the comparative
beauty of the rose and the daisy ! A wider reach of mind, too! So
that I, who was devoting myself to see nature in the abstract, to clear
the essential from the superfluous, and restore man, woman, and
animal, to the essential properties in form of their respective species,
as their great Creator sent them forth in Paradise to increase and
multiply; I — who was thus fitting myself first, to master them as a
species, and second, to put them in actions and expressions, to convey
high moral lessons, to inspire the youth or elevate the country — was
not of so wide a reach of mind as David Wilkie, who took man,
woman, and animal as accident, disease, or dress had distorted them,
painted them as they were in their humblest moments, without refe-
rence to moral objects at all, without relation, without abstraction,
without choice !

He talks, too, very much of the smart pert students of the Royal
Academy of that time. Except one poor fellow who is now insane,
there was not a pert or smart student there — and the most loquacious,
the most whispering, the most disturbing arguing student that ever
lived, to whom we were all obliged to cry "Silence " repeatedly, was
Sir David Wilkie. Wilkie was remarkably fond of loud whisper-
ing arguments, touching away with his port-crayon as he talked.
"In my mind's eye, Horatio, I see him now." As to pertness, who
was pert? Were Collins, Jackson, Mulready, Hilton, Pickersgill, Etty,
and myself, were we pert? — we were the students, and our present
station is an answer to such absurdity.

Page 76, Vol. I., he says, "Haydon was invited to breakfast; he
knocked — a voice said 'Come in'; and he found Wilkie partly

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naked, drawing his left knee." The fact is, 1 found Sir David stark
naked as ever lie was born, sitting on the edge of his bed, with a glass,
drawing. " Wilkie," said I, ray heavens, where am I to breakfast?"
Without making a reply, he put his port- crayon to his mouth to wet
his chalk, and said without moving, "It's jist copital practice, let me
tell ye." "I'll take a walk," said I; and after a walk I found the
room aired and bed turned up, and a good breakfast. It is astonishing
how remarkable men are for particulars to impress you with an idea
they are exceedingly correct, when they are not sure of it. The left
knee ! why not the right, why not both — and half of the right ankle —
and four of the toes ?

So idle and loquacious was Wilkie sometimes, that one evening
when there was nearly dead silence, Fuzeli reading and nothing heard
but the scraping of charcoal, Wilkie sent over to me some verses on
his friend Crockat, the whole gist of which was doggrel rhyme such as,

My dear Mr. Crockat,
Your name I won't pock-at,

I added a couple, and it went nearly all round, and before it got half
wav, the students were choaking with laughter. Fuzeli looked up
two or three times with the light shining on his white lion head, in a
suppressed fury. We went on drawing in an hysterical agony, to
keep under which with cur lips, and keep our faces sedate, I nearly
bu rsted a blood-vessel. I believe I have the verses now. It is such
nonsense, for biograp! ers to talk as if their hero had none of the
follies of life.

All the account of the journey to Devon, 1809, is a perfect absurdity.
Jt seems Cunningham must have skimmed the journal in his usual
careless manner. The facts of this journey are as follows. Whilst
,v e were dining at the Admiralty, Lord Mulgrave, the first lord, asked
.is how we were going ? I replied by sea. His Lordship said, Would
you like tu go in a man-of-war? We were delighted, and he told
General Phipps at table, as he knew Curtis, the Port-Admiral at
Portsmouth, to give us a letter to put us on board any man-of-war
sailing to Plymouth! Away we went in high glee, to Portsmouth ;
we dined with Admiral Curtis, a tine old veteran, of the siege of
Gibraltar; there we met our friend Colin Mackenzie, then agent fir
Russian prisoners. As the Walcheren Expedition was collecting at
Portsmouth, the men-of-war were coming up, so there was no chance(
and we took our passage in a coaster; but just as we were going. Ad-
miral Curtis came to the inn, and said, " will ye put up with a cutter?"
" Certainly; a cuck-boat in her Majesty's service," said I an 1 Wilkie.
" A utter is now under weigh," said the Admiral ; " I'll telegraph
her. ' In a few minutes, Moody, the commander, was in the Admiral's
office, and Wilkie and I were put under his charge, is two very great
men. Wilkie lay on his back in horror all the way, and so insensible
: timesi that a carronade was fired over his very face, and he never
heard it.

arrived at Plymouth, my native town, in great glory, from
e I had issued five years before, an obscure youth, and were
h.nded by Moody, in full slate, as if we were bullion for the treasury!
Happy days! Moody was afterwards drowned, a gallant British
seaman. I remember Sir David, hearing us all laughing, put up his
head through the hatchway ; he had a red nightcap, which with his
pale face, was a picture; but before I could sketch him, he dropped,
as if shot, below, nor did we see hiin after!

Cunningham says, he visited the Haydons, the Eastlakes, the
Northcotes. Nonsense! He was my guest at my father's for a month;
I introduced him to the Eastlakes. The author calls Sir William
Elford, Sir Richard, but that is nothing. Wilkie made beautiful
drawings of my father and my sister — Cunningham says, it was only
of ray sister, but that is nothing.

It is a curious instance of Wilkie's caution — I never knew he kept
a journal, and he told my sister he did not. I have travelled with
him, lived with him on the most intimate terms one man could live
with another — he saw me at Paris put down my thoughts on art every
night before going to rest. Wilkie told me he did not see its use,
and after shaking hands and wishing me good night, must have gone

to his own bed room, and done what I did not do, put down his re-
marks on me, and kept his journal of what his friends said or did.

It is extraordinary, also, to see how completely he agreed with me
on the nature and evil of modern colour. He sneers, in his letters, at
the pink and raw reds and yellows of the season — he asks what co-
lour is the go for the spring? Page 300, vol. IF, when speaking of
Titian's superb Pietro Martyre — "this being the day on which the
exhibition opens, one can scarcely view this great work but in con-
trast, being almost an example of all thai is the object of an artist to
avoid when fainting for that arena." 310 — "One year is very like
another at Somerset House ! What Sir Joshua wrote and Sir George
talked /vas right — and I am not now to be talked out of it." Again —
"With us, you know, every young exhibitor, with pink, white, and
blue, thinks himself a colourist like Titian." " I saw at Florence his
Venus, his flesh (O ! how my friends would stare) is a simple tint,
. n'liik wet." 447 — "Reynolds' portrait at Florence has never
cracked, and has never been varnished." At vol. HI, page 12 — "I
painted up at once, a custom quite denied in modem art." Would any
believe that I have painted up at once all my life while wet — that I
had preached this doctrine to Wilkie all my life — that he did it at
first, gave it up, then went abroad, began it again, and talks of it as a
discovery ! Thus, after going to Italy, he comes to the same conclu-
sions as Sir Joshua, Sir George, and Gainsborough, on the evil of want
of tone.

To conclude as I began, on the exaggerations of this life ; the au-
thor says, page 484, vo1. III, the artists gave Wilkie a dinner in 1806,
in honour of the Politicians — that one of the set made a speech, and
said "let us do honour to genius, but before, we must honour justice ;
and can justice be honoured, while England groans from side to side ?
I give the toast which will set all right, ' a full, free reform of the
House of Commons.' ' Ah, but very moderate,' said Wilkie, and emp-
tied his glass. It was long remembered in Wilkie's protest." What
are the facts? as follows: First, no dinner was given to Wilkie in
honour of the Politicians' fame. It was in 181V) this was said, and
, it my table, when John Scott, Mr. Otley, and Wilkie dined
with m>', and when all were in high glee ; John Scott said, " let us drior
Reform." Wilkie said, "No, no — I mustn't ;' we appealed to his
courtesy, and Otley filled Wilkie's glass; he drank his wine to the
dregs, and "success to Reform;" but frightened out of his life, turned
roun!, and in a subdued tone said, "Very moderate, remember."
We plagued him the whole night; and Otley threatened to write
to the ministers, which put him in perfect horror. It was all joyous
fun, knowing the man. This is the way lives are written, and facts
perverted — speeches invented, and absurdities told.

With all these careless inaccuracies, which could have been all
remedied by proper inquiry and revision, and which the author would
have done had his life been spared, it is a most interesting life and
ought to sell well. It has occurred to me as a curious question, why
Vasari's lives are sold throughout Europe better than any other
painter's lives, and the reason is, they are not exclusively professional,
though a whole code of technical practice can be ascertained from his
occasional technical allusions, both on fresco and oil, execution and
cartoons; but I will venture to say if these utilities had been their
only merit, they would have lain unread, except by artists all over the
world. Not so Vasari; he had more sense. Every man can read his
lives and be amused, because he mixes up all the vices, virtues,
follies, and tricks, characteristic of each artist. We know Michel
Angelo, and Raphael, and Juieo Romano, and Titian, as well as if we
had lived with them; he tells us all sorts of anecdotes of their private
lives. Fuzeli used to say to me, "What have we to do with their
private lives?" I used to reply, "Every thing." It is these touches
of human character in every painter, the humour of Buffalmacco — the
violent temper of Michel Angelo — the suavity of Raphael — that
interests the unprofessional man, the general reader, and have kept
Vasari the very Bible of painting, and ever will. Whereas in the
lives of Fuzeli, Laurence, Reynolds, and Wilkie, each in succession,
is but a dry detail of professional correspondence, from which one
retires harassed, disgusted, and sick; and after being published by a

■"■"""""• ...„.„.™._-...„™_.. . I L,, — _m_w^«i

! > rlllli: h

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

227

bookseller at a great expence, lie on our shelves after the first excite-
ment, and are never referred to either for instruction or entertainment.
Every painter's life could be made as delightful as a novel.

In spite of all these defects, this life contains a great many useful
things. Sir David Wilkie greatly overrated the value of going
abroad— did serious injury to himself, and injured two of his friends,
who got into a style, neither English or foreign, to the ruin of either
style ; he was apt to have serious hallucinations of mind, and whilst
they lasted he was perfectly sincere, but if he seduced inferior minds
to follow him for the time, it was likely, before the next season, he
would startle them by running down with equal enthusiasm what the
year before he had so earnestly worshipped ! But he was a kind
friend, a good brother, a dutiful son, and a high moral character. He
founded our domestic school ; and if ever man left this world fit to
appear instantly before his Maker, it was David Wiikie.

B. R. Haydo.n.

London, June 12, 1843.

LONDON AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY.

ROOF OVER THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE-HOUSE, AT BIRMINGHAM.

( With ait engraving, Plate X, drawn to a scale of -^ of an inch to
the foot, and tlte enlarged parts \-inch to the foot.)

This building was erected about five years ago ; it is a polygon of
16 sides, and was originally covered by a roof having an open area in
tie centre: but this being found not to afford sufficient protection,
from the inclemencies of the weather, to the men employed about the
engines, the roof was removed during the autumn of last year, and
replaced by another, the construction of which is shown in the ac-
companying engraving; it is simple, and at the same time an excel-
lent combination of timber and iron.

The ring of columns and connecting girders, (shown in enlarged
part C,) used in supporting the old roof, was retained for a similar
purpose in the new one. On reference to the engraving, it will be
seen that the roof is supported upon this ring, and upon the exterior
walls of the building. The thrust upon the walls is neutralized by
the tie rods a, which connect the head of each column fig. C, with
the shoe of the opposite rafter tig. A. Upon the head of the column
is fixed the stanchion 6, which carries the curved brace c, these, to-
gether with the strut d, all of which are of cast iron, form the point
of support for the rafter e.

The heads of the rafters meet in a cast iron curb/, shown in the
enlargements E, upon which the lanthorn F, is erected; this curb is
cast in eight portions, and firmly bolted together. The plan of soffit
of the lanthorn is shown at G, and the junction of tie bars at the foot
of the ring bolt at H.

The cost of the roof is as follows : —

£. s. d.
1795 cubic feet of Memel fir, edges chamferred, at is. . . 359 0 0
110| squares of 1-inch deal boarding, the edges shot,

underside coloured in distemper, at 40s. .. .. 221 10 0

1094 feet run' of hip roll, at id. IS 4 8

040 feet super, gutters and bearers, at Is. . . . . 32 0 0

1248 feet super. 2-inch bevel bar skylights, glazed with

British sheet glass in large squares, at 3s. . . . . 187 4 8

160 feet super. 2-inch wrought boards, at Is. . . 6 0 U

1344 squares Duchess slating, copper nailed, at 30s. .. 201 15 0

9 tons of lead, at £28 252 0 0

25 tons of cast iron, fixed, at £10. 250 0 0

4i tons of wrought iron, at £22. .. .. . 99 0 0

1 103 super, yards painting four times in oil, at Is. .. 58 3 0

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS L.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. Our Note-Book is getting old— it has reached its Fiftieth Fasci-
culus; no matter — provided it has not actually fallen into its "sere
and yellow leaf," and does not begin to exhibit symptoms of dotage.
No doubt there is a good deal of repetition in it — much that is nearly,
the same in substance has been touched upon again and again ; yet
not, I conceive, needlessly so, because it is only bv their frequency
that similar " morsels of criticism," can be expected to make such
impression as to be of real avail. It may, perhaps, be said that the
criticism itself becomes in time a bore; and so, indeed, it would, were
every one else also to deal in it after the same fashion, and just in the
same strain. But people have no reason to complain as yet of being
overdosed with architectural criticism, except of a respectably tame
and stale kind.

II. What a sad pity it is that Klenze did not come over to this
country and take a lesson from the Hanging Committee at our Royal
Academy, before he fixed his plan for the arrangement of the busts in
the Walhalla. They would have shown him how fealty he might
have packed together as many thousands of them as there can now be
hundreds, by having a row of them upon the floor, and piling up the
rest upon shelves to the very ceiling. No matter whether seen or
not, provided the things be but there. Our Academy seems to be of
opinion that the nearer the ceiling the further out of harm's way, and
out of the reach of criticism ; and it would be well were some of them
to exalt their own works so high aloft, that the most lynx-eyed critic
could never make them out. Turner, for one, would show great
judgment in doing so, because then we might fancy there was some
meaning in his daubs and blotches. By the bye, what does Turner do
with such things? he can hardly make use of them as waste paper
yet some of them look very much like it.

III. Would that columns could be melted down as well as cannons,
because were that possible, something might yet be made of the gi*
gantic stone post, stuck up in Trafalgar Square, and which now seems
to be sticking quite fast. The Athenasum tells us "it is still intinu-
ated that it will one day be completed," — perhaps at the Greek ca-
lends, for that day does not seem likely to come in a hurry. In the
interim, therefore, the scaffolding might as well be taken down, in-
stead of letting it rot to pieces, as it undoubtedly will do, if kept up
until the work is completed, for by that time the column will probably
have become a venerable piece of antiquity. In its present state, it
is quite monument, enough — a sufficiently significant one, and stri-
kingly indicative of the sort of intelligence and taste which presided
over the whole affair. If a column was deemed the most preferable
form, upon the whole, for the monument, it should at least have been
one of original and imposing character — a fine conception, treated in
a noble style, whereas the thing now stuck up will inevitably have a
puny look, and will be both lanky and top-heavy, the mass of the
Corinthian capital being especially unsuitable for a detached column
which has nothing to support — and considered with reference to the
shaft and capital, the statue becomes tantamount to nothing, except
there be some latent and malicious meaning in it, intended to make
evident to us the littleness of the greatness that is stuck up above the
heads of the rest of the world. If we had had nothing of the sort
before, a column of the kind might have been welcome as a novelty—
and for that very reason, perhaps, would have been protested against,
as something remarkably fanciful and strange ; but we have already
so many examples of them stuck up all over the country, and all
pretty much on a par as to insipidity, that it would be more desirable
to get rid of some of them, than to add to their number. What all
those bits of architectural trumpery may have cost it would be fear-
ful to compute, but no doubt as much as would have sufficed to erect
one or two edifices that would really have been genuine monuments of
art — an honour to the nation and to the age.

31

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

IV. Who is this " Aunt Elinor," who has just started up as a fe-
male professor of architecture, in the hope, it would seem, of being
able to lecture ladies into a love for the study of the art ? The idea
itself — which, by the bye, she seems to have borrowed, or rather
stolen without acknowledgment, from Wightwick, is surely a most
preposterous one, since what occasion can women possibly have for
understanding aught of architecture ? or are they even capable of at-
taining to any intelligent knowledge of it? Are all our studies to be
invaded by the present Amazonian race of females? or is their ambi-
tion insatiable ? Already have they mastered all our ologies and all our
onomies, and now, forsooth, they must attack what we have considered
an impregnable fort — architecture — though, to confess the truth, it is
not every one who has displayed any particular/orte in it. Surely the
ladies might be content with the plunder they have got from us —
among the rest, geology, a study remarkably amusing, and to tbem
most particularly useful. But architecture ! — oh no ! we must not
allow them to come poaching upon that preserve. What would be-
come of us he-creatures — professors and all, should it be discovered
that women could attain to any competent knowledge of architecture
as a fine art — and perhaps be able to design a classical portico just as
easily as they can hem a handkerchief? No, instead of admitting
women, we rather want to get rid of some of the " old ladies " of the
male sex, who are actually in the profession. Still it must be ad-
mitted that a very great deal may be said on the other side of the
question ; nor is Aunt Elinor's idea so very preposterous after all.
Women, it may be presumed, are fully capable of appreciating what,
in its quality of a fine art, apart from the science and mechanical
skill required for the practice of it, addresses itself so much both to
the eye and to the mind, and exercises the judgment as well as the
fancy. They ought to be able to feel all its harmonies of propor-
tions and combinations, and to note all those delicate minutia and
subtle coquetteries of the art, were they but sufficiently instructed to
understand them, and know in what they consist. At present, indeed,
such is not the case, because architecture has a language of its own,
which must be studied before its productions can be read or relished..
If there be such a thing at all as poetry in architecture, that surely can
be felt, and not only felt but as distinctly and with as clear a percep-
tion of the immediate causes of it, by one sex as well as the other.
For my own part I am inclined to think that were ladies but to apply
themselves to the study, they would in general make far better critics
in all matters of architectural taste, than men do. Hardly would they
pardon those negligencies and that slovenliness which are now so fre-
quently drawbacks on what are in other respects designs of consider-
able merit.

What an encouragement, too, it would be to architects themselves to
know that their works could be intelligently appreciated by judges of
the other sex — whose suffrages, as matters are now, they consider
quite valueless, and their praises mere empty compliments, flattering
to the ear, yet meaning nothing. Let the study of architecture
be taken up by ladies, and by educated persons of the other sex,
and instead of being as at present considered an exclusively profes-
sional one, it would acquire a degree of popularity that would have a
most beneficial influence on the art itself. To say that because such
persons can study it only partially — on'y as a fine art and for its his-
tory as such, that they therefore ought not to attempt to study it at
all, lest they should be sneered at, perhaps, as mere dabblers and pre-
tenders, is manifestly absurd ; or at any rate it ought not to be ex-
pected by professional men, that non-professional people should en-
courage it at all, since what can it matter to them whether the taste
shown in it be bad or good ? Why, in the name of common sense,
should people be reproached for not paying due regard to, and not
encouraging what they themselves are discouraged from attempting
to study and endeavouring to understand ? Even the ignorance of
the general public may, however, have its advantages, and one of them

is that a " Pecksniff," or a will do quite as well for such

a public, as a Charles Barry.

GROSVENOR HOUSE.— THE NEW SCREEN.

The most aristocratic streets at the west end of the town have very
few attractions indeed for the admirers of architecture, being far
more remarkable for the absence than for any display of taste. They
have a certain air of opulence about them, not to be mistaken ; but it
is entirely in "undress;" so that nothing can be more homely and in-
sipid than the " magnificent squares " — as they are often bouncingly
termed — in that quarter of the metropolis. Grosveuor Square is no
exception, for if it contains some mansions above the average in point
of size, it also presents some that are of more than ordinary ugliness.
In Grosvenor Street, however, there is now a rather striking and
novel architectural display, which loses nothing of its effect by the
contrast it forms to the insipid monotony of that fashionable district.
We allude to the new screen erected in front of Grosvenor House,
the residence of the Marquis of Westminster; which is designed, as
we understand, by Mr. Cundy, and which, taken by itself, is very
handsome both in its design and its effect, and is far more happily
composed than what, by serving as a precedent for it, may seem to
detract from its originality. Though we have not as yet heard this
screen compared to that before Carlton House, we should not be very
much surprised to find it described not only as a copy, but as a minia-
ture copy of it. A decided improvement upon it, it may fairly
enough be termed, for while it can be likened to that example only
with respect to the general resemblance arising from the same ge-
neral disposition, every point of similitude is also one of difference,
and that difference is decidedly in favour of the present design, as
would have been evident enough were the other still in existence.
It is not, indeed, to be compared with it for extent, being, perhaps,
only half its length, if quite so much — for we do not know what were
the exact admeasurements of the screen at Carlton House, neither
what are those of the one we are now speaking of. But this last is
certainly treated in a nobler and larger manner, and is far more con-
sistent and complete. Here the entrance gates are rendered impor-
tant and beautiful features, that both give value to, and are aided in
turn by, the open colonnade between them ; which was certainly not
the case in the other instance.

The composition consists of an open colonnade, of the Roman
Doric order, placed upon a low stylobate, (about four feet and a half
high,) and connecting the two gateways. These last form slightly
projecting breaks at the ends, and have coupled columns of the same
order, with the entablature breaking over them, in such manner that
the cornices of the pediments project considerably ; owing to which
circumstances these parts of the design possess a certain degree of
mass and energy ; the archways do not look like mere shallow open-
ings; but by acquiring some depth the roofs of the pediments show
themselves boldly in perspective. The gates themselves are highly
ornamented, being of rich open-work pattern in cast-iron in imitation
of bronze, which colour and style of decoration is judiciously carried
out by the candelabra or gas standards, one of which is placed in each
of the seven intercolumns of the open screen.

Thus far, we can bestow almost unqualified praise, for the whole is
well composed and well studied, most pleasing in its coup d'ceil, and
unites a happy mixture of airy playfulness and solidity. It has con-
verted what was before a mere gap between the adjoining houses,
into a most attractive piece of architectural decoration ; yet though,
as such, it does not seem too ostentatious or of too great pretension
in itself, it certainly is so if considered as an appendage to the build-
ing before which it has been erected, or we should express ourselves
better by saying that this last is utterly unworthy of what has thus
been made to accompany it. In those who are not aware that the
screen is a mere after addition, the first sight of it cannot fail to raise
expectations of some corresponding if not exactly equal degree of
architectural display in the mansion itself. Great, therefore, must be
their disappointment, when on a nearer approach they discover be-
hind this colonnade merely a plain-fronted house, which even as such
has no beauty of proportions, nor any air of dignity. The contrast in
this respect would be ludicrous, were it not also vexatious and an-
noying. Are we never to see anything carried out consistently and

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

229

perfected throughout ? — must there almost always be something to
operate as a drawback on our satisfaction, and to mar our enjoying
what we might else admire ? To mention economy in such cases by
way of excuse, is no apology at all; — it is like buying a costly pic-
ture-frame and hanging it up empty, because you cannot afford or
else begrudge the money to purchase a painting to put into it; and
though it is done every day, it is a very strange kind of economy
that induces people to spend their money merely, it would seem, to
convince the world that they lack either the means or spirit to do
handsomely what else there is no occasion to do at all.

Possibly, however — and we are willing to hope that such will be
the case, it may still be intended to complete what is here begun,
and that as a screen has been added to the house, a house will in
due time be added to the screen — that is, a facade on this side, of
corresp onding character. If not, we can account for what has been
done, only by supposing that the noble owner has built chiefly for the
gratification of his own eyes — not so much with any idea of improv-
in g the appearance of his house — which now looks more insignifi-
cant than before, as for the purpose of providing a beautiful archi-
tectural object to be seen from his own windows, so that in fact he
may be said to have followed Lord Chesterfield's advice, and erected
a front " over the way " for himself to contemplate.

That the effect of the screen as beheld from the house must be
very striking, and form quite an architectural picture, there can be
no doubt, and not least so of all when lighted up by gas at night.
But then, besides that such consideration does not reconcile us to so
much being left undone, by carrying out the ideas suggested by the
screen, the whole space between that and the house might have been
ren dered a highly ornamental, though rather small cortile, whereas at
present, it has no architectural character, or no more than what
amounts to a sort of apology for something of the kind. Indeed, if
nothing further is now to be done, it becomes a question whether it
would not have been better to make the screen more of a screen than
it now is, by filling up the intercolumns, for about half their height,
with metal work of the same pattern as the gates. In this there
would have been novelty, and certainly no inconsistency. There were,
besides, many other ways by which the same purpose could have
been accomplished, and as one of them we may mention that of
adopting for a design of the kind, an order of square pillars instead
of columns, raised not on a stylobate but merely a socle, with inter-
columnar screens of masonry between them carried up to the level of
the imposts of the archways : in which case the lamps would be
placed on those screens, and these last might be embellished with bor-
dered sunk panels (in the manner of those now over the two doors
at the ends,) with reliefs, not in stone but bronze.

We have said nothing as to the absurdity imputed to the idea of a
row of pillars or columns employed merely as a wall — at least as a wall
with openings in it. The objections urged against it as being such, ap-
pear to us pedantical and hypercritical. Columns, we grant, were not
originally intended for such purpose, but it does not therefore follow
that a different application from the one originally contemplated must
necessarily be bad in itself. Were such the case, we must abandon
much that is now considered perfectly legitimate, and is tolerated, if
not always admired. If, too, absurdity there be in using columns that
support nothing but their own entablature — which then becomes the
top or coping of the perforated wall described by those columns ; —
how much more extravagant, and remote from the original purpose of
columns must it be to employ them singly: and without their having
anything at all to support, except it be a "black image" perched
\ipon the top of the capital, yet not looking so much as if it had
alighted from heaven, as if it had ascended from the infernal regions.
If, therefore, we can endure absurdities of that kind, merely because
anti quity has left us some precedent for them— of which, however,
our modern copies fall very far short indeed— we may surely recon-
cile ourselves to what, while it is a degree or two less absurd and a
less preposterous conceit, can hardly fail to produce a strikingly pic-
turesque perspective effect, let the design itself, considered apart
frofn such effect, be what it may.

CONSTRUCTION OF A BETON BRIDGE.

Description of a Bridge of B<ton,' constructed at Grisoles, in the
Department of Tarn-el- Garonne, in France. By M. Lebrun,
Architect if Montaaban.

Translated for the Journal of the Franklin Institute, from the " Bulletin de
la Soeiete d'Encouragement pour I'lndustrie National," for July, 1842.
By Ellwood Morris, Civil Engineer.

Living in a region where suitable building stone is scarce and ex-
pensive, and where brick masonry alone is used, M. Lebrun, guided
by the fine works of M. Vicat, on hydraulic limes, conceived the idea
of substituting for this masonry the beton, which the Romans used
with so much advantage.

In consequence, he submitted, in 1S39, to the Minister of Public
Works, the project of a bridge entirely of beton, which he offered to
construct on the lateral canal of Garonne, to be traversed by many of
the royal and departmental routes, this offer having been accepted,
under certain conditions, M. Lebrun commenced his work in June,
1840.

The lime was of the hydraulic quality, burnt in perpetual kilns, by-
pit coal. The sand was clear of all earthy particles, of fine grain, and
pretty uniform. The gra vel slones, of the size of a hen's egg, came
from the river Garonne. The lime was slaked alternately in two ba-
sins, joined together. For this purpose, we poured at first, in one of
the basins, a quantity of water proportioned to that of the lime which
we wished to slake ; we then put in sufficient quicklime for the water
to cover it ; then we left the lime to slake freely without disturbance,
except by taking care to prick it, from time to time, with a stick, to
introduce the water into those parts of the basin where the dissolved
lime was dry. When the fermentation had ceased, we stirred up the
lime in every direction with an iron hoe, in order to mix the paste,
and render it homogeneous ; we left it then in this state, not to be
used for twelve hours after slaking.

The proportions observed by M. Lebrun for beton destined for the
construction either of walls or arches, were, in every ten parts, com-
posed of two parts of lime in paste, three parts of sand, and five
parts of gravel stones, or pebbles.

For making the mortars, we placed, on a paved surface, two mea-
sures of the slaked lime, which, after having been well beaten with
pestles of cast iron, softened again by yielding up a part of the water
with which it was charged ; then we placed beside it three measures
of sand, which we mixed, little by little, with the lime, always having
the aid of the pestles, and stirring the whole with the shovel and hoe,
in order that all the parts of the sand should be well incorporated,
observing not to put any water into the mortars, but, if the sand was
too dry, we moistened it, a few moments before mixing. As soon as
the mortars were sufficiently manipulated, we added five measures of
grave! stones ; the whole was then long and forcibly mixed and
pounded, until each part of the gravel was sufficiently enveloped by-
mortar ; then the bHons were taken in quantity, to wait for the mo-
ment of being used. We took care to make only what we could em-
ploy in a day's work, without which precaution it would have lost its
cohesion.

The 15th of June, 1840, the excavation of the foundations of the
two abutments being done, we commenced laying the beton, taking
care, each time that a layer, or course, was finished, to cover it up
immediately with wet mats of straw, to prevent a too rapid drying
by the heat of the sun. By means of this precaution, the new course
connected itself more intimately with the one below. We continued

1 The French beton is nearly identical with the English concrete, the
main difference being in the manipulation ; thus beton is composed of lime,
sand, and small pebbles, or broken stone, taken separately, and successively
mixed together, the pebbles being added last ; while concrete is usually-
formed of lime, mixed directly with gravel, containing naturally about the
due proportion of pebbles and sand ; proper quantities of water being used,
and the factitious stone resulting, in both cases, being in effect the same.

Beton, or concrete, has before been used in retaining walls and other con-
structions, and, as is stated by General Pasley, of 11. E. JJ. corps of En-
gineers, (in his admirable Treatise on Calcareous Cements,) it was also ap-
plied experimentally to build a military casement near Woolwich, of which
the arch had 18 feet span, 5 feet rise, and 6 feet depth at the crown, and
which, when subjected to the direct fire of 21 pounder (;uns, as well as the
vertical plunge of 13 inch shells, loaded to weigh 2001b. each, resisted both
with success, and, contrary to expectation, was less injured by the latter,
than by the former.

We must, however, here observe, that the failure of the «oncrete wharf
walls, at Woolwich and Chatham, in consequence of tidal exposure, and the
necessary protection of the concrete sea wall at Brighton, with woodwork,
to shield it from the action of water in mass, (as mentioned by General
Pasley,) points out the necessity of confining the application ol concrete to
constructions within reasonable and proper limits.

31*

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

the masonry all of bi-lon, (the backing of the arch and
abutments keeping pace,) until reaching the height fixed.
The exterior faces of the abutments, (not next the earth,)
and of the walls, were formed by some planks stronglv
fixed, against which the bi'ton rested. These planks
were removed, two or three days after, and the faces of
beton remained exposed, and were very well preserved.
At the height of the springing of the arch, we laid five
courses of bricks plumb on the faces of the abutments, to
serve as perpendicular faces for the centre to fit up
against, and enable it to detach itself easily.

Fifteen days after the laying of the last bi-ton, we
commenced the construction of the centre, composed of
many courses of bricks, laid flat, in succession, (from
the springing towards the crown,) following the curve of
the arch at the intrados, built partly with plaster, and
partly with cement, or hydraulic mortar, and supported
at the springing by projecting masonry, or bv a timber
for that purpose. Thecentre was formed of four ourses
of bricks (in thickness, or depth, say nine inches) ; the
three lower were laid with plaster, and the upper course
with cement, to shelter the plaster from the dampness
of the bi'lon. The upper bricks of the centre were
covered by a bed of mortar or clay, in order to model
perfectly the intrados of the arch, and to hinder the
bi'ton from forming one body with the bricks.

The construction of the centre being finished on the
17th of August, we established, three davs after, the
masonry of the two heads of the arch of brick, (in lieu
of quoin stone,) which were completed ou the 2(ith of
the same month.

Immediately after the construction of the two heads,
we wrought them into the general mass of beton, forming
the arch ; this operation wis finished on the 5th of Sep-
tember, with the exception of the backiug up, which
was accomplished, on both sides, the 11th of the same
month. The beton of the arch was composed in the
same manner as those of the abutments, and manipulated
by the same process ; hut we added to it 2-ji, cubic feet
of cement for every 3.14 cubic feet, or Tyth of the mass,
to augment the strength of the mortars of the •
the arch. This construction was made without following
any regular order, and the bHon was cast in mass :s,
upon the centre, to the thickness of two feet, which formed the first
general bed, or layer, on the development of the arch. This first
bed being finished, we formed the second in order to reach the thick-
ness of three feet at the key, the spandrel backing, and the abutments
being levelled up. A coping of hydraulic mortar was then placed
over the whole extent of the arch, and covered immediately with a
layer of clay, strongly beaten.

All was left in this" state until the 25th of January, 1841; we then
proceeded to the operation of the striking of the centre of the arch. The
28th of January, the centre of bricks was taken away, and the intrados
of the arch appeared very even in all its parts. After three months,
it manifested not the smallest settlement in its masonry, and, since
then, the bridge has stood through the summer, without incurring the
least degradation capable of affecting its solidity. This bridge has a
clear opening of 39j feet between the abutments ; the middle is placed
in the axis of the canal, which has two towing paths ; its breadth is

Fig. 1

- KB -

Explanation OF THE Figures.

a, canal; b. abutment of beton; r. mass i f of beton; dil, towing paths;

c ijuoin^ of bridge upon the towing-paths, built ol hrge stone, with the ang'c, rounded ;
/". arrises of the soffit, or quoins of luck r.t each be.ul of the arch, instead of the usual
■ one.

193 fe 't between the he ids, or faces, of the rings ; and the arch is
formed of a segment of a circle of 39i feet chord, and 51 feet rise,
or versed sine.

The entire mass of the abutments is of bi'ton, except the four angles
on the sides of the towing paths, which are of large stone, rounded on
the arris, on account of the rubbing of the towing lines. The arch is
also of bHon, as are the faces of the tympans, or spandrels, and the
intrados with the exception of the arrises of the solvit, or quoin of the
heads, which are of brick.

M. Lebrun has joined to his memoir, along with a plan of the
bridge of (irisoles, manv certificates, from the mayor of this commune,
and from the engineer of the lateral canal of the Garonne, proving the
complete success of the works, and the solidity of the construction,
which has endured the proof of the passage of loaded carriages, the
numerous influences of heat, and some very severe frosts, without
having suffered the least degradation.

OLD LONDON WALL.

A Letter from Mr.. George Godwin, KR.S., &c.

"Some there are who cry down tl u i.h much con-

tempt, as too curious a search after what is pas; ; « hose authority as 1 shall
not altogether slight, so 1 shall not much regard their n Igment.

Cam

On the west side of a vacant plot of ground in George Street,
Tower Hill, and behind the houses in Trinity Square, stands one of the
most considerable remaining portions of the wall which was anciently
built tor the protection of Londinium, (probably at the commence-
ment of the fourth century,) and which for some'time was considered
ot the utmost importance, and kept constantly repaired. As, however,
the number and power of the citizens increased, they outgrew their
shell, (it wis but ., small one,) and the irruptions of barbariaus ceasing
to be frequent, this protection was considered of less and less conse-
quence; until at List, as Camden observes, the Londoners slighted
tenceci cities, as tit for nothing but women to live in, and looked upon

I their own to be safe, not by the assistance of stones, but the courage
I of its inhabitants. Year after year has witnessed the gradual de-
struction of the remains of this "ancient enclosure, until, with the ex-
ception of a bastion in Cripplegate Church-yard, the portion behind
< Trinity Square, of which I am ..bout to speak, a continuation of it
, forming the back wall of Mr. Atkinsou's hemp warehoi.se in Cooper's
i Row, and a few inconsiderable fragments to be found in the str»et to
which it gives its name, it has been entirely swept away. '

The portion in question is also now threatened with destruction ;
and the object of this communication is in aid of other efforts which
have been made, to induce those who have authority to re-consider
the matter, with the view of avoiding this objectionable step if pos-
1 sible. It is intended to build a church on the vacant ground in
George Street, with the special object of affording accommodation
to the masters, officers, and seamen of the ships in the docks and the
; river; and it is considered that the site of the old wall " is essential

' For interesting pal I •"'> eVi'ion of

Stow's "S bap. II, p. 7. Also 1 • • I1 180.

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

231

for the satisfactory completion of the church." A memorial was
presented to the Common Council from members of the Metropolis
Churches Fund, in February last, praying them to "grant permission
for the removal of the materials of the wall, and to convey to Her
Majesty's Commissioners, for building additional churches, the ground
en which the wall now stands." This the Common Council granted ;
so that the fate of the wall is decided, unless those gentlemen in
whose hands it is placed can be led to regard the subject in a fresh
point of view. Their object is unquestionably an excellent one: far
be it from me, even if I had the power, to throw the least impediment
in the way of it. The gentlemen who are interesting themselves in
effecting it are of undoubted character and worth, and I cannot help
concluding that the proposal to destroy the wall was made in the first
instance without serious consideration, and that now public opinion
has been strongly expressed on the subject, other means will be
taken to obtain sufficient ground for their purpose, or that the plan of
the proposed church will be altered so as to adapt it to the land al-
ready in their possession.

The length of the wall is 48 feet, irrespective of a part of it
which forms the end of some adjoining premises: the height next
Trinity Square is from 20 to 25 feet, and the thickness, as nearly as
can be estimated, about 6 feet. In times less eminent for the preser-
vation of ancient monuments than the present day, it was coped with
brickwork, and strengthened at the northern angle, and is consequently
in a tolerably good state of repair. It is faced on both sides
with masonry in courses, (the interior being of rubble work,) and
shows occasional layers of Roman bricks. On the west side the
facing consists in parts of alternate courses of square and flat stones,
and the Roman bricks are few in number and very irregularlv placed,
so as to lead to the belief that it was reconstructed perhaps in the
Norman period. On the other side, however, some vaults which ad-
joined the wall having been destroyed and the ground cleared away,
a considerable portion is exposed to view — which is doubtless the
original Roman wall, probably not less than fifteen hundred years old,
yet still quite sound and perfect. The masonry is of broad squared
stones, systematically bonded ; and there are two or more continuous
double layers of Roman bricks, agreeing precisely with other rem-
nants of the original wall described by various writers. Dr. Wood-
ward, who examined part of the old wall in 1707, when some houses
were pulled down in Camomile Street, measured the bricks which
■were in it very accurately, and found them 17-jSj in. long, ll-£j in.
broad, and l-£, in. in thickness. The bricks in the wall now in ques-
tion, measured without remembrance of Woodward's dimensions, I
noted as 17 in. long, and 14 in. thick. The double layer, including
the mortar between the bricks, measures altogether 4i in. From the
top of the lowermost layer, or that next the ground, to the layer above
it, the masonry measures 3 ft. 6 in. ; from the top of this up to the
next double layer, the masonry measures 2 ft. 7 in.

Of the value of this interesting relic of antiquity, the desirable-
ness of preserving it as a portion of the past for the service of the
future, I would speak strongly. Monuments of this description be-
come historical evidences, nationally important, and are continually
found to be of the greatest service when tracing those changes in our
state and manners which time is constantly effecting. They are
links in a chain which connects the present with the past — awakeners
of sentiment, silent teachers — and have never been destroyed without
much after regret and condemnation.

" Past and future are the wings.
On who?e support, harmoniously conjoined,
Moves She great spirit of human knowledge."

The importance of the study of antiquity, notwithstanding some
few apparent proofs to the contrary, is now very universally admitted.
" It was at one time the custom, amongst the people generally, (as the
writer has elsewhere ventured to remark,) to reward the labours of the
antiquary with ridicule and contempt — to consider the investigation
of a ruined building, the preservation of a piece of pottery, or the
noting down of the manners and customs of past ages, as the mere
idlings of weak minds; and that he, who so employed himself, was
not merely unworthy of praise, but deserving of censure for misap-
plying time. The value of the works of this class of men, is now,
however, better understood, and therefore more duly appreciated.
Through the exertions of these "musty" antiquaries, the civilized
world is able (if we may so speak) to look back upon itself, and con-
template, in a great degree, its actual state, so far as regards the arts
which flourished, the sciences which were understood, and the conse-
quent position of the people, at various periods of its age ; and that,
too, not merely in the accounts of contemporary and succeeding
writers, but in the very results of these arts so practised — in the coins
used ; the dresses worn; the furniture employed in their houses; and

the buildings raised for ecclesiastical, for warlike, or for domestic
purposes." 2

The architecture of a people especially, offers important evidence,
in the absence of written records, towards the elucidation of their
history; perhaps we may say the most important — for it speaks
plainly of the state of society at each particular period, and hints at
the degree of knowledge possessed by individuals, or by the people
at large. As the comparative anatomist can from one boiie determine
the size, the shape, and the habits of an animal, which he has neither
seen nor heard of, so may we almost discover, from the ruined build-
ings of a people, their prevailing habits, their religion, their govern-
ment, and the state of civilization to which they had arrived.

Not to digress, however, from the immediate subject of this com-
munication. The proposed demolition of the remaining portion of
London Wall affords another instance of the advantage that might
result from the establishment of a public board for the preservation
of our ancient monuments similar to the Comite Historique des Arts el
Monumem, of Paris, who when local requirements threatened the de-
struction of what in reality belongs to the whole nation, might inter-
pose their authority, and prevent the contemplated injury. In the
present case it is to be hoped that the Society of Antiquaries will
not fail as a body to use their influence for the protection of the wall.
At a recent meeting of the Royal Institute of Architects, the writer,
at the request of a large number of gentlemen, brought the matter
under their notice. The Marquis of Northampton, who was in the
chair, expressed a hope that the wall might be saved, and suggested
that the Council of the Institute should communicate with the Society
of Antiquaries, with a view to the presentation of a joint memorial
on the subject. The council of the Institute adopted the suggestion,
and it is to be hoped that such a representation will consequents be
made to the excellent gentlemen with whom the fate of the wall "now
rests, as to lead to its preservation whole and uninjured. Whether
so or not, the writer feels he has but performed a duty in raising his
feeble protest against the destruction of a most valuable and inter-
esting memorial of the early history of the city.

George Godwin.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS, ROYAL ACADEMY.
( Concluded from page \%5.)

By the same architect, are one or two other designs of great merit ;
No. 1168, "Forest Cottage, the shooting residence of the Marquis of
Breadalbane," answers perfectly both to its title and its purpose,
having a look of most comfortable homeliness, and an air of genuine
rustic picturesqueness in its ensemble, without any of that "make-
believe" and affectation which frequently cause "genteel cottages" to
appear strangely finical, and to remind us of the "tea garden." No.
1384, by the same, " Model of Wadhurst Castle, showing the altera-
tions now nearly completed," also shows what a hideous piece of ug-
liness the house was, as first erected, and how happily it has since
been metamorphosed, so as to be now a very pleasing and well com-
bined design, marked by a good deal of expression in its details;
whereas originally there was nothing whatever of the latter, while
taken as a whole, the house was a mere insulated lump, unvarying in
appearance, in whatever direction it may have been viewed. Such is
by no means the case now, there being a very great deal of perspec-
tive play — of movement, fore-shortening, contrast ; — a merit that
confers varied interest on a building, and which renders the design
we are speaking of, a very suitable subject for a moriel. Architec-
tural models, however, do not seem to be in much favour with the
Roval Academy, for instead of making suitable preparation for them,
it seems to treat them as little better than lumber, that may be hud-
dled together any how. Whether it ever turns away any things of
the kind, we know not, but we certainly have seen many that have
never been exhibited there, probably because it is pretty well known
to architects that they would be considered unwelcome guests. But
we must not say too much, or next year we shall have the Academy
provide accommodation for models, by fixing up a shelf for them, on
each of the rooms, at about a foot from the ceiling.

We have already observed that there are this season fewer subjects
than usual which afford us any information as to public works or im-
provements actually in progress — with the exception of churches,
almshouses, and union workhouses. Two drawings, however, there
are which show us the additions now making to the buildings of two
of the inns of court; viz., No. 1252, "South-east view of the hall

- " The Churches of London," vol. II.

232

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

JUI.Y>

and library, Lincoln's Inn," P. Hardwick, R. A. ; and 1232, " View of
chambers now erecting in the south court of Staple Inn," Wigg and
Pownall. The first of these will be a handsome structure, somewhat
similar in style and character to Middle Temple hall, and will, like
that, be of red brick and stone. The building at Staple Inn, which is
now considerably advanced, is also of the same materials, but there
the colour of the brick is white, owing to which there is certain flat-
ness and want of relief, the difference as to colour being just enough
to disturb uniformity without producing decided and intentional con-
trast. The style itself is Elizabethan, of a sober cast — perhaps some-
what too much so, and so as to lose some of that character which is
what chiefly recommends that style for imitation at the present da)'.
In this instance we think it would have been an improvement had the
lower windows been made slightly projecting bays, since that would
have thrown a little more variety into the composition, and would
have produced a sort of balance as well as contrast with the circular
bow-windows over the doorways.

No. 1332, " The Amicable Life Assurance Office, about to be
erected in Fleet Street," S. Beazley, makes us acquainted with ano-
ther improvement, but one on so small a scale that it is not likely to
produce so much show in reality as it here does upon paper — and
even so seen, it is what would be passed without notice, but for the
information relative to it contained in the catalogue. The uew build-
ing at the corner of Water Lane, on the same side of Fleet Street, is
a very much better piece of design, yet even that is so mere a piece
in itself, that it looks no belter than the commencement of a fa9ade
intended to have been carried on as far as Bouverie Street — had
which been done, it would have formed a striking architectural object.
As an improvement in general street architecture, may be mentioned
No. 1233, "The intended new frontage of Freeman's Court, City,"
J. Anson, which, however, except as such, is not at all remarkable,
since it consists merely of a nniform range of buildings in red brick,
with stone dressings to the windows, somewhat similar to the front of
the new office of the Morning Post, in Wellington Street North. < If
" street architecture," much more dignified in character than anything
we are accustomed to, or dare even look forward to, we meet with an
ideal specimen in No. 1259, which is so massive and grandiose in
style, that its author (A. Batson) will be considered quite a visionary.
Regent's Park palaces and the architectural grandeurs of Pimlico,
must bide their diminished heads, and shrink into utter insignificance,
if in the course of the extensive improvements we are promised in
the city, we are to have any streets — or even a siDgle street of such
exuberant pomp and stateliness. This drawing is also a very re-
markable one. in itself, energetic, but exceedingly vague and sketchy
—more like the first conception of a painter than the distinctly de-
fined idea of an architect, on which account it may perhaps strike the
imagination all the more, by leaving a very great deal for the imagi-
nation to work upon.

On turning from this subject — whose title in the catalogue would
never have led us to search for it — to some of the designs which we
did look out for as promising something by their names, we feel
rather chilled. While not a few of them disappointed us when dis-
covered, others are put where, when found, so little can be seen of
them, that it would be hazardous to attempt to pass any opinion on them,
because they may be either very much better or considerably poorer
than they look at a distance. Such is the case with No. 1217, "De-
sign for the proposed Exchange, Manchester," of which we can only
say that if it is shown to advantage by being placed where it is, nothing
will be lost should it never be seen any nearer, and should it never be
beheld in any other shape than that of a drawing. We may, however,
have missed several things of merit, more or less, which may deserve
to have been placed in situations now occupied by very inferior produc-
tions. We have, in fact, neglected to mention several drawings — not
because they are unworthy of notice in themselves, but because some
if '.hem do not offer much for remark of any kind, and of others our
recollection is now not sufficiently distinct. One rather striking ar-
chitectural subject— how far it is portraiture or original composition,
.ve do not know — is No. 1222, " Stone church in the palmy days of
the 14th century," A. Smith ; a splendid interior, well calculated to
find favour in the eyes of those who hope that the devotional pomp
of those same " palmy days" may yet be revived among us. In the
meanwhile it is consoling to find that even should we not recover
Popish puppet-show again, we are beginning to pay due attention to
architectural decorum and character in our Protestant churches. Of
such being the case we meet with a proof in No. 1260, "Interior of
the new church of St. Mary, Heme Hill, Dulwich," G. Alexander,
which though by no means showily, is consistently decorated, and the
style, good in itself, is well kept up in every respect. There are
some good designs for almshouses, and though not the very best of
them, nor equal to Nos. 1265 and 1279, No. 1223, "Asylum for jour-

neymen tailors, part of which has been lately erected at Haverstock
Hill, Hampstead," is better than usual.

It is looking at this year's architectural collection as a whole, that
we are dissatisfied with it, and not least of all so because it manifests
an indifference on the part of the profession which contrasts strangely
with the increased attention now given to the subject of architecture
by the public — if not as yet by the public generally, by a very much
larger class of it than formerly. If we ought to be satisfied with as
many productions of interest and merit as we now actually find here,
and consider them as forming of themselves a very creditable exhi-
bition, we could also be satisfied with them alone, at any rate could
very well dispense with a great many which only add to the numbers
in the catalogue, without contributing at all to the character of the
architectural part of the exhibition.

THE SELF-REGULATING EXPANSION SLIDE VALVE.

Sir. — In the description of my self-regulating expansion slide valve,
inserted in the Journal for February last, I inadvertently committed
an error, which your Glasgow correspondent has very properly pointed
out : this circumstance having given rise to a mistaken notion as to
the efficacy of the principle on which this valve is constructed, you
will, I hope, permit me to correct my former mistake, and to make a
few observations through the medium of the Journal.

The erroneous statement was this : " When the points of the tappets
to hold the plate I, the slide ralve H, alone will
move" kc. The tappets, properly speaking, should never hold the
plate, although their doing so would lead to little or no inconvenience,
if the plate 1, is properly proportioned, because then even admitting
the tappets to hold the plate I, as stated, the steam would be cut off
so very soon, (at about jfu °' the stroke of the piston,) that the engine
would immediately lose her speed, the governor balls by closing would
separate the cams or tappets, and the inconvenience would not be felt.
The drawing, Fig. 3, being incorrect, the error in the description be-
comes important, for if, as improperly represented in Fig. 3, the plate
I, is only just made long enough to cover the space existing between
the passages on the back of the valve, and if the tappets are made so
as to prevent that plate from moving with the valve, the steam would
be cut off, it is true, at ^ of the stroke of the piston, but it would
also be re-admitted into the cylinder, when the piston had got within
-' of the end of the stroke, and this imperfection would continue to
a lesser <* xtent during every other degree of expansion. The plate
I, should be sufficiently long to cover half of both passages on the back
of the valve.

The following example of a valve as made will fully explain my
meaning.

The orifice of the steam part on the face of the cylinder, is three
inches, the passage through the valve 1A inches, and the moveable
plate I, made so long, that when placed on the middle of the valve, it
half covers the two passages ; the cams or tappets are so regulated
as never to approach within 3 of an inch of each end of the moveable
plate, so that the valve will travel li inch before the steam is cut off
from the cylinder, and on its way back, the plate I, will cover the pas-
sage through the valve, until the valve itself covers the steam port in
the face of the cylinder.

For the above valve the stroke must be six inches, and supposing
the engine to be on her centre, the slide valve will be in the middle
of its stroke.

As long as the tappets remain in the position assigned to them
above, the plate I, will cover the passage when the valve has made
one half of the remaining three inches of its stroke, which will be
effected by the crank pin having described an arc of about 29° 30', or
nearly one-sixth of its half circumference, when the piston will have
travelled through -rs of its stroke, the motion of the valve being as the
si7te, and that of the piston as the versed sine, of the arc described by the
crank pin. Therefore, under the above circumstances, steam will be
admitted during Vj of the stroke of the piston, and as the distance
between the points of the tappets is increased by the action of the
governor, so will the quantity of steam admitted to the cylinder be
also augmented.

When, therefore, the plate I, is made of the length above-men-
tioned, the steam may be cut off at -^ of the stroke of the piston,
but as it is seldom required to cut the steam off so soon, the. portion
of the length of the stroke during which the steam may be admitted,
can be augmented by diminishing the length for the plate I — as for
instance, if it is desired to cut the steam off at one-sixth of the
stroke, it will suffice that the plate I, should be made long enough to

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

233

cover only one fourth of the passage at eafh end of the valve ; and
for any other portion between one-sixth and -^ of the stroke, during
which it may be thought requisite to introduce the steam as a mini-
mum, the plate I, must be made of a sufficient length to cover some
intermediate portion of the passage, between one -fourth and one-
half. L t ,

Under all circumstances, the distance between the points of the
tappets at their nearest approach to each other, should be equal to
the length from outside to outside of the two passages that run
through the slide valve, and the governor should be so applied as to
give to each tappet, a stroke equal to one-fourth of the total stroke
of the slide valve.

Your Glasgow correspondent says that " a slight examination of the
drawings mill shorn that though the steam is cut off as soon as the port
of the cylinder is half open, admitting steam daring rather less than
one-fourth of the stroke;" this is an oversight on his part, and a closer
examination of the drawings, imperfect as they are, will convince him
(every thing being as shown in the drawings,) that although the steam
would be cut off as soon as the port of the cylinder is half open, it
would only be admitted into the cylinder during about one-fifteenth of
the stroke of the piston, instead of something less than one-fourth.

It remains for me to thank your correspondent for having called
my attention to the error I committed in my former communication,
and as I fear that I have already too much trespassed on your valuable
space, I shall be happy to answer any questions, or give any informa-
tion in my power, if your correspondent will send me his name and
address. I was not in England when the Journal for May appeared, or
I would have requested the favour of your inserting this in your last
number.

I remain, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

London, June Sth, 1843. H. H. Edwards.

THE BUDE AND BOCCIUS LIGHTS.

During the last month two of the Wednesday Evening meetings of
the Society of Arts, in the Adelphi, were occupied with the reading
of interesting papers describing the Bude and Boccius lamps and
their advantages. On the first evening the large room was splendidly
lighted from one gas lamp, suspended from the centre of the room,
on the Bude principle, when Mr. Bethel read a paper and described
its principle. On the following Wednesday the room was lighted in a
similar manner with the Boccius light, when a paper describing its
advantages was read by Dr. Atkin. We have here given a full
description of each light by the respective authors of the papers, and
leave it to our readers to judge of their respective merits. They both
appear to be deserving of encouragement and the patronage of the
public.

THE Bl'DE LIGHT.

The Bude light is the invention of Goldsworthy Guruey, Esq., of Bude, in
the county of Cornwall, and has been called The Bude Light, a name given
to it at the Trinity House, to distinguish it from Mr. Gurney's former inven-
tion. Mr. Gurney has, for the last twenty years, been experimenting upon
the best means of producing the most powerful and beautiful light. In
1822, he invented the light called the Oxy-hydrogen Light, which he fully
explained in his lectures delivered in Cornwall in 1822, and published in his
book on chemistry in 1823. This light was the result of his experiments
with the oxy-liydrogen blow-pipe. The combustion of the two gases, oxygen
and hydrogen, issuing from two distinct jets in certain proportions, produce
no light, and only a small blue flame, giving off very great heat ; but when
a small cylinder of lime is placed behind the jets, the most intense and beau-
tiful light is evolved. Some years afterwards Mr. Gurney invented another
powerful light, produced by passing a stream of pure oxygen gas through
the wick of an oil lamp, whereby a most intense and beautiful light was
formed. This light was put up at the Trinity House, where it was seen by
Mr. Hume, who was the chairman of the lighthouse committee ; he intro-
duced it to the notice of the House of Commons, and it was subsequently
adopted for lighting that house. Difficulties occurred in the practical work-
ing of this light, and Mr. Gurney determined on still further prosecuting his
experiments ; and the result was, the production of what may be called The
Atmospheric Bude Light.

The mechanical principle by which the light is produced, consists of a
series of horizontal concentric rings of tubing perforated on the upper part
for the escape of the gas placed at definite distances from each other, and
so arranged as to regulate the quantity of atmospheric air, and to communi-
cate by conduction and radiation sufficient heat to raise the temperature of
the gas to a given point, so as to effect the separation of its carbon imme-
diately as it leaves the burner, and then by an arrangement above to bring
fresh atmospheric air to the proper points of the flame. A perfect lamp wiU

deposit the carbon in the flame the instant it passes the jet. If so imperfect
as to deposit too soon, carbon will be found in the riugs ; if too late, then
high up in the flame. There is a point of accuracy required, which practice
has determined. This mechanical arrangement brings about a series of che-
mical changes involved in the evolution of light and heat, which are very
interesting. The rapidity of chemical union governs the respective quantities
of beat and light. We may by a too rapid combination produce heat alone,
and no light. It has been found by careful measurement, that little or none
of the light given off by the inner rings is lost, but that it all passes through
the outer rings of flame. By the concentration of a mass of light, a power-
ful illuminating effect can be diffused over the whole apartment, and may be
softened down by glass shades to any intensity, and tinted, if desired, with
any colour. It has been found in the shops in Loudon, where this light has
been used, that its effect on coloured articles is very different to other arti-
ficial lights, as all colours — particularly blue and green — can be as distinctly
seen by it as by daylight.

Its economy has been proved to be very great. The evidence given by the
scientific gentlemen examined before the committee of the House of Com-
mons, they proved that for the same quantity of light used in that house,
the saving by using the Bude burner is equal to 50 per cent. Professor
Wheatstone stated, that the Atmospheric Bude burner he used had 3 con-
centric rings, and was supplied with street gas. Its light was equal to 68
wax candles, and consumed 20 cubic feet of gas per hour. The Argand gas
burner used by him was equal to ten wax caudles, and consumed 5 cubic
feet per hour. The Bude Light consumed not quite four times the quantity
of gas which the common gas burner did, whilst the light given by it was
6i times more intense, thus giving an economical advantage of the Bude
Light over the gas light of very nearly double.

The committee in their report to the House, state that the saving effected
upon the lighting of the house by the introduction of this light, was 481/. 9s.
per session. The light has given the greatest satisfaction. Its intensity
combined with its softness, has delighted all the members of that house.
Its effect in the different churches where it has been placed is most excellent.
Clapham church is lighted by one burner, which is composed of 5 concentric
rings, the diameter of which is 11 inches ; this lights the whole church very
beautifully, and so perfectly, that the congregation is able to read in the
shadow near the pillars supporting the galleries. In Christ church, Albany-
street, a more perfect illumination has been produced by two burners than
by the 72 Argand burners previously used there. But one of the most im-
portant advantages of this light is, that it proves a most perfect ventilator.
It is always fixed high up in the room with a large escape pipe over it lead-
ing to the chimney, or externally entering, which carries off all the products
of the combustion of the gas ; without this pipe it is not considered that
Loudon gas can be pleasantly burnt.

THE BOCCIUS LIGHT.

The burner of the Boccius Light consists of one or several concentric
rings ; when more than one is employed, the inner ones rise to a higher
level than the outer, as shown in the annexed engraving, B B, and are
perforated with numerous minute holes, in about the proportion of 60 to a
circle of an inch in diameter. The inner are supplied with gas from the
outer, and to make up for the diminished supply, the holes in the inner are
rather larger. Above the burner at a given distance, two concentric metallic
chimnies (D), are placed, whose diameter is regulated, in great measure, by
that of the outer ring. The chimneys are supported by three wires (C), upon
the glass holders, and surrounding the whole, a glass funnel (F), proceeding
from the level of the burners to the top of the metallic chimneys. The glass
in the smaller burners is perfectly straight ; in the larger ones, slightly bell
shaped at the bottom. When the gas is turned on and lighted, the lower
part of the burner — that is, the rings (BB), and crutch (A), become to
some extent heated, and communicate a portion of their heat to the ascend-
ing gas ; the amount of heat is from the construction (accuracy having been
attained by experience) so nicely adjusted, that no carbon is deposited in
the ring ; but the warm gas escapes, ready to deposit its solid matter o.i a
slight increase of temperature. The cold air, too, hi rushing between the
crutches and rings becomes warmed, and the burner is thus supplied with
hot air, no air being admitted except from the bottom ; it, of coune, can
produce but a very insignificant cooling effect on the flame. The chimnies,
especially the inner one, robs the ascending current of a great portion of its
heat, which it in turn communicates to the upper part of the flame, and
carries the particles of carbon there to an intense temperature, and causes
them ultimately to unite with oxygen. The quantity of air entering is so
regulated by the size of the separate openings, that it produces -.early a per-
fectly cylindrical, instead of a conical flame. From some cause or other, the
reason of which the inventor is unable satisfactorily to explain, the pro-
ducts of combustion are separated from one another, and appear at I I
positions. The ascending current of air between the glass and outer chimney
supports combustion, as of a taper ; when placed between the two chimnies
the taper is extinguished, and re-lighted again when brought over the centra!
aperture. The novelties in arrangement of this lamp are the rising concen-
tric rings and the metallic chimnies. We have in the engraving represented
a large double ring burner in the centre ; the diameter of the outer ring is
5 inches ; and of the inner, 3 inches. This size burner will consume about
55 feet per hour, and be equal to 22 Argand burners, consuming 5 feet per

234

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

hour, or 110 feet ; the saving is, therefore, one half. These burners have
been subjected to the most severe scrutiny ; they have been examined and
tested by some of the most expert experimentalists, and have passed the
ordeal ; and all who have had an opportunity of examining and proving them,
concur in awarding to them the highest praise. The Boccius light has been
introduced in the Birmingham Gallery,1 where both the features and statues
were better seen by a clear than an obscured light. The students there
(and, perhaps, on such a point their evidence is of value), state they can
draw as well by the aid of the Boccius light as with daylight, the shadows
being as perfect as those produced by sunshine. Mr. Moxon's Hall of Com-
merce in Threadneedle-street, is illuminated with this light. It has also
been erected at Charing Cross for some months, where it brilliantly illumines
that great thoroughfare for a considerable distance. The advantages which
the patentee proffers to the public, and proves his light to possess, are,

1st. Obtaining the greatest quantity of light from the least quantity of gas.

2nd. From the small quantity of gas consumed, the trifling amount oi
deleterious gas produced.

3rd. From the same cause the comparatively small amount of heat gene-
rated.

4th. From the complete combustion, the impossibility of escape of the
noxious inflammable gas into the air.

5th. The complete absence of soot and smoke.

6th. The durability of the apparatus, and the ease with which it is man-
aged.

7th The possibility of applying with success, the principle to burners of
all sizes, from one consuming 1 foot, to another consuming 100 per hour.

8th. The easy mode of \entilation it affords, either by placing a ventila-
or in the roof immediately above the light if it communicate with the air.

The light may be seen at any time at the office of the patentee, 14, Duke-
street, Adelphi.

Fig. 1.— Section.

Fig. 2.— Plan.

■ Tins picture gallery was illuminated with the Boccius light forsix weeks,

and gave satisfaction ; it was formerly lighted by 30 bats wings consuming

1,000' feet an hour : but with 3 Boccius burners, consuming 225 feet an hour,

lhle the amount of light was obtained ; thestamary room was, also, lighted

one consuming 75 ttet an hour instead of 22 bats wings, which used to

" 110 Iprt .in linn r

PATEN f'SAOTAPE NOSING.

Patented by Arthur C. Tcpper.

The improvements in lay-
ing down carpets, and other
materials upon stairs and
steps, and in the construc-
tion of stairs and steps, and
for which Mr. Tupper has ob-
obtained a patent, maybe ar-
ranged under two heads : the
Nosing and Stair Rod. In
staircases in present use, and
where landlords will not go
to the expense of having new
nosings, Mr. Tupper proposes
cutting through the tread
obliquely close to the nosing,
as shown in Fig 1., and in.
the slit so made the carpet passes through. To insure support, it is proposed
that the stair-rods be made of an arch-like form, as shown in Fig 2., with the

110 feet an hour.

apex placed under the nosing, it will be tbe means, also, of preventing the
stair rod from bulging and getting out of the " eyes ;" these arch-stair rods
are capable of being ornamented to any extent.

The separate nosings can be made not only
of wood, as wainscot, mahogany, &c, but also
of or-molu, iron, brass, &C. ; and these can.
be applied to stone and wooden stairs. As
regards the fixing. Mr. Tupper proposes using
a wrought iron stud and plate ; but this can,
be effected, also, by screws, bayonet joints,
rings, grooves, &c, so that the carpet, &c. can
be either placed, and the nosing applied over
it, or the nosing moving on hinge, can lift up
and the carpet be placed as usual. The no-
sing so applied, not only preserves the carpet
from the wear caused by the attrition of the
feet, but also takes up less of the fabric used,
as there is a saving of about 2 inches of car-
pet upon every stair ; this method also pre-
vents the carpet from " wabbling about," aad
here it is especially useful in winders and angu-
lar stairs. In these moveable nosings two or
more pieces of metal can be attached, which
can be ornamented to any extent, and fastened
in such a manner, as, when the nosing is fixed
in its place, the carpet is firmly clamped by these " stays," doing away in
this case with stair rods and eyes. It is presumed that the appearance of a
staircase will be greatly improved by this method, as the nosings can be or-
namented and decorated in various ways ; for instance, if a mansion is of
the Elizabethan age, the nosings, as well as the banniater and handrail, cau
be arranged in the beautiful style of that period.

An enlarged model showing a variety of methods of forming the nosing,
is exhibited at the Polytechnic Institution.

I.i nch of the Steam- Fhjoate ••Imirvu.. '—Woolwich, Jun« I.— -This

beautiful firs: class steam-frigate was built on the same >iip in the dockyard
as her sister, the Devastation, which has given such great satisfaction owing
to her seaworthiness and other qualifications, and was launched on the 31st
of May.

The following are the dimensions of the Infernal ■■—

h'eet.
Length between the perpendiculars .. 180

Length of keel for tonnage .. .. 156

Breadth, extreme .. .. ■• 36

Breadih for tonnage .. •■ ■• 35

Breadth, moulded" .. .. •• 35

Depth in engine room . . • • 1

Burden in tons, obi plan, 1058.
Burden in tons, new plan, 1027.

Inches.
0

H
0
8
0

343.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

235

ON THE DECORATION OF THE NEW HOUSES OF
PARLIAMENT.

[The following article is an abridgment of a paper which appeared
in Preiser's Magazine for May last.]

The destruction of the ancient edifice was felt to be a national
calamity. The rebuilding another upon its ruins is the greatest archi-
tectural work of modern times; and now, that it advances towards
completion, we naturally turn our thoughts on its embellishment.

With this design the House of Commons appointed a committee
in 1841 ; and, on the 24th of November following, commissioners were
nominated by Her Majesty, "For the purpose of inquiring whether
advantage might not be taken of the rebuilding of the houses of par-
liament for promoting and encouraging the Hue arts."

The commissioners have now published their iirst report. It is
composed with care, and contains valuable information. Yet, in their
projected plan of decoration I see, with regret, that the commis-
sioners have stumbled over the very threshold of t heir duty.

Justice to those gentlemen demands, however, that their plan
should be stated in their own words.

They say: — " We beg to report our opinion that it should be ex-
pedient that advantage should be taken of the rebuilding of the houses
of parliament for the purpose of promoting and encouraging the fine
arts of the United Kingdom.

" With this view we have, in the first place, directed our attention
to the question, whether it would be expedient that fresco-painting
should be employed in the decoration of the new houses of parlia-
ment; but we have not been able to satisfy oiu selves that the art of
fresco-painting has hitherto been sufficiently cultivated in this country
to justify us in at once recommending that it should be employed.
In order, however, to assist us in forming a judgment on t his matter,
we propose that artists should be invited to enter into competitions of
cartoons.

" As fresco-painting has not hitherto been much practised in this
country, and as, therefore, candidates for employment in that mode of
painting, whatever their general skill may be, will probably find it
necessary to make preparatory essays, her majesty's commissioners
think it expedient that I he plan which they hare resolved to adopt in
order to decide on the qualifications of Hitch candidate* should be an-
iiounct d forth with.

" Three premiums of 300/. each, three premiums of 200/, each,
and five premiums of HlO/. each, will be given to the artists who will
furnish cartoons which shall be respectively deemed worthy of one or
other of such premiums, by judges to be appointed to decide on the
relative merits of the works. The drawings to be executed in chalk
or in charcoal, or in similar materia], hut without colours.

" The plan which may be adopted in order to decide on the merits
of the candidates for employment as oil-painters, and as sculptors,
will be announced at a future period."

Further, the commissioners determine that the subjects of these
cartoons shall be chosen from English history, or from the works of
Spencer, Shakspeare, or Milton.

In the consideration of this plan, I do not presume to instruct the
architect, the sculptor, or the painter, but I address myself to the
public's feeling, taste, and sense, by which this plan, with the works
executed under ils authority, must eventually be approved of or con-
demned.

The royal commissioners were nominated for two objects : first, to
consider of the decoration of the houses of parliament; and, se-
condly, of the promotion of the fine arts of the United Kingdom.

Let us then examine how these objects are to be attained by the
plan proposed.

The first and principal end is undoubtedly the adornment of the
seat of the legislature by works worthy of the edifice, the nation, and
the age. While instrumental and auxiliary to this, the tine arts of the
country were to be employed, and by employment, to be encouraged.

Now the plan proposed inverts this design, for it forgets what is
due to parliament in its eagerness to introduce a special branch of
art. It gives "the first place" and consideration to painting in fresco,
while it admits this art not to have been sufficiently cultivated to
justify ils immediate employment.

In the useful, no less than in the ornamental arts, we see by daily
experience, that the less the practice, the more the risk of failure.

But in this mode of painting hitherto unpractised, where every
part has yet t be learned, and can be learned in no other way than by
long experience and repeated trials, failures in the beginning are not
merely probable but unavoidable.

Are the walls of parliament a fit place for the trial of a new art !

Are the 'prentice hands of painters to be employed, where nothing

ought (o be admitted but what is of the highest excellence our arts
have attained to ?

Is parliament, I demand, to be made the " txperimtntiim in corpore
i'i/i ?"

This were to sacrifice the end to the means — the embellishment of
this national edifice to the patronage of a new art— certain to disgrace
what it meant to adorn.

The second object of the commission was to promote tbe sculpture
and painting of our country.

Consider, next, how this "Plan" can promote them. It attempts to
introduce a branch of art practically unknown, or known only by some
poor failures.

To this " the first consideration " has been given. To this are of-
fered premiums and employment. Meanwhile, all other branches of
art are to be postponed, and the " Plan " as to them is to be announced
at a future period.

Now how can this unknown mode of painting promote those
wherein our artists practically excel '.

If the preference be given in the hope that, with the advancement
of fresco-painting-, historical painting will follow, then the plan over-
looks an essential condition, namely, that such a result must be the
work of time— probably of ages. Whereas, the commissioners werf
nominated for a special purpose — the decoration of the new houses
of parliament, now in progress towards completion.

Is it wise, then, to pospone all those forms of art in which we ac-
tually excel for so distant and doubtful a result? Or do the commis-
sioners expect artists of established reputation will take up a naw
branch of painting, beset with difficulties, even in the material on
which they are to work '.

What man of sense would risk a well-earned fame by a public ex-
posure where failure is certain ?

The preference, therefore, given by this plan to fresco-painting,
will tend to exclude men of distinguished merit, and thus narrow
competition to such as have yet a name to gain; possibly modest men
of sk;ll, more probably, bold adventurers ready for any job.

Or it may exclude entirely our native artists, to throw employment
in the hands of foreigners, eagerly on the watch to grasp at the oc-
casion.

Still the contradictious between this "Plan" and its professed pur-
poses are forgotten in the absurdities that mark its manner of exe-
cution. The commissioners evidently mistrust their favourite project.
" They are not satisfied that fresco-painting has been sufficiently
cultivated to justify them in recommending its employment.

" They admit that artists, whatever their general skill may be, will
probably find it necessary to make preparatory essays."

Here is a difficulty, indeed, and how do tbe commissioners get over
it?

They offer £2000 divided into eleven premiums, for tbe best car-
toons or drawings " in chalk or in charcoal without colours." These
drawings are to serve the double purpose of " preparatory essays,"
and to enable the commissioners, or those they shall nominate, " to
judge of the qualifications of candidates."

Let us pause here for reflection. Have the commissioners ever
seen or heard of any ait, introduced and brought to such eminence as
should fit it for a great national work by mere "preparatory essays?"
Have they forgotten that this very art of painting in fresco attained
its excellence in Italy by the genius and labours of successive genera-
tions? Do they not see that they are setting artists to work without
masters to show them where they will encounter, and how they are to
overcome, the endless difficulties that beset the fresco-painter at
every step ?

The commissione's strive at what is unattainable. For no branch
of painting ever has attained excellence, without genius to invent,
labour to execute, masters to teach, models for imitation, schools for
the principles, and practice, and lime, that in ait extends through
ages for the accomplishment.

In the place of all these stand " Preparatory Essays." What, then,
are those preparatory essays that are to work such marvels, whereon
.£2000 are to be expended, at once designed to teacli artists how to
paint in fresco, and the commissioners to judge of their ability ? Are
they to be paintings in fresco? No. For this were impracticable,
unless walls had first been built, and plastered to practice on. Are
they to be paintings at all? No: they are to be merely " drawings
in chalk or in charcoal without colours."

Now will the commissioners condescend to inform the public how-
drawings upon paper or canvass are to teacli the art of painting on
plaster '. The drawings may possess every quality of design, yet
their designers be utterly incapable to paint tbem in fresco. Sup-
pose, for instance, that Raft'aelle's cartoon of the " Schools of Athens "
were placed in the hands of an unpractised artist, is there any one so

236

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JULT,

simple as to believe (hat, presently, he would be invested with ability
to paint the famed fresco on the Vatican? It is true the drawings
will show the choice of subjects and manner of treating them, but
they will show no more. They cannot prove the artist's power to
transfer, embody, and permanently fix his colours into a material so
untraceable and capricious as a plastered wall.

Whoever, like myself, has watched the slow progress of a fresco-
painting, from the "tracing" to the last touch, knows well that it is a
process beset with difficulties at every step, unknown in other branches
of the art, and to be learned and overcome by years of patient labour.
Yet upon this false notion the commissioners have resolved to rest
their judgment, and expend ,£2000.

What motives could have induced the Italian masters to have per-
sisted in the use of a material so unmanageable, capricious, and pe-
rishable as stucco; at the best but a cheap and mean imitation of
marble? To answer this question, we must consider the various ma-
terials used as grounds for painting. These have beeu vellum, paper,
glass, ivory, marble, porcelain, copper, panel, canvass, and stucco.
For works of magnitude, the three last, panel, canvass, and stucco,
have superseded the rest. They were simultaneously used. But in
the early times of oil-painting, panel was preferred, not only for its
durability, but because it enabled the painter to enrich his figures
with inlaid jewels, pearls, and gold, agreeable to a custom transmitted
from remote antiquity. Though subject to rend, to warp, and to be
worm-eaten, panel is the most durable of these three substances.
The oldest works in the best preservation are those on panel. Many
are yet extant, on which 300 vears have wrought no visible decay.

Canvass possesses many peculiar qualities as a ground for painting.
It may be woven of any size and texture; it is light, cheap, and easy of
tr nsport, for we must not forget that paintings form an article of
commerce. It may be stretched if shrunk, and what is truly admi-
rable, when rotten or worn out, it may be severed from the painting,
and replaced by new: an invention that has bestowed upon canvass
paintings the durability of those on panel, and has already saved
from crumbling to dust many precious works. Light, then, as the
fabric is, canvass paintings bave lasted for centuries; and if frescos
are older, it is not that stucco is fitter to preserve them, but because
painting in oils was an art invented or recovered in later times. Ha-
ving these substances in daily use, the question then returns, what
motives could the Italian painters have had for persisting to paint on
stuccoed walls, while some are said to have preferred them.

Let us next proceed to the inquiry, in what manner sculpture and
painting may be most suitably employed in adorning the magnificent
seat of our legislature, by works worthy of its destinies, of the empire,
and the age.

Whoever will be at the pains to duly reflect upon this subject will
find himself drawn to the conclusion, that these objects are not to be
attained otherwise than by the employment of those branches of the
arts wherein we have already attained to excellence. Now the
sculptors and painters of our country possess unrivalled pre-eminence
throughout Europe for statues and portraits. But here the question
comes, are statues and portraits the most suitable decorations for the
houses of parliament? We shall find the answer in the customs of
mankind. No custom wherein the fine arts have borne a part has been
more anciently or generally established, than for halls of council to be
adorned with the effigies of illustrious men.

In the free states of Greece this custom served as the memorial,
the reward, and the incentive to noble deeds.

In Rome it rose to the dignity of a political institution, placed
under the jurisdiction of the senate. Whence it was copied by the
municipal councils of that empire. The nations who formed king-
doms out of its conquered provinces preserved the usage where their
arts would permit. The Italian republics gave the custom the sanc-
tion of law. Undoubtedly, then, such ornaments must have been in
harmony with the feelings of free nations. Still more is required.
The custom ought to be congenial to the habits of England. Let us
recall what we possess in this sort. We see in Westminster, in the
cathedrals, even in the parish churches, how rich England is in monu-
mental statues, and how charmingly they harmonise with architec-
ture.

In our ancient cities where is the council-chamber without portraits
of honoured citizens? Where is the college-hall unadorned with the
likenesses of its founders and benefactors? Where is the ancient
mansion without its family gallery?

The custom, then, is truly English. Shall a usage so honoured, in-
terwoven with all we hold dear, find no place in parliament, where
are concentrated the ranks, intellects, and feelings of the country ?
Shall its adoption by the senates of antiquity, whose attainments in the
fine arts we are now vying to emulate, be of no weight, not even to pre-
fer the memorials of departed worth to the projects of unknown men?

In sculpture and painting it will be found that the likenesses of the
renowned dead affect the feelings more deeply and lastingly than the
loftiest creations of fancy, even when their subjects are chosen from
actual events.

A comparison taken from the highest works of art will best explain
this principle. Whoever has resided at Rome may have seen the
frescos of Raffaelle in the Vatican, and probably passed onward to
the gallery of statuary where are arranged the sages and statesmen of
Greece. In the frescos are seen the designs of the loftiest genius
expressed with consummate art. In the statues are seen in the cold
marble the features and expressions of those mighty men of old
whose names bave been familiar to us from boyhood, whose fame still
fills the world, perchance whose intellect may have guided our own.

The paintings charm and excite, the statues calm the feelings, and
lead the mind onward through grave trains of thought. Which of
these conditions is most suitable in senates and courts of justice ?

Nor is this difference due to the contrast of painting with sculpture,
for substitute portraits for statues, and we may observe a similar ef-
fect. Both are triumphs of simple truths long treasured in our minds,
over the utmost powers of invention.

And here I cannot let slip the occasion to remark, that France and
Germany are now employed in reviving this wise and noble custom of
antiquity, each applying it to their respective conditions. France
has devoted the deserted palace of Versailles to place the statues and
portraits of her illustrious men, and by this act the present generation
have done their utmost to repair the ravages of the last.

The plan is admirable for comprehension and arrangement. There
are seen the kings, warriors, statesmen, presidents of parliaments, and
whoever was renowned in times authentic and known, all classed and
arranged.

The Walhalla, erected by the king of Bavaria, is a similar design
to commemorate the renowned men of Germany.

I do not cite these national works as models to be followed by
England, but as proofs how the spirit of antiquity still lives in mo-
dern times.

These principles stated, I submit the following outline of a plan;
for an outline is all that can be offered, yet distinct enough for precise
ideas, which failing to satisfy the judgment may perhaps hereafter
serve for some happier suggestion.

1. The subjects for sculpture and painting should be chosen from
the constitution of parliament itself, and in a manner to illustrate its
history.

By a gallery of the kings of England represented in statues of
marble, arranged in the order of time.

For in all ages, in fact as in law, the sovereign has been the " prin-
Cipitim <//«/«" of our parliaments.

The series should begin with Alfred, as founder of the English
monarchy, by union of the Saxon states under bis sole dominion ; and
as his memory is revered, for the wisest and best of that long illus-
trious line by his successors to the throne, who claim him as their
common ancestor.

Of the later Danish and Saxon kings, most of whom are known
only by name, a selection should be made; and Athelstan and Canute
merit to be preferred. For the former, by arms and treaties, united
Great Britain under one supreme sovereignty, leaving the more dis-
tant provinces under the immediate rule of their native princes and
laws — an event that imperial Rome bad contended for in vain during
300 years. And the latter was the most powerful monarch of his
age : under him the rival races of Saxons and Danes were united by
equal laws.

From the conquest until the reign of her present majesty, a statue
should be erected to each sovereign.

2. I propose that an historic gallery be formed in portraits of the
most distinguished members of the House of Peers, arranged in the
order of time, less to commemorate individuals than to illustrate
the institution — in former ages, the guardian of public and private
rights against the usurpations of monarchy; in our own, against those
of the populace ; holding the balance between custom and change,
principles that contend for the government of society.

3. I propose a similar gallery of portraits of those who have been
the most distinguished members of the commons.

The series must begin with the reign of Elizabeth.

Lastly, adhering to the constitution of parliament, another gallery
falls to be added of the most eminent judges of the land.

In fine, this plan consists of historic galleries to be formed from
past and future times. And as the age is more distant from our own,
the easier will the choice become, for then it will be guided by es-
tablished renown.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

237

THE FRENCH AND BELGIAN RAILWAYS.

We are indebted for the following interesting and valuable paper
to Mr. Flanagan, a young engineer of considerable talent, who
has of late had much practice both in Belgium and France, in esti-
mating and superintending engineering works ; it is a document which
shows with what minuteness the continental railway engineers pre-
pare all their details, and likewise gives some idea of the cost of
railway works on the continent. The scale of prices is low, as the
tender which was accepted only allowed half per cent off the sche-
dule.

The method of proceeding with contracts for public works in
France and likewise in Belgium, is in the following manner. The en-
gineer of the line prepares his contract drawings, which are executed
with great minuteness — he then prepares a schedule of prices in de-
tail, and the quantities of the works necessary to be done on the line
as per annexed list. Tenders are then advertised for. The parties
tendering have to state what per centage he will take off from the
schedule of prices, not upon any individual price but upon the whole ;
this method is analogous to the form of tendering for works to be
done for the Ordnance and Government in this country. After the
tenders are received they are immediately taken into consideration,
and the party whose tender is accepted is called in and informed of
the result; an appointment is then made with the engineer and con-
tractor to go over the country of the proposed line of railway, which
the engineer describes to the contractor, and at the same time furnishes
the latter with a bill of quantities priced out according to the schedule of
prices ; after going over the line, the contractor is allowed from four-
teen to twenty days to examine the quantities, and if no error greater
than one-sixth can be discovered the contract is considered binding,
but if any error is discovered an allowance is made; but after the
contract is concluded, at the end of the fourteen or twenty days as
the case may be, it is binding upon the contractor, notwithstanding
any error may be found out afterwards. We should also state that
the contract is subsequently sent to the minister of public works, who
has the sole power of rescinding it if he thinks proper.

In this translation the French measures and currency have been retained.
They may easily be reduced to their respective values in this country by
taking in round numbers the cubic metre as equal to 1J cubic yard and the
franc as equal to lOrf. ; thus the first figure in the decimal part represents as
many pence as it has digits. The lineal metre is nearly 3 ft. 3 j in.

BASIS OF THE PRICES.

WAGES PER DAY.

Not including Including
tools 8c profit tools & profit
of contractor, of contractor.

Navigator for getting and tilling . .

Navigator for wheeling

Stone cutter and setter

Assistant stone cutter and setter

Ordinary mason

Labourer

Superintendent of mortars and betons . .

Carpenter, sawyer, and joiner

Paviour . . . . . .

Assistant paviour , . . .

Smith

Assistant smith

Painter . . . .

Slater

Assistant slater . . . .

One horse and cart including driver

Two horses ditto

Three horses ditto . .

1st Division. — Earthwork.
The earthwork to be measured in the cuttings per cubic metre.
No. 1. — Getting and Filling ; or one spade's throw every kind of
soil and every thing included, per c. m.
In transverse section, No. 1 to 44 .. .. ..

Ditto 44 to 108

Ditto 108 to 356

Ditto 356 to 470

Ditto 470 to 581

N.B. These prices for getting and filling will be applied without

*> S

2-95

325

2-15

248

4-00

4-62

3-00

3-47

3-00

3-47

2-50

2-89

300

3-47

400

4-62

4-00

1-62

3-50

4-04

4-50

5-20

4-00

4-62

3-50

4-04

4-00

4-62

2-75

3-18

700

8-09

12-00

13-86

17-00

19-64

0-65
0-46
0-59
0-46
0-14

any exception, and without its being in the power of the contrac-
tor to demand any other classification than the above.

No. 2. — Wheeling for each relay or run of 30 metres on a level, /;
or of 20 metres on an incline of 1 in 10, per c. m. . . (

No. 3. — Carting for the 1st relay of 100 metres on a level, or of 75
metres on an incline of 1 in 20, per c. in. .. .. (

No. 4.— Carting every relay after the first, of a 100 metres on a
level, or of 75 metres on an incline of 1 in 20, per c. m. . . (

If the centre of gravity of the cutting is on the same level, or
higher than that of the corresponding embankment, the distance
between the centres of gravity will he taken for the distance of
carriage ; if the centre of gravity of the cutting is lower than tha
of the embankment, it will be considered that the difference of
level has been surmounted in ascending inclines of 1 in 20 for
carts, and of 1 in 10 for barrows, and that then the carriage has
been completed on a horizontal plane. The length of lead is
taken in the vertical plane passing through the two centres of
gravity. It is only when the distance between the centres of
gravity is such that it is necessary to divert in order to obtain
inclines of 1 in 20 for carts and of 1 in 10 for barrows, that such
diversions will he paid for.
The fractions of relays will be counted by -]-.

No. 5. Carriage bg Wagons. — The price will be determined by the
following formula :
a? equal to 2-50Lx 3D + 3-75R + 2-50C + 300 + 0-0000355 (L +

1-50D + C + 300) +0-000389/+ 0-122 divided by m.
in which
L is the distance between the commencement of the cutting and

the extremity of the embankment.
D, the length of the cutting.
R, the length of the embankment.
m, the cubic quantity of earthwork, measured at the cutting, to

be tipped.
I, the horizontal distance between the centres of gravity of the

cutting and embankment.
C, the length of sidings.

The value of the letters which enter into this formula will be
fixed for each cutting.

No. 6. — Spreading of a cubic metre of embankment in beds of
0-15 m. to 0-20, including trimming and dressing of slopes . . C

When wagons and temporary railways are used, no price will be
allowed for spreading, as it is included in the price allowed for
the embankments formed in this manner.

No. 7. — Ramming or Punning the embankments in beds of 0-15 »i.
to 0-20 m. thick, when the engineer considers it necessary, will
be paid for per cm. .. .. . . , ,

Previous to ramming, the soil must be properly watered

The rammer must weigh 4 kilogrammes (9 lb.), and must strike

at least four times the same spot.

The engineer reserves the right of having the ramming done at

the direct expense of the administration, by day work.

No. 8. — Refilling, per cm. .. . . . . . , (J

No. 9. — The picking out and laying aside the rubble and gravel
found in the cuttings will be paid for per c m. . , . . 0

2nd Division. — Paving the Crossings and their Approaches.

No. 10. — Siliceous gravel for roads, and beton broken to the re-
quired dimensions.

Compensation for land . . , . , , 0-25

Picking and breaking the large stones .. 1-70

Filling .. .. .. .. 0-17

Carriage to the distance of 2000 metres . . 1-64

Laying aside in heaps .. ,, .. 0-15

3-910
0-196

4-106
OtlO

Tools, &c. v£r. . . . . . ,

Profits of contractor, -fe . . ■ . i

Price per cubic metre .. .. . . 1516 4*52

No. 11. — Breaking stone, found in the gravel of cuttings,

to the required dimensions of 0-06 m. in every direction 0-350

Tools, &c. tjV .. .. .. 0-017

Profit^

Per cubic metre

No. 12. — Making macadamised roads, including the dres-
sing and ramming of the bed

No. 13. — Sand from the sand pits of Brenil le See and de
l'Ecquipee, to be used between transverse sections,
No. 1 and 230.
Price at the sand pits ,, ,, ,,

0367
0037

0-404 0-40

32*

238

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

Filling, &<*.

Carriage to (lie average distance of I'lOO i

Tools, &c. j'j

Profit T';j

Per cubic metre
No. II. — From Erquiinvillers, lo lie used between
verse sections 230 and 330
Price at the pit, filling, &c, as in preceding
Carriage to the average distance of 6 kilometres

Profit Vo • •

No. 15.— Sand from the pits of Blin and St. I'irmin, to be
used between transverse sections 330 and 5H1
Price at tbe pit, filling, &c, as in No. 13
Carriage to the average distance of 1500 metre

Tools, &c. A

Profit tV • •

Price of a cubic met re
No. 16.— Paving stones per thousand, from the quarries
of Blaincourt, to be used between transverse sections
No. 1 and 83.
Price at the quarries
Filling and laying the stones aside
Carriage on average distance of 13 kilometres; (a cart
drawn by 3 horses will make 13 trips in 15 days, cu-
rving HI paving stones per trip)

Tools &c. r

Profit -rV ••

Price per thousand
No. 17. — Paving stones from the quarries ot (.amies, lo
be used between transverse sections No. 85 and 581.
Price at the quarries
Loading and lav ing tin -

Carriage to the average distance of in kilometres; a
.'(.horse cart loaded with 84 paving stones, will make
4 trips in 3 days

Tool-, &c. ,'

Profit of contractu! ,',,

Price of a thousand slow
No. 18.— Having between transverse sections 1 and
18 paving stones at 139-38 pel thousand ee No. 1'.
11 -' i n ni sand al I ■-' [see No. 13)
Labour, dressing and ramming the bed, tools, and profil
of contractor

Price pci Miputii i,,| metre
No. 19. Paving between transvci - section 85 and 230.
18 paving stones al 349-39 pel thousand i No. 171

Sand as in No. IS
Labour, &c. as in No. IS

Per superficial untie

Paving between transvci e sei lious 230 & 3 10.
Js paving stones as in preceding
0-25 ot sand at 5-59 per cubic metre No. 1 I)
Labour. &c. as in preceding

Per superficial metre
No- ^-—Paving between transverse sections 330 ,\ 581.
lb pavmg stones as in ,N0. 19
0'25 of sand at 1-54 per cubic metre : No. 15

Jr. r.
0.30
2-245

3045
0152

3197

0-320

0-80
104

4-84
024

5-08

II. M

0-80
313

3-930
0197

■1127
0-413

152-

391-59

2610

11762
41-76

It"
6-

317-63

8-26

II SS

0-35

628
0-88
0-35

6-28

1-397

0-35

8027

6-28
1-135

9-49

751

Labour, &c. as iu preceding

Per superficial metre
No. 22. — The taking up of a paved road, including tbe
carriage of tbe old paving stones lo the new road to be
formed, and the picking and dressing of these stones
will be paid for per superficial metre

on! Division. — Works ok Art.

No. 23. — Oak, including carriage, dressing, waste tools,

and profit of contractor per cubic metre
No. 24.— Cradle of oak planks of 015 by 003 to 0-03,

dressed on the banks, and used in the platfoims of

bridges, exclusive of spikes, per cubic metre
No. 25.— Oak capping piece for cradle.

Sawing oak

Loading, carriage, and unloading

Dressing and fixing under water

14 spikes, weighing together 0 90 killograintiic at 1-30

Tools, &e. -;i-

Prolits Vn • •

0059 of oak (sec No. 25; at B5 fi.

No. 26.— Piles. Preparing the head, fixing the shoe, and
cutting otf the pile
Tools, &c. —

Profit of contractor —

Each pile
No. 27. — Oak waling-piece far the cradle.
Sawing, sawyer 1 hour
Loading, carriage and unloading

Dressing it, and fixing it under water lo the piles by
bolts .. .. .. ..

Tools -jL

l'lo of oak (sec No. 23,1 at S3 fr.

Price per cubic metre

No. 28. — Iron funned into a chain for suspension bridges.
Iron wire dipped twice iu linseed oil including the ma-
king of the chain, and two coats of paint, tbe first to
be of red bad, adjusting the chains, every thing in-
cluded jier kilogramme

No. 29. — Oak sheet piling with herring bone joints, not
including driving.
Rawing oak

Loading, carriage, unloading, cNc.
Preparing the bead of the pile, and joints, fixing the
shoe, and cutting of)' the pile

012 oak at 85 fr.

Price per square metre

No. 30. — Centres of oak, including the lixiug of the cen-
tres and all labour, the oak being returned to the con-
tractor, per cubic metre

No. 31. — Every time after the first that the same timber
■ s used, per cubic metre

No. 32 — Carpentry of oak fixed a"nd dressed, pel cm.

No. 33. — Cast iron per kilogramme, (2-2 lb.) cast iron
' No. 2 in bridges, &c.

No. 34. — Pipes of grey cast iron No. 2, of the dimensions
prescribed, including living, joints. Kc.

No. 35. — Iron for shoes of piles

No. 36. — Wrought iron railing, iNc.

0 60
010

1-2(1

3-377
0-338
5 015

1-20
012

1-32
013

0-40

1-50

23-50
2-35

25-85
2-50

28-44
93-50

n to

018

2-70
027

2-97
0-297

3-267
10-20

13167 13-47

22-
130-

0-4U
0-85
110

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

No. 3". — Iron for bolts, spikes, nails, &.C.

No. 38. — Lbad used for lending, including charcoal, la-
bour, &c, jier kilogramme

No. 39. — Solder per kilogramme

No. -10. — Hydraulic lime per c. /«.

Quick lime at the works, per c. m. . . 50-

Slacking, whatever be the method employed . . 1-60

Price for 1-33 m. of slacked lime .. .. 51-60

Or for one cubic metre
Mo. 41. — A cubic metre of mortar between transverse
sections 1 and 230.

1 m. of sand at 3-52 (see No. 13.) .. .. 3-52

0-35 of slacked hydraulic lime, at 38-80 (see -10.) 13-58

Labour including tools, profit, &c. . . . . 2.00

No. 42. — Mortar between transverse sections 230 & 330.

1 w. of sand at 5-59 (see No. 14.) .. .. 5-59

0-35 of slacked hydraulic lime (see No. 10.) . . 13-58

Mixing, &c. . • • • • • 2-

Per cubic metre
No. 43. — Mortar between transverse section 330 & 581.

1 m. of sand at 4-54 (No. 15.) . . . . 4-54

0-35 of slacked lime .. .. .. 13-58

Mixing and profits . . . . . . 2-00

Per cubic metre

No. 44. — Be/on to be used between transverse section
No. 1 and 230, per c. m.

0-80 m. of broken stone, at 4-52 (No. 10.) . . 3'62

0-50 of mortar, at 19-10 (No. 40.) . . . . 9-55

Mixing, carriage, ramming, &c. . . . . 3-50

Per cubic metre

If it be found necessary to use beton between trans-
verse sections 230 and 581, the above will be the price
allowed, making the price of the mortar alone vary ac-
cording to the place.

No. 45. — " Sand l/e/on " between transverse section No.
1 and 230.

1 m. of saud at 3-52 (No. 13.) . . . . 3'52

0-15 of hydraulic lime at 38-80 (No. 40.) .. 5-82

Mixing, carriage, ramming, &c. . . . . 3-

Per cubic metre

This will be the price allowed on the whole length of
the contract, changing only the price of the sand accord-
ing to the place where the beton is wanting.

Stone per cubic metre.

No. 46. — Ashler for the two viaducts over No. 7 and
No. 8, and the bridge No. 12 over the Breche.
Stone at the quarry of St. Maximin, including the use
of tools, and profit of contractor . . . . 33-

Loading and carriage, average distance 21 kilometres 22-

No. 17. — Viaducts 27 and 28.

Stone at the quarry of St. Maximin . . 33-

Loading and carriage, average distance 37 kilometres 35-

No. 48. — To be used between transverse section No. 1
and 330

Stone (Vergellc) at the quarry at Mello . . 10-

Loading and carriage, average distance 24 kilometres 24-

No. 49. — To be used between 1 and 330.

Stone at the quarry La Gache . . . . 30'

Loading and carriage, average distance 10 kilometre;. 14-

No. 50. — Between 1 and 330 (Vergele.)

Stone at the quarry La Gache . . .. 12-

Loading and carriage, as in preceding . . 14-

No. 51.— Same between 330 and 490.

Stone at the quarry, as last . . . . 12"

Carriage, &c, average distance 25 kilometres . . 25-

No. 52. — Between transverse sections 330 and 490.

Stone at tlie quarry Blancfosse .. .. 30-

Loading and carriage, average distance 12 kilometres 17'

No. 53. — Between transverse section 190 and 581.

Stone at the quarry Faloisc .. .. 30-

1-20
0-55

15-

30-
17-

Loading and carriage, average distance 10 kit mi

No. 54. — Between transverse section 330 and 490.
Large hard stone for foundations, at the quarry
Blancfosse
Loading and carriage, as in No. 52

No. 55. — Between transverse section 330 and 490.
Stone for foundations at the quarry Cannes
Loading and carriage, average distance 14 kilometres

No. 56. — Between transverse section 1 and 80.

Hard rubble stone, at the quarry Bethenconstel . .
Loading and carriage, average distance of 3500 m. &c.

No. 57. — Between transverse section 80 and 330.
Hard rubble stone, at the quarry Agnetz
Loading and carriage, average distance of 8 kilometres,

No. 58 — Between transverse sections 330 and 190.
Hard rubble stone, at the quarries Blancfosse
Carriage, average distance 12 kilometres, &c.

No. 59. — Between transverse sections 490 and 581.
Hard rubble stone, at the quarries I'aloise
Carriage, average distance 10 kilometres, &c.

No. 60. — Hard rubble stone, from between transverse
section 245 and 390.

Hard rubble stone, at the quarries St. Just .. 200

Carriage, average distance 4 kilometres, &c. . . 4-50

No. 61. — Between transverse sections 490 and 581.
Hard rubble stone, at the quarries Bimont
Carriage, average distance 10 kilometres

239

fr. C

4a-

2-

8-80

2-50
7-50

2-00
7-08

Masonry.

The price of stoue for ashler in the following items,
No. 62 to 69 is calculated from the prices No. 46 to 51,

with -16 or near £ added for waste.
No. 62. — For the viaducts No. 7 and 8, and the bridge.

1-16 of stone, St. Maximin, at 55 fr. (No. 46)

0-11 of mortar, at 19-10 fr. (No. 41) . .

Labour, including use of tools and profits

No. 63.— The viaducts No. 27 and 28.

1-16 of stone, St. Maximin, at 68 fr. (No. 4 7.)
0-11 of mortar, at 21-17 fr. (No. 42) ..
Labour, &c, as No. 62

No. 64. — Between transverse section No. 1 and 330.
1-16 of stoue (Vergele) Mello, at 34 fr. (No. 48) . .
0-11 of mortar, at 201 1 (No. 41 and 42)
Labour, &c. as No. 62

No. 63. — Between transverse sections 1 and 330.
1-16 of stone (roche) La Gache, at 44 fr. (No. 49). .
Mortar and labour as No. 61

No. 66. — Between transverse section 1 and 330.
1-16 of stoue, La Gache, at 26 fr. (No. 50)
Mortar and labour as 64

No. 67. — Between transverse section 330 and 490.
116 of stone, Blancfosse, at 47 fr. (No. 52)
011 of mortar, at 20-12 (No. 43)
Labour, &c. as 62

No. 68.— Between transverse section 490 and 581.
1-16 of stone, Faloise, at 45 fr. (No. 53)
Mortar and labour as 67 (No. 43)

No. 69. — Between transverse section 330 and 490.

1-16 of stone (Vergele) from La Gache, at 37 fr. (No. 51) 42-92
Mortar and labour as 67 • • • • 11"71

Masonry, with the beds and joints worked fair, per cubic metre.

No. 70. — Between transverse section 1 and 330.

Stone, (La Gaelic,) &c. (No. 65) .. .. C2/6

Additional dressing all the beds and joints 15-

63-80
210
9-50

2-33
9-50

39-44
2-22
9-50

51-04
11-72

30-16
11-72

54-52
2-21
9-50

52-20
11-71

240

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Use of tools

Profit -jV

16-50
1-65

18-15

No. 71. — Between transverse section 330 and 490.

Stone of Cannes, &c, as No. 66 . . .. 41-88

Dressing the beds and joints, including use of tools,

profit of contractor .. .. ,. 30-00

No. 72. — Transverse sections 480 and 581.

Stone of Faloise, &c, No. 68 . . . . 63-91

Additional dressing all the beds and joints, including

use of tools, profit, &c. .. .. .. 15*

No. 73. — Between transverse sections 330 and 190.

Ashler stone, mortar, labour, (Blancfosse) &c. as 67 66-23

Dressing all the beds and joints, profit, &c. . . 25-00

Kubblf Masonry per cubic metre.

The following prices of stone in articles Nos. 74 to 79
it will he seen are calculated from the prices of stone de-
tailed in Nos. 50 to 61, and ^ added for waste.
No. 74. — Between transverse sections 1 and HO.

1-10 of rubble stone (Bethenconstel) at 6- (No. 56) 6.60

0-333 of mortar, at 19-10 (No. 41) .. .. 633

Labour, use of tools, and profit . . . . 3-50

No. 75. — Between transverse sections 80 and 330.

1-10 of rubble (Agnetz) at 7-75 (No. 57) . . 8-53

0-333 of mortar, at 20-14 (No. 41.) .. .. t.71

Labour, &c. . . . . . . 3-50

No. 70. — Between transverse sections 330 and 490.

1-10 of rubble (Blancfosse) at 10-80 (No. 58) . . 11-88

Mortar, labour, &c. .. .. .. 10 21

No. 77. — Between transverse sections 330 and 490.

1-10 of rubble (St. Just) at 6-50 (No. 60) .. 715

Mortar, labour, &c., as 75 .. .. 10-21

No. 78. — Between transverse sections 490 and 581.

1-10 of rubble (Faloise) at 10 (No. 59.) .. 11-

Mortar, labour, &c. (No. 75) .. .. 10 21

No. 79. — Between transverse sections 490 and 581.

1-10 of rubble stones (Bimont) at 9-08 (No. 61) . . 9-99

Mortar, labour, <\c. as No. 75 .. .. 1027

If the rubble masonry be hammer dressed add per

cubic metre on Nos. 74 to 79 .. .. ,,

No. 80. — Dry rubble work, per c. m.

Stone rubble from Bethenconstel quarries, including -A, for waste,

no labour, see No. 74, between transverse sections, Nos. 1 and 80

Ditto Agnetz . . 80 and 330

Ditto Blancfosse .. 330 and 490

Ditto St. Just .. 330 and 490

Ditto Faloise .. 490 and 581

Ditto Bimont .. 190 and 581

To the above price add for labour, tools, profits, &-c. . .

No. 81. — Labour, per superficial metre.

Dressing of ashler (hard stone) from the quarries of St. Maxi-
min, on the face and beds, including pointing, use of tools and
profit . . . . . .

Ditto, Mello quarries

Ditto, from the quarry of Blancfosse . . . . . .

Ditto Faloise .. .. ..

No. 82. — Pick-dressing rubble including pointing, use of tools,
profit, &c. viz.

For rubble stone from La Cache, Mello
Ditto Blancfosse

Ditto Faloise . .

No. 83. — Rough hammer dressing of rubble (ileroc/ie) including
pointing, profits, &c. . . . .

Ditto, for the rubble from the quarries of Blancfosse, St. Just,
and Faloise
No. 81. — When the rubble is merely dressed and the pointing is
not included, 0-25 will be deducted from the last two prices.

Stone Paving, per superficial metre, of the usual paving stones

split in two, imbedded in hydraulic mortar.
No. bO.— Ten paving stones of the usual form, including waste, at

78-91

17-36

20-20
1-50

6-60
8-53

11-88
715

11-
9-99
1-75

2-50
300
200

1-50

1-10

349-39 the thousand (No. 17)

0-05 of mortar at 20-12 (No. 43)

Splitting the paving stones, dressing them, and forming

the basement, &c. .. .. .. 1-35

fr.c.
3-49
101

No. 86. — Bank or mound with covered drains for embanked roads,

profits, «S:c. per lineal metre
No. 87. — Curb stones for footways, including dressing, carriage,
and mortar,/;*/- lineal metre, of stone from St. Maximin
Ditto . . . . La Gache

Ditto . . . . Blancfosse

Ditto .. .. Faloise

Stone for Macadamised Roads.
No. 88. — One metre of rubble stones, average price . . 8-35

Carriage, labour, tools, profits, &c. . . . . 0-95

Per superficial metre

Brickwork, per cubic metre.

No. 89. — Between transverse sections 330 and 581.

720 bricks at 41-50 the thousand .. 29-88

025 of niortur at 20-12 (No. 43) .. 5-03

Labour, including pointing, use of tools, profits, &c. 11-50

No. 90. — Pulliny down old structures of stone, clearing the site,
carriage to the average distance of 100 metres, and carrying
away the rubbish, per cubic metre ..
No. 91. — Ditto where the building is of rubble masonry
No. 92. — Covering arches, &c. with a layer of " mortar of beton "
per superficial metre.

005 metre of beton at 1667 (detail No. 44) . . 0-83

003 of " sand beton " at 1 2-34 (No. 45 j . . 0-37

Labour, spreading evenly each layer, use of tools, profit
included .. .. .. .. 1-50

Asi'Halte, per superficial metre.

No. 93. — For covering arches with a layer 001 m. in thickness
No. 94. — Ditto for footways, the thickness being 0-015 m. includ-
ing profits, &c. . . . . . . . .

No. 95. — Fencing 130 m. high, per lineal metre, con-
sisting of posts, rails, and iron wire, labour included 1-40
Profit tV .. .. .. .. 014

No. 96. — Caulking, per lineal metre, the cradle serving as coffer-
dam, including profit, &c. . . . . . .

No. 97. — Pitching, per superficial metre. .

No. 98. — Tarpauling, of bituminous cloth, the thickness of the
coating being 00065 m., per superficial metre ,. ,,

No. 99. — Jiesinous composition (" galipot ") consisting of one part
of grease with 2J of resin, per kilogramme

No. 100. — Ditto per square metre, including labour and one kilo-
gramme of " galipot "

No. 101. — Painting in three coats for all colours, on wood and
iron, per superficial metre . . ,, ,,

N.B. The first coat on iron to be in red lead.

5-85
300

6-
5-75

0-60
1-50

1-6)

0-75

0-95

1-20

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENOINBERft
February 28. — The President in the Chair. — (Continued.)
" Account of the Victoria Bridge, erected across the riecr Wear, on the
line of the Durham Junction Hallway." Bv David Brcmner, Associate
lust. C. E.

The district through which the Durham Junction Railway passes, for the
purpose of completing the connexion between the city of Durham, with the
towns of Newcastle, South Shields, and Sunderland, is extensively under-
mined by coal-workings, and great caution was requisite in the selection of a
spot which suited the level of the railway, and where a foundation could be
formed sufficiently sound to support such a structure as the bridge described
in the paper. The advice of Messrs. Walker and Burges was therefore
sought by Mr. Harrison, the engineer of the line, and their design was
adopted ; but subsequently several alterations were made, either to favour
the locality or from motives of economy.

The bridge is 810 feet 9 inches long, and 21 feet wide, between the para-
pets. It is, with the exception of the quoins of the main arches, built of
freestone, from the Pensher quarries ; there arc three semicircular arches, of
Ml feet, 100 feet, and CO feet span respectively, a centre arch of 160 feet

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEIjR AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

241

span, with a radius of 72 feet, and three arches of 20 feet span each at
either end, forming the abutments. The main pier is founded upon rock,
24 feet heneath the bed of the river ; and the height from the foundation to
the top of the parapet is l.riG feet 6 inches ; the under side of the main arch,
at the crown, is thus 121 feet 9 inches above the level of the sea.

The paper describes at length the nature of the building materials em-
ployed, the dressing of the stones, the composition of the mortar, the ge-
neral detail and dimensions of the construction, the centering of the arches,
with the precautions used in striking them, and gives a very full account of
the travelling and other cranes employed in the construction ; these are
stated to have been very efficient. The north arch, of 100 feet span, con-
taining about 980 tons of stone, was entirely turned with two of the cranes,
in 28 hours, giving an average weight of 1 7 -J tons of stone laid by each
crane per hour.

The perseverance and practical skill of Messrs. Gibb, of Aberdeen, the
contractors, are particularly mentioned, as the difficulties attending the get-
ting down the foundations, especially that of the main pier, were very great,
and required all their talent and energy. The detail is given of the precau-
tions taken with the coffer-dam, in which at one period a steam-engine of
20 h.p., working two pumps of 18 inches diameter each, was insufficient to
keep down the water, and it became necessary to drive a range of sheet
piling all round withinside the dam, before the leakage through the bad
strata above the rock could be stopped.

By calculation it appears, that the pressure on the foundations of the
highest pier in the bridge is about 37 tons on each square foot, exclusive of
the additional weight of the passing coal-trains, which frequently weigh 120
tons each.

The bridge was commenced on the 17th of March, 1836, and was finished
on the 28th of June, 1838, occupying about 714 working days, and cost,
with the extra works, nearly £40,000.

The paper is illustrated by three drawings, showing a plan and elevation
of the bridge in several stages of its construction, and when completed ;
the details of the centres, hoists, and cranes, the coffer-dam, engine, pumps,
and of the foundations of the whole structure.

Mr. Vignoles had examined the bridge very minutely, and had been much
struck with the excellence of the workmanship, which was quite in accor-
dance with the beauty and simplicity of the original design ; it was an ex-
traordinary example of care and attention on the part of the contractors,
and did infinite credit to all engaged in it ; yet with all this, it had cost less,
in proportion to its dimensions, than any similar structure in this country.

The President observed, that the structure first proposed was to have been
of cast iron, but when be and his partner, Mr. Burges, were consulted, they
advised the employment of the freestone from the adjoining quarries, on
Lord Londonderry's estate, and they furnished a design, based upon that of
Trajan's bridge, at Alcantara, which was adopted by the directors ; but sub-
sequently an alteration was made, by introducing three small arches in each
abutment, which, in his opinion, had injured the design ; that was the ex-
tent of his connexion with the bridge ; the merit of the construction must
be given to the engineer and the contractors, and he must corroborate the
statement of the superior manner in which the work had been executed.
The bridge had been placed nearly at the spot marked out by Mr. Telford,
for the Great North Road to cross the Wear, and as the railway would now
form part of the line between Newcastle and Darlington, Mr. Telford's plan
would be virtually executed, although with the difference of substituting a
railway for a turnpike road.

" Description of the American engine ' Philadelphia,' made by Mr. Norris
of Philadelphia, North America, for the Birmingham and Gloucester Rail-
way." By G. D. Bishopp ; communicated by Captain W. S. Moorsom,
Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The engine described in the paper, was made in the year 1840, and has
been in regular work for upwards of two years as an assistant engine upon
the Lickey inclined plane, which rises at an angle of 1 in 37J, and is 2 miles
4 chains long. Its construction is what is termed a " bogie" engine, having
a four-wheeled truck, to support one end of the boiler, while the other end
rests upon the driving wheels. It has outside cylinders, inclined so as to
clear the bogie wheels, over which they are placed, and it has inside
framing.

The boiler is cylindrical, 9 feet long and 3 feet 4 inches diameter, of
plates |-inch thick. The fire-box attached to it has three of its sides square,
and the front semicircular, with a spherical dome on the top, and the area of
the fire-grate about 10 square feet j it was originally constructed of iron,
with water spaces 2\ inches wide, the crown being supported by stay bars in
the usual manner; but it was destroyed in about eight months, and has been
replaced by a copper fire-box, of plates f-inch thick, with a tube plate f-iuch
in thickness. The tubes are 94 in number, 8 feet 11 inches long, and 2
inches diameter outside ; they were originally of copper, but were replaced
by brass tubes when the new fire-box was fixed. Midway between the two
end plates, is a third plate through which the tubes pass, so as to serve as a
support, and to prevent them from sinking in the middle. The total internal
area of the tubes is 404 square feet. The chimney is 13} inches diameter
internally, by 13 feet 10 inches high from the rails, and has not any damper.
The framing is entirely of wrought iron, with the axle guides, &c, forged
upon it. The " bogie " frame is also of wrought iron ; it is attached to the

smoke-box by a centre pin, and is carried by two pair of wheels, 2 feet
G inches diameter, made of cast iron, chilled, and without tires. The dri-
ving wheels are 4 feet diameter, also of cast iron, but with wrought iron
tires ; they are firmly fixed upon a straight axle, as the cylinders are outside.
The cylinders are 12} inches diameter inside, with a length of stroke of 20
inches.

Minute dimensions are given of the steam passage and valves (the " lead "
of which is J -inch, and to the eduction pipe nearly 4 -inch, the motion of the
slide extending l^-inch on either side of the centre line) ; the steam
chests, the regulator, the gearing, and feed-pumps, and all the other parts of
the engine aud connexions.

The general summary of the work done (the details of which are in the
archives of the Institution of Civil Engineers) ■ shows that with a maximum
load of 8 wagons and 20 men, making a weight of 53} tons behind the
tender, the engine ascended the Lickey iuclincd plane at a speed of be-
tween 8 and 9 miles per hour. That with 6 wagons, or 39 1 tons, the
speed was between 10 and 11 miles per hour; that with 5 wagons, or 33
tons, the speed increased to between 12 and 15 miles per hour, and that in
assisting the ordinary trains, with 7 passenger carriages, the usual speed
has been 13£ miles per hour. There are three engines of this class kept at
the Lickey inclined plane for assisting the trains in their ascent, but one is
generally found sufficient for the daily service.

The communication is illustrated by seven drawings of the engine and its
details of construction, which have been communicated through Captain W.
S. Moorsom, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

Captain Moorsom, in answer to questions from members, explained that —

Miles. Chains.
The length of the Lickey incline, rising 1 in 37-^, was 2 4

The bank engine ran out from its house at the foot of

the incline, at each trip, for a length of 14

And continued running at the head of the train after
surmounting the incline, for about 23

Thus giving an actual length on the ascent of ... 2 41

And as the same distance was covered in returning, the length of each trip,
was rather more than 5 miles. This was exclusive of some occasional pi-
loting and train trips, which were, however, included in the general state-
ment of expenses.

The account of the entire expense of the bank engine establishment was
made up of — 1°, The wages of the drivers and firemen ; 2°, Cost of coke,
oil and tallow ; 3°, Repairs, including wages and materials ; 4°, Depreciation
of stock, stated at the end of each half-year; 5°, General charges, com-
prising wages of pumpers, cokemen, cleaners and labourers ; cost of fire-
wood, hose-pipes, cotton waste, and all other stores ; salaries of superin-
tendents, clerks, foremen, time-keepers, and store-keepers; and the premium
paid to the men for saving the coke.

The cost of working the incline plane was therefore, for each half-year
ending —

31st December,

30th June,

31st December,

1841.

1842.

1842.

£ . s. d.

£ . s. d.

£. s. d.

Wages ....

132 7 11

95 9 10

117 14 8

Coke

324 13 6s

191 11 43

165 19 0"

Oil and Tallow . .

49 8 4

27 1 7

17 18 6

Repairs ....

245 1 0

260 3 8

92 6 11

General Charges

237 19 7

93 15 7

76 6 11

989 10 4

068 2 0

470 6 0

Depreciation of Stock

Total . . .
Trips run ....

99 0 0

f Nil, having \
\ been impvd. J

89 16 0

1088 10 4

668 2 0

560 2 0

1242

1276

1320

Miles run . . .

6210

6380

6600

Cost per mile ran—

4'. d.

s. d.

1st. Exclusive of!
depreciation . J

3 2\

2 1

1 5

2nd. Including de- "1
preciation . . j

3 6

0 0

1 SJ-

The engines have been improved by the alterations made since their ar-
rival in England. These changes chiefly consisted in suppressing the tender,
and placing the receptacle for water and coke upon the boiler of the engine,
and in using the waste steam to heat the water; these had increased the
efficiency of the machine, and caused a considerable economy of fuel. All
the other changes were of minor importance, and had been chiefly suggested

1 " Account of a Scries of Experiments on Locmnoiive Engines, &c," by
Capt, Moorsom, with Supplement, read April 7, 1840. Minutes of Proceed-
ings, page 45.

2 'its, per ton, 3*26s. W. per ton. « 25s, lljrf, per ton.

242

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

July,

by the exigencies of the peculiar locality where the engine worked. The
economical working of the engine was due partly to the attention and skill
of the driver, whs had become better acquainted with the capabilities of the
machine, had a better knowledge of the locality, and was stimulated by a
premium upon the saving of coke and other stores consumed, but was prin-
cipally to be attributed to the judicious alterations that had been made in
the construction. There had not been any reduction of the men's wages.
The usual pressure of steam was between 60 lb. and 66 lb. per square inch.
The weights of the trains varied considerably; they rarely consisted of less
than three carriages ; the heaviest he remembered weighed 93 tons, exclusive
of the weight of the two engines, which were employed to convey it up the
incline. He had not made any accurate experiments, as to the amount of
slipping of the wheels upon the rails, but with the ordinary traffic he did
not believe that any practical loss was occasioned by it.

Mr. M'Connell stated that the pressure of steam in the boiler of the Ame-
rican engine, when the experiments were tried, was more than rOlb. per
square inch ; the spring balance was screwed down to 65 lb. pressure, and
as owing to the reduced speed of the engine, the steam was generated faster
than it could be consumed by the cylinders, and thrown off by the safety
valves, the pressure continued increasing. It should be understood that
Burv's engine, alluded to in the experiments, was intended rather for con-
veying trains at higher velocities, than for mounting the incline with a heavy
load, it was therefore labouring under a disadvantage. The steam ports in
the American engine were very large, and although steam was thereby wasted,
that arrangement was of material assistance, in the peculiar duty for which
the machine was intended.

Mr. Braithwaite observed, that the quantity of coke consumed appeared
to exceed materially that upon other railways ; he understood that an engine
recently constructed by Messrs. Rennie used about 18 lb. per mile, and that
on the Liverpool and Manchester line, the average consumption was 16 lb.
per mile. It appeared to him that the real questions were, the absolute duty
performed with a given quantity of fuel, and at what cost i and also whether
the greater adhesion of the driving wheels was due to the weight impo ed
upon the engine, by fixing the water tank upon the boiler, and the coke
boxes upon the foot-plate, after suppressing the tender.

Mr. M'Connell replied that the peculiar duty of these bank engines re-
quired the steam to be kept up for about 16 hours dad), during which pe-
riod they made eight trips, amounting in the whole to about 10 miles, of
which, during '20 miles onlj actual duty was performed, so that the greater
portion of the coke was consumed while the engines were at rest. When
they were running with luggage trains on the line the quantity of coke con-
sumed was very small. The difference of cost, in consequence of the various
alterations, and the improved mode of working the engine, was very great.
In January 1812, the cost per trip on the incline was 1 7s. 7x1., but in Jan-
nary 1843, it only amounted to 7s. 1 '.</.

The average weight of the luggage trains was about 60 tons; two assist-
ant engines were used for heavy trains, merely as a precaution, in case of the
wheels slipping: otherwise one of the " Bogie" engines could perform the
duty alone, as with the passenger trains, which were always conveyed up
by the hank engine alone.

Captain Moorsom said that the main question arising from this investi-
gation, was by what system steep gradients could lie worked with the great-
est efficiency, security, and economy; he would, however, in the present
case suppose the two former positions t,> be equal in both cases, and would
inquire only into the economy.

It appeared from the returns of the London and Binningham Railway
Company, that the annual cost of working the Enston Square incline plane,
which was 1J mile long, with an average angle of I in 98, with stationary
power and an endless rope, was —

In 1810 .. £2150

IS II .. 1376

1842 .. 1215

On the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, the expenditure upon the Glas-
gow incline, which was about one mile in length, at an inclination of 1 in 42,
also with stationary power, was £ 1516 in 1842. He had understood (but
he could not produce authority for his statement) that, on the Great Western
Railway, the cost of working the Box tunnel incline alone, was, in 1841,
about £3500; and in 1842 it had been reduced to nearly £2500; that was
worked by locomotive power. Taking into consideration the number and
weight of the trains, their speed, and the relative length and the angle of
the inclines, he believed that the Enston Square incline might he said to
perform about half as much work as that on trie Lickey.

Mr. M'Connell presented drawings of the locomotive after being altered,
of the detaching catch, and of the improved brake. After detailing some
important alterations made by him in the valves, as well as the substitution
of a different description of fire-bars and fire-frame, under an arrangement
by wdiich a considerable saving had been effected in the consumption of fuel,
he stated that, for several reasons, but chiefly to increase the adhesion of
the driving wheels of the engine, the tender had been suppressed, and a
large tank constructed to be carried on the boiler of the engine. It was
made of the best plate iron, J. inch thick ; its length was 8 feet Cl inches,
breadth 3 feet 5 inches, depth 3 feet at the sides, and 1 foot 11 inches at the
centre; the bottom was made to fit the form of the boiler, and was bedded
upon a coating of thick felt ; it was held in its place by four wrougbt-iron
straps passing round the boiler. Advantage had been taken of the waste

steam, by introducing a copper pipe from the top of the fire-box dome, into
the upper part of the tank, carrying it, to and fro, from one end to the
other, with an opeu extremity to allow the escape of the steam into the
water; this pipe was furnished with a stop-cock; in addition to this a num-
ber of pipes were introduced from the smoke-box into the tank, by which
arrangement, the water in the tank was maintained at the boiling tempera-
ture, previous to being pumped into the boiler, which, in addition to the
saving of fuel, proved advantageous in diminishing the leakage and breakage
of the tubes and stays, arising from the sudden contraction by pumping in
cold water, when the steam was shut off while descending the incline. The
tank contained upwards of 400 gallons of water, a quantity sufficient for the
engine over 18 miles, and goods' trains had been taken the whole length of
the line (53 miles) by these engines with safety and economy. The supply
of coke was carried in sheet-iron boxes, each containing about 40 lb. weight,
and of a size to fit the fire-door of the boiler, ranged on platforms on each
side of the foot-plate, which platforms were fitted with boxes, to hold the
necessary tools required for the engines.

Mr. M'Connell then described a powerful and efficient description of brake,
which be had constructed to act upon the driving wheels, it was so arranged
that the whole weight of the fire-box end of the engine could be thrown on
the wheel tires; one brake had been found quite sufficient to stop the engine
on any part of the incline ; from their position they were very easily brought
into action; the end working upon the fore part of the wheel, was connected
to a stud made fast to (he framing of the engine; the other end was worked
by a screw 1J of an inch in diameter, passing through a bracket fixed on the
boiler, which served as a nut. The main spring-plate of the brake was ren-
dered flexible by the wood blocks being in short segments, thus enabling
their entire surface to be brought into close contact with the periphery of
the wheel.

A new form of catch, employed for detaching the engine from the train,
was described, it was stated to be managed with facility, and at the same
time was perfectly secure. The principal advantages of these engines wera,
he believed, the economy in the consumption of fuel, and the increased ad-
hesion of the driving wheels (the weight upon them being upwards of 10
tons, thus rendering the engine more effective in drawing heavy loads). The
expenses of repairs bad also been much decreased hj tin- improvements sug-
gested by practice.

The following statement showed the comparative consumption of coke at
different periods, viz, : —

for six months ending June 1841, 92-41 lb. of coke per mile run.
„ January 1842, si',-

June ' 1312, 53-35
„ January 1313, 13-2

March 7. — The President in the Chair.

His Royal Highness Prince Allien was elected by acclamation an honoraiy
member.

" On the causes af the unexpected breakage of the Journals of Rathea)
.tiles ; tintl on the twi ant <>/' preventing such accidents btj observing the law
of continuity in their construction." By William John Macqunm Raukine,
Assoc. Inst. ( I, E.

The paper commences bj Mating that the unexpected fracture of originally
good axles, after running for several years, without an} appearance of un-
soundness, must be caused by a gradual deterioration In the course of work-
ing; that with respect to the nature an, I cause of this deterioration, nothing
but hypotheses have hitherto been given ; the most accepted reason being,
that the fibrous texture of malleable iron assumes gradually a crystallized
structure, which being weaker in a longitudinal direction, gives way under a
shock that the same iron when in its fibrous state would have sustained
without injury.

The author contends that it is difficult to prove that an axle which, when
broken, shall be found of a crystallized texture, may not have been so origi-
uallv at the point of fracture, although at other parts the texture may have
been fibrous.

He then proceeds to show that a gradual deterioration takes place in axles
without their losing the fibrous texture, and that it does not arise from the
cause to which it is usually attributed. From among a large collection of
faggoted axles which had broken after running between two and four \ears,
five specimens were selected, of which drawings are given, representing the
exact appearance of the metal at the point of fracture, which in each case
occurred at the re-entering angle, where the journal joined the body. The
fractures appear to ha\e commenced with a smooth, regularly. formed, miuute
fissure, extending all round the neck of the journal, and penetrating on an
average to a depth of half an inch. They would appear to have gradually
penetrated from the surface towards the centre, in such a manner that the
broken end of the journal was convex, ami necessarily the body of the axle
was concave, until the. thickness of sound iron in the centre became insuffi-
cient to support the shocks to which it was exposed. In all the specimens
the iron remained fibrous; proving that no material change had taken place
in its structure.

The author then proceeds to argue, that the breaking of these axles was
owing to a tendency of the abrupt change in thiekness where the journal
met the shoulder, to increase the effect of shocks at that point ; that owing

1843.-]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

243

to the method of manufacture the fibres did not follow the surface of the
shoulder, but that they penetrated straight into the body of the axle ; that
the power of a fibre to resist a shock being in the compound ratio of its
strength and extensibility, that portion of it which is within the mass of the
body of the axle will have less elasticity than that in the journal, and it is
probable that the fibres give way at the shoulder on account of their elastic
play being suddenly arrested at that point. This he contends would account
for the direction of the fissure being inward towards the body of the axle,
so that tbe surface of the fracture was always convex in that direction. It
is therefore proposed, in manufacturing axles, to form the journals with a
large curve in tbe shoidder, before going to the lathe, so that the fibre shall
be continuous throughout ; the increased action at the shoulder would thus
be made efficient in adding strength to the fibres without impeding their
elasticity. Several axles having one end manufactured in this manner, and
the other by the ordinary method, were broken : the former resisted from
five to eight blows of a hammer, while the latter were invariably broken by
one blow. The vibratory action to which axles are subjected is then con-
sidered, and it is contended, that at the place where there is an abrupt
change in the extent of the oscillations of the molecules of tbe iron, these
molecules must necessarily be more easily torn asunder ; and that in the im-
proved form of journals, as the power of resisting shocks is increased by the
continuity of the superficial fibres, so is the destructive action of the vibra-
tory movement prevented by the continuity of form.

The paper is illustrated by five drawings, showing the section of the jour-
nals of broken axles, and their appearance at the moment of fracture.

Remarks. — Mr. York agreed with Mr. Rankine in several points, and
stated, that since the last meeting lie had made a series of experiments,
which confirmed his opinion relative to the vibration in solid railway axles
being arrested when the wheels were keyed on tight. In all such cases,
where the vibration was checked, fracture would, he contended, be more
likely to ensue, but with hollow axles there was very little difference of
sound when struck, and no diminution of strength after keying on the
wheels ; this he attributed to the regular distribution of the molecules in the
metal of the hollow cylinder.

Mr. Parkes coincided with Mr. York's opinion, and he believed that hollow
axles would eventually supersede solid ones, particularly if they had suffi-
cient rigidity for resisting flexure. Their faculty of transmitting vibration
more readily was in their favour; it was well understood that in pieces of
ordnance and musket barrels great regularity of proportion in the metal was
requisite, in order to insure the equal transmission of the vibration, caused
by the sudden expansion of the metal at the moment of the explosion, and
unless the vibration was regular the barrel would burst or the ball would not
be correctly delivered.

Mr. Greener, of Newcastle, among other experiments, 5 turned the outside
of a musket barrel to a correct taper, and fixed tight upon it at given inter-
vals several rings of lead 2 inches in thickness ; on firing a charge of 4
drachms of powder he found that all the rings were loosened and had all
expanded regularly in their diameter. It was a well-known fact that cannon
seldom or never burst from continuous firing; such accidents, unless they
arose from peculiar circumstances, generally occurred in consequence either
of inequality in the nature of the metal or irregularity in its distribution ; to
the latter cause must be attributed the bursting of the " Mortier monstre,"
before Antwerp, and of a large gun which was proved at Deal some time
since ; this latter gun burst at the third discharge, after delivering the hall
better than on either of the previous discharges ; it was evident that the
fracture did not occur under the explosion of the powder, but on the re-
entering of the air into the mouth of the gun after the discharge, and also
because the thickness of metal was not well-proportioned, whereby the vi-
bration was unduly checked, the cohesion of the molecules of the metal was
destroyed, and the guu fell into several pieces, without any of them being
projected, as they would have beeu by the usual effect of an explosive force.
The most practical millwrights were well aware of the superiority of
hollow shafts, and they were frequently used, as they were more easily kept
cool than solid ones, especially at high velocities, when shafts were peculiarly
liable to injury from percussive force or from a series of recurring vibrations.

March 14, — The President in the Chair.

" Description of a method of laying down Railway Curves on the ground."
By William John Macquorn Rankine, Assoc. Inst. C.E.

The method described in the paper depends on the well-known principle,
that the angle subtended at any point of the circumference of a circle, bv a
given arc of that circle, is equal to half of the angle subtended at the centre
by the same arc. The points which must be ascertained beforehand are the
same as in every other method of laying down curves, namely, — the radius ;
the number of degrees, minutes, ond seconds in the entire arc* of the curve :
and the length of the two equal tangents ; either of which three quantities
can be calculated from the other two. The commencement of the curve A,
its termination B, and the intersection of the two tangents D, are to be
marked on tbe ground as usual. It is supposed that the centre line of the
railway is marked by stakes driven at equal distances— say of 100 feet. Let

p. 242,

Greener "On the Gun.'' p. 157: and "On the Science of Gunnery,'

E represent the last stake in the portion of the line immediately preceding
the curve, the distance A F from the commencement of the curve to the first
stake in it will be the difference between 100 feet and EA. The angle at
the circumference subtended by the arc A F must be calculated, and a deli-
cate theodolite having been planted at A, this angle is to be laid off from
the tangenU The telescope will then point in the proper direction for the
first stake in the curve, and its proper distance from A being set off bv means
of the chain, its position will be determined at once. The angles at the cir-
cumference subtended by A F+ 100 ft., A F+ 200 ft., A F + 300 ft., A F +
400 ft.., &c, being also calculated, and laid off in succession, will respectively
give the proper direction for the ensuing stakes G, H, I, &c, which are at the
same time to be placed successively at uniform distances of 100 ft. by means
of the chain. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that Ihe difference b* tween
an arc of 100 ft. and its chord, on any curve which usually occurs on rail-
ways, is too small to cause any perceptible error in practice, even in a very
long distauce; but should curves occur of unusually short radii, it is easy to
calculate the proper chord, and set it off from each stake to the next, instead
of 100 ft., the length of the arc. When the inequalities of the ground prevent
a distant new from any three stations to lay down the entire curve from them,
any stake which has already been placed in a commanding position will answer
as a station for the theodolite. By this method the operation of laying
down a circular curve of any radius is made exactly analogous to that of
laying down a straight line with the assistance of the telescopic sights of a
theodolite. It is stated that by this method the curve is laid down with
accuracy at the first operation ; that any accidental error in the position of a
single stake, affects that stake only ; and it has been found in practice that
the progressively increasing errors of the old method are entirely avoided.

Remarks. — Mr. Gravatt observed that a well-made theodolite* was a con-
venient instrument for setting out curves for railways, and that it had been
used by him and his assistants for this purpose for several years. The com-
mon theodolite was not, however, in practice universally applicable without
some further contrivances for accommodating it to this peculiar service. He
stated that the circular arc (used, he believed, almost universally on railways)
was not the true curve for a line of rails ; as might be proved by considering
that a straight line of road required both rails to be at the same level, when
viewed in the cross section, whilst on a curved road the outside rail required
to be raised, in order to resist the tendency of the engine and carriages to fly
off the rails in going round the curve. Where a straight line was joined on
to a circular arc, the before-mentioned condition would require an instan-
taneous and vertical rise of one of the rails, which was a condition that could
not be fulfilled. In curves of contrary flexure, if composed of circular arcs,
the difficulty was increased ; for the outer rail, which ought to be the high-
est, suddenly became the inner and the lowest, so that an instantaneous ele-
vation of one rail, and a corresponding depression of the other was required ;
if the curves were of the same radius, the alteration would be of double the
extent to that required when passing on to the same arc from a straight line.
Therefore as the outside rail must be in all cases the highest, the circidar
arc, which required the manifestly false condition of an instantaneous ele-
vation, could not be the true curve. He had several years since demon-
strated that the true curve was one, which commenced with an infinite ra-
dius, decreased in a regular manner, in advancing on the curve, when the
radius might be constant for some time, and then increased again to infinity,
before it joined either a straight line or another curve of contrary flexure.
He had fixed upon the elastic curve, which complied with all the conditions
required, but other curves were also applicable. His late assistant, Mr. W.
Froude, had found that arcs of a cubic parabola, whilst they complied with
the necessary conditions, were extremely convenient in practice ; the equa-
tion and its fluxions, or differential co-efficients, being very simple and easy
of application. Mr. Froude had also applied other properties of that curve,
so that, with the assistance of a few calculated tables, the process of setting
out a true curve was rendered as easy in practice as setting out a circular
arc. With any curve there was considerable practical difficulty in finding
the direction of the tangents, the radii of curvature, and the position of the
curves upon the ground. Mr. Gravatt used what he termed a skeleton plan,
of several stakes driven into the ground nearly in the course of the intended
line, expressing their position by columns of figures with reference to two
co-ordinates ; thus obtaining a numerical accuracy far greater than that of
any drawn plan. By using a table of sines and co-sines, a few hours' calcu-
lation would save many days' labour in the field, besides ensuring an accuracy
not otherwise to be obtained.

On Horse Powbr.

" Results of the application of Horse Power to raising Water from the
working shafts at Saltwood Tunnel, on the South-Eastern Railway, in 1842."
By Frederick William Simms, M. Inst. C. E.

This tunnel is driven in the middle bed of the lower green sand, between
which and the surface of the ground is interposed only the upper bed of the
same stratum ; but in sinking the eleven shafts for the work, it was found
that at the level of the top of the tunnel the ground assumed the character
of a quick sand, saturated with water, in such quantity that it could not be
reduced by manual labour. Under these circumstances horse gins were
erected for drawing the water by barrels, containing 100 gallons each, weigh-
ing when full about 1310 lbs.

The engineer's intention was to drive simultaneously from these shafts, in

33

244

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

the direction of the tunnel, an adit or heading, to carry off the water; but
the earth, which was sand mixed with fine particles of blue clay, was so
filled with water as to become a mass of semi-fluid mud, great exertions were
therefore necessary to overcome the water, without erecting pumps. At
first this was accomplished by making each horse work for 12 hours, and
then for 8 hours per day, allowing one hour for food and rest; as the water
increased it became necessary to work night and day, and the time of each
horse's working was reduced generally to 6 hours, and sometimes to 3 hours.
As all the horses were hired at the rate of 7s. per day, the author, who had
the direction of the works, ordered a daily register to be kept of the actual
work done by each horse, for the double purpose of ascertaining whether
they all performed their duty, and also hoping to collect a body of facts
relative to horse power which might be useful hereafter. This detailed
register, which was kept by Mr. P. N. Brockedon, is appended to the com-
munication.

The author gives as a proposition, "That the proper estimate of horse
power, would be that which measures the weight that a horse would draw
up out of a well ; the animal acting by a horizontal line of traction turned
into the vertical direction by a simple pulley, whose friction should be re-
duced as much as possible." He states that the manner in which the work
was performed necessarily approached very nearly to these conditions ; and
after giving the principal dimensions of the horse gins, he analyzes each set
of experiments, and by taking the mean of those against which no objections
could be urged, he arrives at the following results : —

The Power of a Horse working for 8 hours = 23,4 12 lb. raised 1 ft. high in

one minute.
Ditto .. 6 „ =24,300 „ ditto.

Ditto .. 4i „ =27,056 „ ditto.

Ditto .. 3 ,. =32,243 „ ditto.

Of these results he thinks the experiments for 6 hours and for 3 hours
alone should be adopted as practical guides, all the others being in some de-
gree objectionable.

As a means of comparison, the following table of estimates of horse power
is given : —

Name.

Pounds raised

1 foot high in

a minute.

Hours of
Work.

Authority.

Boulton and Watt . .

33,000

8

Kohison's Mech. Phil.!
vol. ii. p. 145.

Tredgold

27,500

8

Tredgold on Railroads,!
p. 69.

Desagulier

44,000

8

Ditto

27,500

Not stated.

r

Sauveur

34,020

8

Dr. Gregory's Ma-

Moore, for Society of

^ thematics for Prac-|

Arts

21,120

Not stated.

I tical Men, p. 183. ;

Smeaton

22,000

Not stated.

L

These are much higher results than the average of his experiments, and
would more nearly accord with the extremes obtained by him; but under
such excessive fatigue the horses were speedily exhausted, and died rapidly.
Nearly one hundred horses were employed,6 they were of good quality, their
average height was 15 hands } inch, and their weight about 10^ cwt., and
they cost from 20/. to 40/. each. They had as much corn as they could eat,
and were well attended to.

The total quantity of work done by the horses, and its cost, was as under :

Registered quantitv of water drawn 104 feet, the average

height. 28,220,800 gallons . . . . =1 28,505 tons.

Ditto, earth 3,500 yards, 1 ton 6 cwt. per yard. . = 4,550

Total weight drawn to the surface

133,955

Total cost of horse labour, including a boy to drive each

horse .. . . .. .. .. 1,585 15 3

Or, 2-85 pence per ton, the average height of 104 feet
As soon as the adit was driven, all the water was carried off by it, and the
works are stated to be perfectly dry.

Remarks. — Mr. Palmer said, it should be understood, that in stating
33,000 lb. raised one foot high in a minute, as the measure of the power of
a horse, Boulton and Matt had not intended to fix that as the average work
which horses were capable of performing : they had taken the highest re-
sults of duty performed by powerful horses, in order to convince the pur-
chasers of their steam-engines that they received all that had been con-
tracted for. He had made some experiments on the amount of work per-
formed by horses tracking boats on canals : on the upper end of the mast of
the boat a pulley was hung ; over this the the towing rope was passed, with

0 The horses were supplied by Mr. Richard Lewis, Folkestone, Kent.

the means of suspending to its extremity given weights, so as exactly to
balance the power exerted by the horse. The results arrived at by these
means were so various, that he could not deduce any average conclusions ;
as the power exerted varied between 301b. and 1201b., the power diminish-
ing as the speed was increased: he thought that 2J miles was too high an
average estimate, and that it should not exceed 2 miles per hour.

Mr. Field remarked that in all estimates of horse power, the speed was
considered to be at an average of 2A miles per hour, and all experiments
were reduced to that standard.

Mr. Hawkins said, that some years since, he had made numerous inquiries
respecting the work done by horses in drawing upon common turnpike roads,
and found, that four good horses could draw an ordinary stage coach, with
its complement of passengers, 8 miles a-day at the rate of 10 miles an hour ;
that if they ran stages of 10 miles in the hour, the horses must rest one
day in each week : that good horses, so worked, would last only five years,
each horse drawing about half a ton ; he had been informed by wagoners,
that good horses would walk, at the rate of '1\ miles per hour, for twelve
hours out of the twenty-four, making 30 miles a-day, and that they would
continue to do such work, day by day, each horse drawing one ton, for many
years, provided they had been worked hard when young.

Mr. Gravatt observed, that although there might exist some hesitation in
receiving these results of work actually performed, as a general measure of
horse's power, yet as engineers frequently required to know what could be
performed by horses, when employed for short periods, in works of haste or
difficulty, he thought that the experiments were useful, and would form good
data for reference. He was sorry to observe that in too many cases, an idea
was prevalent, that it was cheaper to work a small stock of horses to death,
than to keep a large number and to work them fairly ; the results which be
had beeti enabled to arrive at, were perhaps not a fair value of a horse's
work, continued for any length of time, at the best rate of economy, for
both the contractor and the employer.

The President believed that however, in cases of emergency, which he al-
lowed did occur in engineering works, the forced system of labour men-
tioned by Mr. Gravatt might be tolerated, he was convinced that it was not
the most economical, hut on the contrary, humanity anil economy would be
found to go hand in hand. It would be desirable to know the average speed
at which the different rates of work had been performed ; this was essential
in order to found any calculation upon the results given. Coach proprietors
calculated that, at a speed of 10 miles per hour, a horse was required for
every mile going and returning, so that one horse was kept for every mile
of road. Now supposing a four-horse coach, with an average load, to weigh
2 tons, the load for each horse was 10 cwt.; whereas in the case of a horse
drawing a cart, the gross load frequently amounted to 2 tons, but the speed
was reduced to 2$ miles per hour, at which pace he conceived that 16 miles
per day might be considered a fair day's work ; this therefore was double the
distance with four times the load, or eight times the coach-work, but with a
heavier horse. The law that the quantity of work done, was as the square
root of the velocity, or, as the cube root of the velocity, in equal times, was
confined to work upon canals, or bodies moving through water.

Mr. Uennie had tried some experiments on the force of traction of the
boats on the Grand Junction Canal. The towing rope was attached to a
dynamometer which had previously been tested by weights. The horse, al-
though urged at first starting, was afterwards allowed to fall into his natural
speed, which was 21 miles per hour on the average of 20 miles. The maxi-
mum speed was 4 miles, and the minimum 2 miles per hour. The dynamo-
meter indicated an average of 1801b., which was capable of overcoming the
resistance of the loaded barge of 25 tons, being in the ratio of 1-500. The
weight of the horse was about 11 cwt. He had also tried many experiments
upon a fast boat If if to him in 1833 by the late Colonel Page. These ex-
periments were principally made in order to ascertain the comparative re-
sistance of vessels moving through water at different velocities, and the
Grand Junction Canal afforded a convenient opportunity of undertaking
them. The boat was 70 feet in length, 4 feet in breadth, and drew 9 inches
of water. The traction indicated by the dynamometer the following re-
sistance :

Miles per hour. lb.

At 6 the resistance was 97 to 214

7 „ 250

8 „ 336

4 „ 50 969 „ 411
4; „ 60 10 „ 375

5 „ 70 to 75 11 j. 392

Average 336

One horse was employed in these Two horses were employed in these
experiments. experiments.

Stakes were fixed near the margin of the canal, so as to ascertain the rise
and fall of the wave caused by the boat in passing; and it was observed that
when the boat passed with a velocity of from 4 to 6 miles per hour, the rise
of the wave was 5 inches, and the fall 5 inches, making a wave of 10 inches
in depth; and when the velocity was 11 J miles, the rise was reduced to 2}
inches, and the fall to 2} inches. Great difference existed in the power of

Miles per hour.

II..

At 2; the resistance was

20

3

27

3i

30

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

245

horses, their weights, and structure ; and the large dray horses used hy
Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co. did a full average duty as assumed by
Goulton and Watt j hut considering the average power of strong and of weak
animals, he had adopted 22,0001b. raised 1 foot high as the standard; much
however depended on the nature of the work performed.

Mr. Charles Wood remarked that although, on an emergency, it might be
necessary to work horses to the extent which had been mentioned, it had
always been found more economical to feed them well, and not unduly to
force the speed, the weight drawn, or the hours of labour. By the recorded
experiments on ploughing, which were tried at Lord Ducie's and by Mr.
Pusey, it was shown that any increase of speed diminished the amount of
work done, in a greater ratio than it was affected by an increase of the load.
In drawing loads the weight of the animal was a point of considerable im-
portance ; and when extra exertion and muscular action were required, the
nearer horses approached to " thorough bred," the greater was the result.

Mr. Davidson gave the following statement of the work performed by a
London brewer's horse per day ; the cost of feed and of wear and tear per
horse per annum, being derived from actual experience among a large number
of horses at Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, and Co.'s brewery. The feed, &c,
is supposed to have cost the same per quarter, per truss, &c. each year.

Years.

r v. v. Lb. weight
Lb. weight, d 8

drawn L. , ,
., , \oi mis. per
oi mis. per ' r r
v horse re-
horse per

day turTg Per
' day.

Average lb.

weight
drawn 13

miles
per horse
per day.

Cost of feed

and

straw per

horse
per annum.

Difference
per

horse, ditto
bought
and sold

per annum.

1835

1336

1837'

1838

1839

1840"

1841

1842

lb.

5148
5072

5057
5287
5786
5311
5263

lb.
1716
1707

1698
1740
1820
1750
1740

lb.
3432
3389

3377
3513
3803
3530
3501

£. s. d.
43 2 7
43 16 6

41 18 0

42 9 11

46 11 7
45 0 1

47 0 9

£. s. d.
10 0 3

9 18 0 !

9 15 9

9 7 1

7 17 11

10 16 11

10 8 0

Total

36,924

12,171

54,545

309 19 5

68 3 11

Average")

for seven [

years J

nearly. J

5275

1738

3506

44 5 7

9 14 10

Mr. Home stated that Messrs. Tredwell had a contract on the South-
eastern Railway, near where Mr. Simms' experiments were made ; they had
i.pwards of 100 horses, whose average cost was about 30?. ; they were
worked 10 hours per day, and were well fed, so that their value was but
little reduced, and they were eventually sold for nearly the same prices as
they originally cost. These contractors had about 400 horses on the South-
ampton Railway, which cost them about 25/. each. The same course of not
over-working, and feeding them well, was pursued from motives of economy;
and they found it answer. It was Mr. Jackson's practice to keep so many
horses for his work as not to be under the necessity of working them more
than 10 hours per day : he gave to each a peck of corn a-day ; by this
means he has been able to keep up their value. On the Chester and Crewe
Railway he had about 300 horses at work, and towards the end of the con-
tract, owing to circumstances over which he had no control, he was obliged
to work them 14 or 15 hours per day; and in the course of four months
horses that had been worth 25?. were so reduced as not to be valued at
above 71. He is a great advocate for steady work and good keep. On the
Tame Valley Canal there had been sometimes between 300 and 400 horses,
but as the work was nearly finished many had been sold. Those sub-con-
tractors who had kept a sufficient number of horses for the work, so as not
to have them in harness more than 12 hours per day, had realized nearly the
same prices they had given for them in the first instance. The horses be-
longing to Mr. Edwards, the sub-contractor for the excavation of Newton
Hill, and those of Mr. W. Tredwell, sub-contractor for the Friar Park Farm
cuttings, were purchased from the same parties at prices varying from 20/.
to 35/. The former had been acting on the principle of getting out of the
horses all he could, working them frequently 15 and 16 hours at a time ;
and the consequence was, that all his stock was in bad condition, and he
would be glad to get 6/. or 7/. a-piece for them. On the other hand, Mr.
W. Tredwell, who was an excellent horse-master, and who did not work his
horses beyond their strength, would be able to sell them for about as much
as he gave for them— indeed he had done so already for those that he had

' In 1837 a disease was prevalent among the horses ; therefore lhat year
is omitted.

e jrewer horses were bought during the year 1840; the old horses were
Utter fed, and harder worked.

parted with. Having been a good many years in the service of the late Mr.
Mcintosh, Mr. Home could state that it never was his system to over-work
his horses. It did sometimes happen that there was no alternative, but the
deviation from the regular rule in every instance showed that his system was
founded on right principles. The over-worked horses were most liable to
disease, and the time lost by illness formed an important item ; whereas
there were plenty of instances in which horses that had worked their regular
10 hours per day, and had been properly fed, had worked for five or six
years without losing a single day by illness. On the whole, he felt convinced
that, both on the score of humanity and economy, the horse was the more
valuable servant when treated with kindness.

Mr. Beardmore said that a case had occurred in a work near Plymouth
which he believed would give the fair value of the work actually performed
daily by a horse for a considerable period. A quarry wagon, weighing 2}
tons, carrying an average load of stone of 5 -J tons, was drawn by one horse
along a railway 960 feet in length, 260 feet of it being level and the remain-
ing 700 feet having an inclination of 1 in 138 ; during 48 working days the
number of trips was 1,302, or an average of 27-1 trips each day; the time
of performing each trip was 4 minutes, or at a speed of 2' 72 miles per hour ;
and the total weight drawn, including that of the wagons, was 23,959,0001b.
Repeated experiments proved, that upon the incline of 1 in 138, the wagons
in their ordinary working state would just remain stationary, the friction
was therefore assumed to be 1621b. per ton ; by calculation it was found
that the horse raised 39,320 lb. 1 foot high per minute during the eight
working hours each day, the useful effect, or net amount of stone carried,
being 21,738 lb, raised 1 foot per minute. This difference between the work
done and the useful effect, arose from the necessary strength and weight of
the wagons. The animal employed was a common Devonshire cart-horse,
eight years old, 15 hands high, and weighed 10} cwt. ; he continued doing
the same work throughout a whole summer, remaining in good condition ;
but a lighter horse was found unequal to it.

" Description of Lieutenant D. Rankine's Spring Contractor." By Wm.
John Maequorn Rankine, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

This paper describes a contrivance for suiting the action of the springs of
railway carriages to variable loads, so as to give the proper ease of motion
to a carriage when heavily laden, and at the same time to be sufficiently
flexible for light loads. Its effect is to make the strength and stiffness of
the spring increase in proportion to the load placed upon it. Each extremity
of the spring, instead of supporting a shackle or roller, as in the usual con-
struction, carries a small convex plate of cast iron. The form and position
of this plate are so adjusted, that when the carriage is unloaded, it bears on
the extreme end of the spring, thus allowing it to exert the greatest amount
of flexibility ; but as the plate is convex, the more the load increases, and
the further the ends of the spring descend, the nearer does the point of
bearing of the plate upon the spring approach to the centre or fulcrum, so
that the convex plate or contractor tends to diminish the viitual length of
the spring in proportion to the load, the result of which is to increase the
strength of the spring, in the inverse ratio of its virtual length, and its stiff-
ness in the inverse ratio of the cube of the same quantity. The author then
gives, in a tabular form, the details and the results of some experiments
made on springs of this description, which are similar to those now in use
on the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway. The springs were 4 feet long, each
consisting of ten plates, each \ inch thick, and 2% inches broad. The con-
tractors were cast with a radius of \2\ inches, and so constructed as not to
act until the load on each spring exceeded 10 cwt., and with a load of
30 cwt. they should have contracted the distance between the bearing points
to 3 feet 4 inches instead of 4 feet ; by this means the strength of the spring
was increased in the ratio of 6 to 5, and its stiffness in the ratio of 216 to
125. * The advantages stated to be derived from the use of these springs on
the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway, and other lines, are, that they afford
the same ease of motion to a single passenger as to 40 or 50 in one carriage ;
they save wear both of carriages and railway track ; they produce the
strength and stiffness requisite for the maximum load with less weight of
metal; they are not more expensive than rollers; and they are not offensive
in appearance, indeed they would not be observed unless they were pointed
out.

. The President's Conversations.

Mr. Walker, the President of the Institute of Civil Engineers, gave his
annual conversation^, at his residence in Great George Street, Westminster,
on Friday 16th, and Saturday 17th ult., extending it to two evenings instead
of one, as hitherto, in consequence of the crowded state of the rooms last
year, and with his usual liberality to afford his numerous guests ample op-
portunity to examine the works of art and science distributed throughout

9 Since this communication was made, contractors of greater length and
increased radius of curvature have been applied, so as to produce a contrac-
tion of G inches at each end of the spring when fully loaded, which increases
the strength in the ratio of 4 : 3, anil the stiffness in that of 64 : 27. The de-
tails of the constiuction of these contractors, with a drawing of them, as
applied to the springs of the carriages on the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Rail-
way, are given in the addendum to the original paper.

33*

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[JlTLT,

his spacious suite of rooms. On the former evening about 300 persons at-
tended, and on the latter a brilliant company assembled, comprising the
most distinguished persons for rank in science or the fine arts, who all ap-
peared to feel the hospitality and attention of the worthy host, who attended
by Mr. Manby, the Secretary of the Institution, received the visitors on ar-
riving, and directed their attention to the numerous models and works of
art. The upper room was lighted by gas chandeliers, the burners of which
were enclosed in glass globes, on Professor Faraday's ventilating principle,
(ante p. 106.)

Soon after 9 o'clock on Saturday Evening, H. R. H. Prince Albert arrived,
attended by Sir E. Bowater. The President escorted his distinguished guest
through the principal rooms, explaining all the objects of note, and then, as
H. R. Highness appeared so much interested as to intend seeing every thing,
the Secretary attended to afford any explanation which might be needed.
H. R. Highness, who has recently become an honorary member of the In-
stitution of Civil Engineers, remained nearly an hour in the rooms, and won
the good feeling of all, by his affability ; on leaving, he expressed himself
highly gratified by the reception he had experienced from the President and
his guests.

The Duke of Wellington arrived immediately aft ;r H. R. Highness' de-
parture, and went the circuit of the rooms, making his usual prompt and sa-
gacious remarks.

Among the distinguished visitors we noticed particularly the Dukes of
Wellington and Buccleuch, the Marquis of Northampton, the Earls of Devou,
Lincoln and Courtenay, Lords Lovelace, Blayney, Lonther and Blantvr, ;
Hon. C. Wood, M.P., Hon. W. B. Baring, M.P., and numerous members of
Parliament, Engineers, Architects and Professors, and several eminent fo-
reigners.

Our limits will not permit us to notice everything, but we must select a
few of the most interesting objects. In the principal room was a marble
group by Bailey, of great simplicity and beauty, some good sketches by
Stanfield, Oliver, Stephanoff, Harding, and Kendrick. Scanlan contributed
some sporting and military subjects in his usual happy style ; some fine
bronzes from Deville's collection ; and in all the rooms were to be seen some
exquisite specimens of wood carving from Rogers of Great Newport Street.
The Bank machine for weighing sovereigns, invented by Mr. Cotton, the
governor of the Bank of England ; its action was explained by Mr. \V.
Miller, who has charge of it at the Bank : its delicacy and precision appeared
to be fully appreciated. Casts of figures and busts by Bailey, Park and
Behncs. Two busts of Mr. Field the eminent engineer and Mr. Davison, of
Belfast, by Mr. Jones, were particularly noticed, on account of their faithful
similitude to the originals, as well as the artistical feeling they exhibited.
It is to be regretted that Mr. Jones does not convert his engineer's office in
Cannon Row into a studio, and adopt the career of sculptor and modeller,
which he has so auspiciously commenced, and for wbich his versatility of
talent appears so peculiarly to have fitted bim. The Duke of Wellington
with his usual discernment, made many enquiries about the artist, and ap-
peared much struck on learning that be «as an amateur. There was an ex-
cellent medallion of Sir Isambard Brunei, by Warrington ; Salter contributed
some architectural models. Mr. Dent's chronometers, and Professor Wheat-
stone's galvanic engine occupied the room immediately preceding that in
which the mechanical models were placed ; and here we can scarcely pretend
to particularise from " I'embarras de richesses." The splendid model of the
Great Britain iron steam ship, 320 feet long, now building at Bristol, occu-
pied the centre table; around it were grouped Cooke's electro telegraph at
work, conveying messages ; Whitwoith's street sweeping machine ; Palmer's
corrugated cast iron roofs for ship building sheds ; Tweeddale brick and tile
machines; Renuie's beautiful boat the Mermaid; Clark's miser for sinking
wells ; the Jacquard loom worked and explained, in his usual able manner,
by Mr. Cowper; Fairbairn's models of marine steam engines; a planing ma-
chine by the Butterley Iron Company, cutting Iron with Mr. Babbage's in-
genious tool-holders; Mr. Smith's (Deanston) mule jenny, for cotton spin-
ning; tools from Mr. Holtzapffel; models of bridges from Mr. Green of
Newcastle, and Mr. Coulthard; an ingenious but simple model for mea-
suring water on a large scale by Albano, adopted at Lombardy ; cases of
specimens of Minton's beautiful encaustic tiles. We cannot enumerate
more although scarcely half through our list.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

On the Principles of Architecture as laid down by Vitruvius.

Bt W. W. Pocock, B.A., &c, Associate.

Abstract of a Paper read March 6, 1843.

Vitrcvius begins his first chapter by considering architecture as a
science, embracing theoretical and practical knowledge, to the latter nf
which he devotes the last part of his 1st, and the whole of bis 2nd, 7th,
and 8th books. In his 2nd chapter he treats of it as an art of design, or the
ratiocinatio artis, as he elsewhere calls it, and lays down the principles by
which every architectural composition should be tested, and in the 3rd he
adverts to the opus or mechanical execution of the design.

The 2nd chapter, wbich forms the immediate subject of this paper, has

been a stumbling-block to commentators and translators more perhaps than
any other part of his writings. Barbaro, Scamozzi, Philander, Poleni, Perrault,
Orsini, Jean Martin, Newton, and Gwilt, have all fallen into errors more or
less gross in their comments and translations. Nor is this to be wondered
at, considering the ambiguity of his style arising from the abstract manner
in which he treats his subject, and the little knowledge we possess of the
terms of art and modes of study of the ancients. The principles of compo-
sition which he would have us ever keep in mind in the formation of a
design are six — ordination, disposition, eurithm, symmetry, decor, and
distribution.

Ordination he defines as " the adjustment of the sizes of the several parts
to their uses, and to the general scale of the building " — " Ordinatio est
modica membrorum operis, commoditas separatim, uuiversajque propor-
tions ad sommetriam comparatio."

Perrault and Newton have quite altered this part of the text of their
author, tbe former confessedly and without authority; whilst Martin,
Galiani, Sir H. Wotton and others have been at a loss to comprehend what
ordinatio meant, though it evidently stands for that principle of our art
which teaches us to give to the parts of our designs their appropriate size;
for instance, to the several apartments sufficient area for the purposes to
which they are dedicated, without making them disproportionately large for
the rest of the structure; it requires us to give to our doorways, corridors,
stairs, &c, sufficient width for the number of persons likely to frequent them ;
to our windows size sufficient for the due supply of light ; to our supports
sufficient but not excessive thickness or strength, ice. Sec.

Disposition, or SiaBc is, he defines as " a convenient collocation of the
parts, and a desirable effect in the composition (putting together) of the work
with respect to quality." As then ordination proportions their sizes, so
disposition arranges them with reference both to their use (apta collocatio),
and the general effect of the composition.

Eurithm, Vitruvius says it is " a sightly appearance, and a suitable look iu
the composing of members, (t, e. forming them out of their simple elements,)
and is secured when the members are of a height suitable to their width, and
of a breadth proportioned to their length, and, in short, when all things ac-
cord to their own proportion;" omnia respondeant suae symmetric. "So
symmetry," he adds, " is a proper concord of the members of the work itself,
and the accordance of any given one of the several parts to the appearance
of the general form."

Eurithm then regards tbe ratios or relations of the dimensions of any
single member, and symmetry the relations of one member to another, or of
any given dimension of one member to the corresponding dimension of
another. Proportion is therefore of two kinds according to Vitruvius, viz. :
euritbraic and symmetric — a distinction lost sight of by all bis annotators.
The former exists between the height of a column and its diameter ; the
latter between the height of the column and the height of the entablature,
and also between the diameter of the column and the width of the inter-
column. Eurithmic proportion obtains between the width and height of a
door or of a window, symmetric between the door as a whole and tbe window
as a whole, and between the widths and the heights respectively.

Decor-consistency or propriety, he defines as " a correct aspect of a work
composed of parts, approved with reference to precedent or authority, and is
threefold, as it relates to statio (8efio tksixo) custom or nature. The first
translated " station," " circumstance," " stanza," " abitazione," " situation
d'tin-lieu," " etat des chases," " statuo," by Newton, Gwilt, Barbaro, Orsini,
Martin, Perrault and Galiani respectively is exemplified, when temples to
Minerva, Mars, Hercules, Sec, are executed in tbe Doric order as suited to
their stern attributes, and shrines to Flora, Venus, &c, in the Corinthian
style to accord with the tender and delicate natures of these latter divinities.
Conventional propriety, be says, forbids the infringement of usages approved
in all ages, for instance the introduction of triglyphs into any other order
but the Doric, or of Dcntilo into this.

Distribution, his sixth and last principle, he explains as " an advantageous
dispensation of the materials and site, and a careful and rational regard to
economy." As a further explication of his meaning, he adds the Greek
term oncoro/im as a translation of distribute, a word more nearly equivalent
to " stewardship," than to any other expression in our language. From this
we may understand that it is the province of architecture under this aspect
to furnish all the requisite parts of the design without lavish expenditure,
but in such manner and measure as may be best afforded by the circum-
stances of the case.

These then are the principles of architectural composition which Vitruvius
lays down. Ordination, by which the parts are made of a size appropriate
to their use; disposition, by which they are placed in convenient and effec-
tive collocation ; Eurithm, or the due proportion of the parts, each in itself;
symmetry or unity of proportion between all tbe parts and tbe whole; pro-
priety, or consistency and distribution or economical provision of all the es-
sential requisites.

In this analysis we scarcely know which to admire most, its completeness
and neatness, or the beautifully natural and correct order in which the ele-
ments are exhibited. No part is deficient— none redundant. Were ordina-
tion neglected, the parts would be some too small for their destined uses, aud
others equally too large ; in other words, the utility of the structure destroyed
by this one defect ; without attention to distribution, it will be rendered
equally useless by the inconvenient arrangement of the whole, whilst a dis-
regard to either eurithm symmetry or decor will render it displeasing alike

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JGl RNAL.

2L7

to the observant eye, and the contemplative mind. The apartments though
of sufficient area, might be too low or too long for their width to be elegant
or noble, though sufficient light were obtained it might find its way through
very ill-proportioned windows ; the entrance though wide enough, might be
inelegantly low or absurdly high ; the vestibule though large enough for
mere use and appropriately situate, might not be in keeping with the spacious
saloons. Yes, a design though correct in all the above particulars, might
prove to be abundantly too expensive for execution, or when executed, use-
less ; because, forsooth '. there was no staircase to the upper floors ; or, if a
palace, no state rooms in which to hold the levees.

That design, however, which gives appropriate size to all its parts justly
assauges them, preserves the beauties of eurithmic and symmetric propor-
tion without outraging propriety ; incurring irrational expenditure, or omitt-
ing any of the essential features, is as excellent as the rules of art can make
it, and requires only a due infusion of natural talent or genius to render it
perfect.

Whence it follows that the text of Vitruvius in this part, at least, is not
as Shultz. and others, his lickspittles, have cailed it, " sophistical twaddle put
together by an ignorant compiler,' but a beautifully perfect, concise, and
consistant explication of the subject in all the views in wiiich it can be re-
garded, and worthy of our highest admiration.

THE NATIONAL ADVANTAGES OF FRESCO PAINTING.

Abstract of a Paper by James Thomson, Fellow.

The Institute has been already favoured with two very interesting papers
on the subject of Fresco painting. One by Mr. Parris (Journal, vol. 5. p. 95.)
conveying many useful suggestions on the practical working of it ; the pre-
paration of the ground or plaster best adapted to the purpose, anil the
colours of which the chemical properties alone will combine with the mate-
rial, without risk to the artist who uses them. Another by Mr. Severn
(Journal, vol. 5., p. 188 & 310), setting forth in most animating terms the
works of the Italian masters. No sooner was the art of Fresco painting thus
introduced, than Mr. Thomson was led to consider the importance of it to
architecture in particular — to the art in general, and as he was prepared to
show, to the nation at large. He thus continues : — First, its advantages to
architecture in particular. In this a great and primary benefit is, that it
applies itself to those broad spaces of the interiors of buildings, which, if
decorated in any other way, either become monotonous, or (if not mono-
tonous), too laboured and costly to be often indulged in : and secondly,
to supplant the meretricious style of modern decorations. At present em-
bracing these two objects — the filling up of the internal surfaces of building,
and the exclusion of details that are foreign to the edifice — I would observe :
That the simplicity and purity of fresco painting demand the sober dig-
nity of architectural forms and proportions, and would he utterly at variance
with the tawdry patchwork of every day practice. To place a fresco of
Michael Angelo's, Raffaele, or A. Del Sarto, in a modern gilded frame work,
would at once exhibit the impertinence of such an association ; and there are
special reasons for this. The superior transparency of fresco pictures causes
them to reflect light, while oil paintings absorb it; and again, the former in
which, simple colours and grand outlines only are admissible, can dis-
pense with such accessions, while the other by its extremes of depth
(amounting frequently to blackness) and high lights, introduced at pleasure,
requires the aid of some such boundary. A gilt framework is almost
indispensable to an oil picture — while to a fresco (on account of its own
brilliancy) it is not only unnecessary, but almost injurious, I shall illustrate
this, by quoting examples well known to all who have visited the continent.
In three of the most admirable works of the Italian school — and each of
them by masters of rival excellence, Michael Angelo, Raffaele, and Guido —
scarce any gilding has been employed. For instance, in the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel; the ceiling of the Farnasine Palace; and the "Aurora" in the
Ruspigliose Palace at Home : in neither of these do we find gilding to be much
if at all existing. But there are other points to establish the affinity of fresco
painting to architecture, and it is to be found in the necessary proportions of
parts to each other, so that they may not only be good in themselves, but as
integral parts of a uniform whole. To explain this, we must now refer to
the labours of another great painter, A. Carracci, and place his great work at
the Farnese Palace, beside the still greater production to which I have before
alluded, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. In the former will be found that
however bold and versatile are the decorations, there is an absolute want of
subordination of parts to each other; the oblong forms (intended to be prin-
cipal) are nearly equalled by the square ones — and the square compartments
are almost overpowered by the medallions. There is a struggle as it were
for preponderance, even the figures contained in each of the latter panels
appear to occupy a secondary place. Now let us turn to the Sistine Chapel.
We here find all the parts, whether panels, pilasters, or figures, to subserve
the principal objects. Here are the Prophets seated on pedestals in sober
majesty, and they are surrounded by figures in every variety of attitude —
and snch attitude indicative of some important office — yet all contributing
by their subordination to the dignity of the sacred seers. The side com-
partments are here decidedly less than the central, and the medallions are
comparatively small. And then how charmingly does the artist's eye direct
the allusion. Some of the figures are 12 feet high, others not more than 3
feet, and though close beside each other, no confusion results. One is

turned into bronze, another into stone, and the third represents life ; but
the artist had yet another and another handmaid — perspective and foreshorten-
ing, a branch of perspective, and aerial perspective. But if in point of beauty
fresco painting stands unrivalled, what shall we say of its durability ? It
has been urged that the damp air of this country is unfavourable to it, that
our walls steaming with condensed vapours would soon cause the labours of
the artist to suffer damage and ultimately disappear. Now what have we to
oppose to this ? If fresco was like stucco paintinc, the objection would
hold — the latter lies upon the surface ; but as the former is indurated, and
becomes a part of the material of the stucco itself, we know that is liab'e
to no such contingency, but that on the contrary it is the most lasting of
any style of painting whatever except it he enamel. We will prove this by
past experience and analogy. True it is that the climate of Italy will afford
us no criterion — but its fatalities will.

We are all more or less acquainted with the elegant frescos of Pompeii.
These delicate productions are, we know, after a lapse of more than 1800
years, preserved to us in all their pristine freshness ; now, it cannot be urged
that their buried state was favourable to them, or if it cculd, it would be
to establish another advantage over oil painting. What pictures in oil,
whether on canvass or copper, could have stood the test which they have >

The most important division of the subject, is — the economy of Fresco
paiuting as compared with the present waste by gilding. Adam Smith,
in his " Wealth of Nations, says, " In the manufactories of Birmingham
alone, the quantity of gold and silver annually employed in gilding and
plating, and thereby disqualified from ever afterwards appearing in the ahape
of those metals, is said to amount to more than j£5'0,000 sterling.

It is not here intended to object to the judicious use of gold, but to
the abuse of it ; nor either to the cost of gilding, but to the actual
waste by gilding plaster and composition, and every description of worthless
material. But, lest it should be supposed that the withdrawal of gilding
from our interiors should have the effect of throwing large number of work-
men out of employ, Mr. Thomson proceeded to show that it would be the
sure means of giving occupation to hundreds and thousands that now seek in
vain for it. The moment the use of gilding is restricted, increased aid of
ornamental painting will be required, and the art of Polychromy will be
revived ; and it will, also, require further aid from the carvers, aud some-
times the chasers. Mr. Thomson then proceeded to make some remarks on
the vast quantity of gold used for gilding, and the number of hands engaged.
and the cost. He then explained by what means fresco should be advanced,

" The first legitimate source," observed Mr. Thomson, " appears to me
to be in our churches, because the talent of our countrymen could not be
better engaged than in the suitable advancement of their Christian temples.
The next source that suggests itself for the promotion of fresco painting is,
our Art Unions. They cannot, indeed, draw lots for frescos before they
exist ; nor can they be ready made as easel pictures for competition, but
they can do this : they can give encouragement to that lofty branch of art
which is capable of being transferred to fresco by engravings, duplicates of
which are secured to the candidates. The third, and not the least import-
ant means of its advancement, I would refer to, is — individual patronage.
I would remind those whose exalted station can alone derive lustre by the
services they are able to render their country — I would remind them, how
much it may be in the power of one noble house to effect."

We have it in history, and that of the dark ages, that " when Italy was
torn by intestine factions, and war raged through the length and breadth of
the land, that even this turbulent epoch was most glorious to the fine arts.
In the midst of battles — engaged in the mortal struggles for the existence of
his country, we find M. Angelo constructing the defence of his native Flo-
rence— fighting on the ramparts, and at the same time producing those mat -
vellous specimens of art which have immortalised his name.

" Coeval with him we have the bright galaxy of talent which illumined
Italy, so that, in the course of nature, one person might have lived to see
them all. Born with Titian in 1477, he might have passed his life with
Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raffaele, Corregio, Georgione, Tintoretti,
Bassano, Paul Veronese, Gilio Uomagno, and Andrea del Sarto — he might
have outlived them all, and, even within the ordinary limits of human life,
have witnessed the close of M. Angelo's brilliant career in the year 15G3.
Such was the rich harvest, which left but slender gleanings to succeeding
ages. It had shot up and ripened in the midst of storms, and seemed, like
the palm tree, to gather strength from the difficulties opposed to its growth
—to spring with vigour iu proportion to the strength employed to hear it
down."

It is added—" The stimulus which gave it life and energy to brave these
adverse circumstances — was the encouragement and foresight of one enligh-
tened family — The Family of the Medici."

WILTSHIRE TOPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

The third Anniversary Meeting of this Society was held on Saturday, the
third of June, when the Loud Bishop of Salishury presided. 1( v
reported that " the first volume of the society's publications would be ready
for the members early in July — that it would contain the Rev. J. E. Jack-
son's History of Grittleton, and Mr. Britton's Introductory Essay on Topo-
graphy, with Glossaries to Domesday Book, and other Archaeological Re-
cords, &c; and that the volume was exclusively for the umcmbers of the

248

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

society." It was further reported that other works were in progress, and
that it was expected, one, two, or more volumes would prohably be ready by
the ensuing anniversary. The only alteration in the list of officers was the
election of A. Caswall in the room of F. Whitmarsh.

KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.— OPENING OF THE NEW

MUSEUM.
The opening of the museum of this noble establishment took place
on Thursday tne 22d ult. under the immediate auspices of His Royal
Highness Prince Albert, who arrived at the college punctually at 12
o'clock ; he was received hy the Bishop of London and Archdeacon
Lonsdale, the principal of the college, and led into the grand hall
which is quadrangular, and has two large staircases on either side,
with a gallery or corridor above. These were all lined with stu-
dents of the college and of the school, who, together with the council
p.nd prufessors formed rather an imposing coup d'ceil.

Among the company we observed the Archbishop of York, Bishops
of London, Norwich, and Gloucester, and many other dignitaries of
the church, Lords Brownlow, Radstock, Sir Robert Inglis, Mr. Fa-
raday, &c. &c.

After the repeated hurrahs and cheers had subsided, Mr. Slater,
one of the students, advanced to the Prince and read a Latin speech,
and at the close, Mr. Hullah's pupils, who lined the right hand stair-
case, broke out and sung our national anthem "God save the Queen."

The Prince, attended by the principal of the college and the
Bishop of London, then ascended the staircase for the purpose of
opening the new museum. On his way he inspected the Marsden
library, so called from the presentation of a most valuable collection of
works in the Eastern languages, by Mr. Marsden, and the grand library,
which, though small, contains some of the most select classic authors
in ancient and modern literature. On His Royal Highness's arrival at
the new museum, he was joined by the Crown Prince of Wirteinburg
and suite, and was received by Professor Wheatstone, who accom-
panied His Highness through the museum, and explained the various
apparatus, with all of which the Prince seemed well conversant, and
much interested. The museum is to be attached to the engineering
department, it consists principally of instruments from the royal col-
lection at the Kew observatory, formerly belonging to King George
the Third, many of which were of his own workmanship, and it has
been since further enriched by royal munificence and by private
liberality, in the presentation of Babbage's celebrated calculating
machine; models of well known bridges, and of the most ingenious
and difficult engineering works, and also a statue of George the Third,
by Turnerelli, presented by H. Pownall, Esq., and it is hoped that it
will become the nucleus for the formation of a scientific museum,
which t:u- manufacturer and man of science will frequent, and where
all model: and inventions of known utility will he sent for their inspec-
tion and approval, and for the publicity that they will thus obtain.

After 'he ceremony of opening the museum, the Fnuce proceeded
to the g "at theatre and its ante-room, the one containing a small but
choice collection of birds, and the other a valuable present from
Her Majesty, cf English and foreign insects and butterflies. This
theatre, which is the large theatre of the institution, was filled with
an assi mblage of the highest rank and fashion. The Prince was here
attended by the lecturer, Mr. Cowper, who explained various models
and drawings. A valuable full length likeness of Jacquard, the in-
ventor of the celebrated Jacquard loom, woven in silk, very much at-
tracted the attention of his Highness, it was scarcely to be distin-
guished from the finest engraving; the whole process was fully
detailed by the lecturer, the Prince entering warmly into the detail of
a machine whose results had been so beautifully displayed in the
specimen before him. The Times printing press, spinning and other
models were also severally explained; afterwards his Highness pro-
ceeded to the theatre of Materia inedica, and the chemical theatre
where he was received by Prof.Daniel who explained several interesting
experiments connected with the voltaic battery, and the decomposition
and formation of water, he then adjourned to the terrace of Somerset
House where the experiment of letting off a cannon on the top of the
shot tower on the opposite side of the river Thames from a galvanic
battery on this side of the river was to have been performed ; this
did not take place, but we could not positively ascertain wherefore ;
we believe the communication of the wires passing across the river
had heen destroyed. After parading the terrace attended by the
principal, the Prince retired to his carriage evidently much gratified
with the strong expressions of loyalty that he had met with, and the
m..ny interesting experiments he had seen.

We believe we are authorized to state, that the public are at liberty
at any time between the hours of 10 and 3 o'clock to visit the museum
and other parts of the college.

M. CLEMENT'S NAUTICAL INVENTIONS.

In the Journal for last January, page 28, we gave an account of M.
Clement's ingenious inventions, together with some particulars re-
specting an experiment, made by order of our government, to try
their merits; since then more extended experiments have been made
in H. M. steam vessel Blazer, which has proved verv successful; the
results, communicated by Captain Washington, R.N., are to be found
in the Nautical Magazine of last month, from which we have ob-
tained the following description and drawings of the instruments.

The name Sillomitre is composed of the two French words sillage
(headway) and metre (measure), and might be well rendered in Eng-
lish Speed-gauge. This instrument consists of a hollow copper ball
O, Fig. 1, about five inches in diameter, suspended under the ship's
bottom, nearly amidships, from the middle of a bent lever A C, about
five inches long; one end of this lever moves on a joint A, its fulcrum,
attached to the lower end of a metal rod which passes vertically
through a copper tube carried from the deck through the bottom of
the ship near the keel ; at the other end of the lever is attached a
chain C, which leads upwards and acts upon a second horizontal lever
E F, on deck. This second lever corresponding to the lower one,
gives motion, by means of a spring, to an index which marks on a
dial the speed of the ship expressed in knots and tenths of a knot.

Such is the whole of the apparatus of the simple Sillometre. It
will be readily understood that as the vessel moves through the water,
the fluid acts upon the ball, which being circular, always presents the
same section, and causes it to move aft, thereby depressing the fore
end of the lever which by the chain communicates with the dial on
deck. The scale by which to graduate the knots on the dial was
found by M. Clement after numerous experiments. This instrument
in its simple form shows the speed of the vessel, not the amount of
distance run.

Sillometre. Thermometer.

7>. ot

Li-

f

The lower Fig. 1, is a side yiew.
y, Compensation weight,
r. Box for oil.
Z, Shield.

Dial.

1843. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

249

The compound sillomftre consists of the same mechanism, Fig. 2,
with this addition, that the power which moves the index M, is ap-
plied at the same time to a watch N, and accelerates its movements
in proportion to the intensity of the moving power, or as the vessel
quickens her speed. A second watch R, is placed by the side of the
first, in order to show how much the former gains upon the latter; and
knowing that for every six seconds of gain the vessel will have made
a mile, it is easy to know the distance run. It is evident that this
compound instrument is very superior to the simple one, but its accu-
racy depends upon the regular going of two good watches, a result
not very easily obtained at sea.

The Sub-Marine Thermometer is a very delicate instrument com-
posed of a ribband formed of two metals of unequal contraction and
expansiou, as platina and silver, and rolled in the form of a helix A,
Fig. 3, round an axis B, which turns as the temperature of the water
varies. This motion by a train of wheels and pinions is immediately
communicated to two pointers on a graduated dial on deck, and which
may be read off easily to hundredths of a degree.

The whole of this apparatus is enclosed in a metal tube, which
passes through the bottom well aft in the run of the ship. The helix
or thermometer is therefore always at a certain depth in the water,
say 10 feet below the surface; and it shows instantly every change in
its temperature.

As few observations have been regularly made on the temperature
of the water of the sea at a certain depth, this machine may lead to
some novel results.

The Sleam Indicator points out the temperature and consequent
pressure of the steam in the boilers ; it is composed of a ribband or
blade of two sensitive metals of unequal expansion, turned in a spiral
form; one end is fixed to the tube or pipe in which it is contained,
the other connected with a spindle bearing the pointers which indi-
cate the temperature of the steam on a dial on deck, in degrees and
tenths of a degree. This instrument is connected by a small pipe
with the boiler or steam chest through which the steam reaches the
spiral, which instantly causes any variation in temperature to be
shown by the dial on deck : in high pressure engines this may be
found useful.

The Derivometre is an instrument somewhat on the principle of the
sillometre, and intended to measure the drift of a ship ; this is done
by a vane placed on the keel, connected by a rod with a dial — the
vane of course takes the opposite position to the drift of the vessel,
which is communicated by the turning of the rod to the pointers on
the dial on deck.

The Interval and External Thermometer, as its name indicates is a
highly sensitive thermometer, so placed against the wall of an obser-
vatory or house, as to show the temperature of the air within and
without. The two pointers which mark this are on the face of the
same dial.

The report and log show that the sillometre indicated every varia-
tion in the speed of the vessel, even the alteration caused by a single
spoke of the helm was perceptible, and putting the helm hard over
caused the ship to lose half her way almost immediately ; as the dial
of the instrument is placed on deck, and the index or pointer very
conspicuous, the officer of the watch without any trouble may observe
it at every turn he takes on the quarter deck ; and it is obvious that
none but the most inattentive person can fail to have a much more
correct knowledge of the rate of the vessel's going than he can from
heaving the common log once or twice an hour. The sillometre will
also enable an officer easily to ascertain the best trim of a vessel ; the
difference caused by shaking out a reef or by making or shortening
sail ; and in a fleet would enable a ship to keep her station by night
or by day with great steadiness ; and lastly it impresses very strongly
on the observer the absolute necessity of good steering and giving
very little helm when in chase or on a trial of sailing, or at any other
time when speed is of importance.

The Steam Thermometer has also a dial placed on deck so that the
officer of the watch can tell at any moment whether there is a suffi-
ciency of steam or the contrary, and can thus check the wasteful ex-
penditure of coal; it would point out too the possible, but highly im-
probable occurrence of no water in the boilers, or an undue increase
of the temperature of steam from any other cause. Its chief value
however would be shown in a high pressure steam engine when it
would give immediate warning of any approach to such a degree of
temperature or pressure as might be dangerous.

The Sub-marine Thermometer remains constantly at a depth of about
ten feet below the surface of the water, and owing to its being formed
of platina and silver is extremely sensitive, and thus every change in
the temperature of the sea will be shown at once on the dial on deck.
As in the Atlantic Ocean and other deep seas, the deep water is
said to be warmer than the shallow ; it probably would there show, by

mere inspection, the approach to shoals, rocks, or land, and serve as
an excellent warning. At this season of the year however in the
shallow waters of the North Sea we observed no such effect, on the
contrary the temperature of the water gradually decreased from 50''
Fahrenheit at Woolwich to 44£ at about 20 miles to the eastward of
the North Foreland, and as gradually increased on our returu to the
same point.

Possibly as the summer advances this may be different, and in order
to discover when the change of temperature takes place, I have di-
rected the instrument to be registered every two hours night and day.
As the thermometer is highly sensitive and may be read off witli ease
to hundredths of a degree, and agrees perfectly with the best mercu-
rial thermometers, it may possibly furnish some novel results of value
to the philosopher as well as to the navigator, since I am not aware of
the existence of any continued series of observations on the tempe-
rature of the sea at all seasons of the ye ir.

WESTMINSTER BRIDGE.

Report to the Speaker, by Messrs. Walker and Burges, on the altera-
tions proposed by Mr. Barry.

Sir, — As that portion of Mr. Barry's report to His Royal Highness
Prince Albeit (on the decorations, additions, and local improvements
connected with the new Houses of Parliament) which refers to West-
minster-bridge, may naturally lead to the opinion that our plans, made
under the direction of the Bridge Commissioners, were confined to the
repairing and extending of the foundations, for our superintendence
of which he kindly compliments us ; we consider it, therefore, a duty
to prevent such a mistake, by stating, that the designs, estimates, and
the contract with Mr.Cubitt, included the repair of every part of the
bridge, the " removal of the present steep and dangerous acclivities,
and the lowering of the parapet and road-way to the lowest possible
level" that appeared at the time to be consistent with the safety of the
present arches. The second contract with Mr. Cubitt, is for lengthen-
ing the piers, which are being carried to above high water level, to
receive arches for widening the bridge twelve feet. It will then be of
the same width as London-bridge. All, in fact, that we have done
to Blackfriars-bridge, is designed and contracted for,1 to be done to
this bridge, with the very important addition of the preparation for
widening. The steepest part of Westminster-bridge road-way will,
when the designs are executed, be as easy as that of Blackfriars-
bridge. That which rises one in fourteen, will be reduced to one in
twenty-four, and even this rise will be for only a limited length.

To secure the foundations, which were in danger of beiug under-
mined by the scour consequent on the removal of old London bridge,
has been the first object. The supposed difficulty of doing so effect-
ually, was increased by the opinion entertained by Labelye, the origi-
nal engineer, and others since his time, that owing to quicksands,
coffre-dams could not be applied ; and the commissioners have been
desirous of removing all doubt on this point, before proceeding with
the spandrils, road-way, or parapet. Five out of the seven coffre-
dams have been built ; so far, we have been completely successful :
and while the water was excluded, all the work which was required in
repairing and lengthening the piers to above high water, has beeu
done ; seven out of the thirteen arches have also been repaired, as
the coffre-dams gave facility for the scaffolding necessary for doing
this. Thus far, therefore, our desigu proposed to, and approved by,
the Commissioners, corresponds with, and has anticipated Mr. Barry's;
but the idea of taking down the present semi-circular, for the purpose
of substituting pointed arches upon the same foundations, is not ours,
and we beg to state shortly, why we do not concur in the expediency
of this proposal.

Mr. Barry's first argument for this change is, " that the pointed arch
will enable the road to be lowered, by materially reducing the thick-
ness of the crown of the arches, within what is considered necessary
for arches of a circular form." Now, we consider that the whole
thickness of the stone-work and covering of the present centre arch
may be reduced to about seven feet, which is the same thickness as
Mr. Barry's ribs, arch and covering, measured upon his section ; so
that, even supposing the principle lie states, of the pointed arch re-
quiring less thickness than the circular arch, to be correct, he obtains
no reduclion in thickness, and only lowers the road-way, by lowering
the soffit of the arch. The generally approved theory of arches is

1 The commissioners have power to suspend or supersede the contract in
respect of any works not commenced.

250

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[Jury,

however, directly at variance with Mr. Barry's. In " Pratt's Mathe-
matical Principles of Mechanical Philosophy," — considered a standard
work, and, as we are informed, a text-book at Cambridge, — the theory
is so clearly explained, that we give it in his own words : " A pointed
arch," he says, " must have a great pressure on its crown to prevent
its falling, because it may be considered as consisting of two extreme
portions of a very large circular arch brought together, so that the
pressure on the crown must at least equal the pressure of the portion
of the circular arch which is removed. Flving buttresses alwavs have
a great pressure upon their highest part. The pointed arch will sus-
tain almost any weight on its crown, provided the lowest stones do
not give wav, and, consequently, the Gothic arch is stronger for lofty
'"Hidings than the circular ; but the circular arch is far better adapted
•nan the (iothic arch for bridges, since the pressure of weights pass-
ing over may act upon any part of the arch, not onlv on the crown."
Mr. W newel I comes, in different words, to the same conclusion ; and
The same can be deduced from Attwood, though not so clearly express-
ed. These are no mean authorities ; indeed, we do not know an ex-
ception in any author, British or foreign, to the opinion, that the
pointed arch requires a greater thickness of material at the crown
than the circular arch to keep it from rising ; and if so, the sub-
stitution of the pointed arch should, in place of allowing a reduction,
demand an addition to the least thickness required for the present
arches. Add to theory, the experience of every modern engineer of
this or other countries, as shown in their bridges of any considerable
size : for we are not aware of any example of a pointed arch for a
bridge of any magnitude in the works of Smeaton, Rennie, Telford,
Perronet, or indeed of any other.

Mr. Barry's second argument for substituting the pointed arch is —
" the elevation ot its springing above the level of high water, by which
the water-way of the bridge will be the same at all times of the tide,
in place of being contracted by the present spandrils at high water,
nearly equal to one-twentieth of its sectional area, occasioning eur-
'ents, with a fall, and sometimes danger to craft in passing through
ihe bridge under the influence of high winds." Mr. Barry appears
aere to have stated "sectional area," when he must have meant width
or chord ; for we rind, that in the section of his scheme, the contrac-
tion of the middle arch by the spandrils is about one-twentieth of the
width, at the level of Trinity high water ; but as the contraction is
only a few feet in depth, before the arch falls into the vertical line of
ihe pier, the diminution of sectional area i9 not one-twentieth, nor
more than one one-hundred-and-twentieth, and this at high water onlv:
— and even this small diminution is in effect reduced practically to
notning as respects the current, when it is considered, that the great-
est velocity does not take place until half ebb, bv which time the water
has sunk below the level of the spandril. It is, we think, therefore
evident, that the proposed alteration will not produce anv useful effect
jpon the currents or the falls. When the bed of the river under the
arches is lowered (which also is part of the contract), and the coffre-
uams removed, the present current through the bridge will be materi-
ally lessened. Some practical good would be effected bv the higher
point of springing of the pointed arches, in giving more head room
lor craft near to the piers ; and, as the Westminster-bridge arches
have less space for navigation than anv of the four City bridges, anv
.ncrease of accommodation is desirable ; unfortunately, however,
while an addition is thus made for one-fourth of the width of the arch
near the springing, a portion is taken away from the height for the
remaining three-fourths, nearest the crown,"where it is of the greatest
importance ; this diminution varies from eighteen inches to thirty
inches ; so that the centre arch will not then have more height for
navigation than the two arches, adjoining the centre arch now have ;
and when we inform you, that at high water of good tides, the centre
arch is the only one which some of the steamers can conveniently pass
inder, we think you will allow with us, that the proposed lowering
will, in such cases, be rather a practical evil, as it will take from the
convenience of what is now the least convenient bridge for navigation,
:o say nothing of the liability to the ribs being iojured by masts and
chimneys striking them.

The artistic point of view is the last insisted on by Mr. Barry j and
on this, what we may say, is with a due respect to his better judgment
and taste in matters of architecture. The contract with Mr. Cubitt
does not alter the present elevation below the crown of Ihe arches ;
but, as you are aware, we have long since suggested that a new ele-
vation for the bridge after the Norman style would he a great improve-
ment. In this, however, we would not propose to reduce the magni-
tude of the features of the bridge, considering that simple boldness,
and strength, are essential qualities in a bridge over the river Thames,
in London ; aud if so, that it is scarcely fair to reduce the parts of the
bridge because those of the elegant florid edifice, which is now being
erected near it, are small. For palace architecture, the latter may be

the best, and we do not venture an opinion as to the effect of Mr.
Barry's work, in which our professional employment was confined to
the construction of the colfre-dam and the river wall ; but for a bridge,
particularly in a city, with constant and heavy rough trade under and
over it, the style of architecture ought, we conceive, to be more mas-
culine. Mav not the new houses be better displayed thus, than by
accordance of style ? The beauty of the detail of the new houses is
verv great : the length SOU feet, without, at present, anv striking fea-
ture or variety, also great ; but we submit, whether an additional 800
feet of according composition and style, of still lower elevation,
would not rather tend to render the " ensemble" dull and flat than
effective ? The style of the new buildings must stop somewhere.
< an it do so better than at the bridge, which, as we have already said,
appears to require a character different from the Houses of Parliament ?
If both faces of the arches are proposed by Mr. Barry to be alike,
would there not be a want of accordance between the north face of the
bridge and the buildings and mansions near to it, and which there is,
we presume, no intention of altering ? Is a continuance of the same
stvle required for so great a length, as the houses and the bridge to-
gether, although the pointed may be the prevailing character of the
building ? Does not precedent reply to this in the negative, and
prove it, by the fact that the periods of the original erection and of
the additions that have from time to time been made to some of our
finest buildings may be discovered by the style ; the Saxon, the Nor-
man, the Pointed, and varieties of each being found iu the same build-
ing, and vet the " ensemble" not inharmonious. We hope, therefore,
that the superstructure of the bridge, thuugh it may be different in
stvlp from the Houses uf Parliament, may not be discordant,

Westminster-bridge has been where it is, and as it is, for a century t
it was th°re when the designs for the new houses were made, aud we
never heard that to pulldown Westminster-bridge touearly low water,
was to be a necessary accompaniment to the adoptiou of any of the
designs. If you and the other commissioners had known that such
alterations were contemplated, you would not, we are sure, have
allowed the works to have proceeded as they have done, until nearly
two-thirds of the whole to above high water had been completed, in-
cluding the renewal or repair of the arch stones.

We may name here an objection to the form which Mr. Barry has
proposed for the arches, as tending to lessen the stability of the bridge.
l.ahelve considered that by adopting the seuii-ciie.ular arch, which
presses vertically upon its piers, each pier might be considered an
Abutment, so that if one arch were to give way, the piers would sup-
port all the others. From the great height at which the proposed
pointed arches spring from the piers, and their greater lateral pres-
sure or thrust upon the piers, the above would not be the case. On
the contrary, the failure of one arch would, we conceive, cause the
destruction of all the piers and arches. This consideration is not to
be disregarded in a bridge, the piers of which have been so badly
Founded, that to support t.iem has been a constant expense, and is at
this moment a source of considerable anxiety ; although the works we
have in hand, if as successful as hitherto, will render the piers much
more secure than they have ever been ; we hope, perfectly so.

(in the whole, therefore, we have reason to be pleased, that Mr.
Barrv approves the various improvements in the bridge which the
commissioners have contemplated) and, with one exception, contracted
for. The only addition he makes to them is, the substitution of the
pointed arch, which, for the reasons stated, we cannot advise. We
agree to the advantage, in point of taste and utility, of keeping the
road-way of the bridge low; we have designed doing this as far as
can be done, having regard to the funds of the commissioners, and
therefore without disturbing the present arches. There is a way oy
which the height of the road-way might be reduced below what either
Mr. Barrv or we have yet proposed, at one-fourth of the expense ot
his plan (which would, we think, much exceed his estimate), and
without lowering the soffit of the arch, or diminishing in any way the
convenience of navigation; but we avoid entering upon, or committing
ourselves to this, until we have considered the subject more iu detail,
ami understand it to be the wish of the commissioners that we should
do so; for the works we have already recommended may go as far ac
their unassisted funds would justify.

We. have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your obedient servants,

23, Great George Stntt, Walker and Burges.

3lslMay, 184a
The Rt. Hon. Charles S. Lefevrk,
Speaker of the House of Commons,

Chairman of the Commissioners of Westminster Bridge.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

251

NOTES ON EARTHWORK, &c, UPON RAILWAYS.

ARTICLE 7. CAPITAL, SHARES, AND TRANSFERS.

The previous papers that have appeared in the Journal on the
above subject, have reference to the constructive operation in the for-
mation of railways, which is more in my line than the title or heading
of this paper ; yet, lam induced, however imperfectly, to give some
account of the ways and means by which the necessary funds have
been raised, as I know of no work where any information is to be ob-
tained, except in isolated and unconnected passages of various works
bearing more or less on railways.

The necessity of a railway for the public convenience being fully
established, and the probable cost of the works ascertained, the num-
ber and amount of shares necessary to be raised is then considered,
which are proportioned to the magnitude of the undertaking, the lia-
bility of calls being limited to the amount of share. The amount of
each share has been generally fixed at 100/.; in some instances at 50/.,
and in a few cases as low as 20/. per share, the greater or less amount
giving the undertaking a more or less speculative character. The legis-
lature require the whole capital to be subscribed to the deed before
any step is taken in the execution of works, and in 1836, to check the
mania for railways, a standing order was passed requiring ftlis of
the cost of the undertaking to be subscribed for, and a deposit of 10
per cent, paid thereon, before an application could be made to Parlia-
ment for a Bill, which was evaded in 1S37 by the Edinburgh and
Glasgow Railway Companies, who borrowed the money from their
bankers, the Company at the same time claiming exemption from the
standing order, on account of the project being started before the
framing of the order. The amount of capital being fixed, Parliament
as a general rule allow a third to be borrowed by the executive as a
mortgage. In almost every case the capital has been found to be ineffi-
cient for the construction of the works, and application to Parliament
a second, third, and fourth time, has had to be resorted to, and fresh
powers obtained for raising more money, either by issue of new shares
to pay off loans, or to obtain further loans on mortgage, or bond on the
credit of the company, by way of loan notes, or promissory notes of
the director under the seal of the company, also by debentures, which
are mortgage bonds according to act of Parliament, the interest of
which has preference of any dividend, and if not paid within 30 days
after due notice, two justices of the peace may appoint a receiver of
the tolls and profits of the railway ; and the same course may be taken
with respect to the principal, unless paid within six months after it is
due. The company reserve power to pay off bonds any time after
three or six months' notice. The debentures are very convenient, as
interest warrants or coupons are attached for the whole period, made
payable every six months at the bankers of the company, during the
whole period for which the money has to remain, which is generally
for three, five, seven, and never more than ten years, being at the
same time transferable like shares, a form for which is provided in
the acts of Parliament.

In the second Report on Railways, from a select committee of the
House of Commons, printed August 9, 183'.), where much valuable
information is to be had on this subject, the Committee particularly
direct attention to the course pursued by the different companies in
coming to Parliament, for the purpose of raising sums rather than
enforce payment of money empowered to be raised under former Acts.
It has been already stated, that in the second application to Parlia-
ment, the companies have been empowered to raise further sums, by
issue of new shares, and conversion of bonds into shares. The amount
of the shares has been reduced in these cases by the companies, and
rendered more speculative in character, perhaps purposely so, by the
100/. share being divided into halves, quarters, thirds, fifths, tenths,
and so forth. In such straits have some concerns been, that after all
means fur raising money by bonds or mortgage, and loans on credit of
the company, have been exhausted, new shares have been issued at a
discount of 50 per cent, and in some instances preference or privileged
shares have been created, with a guarantee of interest at the rate of
G per cent., and bonds have been converted into shares with a gua-
rantee of 5 per cent, in priority of original shareholders, to be received
out of the paid up capital of the company.

In only one instance has a public railway been offered for sale by
auction, and this was by the seizure of a line by the Exchequer Loan
Commissioners, who can suddenly sell to the detriment of all other
lenders; but the sale was prevented by an arrangement with Govern-
ment for the liquidation of the debt and accruing interest, by instal-
ments during a period of 20 years.

Scrip shares are certificates for shares prior to their legal creation,
and pass from hand to hand without registration, and are not trans-
ferred by deed, the payment of duty on transfer is thus evaded, but

registration is necessary to receive a dividend. Privileged or prefe-
rence sHares have a fixed interest or dividend secured upon the paid
up capital, in priority of any dividend to original shareholders.

The influence obtained bv the possession of a great number of
shares, varies in almost every company, but the general average may
be about twenty votes for twenty shares, and an additional vote for
every five more shares ; in other cases four and five shares are requi-
site to obtain even one vote: and to prevent the leviathan swamping
the minnow, no one person is to have more than from 10 or 15 and up
to 60 votes ; the latter is the greatest latitude allowed in any com-
pany. The qualification for becoming a director, is the possession of
from 10 to 20 shares, which also differs in various companies. The
estate of shares is declared in all railway acts to be personal pro-
perty, and a form of transfer is prescribed, which, however, cannot be
acted on until calls are paid, that is during the collection of a recent
call ; neither can shares be transferred for some days previous to the
general meetings of the company. Shares may be forfeited at general
meetings on neglect to pay calls after notice by post, or left at the
abode of the owner. The defaulter is subject to be fined for neglect,
and three months' notice of forfeiture; but the company must not sell
more than will pay the calls that are due. The forfeiture of shares
is an indemnity against actions for calls (the other resource of the
company against defaulters) and absolve the defaulter from further
responsibility after, but not before, forfeiture.

The companies may purchase shares to merge into the company, or
to be held in trust; when this is done, and held in the name of indi-
viduals, a power is obtained very detrimental to the interest of the
small holders of shares. The calls are stipulated in the acts of Parlia-
ment to be made at intervals of from sixty days to three months, and
from 20/. up to 100/. is the limit to be called for in one year; the mini-
mum amount has been more generally acted on, and money borrowed
in anticipation of calls. Notice of calls are to be advertized from 10
to 21 days previous, and the amount of each varies in different com-
panies from 3/. 5/. 10/. 15/. to 20/. per share, but the executive have
in this case also preferred the smaller amount. With respect to
transfer of shares, it is provided in railway Acts to be done by deed,
which is, to be registered in the books of the company, but no time is
stipulated within which such registration must take place. This has
been taken advantage of by the public, and the deed is completed
between the vendor and purchaser, except as to the insertion of the
purchaser's name, and bearing the stamp of the ad valorem duty, at
the time it passes from hand to hand without the payment of any
more duty until a purchaser thinks proper to register; then the trans-
fer is taken to the office of the company, and his name inserted as the
purchaser. This system is connived at by the companies, who, to
give an assurance to a purchaser of the validity of a transaction, do
not hesitate to give a memorandum, under the hand of the secretary,
of a long bygone transfer, which, to all intents and purposes, answers
fully as well as a recent actual transfer; although the companies pre-
fer giving out a filled up transfer. A transfer with a good stamp is
accepted without inquiry. The purchaser, on the receipt of the
trausfer, can hold it as long as he likes, the seller having no means of
compelling registration; the seller is, therefore, liable to the calls
after he. has sold his interest in the company, and without any means
of compulsion in his hands whereby he might regain his shares ;
again, provided he paid the call, the vendor may sell his share a
second time, and the second purchaser, upon priority of registration,
would be entitled to the share ; he, the vendor, is at the same time
liable for calls upon his share after its sale, so long as his name is
retained on the company's books; also so long as his name is retained,
his share is liable to be taken in execution for the debt of any indi-
vidual creditor, or in the case of bankruptcy his creditors would claim
it as part of the general estate, in preference to the title of the first
purchaser. These are the legal difficulties that accrue from the use
of the blank transfer (that is blank as regards the name of the pur-
chaser) in addition to the loss to the revenue of the stamp duty on the
increase of the share's value, and on each transaction subsequent ;
there is also the uncertainty and inconvenience to which the company
are put in ascertaining the opinions of their proprietary.

The new registry of shares has also been turned to account by the
executive of the Companies, so as to increase individual influence.
It has been previously stated that no one person is to have more than
from 10 to (50 votes, and that 20 shares are entitled to 20 votes, with
an extra vote for every five shares in addition, but not to exceed, in
all, 60, whatever the number of shares held may be. In a recent case,
quoted in the Railway Times, an individual held 299 shares in a
Company, and was registered for only 25, holding the remaining
274 shares in different names in lots of 20 each ; by this means his
number of votes was increased by 220 votes, in addition to 25 votes
which he was entitled to by the act, which in question decided by vote

34

252

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[July,

of proxy must be obviously "undue influence." Individual influence,
and thereby patronage and favouritism is also increased by companies
having the power of purchasing shares to merge in the company,
which are held not in the company's name, but by directors in trust
for the company. This is of immense importance in the appointment,
or otherwise, of committees of inquiry into management of companies ;
one recently appointed was carried by a majority of 715 when nearly
8,000 votes were polled. The committee of inquiry reported ; the
directors replied; the committee answered, and the directors pub-
lished a rejoinder, and another poll took place, the direction beating
the committee by a majority considerably less than before ; to gain
which every move was tried, and thirty votes held in trust in names
of directors were openly used and it was at the same time strongly
contended that the right to vote was in the share, not the individual;
he might be bankrupt, a convict, a felon, or even dead, aud being
known to be dead, he would be revivifled for the day.

Sales or purchases of shares are generally made through a share
broker, who uses the prefix "share" to distinguish him from other
brokers ; those of the Stock Exchange generally act as London agents
for the provincial brokers, and sometimes the fees on commission are
divided between them. For shares under five pounds the commission
varies from a shilling, as the circumstances may differ. The following
is the usual scale of brokers' commission: —
£. s. d.

5 - 10 per share.

5 under 20 2 G
20 „ 50 5 0

50 10 0 per cent. Debentures 5s. per cent.

The stamp duty payable on transfer of shares is the same as the
ad valorem duties on assignment of lands.

In addition to the stamp duty, which is paid always by the pur-
chaser, some of the companies make a charge of Is. to 2s. Gd. for each
transfer in the company's hooks, which is charged to the credit of the
company, or allowed as a fee to the secretary as an augmentation of
his salary. The charge for registration of a transfer which is adopted
by some companies, as the Greenwich, Taff Vale, and Newcastle and
Darlington Junction and South Eastern Railways, varying from one
shilling to half-a-erown, tends also to further the continuance of the
practice of using blank transfers and the consequent evasion of the
duty, and I apprehend those who adopt the charge do not improve
their undertaking in the estimation of the public.

I have omitted to notice that in many of the companies the fifth
part of the shares in the first allotment are reserved for the landowners
on the line ; and that in the. creation of new shares, old shareholders
have priority, the shares being allotted in proportion to their holdings,
and that some companies have been in the practice of paying interest,
during the execution of the work, on capital or paid up shares, so
soon as one-fourth of the share has been called. Among those who
have so acted, that I can call to mind, are the Greenwich, Grand Junc-
lion, and Newcastle and Carlisle Companies.

As I said on the commencement of this paper that this subject was
not my forte, or in my 1 i n ? , I cannot therefore enter on the zoology of
the two animals "Bull and Bear," or the inexpediency of what are
called time bargains to individuals on the Stock Exchange, and their
detrimental effects to the undertaking in which the transactions are
made, the directors having no control over the parties operating, who
unnaturally depress the value of the shares, no matter what may be
the depressed state of the market, these fine gentry are generally
obliged to get out by hook or by crook, and at any sacrifice to them-
selves and the undertaking. The companies have also to a certain
extent adopted the principle of time bargains both with respect to the
issue of loan notes and debentures ; of the latter mode of proceeding
the Eastern Counties is an example, who give the holder of each de-
benture of 8/. 7s. iid. the option in three years of taking a 25/. share of
the former; the Croydon company give the option for the same period
to the holder of loans, to convert 15/. loan notes into a share of 20/„
and the Brighton for a similar period of three years to the holders of
their loan notes of conversion into quarter shares at lu/. each.

A system of leasing the works of one company to another has been,
to a certain extent adopted, which was done, I think, first, by the York
North Midland taking the Leeds and Selby line for a term of years.
The following have also followed the example: The Birmingham and
Gloucester have a lease of a portion of the Cheltenham and Great
Western Union from Cheltenham to Gloucester, and the Great Western
have a lease of the Bristol and Exeter, and a portion of the Cheltenham
and Great Western Union; the rent of the former being 30,000/.
and the latter 17,000/. per annum. The South Western or South-
ampton Railway took up the Gosport Branch Railway, and paid the
shareholders 5 per cent., with option after a certain time of joining in
a general dividend with the main line, and a similar course has been

pursued with the Warwick and Leamington Company, and the Bir-
mingham Company. The system of letting or leasing railways !o
private individuals has been attempted on the Northern and Eastern
and the Brandling Junction Railway; the commiltee of inquiry, on
investigation, recommended that system in respect to their lines, but
no case as yet has it been carried into practice.

To conclude this rambling paper I refer to the greatest difficulty
that railway companies have to contend with, viz, the closing of
capital account in consequence of disputed accounts with contractors,
and the excess of capital required over previous estimates, rendering
it almost impossible for the uninitiated to form any opinion as to the
merits of an undertaking so situated, with reference to their solvency
or otherwise, and the consequent uncertainty of railway stock as an
investment for the widow or trustee, and all experience shows that
until a railway is finished, and its traffic fully developed, the greatest
uncertainty attaches to such works. I have endeavoured, however,
imperfectly to point out the manner adopted by railway companies of
raising capital by shares and loan, also the mode of transferring shares,
the amount of share and the consequent liabilities, and the influence
of holding, as to individuals and directorates in the management of
railways and the power of control as to the shareholders at large. At
the same time I have pointed out that little or no information is to be
had in any work expressly devoted to railways, on this subject, they
being more generally devoted to the description of the construction of
the more important bridges, &c. on each railway, its course and direc-
tion, and the towns in the vicinity. I am nevertheless in hope that
this paper will call attention to the subject by one more competent to
the task.

One desideratum yet required to give stability to railway property
is, the closing of capital account, and the publication of shareholders
and the number of their holdings, and the full developement of pas-
senger traffic as regards the third class carriages, which ought not to
be so constructed, that 70 persons are made to stand up without cover
or shelter ; the principle on which the companies ought to act is, to
carry people cheaper than they can walk, as notwithstanding the saving
of time, another element in the calculation is money, which is said
to be also time ; but in the present depressed state, many have time
to spare for travelling, but not money also, at least in quantity suffi-
cient for pleasure, even at second class fares. As to goods traffic, 1
think that as regards general merchandize, that the old system will be
able to compete with railways ; and as regards coal or other produce,
always conveyed in one direction, the local or large holder generally
makes a bargain consonant with his own notions. Passengers are the
main support of railways ; and the safety to passengers is no specu-
lative point, eighteen millions of persons having travelled by railway
in 1S42, and only one was killed whilst riding in a train ; and there is
no doubt that the traffic and returns have also exceeded the most san-
guine expectations of the original projectors, as well as the amount of
capital required. Railways must ultimately pay, and settle down into
one of the most eligible of investments, as the facility with which a
transfer can be made in comparison with a freehold, is greatly in their
favour.

I have annexed to this paper the different forms of transfer, cer-
tificate for a share, and a scrip certificate also of a proxy, and the
memorandum given by the secretaries that a share or shares on a
given date were transferred from a certain name to another.

St. Ann's, Netvcaatle-upon- Tyne. O. T.

So. 1. — London and Paris Railway.

John Doc, of the town and county of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, agent, in
consideration of £100., paid by the said RicbarJ Roe, do hereby bargain, sill,
ass'gn. and transfer to the said Richard Roe, ten shares, numbered 3270,
M.'i.'.l, Sic, of anil in the undertaking called The London and Paris Railway.
To bold to the said Richard Roe, his executors, administrators, and assign's,
subject to the same rules, orders, and restrictions, and on the same condi-
tions that the same were held immediately before the execution hereof. And
the said Richard Roe does hereby agree to take and accept of the said shares,
subject to the same rules, orders, and restrictions, and conditions. Witness
our hands and seals this twelfth day of June, in the year of our Lord uw
thousand eight hundred and forty three.

Signed, sealed and delivered (being first duly"|
stamped) by the said John Doe, in the presence}- John Doe.

of — J

Signed, sealed and delivered (being first duly"*
stamped) by the said Richard Roe, in the pre- > Richar ! Roe.

sence ot — — — J

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

253

No. 2. — The London and Paris Railway Company.
No. 14228.
These are to certify that John Doe is the proprietor of the share numbered
14228 of tlij London and Paris Railway Company, subject to the rules, re-
gulations, and orders of the said company.

Given under the common seal of the said company.
(Seal of company.) the twelfth day of June, in the year of our Lufd

one thousand eight hundred and forty three.
Registered No. 665.

Secretary.
On the back-
Transferred to Richard Roe and registered.

Secretary.

No. 3. — London and Paris Railway.
Scrip certificate. 10 shares.

No. 8*1. No. 841.

The holder of this certificate will be entitled to ten shares of £50. each,
upon the performance of the several conditions relating to the second and
subsequent instalments contained in the resolutions of a special General
Meeting of the proprietors of this company, held on Thursday, the 28th of
April. 1842, a copy of which is at the back hereof.

London and Paris Railway Office,

10, Street, London,

Entered— John Doe, Accountant.

May, 1843.
Richard Roe, Secretary.

No. 3271.

London and Paris Railway Office,

10, — Street, London,

6th day of Feb. 1840.
Ten shares in this company, 'No. 3261 to 3270, were this day transferred
from Mr. Richard Roe to Mr. John Doe.

For John Noakes, sen.. Secretary.
Thomas Styles.

No. 5.

Form of Proxy.

1, of one of the proprietors of the London and Pari i

Railway Company, do hereby appoint of to be my proxy,

in my name and in my absence to vote or give any assent or dissent, to any
business, matter, or thing, relating to the said company, that shall be men-
tioned or proposed at any meeting of the proprietors of the said company,
in such manner as the said shall think proper, according to

his opinion and judgement, for the benefit of the said company, or anything
appertaining thereto.

In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand the day of

A TRIP TO BOULOGNE AND BACK IN ONE DAY.

SOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAY.

Hitherto this railway has been open as far as Ashford only, but it is now
completed up to Folkstone, to which point the public are now enabled to go.
The company having purchased the harbour of Folkestone, one of their ob-
jects is to establish a steam communication direct from that port to Boulogne,
in addition to that which, when the line is completed, will be effected from
Dover to Calais. To demonstrate the ease with which this may be done, and
at the same time to show the practicability of a trip from London to France
and back in a day, an experimental journey was performed on Saturday the
24th ult, the result of which was perfectly satisfactory. At 6 o'clock a
special train, containing the directors and their guests, started from the
London-bridge station, which arrived at the F'olkstone station, a distance of
SI miles from town, in two hours and 40 minutes, having stopped at five sta-
tions by the way, losing 10 minutes.

Mr. Wright, the resiaent engineer of the line from Folkestone to Dover,
was in attendance on the arrival of the company, and conducted them to
Folkestone barbi ur, when the "Water Witch" steamer was lyingready to re-
ceive them : the period of walking from the railway and embarking occupied
39 minutes. The vessel got under way at 40 minutes after 8 o'clock, and
made the voyage across the channel in 3 hours and 6 minutes, and arrived at
Boulogne at 25 minutes after 12 ; the company landed and presented to the
mayor, who was in attendance to receive the company, with the Times of
that morning, containing the debates in parliament of the previous night.
After partaking of a splendid entertainment at Boulogne, and remaining at
that place 2 hours and 13 minutes, the company returned on board the
steamer, and landed again at Folkestone after a passage of 3 hours and 45
minutes, and with a loss of 45 minutes in landing, and walking again to the
railway. The company left the station at Folkestone at 7 minutes after 7,
and arrived at London-bridge at 6 minutes after 10, losing 15 minutes in 5
stoppages ; thus, the whole journey to and fro, occupied 16 hours and 6
minutes ;and deducting stoppages of 4 hours and 7 minutes, the time actually
travelling was 12 hours within a minute. A saving in time of at least half-
an-hour will be effected when the proposed branch is made to the harbour
of Folkestone. With a fast-going steamer, the trip across might be perfomed
upon an average, in about 2 hours-and-a-half, thus the journey direct from
London-bridge to Boiiiogne, may be completed in 5 hours.

MISCELLANEA

The Cartoon Exhibition, Westminster Hall. — We understand the de-
signs sent in far exceed in merit the anticipation of the Commissioners, and
those persons fully competent to judge. We are informed that they are to
be opened for public exhibition, on Monday, July 3rd ; during the first fort-
night an admission of one shilling each person will be demanded, afler that
time it will be open free to the public, excepting on Saturdays, in the morn-
ing of that day it will be closed, and in the afternoon opened to the admission
of those who will pay one shilling; the funds to be devoted for the promotion
of the fine arts, as the commissioners may determine hereafter, according to
the amount. We are sure that this arrangement will give the greatest satis-
faction both to the competitors and the tublic.

Rotal School of Design. — Professor Dyce has resigned the office of
director, and has been elected on the council. He is succeeded as director by
Mr. Wilson, of Edinburgh, some of whose communications on art have ap-
peared in our columns, and are sufficient to show that iniimate knowledge
and appreciation of art which Mr. Wilson possesses. A better appointment
could scarcely be made.

Greenwich Pier. — We abstained last month from giving any account of
the failure of this pier, wdiich took place on 16th of May last, as we had not
then an opportunity of personally inspecting it, or of ascertaining its con-
struction •, we have since been favoured by our valuable correspondent, OT.
with the following observations, and sketch of the pier. He observes, " The
failure of Greenwich pier is not
a matter of surprise to parties
who understand the practical
construction of such works.
The immediate cause of the
failure was dredging in front
of the piles after the contrac-
tors had left the works, and the
arrangement of the piles being
faulty, as regards construction ;
the upper part is composed of
brickwork in cement (B). 18
feet high, and 14 inches thick
at top, capped with granite 1
foot thick, backed with con-
crete (C), and standing upon a
foundation of Yorkshire stone
landings (L), laid on a small
quantity of concrete, with a
substratum of foul gravel (G).
The landing in front rests on
a row of cast iron piles (I. P.)
25 feet long, and 5 feet apart,
grooved to admit between them
three cast iron plates, each 6
feet in height, these iron piles
were fastened by four, or two pair of wrought iron land ties (T) 2 inches
square, to wooden piles (W. P.) 18 feet long, and 12 inches square, driven in
land at a distance of 25* ft. from the front, and 5 ft. apart." The high water
mark is about 4 feet from the top, and low water mark 22 feet beloiv, or about
7 feet below the stone landing. From enquiry, we rather suspect the lower
ties, as shown in the sketch, were not fixed, nor do we see how they could
be, as they are shown considerably below low water mark. The superincum-
bent weight of the brickwork appears to have forced out the upper part of
the iron piles to a considerable distance, and caused the brickwork above to
slip down, and force out the iron plate ; but, it is very difficult to say.
whether this is the real cause of the failure, for until the ruins are cleared
away, nothing positive can be stated.

Sunderland. — Several fissures are said to be apparent in the celebrated
Victoria Bridge, over the Weir. The Sunderland Harbour Commission have
abandoned the plan of Mr. Murray, for converting the harbour into a dock,
but they have another plan of improvement which is not yet public.

Newcastle. — The new church of St. Peter has been opened, Mr. John
Dobson, Architect, and a Catholic cathedral, by Mr. Pugin, is now being
roofed in, the style is early English ; stone is used throughout in both these
edifices, the tower has been left unfinished until further funds are obtained.
Messrs. Green are architects for Lord Durham's monument, which is to be a
Grecian Doric temple, and built on Panister Hill.

Waekworth Harbour. — The works are again commenced by the company,
the contractor having made arrangements to surrender the works to the
company.

Newcastle and North Shields Railway Company are excavating a cut-
ting 50 feet deep for a road from the Station to the New Quay, with retaining
walls, and a bridge to carry a road over it at a cost of about 7,000/,

Birmingham and Derby Railway. — No arrangement is likely to be made
in respect to the unfortunate differences witli the Midland Counties Railway,
upon terms fair to the shareholders of either company.

Midland Counties Railway. — The Weir across the Trent, at the Soar
Mouth, is being constructed, not of Ashler stone, but of timber piles and
waling, and supported with inclines of Rubble stone above and below. The
Weir of ashler has been rescinded by |a late Act, on condition of the railway
company maintainiug it forever; its cost is about 5,000/. The Trent com-
pany insist upon its being done this summer, in consequence of several boats
having been sunk by coming in contact with Trent Bridge.

Hertford and Ware Railway.— The works are taken by Grissell and
Peto, who have also taken extensive improvements of the Severn, in Glou-
cestershire, to the amount of 12'J,00W.

254

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

Nottingham and Derby Cakai..— The tonnage on this canal has much
fallen oft' during last year. The Yorkshire route of rails taking the Hull,
ami some ot the Boston and Lincoln goods over their lines to Manchester,
and even grain and timber to Derby.

Morpeth.— A new church is to he built, and the Rev. Mr. Grey, a relative
Earl Grey, has subscribed 1.000/., and nearly another thousand was lately of
snbscrtbed.

Nottingham— St. Mary's church, tower unsafe, secured temporarily by
Mr. Cotiingham, architect, andHawksley, architect, has been called in by the
corporation ; the columns are split vertically which support the tower, and
temporary trussing is used to support them.

Athens, May 12.— A statue larger than life, and executed in the Egyptian
style, has been found near Marathon, and is just brought to our museum.
The figure has an iron disc in each hand. Some assert that it is a represen-
tation of Antinous : others consider it an Apollo.

The Speaking Machine.— I have as yet seen no notice in your valuable
periodical of an invention, which is, at present, attracting great attention
here, and which certainly merits every praise that can be bestowed upon un-
wearied perseverance and successful ingenuity. It is the Spraehmaschine or
the Speaking Machine, not quite appropriately called Euphonia. of M. Faber,
the result of a beautiful adaptation of mechanics to the laws of acoustics.
You are aware that the attempts of Cagniard la Tour. Biot, Miiller. Steinle,
to produce articulate sounds, or even to imitate the human voice, have not
been very successful ; in fact, our knowledge of the physiology ot the larynx
and its appendices has been so limited, that we have not even an explanation
of the mode in which the falsetto is produced. Mr. Faber's instrument solves
the difficulties. I can only give you a very imperfect idea of the instrument.
To understand the mechanism perfectly, it would be necessary to take it to
pieces, and the dissection naturally is not shown the visitor — less from a wish
to conceal anything, than from the time and labour necessary for such a
purpose. The machine consists of a pair of bellows at present only worked
bv a pedal similar to that of an organ, of a caoutchouc imitation of the
larynx, tongue, nostrils, and of a set of kevs by which the springs are
brought into action. [The further description would be unintelligible with-
out diagrams.] The rapidity of utterance depends of course upon the rapi-
dity with which the keys are played, and though my own attempts to make
the instrument speak sounded rather ludicrous, M. Faber was most suc-
cessful. There is no doubt that the machine may be much improved, and
more especially that the timbre of the voire may be agreeably modified. The
weather naturally affects the tension of the Indian rubber, and although M.
Faber can raise the voice or depress it, and can lay a stress upon a particular
syllable or a word, still one cannot avoid feeling that there is room for im-
provement. This is even more evident when the instrument is made to sing.
but when we remember what difficulty many people have to regulate their
own chorda? vocales, it is not surprising that M. Faber has not yet succeeded
in giving us an instrumental Catalar i or Lablache. Faber is a native of
Freiburg, in the Grand Duchy of Baden— he was formerly attached to (he
Observatory at Vienna, but owing to an affection of the eyes, was ol
retire upon a small pension ; he then devoted himself to the study of ana-
tomy, and now offers the results of his investigations arid their application
to mechanics, to the world of science. — (A Correspondent of the Athccneum.)

Hamburgh, March 31. S.

LIST OF MEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.)

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FSOM MAY 30, TO JUNE 21, 1843.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless olhenrise expressed.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improvements m
obtaining copper from copper ores, some part or parts of which improvements
are applicable to obtaining certain other metals contained in some copper
ores." (A communication.') — Scaled May 30.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, C.E., for "improvements in
the method or system of constructing boats and other vessels, which the in-
ventor intends to denominate the " Mondotian system." (A communication.)
—May 30.

John Tappan, of Fitzroy-square, Middlesex, gent., for " improvements in
apparatus applicable to flues or chimneys, for the purpose of increasing the
draft therein, and promoting the combustion of fuel. (A communication." —
May 30.

Thomas Forsyth, of Salford, Lancaster, engineer, for •' improvements in
machinery for making bricks and Ides." — June 1.

Pierre Frederick Ingolrl, of Buckingham-place, Hanover-square, watch-
maker, for " improvements in machinery for mating parts of watches and
other time-keepers." — June 1.

Henay Fox Talbot, of Locock Abbey, Wilts, Esq., for " improvements in
photograpy." — June 1.

Martyn Roberts, of Carmarthen, Esq., for " improvements in machinery for
preparing, spinning, and winding wool, cotton, flax, silk, or any other fibrous
bodies." — June 1.

Fennell Allman, of Salisbury-street, Strand, surveyor, for " improvements
in apparatus for the production and diffusion of light." — June 3.

Junius Smith, of Fen-court, Fenchurcli-street, London, gentleman, for
" improvements in machinery for sawing wood." — June 3.

William Brown, of Glasgow, merchant, for "improvements m the manu.

facture of porcelain china, pottery, and earthenware, and which improve-
ments are also in part applicable to the manufacture of paper, and to the
preparation of certain pigments or painters' colom-s." — June 3.

Richard Farmer, upholder and cabinet-maker, and Joseph Pitt, plumber's
brass-founder, both of Birmingham, for " improvements applicable to fixed
and portable water-closets, and beds or bedsteads, a part or parts of which
improvements are also applicable to raising and foreimg water." — June 6.

Robert Smart, of the Commercial-road, Redcliff, Bristol, ship-owner, for
" improvements in paddle-wheels' — June 8.

John Burns Smith, of Salford, Lancaster, cotton spinner, for " improve-
ynents in machinery for preparing, carding, roving, and spinning cotton, and
other fibrous substances." — June 8.

Cartaret Priaulx Dobree, of Putney, Surrey, civil engineer, for " improve-
ments in the manufacture of fuel." — June 10.

Henry Page, of Cambridge, painter, for " improvements in the mode of
painting, graining, or decorating with oil, and other colours." — June 10.

Henry Austin, of 87, Hatton-garden, civil engineer, for " a new method of
gluinq or cementing certain materials for building, and other purposes," —
June 10.

Edward Joseph Francois Duclos de Boussois, of Clyne Wood Works, near
Swansea, engineer, for " improvements in the manufacture of lead, tin, tung-
sten, copper, and zinc, front ores and slags, and other products, and in the
manufacture of their alloys with other metals." — June 10.

Ernst Leutz, of Eastcheap, gentleman, for " improvements in machinery
for raising and forcing water and other fluids, which machinery, wlien worked
I by steam or water, may be employed for driviny machinery." (A communi-
I cation.) — June 10.

Alfred Francis, of Vauxhall, Surrey, Roman cement manufacturer, and
1 Isaac Funge, workman in the employ of the said Aired Francis, for " im-
provements in the manufacture of ornamental tiles." — June 10.

Samuel John Knight, of Water-side Iron Works, Maidstone, Kent, foun-
der, for " improvements in kilns or apparatus for drying hops, malt, and
other substances." — June 10.

Thomas Wells Ingram, of Birmingham, engineer, for "improvements in
pressing and embossing wood, and other materials, in order to apply the same
to various useful purposes " — June 10.

Samuel Sparkes, of Wellington, Somerset, foreman at a woollen manufac-
tory, for " certain improvements in machinery for carding wool, cotton, and
other fibrous materials." — Juue 10.

John Tappan, of Fitaroy Square, gentleman, for " certain improvements in
apparatus for grinding and polishing cutlery, and other articles, whereby the
deleterious effects an the lungs and health of the workmen, produced by the
dust and metallic particles arising from the said operations are entirely, or
to a great extent obviated." — June 10.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " the novel
application of certain volatile liquids for the production of light, and improve-
ments in the tamps and burners to be employed for the combustion of such or
other volalili liquids." — (A communication.) June 10.

John Galley Hartley, of Narrow-street, Limehouse, mast and block maker,
for " certain improvements in paving and covering streets, roads, or other
wags." — June 13.

Frederick William Eggleston, of Derby, confectioner, for " certain improve-
ments in the combustion of fuel and consumption of smoke." — June 15.

Henry Bessemer, of Baxter House, Saint l'ancras, engineer, for " certain
improvements in the manufacture of bronze, and other metallic powder." —
June 15.

Prosper Antoine Payerne, of Paris, doctor of medicine, for " certain im-
provements in keeping the air in mines and other confined places in a pure and
respirable state." — June 15.

Thomas Johnson Irvine, of Peckham, lieutenant in Her Majesty's navy, for
11 certain improvements in packing cases, boxes, trunks, portmanteaus, and
other articles for containing goods, which improvements may, under certain
circumstances, be applied to the preservation of life." — June 15.

George Lister, of Dursley, Gloucester, card-manufacturer, and Edward
Pudding, of the same place, machinist, for " certain improvements in the
means of covering the cylinders of carding and scribbling engines with wire
card, and in condensing the rovings delivered from such engines, and also an
apparatus for sharpening or grinding the points of the cards, which latter ap-
paraiusmay also be employed for grinding other articles" — June 15.

I'.dward Hammond llentall, of Heyhridge, Essex, iron founder, for " cer-
tain improvements in ploughs, and in apparatus which mag be attached thereto,
for ascertaining the draft of instruments emploged in tilling land." — June )5.

George Bate, of Blooinsbury, Wolverhampton, Stafford, carpenter, for '• im-
provements in apparatus for raising and lowering window blinds and maps."
June 15.

J;imes Gardner, of Banbury, Oxford, ironmonger, for " improvements in
cutting hay, straw, and other vegetable matters for the food of animals." —
June 15.

Samuel Brown, of Gravel-lane, Sonthwark, engineer, for " improvements
in the manufacture of casks and other vessels." — June 17.

James Mackenzie Bloxand, of Hampstead, esquire, for " improvements on
meridian instruments." — June 20.

John Read, of Regent-street, machinist, for "certain improvements in
ploughs for draining, subsoiling, and cultivating land." — June 21.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

255

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON PROPRIETY OF STYLE,
PARTICULARLY WITH REFERENCE TO THE MODERN

ADAPTATION OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
By Edward Hall, Architect.
(Read al the Royal Institute of British Architects, June 26th, 1843. J
" dead men

" Hang their mute thoughts on the mute walls around."

" Yet to the remnants of thy splendour past,

" Shall pilgrims pensive, but unwearied, throng."
Very few years have elapsed since the style of architecture, called
Gothic, was ill-appreciated, or little understood in England. Teeming
as our island is in its highways, and its sequested nooks, with memen-
toes of the piety of past generations — discoursing "sermons in stones "

an(j breathing, through the interval of centuries, on the chords

of present time — the lyre lay long untuned, and gave none but dis-
cordant notes. The labours of the honoured few, who alone cherished
a love for the architecture of the country, were treated with ridicule
and contempt; whilst the student and the man of letters, slighting, or
ignorant of what his country contained, sought in Italy, and in Greece,
vestiges of the arts and mythology of nations, whose religion was
idolatrous, and whose architecture ill consorted with the requirements
of a Christian faith. Our cathedrals were repaired with a degree of
carelessness, pardonable at no time ; and were crowded with screens,
and altar-pieces, and with costly monuments, discordant in style as
they were tasteless in design and execution. But, happily for the
honour of the age, love of antiquarian topics, and of works of art
for their intrinsic excellence, have caused a re-birth in architectural
history. The wonderful skill in construction, and the taste of our
ancestors are appreciated ; the remote village church is examined for
the beauties which characterize it, not less than do fine proportion
and elaborate enrichment the cathedral and the college; — religious
feeling assists in the movement, and it is scarcely too much to say, that
the time is close at hand, when, for ecclesiastical structures, * Gothic
architecture will become as much the architecture of the country as
during the splendour of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

However, as architects, we may regret the tendency at our univer-
sities towards imitation rather than design, it must be allowed, that
the attention, paid to Gothic architecture there, has met with good re-
sults, in a greater care in the restorations of existing fabrics. The
importance, as historical records, which attaches to all architectural
remains, renders it a sacred duty in the architect to well inform him-
self on all features in different styles, so as to transmit to posterity
the structures he is called upon to re-instate, with every line and trace
of their founders' character and skill. The architecture of Egypt in
its paintings and hieroglyphics, iu its long and gloomy vistas, and its
avenues of sphinxes, is a lasting petrifaction of the manners and cus-
toms of the people, and of the dominion of that mysterious hierarchy,
who sat in judgment over the dead, and who curbed the flights of
imagination in architecture and in sculpture by inviolable regulations.
The porticos and sculptures of Greece are living evidences of the
refinement of a nation, who responded to the works of its artists, as
to the creations of the dramatist, and the reasoning of the philoso-
pher; while the sumptuous edifices of the Romans speak of the pomp
of imperial sway and the slavery of subject states. The architecture
of every country, and of every age, is vocal with the inmost workings
of its creating mind: and it occupies the place of written history in
points which, though of the highest interest, historians have for the
most part failed to touch. The architecture of the middle ages is
not less valuable to the observing student of history, than the archi-
tecture of Egypt, of Greece, or of Rome. To the eyes of the gene-
ral historian and the artist, the majesty and richness of the cathedral
tell of the self-sacrificing spirit of our forefathers, who devoted their
wealth and their lives to the service of religion. Every village church
is a key to the history of the surrounding district; — from its effigies,

1 It will be observed, that the subject of propriety of style in domestic
architecture is not now entered into.

No. 70.— Vol. VI.— July, 1843.

its sepulchral brasses, and its heraldic enrichments, the topographer
and the genealogist may derive important data, for the prosecution
of researches into the history of a county, and of its principal inhabi-
tants. The "very age and body of the time " are manifest in each
feature, and in the minute details are related even the passions, and
the animosities of the different orders of the priesthood. Though
sad instances of destruction still occur, though churches still receive
their periodical coat of whitewash — until the richest foliage is ob-
scured by the useless repetition * — the course of demolition has been
reduced ; while the restorations in progress, or about to commence,
afford matter for the highest gratulation. Thus the architect must
combine the pursuits of the antiquary with the study of the practical
and the recent ; his researches must extend into the curious and the
obsolete, to enable him to understand the style and details of any edi-
fice under his care.

It is a matter of surprise to all who study and love the archi-
tecture of the country, that its revival for ecclesiastical structures
should have met with opposition. This opposition — urged by
the highest love of art — has been publicly expressed and published,
so that it seemed incumbent on those who desired to walk in the
steps of our forefathers, to show that another view of the question
was not unsupported by argument. But the matter not having re-
ceived the notice that might have been expected, I have ventured be-
fore you this evening, and if the question suffer in my hands, I beg it
may be understood, that arguments are not wanting which could have
been adduced by those, who might have anticipated me in mv present
subject.

The opinions referred to may be thus stated. That the " taste
of the day inclines to the Roman Catholic plan, suited to a
demonstrative form of worship, rather than to the auditorium required
by the Protestant ritual," and that " the churches of Sir Christopher
Wren are better adapted for models." That proportions in Gothic
architecture were "wholly capricious," and "subject to no order or
regularity," nor that " any have been ever attributed" to the style by
its greatest admirers, so that "columns or supports might be from five
to fifty diameters in height, and were only bounded by possibility,"
that the delight, confessedly inspired by the works of the middle ages,
is to be referred to a "love of the marvellous," which "love of the
marvellous is dangerous, exaggeration being the first sigu of a mind
indifferent to the value and beauty and sufficiency of truth, and the
surest sign of depravation of judgment." " The Egyptian, the
Roman, and sometimes the Greek indulged in the gigantic, with a
view to the expression of a prodigious energy ; but the middle ages
were prone to the marvellous, surprise was the great scope of the
Gothic architect." That "the middle age church was wholly founded
on superstitious associations." " The plan described the cross, the
universal symbol m hoc signo vince." That " the nave represents the
body of the saviour; and the side, which 'one of the soldiers pierced,'
considered to be the south as the region of the heart, is occupied at
Wells by a chantry, at Winchester with the chapel of William of
Wyckham, and is constantly the pulpit from which the faithful were
reminded ' to look on him whom they have pierced.' " " The choir
was inclined to the south, to signify, that ' he bowed his head and gave
up the ghost,' " and " there are few cathedrals in which this de-
flection is not remarkable." "At the head of the cross was the
chapel of the Virgin — Jesus resting in the lap of Mary. At the foot,
the west-end, was the ' Parvis,' supposed by some to be a corruption
of 'Paradis,' that happy station from which the devout might con-
template the glory of the fabric, which was chiefly illustrated in this
front, and from whence they might scan the great sculptured picture,
the calender for unlearned men, as illustrative of Christian doctrine
and the temporal history of the church, under its princes and its pre-

- The whitewashing, colouring and painting of stone are species of mono-
mania frightfully prevalent. The base of the interna] order of St. Paul's
Cathedral seems to have been painted not long since, and, being of a bright
yellow, contrasts with the older whitewash above. It may be assumed that
this is not in accordance with the wish of the present talented architect.
Colouring for the purposes of decoration, which requires no renewal, is mostly
on flat surfaces, and can spoil no ornaments or mouldings; is unobjectionable,
and a valuable means of enrichment.

35

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

lates. Three great niches leading into the church, the centre one above
forty feet wide, were adorned with the statues of the apostles and
holy men, who 'marshal us the way we should go;' in front, the ge-
nealogy of Christ, the final judgment, the history of the Patriarchs
&c." Farther it is said, that " the same want of cultivated judgment,
•which is apparent in the asthetical of the arts of the middle ages, is
traced also in the imperfection of their statics and stereotomy, in
which again solidity is sacrificed to superstition." That as "the figure
of the cross" was "indispensable," though "the arches of the nave,
formed their abutment abundautly in the western termination, which
was commonly fortified by prominent buttresses, no such abutment
existed at their eastern termination towards the lofty pillars of the
transept." Consequently, that " the smallest failure of foundation or
superstructure, threw so much weight against these pillars as to
occasion them to bend," and therefore, the weighting of the pillars
with a tower or spire being insufficient, " the last disfiguring remedy,
the construction of a reversed arch between them, was employed,"
(vide section of Wells Cathedral.) Further, that we " crudely adopt
the niched and canopied architecture of a religion, peopled with
images of saints and martyrs, sibyls, angels and holy meD, to a Pro-
testant religion, which, admitting none of these, must leave the niches
and the canopies tenantUss, like well-gilt frames adorning an apartment,
the pictures being omitted ; — the pride and pomp of heraldry, armo-
rial shields and crests, to an age in which chivalry is exploded and
quarterings have dwindled to insignificance." That "slighting those
excellencies of sculpture, which shed such lustre on the palmy days
of Italian art, we oblige our artists to ' copy the obscenities and
senseless carvings of barbarous times, simply that we may carry out
the imitation of a style in all respects;' " and, finally, that the result
of our want of unanimity in style will be the imposition of anachro-
nisms on posterity, and the falsification of the pages of history in its
most interesting and characteristic traits. — Any public expression of
opinion is liable to opposition, and I may venture to dissent from these
views, which I do for the following reasons. — Because the whole cha-
racter and purpose of Gothic architecture is eminently expressive of
the aspirations of a Christian faith. The upward tendency of the
lines, and the pyramidal outline of the whole structure, culminating in
the spire, draws the mind of the beholder from realities of earth to
hopes of heaven. So inherent is the perception of this moral beautv,
that a veneration for the forms of (iothic architecture, and a feeling
of its propriety for Christian churches, has never been extinct. Con-
temned by some, as the offspring of a dark and superstitious age —
though the same objection would equally obtain against the in-
vention of printing, and that of the compass — surrounded v. ith
the enrichments of a foreign style, it ttill appeared in those tra-
ditional features to which the affections of the nation fondly clung.
The inclosure of the altar by a screen or railing, answering to
the rood-screen, is found, along with the oblong plan, and other
features of the national architecture, even in the churches of Sir
Christopher Wren, while, amidst all the contrivances and adaptations
of diminishing arcades, and peristyles, and of obelisks, the form
of the spire and pinnacle was preserved. The metropolitan cathedral
was constructed on the old model of the cross with ailes, central and
western towers. The style of architecture, changed in domestic,
buildings, was, in its most essential features, unchanged in sacred
edifices, whilst the enmity it did receive from the literati of the
towns, lessened not its hold upon the people of the country. The
early churches, erected at a time when land had nut attained its pre-
sent extraordinary value, had sufficient space allotted tbera to afford
room for interments, and to allow of the position and form which tra-
dition had consecrated. The churches of the city of London, for the
most part enclosed on every side, can scarcely be given as examples
of the particular furm of plan, most likely to have been adopted, had
no trammels presented themselves to their builders. Yet in all of them
there has been a recollection of the oblong form, suited to the earlier
worship ; whilst in a very large number the proportion of length to
breadth is equal to that of Gothic churches. In some of them the
foundations of the previous churches were retained; but it is scarcely

likely such "economy" would have been practised in that age to the pre-
sumed disadvantage of the church in other respects. 3 In the smaller
Gothic churches, (ri'cfeFig. 1.) the whole length of the nave and chancel
is frequently but twice the width of the nave and ailes, so that that part
westward of the rood-screen, and in, or immediately adjoining which,
all portions of the service, demanding the arrangement of an audi-
torium, are performed, is of the dimensions retained in those churches
of Sir Christopher Wren, which approach nearest to the square form.

Fig. 1.— Plan of Haddenham Church, Backs.

That fine effect of length in the nave of the Gothic cathedral, like all
beautiful effects in art, is due to an impression, produced upon the
mind by skilful proportion and arrangement, rather than to actual
dimensions upon the ground plan. The length of the nave is little
more than double the breadth of the nave and ailes; while it does
not 'amount to that in some of the finest cathedrals. — So that any
opinion that a form, presumed to be better adapted for sight and.
hearing, was employed, to the exclusion of the established proportions,
is scarcely borne out by a careful comparison of different fabrics.
The nave of the earlier church will be found better adapted for
hearing, than any of those churches which have not borrowed from
the Catholic model : whilst the improvements in the internal arrange-
ment of churches now in progress, by altering the size and position of
the pulpit, and substituting open benches for pews, 7/ill render even
an increased length of chancel less objectionable than the old ar-
rangement, in which the cumbrous pulpit and reading-pew prevented
all view of the communion. If an auditorium were all that is re-
quired for the purposes of religion, the ordinary lecture theatre
would present the best form, but one which would excite no emotions
of devotion. Were you to transplant one out of the major part of our
metropolitan churches to some district " remote from towns," the
chances are, that the structure would be called a villa or something
else; but if you were to select How Church or St. Bride's, there
would probably be some suspicion, that you had intended to erect a
church. The truly appropriate character seems to reside in that
style, which our forefathers adopted, and which is eminently expres-
sive of every Christian's faith.

Since the close of the seventeenth century, when one, possessing
the varied endowments of Wren, could style Gothic edifices, " moun-

F«. In.

' All Hallow's, Bread Street 72 0

St. Mary, Aldermaubury 72 0

St. Michael, Cornhill 87 0

St. Mary's Somerset, Thames Street . . 83 0

All-Haliow'e the Great, Thames Street .. 87 0

St. Andrew, Holborn 106 0

St. Michael, Queenhithe .. .. .. 71 0

St. Bride, Fleet Street 99 0

St. Benet's, Gracechurch Street . . . . (30 0

St, Mary, Aldermary 100 0

St. Matthew's, Friday Street . . . . 60 0

St. Stephen's, Wallbrook 82 6

St. Edmund the King, Lombard Street . . 60 0

St Olave, Jewry 78 0

St. Magnus, London Bridge . . . . 90 0

St. Mildred, Bread Street 62 0

These dimensions are taken from various works of stand:

vary a few inches from the actual measurement ; they are,

ciently near for the present purpose.

Ft.

In.

x 35

0

x 45

0

x 60

0

x 36

0

x 60

0

x 63

0

x 40

0

x 58

0

x 30

0

x 63

0

x 33

0

x 59

6

x 39

0

x 34

0

x 59

0

y. 30

0

ng — hut some

however, juffi-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

tains of stone, vast gigantic buildings, but not worthy the name of
architecture," or Evelyn could say "Gothic architecture is a conges-
tion of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish piles" — vague and inap-
propriate expressions, bearing as little assimilation to the style as did
the attempts of the architect to the churches he reviled : — since the
time when Gough and Carter, and other honoured few, alone upheld
the merits of our antiquities, how much has the study of our na-
tional edifices increased ; and from this study, wonderfully syste-
matised within late years, has resulted a high admiration of the old
English architects, and of the principles which guided them in their
sublime conceptions. Yet, the opinions of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries have been revived in the nineteenth, and Gothic ar-
chitecture treated as devoid of sound principles of proportion and
taste. Though no Vitruvius of the middle ages has bequeathed to
posterity written rules, and though heights and projections be not
governed by modules, the opinion has been gradually growing, and
has now reached conviction, that principles of design did exist, and
that proportions of parts were observed. In the main principles of
design, all styles, having claims to rank as beautiful, agree ; and in
those principles the medieval architects were consummate masters.
In any style of architecture, whose horizontal and vertical lines are
of equal number and prominence, we should not expect to find that
beautiful effect, which results from an increased importance being
given in one of those positions. Thus, while in the Grecian temple
the main lines are horizontal, in the Gothic they are vertical ; a like
principle being observed in each. So when, during the decline of
Gothic architecture, the horizontal line came into increased use, all
the richness of ornament — so profusely lavished upon the structures
of that age — failed to conceal the original mistake. In attention to
pyramidal outline, whether of masses or of parts, the Gothic archi-
tects surpassed all rivals. In " unity and sub-division of parts," the
groined vaultings and the window tracery of the best period, exemplify
those main principles of beauty, which govern the disposition of the
members in the Greek entablature — the beams and coffers in Italian
ceilings — the cartoons of Raphael, and all beautiful compositions of
whatever style and date. The west window of York Cathedral,

Fig. 2.— West Window of York Cathedral.

(Fig. 2,) -will exemplify this. In this fine composition, no effect is

257

improperly lessened by the presence of any neighbouring part. An
arch of unomamented but elegant mouldings, placed beneath a rich
crocketed canopy, circumscribes tracery of the most elaborate de-
signs. Three mullions, each 1 1 inches in width and 8 inches in pro-
jection, divide the opening into four equal parts; each of these com-
partments is subdivided by another mullion, which is only 8 inches
wide and 6 inches in projection. The ramifications of the head are
marked out into large and bold features by the continuation of the
larger mullion, from the sides of which spring the mouldings, winch
form the smaller ramifications. Drawing attention to so celebrated
an example, with which all present must be quite familiar, affords me
a main link in the chain of argument— indeed proves that the main
unvarying laws of composition were known to the Gothic architects
as to the great in art of every time. —

" 'Mid curves that vary in perpetual twine,
" Truth owns but one direct and perfect line."

This principle of dividing by large features, and subdividing by smal-
ler, being— to use the words of Burke— "as it were, moulded into
each other"— has been ably elucidated by Professor Willis in an
elaborate paper on Gothic vaultings, published in the transactions of
this Institute. It may be difficult to deny, that the principles of
pointed design permitted a greater latitude, or, that exceptions to
the general arrangement were not unfrequent in a style of such inven-
tion and variety ; and it is also probable, that in the different lodges
of Freemasons, the principles themselves might slightly vary; but to
assert, by implication, that the beautiful creations of Gothic archi-
tecture are the results of accident rather than design, seems akin (if
the comparison can be drawn without offence) to the belief of one
who, in the order and regularity of the universe, can discover no sign'
of a pervading Mind. The fact that the knowledge of the Free-
masons was jealously guarded, is sufficient to account for our not pos-
sessing a written explanation of their secrets. Whilst, in one edifice
the proportions are to some extent deficient in elegance, in another
we are delighted with their exquisite effect ; which shows that they
are still matter for study and attention, though they may not square
with those of an opposite style. Take the example of an early English
doorway of good character: we shall find that the perpendicular lines
could not be lengthened or diminished without destroying the effect
which its present proportions produce, unless we at the same time
make some change in the decorative features. Thus, in the drawing
of the doorway, Fig. 3, from Rothwell Church, Northamptonshire,

Fig. 3.— Doorway from Rothivell Church.

the opening is much narrower in proportion to its height than we
generally find it in other doorways of the same date; but the effect of
the whole composition is not lessened, for the increased width is gained

36*

258

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

by the columns and decorations, and
in appearance, by the horizontal
line which runs across the compo-
sition in the shape of bands to the
shafts. Yet, it seems to have es-
caped the attention of many de-
tractors from the merits of pointed
architecture, that it is possible,
under different circumstances, to
attain the same end by different
means. As in Italian design — an
arched doorway of two squares and
a half in height, Fig. 4, would
probably appear too lofty, if deco-
corated with a simple architrave,
but, if a cone with panels be in-
serted, Fig. 5, the eye is at once
reconciled to the proportion. Mr.
Hawkins, in his "History of the
origin and establishment of Gothic
architecture," says that in the year
1321, several persons (whose^iames
he gives) who were appointed to

examine the works at Sienna Cathedral, declared that the works
ought not to be proceeded with, as the established proportions of the
old church would be destroyed, and it would not have that measure
in length, breadth and height, which the rules for proportioning a
church require. Had there been no settled rules of proportion, it is
clear, that the architect could not have transgressed.

But the elucidation of a system, which might have been employed
by the old architects, in proportioning the parts of buildings, has been
attempted by Mr. Billings, and, as regards Carlisle and Worcester
Cathedrals, with success. The same subject has also occupied the
attention of the Oxford antiquaries. 1 am also disposed to give a
higher rank than that of superstition to the system of proportion in
which triangles were employed, first noticed by Cesare Cesariano,
Fig. G, * and illustrated by D'Agincourt, in his elaborate work, enti-
tled " Histoire de I' Art par les Mimvmau," in the sections of Milan
and Bologna Cathedrals. The objections brought against this system
appear to have resulted from an inaccuracy in the description and dia-
grams of Cesariano. In Fig. 0 the triangles are all equilateral, and their
lines intersect p.irts of the building in such a manner as to lead to the
belief, that they actually determined the proportion; thus symbolic of

Fig. 6.— Cathedral of Milan— Cesariano's Theory.

Z* The translation of Vitruvius by Cesariano is a scarce work ;— the illus-
tration given is from Hawkins' Gothic Architecture.

the Trinity. But it may be asked, whether any cathedral constructed
on sound principles might not have the same proportions, as to width
of nave and ailes, as the one under notice, and if so, whether the use of
equilateral triangles might not give the most effective arrangement.
But, omitting this view, the opinions as to the "superstitious" origin
of Gothic proportions, are founded, not on careful measurements, but
on the obscure text and rough diagrams of Cesariano, which vary so
much from the actual dimensions, as to give the total height of the
spire one third less, than as at present existing. The triangle is of the
greatest service in proportioning the parts of buildings, in accordance
with that pyramidal character which should pervade every building of
whatever style, and seems to have been so used by the Gothic archi-
tects. In a late work by Mr. Bartholomew it is shown that the pyramid
or triangle may have governed the proportions of the west front of St.
Paul's Cathedral;5 and a similar method was probably practised by
the earlier companions of the order, to which Wren belonged. Its
application to the west front of York Cathedral I have endeavoured
to show in the diagram, Fig. 7. That peculiarity of symbolising the

Fig. 7.— AVest Elevation of York Cathedral.

different parts of buildings, though proved to have obtained amongst
the Catholic priesthood, may not have originated either the propor-
tioning by triangles or the disposition of the several parts. The after
symbolising of various parts invested them with a peculiar sanctity;
but that, in the jfrst instance it governed the entire disposition, or that
it ever tended to lessen the beautiful effect, I think yet demands further
proof. At least, it should be shown, that this imputed symbolism
stood in the way of a better arrangement, ere the Catholic architects
are condemned for even the smallest attention to it. Indeed, a sym-
bolic meaning, so to speak, might be discovered in buildings, in
which it is clear no such intention ever existed. In St. Paul's Ca-
thedral, the three large doors might be thought to symbolise the
Trinity, and the four arms of the cross with its eight ailes, the twelve
Apostles. Whether any symbolic meaning might be discovered in
the three porticos of the Post Office, and of the National Gallery, or in

5 " Specifications of Prac'ical Architecture,'' vide Journal, Vol. 111.,
p. 329.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

25D

the common street elevation of a door and window on each side, it is
perhaps not safe to say ; but the mere facility with such coincidences
may be made to appear in all buildings, and in particular the. constant
and necessary combination of three objects, shows the necessity of ex-
treme caution in speculating upon the subject. A writer in the Gentle-
man's Magazine well remarks, that those parts to which symbolism
has been most commonly applied, are deficient in the most essential re-
quisites, as the three divisions of the nave, and of the triple lancet, are
in co-equality. That, so great a variety of rules, have been at differ-
ent times, given for proportioning the parts of edifices, all nevertheless
agreeing in the results, goes to prove that the particular system to be
adopted is of less importance, than the use of some system, from
which may result that veiled grace, always delighting the mental
vision in a structure projected by symmetrical rules. Such rules the
Gothic architects are proved to have observed. — It is said that " co-
lumns or supports might be any number of diameters in height, and
were only bounded by possibility." Let us admit this, and examine
what practice has been pursued in other styles. By the elaborate ex-
periments of Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson, on the powers of resistance of
different bodies to compression, it has been proved, that in cylin-
drical forms, there is a certain proportion of height to diameter, be-
yond which it would be dangerous to go, the resistance rapidly les-
sening in proportion with the height. To pass that limit would en-
danger the stability of the fabric ; to keep much below it would be a
needless expenditure of material. From a non-observance of this
propriety, we have frequently seen columns of harder material of the
precise dimensions given to those of stone. Now such a practice is
foreign to the principles of Gothic architects, as may be seen by
the most casual comparison of their works in wood, stone, and metal;
in which they had reference to the properties of each. The rules of
classical architecture require, that no alterations should be made in
the proportions of columns which are engaged, coupled or clustered,
though it is clear, that, in accordance with the principle hinted at
above, aud a feeling, which, without reference to the results of experi-
ment, exists in every mind, the same proportions should not be ob-
served. At least, the Gothic architects pursued a different mode, on
sounder views than have usually been attributed to them. Their cir-
cular columns, placed singly, were shorter than those which were clus-
tered or united as shafts to piers and arches. Further, when these
shafts were of great length, they were encircled by bands as at West-
minster Abbey. In the Ladye Chapel at Hereford, and in the Chapter
House at Chester, the isolated shafts to the windows are banded to
the adjoining mullion by ties of stone, which are converted into fea-
tures of decoration. But the absolute constructive necessity for such
ties is shown in the failure of slender shafts, in which such precaution
has been neglected. Shafts without bands, and at the same time
of great length, occur at Salisbury Cathedral ; while in the Ladye
Chapel are isolated shafts, supporting the roof, of the slenderest di-
mensions, and uncombined with a larger column. Such examples are
extremes, or exceptions to the usual practice, and though as in this
wonderful edifice, calling forth our admiration and delight, they are not
what the modern architect would emulate. I venture to assert, that
we are justified in craving of those, who deny the existence of prin-
ciples and proportion in Gothic design, that they should compare the
cathedral, the abbey church, the parish church, and the collegiate
chapel, marked each by clear and distinctive lineaments ; that they
should closely scrutinise and balance every minute part of a compo-
sition; that they should examine whether the different tendency or
number of lines, the different character or quantity of ornament, or
some other cause or influence, has not dictated a manner of treatment
varying from that they have observed in another composition, but in
strict accordance with the same first and inviolable principles of both;
or whether the example is not such an exception to the usual style
and principles, as all ages have witnessed. Our delight in Gothic
architecture is indeed the result of elegant outline and proportion,
richness of detail, sincerity and scientific construction, along with ad-
miration of the high purpose and untiring labour of the architect,
rather than of a " love of the marvellous," or mere respect for what

is old. The " love of the marvellous," of which the Gothic architects
are accused, was seen in the " large stones" of the Grecian temples,
the columns of one block of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, in the
temple of Jupiter at Agrigentum, in the costly structures of Baalbec
and Palmyra, in the Colosseum, in the domes of St. Peter's at Rome,
and Sta. Maria at Florence, and in the gigantic order and all the con-
ceptions of Michael Angelo. " Another enemy to the beautiful, and
even to the sublime," says Forsyth, " was that colossal taste which
arose in the empire and gave an unnatural expansion to all the works
of art." As it is beyond the power of man to create a style, all styles
being the work of ages and of circumstances, rather than of archi-
tects, who should be able to infuse new beauties into all, and as,
in the words of Reynolds, " it is vain to endeavour to invent without
materials on which the mind may work, and from which invention
must originate ;" are these the styles for which we must close our
eyes to the expressive architecture of our own land ? Is there any
distinction between the end sought in the colossal works of the Egyp-
tians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and that " love of the marvellous"
ascribed to the Gothic architects? or is not the raising of surprise a
legitimate end of all architectural skill ? I cannot think that the plan
of the middle age church was wholly founded on superstitious associ-
ations, and that the spire and cross are not appropriate emblems of
both the Catholic and the Protestant faith. From the plan of the
cross result the most beautiful outline, both externally and internally,
and the most captivating effects of light and shade. It is not exclu-
sively Gothic; and no higher testimony to its merits could be gained,
than its adoption by so great an artist as Sir Christopher Wren. The
majority of (he English churches are not cruciform, which is sufficient
to show the form was not indispensable. That some particular sanc-
tity was attached to one side of the nave in cathedrals, may be in-
ferred from the fact that in the majority, the monuments on the
southern side and in the southern aile preponderate. But it should at
the same time be noted, that in several examples the monuments on
the north side are equal in number, or nearly so; and, that at Wells,
when there is a chantry under one of the southern arches, a corres-
ponding position is similarly occupied on the north side. As regards
the inclination of the choir to the south, I believe no perceptible in-
clination occurs in the English cathedrals; and at Litchfield, where an
inclination to the north is discoverable by measurement, the variation
is so slight, that I think few persons would discover it within the
building. The ladye chapel, though generally at the west end of the
choir, and certainly so placed with fine effect, is not unfrequently
elsewhere. In the cathedral of Bristol, the " elder ladye chapel " is
at the north side of the choir. A similar position is made use of at
Ely.

But the strongest objection brought against the practice of the
Gothic architects, is that their buildings have failed through want of
constructive principle; and that though they manifested considerable
enterprise and dexterity, they lacked that theoretical knowledge
which grew under a better order of society, and " the chastening
counsel of a Locke, a Newton and a Bacon." Now it cannot for one
moment be supposed that the scientific knowledge of the middle ages
approached to the learning of a Galileo, a Napier, or a Newton ; nor
be denied that the mass of the people were utterly ignorant. But the
existence of a large number of mendicant friars, always al enmity
with the regular priesthood, yet as ignorant as those upon whose
fears they lived, seems to have led to the general belief, that all the
Catholic clergy had little in their heads but a knowledge of bad Latin;
or in their libraries, except the writings of the fathers. But, amongst
the churchmen was preserved all the knowledge of the age ; they di-
rected the architectural works and the engines of the state ; and
though their projects were often carried out by less skilful hands,
their expressed intentions bear the evidence of a knowledge of prac-
tical mechanics, of the composition and resolution of forces, which, it
is difficult to conceive, could rest on any other than a foundation of
geometry. Mere solidity is often best obtained in buildings, in which
but little science is called into play; but with a greater expense of
material and labour, and less scope for decoration and convenience.

260

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

be made out with marvellous care, he will yet turn to those monu-
Small scientific skill was required for the construction of the Druidi-
cal temple, or the Grecian portico ; but from the increased use of the
arch arose a new era in the art of building. Smaller stones were em-
ployed, with skilful arrangement of counterfort; and labour replaced
by economy and facility of execution. With the change from the
semicircular to the pointed arch, arose a still greater facility of exe-
cution, combined with a nearer approach to the advantages which had
resulted from the principle of simple repose. But along with, though
not necessarily resulting from the use of the pointed arch, a force was
at work towards the ruin of many edifices, but for which the practice,
rather than the theory of Gothic architects must be censured. The
supporting columns of the central tower began to bend in the middle,
as at Westminster; and other failures, all proceeding from one cause,
took place little subsequent to the building of the several structures.
It became necessary to connect the great piers of the tower, to pre-
vent the recurrence ; and counterforts were inserted at Salisbury,
Wells, (Fig. 8,) and elsewhere. It has been thought that this failure of

Fig. 8.— Section of Wells Cathedral, looking iionli.

the central piers was occasioned by their insufficiency as abutments to
the adjoining arches; and this opinion seems to have been present
with Sir Christopher Wren, in his proposal to add a central spire to
the abbey. But I am inclined to think, that the breadth of the piers,
coupled with the weight of the tower above, would be well able to
resist the thrust of a pointtd arch, were not some other tendency at
work ; and prefer the opinion, that the bending of each column was
wholly caused by the sliding of the rubble work upon the back of its
neighbouring arcb. The more pointed the arch, the less thrust would
it exercise, but the more would it tend towards the settlement. This
seems a more probable cause than any other ; there could have been
no objection to increasing the dimensions of the column if necessary.
The report on the state of Hereford Cathedral shows that this sliding
of the materials upon the main arch of the tower, assisted by the subsi-
dence of the foundation, has caused its western column to swerve from
the perpeudicular, and in the opposite direction, that is, towards the
west.0 The same thing has taken place at Aylesbury Church, in a like
direction ; and the displacement of the ashlering in the tower of St.
Mary's, Redcliffe, was attributed, by Mr. Hoiking, to the subsidence of
the rubble work. Had the spandi ils of the arches been laid in courses,
which modern experience would dictate, such failures could not have
occurred, and therefore no objection can be taken to the modern adap-
tation of Gothic architecture on the ground of insecurity. It may be
remarked that there is some difference of opinion about the reversed
arch at Wells — as to its merits as a composition. '

Though in " these piping times of peace," "armorial bearings" no
longer distinguish the warrior on the field, they are still not exploded,
nor hive they ever been in any country ; they still engage the patient
attention of numerous antiquarians, and seem to be a legitimate mode
of drcoration in any style of architecture. One of those recollec-
tions of the past, which are stable, though the occasion has past

6 Journal, Vol. V., p. 374.

' The counterfort at Wills was probably coeval wit the piers— that at
Salisbury later in date.

away, they will yet long serve to shorten the labours of the historian,
as now. — The so called economy of modem times has deprived our
art of that sister, without which she is inexpressive, and incomplete ;
but there can be no other reason that niches should be "tenantless" in
any religious edifice : and none that the obscenities of former times
should be copied in the present. The exquisite richness of the
Gothic foliage would be apt, from its very profusion, to cloy upon the
mental palate, had it no immediate contrast, as with the grotesque
and the satirical. Thus, as at York, we find the passions of men and
the habits of animals depicted amongst the leaves of a capital or a
bracket. In other cases we have the monogram IHS and other reli-
gious insignia. Though some of the carvings are sufftcientiv shocking
to eyes polite, as for example, the gorgeuils, yet these are never
"senseless;" they have always an expression in character with their
purpose, and may safely be contrasted with the unnatural lions, the
sphinxes, and chimjeras of other schools of art. Though, in the
sculpture of the earlier styles, forms were conventional, and a
particular sentiment was expressed in an established mode, this
severe style presents many claims to our admiration, though in
execution, it can be as little compared with the later style, as
can the marbles of Xanthus with those of the Parthenon. But
good sculpture, and by Gothic architects, does exist, grand in concep-
tion as that at Wells, and perfect in execution as that at Westminster ;
and it received the admiration of our own Flaxman. Speaking of the
interior of Henry VH's chapel, he says, " the figures of the tomb
have a better proportion and drawing in the naked than those of the
chapel ; but the figures of the chapel are very superior in natural
simplicity, and grandeur of character and drapery." But, of the
sculpture of Henry V's chantry, the work of a centurv previous, he
says, " The sculpture is bold and characteristic ; the equestrian group
is furious and warlike: the standing figures have a natural sentiment
in their actions, and simple grandeur in their draperies, such as we
admire in the paintings of Raphael." Could there be higher praise
than this from so great a man? The vertical character of Gothic
architecture does indeed demand in the garments, folds which may
accord with the genius of the style; or rather eschews those contor-
tions of drapery and whimsicalities of design observable in the works
of the later Italian school, particularly of the followers of Bernini ;
and of which some idea may be gained from the engravings to the
English edition of Palladio's works. If a group be viewed singly in
a gallery or an apartment, where only it appeals to the eye, its forms
may be influenced by the taste of the artist alone; but, in architectonic
sculpture, a different treatment of the subject is demanded. A greater
rigidity, or a more erect position seems necessary for statues, when
combined with architecture, in all styles. "Their attitudes," says
Chambers, " must be upright, or, if anything, bending a little for-
wards, but never inclined to either side. Their legs must be close to
each other, and their draperies close to their bodies; for whenever
they stand stradling with bodies tortured into a variety of bends, and
draperies waving in the wind, as those placed on the colonnades of
St. Peter's, they have a most disagreeable effect, especially at a dis-
tance; from whence they appear like lumps of unformed materials,
ready to drop upon the heads of passengers." That excellence of
imitation is not the highest quality of art, is readily granted, but it is
not less true, that in some degree it may detract from our delight, by
its very excess " reminding us that life and animation are wanting,"
and thus defeating the aim of the artist. For remarks on this heaii,
vide Reynolds passim, in the lectures of the professor of painting at
the Royal Academy, and in Mr. Eastlake's translation of Kugler's
Handbook. — To him, who feels that a devotional character should be
impressed on all monuments erected in churches, I suggest in favour
of Gothic architects one practical argument — a walk through West-
minster Abbey. There he will find architectural ornaments ruthlessly
sacrificed, that square patches of black and white may occupy their
place. He will see cumbrous monuments to some " periwig-pated
fellow," or some courtier of a passing day, occupying a position, tar-
dily granted or denied, to the mementoes of the philosopher and the
poet. But though each individual hair of their wigs or their whiskers

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mental effigies, recumbent in unbroken sleep, or with hands clasped in
holy aspiration; and, overcome by the spirit of the place, he will walk
with softer tread, his mind impressed with feelings of devotion, and
with vivid recollections of his country's great.

In Gothic buildings, no construction is masked by decoration ; no sham
feature inserted to correspond with another that is real. Sincerity is the
guiding rule, and geometry the instrument. In vaultings, the thrust of
the main supporting ribs is concentrated atone point, and there counter-
abutted by a flying buttress, in the precise direction which the compo-
sition of the forces dictates. Bridged across the nave, it was further
resisted by the wall buttress, and confined within narrow limits by the
downward pressure of a pinnacle, until it found its limit in the earth.
Now in this system of counterfort, (the principle of which it was hardly
necessary to explain here,) we discover an adaptation of means to an
end, surpassed only in the construction and action of the human frame.
Thus, like the trellis on which the jasmine and the convolvolus en-
twine, the forms of pointed architecture are but the framework on
which beauties are engrafted, evolving those beauties, but never
sacrificing themselves to them, and even snatching peculiar graces
from circumstances originally adverse. Gothic structures never dis-
appoint, as almost every other edifice is sure to do. The first sight
of the church, " bosomed high in tufted trees," the nearer approach,
or the study of days, are alike pregnant with delight. The most
skilful arrangements of contrast are displayed — in the low doors by
which you enter the lofty pile ; and in the spires which rise in every
part of a level district. Also the contrast of dark to light, in such
situations as the porch of Henry VII's chapel.

Whatever objections there may be to the practice of the medieval
architects, these can have no hold against a modern adaptation of
their style. We should work with all the skill derived from exami-
nation of Gothic edifices, and from analysis of the causes of failure
in some, superadded to all the advantages which modern discovery
affords. We should choose good stone, and select or prepare good
foundations, protecting our buildings from damp and decay by drains
and water pipes in place of the old gorgueils. And the result of our
study of each form of ecclesiastical structure, combined with our in-
vention, would be the raising of fabrics worthy and characteristic of
the age, which the peasant and the peer alike would recognise, as ex-
pressive of religious uses.

THE CAUSES WHICH HAVE ENNOBLED ARCHITECTURE.

By Frederick Lush, Associate of the Institute of British

Architects.

(Continued from page 154.,)

" If to do were as easy as to know what 'twere good to do, chapels had
been churches, and poor men's cotiages. princes' palaces."' — Shakspeare.

It is not surprizing that the great churches of Europe, but espe-
cially those on the Continent, should so frequently present a confusion
and discordance in their parts, when they were the production of
many ages, against the revolutions of which they had to contend, and
when, moreover, their construction was committed to manv different
minds, who it appears very obstinately differed from each other with
respect to their architectural principles. However beautiful these
varieties of style may be in the abstract, we like to see the same
character, the same feeling and expression running throughout the
whole, as if one mind alone presided over it. But it seems as if
many architects loved to show their predilection for some particular
school when called upon to restore or add to any existing edifice, and
to act entirely as their own tastes and their own prejudices dictated,
without reference to what their predecessor? had done, in order to
make their work of a piece with them. It is, perhaps, one of the
weaknesses peculiar to genius. We think, for instance, of the Corin-
thian portico of Inigo Jones on the west front of old St. Paul's ; and
not only what this celebrated man, but many others have done, in their
fondness for the ancient or their love of novelty, by introducing some-

thing from Vignola or something from the Renaissance on such noble
monuments as those of Notre Dame, and St. Germain l'Auxerrois at
Paris. It is in consequence of this, that all which is most beautiful in
the Gothic in the best ages of its invention, lies scattered over those
countries where a passion for it was most felt, and where it naturally
best flourished ; and it is necessary to accumulate and combine these
in order to form a perfect cathedral.

For the finest remains of this sublime art we look to the churches of
the 13th and 14th centuries; and although there is scarcely any country
which does not claim it as its own, yet we select those of Germany, as
this seems the soil from which originally it sprung and was matured ; and
as in the year 1277, when the famous Strasbourg pile was commenced
there was established in that town perhaps one of the oldest associ-
ations of masons, which is the chief lodge, and who have the honour
of having built, not only this, but Cologne, and many other edifices, of
which the Germans have reason to be proud. That they were not
wanting in talent and perseverance for bringing to perfection the stvle
of building of which they were the professed masters and had devoted
themselves to, we have abundant proofs ; great improvement was ne-
cessarily made in it ; miscalculations on the composition and reso-
lution of forces were corrected ; no defects in their designs were
permitted eternally to remain for want of previously studying their
effects upon the eye; and every thing was done both theoretically and
practically, to place the art on a firm and solid basis. We say the
chief aim of art consists in producing the grandest effects with the
smallest means; in giving to a structure the greatest strength with
the least material ; in constructing it in a manner the most advan-
tageous for the purpose to which it is destined, and wherever no
ignorance can be detected in disphiyiug the art by which all these
ends are accomplished. We turn, then, to the works of these build-
ers, and find they did not live to pile up stones in vain, but attained
these results with a most unrivalled success.

Their union, moreover, with a number of similar societies, all
attached to and teaching the same principles, placed within their
reach immense power and immense resources. One of the oppor-
tunities that was afforded them of the certainty of the correctness of
these principles, was the wide field of observation that was opened to
them by means of travelling. By the numbers likewise of the work-
men they had at their command, the wages with which they rewarded
their labours, and the industry that they excited among them, an em-
ployment was created which very much conduced to the happiness
and well-being uf the poorer class of people. But the good did not
cease here. Men were everywhere occupied in erecting a church on
a scale commensurate with the imposing rites of the Catholic worship.
Superstition, too, in those ages, doubtless had no small share in pro-
ducing the magnificent structures which were the wonder of the mul-
titude ; but we cannot blame them for this. It is not difficult to trace
the weakness of our nature in everything, and to see it mingling even
in what is most holy. At a period, therefore, less enlightened than
our own, we cannot wonder if the hand should be somewhat prompted
by superstition in rearing one of those beautiful and elaborate spires
which rise abovp our houses and ornament our land. But if we feel
it a kind of devotion to look upon it ; if we endeavour when gazing
upon it to

yitlidraw our minds

I 'it, 'ii iarth. and control our tbimj-jhis 'till we have
Got by heart its eloquent proportions :

let us not say that those who reared it were degraded by any such
motive ; but rather imitate their zeal and rival those efforts of human
skill and piety; though their authors were once turned into ridicule
by the common people, and thought no better than fanatics. It was
this class of persons whose co-operatiens were the means of ennobling
architecture during the middle ages ; for whom no art could be too
refined, as no religion too sublime. They considered it impossible to
conceive any building too grand or too splendid in which to celebrate
its solemnities; they wished to make it resplendent with the in-
ventive genius of the pencil; and if they could not possess the fres-
cos of such artists as Raphael and Michael Angelo, those champions

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of the Christian art, at least to cover its walls with painting and
sculpture, as we see in many old Gothic churches of the north, on
which some of the pictorial splendour of Italy and the warm coun-
tries seem to shine ; and on whose lofty ailes and carved pavement,
the sun, through the diapered windows, sheds its gorgeous colouring.

Such an edifice as that of which Steinbach was the architect-in-
chief, the glory of whose construction none but the ignorant would
gainsay, was a powerful motive to induce the inhabitants of other
cities who could not boast of such a monument, to build such another;
that at least they might not be thought wanting in zeal for, or behind-
hand in thus making a proclamation of, the new faith which at that
time was spreading itself through all Christendom. Accordingly we
find a striking similarity among all the great churches of the 13th and
14th centuries, and a conformity in their plan, arrangement, and de-
coration, which leads us to believe, beyond a doubt, that no other form
was so well suited to the mode of worship, both in these and subse-
quent periods; and that it proceeded from some regular society, such
as the freemasons, whose principles were the same, and for a time,
universal. The disposition of these cruciform churches, sometimes
without, but more generally with, a range of side chapels, corres-
ponding with the division of the side ailes, was, from the time of
Constantine, more or less imitated by all civilized Europe; and there
needs not a stronger argument in their favour, than in the difficulty
that was experienced whenever an attempt was made to improve
upon it. Abolish it, and with it we abolish the ceremonies of the
religion for which it is intended. But this is not all. A departure
from the system exhibited in these ecclesiastical buildings, has been
attended with the most dangerous consequences to art. It has been
the ambition of all nations, who have excelled in architecture, and
been masters of its true principles, to exhibit them, even to an osten-
tatious degree, in their proudest fabrics. Such a display of science
commands attention, though it might be said it was done for mere
love of glory; and this was particularly the case in the works we are
considering. Now the moderns are too apt to do just the contrary ;
to disguise the construction of their edifices, that is to say, such
churches as those which are unworthy of the name, and whose con-
struction, from the sordid and unscientific means employed upon them,
it was wisest to conceal. But can anything be conceived more de-
grading to art ; and is it not to such causes we owe many failures that
have occurred in modern church-architecture i The architects of any-
one of the splendid churches alluded to, would not have been guilty
of anything so mean. They felt it was one of the requisites of art
to exhibit undisguised the great triumphs which the mind had
made in it ; and to raise pleasure, or excite emulation, in the souls of
all those who contemplated such a production of human wisdom.
It might appear strange, therefore, that Wren and Jones, both
of whom were at the head of such an institution, so little under-
stood or appreciated that Gothic, which was once such a favourite
among its members. But the cause will be easily explained, if we
consider it was the fate of this noble art to decline after it had reached
its meridian point ; that a hankering after something new and uncom-
mon hastened its downfall; and that its beautiful proportions and de-
tails became obsolete when the taste for the architecture of the
Greeks and Romans naturally brought on the revival of classic an-
tiquity. '

The same uniformity of character, mentioned above, may be ob-
served in public works of a civil kind, such as the castles and bridges.
The former were absolutely necessary at a time when wars were fre-
quent; and the latter afforded such security to travellers, who might
otherwise be exposed to pirates on the river, that the building of
them was considered an act of charity ; and those to whom they were
entrusted were styled f'ratrei ponti/es. - It appears they constructed a

' See Durance's " Glossanum." anil Bishop Gregory's account of them.

- Here, however. I recollect I am not doing Wren justice, for notwith-
standing the passion for the antique, which prevailed in his time.be proposed
the election of a cathedral in the Gothic style, the original drawings of
which are at Oxford. Perhaps he was the only man who conceived at that
period such a design. Everyone knows his admiration of the construction
of the roof of King's College Chapel.

great number in Italy and in the southern provinces of France; and
the remains of these old bridges and chateaux, are often so pictu-
resque, that it is worth while to undertake a journey on purpose to
see and study them.

Now- it will not be denied that architecture owes much to the ex-
istence of such fraternities; especially during the middle ages, when
they were like so many learned republics; when kings and nobles
were proud to take a part in their proceedings and assist in promoting
their enterprizes. There is no period of history in which we do not
find men associating together when bent upon accomplishing any
object to which individual exertions were, of course, unequal. The
ancients could never have succeeded in their temples, their roads, their
thermaes or their aqueducts, had they not condemned their slaves, and
all whom they had conquered, to labour on these great works. The
population and industry of one single kingdom were not sufficient.
Nearly all Asia, for instance, contributed to the building of the famous
Diana of Ephesus : and one of those prodigious stones in the pyra-
mids, which almost alarms the inhabitants of the north, must have re-
quired in placing it just in its proper place, or even in mana»in"r
the engine by which it was raised, double and treble the number of
labourers which we usually employ on one of our public edifices. In
more recent times it was the custom, when a palace, a castle, or a
church was in progress, and workmen were scarce, to authorize offi-
cers to collect them wherever they might be found, in the same wav
as they j/n** men for the militia, and detain them in the king's ser-
vice, as it was called, until the works were completed.

A powerful means of ennobling architecture, as well as any pursuit
on which the human mind may be engaged, is found in this principle
of concentration. The idea of bringing together the fruits of the in-
dustry of past ages, naturally originates among all civilized societies.
We look in all flourishing cities for those academies for the arts,
those museums, and schools of design, which are among the happiest
evidences of the power and well-directed wealth of a nation, and
without which the arts would make but a very poor and feeble pro-
gress towards perfection. We recognize this principle, moreover, in
those encyclopedias of knowledge, whose treasures enrich the libra-
ries of Europe, and which are as indispensable to the man of letters
as the collected remains of Greek art are to the sculptor; nor do we
hesitate in classing the founders of such works and such repositories
among the benefactors of our race. For what would be the condition
of the fine arts or of the human mind if London were without its
British Museum and Royal Academy; Paris without the Louvre and
Ecole des Beaux Arts: or Italy without its Vatican?

( To be continued.)

THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Public attention is so engrossed by matters connected with the new
" Palace at Westminster," or by other schemes of improvement for
the metropolis, that no one seems now to take any interest in — to care
for, or even to remember the British Museum, just as if it were of no
importance whatever. This indifference may probably be owing to
all hope having been long ago abandoned, of that structure being ren-
dered a worthy piece of monumental architecture ; for as far as it is
built at present, its exterior is a perfect nullity. Still, even at this
" eleventh hour," there is opportunity for redeeming its character, by
making something satisfactory of the facade which has to be added,
and will now be commenced, we presume, at no very distant time.
For what remains to be done, however, that which actually has been
done is so very insufficient a pledge, that it is to be hoped we shall be
afforded the means of quieting our misgivings, and ascertaining be-
forehand what we are to expect. Some, or rather now many years
ago, Sir Robert Peel declared in Parliament, that the design for the
front of the British Museum was an architectural chef d'eeurre: we
had our doubts at the time, and so far from being dissipated, they are
now stronger than ever; — or to speak out more plainly, we have very

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little doubt at all — on the contrary, feel most uncomfortable assurance
of our worst apprehensions being realized, unless some stir be made
in the matter.

Sir Robert Smirke himself may be just as admirable an architect
as ever he was ; yet a change there may be, if not in him, in others :
the public have obtained some little more insight into architecture
than they possessed ten or twelve years ago, and what they would
then have thought very fine, they may now consider no more than
barely tolerable. The coming before or the coming after the new
Houses of Parliament, which ten years ago were not even so much
as dreamt of, makes a prodigious difference ; and not they alone, but
many other things have come up in the interim, which are likely to
take architectural precedence of the Museum.

As the intended facade has been so very long delayed, it is to be
hoped that it will not now be hurried after all, but be delayed a little
longer until the public shall have been informed what the design
really is. Why should there be so much silence and secresy in regard
to it ? for if the making the inquiry we here recommend, would seem
to imply want of confidence in the architect's taste and ability, the
extreme reserve shown on his part, and that of those who are more
immediately concerned in the matter, equally implies very great mis-
trust in the design, and strong suspicion that it will not bear the test
of much examination. It therefore looks as if it were intended to
adopt the safer and more convenient course of evading public opinion
until it can interfere to no purpose, but merely express itself in post
facto grumblings. Let us not have another egregious instance of ar-
chitectural smuggling as to public buildings erected at the public
cost: there are by far too many such already; and the National Gal-
lery alone might operate as a corrective warning — certainly should
serve as one to the architect of the British Museum.

The facade for the Museum still affords, as we have already ob-
served, an opportunity for a fine display of architecture, but whether
the opportunity will be fully turned to account, is what we must wait
to find out, when it will perhaps be discovered that comparatively
nothing has been made of it. Let us suppose, however, that the de-
sign is one of surpassing beauty: why then, we ask, should Sir
Robert, merely for the sake of taking the public by surprise, have
defrauded himself in the meanwhile of all the credit to be derived
from it, and which he might have begun to enjoy very long ago ?
Had the same system of close secresy been observed with regard to
the Houses of Parliament, Mr. Barry would not be altogether quite so
celebrated at present as he actually is. Of his edifice, we are per-
mitted in manner to enjoy the beauties by anticipation, and to applaud
the magnificence of the Victoria tower, that is to be. But in regard
to the is-to-be facade of the British Museum, nothing is suffered to
transpire, nor is curiosity allowed to be gratified. The only positive
information relative to it, afforded at present, is that furnished by a
ground-plan, published in a parliamentary report of 1838. From that,
we perceive that the main building will have a continued colonnade
in front, not extended in a single line from end to end, as in the facade
of the museum at Berlin, but breaking round the advanced extremi-
ties or wings, and forming in the recessed portion of the plan between
them, an octastyle, advanced one intercolumn, by an additional line
of columns in that part. So far, there will, no doubt, be considerable
richness and play in regard to columniation, and in that respect we
shall get a step farther than we have yet done in the Anglo-Grecian
architecture of our metropolis. Yet as provision seems to be made
for something more classical, all the more desirable is it that the most
should now be made of it, and that the idea should be perfectly
wrought up; otherwise the disappointment feltat perceiving how greatly
the whole falls short of what it will seem to have been intended to be,
will even convert the satisfaction derived from its good points into vex-
ation. The promise made by the plan, may be totally frustrated by
the elevation; and such will certainly be the case, should there, after
all, be nothing more to admire in the design than the circumstances
indicated in the former. If we are to look to the inner court as af-
fording a specimen of what the external order is to be, we feel no
eagerness at all to see the facade erected, nor even care if we ever

behold it, since unless greatly better than that, the order will be
exceedingly unsatisfactory in character, and will pro»e all the more
so, because its tameness and dryness will be all the more offensive, in
consequence of the greater pretension made by the columniation
itself. Something more than Sir Robert's formal stereotype Ionic is
here required— something far more worthy of the particular occasion,
which is no every-day one. Let him, therefore, for once venture to
disregard scrupulous adherence to the authority of precedent, and
give us upon his own authority what may be quoted as a precedent by
others. He can very well afford to do so, since he has long ago done
enough to fully establish his character as a "classical" copyist, and
has yet to convince us that he can be anything more than a copyist.
Merely to do again what he has already done so oft before, can hardly
add another laurel to his wreath. Let him then forget his Post Office
Ionic, his College of Physician Ionic, and all his other various (?)
Ionics, and now give us an example of what may be made of an order
whose " capabilities " are by no means so exhausted as to afford no
fresh ideas. At all events let him bestow some study and greater
finish upon his entablature, and let him by all means be less grudging
of cornice. Some enrichment of frieze, and sculpture in the pediment
if there is to be one, as we suppose there is, over the central octa-
style—would not be amiss, more especially as we have at present no
one example in the metropolis, in which sculpture is applied in both
ways.

There is, indeed, one thing in the plan that is so far from promising
well, as to be very ominous, which is, that there will be windows
throughout within the colonnades. Even if rendered ornamental fea-
tures in themselves, such apertures must prove injurious to the ge-
neral composition, and at variance with its columnar and polystyle
character; besides which, windows are by no means the architect's
forte, nor does he ever attempt to turn them to account in his designs.
Such being the case, instead of making any favourable promise, the
windows rather threaten to prove blemishes and positive defects, and
to render the facade little more than a variation of that of the Post
Office, a respectable quaker-like building, encased in columns ; conse-
quently, though both the one and the other may be unexceptionable in
themselves, the combination is likely to prove very unsatisfactory
unless it turn out in this instance something very different indeed from
previous specimens, by the same architect. Very much, indeed, will
depend upon a variety of circumstances in the elevation, which, even
were we acquainted with them, can no more be described than can all
the traits and lineaments that contribute to make up the general air
and expression of a countenance, and which, though taken singly,
seem of no importance, are in reality of the greatest, with regard to
the ensemble and the general impression made by it.

Willing to entertain hopes, we feel that we have very great cause
for fears, and not least of all on account of the reserve manifested
on the one hand, and the indifference on the other, relative to the
intended facade, notwithstanding that so very much depends upon it,
because it is that, and that alone, which can now be made to render
the building one of " monumental" aspect externally — and by " monu-
mental," we mean something more than that degree of it derived
from size and material, or from the mere introduction of columns.
We have a right to look for even very much more than negative merit
upon such an occasion, since should we obtain no more than that, the
building will prove if not exactly an architectural failure, another la-
mentable instance of a noble and rare opportunity that will have been
nearly flung away.

If — as is very likely — our remarks shall be thought to exceed the
due limits of criticism, by prejudging what is not yet in existence,
and by imputing to it defects imagined by ourselves, we do not pretend
to say that such is in no degree the case. Our saying anything at all
may be officious, impertinent interference ; but let there then no longer
be any room for making unfavourable and ominous surmises, as there
certainly is at present. As to forming a judgment beforehand, that is
matter of very little difficulty or uncertainty where Sir Robert Smirke
is employed, for all his productions have so little character except
that derived from his peculiar mannerism, that it is hardly possible to

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err in calculating the result of what he is about to do from what he
has done — and that not very much in his favour. Should we here
have erred altogether — why so much the better; and most happy
shall we be to find that Sir Robert will have greatly surpassed not
himself alone, but most others in the profession ; and that the facade
of the British Museum will show what may be done by us in the
Grecian style, no less satisfactorily than the new Palace at Westmin-
ster already shows what can be accomplished by us in the Gothic.
May the one prove a worthy rival to the other, and may there be
cause for applying to them the remark — Pares magis quant similes!

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.
FASCICULUS LI.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charier as the winds,
To blow on u horn I please."

I. There is just now quite a cartoon fever or epidemic raging
among us. We have "Hand-books" — should they not rather be
called " Eye-books ?" — which profess to teach us how to look at car-
toons ; and an advertisement has lately appeared with " The Car-
toons " prefixed to it, which begins by informing us that the " present
character of art is contrary to the eye, and the evidence of common
sense," and concludes by assuring us that there is no hope for success
in cartoon drawing and fresco painting in this country, " till the laws
of the eye be made the standard of accuracy, as laid down in Parsey's
« Science of Vision' " ! This is, perhaps, one of the most ingeniously
plotted things of its kind ever produced — quite a master-piece in the
art of advertizing and its manoeuvring ; yet although admirably well-
timed as far as the public are concerned, quite the reverse for the
poor artists, who now discover that they should have bought the book
before they set about their cartoons, and not after their works have been
hung up in Westminster Hall. By the bye, how did the great Frescantioi
Italy — or, for the matter of that, how have artists generally — been able
to do so well as they have done, in the present benighted state of art,
contrary as it has been all along to the " evidence of common sense "?
Have the whole world, artists and critics alike — been hitherto labour-
ing under a fatuous delusion, fancying things to be very fine which are
now proved (?) to be contrary to common sense ? Truly deplorable in
itself, such delusion seems also to be hopelessly incurable, since no
cures have been wrought by the Parseyian system. That not a soul
can be induced to adopt it, is evident, since had it been applied at all
in practice, the effect would have been too striking to escape notice.
Only one experiment (the first and last) has been made with it, and that
was by Parsey himself in a drawing exhibited at the Royal Academy,
which, if not at all satisfactory in any other respect, completely satis-
fied the public as to the exact value of the " Science of Vision." Why
it should now be recommended more particularly for cartoons, it is
difficult to guess, for it is little more applicable to them than to flower
painting. On the contrary, such a subject as Barry's Victoria Tower
would be a capital one for showing the wonderful and curious effects
produced by Parseyian perspective !

II. In making choice of a style for a building, it is necessary to con-
sider not only if the style be suitable for the occasion, but also if the
occasion be suitable for the style, and one where it can be shown to
advantage. Should the building be of a kind to require a number of
windows, Grecian architecture is not to be thought of, for thouo-h
you may put Grecian columns, the genuine classical physiognomy of
the style will be. lost. Neither can the Italian palazzo style be em-
ployed to advantage, except where space can be allowed for it, so as
to preserve its character in regard to its proportions— that is, the pro-
portions between solid and voids. In this style narrowness of piers
between the windows, and want of breadth between the windows on
one story and those on another, is no less injurious to character and
effect, than is wide intercolumniation in what professes to be Grecian

architecture. The fault in either case is nearly the same ; the diffe-
rence being, that in the latter the defect is that of meagreness and
"sprawlingness," in the other, that of littleness and "squeeziness."
Much, therefore, as that particular species of the Italian style has to
recommend it for street architecture, hardly is it applicable here,
owing to the narrowness of the fronts of our houses. Mere continuity
of design may be obtained by uniting several houses into one general
facade, yet that alone is not sufficient, because it does not increase the
space between the windows and the several floors, does not at all alter
the proportions, but only increases the number of windows by repe-
tition, and no more alters the character in regard to design, than the
number of yards of it measured out alters the qualitv of a silk or
other stuff.

III. The sticklers for precedent, and those who would fain discou-
rage, or if they could, even prohibit all invention, and reduce archi-
tectural design to a system of mere copying, give us no very high
opinion of their own powers. They dislike invention and origiualitv,
for pretty nearly the same reason that the fox objected to the grapes
as being sour, because he could not get at them. Again, thev dislike
novelty because it "puts them out." Puzzled at what they are unac-
customed to, and having no positive principles of taste to guide them,
they decide at once that that for which no established authority can
be adduced, must there/ore be illegitimate and licentious, and because
it deviates from standards and rules, it must likewise run counter to
correct principles of art. Mere novelty, indeed, is not originality,
in the better sense of the term, and it certainly would be absurd to
admire as originality and iuventive imagination, the merely doing that
which had never been done before. But then it is in the same man-
ner, mere prejudice and bigotry to condemn a thing, however it may
be done in itself, for no better reason than because it is now done for
the first time. If an idea be a happy one in itself, what matters
though it be. not exactly legitimate, and though we cannot trace its
pedigree back any further ? — rather ought it, on that very account, to
be all the more prized, as a valuable addition and real acquisition to
our architectural stock. There is a vast difference indeed between
crude, capricious whims and original ideas. To be original, requires
not invention alone, but patient study also. It would be too much to
expect that even the happiest idea should present itself to the mind
all at once, fully matured, and in all the perfection it is susceptible of.
Originality, too, consists not only in the putting forth entirely new
ideas, but in the power of imparting freshness to what has become
common-place, and of bringing out beauties that seem not so much to
be now first discovered, as to have been before overlooked where they
were lying for the first comer. By our attempting to keep art sta-
tionary, and allowing no fresh current of ideas to flow into it, it is at
length rendered stagnant also, becomes dull and sluggish, and degene-
rates into a system of plodding routine and copying, without either
feeling or intelligence.

IV. There are some serviceable hints to be derived from West-
minster Hall, as now fitted up for the exhibition of the cartoons. It
enables us to judge what would be the effect of a public picture gallery
similarly planned, and formed out of a single large apartment, divided
into avenues of convenient breadth, by means of screens carried up
only a moderate height, so as to leave a lofty open space over head,
showing the whole of the general roof or ceiliDg. In regard to this
last mentioned circumstance, the appearance of the Hall is very strik-
ing, and the fine timber roof seems in some degree of greater expanse
than before, owiug to the space below being contracted. In fact, the
Hall and cartoons together form quite a picture, especially when the
sun breaks in towards the latter part of the afternoon, at which times,
in addition to the sparkling brilliancy and catching lights where its
rays directly fall, a glow is diffused over the whole. Even when the
sun does not shine at all, there is a sufficient degree of light — subdued
and quiet, but still sufficient, though it proceeds chiefly from the single
large window at each end ; for if those in the roof have been enlarged,
the others beneath them have been stopped up. There are, therefore,
no side windows except such as are very high up ; yet though, as we
may convince ourselves, it answers here, were the same mode to be

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265

proposed for a church, it would be objected to as totally inadequate.
It seems to be one of our prejudices, that we cannot have too many
windows in a building, nor too much light, as if a strong light must
produce a corresponding degree of effect ; whereas it more frequently
diminishes and sometimes quite destroys it.

V. The Nelson Monument people would have done a good work, if,
instead of hoisting up an enormously expensive column (for at the best
the effect will be in no proportion to the cost), they had offered to re-
move the present trumpery-looking screen of the Admiralty, and erect
in lieu of it a low but simple and dignified architectural elevation, the
centre of which would have served as a basement for some sort of
superstructure forming the "monument" itself, adorned with sculp-
ture, and surmounted by a colossal figure of the hero of Trafalgar.
There would surely have been neither impropriety nor want of
meaning, in so attaching to that building a memorial of one of the
most distinguished of British admirals. At all events the Admiralty
would have had what it now very much wants — something to mark it
to the eye, and to intimate that it is a public building, and one of
some importance — at least in its purpose. It may, indeed, not quite
unreasonably be objected that any piece of monumental architecture
of the kind erected in front of it would neither have improved the
actual appearance of that building, nor rendered it the friendly ser-
vice of shutting it out from view; but that, on the contrary, the
building would have shown itself as an unworthy accompaniment to
the monument. Still there would have been no very great difficulty
in contriving that the monument should appear an independent com-
position not otherwise connected with the "large house" behind it,
than as being erected in the open space in front of the latter, as af-
fording a convenient site between that house and the street. The site
itself being somewhat confined would have been rather a favourable
circumstance than the reverse, because the monument would have
been of greater comparative or proportional magnitude. As a piece
of colonnaded architecture or facade, the present screen looks posi-
tively diminutive; but an erection of the same dimensions might be
made to appear almost colossal as a portion of a monument reared in
the centre of it.

NOTES ON EARTHWORK, &C, UPON RAILWAYS.
Article VII. — Principle and Construction of Earth Wagons.

In a former paper (ante, p. 186, vol. v), when treating of the "plant"
employed in excavations, the cost of earth wagons and the expence of
repairs were fully stated. I am, nevertheless, induced from the little
information to be obtained, to make wagons the subject of an entire
paper. I will first allude to the introduction of wagons for railway
purposes. Mr. Nicholas Wood, C.E., in his Treatise on Railroads,
p. 12, states, on the authority of Gray's Chorographia, published at
Newcastle, 1649, that " the carts employed in conveying the coals,
were in 1602 called " waynes," and the carriages introduced by Master
Beaumont, " wagons," and also that ever since that period the car-
riages employed upon railroads have been designated by the latter
name ; we may therefore infer, that the wagon of Mr. Beaumont was
applied upon a railway, and that he was the first to introduce them
into the north." Also, page 16, the ground being formed pretty even
from the pit, the whole length of the intended railroad or 'wagon way,'
as it was termed." Here we have the ancient term retained in the
modern nomenclature of "railway," not railroad, which is contracted
to rail, in town. The wagons which are now used to carry coals, quit
their load at the bottom, it being hung on hinges, and the form of
body is hopper shaped, and they are made to carry 53cwt.

Earth wagons are used in the making of railways for conveying the
excavated soil, and are of two descriptions, called End Wagons and
Side Wagons, from the direction in which they discharge the earth,
which is done by a tilt like a tilt cart, the end or side being raised as
the case may be. The timber framing which carries the hinge on

which the body of the wagon turns in the act of tipping, it called the
" soles," and sometimes the framing of the body of the wagon is called
the upper soles. The form of the body is generally nearly square;
the chief desideratum is that the construction should be simple, and
rigid or firm, and that the height should be no more than will allow
the wagon body sufficient elevation for the earth to leave it with the
impulse that the wagon has obtained before coming to the tiphead.
The annexed engravings, Figs. 1 & 2, show the construction of one of

WAGON, NORTH SHIELDS RAILWAY.

fWfer-*-^*

/

i> ,-a: ■■■(

Fig. 2.— Plan of Under-framing.

the wagons used on the North Shields Railway, drawn to a scale of
3 feet to the inch. The following is a specification describing the
construction. The "soles," a, of the underframing to be 6 in. deep by
5 in. broad, with three cross " sheths," c, 6 in. by 4 in., having three
bolts 1 in. diameter, one on the side of each sheth to keep the soles
together. The soles, 6, of the upper frame, also, to be 6 in. by 5 in.f
with two cross sheths, d, 6 in. by 4 in., and two iron bolts the same as
the under frame ; these two sheths, d, to be morticed into the soles, b.
Besides these, the upper frame to have four cross sheths, e, 4 in. by 3 in.
thick, projecting over the frame and wheels on which the bottom
deals are to be fixed. The length of the cross sheths, e, to be such as
to make the wagon 6 ft. 6 in. broad at the hind end, and 6 ft. at the
fore end, measured along the bottom deals, and the length in the clear
of the bottom to be 6ft. 'Jin. and the top 7 feet. The "cleading
deals " are to be 1| in. thick, of elm or oak. The top sheths, e, to be
bolted down to the soles, b, with i in. bolts, a cross sheth, J\ to be
bolted down to the undersole, a, to support the front part of the wagon.

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The framing to be all of good English oak ; sides and ends to be 12 in.
deep and If in. thick, also of oak or elm, and connected with kneed
straps to the cross sheths, e, these straps to be 2i in. by 1 in. thick,
sunk flush with the surface of the deals, and fixed with A in. bolts. The
distance between the outside of the upper soles at the hinder end to
be such as to allow them to come between the innef sides of the under-
soles when the wagon is being emptied. The door or back end to be
made to lift off. The end of the soles to be hooped with iron, 2 in.
broad and i in. thick. The joint or hinge, g, for the coup, to be
formed according to the sketch, so as to give a broad surface to bear
on. The wheels to be 3ft. diameter, and the naves cut and hooped
with iron, and to weigh cwt. qrs. lb. each. The axles to be
turned and of the best scrap iron, and the whole to be completed in a
substantial and workmanlike manner.

Remarks.— If it be objected that the upper soles, b, are placed
diagonally, they may be put parallel with the inside of the under ones,
which then might be shortened at the long end, and the crook, h, for
traction attached to the under side ; but in this there is a disadvan-
tage, for if they come in contact with other wagons, the shock will be
given to the coup, which throws a considerable strain upon the joint
or hinge. The size of the wheels might be reduced to 2 ft. 6 in., but
I do not think them too large, viz. 3 ft.

The next description of wagon, shown in the annexed engravings,
Figs. 3 & 4, does not tip from a joint, but slides along rollers or

WAGON, BRANDLING JUNCTION RAILWAT.

Fig. 3.— Side view.

Fig. 4. — Transverse section.

sheaves, with a curved stop attached to the body, which arrests the
sliding motion ; the momentum causes the body to tilt up. This con-
struction possesses many advantages; the wheels are large, and the
weight is well distributed amongst them, it carries a large quantity,
and is at the same time low; it is also easy to tip, the hinder sheaves
being set a little higher, it almost runs when the catch is disengaged,
two men at the embankment end can easily recover the coup. I sent
a sketch of this construction to a friend who wished to make some ; he
inquired all over the north, of parties who would leave no stone un-
turned to serve him, yet he could not learn anything about this con-
struction except from the sketch I sent. I mention this to show the
difficulty ef collecting information of this kind, as most parties make

a mystery of trifles, who are engaged in such constructions. It is one
of the attributes of want of education, and an external sign of a con-
tracted soul. The wagons used on the Midland Counties Railway
were similar to those just described, excepting that the sheaves were
8 inches diameter, and set lower, within the thickness of the under
frame, so that the construction is a little lower than the former.

WAGON, HARTLEPOOL RAILWAY.

X\

Fig. 5.— Side view.
Plan of Top.

!;

ffi

T

IE

Fig. 6. — Plan of Under -framing.

Figs. 5 & 6 show a wagon used on the Hartlepool Railway: it tips
from a hinge, and the draw bar is attached to the body of the wagon,
and the upper and under frames are of nearly equal lengths. Figs. 7
to 10 show the construction of a wagon used on the Great Western
Railway, drawn to a scale of 3 ft. to the inch. It is nearly similar to
the last, excepting that the draw-bar is attached to the under frame
and that the upper and under frames are of unequal lengths, which is
a decided improvement, as it leaves a space between each wagon, so

1843.]

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267

WAGON, GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY.

DaJ

U

i

Figs. 7 & S.— Side and End view. Fig. 9.— Under-framing.

Fig. 10.— Tail-board.

that when an accident happens, the driver has some chance of escap-
ing from being crushed between two wagons when they buff against
each other. The following are the dimensions of this wagon ; length
on the top, 8 ft. 3 in., and bottom 7 ft. 8 in ; breadth at top in front,
7 ft. 2 in., and end 7 ft. 8 in. ; the bottom is 1ft. less, and is 14 in.
thick ; the sides and end are 2 in. thick, the bottom is 1 ft. 5 in. above
the under soles ; the soles of the under frame, 5 in. wide and 8 in.
deep, the shetbs, 5 in. by G in. ; diagonal braces, 3 in. by 6 in.; width
in clear of soles, 3 ft. 3 in. ; length of soles, 8 ft. 3 in. Wheels 2 ft. 6 in.
diameter. I must observe that considerable talent and experience was
employed in consultation upon this wagon before it was adopted ; it is
of maximum size, low, firm in construction, and strength of materials
well proportioned; the appliances of the break, and disengagement
of the tail board, are skilfully applied. As the draw bar was found
not to answer so well when attached to the body, it was removed and
fixed to the under-frame, and that by the elongation of the under-frame
the shock is given to it and not to the body ; therefore the hinge
which is most liable to be broken, receives no shock. I can fully re-
commend this form of construction.

On the Midland Counties Railway, a wagon of a different construc-
tion to any of the preceding was used, both the sheaves and joint
being dispensed with, the whole body of the wagon being lifted up

from the hinder axle in the act of tipping, and the two axles being
retained at an equal distance, so that the wagon falls to its original
position as soon as the coup is recovered. I have seen wrought iron
used for bodies of wagons of this construction, which answers a very
good purpose.

Several attempts have been made, but invariably without success,
to combine the end and side wagon in one construction, by making
the body of the wagon to revolve. Mr. Cuthbert Burnup made one
so early as 1829, for the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway as a pattern,
which I tbiuk obtained a premium. Wagons of a good construction
are a very material point for the consideration of a contractor ; and as
the days when Banks flourished are past, they are the main thing a
contractor has to rely upon for a profit, if there is to be one in the
present day.

The diameter of wheels for 14 yard wagons is usually 24 inches,
and for 2=1 yard wagons 30 inches. The iron work in each wagon
consists of draught hooks, draw bar, angle plates, breaks, tail-board
irons, coupling chains, bolts and hoops. In taking dimensions, hoops
are all outside measure, and bolts are measured from inside of head
to outside of nut. In one wagon nearly 4001b. of iron is used, includ-
ing say a dozen hoops and twelve dozen bolts. The best wood is
elm of English growth, which is better than oak, not being affected
to a similar extent by the abrasion.

A wagon made to contain 34 cubic yards, is found in practice to be
too large, 24 yards being found better, and in some cases they are
made to contain only 14 cubic yards. The axle's diameter should be
in proportion to the weight of the wagon. The bearings are internal, not
as trucks and carriages for passenger traffic. To obtain a maximum
effect, the pressure per square inch of surface should not exceed 90 lb.
The friction of attrition alone is -Jg of insistent weight. The axles
are generally 3 in. diameter, and the breadth of the bearing 44 in.

In the execution of the Willesden contract on the Birmingham and
London Railway, the contractor's outlay for rails was £4767, and for
wagons £3588, together equal to £8355. At the completion of the
contract, the rails and wagons were sold for £3237, causing a defici-
ency of £5118, for a distance of | mile, and for the removal of
837,000 cubic yards, which is equal to about 14^. per cubic yard.
The greatest estimated quantity of earth capable of being moved by
one wagon in a year is 5000 yards ; the wagon will require renewing
after three years' service, when the value of the old materials, sup-
posing the cost to have been 16/. would be about 4/.

Although the construction of earth wagons and coal wagons are
dissimilar, yet the amount of capital employed in the more perma-
nent operation of conveying coals is not so much proportionally
greater as would at first sight appear. On the Brandling Junction
Railway, a thousand wagons are employed, at a cost of £13,000 ; and
the charge per annum for repairs and interest is £4000. The com-
pany have taken them into their own hands. The Midland Counties
Railway expended nearly £7000 in coal wagons, for the use of which
they charge at the rate of one farthing per ton, and a toll of \d. per
ton; and estimate depreciation and repairs at 14 per cent per annum.
The North Midland charge Id. toll, and parties find their own wagons,
the company having no stock of wagons. The cost of plant for
earthwork under a mile lead, including all expenses, is generally taken
at 2{i. per yard, being lrf. for rail and 1 Jrf. for wagons, or half the
cost of labour; and in a former article I showed that nearly £7000
was spent in one contract in plant alone.

I think sufficient has been said in justification of devoting an entire
article to this subject, and I can with a good grace affirm, that little ,
if any, detail is to be had in any of the works recently published, ge-
neralization being the order of the day. How far I have fulfilled my
promisa of entering on the construction of earth wagons, as noticed
at the conclusion of a former paper, I must leave to the readers of
the Journal. Few persons have had opportunities so extensive per-
haps to observe different constructions, as I was engaged on three
public lines of railway during their construction, and, besides, visited
most of the principal railways when in hand. I have known the
faulty construction of wagons make a halfpenny per yard difference

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[August,

in the price of labour in excavations; and when it is considered tbat | points, crossings, and turn-outs, assume a place of greater importance
the quantity of excavation on some lines extends to nearly 100,000 [ thau heretofore, and if you think them worthy of a place I will en-
yards, the amount then lost was nearly £4000 per mile, or about the | deavour to furnish another paper exclusively devoted to their con-
whole cost of the permanent way. This I think is sufficient to show , sideration.
that this subject is worthy of attention in all future lines of road.

Now that railways are being made single lines or partly double ; ' St. Aan't, Sewcaitle.upon.Tyne. O. T.

THE STEAM EXCAVATING MACHINE.

We have already had the pleasure of introducing this important
machine to the public, and we now avail [ourselves of the opportunity
of giving some further account of it. As is well known, it is of Ame-
rican invention ; and this individual machine was imported from the
United States, after having ben employed on a railway there, for the
purpose of testing its capabilities in this country. It is now at work
on the Eastern Counties Railway, about 20 miles from London, and is
exciting much attention. In its present state, the machine is rather
complicated, but it is susceptible of great improvement; and we
have no doubt that any machines manufactured in this country will be
much simplified. For this purpose it cannot be in better hands, the
management of the patent being entrusted,to Mr. John Braithwaite,
the .ngineer, whose mechanical attainments are well known to the
public, and who is well qualified to turn a machine of this kind to the
best account.

We shall now proceed to describe the performance of the engine,
having already given its working details, with an engraving in the
Journal, p. 147, No. 68, to which we must refer our readers. The
accompanying engraving is a perspective view of the machine when
at work, and it will be seen by it, that one man, the engine tender,
stands behind, to regulate the performance of the engine, and another
man in front to regulate the motion of the scoops and to turn the jib
or crane to the right or left, as may be required. By the aid of this
jib the scoop is enabled to take a sweep of 30 ft. and clear away
obstructions before it to the height of about 14 feet.

The cubic content of the scoop is 1* yard, and it lifts about li
cubic yard, two of which is about a wagon load of 24 cubic yards.
If the wagons were brought up as fast as the machine could supply
them, it would fill 30 per hour. During the day we inspected the
machine, it loaded 26 wagons of 24 cubic yards each within the
hour ; and at another performance, it filled 103 cars in 6j hours. Bv

these trials the duty of the machine appeared to be upon an average
20 wagons or 50 yards per hour, or 500 yards per day. This quan-
tity does not appear to be more than half the duty of the machines as
detailed in a report before us, emanating from a committee of mana-
gers of the American Institute, New York, especially appointed to
examine the machine. The committee state —

" The excavator has been employed for three years upon the
Western Railroad and other places, and that this test showed an im-
mense saving of expense. It is calculated to do the work of 150 men,
and will fill cars as fast as they can be presented to receive their
loads. Allowing for stoppages, one minute may be given as the
average for filling a car of 14 cubic yard. "The interest for the cost
of the machine, wear and tear, men's wages, fuel and oil, 134 dollars,
(about 21. 16s.), but to cover the contingencies, say 20 dollars."

There is also another report, showing the daily performance of two
machines employed for two months, in almost constant work, at
Brooklyn, New York, during which period the two machines worked
collectively 881 hours, and excavated and loaded 92,593 cubic yards
of earth, equal to 105 cubic yards per hour, or 1080 cubic yards per
day. The machines worked during the above period upon an average
nearly ten hours per day, which is equal to the working hours of a
man. The quantity which one navigator can remove, or "get and
fill," in one day, is about 10 cubic yards, or 1 cubic yard per hour ;
we have, therefore, the performance of one machine equal to 105
men, according to the statements of the American engineers.

We will now proceed to examine the comparative cost of working
by the machine and manual labour. For this purpose we must calcu-
late the power of the engine which is called a 10 horse engine, but
on account of the high pressure at which the steam is worked, it will
be found equal to 34 horse effective piston power. The following are
the particulars of the engine : —

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269

Diameter of cylinder 9 inchesr^SS'G square inches.

Length of stroke, 1 foot ; number of strokes per minute, 100 to

110— say 200 feet per minute.
Pressure of steam, 90 to 100 lb. per square inch— say 901b.
Fuel — coke.

Then we shall have the engine power

63-0 x '200 x 90

:34-7

33,000

horse power on the piston, which if taken in the same proportion as
low condensing engines, the nominal power of which is taken at only
71b. pressure, or about half the effective piston power, we shall have
the nominal power of the engine equal to 17 horses, the consumption
of which may be taken at about 101b. of coal, or e lb. of good coke per
horse per hour, which will give for the consumption of the above
engine 17x8= 136 lb. per hour, or 12 cwt. per day of 10 hours.
If we take the cost of the coke at 35s. per ton. delivered at the works,
we shall have the cost of the fuel 21s., then the cost of working the
machine per day may be stated thus : —

s. d.

Coke 21 0

Oil, tallow, &c 2 0

Engine tender 6 0

Man on the stage 5 0

1 labourer assisting 3 G

Sundries 2 0

Cost per day 40 0

This will be the cost for removing 500 cubic yards of earth, but
exclusive of repairs, depreciation, interest on cost of machine. The
cost of making one of the machines we estimate at 1200/. The cost
of manual labour may be taken for " getting and filling " (See Journal
Vol. V., p. 187) at iid. per cubic yard, then,

500 cubic yards at 4.§d. — 9/. 7s. Gd.
We have here a difference of 71. 7s. Gd. between the cost of engine
and manual power ; and if we make an allowance for the repairs of
the machine, depreciation, interest, &c, 21. per day, there will be a
saving of 5/. 7s. Gd. We may, therefore, set down the actual cost of
engine power at 2d. per yard, which would give 4/. 3s. id. per day,
for 500 yards, thus clearly showing that the steam excavator must
ultimately supersede manual labour on account of its cost and ra-
pidity in execution for all extensive cuttings, either for railways,
canals, or docks; but if we make our calculations according to the
report of the American engineers, allowing the duty of the machine
to be 1050 cubic yards per day, the calculation will stand thus: —

£ s. d.

1050 cubic yards by manual labour at 4irf.

Deduct — Working of engine per day 21.

Repairs, depreciation, interest

ler day 21. )
t, &c, 21- )

19 13
1 0

Saving 15 13 9

By this calculation the cost of excavation is not quite \d. per yard.

The following testimonials, from engineers in America, will show
their opinions of the machine.

Engineer's Office, Western Railroad,
Sprinr/fitld, October, 9, 1841.

Dear Sir, — In reply to your two letters of the 1st and 22nd September,
I have to state, in relation to the Steam Excavator of Carmichael, Fairbanks,
and Otis, that it has been most successfully and advantageously in use for
the last three years on this road. I have often witnessed its operating in all
kinds of excavation, except rock, and in every case I consider it to work to
better advantage than men with picks and shovels could. We have expe-
rienced great advantage in the expedition with which excavations are made
by this machine. Of course, like all other modes of excavation, it will per-
form the greatest amount of work in a given time in the easiest kind of ex-
ca»ation, that is, in coarse sand; it has removed often as much as one
thousand yards per day in such ; but I consider it of most importance and
advantage in the kinds of excavation where the ordinary modes experience
the greatest difficulties, for instance, in stiff clay and in very coarse gravel,
where it is difficult to penetrate with the common shovel.

I consider this machine of great value, and it can be used with great
advantage whenever the quantity will justify the first cost. It is a simple
machine, easily managed, and not costly.

Respectfully, your obedient servant,

George W. Whistler, Engineer, W. R. R.

Springfield, September 6M, 1841.

Dear Sir, — In reply to your letter of the 1st instant, I have to state
that the Excavating Machine of Carmichael, Fairbanks, and Otis, has been
in use on the Western Railroad upwards of three years. I have witnessed
its operations in stiff clay, in compact gravel, mixed with boulders of dif-
ferent sizes, in quick sand, and in common sand and loam. In all these
various soils, the machine has worked advantageously, and the most so I
consider in the cases which present most difficulty when the ordinarv modes,
of excavation are resorted to — to wit, in the clay and the quick-sand.

I have not at hand the means of stating the amount of material excavated
per month in the several soils enumerated, but I recollect that in August
1840, in sand and gravel in the section, it excavated 19,000

cubic yards in twenty-five working-days, and 1000 yards per day were
excavated for several days in succession. I consider the machine of great
value, susceptible of being applied advantageously wherever earth in any
quantity is to he removed, easily kept in repair, and by no means a costly
engine.

It is now, as you are aware probably, applied exclusively to work on terra
firma, but the engine may readily be placed upon a scow, and used with
great effect in dredging.

Respectfully,

W. H. Swift.

APPARATUS TO REGULATE THE SUPPLY OF WATER
TO BOILERS.

It is becoming a very common practice, and there can be no doubt
as to its being attended with great advantage, to use steam of fifteen
and twenty pounds pressure per square inch, instead of two and three
pounds per inch, as is usual with the Boulton and Watt engines, and
to reduce its elastic force, previous to its passing to the condenser, by
allowing it to expand within the cylinder. Having lately been
called upon to fit an expansive apparatus to an engine uf this class, it
of course became necessary to make considerable alteration in the
apparatus previously employed to regulate the supply of water ad-
mitted into the boiler. To effect this alteration in accordance with
the principle of the old apparatus, it would require a feed-pipe some
thirty feet high, with the usual complement of rods, levers, counter-
weights, &c, to communicate motion from a float upon the surface of
the water within the boiler to a stop-valve at the top of the feed
head. This principle is, however, in some instances adhered to, to
a very great extent, but in the present it would have created a fright-
ful " monument," too much so to be tolerated by a town which once
boasted great engineering skill. In order to avoid this, I contrived
an apparatus which answers the purpose beautifully, and has such a
remarkably simple outward appearance as to induce me to take the
liberty of submitting it to the readers of the Journal.

The accompanying engravings consist of two views of my appa-
ratus. Fig. 1 is a side elevation, and fig. 2, a vertical section. The
parts distinguished by letters are as follows : — T, the top of the
boiler; W, the water level; V, the valve-chest, cast on the end of
the pipe P; C, a compensation valve; F, a float, encircling the pipe
P (made of sheet copper) ; R, three small rods descending from the
float to the three ends of the crossbar B, which are shown flatwise in
fig. 3 ; E, the pipe to convey water from the feed-pump ; S, a small
rod for connecting the valve C with the crossbar B ; D, a door, fixed
by four screws to the side of the chest, which may be readily removed
in case of examining the valve.

With this simple arrangement, it will be observed, there is not a
packed joint of any kind through which the steam can escape, and
here we get rid of that very common and disagreeable hissing of the

270

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

Fig. 1.

FiK. 2.

Fig. 3.

steam from around the float-wire, &c, the effect of which always
proves so injurious to the boiler.

The compensation-valve, I presume, will be too readily understood
tojneed any explanation from me ; it may, however, be noticed, that
it is composed of brass, and that the part which is attached to the
float, as well as the other part, is cast is two pieces, as may be distin-
guished by the section-lines in fig. 2— this is essential to the putting
of the valve together. It may be further observed, that, to avoid any
alteration in the original feed-pump, a spring-valve is introduced in a
convenient part of the pipe adjoining to E, just sufficient to allow the
surplus water to make its escape without subjecting the plunger to
any additional strain.

Vesper.

Leeds, July 1, 1843.

GRESHAM COLLEGE.

( With an Engraving, Plate XI.)

The widened line of communication from the Post Office to Loth-
bury and the Bank is an improvement that was greatly needed, for it
used before to be not only most inconveniently but dangerously narrow
in many parts, and those where there was the greatest traffic of all.
Nor has the improvement which has taken place in that respect been
unattended with considerable improvement in regard to architectural
appearance, both as regards the elevations of the houses generally,
and one or two designs in particular. Of these last, the chief is
" Gresham College," which stands at the comer of Cateaton and Ba-
singhall streets, and which, if we are rightly informed, is now to give
its own name to the first of them, it being intended to be called Gres-
ham Street. This building was erected from the design of Mr.
George Smith, architect to the Mercers' Company, at whose expense
the building is erected. The elevation, represented in our engraving,
is that of the entrance front towards Basinghall Street, and is a more
than ordinarily dignified composition, and of marked monumental
character. Besides that the order itself is upon an ample scale, (the
height of the columns being rather more than 35 feet,) it displays

itself to very great advantage, owing to there being no windows, nor
any other aperture than the entrance door ; consequently there is
great repose and breadth of surface, besides a decidedly peculiar
character, of which we have so very few instances even among our
public buildings — which do not always show with the happiest effect
the orders applied to them — that it amounts almost to a novelty. It
is here too, a greater merit than it ought to be, that the order is
treated consistently — that, instead of being at all neglected, the en-
tablature is well finished up with carved mouldings to its architrave,
and the cornice itself made unusually bold and rich, so as to be a
striking feature in the whole composition, and give decided expres-
sion to that important part of an elevation : and if it may seem ex-
aggerated in its proportions and enrichments, to those who are ac-
customed to the meagre and shelf-like things usually put as the finish-
ing of an Ionic or Corinthian eDtablature, even excess in this respect
is far less reprehensible than the opposite fault of deficiency. We
do not say, that as the columns are unfluted, too much embellishment
is put into the cornices, because a cornice equally rich might be ap-
plied where there are no columns at all ; still we are of opinion, that
had, in this instance, the three-quarter columns been fluted, tbey
would have been better relieved against the plain wall, and there
would also have been a pleasing degree of variety arising from the
contrast between them and the angle pilasters.

Such further degree of decoration was all the more desirable, be-
cause owing to the aspect of this front — which is that facing the east,
the effect of boldly defined light and shade, which it would else have,
is nearly lost. Much, therefore, is it to be regretted that this eleva-
tion could not be adopted for the south one, in which case it would
have had the further advantage of being towards the wider of the
two streets — and it evidently shows itself to be properly the front
and not the side of the edifice. At present the side which is now
made the front, looks too secondary in importance to the other, and as
seen at the same time with it in an angular view of the building, not
sufficiently of the same character, for while the east elevation is
nearly solid, the south one is — we were going to[say — full of windows;
and so, indeed, it is in one sense, because, though there are only six
windows in all, viz., three on a line on each floor, they fill up the
design too much, the extent of frontage being only 37 feet, which
was not sufficient to allow of such breadth for the piers as would have
produced a character of solidity, in keeping with that of the entrance
front.

It could further be wished that the windows themselves were more
alike as to style, for the three lower ones, which are arched segmen-
tally, and have " kneed" architraves, do not very well accord in cha-
racter either with those above them, or with the rest of the design.
The upper windows have slightly projecting stone balconies before
them, and full entablature dressings, which do not leave sufficient
space between them and the general entablature of the order ; and
unless these windows could have been kept from rising higher than
the lower line of the pilaster capitals, that iuconvenience might hare
been in some degree obviated, by giving the pilasters themselves only
shallow ants-caps.

The interior is devoted to the purpose of lecturing; the upper
story contains a well arranged but small theatre, and the ground-floor
contains private rooms for the professors, entrance ball, and a noble
staircase.

The Greenwich Pier. — The lawsuit between the stone pier company
and Messrs. Grissell and Peto, the contractors, has been stayed by proceed-
ings in Chancery. Messrs. Grissell and Co. have obtained an injunction ;
the caTSe has been referred to eminent counsel, and an amicable arrangement
entered into for both parties to bear an equal proportion of the expense to
be incurred in putting the permanent pier into really substantial condition.
It is stated that to do so at least 17,000/. must be expended. The pier
company are driving a number of piles close to and alongside the watermen's
floating pier, and are determined to drive them away from their position. —
1 "net

GRESHAM - (JU^LLlSiL '

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

271

A NEW AND SIMPLE METHOD TO FIND
THE PERPENDICULAR HEIGHT OF MOUNTAINS, HEAD-
LANDS, &c. ABOVE ANY GIVEN DATUM, FROM
BAROMETRICAL AND THERMOMETRICAL
OBSERVATIONS.

By Oliver Byrne, Mathematician, Author of " The Doctrine of
Proportion," &c.

Rule. — Add the allowance found in Table I for the difference of
temperature taken by the attached thermometer, to the logarithm of
that height of the barometer which corresponds to the least degree of
the thermometer. Then to the logarithm of the difference of the
logarithms of the heights of the barometer observed at the higher and
lower stations, thus corrected, add the logarithm of the allowance
found in Table II, for the mean temperature of the detached thermo-
meter when increased by the constant number -92 102 ; this sum will
be the logarithm of the required height in fathoms. Observe : the
first four figures of the logarithms of the heights of the barometer,
together with the indices, are to be counted whole numbers, and the
numbers taken from Tables I and II must always have five places of
decimals, though they need not always be used. Tables I and II may
be dispensed with, as -456789 answers to a degree of the attached
thermometer in Table I, and -0024080 to a degree of the detached, in
Table II.

Previous to M. De Luc commencing his experiments on the baro-
meter, it was considered that a mean between the two temperatures
shown by the thermometer attached and the height of the mercury in
the barometer at two different stations, was sufficient to determine the
perpendicular distance of those stations. But De Luc found, by re-
peated experiments, that an additional or detached thermometer was
likewise necessary, which has since been confirmed by General Roy,
Sir G. Shuckburgh, and others.

However, before making further remarks, we shall illustrate the
rule just given by practical examples.

Table I. | Table LI.

Of the allowance for the differenceOf the allowances for the mean
of the temperatures of the at-! temperatures of the detached
tached thermometer. thermometer.

|Tens

lUnits
ITenthll

4 567
9 135
3 703

8 271
2 839
7 407
1975|2

1543 1

i inn

[Hundreds

|Units
|Tenths

<>0

00

OO
00
OiOil

ooii

0 21 6

49 3

74J0
987
•J 3 1
480

00 1 727
00 1974
0 0!2'22ll

Examples.

1. The heights of the barometer at the bottom and top of a hill are
29-862 and 26-137 inches; the attached thermometer at the bottom
and top indicates 68° and 63° ; also, the detached thermometer at
these stations gives 7T and 55° respectively. It is required to find
•the perpendicular height of the mountain.

Thermometer attached.

Lower station . . 68°

Higher " ..63

Ditterence 5

Thermometer detached.
Lower station .. 71°

Higher

2) 126
63

Barometer at summit, where attached 1 aa iot i nira -a

thermometer indicates least degree / 2b'137' ]o& = 14172,;>57
From Table I for 5 units we have 2-28394

Log. corrected 14174-84094

Barometer at base=^29-862, log. 14751-189

Take 14174-84094

Log. 576-34806 =

Then, from Table II, for 6 tens -14808

For 3 units (making in all 63°) -0O74O
Constant

2-7606848

Log.

•92102
1-07650 = 0-0320140

Height in fathoms = 620-4385, corresponding to log. 2-7926988

II. Wishing to know the perpendicular height of the mountain
Chraughaun, in the county Wicklow, and having two barometers and
detached thermometers which for months before agreed with each
other in different states of the air, leaving an assistant on a level with
the sea near Arklow, with directions to make accurate observations
every fifteen minutes from 3 to 4 o'clock (our watches being pre-
viously regulated) I proceeded to the top of the mountain, and at the
appointed hour commenced observations. The mean result of the five
were as follows : — the barometer stood at the summit 28-635, and at
the base 30-609 inches; attached thermometer, 61° and 65-5,° and de-
tached thermometer 54-5° and 70°, respectively. It is required from
these data to find the height of the eminence.

Thermometer attached.

Lower station . . 65*5°
Upper " .. 61-0

Difference 4-5

Thermometer dttachid.

Lower station
Upper "

Mean

7o°
54-5

2 ) 124-5

62-25

Barometer at summit, where attached \ .

thermometer is least
For 4 units, from Table I, we have
For 5 tenths

28-635, log. 14568-972

1-82715

•22839

Log. corrected for temperature

Barometer at summit, where the
attached thermometer is least
Subtract

From Table II we have,
For 6 tens =

For 2 units =

For 2 tenths =
For 5 hundredths^
Constant =

Log. of

Log. of

1 1858-491
14571-02754

287-46346

14571-02754

2-4585880

•14808 ^

•00494 1 , . cooo.

•00049 ( lnakl»S "P b2 -25

•000 12 J

•92102

1-07465

= 0-0312671

Hence the height in fathoms = 308-923, log. = 2-4S98551

It may be observed, that this experiment was repeated at different
times, and consequently in various atmospheres, yet the result never
varied two feet. We may, therefore, conclude that the highest sum-
mit of the Wicklow mountains is very nearly 1S53 feet above the
level of the sea.

This rule will be found to give results more accurate than either
that of General Roy or of Sir G. Shuckburgh, and can be applied
with greater ease.

General Roy makes the height in fathoms = (10000 I ~T -168 d)X
(l+[/— 32°] -00245).

Sir G. Shuckburgh makes it,
(10000 / If. -440 d) X (1 + [/— 32°] -00243) fathoms; where I =
the difference of the logs, of the heights of the barometer at the two

37

272

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[July,

stations; d = the difference of the degrees shown by Fahrenheit's
thermometer attached to the barometer; /= the mean of the two
temperatures shown by the detached thermometers exposed for a few
minutes to the open air in the shade, at the two stations. The sign
minus takes place when the attached thermometer is highest at the
lower station, and the sign plus when it is lowest at that station.
100O0 (iog. m — iog. M) was the expression formerly given to find the
altitude in fathoms, m M being the heights of the mercury at the base
and summit of any eminence. This formula is very easily applied,
and not far from the truth when an allowance is made fur the increase
of temperature above 31c, for this is the degree of temperature to
which the above formula is calculated, or rather adopted. As air
expands very nearly ^ part of its bulk with every degree of heat,
and suffers the same contraction with every degree of cold, the follow-
ing rule was usually given. Rule. — Observe the height of the mer-
cury at the bottom of the object to be measured, and again at the top,
as also the degree of the thermometer at both these situations, and
half the sum of these two last may be accounted the mean tempera-
ture. Then multiply the difference of the logs, of the two heights of
the barometer by 10000, and correct the result by adding or subtract-
ing so many times its 435th part as the degrees of the mean tempe-
rature are more or less than 81°'; the last number will be the altitude
in fathoms.

We are too apt to say, when two or more phenomena happen to-
gether, that one' is caused by the other ; where all may be governed
by some unknown phenomena. The writer of this article agrees with
Mr. Pasley, that the philosophy is false which teaches that expansion
is caused by heat, for without fire or heat water is expanded as it
becomes ice, and air in the air pump vacuum ; solids require fire as a
means, but the expanding cause itself is perfectly distinct from fire.
However, when experiments show that certain phenomena increase
and decrease together, one may be taken as an index, if not as a func-
tion of the other ; but great care ought to hi- taken not to draw gene-
ral inferences from limited experiments. At some future time we
shall explain why the attached and detached thermometers differ, and
also show how they may he made to agree, and at present proceed to
the more immediate object of the communication. To illustrate the
rule just given, we shall add another example.

III. If the heights of the barometer at the bottom and top of a hill
are 29-37 and 20-59 inches respectively, and the mean temperature
26°, what is the height'!

Log. 29-37 = 1-4679

Log. 26-59= 1-1247 1x3

0-0481866 x 10000 = 431*856. Then 31 -26° =
5 degrees, therefore by the rule, 431-850 - 431-856 X tjt = 431-856
— 4-S64 = 426-892 = the height in fathoms.

We shall now investigate the last
formula, and give an outline of the
theory upon which this proposition is
founded. Let EAR represent part of
the surface of the earth, and A T a co-
lumn of the atmosphere. Conceive this
column to be divided into a number of
equal and infinitely small parts, as AB,
BC, CD, &c, in each of which we may
suppose the density to be uniform, be-
cause they are infinitely small. Now since the density of the air is
always directly as the compressing force, therefore we have the den-
sity of the air in any of the portions AB, BC, &c, as the weight of
the column of the atmosphere above that place ; that is, if P repre-
sents generally the pressure, D the density of any place, P' the
pressure at any other place, and D' its corresponding density, we
shall have P : P' : : D : D' ; that is, the pressure is to the density
in a constant ratio, and may be represented by n to 1 ; therefore,

P : D : : P' ; D' : ; n ; 1, consequently abstractedly speaking,

D = - P',

D" = - P ', &c.

That is, the density at any place is equal to, or rather may be mea-
sured by, the nth of the pressure of the column of the atmosphere
above that place, or by the n th of the compressing force. Hence if
we make P stand for the pressure at the surface A, and let each of

the parts AB, BC, CD, &c, be equal to 1, then will - P represent the

weight or pressure of the part AB, and therefore,

P P =z P =: the pressure at B, and — ; — P = the density

n n n-

or weight of BC. In the same way,

: — P = the pressure at C, j — P = the pressure at D, &c.

So that the pressure, and consequently the density, will decrease in a
geometrical progression, as the altitudes increase in an arithmetical

progression. Calling the density at the surface d' , and the several
altitudes 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. we shall have the following corresponding
series :
Altitudes .. 0, 1, 2, 3, &c.

m—1 jji-2 j»!-3

Corresponding densities d d"

Dividing the latter series by dn we have,
Altitudes ..0, 1, i

Corresg. densities 1 d d~

,&c.

3,

j— 3

4, &c.
,-4

',&c.

This is strictly analogous to the property of logarithms. In fact
the several altitudes form a peculiar system of logarithms of which
the reciprocals of the corresponding densities are the natural num-
bers : from this circumstance they have been denominated atmospheric
logarithms. From a similar circumstance the Napierian are termed
hyperbolic logarithms, because they express the areas contained
between the asyptotle and curve of au hyperbola. We shall write
these atmospheric logarithms with large letters, thus, "Log," to
distinguish them from the Briggean or common logarithms, which are
written "log. ., " or simply "log." and also from the hyperbolic or
Naperian which are denoted by "log. " Let A, a, represent any

two altitudes, and D, d, their corresponding densities, then will A =
— Log. D, and a =. — Log. d;

d

A — a = Log. d — Log. D = Log.

D

Now it is a well known property in logarithms, that by assuming
different values for the base, there will be as many different systems
of logarithms ; and it is equally well known, that in all the various
system;, of logarithms, the logarithms of the same numbers can be
converted from one system to another, by a constant multiplier or
modulus. The object of our present inquiry is to determine a con-
stant multiplier that shall convert the common logarithm of a number
into the atmospheric logarithm of the same number. To accomplish
this, let

d , d

— = x log. p,

d

U

A — a = x log.

D'

Then making a =z o, or which is the same, if we suppose d to repre-
sent the density of the atmosphere at the surface of the earth, we
d

D

shall have A = x log.

In order to find x let us take the height of a homogeneous atmos-
phere, when the temperature shown by the thermometer is 31°, and
the height of the barometer 29J inches at 26057 feet; then the den-
sity at the surface, and one foot above it, will be

1843.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

273

a = o; d = 26057.
A = 1 ; D = 26056.
That is, the pressure at the surface will be equal to a column of air
of uniform densrty 26057 feet high ; and consequently one foot above
the surface = 26056 feet high, or a foot less. Since the densities
are as the pressures, we have

26057
A-a= 1=-rl°E- 26056 ;

making 26057 = /(, we have 1 = x log -— —

but log,

«— 1 \«

+

l

+

+

i

fee.

J

W ' in

And when, as in the present case, n is a large number, all the terms

but the first may be neglected as unimportant; also, since M =

•43429448, the modulus of decimal or common logarithms,

. , -43429448

••1 = -rX-2605T

26057
whence x = „42q .» = 60000, very nearly, or x may be readily

found from the expression x —

The above formula is reduced to

A = 60000 log. -g feet ;

or putting m and M the heights of the murcury at the earth's surface
and at the altitude A, then the fraction

d _ m

T> ~ M
Also since 6 feet are equal to one fathom, the simple multiplier 60000
for feet becomes 10000 for fathoms, which is more convenient. Hence
instead of

A = 60000 log. — feet

We have A = 10000 log. ^ fathoms,

which is the formula formerly used in measuring altitudes by the ba-
rometer.

With respect to the height taken for the homogeneous columns of
air different writers vary, but this difference does not affect the ulti-
mate result. It is well established, that the height of an homogeneous
atmosphere, whose density would be equal to that of the air at the
earth's surface, and weight the same as that of the real atmosphere
when compared with a column of mercury or other fluid of the same
weight, the heights will be reciprocally as the specific gravities of
the air and mercury or other fluid. So that if we take the specific
gravity of the air at the earth's surface at lj, when compared with
distilled water at 1000, and that of mercury 14000, also the column
of mercury in the barometer = 294 inches, we have 1^ : 14000 '. '
29& ; 344166 inches = 28680-5 feet = 5-43 miles. But the specific
gravity of fluids varies as their temperatures vary. It has been found
by various experiments, that when the mercury in the barometer
stands at 30 inches, and the thermometer at 55°, the specific gravity
of air, water and mercury are nearly as 1^, 1000 and 13600. Hence
H : 13600 : : 30 : 340000 inches = 28333i feet = 5-366 miles,
the height of a homogeneous atmosphere. Again, taking the specific
gravity of the air at the earth's surface at f, which some affirm, and
the barometer at 294 inches, it will be If : 13600 ; ; 294 : 328255
inches = 27318 feet = 5-1814 miles. Hence, generally, we may
assume if the air was of the same density at all altitudes as at the
earth's surface, its height would be between five and six miles. But
it matters not what degree of temperature we assume, for we can
always accommodate the result to any other temperature, as before
observed, by augmenting or diminishing the result by the ^tb part
for every degree above or below 31°.

It may further be observed, that the common barometer, with some
trifling alterations, of which we shall speak hereafter, is the best and
most to be depended on ; for many which are said to be improved
have only the recommendation of deviating from it in simplicity.
It appears from accurate observations, that mercury stands higher in
tubes of larger than in those of narrower bore ; and therefore, when
observations are made with different barometers, attention should be
paid to the difference of their diameters. In order to prevent the
effects of the attraction of cohesion, the bore of the tube should not
be less than one fourth of an inch ; but one third of an inch would be
better.

Note — Further particulars relative to this important subject is
given in a work about to be published, entitled " A New Theory of
the Heavens and Earth."

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS
THROUGH BOG.

The bogs in Ireland form a vast extent of surface, which for the
most part, is profitless, save for fuel, but a large portion of which is
capable of being converted at a small expense into good arable land,
which would yield an average crop ; but the absence of roads in these
extensive wastes, has prevented the capital of individuals from being
profitably invested, in the reclamation of those barren plains, now
tenanted by the plover and the snipe.

It seems to have been the system with engineers of former days, to
avoid by every means the construction of a road across bog, and accord-
ingly they have not scrupled, by a very circuitous route, greally to
extend the distance between the termini in preference to encountering
the unstable foundation of a bog, which the science of road-making
has, in latter years, rendered a comparatively easy and safe under-
taking. Still, even in modern works, it is to be regretted that so fre-
quently is to be seen a road, otherwise well selected and judiciously
laid out, materially injured by deviating from its proper course, in
order to avoid an intervening bog ; and as the engineer, in tracing a
line of public road, should ever bear in mind that the chief advan-
tages of communication is to open the country, and to afford every
facility for improving and drawing out the resources of those lands,
whose capabilities have been suffered to lie dormant for want of this
advantage, the intersection of bogs by roads should therefore not be
avoided.

The most favourable months in the year for commencing operations
in the construction of bog roads, are June, July, August and Sep-
tember (if dry), since at those periods the surface is more free from
water, and consequently the bog more firm than in the rainy months ;
and it is of the greatest importance to have fine weather for these
works.

When a line of road passes over a shallow bog of from three to
four feet in depth, with a firm and compact substratum, and when
soling material could not be procured without the expense of land
damage, and the cost of carriage should be great, or when the soling
should be of an inferior or unsuitable quality, it will be most advan-
tageous (provided the gradients will admit) to remove the bog mould
altogether, to form the road upon the hard bottom, and to sink the
grips sufficiently deep to prevent the moisture of the adjacent bog
producing injurious consequences.

In the construction of a road over the surface of a bog, the iirst
point to be attended to, and which is of the chief importance, is the
thorough drainage of that portion of the bog upon which it is deter-
mined to place the road materials. When the line is lockspitted, a
grip is to be cut on both sides of the road of sufficient capacity to
command the complete drainage of the surface ; and in soft bog, a
second grip should be cut on both sides, at about 10 feet distance from
the first ; and it will be particularly necessary that great attention
should be observed in keeping them free from impediments, and that
there should be no obstruction to the free passage of the water. The
second grip, in addition to the greater facility of drainage, will he

37*

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found useful as a protection against persons cutting turf up to the very
road fence, and in a short time, leaving the road (as is frequently the
case) an embankment dangerous for travelling on, and liable to slip.
The surface water should then be tapped off by means of mitre drains
judiciously placed, and when the whole is perfectly free from water,
the inequalities of the surface should be reduced by filling the hollows
with heaty sods, and the formation conducted in the usual manner for
roads upon ordinary upland ground, but it will be judicious to give
the cross section greater convexity to allow for compression.

The laying on of the soling is the nest operation to be attended to;
and as to the period for undertaking this work, I must differ in opi-
nion from many engineers, who strenuously insist that the soling
should not be laid on, until one, and in some cases two seasons, after
the grips have been opened. I would recommend, that when the
surface of the intended road had been freed from water, by the means
before mentioned, that the soling should be immediately put on, as
the superincumbent weight will compress the bog, and thereby acce-
lerate the process of drainage, and also protect it from the frequent
saturations with rain, to which it would otherwise be subject, as by
the formation all the surface water must fall oft" into the grips.

This opinion, which I now venture, is founded upon practical ob-
servation. About three years ago, when superintending the execution
of a long line of road in the south of Ireland, under the direction of
the Board of Works, which for about six miles was carried across
bog of various depths, a portion of it was solid immediately after
being drained, and a portion after the drains had been opened aud the
surface formed was left unsoled, in consequence of the winter setting
in: in the following summer, when proceeding to complete the opera-
tions in the bog, 1 found that part which had been soled was firm aud
well consolidated, and in excellent condition for receiving the metal-
ling, while that portion which had been unsoled, was in a much worse
and softer state than the adjacent bog, especially where the surface
had been cut for the purpose of reducing the inequality.

As the durability of a road will depend in a very great measure
upon the soling, the quality of the material to be used for this pur-
pose, is of great importance. Vegetable earth is certainly bad, and
if, in the absence of better material, made use of, cartage should not
be permitted upon it until after the metalling had been laid on. A
compound of stiff clay and sharp sand, mixed naturally, constitutes an
excellent soling substance, as it will form a tenacious unyielding crust,
which will not be liable either to wash away or sink into the bog.
This substance is frequently found under bog, and in such cases, will
be the best which can be used, and the most economical. Seven
inches in depth of soling will be sufficient for country roads where
the traffic is not very great.

After the soling has been laid on and the compression and drainage
completed, the fences should be made in the usual manner, with pipes
or outlets underneath, to convey the water from the water-tables into
the grips. Road contractors generally construct the fences, when
cutting the grips, with the sods and turf mould which is raised there-
from ; but this is both an incorrect practice and false economy, as the
subsidence aud compression of the bog will cause the feuces to form
a waving line, instead of the direction first laid out, and the weight
of the soling will generally cause the surface between the fences to
spread out, and then a larger area than required must be covered over
with metalling, which will greatly increase the expense. In a bog
road in the county of Kerry, fenced at the time of sinking the grips,
and laid out 21 feet wide between the fences, 1 found, after the soling
had been laid on and consolidated, and when about to spread the
broken stones, that the width between the fences measured 23 feet.
In this case there was a decided loss to the contractor, as he was
obliged to cover with metalling the entire surface of the road, to
within IS inches of the water tables on each side.

The stoning and blinding is conducted in the same manner as in or-
dinary roads.

When a road is to be formed on an embankment over bog, the base
of the embankment should be very wide, in order to extend the su-
perincumbent weight over a large surface, aud the sides should slope

2 feet horizontal to 1 foot perpendicular. The irregularities of the
surface, upon which the embankment is to be raised, should be re-
duced, and then covered over with regular courses of dry heathy
sods, with the heathy side placed downward, but the top course should
be laid with the heathy side upward. When the embankment has
been raised to the required height, the road should be formed solid,
faced and stoned as before described. In a soft and yielding deep
bog, the sods for the embankment should not be cut from that portion
of the bog adjoining the road, or the embankment may subside very
much, and cause the adjacent surface, from which the sods have been
cut, to elevate.

I have seen the injurious consequences of this practice exemplified
in many cases, but in two in pcrticular: in the first, the embankment
subsided very much, and the gradients were completely altered, the
longitudinal section of the road forming a waving line : in the second
case, a gullet constructed about the centre of the embankment, sunk
beneath the level of the bog, before the embankment was completed,
and the adjacent surface was elevated; a second gullet was built over
it, and also disappeared, and a third gullet was built over the second,
after the necessary precautions had been taken, and the embankment
has since remained firm.

In constructing a road in cutting in bog, after the stuff has been ex-
cavated, the surface should be covered with one or more courses of
bog sods, and then formed, soled, fenced, and stoned in the usual
manner, having previously paid due attention to the drainage.

F. V. C , A.B., C.E.

Dublin, 6th July, 1843.

THE CARTOON'S— 1819, 1843.

It is exactly nine and thirty years ago, when a youth named Henry Ardor
was waiting for the mail, which was to carry him from his father's roof and
his mother's affections, to London, to try his fate as an historical painter,
that an old friend of the family, a very wise and worthy man, and brother
of Northcote the painter, came to bid this youth farewell. " Ah. it will
never do," said his father. " I hope it will," sobbed his mother. " I am de-
termined it shall," said the youth : his venerable friend shook his hand, and
said, " Be sure, my dear young friend, you begin with the skeleton, and
study hands and feet, for there is not a painter in London who understands a
hand or a 'cot. '

The horn was heard, now dying away, now bursting out as it turned the
corner of the street in full view, and the horses were seen, trampling and
curbed, the royal coachman, with his white hat and scarlet coat, and the
guard, red-faced and important, drove up like lightning, and drew up in
style. Hi-' youth kissed his sobbing mother ; " God bless you," echoed from
all the assembled friends in a country town, the door drove home with a
slain, the horn again blew, and away rattled Henry Ardor, wrenching his
alfections, with a spasm that squeezed the burning tears out of his eyes,
which scalded his cheeks as they fell.

His love of art was a passion of his being, and had been from his earliest
infancy ; he had often ridiculed in his native town the tip-toed absurdities
of the old portrait school, and had often been corrected by his father for
presumption : he had made up his mind to devote himself, with all his heart
and all his soul, to reform the design of his country, by mastering the con-
struction of the figure, to take pupils as soon as he was qualified, and if
talented, to spread the sound doctrine of beginning with the skeleton, and
enforcing that as the basis. He entered London, May 14, 1804,.aud over-
whelmed with the intensity of his great object, he went to the new church
in the Strand, and falling on his knees, prayed God for success only in pro-
portion as he deserved it. Remembering the warning of his worthy friend,
his application was incessant, so that in two years he produced works which
honoured his name; he had been admitted a student at once in the Academy,
and greatly benefitted by that excellent sch jol, and such a cluster of genius
was admitted at the same time, that the men of that period have been the
support and the reformers of the art ever since. Such was his obedience

1 What would he say now P

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275

and his diligence, that he deservedly earned the affection and the respect of
all his superiors, and all his superiors lauded him as an example to all other
young men. Now though there were and had been eminent men, West,
Hussey, Barry and Fuseli, not one of them had so deeply and scientifically
mastered the figure, and at that time, 1803, though there always had been
lectures on anatomy, the skeleton had never been in the antique, and it was
from the repeated entreaties of young Ardor, and his fellow students, and
the keeper's repeated remonstrances to the council, that the council at last
wisely yielded to the wish.

Ardor suon got into high life, and was the wonder of its coteries — went to
four routs of a night— was told by the women he had an antique head, and
lay in bed late next day ; but finding this species of fascination not conducive
to application, by degrees he weaned himself from its fascinating attractions—
though if he had waited a year, he would have been utterly forgotten, and
" left alone in his glory," as hundreds of Ardors had been before, and will
be again whilst that delightful class pursue novelty in preference to excel-
lence. Such was the repute Ardor got in his native town, that a boy named
Caution was rouzed to come up : up he came too, drank tea with Ardor, and
went away so fired by Ardor's enthusiasm, that the next day he called and
said, " I'll be a painter. Ardor."

Ardor loved his art better than himself always, and said, " Caution, if you
will, I'll tell you all I know." Caution put himself at once under Ardor,
Ardor lent him a plaister hand, his anatomical drawings, admitted him at all
hours, made him his friend, his pupil, his companion, and poured forth all
he had got himself by hard work ; as Ardor said, " If I can advance the art,
and reform design, my end will be answered." Caution was a good and moral
youth, and was very grateful, and so were Caution's friends. Caution went
to Italy, and found all the principles Ardor had taught him of the greatest
utility in comprehending the great works he saw. In the mean time Ardor
took other pupils, and made them go through the same course : and thought
it a good plan if two cartoons could be got up from Hampton Court at the
Gallery for the use of his pupils. An influential friend approved of the plan,
applied to Lord Farnborough and the late Duke of Sutherland, who in an
audience of the King, got leave ; and Mr. West was ordered to see two car-
toons moved up, as keeper of his Majesty's pictures : and St. Paul at Athens,
and the boats, were those Mr. West chose.

The moment the cartoons came to the gallery, Ardor sent in all his pupils,
who made chalk cartoons the full size; and such was their excellence, and
such their impression in the town, that the crowd was obliged to be stopped,
and the doors shut, to prevent injury to Raffael's works. Ardor on this
moved the cartoons of his pupils to St. James's Street — gave a splendid pri-
vate day to the nobility— the Arch-Duke Maximilian came with Lord Aber-
deen—all the women of fashion praised Ardor more than ever, and Ardor and
his pupils became the fashion of the day, and it was said nothing could stop
Ardor's career. Unfortunately Ardor had got very angry with the Royal
Academy, where he had educated himself, and shared its favours, and Ardor
in his fury against the members of that body, had so provoked them by the
truth and exposure of their abuses, that they one and all put their power-
ful influence against Ardor's attempt to found a school, and they denied
Ardor had any merit at all — they abused his pupils — drove Ardor to ruin,
and involved two of his pupils in equal ruin with himself. People of fashion
did not know why Ardor was so abused, but concluded forty men must be
right, and Ardor deserved it ; and so they let Ardor alone and forgot his
works, and Ardor was four times ruined and four times again on the field, so
that at last it was considered, to ruin Ardor, was a folly. During all this
time Caution had been in Rome, and having been severely bitten by Ger-
mans, who dressed like Raphael, returned to England, with a resolution to
bite his old master, and all his friends too ; but he found Ardor so high in
the public feeling, and so inveterate in sound art, that there was no intro-
ducing the new insanity but by biting or burking Ardor, and it was therefore
agreed, between Caution and Namby Pamby his friend, that Ardor must be
burked as he would not be bitten.

It mast be told, that one night in 1812, Ardor was in the house of Lords,
and when Lord Wellesley was speaking, he put himself in the attitude of St.
Paul at Athens; Ardor thought of the cartoons and of the Vatican, and he
looked up and saw the Spanish armada. Ardor directly planned the decora-
tion of the old house, laid a plan before the ministers, petitioned both

houses, never ceased persecuting all the authorities— the old house was
burnt down— Ardor petitioned for the new, till at last it was resolved the
new houses should be adorned— a Commission was Lrmed, Caution became
secretary, as he deserved, Namby Pamby gave lectures, and the plan of
burking was immediately put in practice, for in the lectures of the one or
the reports of the other, Ardor was entirely extinguished. Now this was
very hard, for Ardor had fought the battle, when Caution and Namby ran
away, and the people said it was a great shame to burke Ardor, whatever
might have been Ardor's enthusiasm ; but Caution had a great game to play,
and as Caution knew the safest game to play is always to go with the cur-
rent, and Ardor's love of truth being obnoxious to all. Caution burked Ardor
as well as his works. In the mean time some people wanted the Germans,
as the English could not draw— Ardor opposed it, and these people said, as
the;/ can't draw, let us make them compete in cartoons ! then we know they
will fail, and then no one can object to the Germans coming, who can draw.
The plan was eagerly seized, cartoons were prepared, the youth of England
were suddenly called from their daily habits of getting their daily bread,
and the follow ing year produced works, which astonished their enemies, de-
lighted their friends, and settled for ever the question of their genius.
Ardor was so delighted to see the realization of all his struggles, this con-
firmation of the plan he had successfully began twenty-four years before,
that he died of joy in the 57th year of his age, and fell a victim to the
danger of telling truth to power, under whatever circumstances of provoca-
tion.— Hail and farewell to him.

I had a great regard for him, and was very sorry, so I wrote his epitaph
out of regard to his memory, but before he died I am happy to say he had
completed his remarks on the cartoon exhibition, as well as some valuable
observations on fresco and design, which shall appear now or hereafter, as it
suits.

Epitaph.

Here lies the body of

HENRY ARDOR,

An English Historical Painter,

Who died in the midst of a desperate struggle to make Sovereign,

Legislature and People do their duty to the higher walks of design.

" active and nervous was his gait,

And his whole body breathed intelligence."

Wordsworth.

This little romantic history of Henry Ardor was absolutely necessary be-
fore proceeding to lay before your readers his remarks on the cartoon exhi-
bition— 1st. As to the degree of hope cartoons are justified in generating ;
2nd. As to the degree of merit the present exhibition exhibits ; 3rd. As to
the question of oil or fresco for the houses ; 4th. As to what is the style to
be chosen either in fresco or oil, and 5th. On the danger of delaying much
longer a decided plan of decoration.

1st. As to merit : —

Could the Germans at such a sudden call for specimens of colour, and
light, and shadow, and surface, have answered as we have answered this ;
the one is no more unjust than the other— the Germans know no more of
colour, and light, and shadow-, and handling, than the English w ere sup-
posed to know ot form : could the Germans have answered the call of colour
as the English have answered this ? — I reply in a voice of thunder,2 No ! nor
any other nation on earth ! This, then, is a glory, in spite of the solemn in-
anities of a timid press!— this is a glory you have achieved, young men. by
your own innate bottom. Tire Rout of Comus (63) ; Alfred in the Camp : the
Death of Lear ; St. Augustine ; the Skirmish of the Picts ; the Plague (138) ;
the Caractacus (84) ; the Una and Satyrs (10) ; the Constance ; the First Jury ;
Alfred and the Witan; the Curse (33) : and Edward & John (118) entering
London, through Southampton ; would honour any school in any cartoon
contest, in any city in Europe : yet cartoons are a delusive fascination, hardly
any hopes raised on cartoons alone have answered expectation ; for the practice
of the brush is so different from the port crayon, that it may almost be
taken as an axiom, that the more attractive the cartoon the less attractive
will be the fresco; and I have never found any pupil who made hard over-

- Very characteristic of Ardor.)

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[August,

wrought cartoons, ever display with the brush the most distant symptom of
nature, truth, or imitation ; the most ridiculous expectations have always
been excited, the most unbounded anticipations always put forth. Well, the
picture was begun, the hand felt awkward, the colour was muddy, the
touch feeble, the effect flat, the power of drawing even became poor, till it
could scarcely be credited the work was by the same hand, as the promising
cartoon. The artist was entirely justified, when looking at a laboured car-
toon of Cammucini, the labour of years, when he said, " And after all this
trouble comes a had picture," The cause principally of this incongruity, is
the error of modern Europe, in making cartoons a means and nut an end,
like the ancien's. The system of overwrought niggle is Ger.nan and modern
Italian ; the cartoons of the school of Athens is the thing— indeed Raphael
was but twelve years in the Vatican, if six had been occupied with one car-
toon, how many frescos would he have done ? the native spirit of tbe British
school will prevent this waste of time, and their common sense will also pre-
vent their making cartoons an end instead of a means, and if they thus con-
sider them under this head, there will be no danger of any injury accruing to
their power of pencil.

The landing of Caesar, No. 64, is a head prize, and in my opinion most
unjustly — C'resar is paltry in character, stature, and expression— certainly not
the Caesar of Cicero, Suetonius, Sallust and Bacon ; he looks like a Centurion
engaged in a squabble. It would be impossible to conceive he was meant to
be a great general, the " prtrstns ilii-us," watching the landing of an army ;
there is no army, there are a few boats in the sight, without order or plan,
naval or military! — Who is a furious little ancient Briton darting his spear
at ?— Why is another pulling down in a fury tbe rocking horse he rides ? —
Why is one Roman soldier scrambling up and another down V— What is the
meaning oS all the scramble ?— What authority is there that all the Britons
had short arms, short bodies, and bandy legs?— Had they not got knee
pans? was not the inner ankle higher than the outer in the ancient Bri-
tons?—There is no evidence of a clear comprehension of story, no nature
in character, no dignity in action, no drawing, no knowledge of structure,
no beaoty, no grace, great dash of contl, great power of effect, great impu-
dence of execution, hut no mastery of form ; infinitely inferior to 63, close
to its side, and altogether an unaccountable specimen of the system of La
Roche's school— the costume school of La Roche — for, of the naked, it is
evident, neither master or pupil know much. 1 am quite astonished, and
respectfully enter my humble proiest against such an honour bestowed, to
the injury and insult of the British school. It is perfect infatuation, and is
evidence beyond controversy of the absolute necessity of professors being
settled at the Universities, to prevent men of fashion making such decisions.
If the general proportions of the human form had been explained at col-
lege, it would have been impossible for any men of station to have made
such a mistake.

Firs: Trial by Jury (105)— A fine cartoon, composed with ability, but not
drawn equal to Alfred and the Danes. Alfred and the Danes, as a work of
composition, power, and expression, is admirable, and was fully entitled to
one of the highest prizes. No. 128, the Fight for tbe Beacon, is an admirable,
a daring, masterly, powerful, ill-drawn, vig reus group ; the student will do
greater things — but this stamps hirn as a man of genius. St. Augustine
(100) is a beautiful cartoon, adapted for fresco. Una and Satyrs (10) is as fine
a specimen of correct drawing as any school could produce in the world ;
Una wants beauty of feature and swelling of hip, to touch our hearts. 78.
Boadicea haranguing the Iceni, is a beautiful evidence of extraordinary
power of handling. 104, Alfred submitting his Code of Laws, is weak in
power of drawing, but an excellent cartoon. Caractacus (84) is a very fine
work, largely drawn, a little approaching to manner: how superior in dignity
tu Cesar! how poetically treated is Caractacus! there are symptoms of a
feeling for colour in the head and sky ; but I do not anticipate much power
of painting ; there is no look of touch in the chalk, and occasional feebleness
in the drawing — still it is a grand work. 82, A Skirmish between tbe Ficts
and Romans, is a magnificent work of art — full of vigour without exaggera-
tion, and power without violence. Think of what cartoons have carried off
prizes from this! It is painful. 135, is a fine specimen of pictorial ma-
nagement in a cartoon. 138 is by a boy of 16, and a fine instance of expres-
sion, though the convulsive man is overdone. The Death of Lear (26), is a
noble work, finely composed ; and not overdone in breadth and style.

How easy it is to see the cartoons of painters. I would divide such works
into the cartoons of those who know how to paint — cartoons of those who
give promise of painting, and cartoons of those who will never paint at all.
I fear there are a great many here of the latter character. These are, I
think, all the principal cartoons. Yet there is one of Constance on the
ground (27). a very fine work, though a little hard — still it is finely correct in
drawing and costume— everything is distant, yet in keeping, nothing slurred
yet nothing obtrusive ; it announces a correct eye, nature, composition, and
drawing •, it has no prize • how could they prefer Eleanor to this, or Lear,
or Alfred in the camp of the Danes, or a skirmish with the Picts, or half-a-
dozen others. Really the judges had no difficult task, the gradation of merit
is palpable, and surely if the artists had made a respectful stand, many things
might have been prevented, which must give the judges pain now. The great
error was, coming to any decision before the public had been admitted ; this
was the practice of Creeks and Romans, viz.. always to admit the people
before deciding on works of art ; had this been done, the pupil of La Roche,
amiable as he is, would never have had a first prize, so strongly would the
public feeling have been expressed: — in future, it is the safest plan, unless
any portion of the judges have a predilection for a particular cartoon, and
fear the public, then, it bad always better be done w ith closed doors. Though
the country is convinced tbe names of the judges were a guarantee for honor
and integrity, yet they have all the habits of society, so much is done in a
pleasant party, so beautiful is the influence of women, such are the conces-
sions due to breeding, that there is no hope of absolute justice unless you
admit the people — their voice is the voice within, and alter their decision from
impulse, politeness is of no avail. 1 would therefore earnestly recommend 'n
future this to be done, to silence all cant.

The object of the wealthy is amusement ; nothing contributes so much to
relieve ennui as novelty ; and nothing can be newer than a young man they
never heard of, producing a work they never saw, or a subject they never
ii before. Tins is the bane of English society, no youth is ever
suffered to mature the talent he displays, by continued kindness ; but, the
wonder of one season, he becomes the bore of the next, and his mind is tor-
tured and his heart lacerated, at the successive discovery that all the praise
bestowed on his works had been for years bestowed upon others who had
disappeared, and would be bestowed on those with equal sincerity who had
not yet made their appearance; artist or poet, admiral or general. beauty
or deformity, all contribute their share in the wonders of the season, which
lasts about three months. Whilst this pernicious system is confined to the
patronage cf private circlet, it is well enough, for all share the evil mid the
good; but carried into a great system qf puilic potnmage, its effect will be
deadly in the extreme : if we are to have a succession of wonders, first in
cartoons then in carving— one year in glass and the nest in fresco, how tar
shall we be fit to decorate when the bouses are ready ?— we shall not have
advanced one ]ot, and be as much at a loss five years hence, as we should be
now, if Barry was to announce the walls are fit for decoration. When Cor-
nelius was here, he said, " Now is not too early to begin the cartoon;
years are past, and no plan is defined ; we are trying for genius, as we
were then, and as we shall be to the last hour, six years hence. With these
tendencies, the following hints may not be useless. Take care you do no*
waste yourself with experiments, and be glad to get a cheap decorator after
all. Take care you do not pursue the discovery of new genius with such
keenness, as to fix on a new boy of 16, the last year. Take care, from a
desire to give every body B chance, the decoration be not a series of thoughts
without basis or connexion. Try no more experiments to prove the incapa-
city ot the British, for every trial will prove they have greater claims to em-
ployment than you wish to see. Fix on a plan for decoration as early as
possible, and let each individual work, fresco or oil, be but a part of the
general development. That the upper classes are sincere there can be no
doubt, only the government must not let their delightful and volatile habits
intrude on the solemnity and dignity of a plan, which is meant to honour
the legislature, the people and the sovereign, and develop to its full extent
the hidden and bursting genius of the country.

With respect to '.lie selection of fresco or oil, fresco beyond all question
is to be selected for architectural decoration, provided the continental prin-
ciple of superior and subordinates be adopted ; but not else, if tbe Com-
mission wish the country to be saved from disgrace. The same system wh.ili

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

277

ensured the victory of Waterloo, the successful termination of St. Paul's,
and will ensure the successful completion of the Houses, viz. a general and
(.'liters, an architect and pupils, must he adopted if fresco be chosen: the
absurdity of gratifying the democratic independence of British artists, where
every one thinks himself able to guide, is ridiculous ; all will be confusion-
lime, mortar, splash, cut, scramble and failure. I will venture to say the
young mea do not desire it, and no young men can be more easily led, if their
affections are touched, than the British. They have now been fairly brought
out. and I hope they will not be deserted ; but I advise them, if they have
any sub-employment which gives them bread, not to neglect it if they have
mothers to maintain, sisters to protect, or relations to help ; let them paint
quietly what they are wanted to do. so as not to depend on the caprices of
governments, keep their independence by honest means, and to remember
they have shown more talent than was expected, though not by me, and more
than was desired by many who longed for their failure.

Now as to the style of design for the walls; must it be in the perfection of
art and reality, or must it be the art which was extant when Gothic archi-
tecture began ? After the Fall, shelter was early as much a necessity as food,
hence arose huts and columns, roofs and houses; then leisure and peace
generat?d ornament, and 'hence arose perfect architecture and its orders.
Architecture therefore preceded art, and must have been in a high state,
when art was in infancy ; but it does not follow that art in infancy is more
in character with architecture in perfection, because from causes over which
it had no controul. it was in infancy when architecture was perfect! The
association may be powerful, but at this time of day, when art in perfect
state has been discovered, the association may be rendered as infallible,
by uniting perfect art and perfect architecture, as it is now strong in its im-
perfection. No man will assert the British people were not as handsome
when Westminster Hall was built as now ; — no one will assert they walked
on tip toes, as they were painted, or stared as they were painted, or looked
as flat as they were painted at the time ; — no man will assert that light and
shadow were not as powerful thenasnow — that colour was not as brilliant,
and forms not as well knit, and if these things are represented on Gothic
buildings the reverse, it was not on principle, but ignorance ; what absurdity
then to go back to the ignorance as if it were principle, instead of boldly
breaking the association by making common sense the guide, and giving us
Britons as we know Britons were, because if Britons were such poor crea-
tures as they were painted, neither Westminster Hall or Westminster Abbey
would ever have been built, conceived or finished.

It may be said there is a limit — there is ; the florid vulgarity of Rubens
would be as unfit as the starved impotence of Cimabue. The cartoons of
Raphael appear to me to he the medium, not inconsistent with colour,
or light and shadow, form or expression, nature or idea ; and to this style I
earnestly hope the artist will look, independent as it is of the whiskered fe-
rocity of the German, the theatrical pedantry of the French, or the careless
neglects of the portrait English.

With the power of drawing, visible in this exhibition of cartoons, nothing
need be feared ; and the great superiority of the British school in construc-
tion and form, to the French school, as exhibited in the pupil of La Roche,
is a singular feature. La Roche's pupil was brought over by a noble lord to
floor the school, and the school has floored him ; the reason is. the British
begin by the skeleton and construction, all over the country, and if 'hey con-
t'nue, no school on earth will surpass them ; and there is no knowing to what
extent they will go, whdst the French, (Ingres and La Roche.) do not investi-
gate construction till boyshave got a relish for the brush, and then, anatomy
and construction are tedious things! Great honour is due to the academy
school, for all I praise are students, and if the present keeper docs not permit
himself to be Germanized, every excellence may be expected still. There is
one affectation, which must not be mistaken for a beauty— the competitors,
who have been abroad, make a black line round their figures ; before tracing
for the wall this may be well, but the absurdity of doing such a horror, to
show you know it is to be done, is contemplibl and pedantic. God keep the
British students till the eleventh hour from such a detestable obstruction to
rotundity. The desire people of fashion hive for what is new, is a danger to
be guarded against by the Commission ; the chances are, if the plan of de-
sign be not soon settled, and the artists set properly to work, when the walls
are ready, the whole may fall into the hands of young men, for the sake of

giving them a chance, as it is said, and the whole thing become a ridicule
from the most generous feelings. It cannot be too often repeated, that the ca-
prices ot the cliques of fashion, who have regularly, with the kindest inten-
tions, flattered and entrapped, deserted and ruined, a succession of generous
youths, who believed all they were told, till poverty undeceived them, should
not be permitted to gain ground, in the dignity of public patronage,
for nothing will be the result, but crude experiments without hope, and
futile consequences without genius ; the government finding the public money
wasted in vain, will become hopeless of raising art, or improving the people,
and that honourable memhers may be no longer annoyed, will hurry the
affair into the hands of some hasty decorator, who glad of a job will do it
cheap, and render Briton again the bye word of some future Winklemau, or
some future Do Bus, and ages will agon pass without such another moment.

Henry Ardor.

Here my dear friend left off: and I must add, what I am sure every reader
will agree to.— God keep us from such a misery. If I find any more papers
of my late dear friend, Mr. Editor. 1 will regularly forward them, and beg
to say I am.

Aroor's Execi tor.

P.S. I am quite sure if anything goes wrong in the commission, I shall
be honoured by a visit from Ardor's ghost, from which Heaven defend me.

FSOCE3DINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

March 21. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of the Blast Furnaces and of the Barrow used for filling
the Charges of Mine and Vot:e into them, at the Butterley Iron-Works, Der-
byshire." By S. C. Kreeft, Grad. Inst. C. E.

The three smelting furnaces described in this communication are situated
at Butterley, in Derbyshire ; and three others, belonging to the same pro-
prietors, exist at Codnor Park Forge, about 2\ miles distant, where then-
produce is converted into malleable iron.

In the internal form or dimensions of these furnaces there is not any pe-
culiarity; the diameter over the hearth is 4 feet, over the boshes 15 feet,
and at the charging-plate 8 feet — the total height being 45 feet.

The stacks, however, differ from the ordinary form in their external con-
struction. The base of each is 40 feet square, battering inwards at an angle
of 71° (3 inches to 1 foot) ; the quoin-stones and course work being laid at
right-angles to the battering line, or at angle of 16° with the horizon. In-
stead of the usual semicircular arches over the tuyeres, pointed Egyptian
arches are substituted, and an open vertical joint or separation in the ma-
sonry is left from the apex of the arch up to the top of the stack on all
the four sides. This is done for the purpose of obviating the evils generally
arising from the expansion and contraction of the stack in heating and
cooling, from which the keystone of the semicircular arch usually falls, and
the work cracks all around. With the pointed arch, the vertical joint in
the masonry merely opens from the heat, and in contracting resumes its
former position, without any injury to the other joints of the masonry or
deranging any of the archstones. The stacks are confined in the usual
manner by wrought-iron braces, 2 inches diameter, built into the walls, with
washer-plates and cotters at the extremities.

The mode of filling or supplying the materials into the furnace is particu-
larly described : it is by means of a circular barrow of wrought iron, running
on four wheels, the shafts by which it is guided, being so arranged as to
form a steel-yard balance for weighing the contents of the barrow j the
bottom is conical, and is capable of being raised or lowered by a rack and
pinion, which is worked by a rod placed between the shafts, so that when
the workman has pushed the barrow over the furnace-mouth, he can, by
turning a handle, lower the conical bottom and distribute the materials
equally around the interior periphery of the furnace. This regularity in
depositing the materials is of importance to the good working of a furnace,
and would alone render the barrow an improvement on the ordinary mode of
filling, but it is also found to be more economical in every respect.
The charge for good forge pig-iron is —

Coal 9 cwt.

Argillaceous iron ore from the coal measures .. KIJ „
Calcareous ore from the Peak of Derbyshire . . 2 „

Limestone . . . . . . . . . . 3 ,,

Four and a quarter charges produce 1 ton of iron, or 38 cwt. of coal to 1
ton of iron.

The average produce of each furnace is from 90 tans to 120 tons per
week.

278

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

The average results of yield of tl

e furnaces may be taken thus

—

For the Years . . . . *

Calcined mine used

Average mine used per ton of iron

Average limestone per ton of iron

Average quantity of coals per ton "1
of iron, No. of charges 5'26, or J
Coal to blast engine

„ to heating blast

„ to calcine mine

Tons .. ..

Quantity of metal made

1

1839.

1840.

Tons. cwt. qr.
18,484 7 3

Tons.

19,521

676

cwt. qr.
19 2
16 0

2-76 0 0

266

0 0

6-794 15 3

6694

0 1

•99 0 0

•88

0 0

Tons. Tons. cwt.
2-37 = 2 7

•45 = 0 9
•25 = 0 5
•40 = 0 8

Tons.

0
0
0

cwt.
4

9

347 or 3 9

3

6

6,822 5 0

7,630

3

Three of the furnaces are blown with air, heated to about 680° Fahren-
heit.

The engine has a blowing cylinder of 80 inches diameter, with 8-feet
stroke, discharging 558 cubic feet of atmospheric air at each stroke, under a
pressure of 3 lb. per square inch, or about 7800 cubic feet per minute ; the
diameters of the nozzles of the blast-pipes vary from 2$ to 3 inches, ac-
cording to circumstances.

The principal dimensions of the furnaces are given, and the communica-
tion is illustrated by two drawings of the furnace and the barrow, in plan
and elevation, with details of construction.

Automaton Balance for Weighing Coin.

" Description of the Automaton Balance for weighing Coins, irwenied by
William. Cotton, Esq., Governor of the Dank of England." By Thomas
Oldham, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The paper first gives a brief notice of a portion of the bullion transactions
of the Bank of England, in order to explain the difficulties which led to the
invention of the machine. The new coinage first arrives at the Bank from
the 'lint in what are called "joumies," a single journey weighing 151b.,
and containing 701 sovereigns. The officers of the Mint are allowed 12
grains plus in every pound-weight of metal, for the irregularities incidental
to working it into coin, but they usually work to within half that allowance,
wl::ch is technically called " the remedy."

There have been coined for the Bank lately 8,000,000 of sovereigns, and
the greatest variation from the weight allowed was only 60 grains, or one-
Ihirf of the remedy : each sovereign should contain a portion of this remedy,
tn allow for wear in public use, and this extraordinary subdivision of the
j'.etal is invariably obtained. The usual delivery of new coinage at the Bank
contains 100 joumies, which is counted by weight only — that is, 200 snve-
r( igns are counted into one scale, and the rest of the delivery is weighed in
parcels which balance these 200, and this is all the counting the new coinage
receives. The regularity and precision of the manipulations at the Mint
obviate the necessity of any further examination, either at regards the gross
amount or the weight of an individual piece.

When the currency returns to the Bank from the public it becomes neces-
sary to ascertain if it has been reduced below the standard weight, and this
imposes an arduous duty on the officers of the Bank. The amount of gold
paid daily over the Bank-counter varies considerably, but 30,000 may be
taken as a rough average, and hence arises a tedious, irksome, and expensive
process in weighing so large a number of pieces singly and in quick succes-
sion, separating, at the same time, the light from the standard coin.

The mode of weighing coins by hand requires much dexterity, practice,
and attention ; but, in spite of all these, errors were inevitable, and it was
to obviate these that the machine was invented by Mr. Cotton, the Governor
of the Bank of England : it was constructed from his plans, by Mr. Napier,
(of York Road, Lambeth,) and is thus described : — Its exterior presents a
plain brass case, with a small hopper tube on the top plate, about 4J inches
from which there is an opening in the top plate. In this opening is seen a
platform in the form of a quadrant. This platform is suspended above one
end of the beam, and is to receive the coin to be weighed. On one side of
the case is a till — to receive the sovereigns as they are weighed— partitioned
so that one division is left for standard coin, and the other for such as are
light. There is a sliding door to each division, for removing the coins at
pleasure. The machine may be worked like a clock, with a weight, or by
any simple application of power.

Its visible action is as follows : — The hopper being filled with gold, upon
setting the machine in motion, it immediately places a sovereign on the little
platfoim which serves, as already stated, in place of a scale-pan, and if it is
of standard weight, a small tongue comes rapidly forward and pushes the
sovereign into that side of the till allotted to such coin ; if light, another,
and similar tongue to the first, pushes the sovereign into the other side of
the till. The action of these tongues is at right angles to each other.
While a sovereign is being weighed, a succeeding one is on its way from the
hopper to the platform, and the moment the preceding sovereign is disposed
of, according to its value, another is placed in its stead. To keep the hopper
supplied with gold, and remove it from the till as it is filled, is all the at-
tendance necessary.

The more minute parts of the mechanical arrangement of the machine,
such as the fulcrum, the forceps, &&, are described in detail, and the fol-
lowing statement by Mr. Miller is given, as a comparison with the old
method of weighing : — " With the bullion-scales 4000 may be stated as the
number a person can weigh in six hours. As the sovereigns now tendered
at the Bank-counter are most of them new, the scale dips quickly in weigh-
ing, and one person can weigh 5000 in six hours ; but a short time ago,
before the issue of the new coinage, the same person could only weigh 3000,
as it took a longer time for the scales to indicate. The bullion-scales cannot
indicate nearer than -j-^ths of a grain at the above rate. The machine is
perfectly free from the sources of error to which the scales are subject, and
weighs as quickly, whether sovereigns are new and of full weight, or old and
doubtful; it can weigh 10,000 in six hours, and divide coin varying only
^th of a grain."

The paper is illustrated by two drawings of the internal arrangement of
the machine, and a model showing the action of the tongues and platform.

Remarks. — Mr. Oldham exhibited the automaton balance at work weighing
coin ; and after describing, with the aid of a diagram and model, the action
of some of the more delicate parts of the machine, he observed that in
seeking to obtain extraordinary performances by machinery, mechanical pro-
priety of construction was too often overlooked, and premature deterioration
in the action of many parts was the result. The automaton balance was
peculiarly worthy of notice from the judgment exercised in its relative pro-
portions, as was proved by the fact that, after being at work for several
months, it had become more delicate in detecting slight variations between
standard and light coin than when it was first constructed. Mr. Cotton's
object in this invention should be well understood. Public convenience de-
manded great accuracy in weighing the currency; by the ordinary mode of
weighing gold with the bullion scales — although it was due to the bank-
tellers to state, that they gave the utmost attention to their monotonous
duty — it was nearly impossible to guard against the various difficulties de-
tailed in the paper.' The injury sustained by the optic nerve, from constantly
watching the indicator of the scales, was a serious inconvenience to the ope-
rative, which, coupled with the incidental sources of error referred to, cre-
ated even greater absence of delicacy than the paper stated. Errors to the
amount of one-third or even half a grain were not unfrequent. By the
" automaton balance," the number weighed in a given time was increased,
and undeviating accuracy obtained. The delicacy of the instrument was
such, that from 30 to 35 coins per minute could be passed through the
machine, detecting a difference of only ^ of a grain. It should be men-
tioned that much greater delicacy could be accomplished, that is, to the
7 kydth of a grain, but not at the same rate ; because it would be understood
that a slow action of the beam was necessary for very small variations, and
that must regulate the speed of working ; but such delicacy was beyond all
useful purposes in those transactions which it was intended to improve.

Mr. Cotton said that his attention had been attracted to the point by the
inconveniences to which the "tellers" were subjected in weighing gold for
the public : with balances so delicately constructed as the bullion scales, the
agitation of the air by the sudden opening of a door, or even by the breath-
ing of those around, sufficed to cause errors. It was possible, also, by pres-
sing the fulcrum against the bridle, to produce such a degree of friction as
materially to interfere with accuracy ; and the tellers confessed, that after
weighing two or three thousacd coins the sight was injured, and they no
longer observed with the same degree of correctness. He therefore ima-
gined that a machine might be contrived, which being defended from ex-
ternal influence, might weigh coins as fast as by hand, and within one-fourth
of a grain; but he certainly did not contemplate attaining such perfection
as the machine now possessed. His first idea was, that the light coins
should be taken off" by a forceps, and that those of average weight should be
pushed off by the succeeding ones ; but it was found, that the slightest in-
accuracy in the milled edges sufficed to give them a wrong direction : there-
fore, when he made the first rough sketch, and consulted with his friend,
the late Mr. Ewart, he recommended that Mr. Napier, of York Road, Lam-
beth, should be employed to make the machine, and to him was due the
sugeestion of the two alternately advancing tongues, as well as several other
arrangements of the machinery,' which he had so successfully constructed.
When the first machine was tried, out of 1000 sovereigns, 160 were found
to be light. Thev were given to a teller to be verified, and he returned
several of them as being of the proper weight ; but upon again weighing
them more carefully, the result given by the machine was found to be correct.
As an instance of how many circumstances should be taken into consideration
in delicate machines, he might mention that, after being used for a time, the
machine varied in its results, and on examination it was discovered that the

1843.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

270

end of the lever, which traversed the pendant, had become magnetic, and
thus atl'ected the balance. An ivory end was substituted, and ever since
that period its accuracy had been maintained.

Mr. W. Miller observed, that the efficiency of any scales must be deter-
mined, in a great degree, by the fineness of the edge of the fulcrum of the
beam ; and it would be easily imagined that the friction, to which the edge
in a pair of bullion scales was'subjected whilst weighing five or six thousand
sovereigns per day, must soon impair its delicacy, and consequently the effi-
ciency of the whole apparatus : for, whether the sovereigns were light or
heavy, the beam must turn upon its fulcrum. Such was not the case with
Mr. Cotton's machine: its beam did not act at all, unless a light sovereign
was placed upon the platform; so that among 1000 sovereigns, if only 100
were light, the beam of (lie machine would only move 100 times, while that
of the ordinary scales would oscillate 100 times. An immense advantage
was thus given to the machine in point of durability. All weighing was but
an approach to correctness, and the nearest point to which the best kind of
common scales were sensible, might be stated as -^ of a grain, and one-
fourth of a grain would hardly cover their errors ; but the machine was
sensible to 6saa of a grain, and -^ would fully cover its errors, which were
not a twentieth part so numerous as those of the scales.

Woollen Factory for Turkey.

Mr. Fairbairn exhibited a model, showing the plans, sections, and archi-
tectural elevation of a Woollen Factory, to be constructed of cast and
wrought iron, near the town of Izmet (Turkey), for the Sublime Porte.

Mr. Fairbairn said that, in 1839, he visited Constantinople under the in-
structions of the late Sultan Mahomed, and reported upon nearly all the
government works. Their extension was checked by the death of that
prince, but the present Sultan was disposed to carry them into effect, and
by his orders Mr. Ohanes Dadian had arrived in England, in furtherance
of the plans for ameliorating the state of the Turkish community by intro-
ducing useful arts and manufactures, in which he was aided by his Excel-
lency Ali Effendi, the ambassador to the court of England, and the consul-
general, Mr. Edward Zohrab. Almost all the houses, and many of the
public buildings, in Turkey, being constructed of timber, destructive
fires were frequent. In many parts of the country the common building
materials were expensive ; iron had therefore been resorted to for construc-
tion, and Mr. Fairbairn had already sent over an iron house for a corn-mill,
50 feet long, 25 feet wide, of three stories in height, and with an iron roof.
It was finished in 1840, and erected at Constantinople in the succeeding
year. The success of this attempt induced a second order, which was for
an extensive woollen factory, to be composed entirely of cast iron plates,
the interior being formed throughout of brick arches, upon cast-iron columns
and bearers, with an iron roof. He then described in detail the construction
of the different parts of the building, and the machinery, which would be
driven by a fall of water of 25 feet in height, of the computed average
power of 180 horses. Several ingenious devices were described for pre-
venting any objectionable effects from the high conducting power of the
metal. The piers between the windows were hollow, so as to admit a cur-
rent of air through during the hot season ; and the iron roofs were so ar-
ranged as to have beneath them a coating of plaster, to serve as a non-con-
ducting substance. The two principal rooms were described to be 272 feet
long, 40 feet wide, and 20 feet high ; and 280 feet long, 20 feet wide, and
20 feet high : with a great number of other rooms, for the several pro-
cesses in the manufacture of coarse woollen cloths, for the counting-houses
and departments of the directors, and for the reception of the sultan, &e.
The area of the inclosed surface, including the court-yard and buildings, was
nearly 3 acres, or 110,621 square feet.

The floor surface in the basement rooms = 16,480 square feet. Ditto in
the upper rooms = 54,616 square feet.

March 28. — The Presidekt in the Chair.
Cast and Malleable Iron.

" Experiment!: upon Cast and Malleable Iron, at the Milton Iron Works,
Yorkshire, in February, 1843." By David Mushet, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The blast furnaces at Milton had been for a long period worked with
heated air, generally under a pressure of 3 lb. per square inch, and each with
two nozzles on the blast-pipes of 2\ inches and 2-^ inches in diameter.
The apparatus requiring to be renewed, a quantity of iron was made by
cold-blast, which, as the materials or other circumstances of manufacture
were not in any way changed, offered an opportunity of testing the relative
strength of the two 6orts of iron, of which Messrs. Graham and Co., the
proprietors, took advantage, and secured the assistance of Mr. Mushet to
conduct the experiments. A strong wooden frame was erected, upon which
were fixed iron supports at 4 feet 6 inches apart, for sustaining the bars to
be proved. A bar of iron planed perfectly true, with a dove-tailed groove
and a graduated brass scale in it, was used for ascertaining the deflection.
The bars to be experimented upon were all cast alike, 5 feet long and 1 inch
square, and cooled with equal precaution. The results are given iu a series
of tables, of which the following are the average results : —

No. of
Experi-
ments.

Quality of Iron.

Spe-
cific
Gra-
vity.

Break-
ing
weight
in lb.

De-
flection
in

inches.

Im-
pact.

[""No. 4. Cold-blast iron rc-T

1

1

12

J melted in the cupola, 1
1 mottled or approaching |

TSame iron re-melted inT

7-153

442

•9418

427

"

12

J the cupola with an in- 1
1 creased quantity of coke |
[_ produced gray iron .J

7-054

435

1-1916

519

3

12

/No. 3. Hot-blast iron re-\
\ melted in the cupola . J
T Nos. 3 and 4. Hot-blast \

7-012

520

l-5i2

782

4

13

\ iron re-melted in an air- >
[ furnace with coal . . J

7-107

6101

1-532

940

5

10

f No. 1. Hot-blast iron cast!
\ from the blast furnace. J

7012

430

1-56

686

6

12

No. 3. Ditto ditto . .

7-040

439

1-43

630

The result of these tables are examined, and among the deductions
drawn from them are — that the Milton cold-blast iron is rather deficient in
strength ; that the hot-blast iron is stronger than cold-blast, when re-melted
in a cupola with coke ; that hot-blast iron from the furnace is equal in
strength to the average of the two sets of specimens of cold-blast re-melted
in the cupola; that the No. 3 iron from the blast furnace is not stronger
than No. 1 quality. The general results show, not only the superiority of
the Milton hot-blast iron over that made by cold-blast, at the same furnaces,
but over that of a very large number of works, as shown by the following
comparative table taken from Mr. Fairbairn's report in 1838 : —

lb.
No. 3
„ 3

Milton, hot-blast iron,
Ditto, hot-blast
Ponkey, cold-blast

Bute, ditto

Windmill End, ditto

Air furnace
Cupola

Old Park,

ditto

Lowmoor,

ditto

Buffery,

ditto

Brimbo,

ditto

Oldberry,

ditto

Adelphi,

ditto

Blaina,

ditto

Devon,

ditto

Frood,

ditto

Milton,

ditto

Elsecar,

ditto

610}

520

581

491

489

485|

472

463

459

455

449

448

448

447

4384

427

The waste in re-melting the hot-blast iron was under 2 per cent.

There was charged in the cupola, No. 3, pig-iron
Pigs and scraps obtained ....

Cwt. qrs. lb.
20 1 0
19 3 14

The results of the experiments upon malleable iron made from hot-blast
pig, and plate, show extreme ductility, when subjected to blows of a ham-
mer 24 lb. weight, of which one example will suffice. A bolt 2} inches di-
ameter, puddled from refined metal, notched half round to the depth of
one-eighth of an inch, required 120 blows to break it.

Remarks. — Mr. Cottam remarked, that the paper would have been more
satisfactory, if it had stated more particularly the progressive additions of
the weights, the intervals of loading, and the length of the periods during
which the bars remained loaded. He had found that when a beam was near
the point of fracture, if the weights were added quickly, it would apparently
bear more, than if a certain time was suffered to elapse between their appli-
cation. His practice in experimenting was to make small additions of
weight, at given intervals, which might be increased in length toward the
point of fracture; more correct results were thus obtained.

Mr. Lowe believed, that in making iron, the main consideration after se-
lecting good materials, was to proportion them according to the hygrometiic
state of the atmosphere. It was well known that better iron was made in
frosty weather than in damp warm weather; and he was convinced that the
more air was deprived of its moisture, the better would be the effect.

Mr. Paikes observed, that the experiments on the strength of the wrought-
iron bars could scarcely be received as conclusive, as the power employed
had been variable and ill-defined. If a given weight had beeu allowed to
drop from a certain height, and the incisions in the bars had beeu made with

38

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precision by a machine, the power required to produce fracture could have
been easily calculated, as regarded the impact.

Mr. Farey observed, that notwithstanding the difference between the
results recorded in the paper, and those arrived at by Messrs. Fairbarin and
Hodgkinson, he was inclined to place confidence in them on account of
Mr. Mushet's known accuracy as an observer. He thought that the disre-
pute into which hot-blast iron had fallen was unmerited, that it was occa-
sioned by want of care, and the use of inferior materials in the manufacture.
He considered Mr. Neilson's invention a most important improvement in
nietallurgic operations, but it had been abused because, by its means, ores
which were formerly difficult of reduction, and therefore thrown aside, had
since been economically fused, without due regard to their chemical
constitution, and the metal produced was variable in quality and some-
times deficient in strength. Nevertheless, Mr. Mushet's experiments showed
that when proper care was exercised in the selection of the materials, and
in the working of the furnace, the Milton hot-blast iron, when re-melted
in the air-furnace, attained the high breaking weight of 610Albs., which
was greater than that of the best specimens of cold blast iron. Mr. Farey
then described at length the chemical combinations which occurred in the
blast furnace. The general result was, that the use of hot-blast accelerated
the process of separating the oxygen from the ore, and of replacing it by
carbon, rendering also the subsequent fusion more rapid and complete.
A great advantage was obtained by avoiding the cooling effect, which was
formerly produced by the introduction of a quantity of cold air under pres-
sure : the point of fusion was higher up in the furnace, and the quality of
the metal, when it fell into the hearth, was not injured by being blown
upon, as it was protected by the covering of liquid slag at a high tempera-
ture which descended upon it. The deoxydation and absorption of carbon
being facilitated, the metal contained a redundancy of carbon, notwithstand-
ing a less quantity of fuel was consumed. It was probable that the want of
strength sometimes observed might arise from the imperfect amalgamation of
the carbon with the metal, and this would account for the strength being
increased by re-melting, particularly in the air furnace, wherein the process
was more gradual thai in the cupola. This gradual process was not desirable
for cold-blast iron, in which the carbon was already well distributed; there-
fore in almost all foundries, the air furnaces had been replaced by cupolas,
as in the latter the iron was melted much more rapidly. When the use of
hot-blast was first proposed, it was supposed that it could not answer, be-
cause in all furnaces, better iron was generally made in the winter than in
the summer. This was a fallacy which ought not to have been entertained,
as it was well known that the good working arose from the dryness of the
air in the winter, on which account the water-regulators for the cold-blast
were generally abandoned, and large dry reservoirs, with or without floating
piston regulators, were erected in their stead.

Mr. Field corroborated Mr. Farey's statement of the iron, when re-melted
in an air furnace, becoming hard and brittle. He bad in consequence aban-
boned their use, and made even the heaviest castings from cupolas. He at-
tributed the deterioration of the iron to the slowness of the process of
melting in the air furnace. He had found the No. 1 hot-blast pig-iron too
rich and weak for general purposes ; the No. 3 generally possessed the
greatest strength.

Mr, Rcnnie, in answer to a question put by Mr. Farey, said, that
in his experiments, the transverse strength was 7T)0 lbs. ; and when
the bearings were 3 feet apart, the strength was H!I7 lbs., with speci-
mens of good quality.' He believed that in some experiments on iron made
with anthracite, published by Mr. Mushet in 1836, the cold-blast iron was
shown to be from 16 to 27 per cent, stronger than that made by the hot-
blast process. This might have arisen from peculiar circumstances, as Mr.
Crane, of Ynischedwyn, had shown him a pig of hot-blast iron, which had
resisted upwards of a hundred blows of a sledge-hammer, while the ordinary
cold-blast pigs were generally broken by about a dozen blows. From the
discrepancy shown by the various experiments, he was inclined to think that
the knowledge of the real effects of heated air, in reducing metallic ores,
was at present very limited.

Mr. W. Brunton said that the only place where iron had been made with
anthracite and cold-blast was at the Ystahfera works, South Wales; and the
report by Mr. Mushet, which had been alluded to, was upon the iron made
there. The black band iron-stone had recently been found at the Beaufort
iron-works, South Wales ; and as the furnaces were now blown with heated
air, a large quantity of good soft iron was produced. That mine had been
tried in the raw state, but the result had, he believed, been doubtful.

Mr. Davison submitted that the want of strength, which was complained
of in the hot-blast iron, might in some degree arise from the use of raw coal
instead of coke in the blast furnace, as the sulphur and other deleterious
matters, which were formerly got rid of in the process of coking, were now
introduced to the furnace, and probably combined with the iron.

Mr. Vignoles agreed with Mr. Lowe, that the hygrometric state of the
atmosphere bad much influence on the quality of the iron produced. It was
found in India that even with the rich haematite ores and charcoal, which
were solely used by the native workers of metal, good iron could not be
made when the air was charged with moisture; but that during the hot dry-
winds the best metal was produced.

» Phil. Trans. 1818, p. 133.

Mr. Carpmael said, that during a recent visit to the Ystalyfera iron-works,
he had tried some experiments on the strength of the iron then being made,
The bars were 1 inch square, placed upon bearings 4 feet 6 inches apart,
and were carefully and gradually weighted, the deflection being ascertained
by an apparatus for the purpose.

No. 1 specimen, loaded with 5SS lbs., deflected H inch, and sprung back
when unloaded without any permanent set. The weights were replaced,
and additions made up to 690 lbs., at which point it broke.

No. 2 specimen, with 660 lbs., deflected li inch; with 718 lbs. it deflected
1| inch, and broke with 742 lbs.

No. 3 specimen, with 578 lbs. deflected l-g, inch; with 634 lbs. it
deflected l-j% inch, and broke with 774 lbs.

At the Ynischedwyn works, where hot blast and anthracite were used for
smelting the ore, the pig iron exhibited greater strength than any Scotch
iron that he had ever seen. It appeared to him that, in the Scotch iron-
works, the object was to produce a large quantity of metal without due regard
to its quality.

Mr. Parkes remarked, with reference to the experiments upon wrought
iron, that the test by blows of a hammer was not sufficiently substantive to
be received as authority for the actual strength of iron : it frequently oc-
curred in practice that bar iron, which, when tried by breaking on an anvil,
exhibited brittleness after being forged by a smith, had proved tough and
good. Neither did he conceive that the capability of a beam to sustain a
given weight suspended from its centre was a proof of its fituess for resisting
impact, torsion, and other strains to which machinery was subjected. On
these grounds he did not receive the experiments either of Mr. Fairbarn or
Mr. Mushet as satisfactory, or as true indications of the absolute strength of
the iron. A mode of testing should be iutroduced, which would show
whether the improvements in making iron affected the quality of the metal
produced, or whether they were restricted to charges in the method of man-
ufacturing.

Mr. Farey remarked that, in Mr. Fairbaim's experiments, the deflection
had been carefully noted, and the power of resisting impact had been cal-
culated by multiplying the breaking weight in pounds into the ultimate
deflection in inches.

Mr. May regretted that, upon the subject of such importance as the manu-
facture of cast iron and its capabiUties, so little positive information was
recorded. The field for scientific inquiry was very extensive, and although
many men of high attainments had entered upon it, at present the results
were not satisfactory : this, he believed was only to he accounted for by the
fact, that the habits of mathematical investigation of the experimenters, had
led them to examine the theoretical rather than the practical part of the
subject. His experience of Scotch hot-blast iron, induced him to declare it
deficient in strength and tenacity, but it did not follow that all hot-blast
iron should be had; on the contrary, he believed the process to be a great
step in metallurgical science, from which important results would be ob-
tained; but it had unfortunately afforded an opportunity for working up
inferior materials, to the manifest detriment of the founder and the engi-
neer. If, however, at present such was the result, it was to be hoped that
tin* attention of manufacturers being directed to the point, an amelioration
would be speedily introduced, and to this the discussion by the members of
tbc institution might materially contribute, and thus a great benefit woidd
be conferred on the mechanical world.

Mr. Mackain objected to the condemnation of Scotch hot-blast iron, as he
had found much of it fit for general purposes, although it was not so strong
as that made with cold-blast.

Mr. Ransome corroborated Mr. May's opinion of Scotch iron. It was so
weak that the pigs frequently broke in unloading ; it was necessary to mix a
large quantity of old iron with it, in order to give the castings for machinery
the requisite amount of strength.

Mr. Nasmyth had used great quantities of Scotch iron, both for large and
small castings, and could not rely upon it for machinery : it was deficient in
strength, and the contraction of the metal in cooling was so great as to
cause frequent losses to the founders who employed it. Indeed he conceived
that nothing but the lowness of its price had caused it to be so extensivelj
used; yet, in his opinion, this reduced commercial value marked its infe-
riority for there must exist some good reason why hot-blast iron should only
sell for 45s. to 50s. per ton, when cold-blast iron cost 80s. or 90s. He had
for a long time used but little of it, and that only to mix with the harder
qualities of iron. He did not attach much faith to experiments tried upon
bars of such small dimensions, and merely by suspending weights to them.
lie was of opinion that the masses of iron should be of larger dimensions,
and that they should be tried under similar circumstances to those under
which they were intended to be used.

Mr. Davison said, that some years since, the framing for supporting one of
the large vats at Messrs. Truman and Co.'s brewery, weighing 100 tons
when full, had been cast o^cold-blast Welsh iron, and had stood well
to the present time ; but that of a precisely similar set of castings made from
Scotch iron, two girders had broken the first time the vat was filled.

Mr. Field stated that the high character which had been obtained by the
guns from the Carron Foundry was to be, in a great measure, attributed to
the care with which the iron employed was selected and mixed. A simple
method was in use there for ascertaining the comparative strength of dif-

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fcrent qualities of iron, and had been found perfectly satisfactory for
practical purposes. A wrought iron bar. 1 inch square, was bent into a
deeply indented serpentine or zig-zag figure, having three or four bends,
each end of the bar terminating in an eye. This was used as a pattern,
from which several serpentines were cast at each running of the blast
furnace ; they were suspended by the upper eye, and a scale being attached
to the lower one, weights were gradually added until the castings broke.
Such a figure was fractured with very little weight, and the method did not
afford any test of the actual strength of the metal; but it was simple, and as
the foundrymen could conduct the experiment, it enabled a correct opinion
to be formed of the comparative strength of the different kinds of iron
under trial, and to make the necessary mixture. The system was used in
his foundry whenever new kinds of iron were purchased, and he obtained
good results from it.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

June 26, 1843. — Mr. Britton gave an essay on the fine Anglo-Norman
Torch to Malmsbury Abbey Church, which was illustrated by several draw-
ings. He also referred to, and made incidental remarks on several other
Christian porches, comparing and contrasting them with the famed Grecian
and Roman Porticos of Pagan architecture. The subject afforded scope for
interesting criticism, and was well calculated for a large auditory of young
architects. We fully agree with our veteran antiquary in reprobating the
absurd and tasteless practice of copying and applying, or rather misapplying,
the portico of a Greek or Roman temple to a modern chapel, church,
theatre, and common street house, when perhaps no other part of the
building has a classical feature ; and certainly the whole has no analogy,
either in purpose, scenery, or association to ancient eastern edifices. It would
be as congruous and correct to place the counsel's, or bishop's, wig on the
sconce of the chimney-sweep or dustman ; on the contrary, the porch can
be applied with harmony and propriety to almost every variety of building —
from the church to the workhouse, from the palace to the cottage. Mr.
Britton exemplified this very forcibly, and justly, by referring to many diver-
sified examples in England, and also commented on the great varieties of
edifice which the monastic architects of the middle ages designed and
erected for the use of their contemporaries, and for the admiration of their
descendants. The following were particularly noticed : — those attached to
the cathedrals of Salisbury, Wells, Ely, Peterborough, Lincoln, Gloucester,
Hereford, &c. ; also to many in parish churches and chapels, particularly to
the unique and extraordinary double porch on the north side of Redcliffe
church, and to those of Taunton, Grantham, St. Mary's at Bury, Bishop's
Cleve, King's College chapel, &c. His illustrations and comments were,
however, more immediately directed to the north Porch of Malmsbury Abbey
church in Wiltshire, which he has partly illustrated and described iu his
" Architectural Antiquities, vols. I. and V., and also in his "Dictionary of the
Architecture of the Middle Ages." We quote part of the description of this
bold and highly adorned architectural appendage to a church, which must
have been originally, when in a perfect state, one of the finest and most im-
pressive Anglo-Norman edifices in the country.

" The door-way, with the whole of the porch, may be referred to and con-
sidered as constituting the finest specimen of Anglo-Norman architecture in
England. I believe it is unparalleled in arrangement, in elaborate sculp-
tured details, and in its whole design. A large receding archway, with a
series of eight mouldings, which extend from the base on one side to the
base on the opposite side, are all covered with sculptured enrichments of
varied design. Some of the patterns resemble those in Greek architec-
ture and on vases. They are scroll, diamond, and oval-shaped frames, in-
closing groups of human figures, animals, &c., intended to delineate passages
from the bible and the testament. A label, or hood moulding, with
serpent's heads at each extremity, encircle the arch. Within this archway is
a large square room, or vestibule, having a stone seat at each side, with
columns attached to the walls ; a series of arcades, two compartments of
bold alto-relievi, representing the twelve apostles, seated on two benches,
and two figures apparently flying over their heads. The ceiling was vaulted
and ribbed ; and, opening to the church there was a smaller doorway, with a
profusion of sculptured ornaments, and a basso-relievo of the Deity, or the
Saviour, with incensing angels on the lintel. On the right, or eastern side, of
this doorway was a piscina, and above the ceiling was a room, with a fire-
place, for a monk or porter, who had charge of the church."

July 10. — This evening was occupied by reading the Prize Essay, " Are
Synchronism and Uniformity of Style essential to Beauty and Propriety in
Architecture," by Mr. Chamberlain, for which the medal of the Institute
was awarded.

On Monday evening, the 21th July, the session closed, with a full at-
tendance of members and visitors. Mr. Donaldson read a paper on the
domestic architecture of the Belgian cities, illustrated by numerous draw-
ings, displaying the peculiarities of the street buildings of Flanders during
the middle ages, as compared with our own. The more general use of
stone and brick in the Belgian houses of this class forms one striking con-
trast with those of England in which timber was, with few exceptions, the
principal material.

Mr. Maugham explained Mr. Payne's patent process of saturating timber
with sulphate of lime for preserving it from dry rot.

Mr. Tite, V. P., who occupied the chair, closed the session with some
observations on the progress and prospects of the Institute, and on the
state of architecture as an art, on which he took occasion to make some
remarks on the present tendency to an abuse of the Gothic style.

ORNAMENTAL GLASS.

Charles Robert Avers, of John Street, Berkeley Square, architect, has ob-
tained a patent for improvements in ornamenting and colouring glass, earth-
enware, porcelain, and metals.— Patent dated July 23, 1S42. Specification
enrolled January 23, 1843. — If the surface of the glass, earthenware, &c, is
to be covered with a plain ground, it is first to be coated with some adhe-
sive substance, such as essence of lavender. A piece of net, or other thin
tissue, is then laid over the article, which is to be dusted over with the
colouring matter in the state of fine powder. The colouring matter, passing
through the holes of the tissue, attaches itself to the adhesive coating. The
tissue is then to be removed, and the article submitted to the action -of the
fire, taking care, in the case of metals, not to bring them to a red heat, as
the colour is more easily fixed thereon than on earthenware, porcelain, &c.
When the articles are to be ornamented with figures, &c, they are first
coated with the adhesive substance, and covered with net, or other tissue, as
before. Stencil plates, made of paper or any other convenient substance, in
which the figures have been cut out, are then laid above the tissue, and the
colours dusted on ; after which, without taking off the net, paper, Sfc, the
goods are subjected to the firing process. Another method of ornamenting
such goods, described by the patentee, consists in having the figures cut in
blocks similar to woodcuts, which are covered with turpentine varnish, and
impressed on the article to be ornamented, which is then dusted with the
colour or colours, and fixed as in ordinary cases. Claims — 1. The patentee
does not claim the application of colour to earthenware, &c, in a state of
powder, but its application in a state of powder with net or other tissue
intervening. 2. The application of stencil plates, of various figures, as
above described. 3. The impressing the figures or ornaments by means%f
blocks, and then dusting on the colour.

WESTMINSTER BRIDGE.

Letter from Mr. Barry to the Speaker, in answer to a Report of Messrs
Walker and Burges, upon the proposed alterations.

Sir — As Messrs. Walker and Burges have thought proper to print and
publish a Letter, addressed to you as Chairman of the Commissioners of
Westminster Bridge, relative to the suggestions I ventured to offer for the
improvement of that bridge, in a Report which I made to the Fine Arts
Commissioners, of the 22nd February last, I feel called upon to address to
you a few observation, for the information of the Board over which you
preside, chiefly with the view of removing several misconstructions which
that letter is calculated to occasion.

Westminster Bridge has long been considered extremely inconvenient, as
well as unsightly, and, from its proximity to the new Houses of Parliament,
is generally felt to have a most injurious effect upon the appearance of that
building. As a remedy for these defects, the main objects to be attained
are obviously to lower the road-way, to increase the water-way and head-
room under the arches, and to reduce the mass of the bridge to the greatest
practicable extent. In order to accomplish these objects in the most effec-
tual manner, it appears to me to be necessary to rebuild the bridge ; but as
the Commissioners were incurring a large outlay in securing and extending
the foundations. I recommended in my report above alluded to, that the re-
building should be confined to the superstructure.

Previously to noticing the several points of Messrs. Walker and Burges'
Letter, I would beg to observe, that the suggestions contained in my report
were offered merely as hints for the consideration of the Fine Arts Commis-
sioners, and not as mature opinions founded upon a careful practical investi-
gation with reference to execution, in which I stated most distinctly I did
not wish to be engaged. I presumed that if the Fine Arts Commissioners
deemed those suggestions worthy of attention, they would refer them to the
Commissioners of the bridge, by whom they would be duly considered, and,
if approved, carried into effect by their own oflicers.

I now proceed to notice the several observations of Messrs. Walker and
Burges upon the suggestions contained in my report. With reference to
those upon the relative properties of circular and pointed arches, and to the
authorities which they quote in depreciation of the pointed arch as applied
to bridge-building, I beg to state, that the hypothesis in which those au-
thorities are said to concur, namely, that a pointed arch requires a greater
pressure titan a circular arch at the crown, is at direct variance with the
opinion of Professor Moscley, of King's College, oue of the highest autho-
rities in such matters, who in a letter to me upon the subject states, " that a
pointed arch does not necessarily require a great pressure, or indeed any
pressure,' upon its crown, to prevent it from falling, and that the reasoning

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upon which an opposite conclusion is founded in Messrs. Walker and Burges'
report is erroneous." Both theory and practice confiim me in the opiniou
which I have advanced in my report, that a pointed arch requires less thick-
ness at the crown than is usually considered necessary for a circular arch.
As, however, it might possibly be inferred from the observations of Messrs.
Walker and Burges that the arch which I have proposed is not strong enough
for its purpose, although they do not attempt to prove that such is the case,
I have thought it right to enter into a careful investigation of its properties ;
from which I am fully convinced, that I have not carried the principle which
I have advocated far enough ; and that, considering the insignificant span
of even the largest of the proposed arches, it would be no great effort of
engineering science to reduce the thickness of its crown to nearly one-half
of what is proposed by Messrs. Walker and Burges; by which meaus the
lowering of the road-way over the centre arch might be carried to the extent
of 6 feet 6 inches, instead of 3 feet G inches, even without reducing the
clear height of the centre arch as I have proposed ; if such reduction were
deemed to be an objection of any importance. In this opinion I am con-
firmed by the examples of numerous stone bridges both in this and other
countries, and also by the judgment of several eminent engineers and mathe-
maticians of the present day.

With reference to the loss of water-way, which 1 stated was occasioned by
the haunches or spandrils of the present arches at high water, 1 ought per-
haps to have explained that I referred to such portion only of the water-way
as is affected by those obstructions, which might, however, I think, have
been inferred: With regard to the removal of these obstructions, I do not
agree with Messrs. Walker and Burges in thinking that it would be unproduc-
tive of any useful effect upon the " currents and falls ;" and I consider the
arguments in support of their opinion to be fallacious, inasmuch as they are
founded upon the assumed level of high water according to Trinity standard ;
whereas the present ordinary spring tides, as the] must be well aware, rise
considerably above that level ; on one extraordinary occasion recently as
much as 3 feet 0 inches. That some practical good would be effected in
giving more head room for craft near to the piers, by raising the springings
of the arches according to my suggestion, Messrs. Walker and Burges admit ;
and I conceive that this advantage alone ought to be a sufficient inducement
to remove the present arches and to substitute others of more convenient
firm ; but when it is considered that the opportunity would be thereby af-
forded of lowering the road-way to nearly double the extent proposed by
Messrs. Walker and Burges, without producing the slighest injury to the na-
vigation of the river, the advantage as regards the convenience of the public
is so much enhanced, that the propriety of rebuilding the superstructure
cannot, T think, be doubted, With respect to m\ proposition of lowering
the centre arch 18 inches, which it appears Messrs. Walker am] P.urges con-
sider will be " rather a practical evil,'' as affecting the navigation of the
river, it is necessary that I should call your attention to the clear height of
the middle openings of some of the bridges above Westminster Bridge, as
they have done to those only which are below the bridge. While the clear
height of the centre arch of Westminster Bridge is 26 feet above Trinity
standard of high water, the centre openings of the modern bridges at Vaiis-
hall and Hammersmith are of the respective heights of 25 feet 4 inches,
and 10 feet 1 inch, to say nothing of those of llattersea and Putney Bridges,
which are much less, but which I admit are extremely inconvenient. As the
largest steamers which pass up the river are f bos. which ply between London
Bridge and Richmond, and as their funnels arc jointed so as to allow of
their of passing even under Putney Bridge, the height of the centre opening
of which is only 11 feet 2 inches above high water, it cannot be imagined
that the lowering of the centre arch of Westminster Bridge to the extent
which I have proposed, can really he an objection of any importance as re-
gards the navigation of the river, while the great object that would be
thereby gained by a farther depression of the road-way, to the extent of 18
inches, reducing its inclination to 1 in 40, instead of 1 in 24, as proposed bj
\\ alker and Burges, would he of the greatest advantage to the traffic
over the bridge, as well as to the effect of the new Houses of Parliament
when viewed from it ; a point which I submit ought not to he disregarded.

Messrs. Walker and Burges state in their letter, as an objection to the
form of arch which I have proposed, that the failure, of one arch would
cause the destruction of all the piers and arches ; a consideration which
they say is not to be disregarded in a bridge, the piers of which have been
so badly founded, that to support them has been a constant expense, and is
at this moment a source of considerable anxiety: although they further
State, that the works they have in hand, if as successful as hitherto, will
render the piers much more secure than they have ever been ; they hope,
perfectly so. The part of this objection which is founded upon the lateral
thrust of arches, will apply with equal force to all arches of a segmental or
elliptical form, which are generally adopted in modern bridges, and even to
semicircular arches, of the lateral thrust of which I will not affect to sup-
pose Messrs. Walker and Burges to be ignorant, although in the allusion
which they make to Labelye's opinion that subject, they leave it to be so
inferred. With regard to the other part of the objection, namely, the failure
of the foundations, it may surely be assumed that Messrs. Walker and Bur-
ges would not have recommended the very serious outlay which is now being
incurred in securing them, if they conceived there was any risk whatever of
their ultimate failure; but if a possible failure is notwithstanding to be taken
into consideration, can a more powerful argument be advanced in favour of a
new superstructure, than that the weight upon the piers might thereby be
reduced at least one-third ? »

To Messrs. Walker and Burges' design for a new superstructure I object,
principally because it does not accomplish the main objects for which a new
fuperstructure is, in my opinion, desirable, namely, the reduction of the mass
so the bridge, and the lowering of the road-way to the utmost practicable
extent ; neither does it afford any improvement whatever in respect of the
navigation of the river; the accomplishment of which objects is, in my
opinion, of far greater importance, both for the sake of public convenience
and architectural effect, than the style of architecture to be adopted.

As to the principles which Messrs. Walker and Burges consider should
govern the nature of a design for a bridge over the Thames in London, 1 en-
tirely disagree with them ; I conceive that the height of the opposite shores
and buildings upon them should mainly determine the sesthetical character
of the design. If, as in Waterloo Bridge, where the shores are high, one
being naturally so, and the other raised, and the road-way is level ; where
the superstructure of a great public building like Somerset House is wholly
above the level of the road way ; and where the bridge groups with the
substructure of such an important building; the character of the design
cannot he too hold and massive ; but if, as at Westminster, w here the shores
arc low, and the bridge must in consequence group with the superstructure
of an extensive work like that of the new Houses of Parliament ; and w here
the parapet must, in consequence of the height required for the centre arch,
assume a curved line, which is an element rather of elegance than of bold-
ness, the character of the bridge should he light and graceful.

I'pon the taste of Messrs. Walker and Burges' design for a new super-
structure in what they term the " Norman style," 1 forbear to offer any cri-
ticisms in detail, as the conditions which should be observed in a bridge
are, in my opinion, wholly at variance with the essential characteristics of
that stvle; nor do I consider it worth while to make any remarks upon their
observations relative to points of taste, including those especially which refer
to harmony and contrast between the bridge, the new Houses of Parliament,
and the neighbouring buildings, as they seem to me to furnish their owu

In conclusion, 1 beg to add, that I still remain of the same opinion, as I
expressed in my report to the Fine Arts Commission, as to the necessity of a
new superstructure to Westminster Bridge upon the principles therein advo-
catl d; and as a favourable opportunity is now afforded of carrying into effect
that great public improvement, at an outlay, moderate, when compared with
its importance, I trust the Commissioners will not be indisposed to take my
recommendations upon this subject into their most serious consideration.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Y'our very obedient servaut,
32. Great IScorge Street, Charlks Barry.

IfUhJvly, 1813.
The Rt. Hon. Chari.es S. Lkfkvre,
Speaker of the House of Commons,

Chairman of the Commissioners of Westminster Bridge.

OPENING OF THE NEW GRAVING DOCK AT WOOLWICH.

The opening of this stupendous work took place on Monday. 17th July,
when this dock was entered for the first time by Her Majesty's frigate
iter, for the purpose of being coppered. &e. Viewed only as a work
of mere masonry and architecture, the dock would, in itself, be a most strik-
ing object; but when the difficulties required to he surmounted in its con-
struction are considered, it must be acknowledged that the new basin is an
object worthy of remark, and a specimen of the perfection to which this par-
ticular description of ei\il engineering is carried in this country. The basin
in question is of solid granite, with steps, or what are technically termed
.i.us. mi each side, 15 inches fo one foot deep, affording facilities for de-
ng to the bottom, and also for props or supports being affixed, thus
enabling any vessel, whatever may be her size, to be supported on her keel
without injury. The length is 300 feet at the top of the water, 245 feet at
the bottom ; the width of the basin is 80 feet at top, gradually diminishing
as the basin deepens. As it approaches the bottom it presents the appi .
ancc of a perfect concave some 26 feet deep. To this basin there are two
folding-gates, or locks, extending the whole width of the dock, made of
iron and timber doubled, and weighing about 60 tons each ; and the perfec-
tion with which these gates work, and are adjusted to each other, may be
seen in the fact, that though each of them are of the enormous weight of 60
tons, two men, or rather a boy and a man, can move them easily. These
gates open to the general basin communicating with the Thames. The dock
itself is filled by the river tide, or by a steam-engine working with two
20 horse boilers, which can either fill the dock or withdraw the water in
about six hours' time. When the engine is required to empty rhc dock, the
water withdrawn from it can either be discharged into the common sewer,
or into the basin, which communicates with the Thames The engine is
situated some hundred yards from the basin, is by Boulton and Watt, and
is a beautiful piece of mechanism. The time it takes to empty the dock
varies according to the size of the vessel received in it, a large ressi 1 dis-
placing more water than a smaller one. In the case of the Ckichetter,
which appeared to us to be of the size of a 46 gun ship, the time taken
was about six hours. There is also upon the top of the engine-bouse a
tank holding some 200 tons of water, available in cases of accident, and in

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

283

the yard there are also other wells, accessible by pumps, supplying fresh
water for the nse of the dockyard, the latter wells being perfectly uncon-
nected with the dock itself.

The time occupied in these works has extended over something more
than seven years, and the difficulties which the engineer has had to meet
and surmount may be judged from the fact that the basin itself is cut
through a stratum of peat and another of quicksand, through which per-
colated a spring which afforded some 800 gallons of water per minute.
The whole of these strata were dug through to the depth in some places
of 125 feet, and the sub-springing waters were conducted through various
channels towards the river. The altars or steps on each side of the dock,
which are 24 in number, extend from the top to the bottom of the basin
which, viewed from its upper end, presents the appearance of an inverted
parabola, and the whole of which is formed of hewn granite masonry;
every stone being joggled to its neighbour by pieces of Bangor slate, so
that no part of the work can sink in or get out of place ; or if it should,
then, that all parts of it should sink equally without disturbing their
respective bearings and proportions to each other.

The masonry, which is 18 inches in depth, is laid upon concrete seven
feet thiek. The dock itself is executed from the plans of Mr. Walker, by
Messrs. Grissell and Peto, and is calculated to have cost already about
80,000/. exclusive of the steam engine.

Taken as a whole, this basin is really a wonderful work, whether we
consider it merely as a plain engineering operation, or whether we look at
the difficulties which have been encountered successfully. In either case
we conceive that great praise is due to Mr. Walker, the engineer, not
merely for the general plan of the undertaking, but for the minor details
in carrying it out. Taking it for all in all, the work is worthy of the
country, it is o editable to those engaged iu it, and is calculated to be
eminently useful for the public service. — Times.

SYANIZING OF TIMBER.

Sir, — In consequence of one or two erroneous statements which have
appeared in your Journal, and also on account of a Report to the Treasurer
of the Brighton Suspension Chain Tier Company, upon the preservation of
timber from decay by Mr. Prichard, of Shorcham, which report contained
many mis-statements, which, if not contradicted, may injure the reputation
of a very valuable discovery, you will much oblige me by inserting the
following remarks : —

1st. It is asserted that sleepers Kyanized five years ago, and in use at the
West India Dock warehouses, have been discovered to decay rapidly. — I
would state in reply, that Kyanized sleepers have not been used at any of
the West India Dock warehouses, but the Anti-Dry Rot Company did lay
down at their own station, West India Docks, in 1836, some Scotch fir
sleepers prepared with very weak solution, by way of experiment, aud some
of these have shown symptoms of decay.

2ndly. It is asserted that the wooden tanks at the Anti-Dry Rot Com-
pany's principal yard are decayed. — The tank referred to was made of un-
prepared wood, as the maker can testify, and was used as a water cistern,
and occasionally held solution ; only one or two of the boards showed the
slightest symptoms of decay, and that on the outside alone. Mr. Prichard,
it appears, is not aware that a waterproof tank is capable of containing a
solution of corrosive sublimate without waste ,- the solution will not pene-
trate timber laterally, but only from the extremities, and therefore that it is
in no way surprizing that a tank containing a solution of corrosive sublimate
should decay on the outside.

3rdly. It is asserted by Mr. Prichard, that iu Shoreham Harbour there is
a wailing piece, the very heurt of English oak, Kyanized, and in use only
four years, which is like a honeycomb, or network, completely eaten away
by the teredo navalis, and other seaworms. — The truth of this assertion is
denied upon the authority of the annexed Minute of Survey and Report from
the Commissioners of Shoreham Harbour.1

4thly. Mr. Prichard states that he opposed Kyanizing on the ground that'
in tropical climates it would be as poisonous as the quicksilver mines of
Illyria. — In reply to this statement, I would refer to Messrs. Enderby of
Great St. Helen's, who built a ship, many years since, wholly of Kyanized
wood. It has been three voyages to the South Seas, the crew have returned
each voyage remarkably healthy, end we have now in our possession some of
the bilge water, which has been analysed, and found to be considerably more
pure than on ordinary voyages,

I am. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Tasweli. Thompson, Secretary.

' We have not room for the Committee's Report further than the follow-
ing extract.— Editor.

"Report, that Mr. Thornton, the Harbour Master, had pointed out five
pieces of English oak wailing which the sub-committee had inspected and
lound as sound, in their opinion, as when first put in, and th it Mr. Prichard
slated that the piece he alluded to as heart of oak was remo»ed from the pier
I > himself, but he refused to exhibit it."

REVIEWS.

Applications of the Electric Fluid to the Useful Arts. By Mr.
Alexander Bain. With a vindication of his claim By John Fin-
laison, Esq., of the National Debt Office. London : Chapman and
Hall, 1843. '

Controversies on the subject of prior claims to scientific discoveries
always involve doubt and pain, but much more so when patties are
concerned who have rendered efficient service to the public. State-
ment is made upon statement, reply upon reply, and the simple truth
becomes more difficult to ascertain than before, while personal abuse
and personal feelings enter the field to vender the contest still more
violent and irregular. The main question at issue is, whether Pro-
fessor Wheatstone or Mr. Baiu is the inventor of certain applications
of the electro-magnetic power; upon this, several other extraneous
issues have been raised, each patty accusing the other of piracy, one
charging ingratitude and another breach of trust. Under these cir-
cumstances a case has been brought forward by Mr. Finlaison, on the
part of Mr. Bain, to which we should be inclined to attach consider-
able weight, if it were not an exparle statement, to which we have
not yet had Mr. Wheatstone's reply. When it is remembered too
that parlizanship has displayed itself to a great extent, that the sci-
entific men have enlisted themselves under the banner of Professor
Wheatstone, and the natives of Scotland under that of Mr. Bam, the
danger of coming to a rash decision is evident. We shall certainly
not be so unwise at the present moment. When we recollect the con-
tests between Newton and Liebnitz, Wren and Hooke, Worcester and
De Cans, Talbot and Daguerre, Jacobi and Spenser, and so many others,
we feel the danger of hazarding a decision. Time is one of the
grand elements towards arriving at a correct conclusion in questions
of this kind, for it is not until passions are allayed that it is at all
prudent to ascend the tribunal of judgment. It must be recollected,
too, that there is scarcely an invention or discovery of importance,
with regard to which several parties have not been in the field
at the same moment, and having at the first blush very strong
claims to priority. Under such circumstances, we retreat from the
arena ; but this we can say, on the present occasion, that whatever
may be the result of the present contest, the talent, the invention, and
the valuable services of Mr. Alexander Bain, must remain undis-
puted and unimpaired. His last discovery, it appears to us, cannot
be contested, and would alone be sufficient to confer on him high sci-
entific rank. From this part of the pamphlet we shall proceed to
give some extracts, with regard to this new and important discovery,
which led to the means of dispensing with the galvanic trough, by
having recourse to the earth an a source of permanent voltaic electricity.

For the purpose of investigating the nature of this phenomenon,
Mr. Bain in conjunction with Lieutenant Wright, performed several
experiments in the Polytechnic Institution and on the Serpentine
River in Hyde Park.

" The first experiment consisted in passing an electric current through the
water, by means of a complete circuit of wires laid from one side of the
river to the other, with a compound battery of six cells, of about twelve-
square inches surface on one side of the river, and on the opposite side an
electro-magnet of soft iron, with its feeder. On an electric current being
established in the wires, it was found that a small portion only reached
the electro-magnet ; enough, however, to enable it to sustain its own weight.
On the circuit being broken, by disconnecting the wires from the battery, it
was found that the attractive power of the magnet did not entirely cease.
The electric current being again transmitted through the wires, the circuit
was broken by detaching the wires from the magnet, when its attractive
power ceased immediately. The experiment was then repealed as at first,
and the same result obtained — -viz., a very gradual decay of the magnetic
power. It is well to observe here, that the feeder was removed from the
maguet, and kept from it several minutes ; on being again presented to the
magnet, it was slightly attracted by it. It was premised that on an electric
current being established in one direction, its effects on the magnet might be
instantly annihilated by changing the direction of the current ; experiment
proved this to be the case, and thus pointed out an effectual remedy for the
inconvenience, although the cause was still unknown. As it was evident in
the foregoing experiment thai the greater portion of the electricity was con-
ducted from one wire to the other by the water, particular attention was
next given to this branch of the subject. A portion of one of the wires
formiug the circuit was lifted out of the water at several points between the
two banks of the river, aud the electro-magnet placed in the circuit, when it
was found that the current was transmitted by the water from one wire to
the other, the greatest portion of the electric current passing from that part
of the wires which was nearest the battery. These facts rendered it obvious-
that water was quite capable of conducting voltaic electricity, provided a

284

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

sufficient surface of metal was present to convey the current into and ou
of the water. Before proceeding to apply this fact, however, the first expe-
riment was repeated, but with a smaller battery.

" A copper wire was next laid down on the gravel walk along the north
bank of the Serpentine River, from the bridge which separates Hyde Park
from Kensington Gardens, to the east end of the river. About three square
feet of metallic surface was attached to each end of the wire and put into
the river; a galvanometer was put into the circuit at the bridge, and a
small Grove's battery at the other extremity of the wire. The electric cur-
rent passed by the water, and returned by the wire, and with as much power
as would have been the case with an ordinary metallic circuit. Iu this
arrangement the magnetic influence ceased the moment the circuit was
broken, as it would have done in an entirely dry circuit.

" Reflecting on the foregoing experiment, it occurred to Mr. Bain that the
satural moisture of the earth might be a sufficient conductor for the electric
?urrent, and with a view to ascertain the correctness of this assumption, a
■wire was led along a wood-paling extending from the river to a well about a
hundred and fifty yards distant ; one of the metallic surfaces attached to the
■wire was put into the river, and the other into the well; the galvanometer
was put into the circuit near the river, and the small battery near the well.
On completing the circuit, the current passed freely, as in the former experi-
ruents, showing that ichtn sufficient moisture is present, the earth is a good
conductor of voltaic electricity ; and that one-half of a voltaic circuit is all
that is necessary to be insulated from surrounding conducting matter.

" While reflecting upon these experiments, some few months after they
had been performed, Mr. Bain was led to infer, that if a surface of positive
metal was attached to one end of a conducting wire, and an equal surface of
negative metal to the other end, and the two metallic surfaces put into
water, or into the moist earth (the wire being properly insulated from sur-
rounding matter), an electric current of considerable energy would be esta-
alished in the wire. This proposition was soon tested by an experiment per-
formed in the grounds of Mr. Finlaison (the government calculator), at
Algher's House, Loughton, Epping Forest." In a moat distant 150 yards
from a pond of water, was placed a plate of about 1 2 inches surface of posi-
tive metal, and in the pond a similar size plate of negative metal, and a
galvanometer with a conducting wire connecting the two plates were laid
along*a gravel walk. " The moment this arrangement was completed, the
galvanometer showed that an electric current was passing from the metal
in the pond, through the earth to the metal in the moat, returning back
again by the wire. The current was of considerable energy, and this experi-
ment was repeated a number of times with unvarying success."

Similar experiments upon a larger scale were tried upon the Serpentine
River, in Hyde Park, with equal success.

"These points being satisfactorily established, Mr. Bain next proceeded
to make the experiment as shown in the annexed diagram.

A surface of zinc (Z), was buried iu the moist earth in Hyde Park, and, at
rather more than a mile distance, a copper surface, C, was similarly deposited ;
the two metals were connected by a wire, suspended on the railing, and on
placing a galvanometer, G, in the circuit, an electric current was produced,
which passed through the intervening mass of plate from the eartb, return-
ng by the wire. In the first experiment, the metallic surfaces being small,
the electric current produced was feeble, but on using a larger surface of
metal a corresponding increase in the energy of the current was obtained,
with which an electrotype process was conducted, and various electro-
magnetic experiments performed with uniform success.* |
,. " Subsequent experiments have shown that if two metal plates (a negative
and positive) of sufficient surface are sunk in the earth as a batten-, and
wires led therefrom, electrotype deposition may be effected, and every
description of electro-magnetic apparatus worked for any length of time.
The most successful results have, however, been obtained by depositing
several surfaces of positive metal in the earth connected into a group by
wires, from which a conducting wire was led to a series of negative surfaces

irailarly disposed at a more remote spot. When considerable power is
required, this is the arrangement that should be adopted. It is essential to

snecess, that the earth wherein the plates of metal are deposited should be
of a moist nature. A current has, indeed, been obtained in dry soils, but of
such small energy as to be of no practical utility. This, however, may have
been occasioned by the very small proportion of metallic surface with which
the experiment was made.

" Such a source of electricity as the foregoing promises to be most exten-
sively useful in the arts. Among other advantages, its simplicity and cheap-
ness are no small recommendations, while the uniform character of its power
is of the utmost importance. A battery of this description, under very dis-
advantageous circumstances, has produced a power which for upwards of six
months has been found unvarying." *

" If a copper wire, one-sixth of an inch in thickness be imbedded in a bar
of boiling asphaltum and sent along the railway (for its better protection)
from London to Liverpool — if two tons weight of zinc plates be immersed
in the Mersey at Liverpool, and attached to that end of the wire — and if one
ton weight of copper be sunk in the river Thames, and attached to this end
of the wire, no rational man can doubt that an electric current would be
established often times the power necessary to work a telegraph."

" Now, in the voltaic circuit in question, it may be a bard matter to say
whether the current flies round the coast by the sea, or whether it penetrates
the earth superficially. One thing is, however, certain — the experiment is
not likely to be tried at the sole cost of the inventor, and it is humbly con-
ceived that the country, which is to be benefitted by the discovery, should
incur the trifling charge of bringing it into use. Supposing, however, the
very improbable event, that the current, from some unforeseen cause, could
not be passed to the distance of 200 miles, it may still be sent, as far as it
will go, in relays, connecting these very easily by means which are well
known to every practical electrician."

" The following diagram exhibits Mr. Bain's latest improved pendulum,
which is moved by a metallic surface, in the moist earth, of no more than
four or five feet. It is, indeed, very necessary in these times to publish it
without delay, lest the merit of this invention also should be snatched from
hiiu by some one or other of the fakeurs of the day. Can any man new
foresee the important ends to which this little instrument may hereafter be
applied ? In the ordinary use of it for the measurement of time, diminished
friction, and hence far greater accuracy, is obviously secured. Its perma-
nence of action is probably the nearest approach yet made to the impossible

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

285

chimera called the perpetual motion. Mr. Bain intends to apply it also to
telegraphic purposes, in which its agency secures him improvements of the
last importance , for he can certaiuly, by its means, discard wheels of any
and every description, as well as electro-magnets.

" A A is a mahogany case with a glass front ; B is a metal bracket fixed
to the back of the case, and to which the pendulum D is suspended. C C
are permanent steel magnets fixed to the sides of the case in such a manner
as that the pendulum-ball D can vibrate freely between the poles of each
magnet. The magnets are so placed as that poles of dissimilar names face
each other. E is a small platinum ball affixed to a brass stem, free to move
to one side or the other, being fastened to a light spindle carried by the
pendulum rod at H. The plate of copper F is deposited in the moist earth,
from which a wire leads to the bracket B. The plate of zinc G is likewise
deposited in the earth, and its wire leads to the piece of metal I. To the
lower end of the suspension-spring of the pendulum is attached a wire
coated with silk. It is led down the back of the rod (which is wood), and
then coiled longitudinally, in many convolutions, around the edge of the
pendulum-ball, in a groove previously made for the purpose. It is then
taken up the back of the rod and terminates in the bearings of the spindle
at H. The action of the engine is as follows : — A constant and uniform
current of electricity would be established, and would pass through the earth,
the plates and wires in the direction of the arrows, as long as the platinum ball
E rests on the platinum pin projecting from the metal I. But if the pen-
dulum is put in motion, suppose that, at first, it were drawn aside until the
ball D should be between the poles of the right-hand magnet, the point H
being now farther to the right than the ball E, the latter would fall to the
left and rest on the pin K until tbe pendulum took its vibration to the left,
when the ball E would fall to the right, and so on continually, the action
being produced by the change of the centre of gravitation at each vibration
of the pendulum. This action of the ball E lets on and cuts off the flow of
electricity at or near the extreme ends of the pendulum's vibrations, so that
the convolving wire of the pendulum-ball is attracted and repelled by the
magnets at the proper points of its vibrations, and thus a continual motion is
kept up for an indefinite period of time.'"

We shall endeavour next month to draw the attention of our
readers to the ingenious printing telegraph of Mr. Bain.

Tie Inventor's Manual, a familiar and practical Treatise of tlie
Lam of Patents for Inventions. By J. Towne Danson and G. Drys-
dale Dempsey. London : John Weale.

W- Several useful works have been published on the law of patents ;
the object of the present one is to give a clear exposition to inventors
and parties interested in patent property, of the modes of obtaining
patents, and of making them legally available, without entering into
details of a nature merely technical. The authors have brought some
new light on various points of the subject; and with regard to the
meaning of the word "manufacture," they propose a much simpler
definition. After quoting the classifications of Godson, Webster,
Carpmael, Rankin, and Holroyd, the authors proceed to observe —

"As these classifications do not assist us in defining the word
'manufacture,' they do not appear to have any practical value to the
inventor in defining his claim, or to the public in testing it. For both
these purposes the words of the statute, ' any manner of new manu-
factures,' are amply sufficient, and in every case in which an inventor
may have been so ill-advised as to claim a "method," or a ' principle,'
or a ' process,' and his right has been questioned, the judges have
found it necessary to bring him back to the expressive word ' manu-
facture,' and expound to him, that for the invention of that, and that
only, will the law afford him the protection of a patent. Or if a diffi-
culty occurs in ascertaining whether or not the security of a patent is
attainable, the solution of it is always found to depend on this simple
question, whether the invention will give to the public a new, useful,
and vendible result, in short, a 'manufacture;' and not by considering
its eligibility to be ranked in the class of ' substances,' ' machines,'
'combinations,' or ' principles.'

" It would be easy to show that many of the tedious questions
which have perplexed inventors, juries, and counsel, would have been
either avoided altogether, or immediately solved, if the words of the
statute had been regarded, without reference to the ingenious defini-
tions given of them."

In confirmation of the view here taken, the authors cite various
cases decided by the judges, and then proceed to observe —

"That the complex classifications of patentable manufactures
hitherto attempted, are resolvable into the very simple one of things

made and things improved, we shall complete this part of the subject,
and prove the sufficiency of the word 'manufacture' to cover all
beneficial inventions, by selecting a few of the most striking instances
from the number of patents which have been granted nominally for
methods, processes, Ac, and showing, in each case, what was the ' manu-
facture' produced."

In support of this definition, quotations are given from several
cases, selected from a large number, which the authors contend are
sufficient to show how the words of the statute, "any manner of new
manufactures," may be applied, to limit the extent of every claim of
invention.

The authors now proceed to define who may obtain a patent, which
we do not think requires much explanation, as the words of the statute,
"the true and first inventor," is amply comprehensive. Thev next
explain on what conditions a patent are granted, and then give the
various forms necessary for obtaining and securing it, and conclude
by describing the use of a patent as property, remedies at law for de-
fending it against infringement, and what is requisite to be done pro-
vided the patent is voidable in part, so as to secure a valid title ;
all of which the authors have explained very briefly, but quite suffi-
cient for the general reader to comprehend, without wading through
long legal reports.

Ancient and Modern Architecture. Edited by M.Jules Gailha-
BAUD. London: Firmin Didot & Co. Parts S, 9, and 10.

This series does not diminish in interest, on the contrary, its cha-
racter is well maintained. In the numbers now before us are contained
several interesting plates. That ancient monument, the Acropolis of
Tiryns, is well illustrated, and is a good example of the old Cvclo-
pean citadel. It is a remarkable proof of the extensive progress of
architecture at this era, that no less than four hundred towns are;
known to have been surrounded with stone walls of Cyclopean work,
supposed to denote the seats of so many Pelasgic colonies. The
Acropolis of Tiiyns is a gigantic monument, the walls of which en-
close a superficies of 197 feet in length, by 59 in breadth. The ex-
ternal wall is in general 19 feet 9 inches thick, and in some parts
25 feet 3 inches. Its height 42 feet 3 inches. The blocks are in
some cases from 10 to 13 feet long, by 4 feet 4 inches thick. The
vaults of the galleries are considered as probably the most ancient
specimens of the pointed arch in Greece. The church of the Inva-
lides at Paris, affords another illustration; its section shows a triple
cupola, and an enormous waste of space between the internal and ex-
ternal roof of the nave. The mosque of Al Mowaiyad, at Cairo, is one
of those composite buildings in which the early Arabs indulged,
showing a Moorish superstructure upon Greek and Roman columns.
The harmony, however, of the general design is preserved. The ca-
thedral of Athens is a monument of not less interest, as a specimen
of the Byzantine style, with its lantern, and alabaster windows. It is
supposed to belong to the Venetian period. The market of St. Ger-
main will be of interest to our numerous readers engaged in the con-
struction of such works in the provinces; the plates show a view,
elevation, ground plan, and the details of the roofs. The market is a
parallellogram, with an open court in the interior. The dimensions are
302 feet long by 2 Hi broad. The stalls in the Marche St. Germain are
366 in number. In order to enable our readers to compare, we have
brought together the sizes of several markets in France and England.

St. Germain, Paris
St. John's, Liverpool
St. Martin's, Paris
Farringdon, London
La Vallee, Paris
North Market. Liverpool
St. James's, Liverpool
Corn Market, Liverpool
Market Hall, Birmingham '

The Halle au BIS belongs to the same class of subjects, and pre-
sents the example of a metallic cupola, 401 feet 6 inches in circum-
ference, and 106 feet 7 inches high.

jenglh.

Breadth.

Area.

Cost.

feet.

feet.

yards.

£.

302

246

8254

549

135

8235

40,000

328

197

7179

256

164

4664

204

151

3422

213

135

3195

13,000

3000

14,000

114

60

760

10,000

360

108

4320

30,000

Six. hundred stalls.

286

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

Jl Map of the Geology, Mineralogy, Src, of the British Isles and
fart of France. By J. A Knipe.

The importance of geology, as a practical science, in connexion
with Agriculture and Engineering, is now too well appreciated to
require any comment; and the value of any accession to our informa-
tion on this suhject, is eqaally obvious. It is with these views that
we now recommend to the patrouage of our readers the production of
Mr. Knipe, who has exhibited a degree of labour and research, well
worthy of encouragement. He has undertaken to describe the geo-
logy, mineralogy, internal communications, harbours and ports of Eng-
land, and the adjacent countries, together with a part of France,
availing himself of the most recent information, and the investiga-
tions of the most eminent men of science. Thus each part of the
map is laid down from the researches of those geologists who have
most distinguished themselves in the examination of particu'ar dis-
tricts, exhibiting their minute observations, and illustrated by nume-
rous sections. For each part the authorities are given, and an ex-
planatory index is added, referring to the most approved classifications
and nomenclature, in English, French and German; in fact, the most
minute details are to be found in this map which have not appeared
in any other: the size is 5 feet 4 inches by 4 feet 4 inches; we should
observe that all the railways and canals are shown, the clination of
the strata, heights of mountains, mines, levels, &c.

A Series of Diagrams, under the superintendence of the Society for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Chapman and Hall. Part 7.

This number contains the vertical section of a saw frame, eleva-
tion of shears for cutting iron, and the details of an eight day clock.
Thus the conductors are realizing a most important desideratum, the
publication of a popular series of working drawings of machines, af-
fording instructions at the same time to the workman and draughtsman.
We are pleased too to see that a small work on mechanics is to be
published to accompany the diagrams. We can fairly say that a
series of greater importance to the working man has rarely been pub-
lished. We should observe that one of the advantages which this
work possesses, is, that it will enable classes to be formed in the pro-
vincial mechanics' institutions for the study of mechanical drawing,
an object for which many working men are chiefly induced to become
members of such societies.

Photogenic Manipulations. By Geokck Thomas Fisher, Jun.
London: (ieorge Knight and Sons, 1813.

This is one of the most comprehensive of the many little treatises
which have been published on the manipulation of the new arts of
design. Coming from the hands of the Messrs. Knight, well known
for the ittention they have paid to practical science, shows that this
tract has been carefully compiled. It takes up the subject in all
its branches, including Calotype, Chrysotype, Cyanotype, Photogra-
phy, Ferrotype, Anthotype, Daguerreotype and Thermography.

/';■. British and Foreign Traveller's Guide. Sherwood & Co.

This little work, which appears to have been compiled with great
<;are, is of the highest value to the traveller, who, indeed, ought not
to be without a copy; it gives the times of starting, the fares, and
route of all tin- English and Continental railways, and steam vessels,
besides some highly useful and necessary information as to exchanges,
and the value of foreign measures and money.

MEW CHURCH— STRETFORD NEW ROAD, MANCHESTER.

This beautiful church was designed by Messrs. Scott and Moffatt of
London. It is built in the early English style of architecture, which
prevailed in this country during the reign of Henry III. To give
any thing like a perfect description of the building in a limited com-
pass would be impossible; I shall, therefore, content myself with a
description of its most prominent features. The church is cruciform
in plan, and is composed of nave, ailes, transepts, and apsis or chancel,
and a tower at the west end. The dimensions are as follows: — length
of nave 65 feet, breadth of transepts 21 feet, and length of chancel
17 feet. The total interna] length, including the thickness of the

chancel arch, 108 feet. Length of transepts 68 feet, breadth of nave
24 feet, breadth of ailes 11 feet 10 inches, diameter of the pillars
2 feet 2 inches ; total internal breadth 52 feet, height of pillars 15
feet 4 inches. There are four arches on each side of the nave, struck
from centres at the extremities of the base of an equilateml triangle.
The height of the nave, including pillars, arches, and clerestory 40
feet, and the total height up to the ridge of the roof 58 feet. There
are no galleries, except a small one at the west end of the nave, the
greater portion of which is in the tower ; and the front forms a semi-
octagon, perforated with small trefoil headed arches, which are sup-
ported on small pillars, having base mouldings and capitals: there are
stone corbels left on the pillars at the west end for the support of the
breast beam of a larger gallery, to extend the whole breadth of the
nave and ailes ; but it is to be hoped that such a gallery will never be
built, as it would totally spoil the internal effect of that end of the
church. The body of the church is fitted up with open stalls or
benches, and it is sincerely hoped that they will always remain open,
for pew* doors would effectually spoil the architectural effect of the
interior of the church.

In describing the exterior of the church, the tower first claims at-
tention ; it is composed of five stages or stories: that on the ground
floor forms the west entrance into the church, through a noble and
majestic doorway, of good proportions. Its jambs are enriched with
small pillars and hollow mouldings; the head consists of a pointed
arch, composed of several rich mouldings ; the whole being crowned
with a good bold label moidd. The next stage forms the organ gal-
lery, which is lighted by a lofty lancet window of one light, having on
each side a lancet panel, so managed as not to convey the least idea
ol a blank window, and the whole enriched with small pillars. In the
next stage, the walls are perforated with quatrefoils of most beautiful
design, and executed in a masterly manner. The next stage forms
the ringers' chamber, and being similar to the second, will not need
any further description. The fifth stage forms the bell-chamber, and
is most beautifully designed; the windows are of two lights under
one arch, the head of which is filled in with a foliated circle of four
cusps. The corners of the tower are flanked with octagonal turrets,
live heights of which are disengaged; and two faces of each turret
are ;igain flanked by a buttress rising three stages up the tower. The
turrets finally terminate in very richly composed pinnacles, which are
also octagunal in plan, and have small detached pillars at the angles
supporting small arches, the points of which die under the drip of the
pinnacle. Each pinnacle is crowned with a finial, and further enriched
by a rib at each angle. The walls of the tower are crowned with an
unbroken parapet, the breast resting on small trefoil headed arches,
a i the water table supported on small corbels. Viewing the tower
..< a whole, whether by itself or in connexion with the rest ol the
building, it is certainly one of the finest towers of its class in Great
Britain, ancient or modern. Yet it lias one fault, whether seen in ele-
vation or perspective, viz., that the pinnacles are considerably too
large.

The next thing to be noticed, is the porch on the north side, stand-
ing out from the west bay of the north aile ; the outer arch is very
highly enriched with a variety of beautiful mouldings, and two rows
of what is called the dog-toothed ornament; there are three small
pillars to each jamb, with base mouldings and enriched capitals. The
arch is surrounded with a label, the inner sweep of which is enriched
with the dog-tooth ornament, of a much smaller size than those just
mentioned. The corners of the porch arc flanked with handsome
buttresses, terminated with rich canopies. The gable of the porch is
surmounted with a beautiful cross; the ceiling consists of stone
groined arches, with very beautiful ribs at the angles. The next por-
tion of this side of the church claiming attention, is the north transept,
the front of which is perforated with two lancet windows coupled
together, the spaces between them and the corner buttresses being
filled in with narrow lofty panels, and the heads of both windows and
panels form an unbroken series of four arches, crowned with labels,
and resting on beautiful small pillars. Above these arches is a wheel
window, divided into six compartments, by radiating pillars diverging
from the centre. On the point of the gable above this window, is
fixed a very handsome cross, enriched with a crown of thorns. The
angles of the transept are flanked with buttresses, and crowned with
octagonal pinnacles, similar in design to those on the tower. The
chancel forms in plan five sides of an octagon, with a buttress at each
angle. Connected with the south bay of the chancel is a small but
handsome vestry, with an outer door on the south side, and two small
trefoil headed windows on the east. There are two inner doors, one
open ng into the south transept and the other into the chancel. There
is nothing in the south side of the church which requires particular
description; all the windows, both of ailes and clerestory, are coupled
I lancets, two to each bay: the chancel windows are of one light. The

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

287

roofs of the nave, chancel, and transepts are covered with ornamental
blue tiles, which have a very good effect. The hips of the chancel
roof, and also the ridges of the clerestory and transept roofs, are en-
riched with a trefoiled leaf ornament. The roofs of the ailes are
covered wilh blue slates. Having thus given a general description of
this beautiful church, I shall once more enter it by the south door,
and the first object that will present itself to view, is the font on the
left hand of the entrance, and at the west end of the south aile. Jt is
so exceedingly rich and beautiful, both in design, material, and exe-
cution, as to baffle any written description. On advancing further
into the church, and turning to the right down the middle passage,
(erroneously called aile,) nn one alive to the sense of the beautiful,
could avoid being deeply impressed with a lively sense of the archi-
tectural fitness of expression, and of the grandeur and beauty by
which he would feel himself surrounded. If he looked up to the
arches of the nave, he would be struck with the triumphant and dig-
nified boldness of expression by which they are characterized: looking
still higher, he would behold the open roof of timber, undisguised by
the painter's brush, telling its own simple honest tale. Advancing
still further eastward, he arrives in the transepts, where his attention
will be caught by a semi-octagon stone pulpit, partly copied from an
ancient one still existing in Beanlieu Church, Hants., although inferior
to it in several respects. The latter is pure in all its details, but un-
fortunately this is not so ; for instance, there is a row of square qua-
trefoils round the base of the pulpit, which are decidedly of Tudor
character, and which are so very paltry and insignificant, as totally to
spoil the whole design. But this is not its only fault : the effect is
further injured by the small, shallow, and poverty-stricken foliated
spandrils between the arches; and another great and unpardonable
fault is the tasteless and unphilosophical application of the four small
pillars (on which the pulpit appears to rest) rising out of a bunch of
foliage, and appearing as if in the act of falling down. The next
object claiming attention, is the groined ceiling over the altar, which
is most beautiful in design : the ribs spring from small pillars of stone,
placed in the angles of the chancel, and the whole groining has the
appearance of being of the same material.

Manchester. James Hadfield.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

THE BENTINCK STEAM-SHIP.
This spendid vessel was built for the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Com-
pany, at Liverpool, by Mr. Thos. Wilson, and furnished with engines by
Messrs. Fawcett and Preston. She is a companion to the Hindostan. and
destined for the same purpose, to convey the mails between Suez ami Calcutta.
Madras and Bombay. She is nearly similar in dimensions, model, and power
to the Hindostan, as follows: —

Length of keel 220 feet

Length aloft over all .. .. .. .. 250 ,,

Beam, within paddle boxes .. .. .. 39 ,,

Depth from spar deck .. .. .. .. 311 ,,

Burthen, including spar di ck 2020" ,,

Engines (2 of 250) 500 horse power.

Diameter of cylinders .. ■■ .. .. 78i inches.

Stroke 8" feet.

No. of strokes per minute .. .. .. 15 ,,

The vessel is rigged in the usual manner of large steam ships, as a three-
masted schooner, and her standing rigging is of Smith's patent wire rope.
The spar-deck forms a fine and unterrupted promenade ; and on each side the
quarter-deck there are bread seats covered with mahogany, resembling ranges
of sofas, which also form bins. The state saloon is about 32 teet square,
heing the whole width of the vessel at the stern, and is approaeed by a wide
corridor, at the end of which a handsome flight of steps 'eads to the rigbt
anil left at the top on to the deck ; on each side of the corridor are ranges of
state cabins, and at the end entering from the stairs, is the ladies' cabin on one
side, and stewards' room on the oilier. The whole replete with every con-
venience. The decorations were designed and furnished by Mr. Bielefield, of
London and Liverpool, those in the state saloon consist of a series of ten
interesting views from Aflghanistan, beautifully enameled on slate by
Steedman ; the frames of these are of Bielefield's pa; ier mache, arched at the
top ; with a lion's head, and alternately a neptune's. with a festoon of flowers
over each picture, these are all guilt, and highly relieved ; the woi.d-work or
ground is grained satin-wood, and between the pictures are pilasters of slate,
enamelled, to imitate vein marble, with enriched gilt caps, a pill moulding
runs all round the saloon, and on the partition there are four Corintbian
columns, one on each side of the two sideboards, and one also on eacb side
the rudder-case, where, on the returns, are two finely executed bas-Jclicfs of
" night and morning,'- executed also in Bielefield's papier mache, after those
gems of art by Thorwalsden, The ceiling is simply divided into Jong panels,
wilh plain mouldings, and he ends of the timbers supported by enriched
trusses etched with gold. The prevailing colour of the ceiling is French
grey. The mizen-mast is enclosed by a massive fluted Doric column, of wood
painted in imitation of veined marble; and a similar but smaller column is
placed to enclose an iron one in the center of the entrance to the corridor.

The corridor consists of a range of Ionic pilasters, painted in imitation of
veined marble, and highly polished, supporting a plain cornice ; in the floor,
and immediately under a long sky-light is a large well-hole, with mahogany
hand-rail and iron balluslers, which lights and ventilates the lower deck,
which contains several other state cabins or dormitories.

The ladies' cabin is fitted up with paintings enameled on slate, by Heedman,
after Mattean ; the subjects are in his usual light and elegant style of garden
and love-tending scenery, with a variety of interesting figures pourtraying
the tender passion. The frames consist of an enriched bead wilh centre
ornaments; on the pilastars are pendants of flowers in high relief, and an
enrichment composed of palms, leaves, and flowers, run round the frieze.
The whole of the ornaments are chastely finished in while and gold ; and a
large looking-glass, judiciously placed, is ornamented with a frame similar
to the pictures. The wood-work is grained satin-wood, and the tint of the
ceiling is finished French grey. This room has been curtailed of iis fine
dimensions by a passage having unnecessarily been taken off for an adjoining
berth— the partition of which cuts a slice off from the skylight, and ruins
the appearance of the ceiling.

The adaptation of Bielefield's papier mache, for the decoration of steam
vessels, is now becoming general, and we are happy to bear testimony to its
great advantage over every other material for this purpose. The Hindostan
was enriched with it, though in a very different manner, and has stoi d t lu-
severe test of a hot climate, w ithout any deterioration ; one of its supcrior
characteristics being its resistance to vermin — neither worm nor any other
insect, heat nor damp, so far as present experience proves — -will alfect it : and
its durability is undoubted. The state panels are also well adapted for
decoration, the highly enameled surface brings out the colour of the paintings
with surpassing brilliancy, and the rigidity of the substance renders it un-
liable to warp.

There is a spacious fore-cabin and a lobby, communicating with the pr'n-
cipal corridor to the forecastle. On the lower deck, tore and aft, are manv
other state rooms or dormitories, all fitted up with the greatest attention ;
and in every part concentration of comfort and convenience seems to be
scrupulously studied.

The ship is divided by iron bulk-heads into five compartments, giving her
great safety in case of accident ; and there are large cisterns for water, hot
and cold baths, improved warming apparatus on the worm-tub principle, and
every other essential to mike her one of the most complete and efficient
steam vessels ever produced, and much credit is due to the marine- superin-
tendent, Mr. Shaw, for the very able manner the works have been executed
under his vigilant and expeiienced eye.

Trial Trip.— On the 6ih of July the Bentinck left the Coburg dock, and

froceeded on a trial from Liverpool to Holyhead. There were on hoard her
ommander, Captain Kellock, Mr. Shaw, Mr. Wilson, the builder, Mr. Faw-
cett, and a few other gentlemen. She started at 6 o'clock, the wind blowing
fresh from the westward.

The following is a statement of her progress: —

GOING.

At Gh. 10m. abreast of the Rock.
6h. 55m. „ „ N.W.Buoy.
12h. 15m Holyhead.

RETURNING.

At2h. 16m. abreast of Point Lynas.
5b. 15m. „ „ Light Ship.
6h. 4m. ,, ,, Rock Lighthouse.

Making the trip out and back upwards of 130 nautical miles in 11 hours and
56 minutes. Her speed was occasionally 12 knots, she was found remarkably
easy, the engines making 13 to 15J revolutions per minute.

On the 17th ult. she proceeded to Dublin, from thence to Southampton,
and we presume, ere this, has taken her departure for the east.

The " Great Britain '' Iron Steam-Ship. — This vessel was launched on
Wednesday, July 19, in the presenceof Prince Albert and many distinguished
guests. We have frequently noticed this vessel during her progress, but we
will now give a general description to our readers. Burden, 3,500 ions ;
power, 1,000 horse; Itngth. from figure-head to taffrail, 322 ft. ; length of
keel. 289 ft. ; exrteme width ; 150 ft. 6 in. ; depth of hold, 32 ft. 6 in. She has
four decks : the first or upper deck is flush, 308 ft. in length. The second
derk consists of two promenade saloons: the aft or first class is 110 ft.
6 in. by 22 ft., anil the forward or second class 67 ft. by 21 ft. 9 in. ; they are
well lighted and ventilated. The thirl deck consists of the dining saloons.
the grand saloon being 91 ft. 4 in, by 30 ft., and the second class or forward
saloon 61 ft. by 21 ft. 9 in. These saloons are all 8 ft. 3 in. high, and sur-
rounded with sleeping rooms, of which there are 26 with one bed, and 113
with two beds, giving 252 berths; an improvement has been introduced
which affords, by meansof passages, much greater privacy than in any other
vessel. The fourth deck is for cargo ami coals, Under this deck, in the
after-part of the ship, is an iron fresh water tank, and in the fore-part is an
air chamber frorri the boiler to the fore bulkhead. The forecastle is appro-
priated to the officers and sailors; mess-rooms, berths, sail- rooms, &c, are
underneath. The middle part of the vessel, from the bulkhead of the fore-
part to the bulkhead of the after-part, a space of 80 ft., is occupied by the
engines, boilers, engineers'-room, and cooking department, which is over the
boilers. There are three boilers capable of containing 200 tuns of water,
heated by 24 fires, and 4 engines, each of 250 horse power. The cylinders are
88 inches in diameter, which stand in pairs opposite to each other, at an
angle of 60° to work the shaft of the propelling gear. The chimney is 8 ft.
in tliame er and 39 ft. high She has six masts, the highest of which is 74 ft.
above deck. She will carry about 1700 square yards of canvas, rigged with
Smith's wire-rope. The hull is divided into 4 water-tight bulkheads. She
will be propelled by the Aiebimedian screw, on the plan of the patentee,
Mr. F, P, Smith. Upwards of 1500 tons of iron have been used in her con-
struction, and that of the engines anil boilers. Her draught of water when
loaded will be ab ut IB ft., and her displacement of water about 3-000 tuns.
Tho plates of the keel are from f to 1 inch thick, and all the other plates av
about J in. thick. She is clinker-built, and double rivetted in the longi-
tudinal laps. The ribs are framed of angle iron 6_in. by 3J. and are about 11

39

288

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[August,

in. apart in (he middle, gradually increasing to 18 and 21 inches, so that
her sides are but 7 inches thick. "The holler platform is of plate-iron, sup-
ported upon ten iron keelsons, the centre ones being 3 ft. 3 in deep. At the
engine-room, for the purpose of additional strength, there are 9 intermediate
double ribs, and 16 addilional transverse ribs. The joists for the support of
the several decks are bars of 3-inch angle iron, with a joist.bar of 5 inches
by ' inch rivetted on the side. The distance of the joists are about 2J feet.
The" deck planks are fastened to the angle iron by screws from below, and
firmly secured at each end to the vertical ribs, which affords a support to the
sides, in resisting both external and internal pressure, and are supported
lengthwise by longitudinal beams and stanchions. To preserve the hull from
springing horizontally, there are diagonal tension bars placed between the
angle iron bars and deck planks. The wrought-iron mainshaft was manu-
factured at the Mersey Iron Works, and is the largest ever constructed,
weighing about 16 tons. Her pumps will be worked by machinery, and will
be capable of throwing off 7000 gallons per minute.

Tin: Royal -team Yacht Victoeia and A i.BEP.T. — This vessel, the parti-
culars of which we gave in the last June number of the Journal, p. 216, made
an experimental trip down the river on the 18th ult ; when off Sheerness,
Commander Smith tried the speed of the vessel by the log and found it to
be about 12 knots or nearly 15 statute miles per hour, the engines at the
time making IS strokes per minute. Her engines are collectively of 400
horse power ; they reflect the highest credit upon Messrs. Maudslays and
Field, the emnent engineers, for the superiority and beauty of their work-
manship; they are upon the direct action-principle, with double cylinders, as
patented by Mr. Joseph Maudslay and Mr. Joshua Field, and described in
the Journal. Vol. hi., p. 73, accompanied by engravings. Although this
was only the first trial, the engines performed their duty with a smooth-
ness and" ease which showed bow correctly they had been fitted and applied
to each other, and worked so perfectly, that scarcely the least motion
could be felt above the engine-room, and not the slightest symptom of
tremulous motion. As a whole, they are superior to any they have hitherto
made, as with them are combined every really valuable inveniton in that
department of the application of steam-power in the royal or mercantile
navies of this or any other country. They have brine or change pumps, to
prevent the deposit of salt when u ing sea water, refrigerators to cool the
water by extracting the heat from it before it goes overboard, expansion
gear by which the steam can be used more economically ; but the boilers pro-
duce an ample quantity for full speed without this resource. The engines are
compact and occupy but a very small space in the vessel, compared with
their great power to move paddle-wheels 10 feet 6 inches broad and 31 feet
diameter, including the feathering boards. The engine-room is surrounded
by water-tight bulkheads, and not the least heat is communicated from the
es to any other part of the vessel, and their presence is not perceptible
in the rooms adjoining them. The vessel is now at Sheerness, and is ex-
pected to be completed in the course of the present month, and res
sea. We hope to be able shortly to give full particulars of both the vessel
and her engines.

British Steam Fbigate " Penelope.'' — This extraordinary ship, which
has created so much interest m the nautical world, by being cut in half and
lengthened 63 feet amidships, and transformed from a sailing t

is now ready. The engines are el. There

are t.io of them, conjointly being nearly 700 in., although the nominal
power is only 620 horse, the velocity of the piston being taken at 220 ire'
per minute. The diameter of the cylinder is 92 inches, and the length of
stroke nearly 7 feet. Every part of the engines and boilers is made ad<
in capacity and strength for 700 u.r. The engines are made upon what is

I upon the same plan as the en
•be Cyclops, Gorgon, and other steam frigates in her Mai sty's steam marine.
The coin ,n. ir s are made upon the tubular plan of M

ire two of them, each containing 7000 tubes, each 6 feet 8 inc\
The cold water is forced through the tubular condensers by foui
action pumps, worked by rods connected to the air-pump cross-head
cylinders have four distinct slide-valves, two for the admission of steam, and

i the escape of the steam to tl gear for working

the slides is so arranged that the admi i into the cylinder may

be cut oil at one-th.ii 1 or three-fourths of the . n 1 e, or at any intermediate
portion. The diameter of her paddle-wheels is 31 feet. There
boilers on the tubular plan, each having five fire plac arranged

i rays in the vessel with the lire places (10 of aside) facing Ihi
..1 the vessel, SO tin' the two stoke holes Ol tiring places are, one on the

lie vessi I. In a recess formed
the. two foremost boilers is the step for the ma
stands nearly in the centre of the engine and boiler room. The chit
placed at the after end of the two after boilers at a distance ol l"
clear abaft the main mast. The I .lei have each separate safetj
shut- off valves, feed pipes, and other apparatus, so that any one. tv i
or the whole four ran be used at tin

machinery, including the j er in the

boilers, is stated to be 435 tons : each ol the b 11 tons,

and is 22 inches in diameter. The engines are furnished w ilh a disc:
apparatus, b) means of winch hepaddle-i liei ih, can at any

t me be disconnected from the engines. The chimney of the boiler is ar-

I like a telescope funnel in two parts to slide into i.r shut up one within
tlier. She will have three masts, and be rigged in every other
i ispect as a sailing vessel, with 'lie exception that the yards connected with
the mizen mis' will be struck, and only hoisted when required to I E
I Trial of her Speed touk place on i .. b June, when she went

lie river as far as Queenhithe ; during her trial the paddle-wheels
made Hi revolutions per minute : and Iter speed is reported to have been be-
tween 10 and 1 1 miles per h iur. A second trial took place on the following
y, when some ot the 1. ids i ommisstonera ol the Admiralty at-
tended; in trying her speed over the measured mile, which was repeated
four times, her maximum rate is reported to be 13'S miles per hour with the

tide, and her minimum speed 103 miles per hour. On her return she per-
formed the distance, from Erith to Blackwall, of 11 miles, exactly within
the hour, the tide being against her.

The Mermaid. — On the 20th ult. the Mermaid, the vessel of which wc
have heard such favourable accounts, passed through London Bridge in the
morning and reached Woolwich Dockyard half an hour afterwards. We un-
derstand that she is to be fitted for foreign service immediately, and the
voyage out will afford an excellent opportunity of testing her qualities as a
sea boat. The experience already acquired with the Archimedes, the Great
I, and the Napoleon, a beautiful French corvette, lias shewn their
superiority over the old and cumbersome paddle-wheel system. TheA/er-
maid, we understand, is fitted up with two beautiful engii es, with a propeller
upon a new principle, and having been repeatedly tried at the measured mile,
down the river, has been found to go thirteen miles through ihe water.
She has gone from Sheerness to Blackwall. with tide, in two hours and three-
zuarters, ihe distance being forty-two miles; and the fact of her having
beaten, severally, the fastest boats on the river, mounted with paddle-wheels
and engines of a superior power, has completely set the question at rest
as to the superiority of ihe stern propeller over the paddle wheels, and over
every other description of propeller hitherto tried. The Archimedes and
Great Northern never exceeded 10 miles an hour, unaided by sails. The
Napoleon is said to have g< ne 12 m in the hour, and the French Government
are so elated by Ihe success of tins vessel, that they have already ordered
others to be constructed. himensions of llie Mermaid: — Length of vessel,
1301t.; breadth. 16ft 6 in. ; depth, 0 It.; tonnage, 164 ; power e f each engine,
bt of engines, boilers, &c, 46 ions; speed, 13 miles. The pro-
peller is of cast-iron, oft. 8 in. diameter, according to Mr. Kennie's plan.— K.
•• Hf.rne " Steamer. — This fine vessel, built of iron for the Heme Bay
t O mpany, by Messrs. Ditchburn &: Mair, and furnished with
engines by Messrs. Boulton, Watt, & Co., is now running between Blackwall
and Margate, and performing remarkably quick passages. The following are
particulai ruction: — Length between perpendiculars, 1SS ft 6 in.

■ of beam. 21 ft. 6 in. and depth in hold ; 10ft. burthen 355 tons. Power
two 80-horse engines; cylinders 43J inches diameter, 3 ft. 6 in. stroke ; paddle
wheel 18ft. 6 in. diameter by 11 It. over, depth of boards 16 in., and 20 in.
each. Boiler of the tubular Kind. Draft of water, 6ft. 2 in. Immersed sec-
li m. 102 ft. The first passage made on the 27th June, was against the tide
end. the remainder with ebb, ihe wind light and against. Starting
It unswick Wharf at 12h. 3 m., reached Gravesend by 1 h. 27 m„ equal
1 h. 24m., distance 20 miles, equal 11 3 in. per hour. The entire passage was
accomplished in 3h. 50m., being at the mean rate of 15*7 miles per hour, the
r.g 29 strokes per minute. The return passage on the 28th,
wnb the Hood, s'.minj; from the bay at 7h. 38m. wind N.K.
reaching Gravesend at 10 h. 3m. and Brunswick Wharl at 11 h. 14m
3 h. 36m. for the whole distance, equal 10 7 miles per hour. The tide from
Gravesend to the Brunswick Her was about as much in favour as the run was
. as no trial at the measured mile was made, the average of the
the speed in still water, viz. on the 27th, from Bruns-
tidi in 84 m. equal 143 miles ; from Graves-
Brunswick pier, with tide, in 71m. equal 15 6 miles speed in siill
•lion ol 102 feet. Since then she has frequently
between the Brunswick pier and Gravesend in 67, 6o,
minutes with the tide, and her pi i from the Hay average

3 hours i i he consumption of coal is moderate fir a boiler of the

le.UiLr construction, being under 5 lb. indicator per horse per hour.

MISCELLANEA.

■ s Patent Rotary Engine. — At the Society of Arts, on Wednesday
Mr. Whisbaw (the secretary) read a paper " On the New
." invented by Messrs. l.T. & B. Beale. of East Greenwich,
i. 181 j I be'engine described by Mr. Whishaw is one which
i work on Messrs. Beale's premises, at Bast Greenwich. It
. of an iron case 14 inches diameter, and 0J inches in thickness It
wa.s stated that it drives a surface-lathe, weighing 24 tons; a planing ma-
two smaller planing machines; three drilling machines; a
. : key-way cutting machine; twelve large self-acting lathes;
a two-foot circular saw ; a shaping macb ne i a punch-
ing and shearing press, capable of punching thirty holes per minute; two
i fan, r'iving 1600 revolutions per minute ; and a twelve

n eli air-pump. The boiler is of the common egg-shaped description ; and.
f r the performance of the above work, 560 lo. ot coal is used in (en hutirs.
le has an iron pinnace, fitted wnb one ol bis patent engines, same
; 'g ing ; she is 38 eel long, bit. 6 in. beam, and" 4 ft. deep,
2 feet of water, and goes nearly ten miles per hour
a the water, although the lines of the boat are greatly at van .
the acquirement of a high velocity, being intended for a man-of-war's pm-
. ice, and having a midship section equal to nine superficial feet underwater;
she is double bottomed, w hich forms a condenser to the engine, which i
supplied by one ot Ins patent boilers—a cylinder '.) feet ill diameter, and in
which i ill an inch in diameter, and 39 inches

long, and the height from ash-pit to dome cover dies not exceed 9 feet; she
is propelled by four segments of a screw, placed upon an open-ended cylin-
der, and is 24J inches ia diameter. Several members of the Society of Arts
made an experimental trip up the river, and completely proved the superior
power of the engine, while the extraordinary facility with which the motion
can be reversed, by instantly convening the induction into the eduction pipe
and vice versa, is ol the utmost importance in the traffic of a crowded river.

A new Gas Light— MM. Rouen and Busson, of Paris, are the patentees
of a mode I by means of a self -generating gas. The substance em-

ployed is coal naphtha, an essence obtained from the distillation of the coal

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

1813.]

tar which is one of the products of the distillation of coals for ^-lighting.
The mode by which thev obtain a more perfect combustion of the na| .1 ;
tnanbefore reached, is simple. Thev contrive, by the apparatus of the lamp
Staler that the gas should be projected to some *-^e. ^ *M™
it takes fire, there being, however, within the tube of the burner, a constam
am ■, w hich serves the double purpose of igniting the gas Pgeotadbw ithe
openings of the burner, and by its heat, in decomposing the naphtha with
which the lanin is supplied, generating new gas for continued MmUist on.
The ras being consumed at a short distance from the burner, is thoroughly
suppled whir-'- and this free supply causes perfect combust ion. and a br -
iiant light without smoke ; but it may be presumed that, as he gas escapes
from he burner before it is in a state of perfect combustton the smejM .S^morc
•ffimsive than it would be if consumed at the immediate orifice. MM. Rouen
and Busson estimate that the use of this light is at, ^ f . "l^ ™ '^"^
of five-sixths as compared with oil, an equal quantity of light being furnished
at a sixth of the expense.

Peematubb Rise of the Nile—A very remarkable anomaly has been ob-
served1 .is yeat in the periodical flux of the Nile. From time immemorial
the first day of the rise of the Nile has ensued soon after the summer solstice,
and at Cairo the phenomenon has usually taken place some time between the
1st and the 10th of July s this year, however, there was a rise of the river on
the night of the 5th of May, consequently two months earlier than usual.
This rise continued only four days, after which the water lell, and it still
continues falling as it always does until the period of the summer soll.ee.
History affords no example of so early a rise of the river, and only a few
instances are recorded of a second rise taking place shortly after the first.
One of these instances occurred in the reign of Cleopatra and the other in
the year 1737.— Cologne Gazette.

Rise and Fall of the Mediterranean Sea.— A singular phenomenon
appeared in the harbour of Valeria on June 2, the water suddenly rising to
the height of three feet, overflowing the works of the new dry dock; it
almost immediately fell five feet and a half : during this period,* very strong
current was running out of the harbour, which the boatmen could scarcely
stem It is supposed this circumstance must have occurred through some
earthquake at a remote distance. We hear that at Tripoli in Barbary, seve-
ral severe shocks have been felt.

Legal Decision regarding Wei.i.-Sinki.ng.— In the Court of Exchequer
Chamber in Error, on Wednesday. May 19, a judgment of considerable im-
portance was pronounced by Lord Chief Justice Tindal, in the case of ' Acton
i. Blundell." Within twenty years before the commencement of the action,
the plaintiff had sunk a well, and the water which it collected was sufficient
to work his mill ; hut in 1837, the defendant dug a coal-pit three-quarters of
a mile distant, which, eventually, drained the well dry, and, there ore, an
action was brought to recover compensation. On the trial, the pudge tow
the jury that if the defendant had dug the pit in the manner which was usual
in working and winding a mine, he was justified by law in what he had done j
and the jury found for the defendant. A bill of exceptions to this charge
was presented, which had, subsequently, been argued, hut the Court now
decided that the summing tip was correct. The Court were of opinion that
the case should be decided on the principle of the rule which gave to the
owner of the soil everything under the surface of it ; and that if the plaintiff
had suffered loss by the exercise of the defendant's right, it was a loss which
was damnosum non 'injuriosum. and for which no action could be maintained.
The Court, therefore, unanimously gave judgment for the defendant.

Galvanic Battery.— The battery lately used for the explosion of the
Royal George was composed of 20 plates of amalgamated zinc and 40 of cast-
iron, on the same principle as Mr. Davidson's battery, with which be exhibits
his interesting electro-magnet experiments at the Egyptain-hall, Piccadilly.
Two batteries being judged necessary, another was made of the same number
of plates and of the same size, that is, 7 by 10 inches square, but using cop-
per instead of iron as had been done in the plate batteries at Dover. On
comparing them by the voltameter, the zinc and iron battery was found much
more powerful than the zinc and copper battery of the same dimensions;
but contrary to expectation, on combining them into one battery, they
neutralized each other instead of doubling the power of either, which would
have been the case if two voltaic batteries of the same sort had been thus
combined.

Electricity of Water— An interesting and highly important discovery
has been made by Professor Faraday during his investigation of the hitherto
supposed electricity of steam. At the evening sittings of the Royal Insti-
tution, on Friday, the 9th June, a paper was read on the subject, which with
some beautiful experiments, convinced his auditory of the fallacy of some
important poinls in the opinions recently held on electrical science. It has
been laid down as a principle upon which important theories have been based,
ihat electricity is produced by the evaporation of water into steam, but Mr.
J.', lias shewn that not only has steam nothing to do with it, but that the
least vapour in contact with the water prevents the production ol the electric
fluid, and that waier alone, pressed rapidly through a tube, produces the
effect hitherto supposed to belong to steam ; it being, however, essentially
necessary that the water should be pure, even that supplied to our houses
for domestic use not answering the purpose ; distilled water, however, is now-
proved to be the most excitable of all electric bodies, while the smallest
addition of any extraneous substance will reverse the state of the fluid from
negative to positive, and vice versa, or destroy it altogether. Its intensity
was shewn to he very great, by charging Leyden jars, and drawing sparks
from the boiler sufficient to light a jet of hydrogen gas. Mr. Faraday con-
tends that steam, or its action, has no connection with the production of
electricity, or thunder and lighting, as there is no water on the surface of the
earth sufficiently pure, the evaporation of which could have the effect. The
principles propounded in this lecture have excited much interest in the scien-
tific world, particularly among electricians, as the establishment of this
theury is so opposed to formerly received opinions, and quite upsets the
generally understood rationale of engine-boiler explosions.

289

The Breakwater Lighthouse.— This valuable addition to the public works
iu our port is now fasl approaching io completion. During the past ueck
the third story of the building was completed, so that the oil-room, the store-
room, and the living-room are now up. The fourth room, which will be the
sleeping appartment. is in a forward slate, nearly the whole of it being dry
set at the Breakwater Quarries at Oreston. Owing to the great inconvenience
experienced from the large number of persons who visited the breakwater
and lighthouse, it was found necessary, in order to prevent the constant
interruption consequent upon their visits to the latter, to suspend the admit-
tance of the public for the present, but as the several remaining parts of the
edifice are put together at the quarries, ihose persons who may be desiruus
of inspecting the workmanship may gratify their wish by a visit to the latter
place. — Plymouth Times-

Dr. Sfurgin's Patent Hoisting Machine..— A new machine for raising
bricks and other materials to the top of the scaffolding, has just bei
strncted, and is now in use by Mr. Cubilt, at the houses building at Prince
Albert's gate. The hods, baskets, itc. are hooked to a chain ladder, which
turns over a wheel at the top of the building; and when emptied, they are
sent down ty the descending chain. One man is sufficient to work the ma-
chinery, so that a vast saving of time and labour is attained. Messrs. Grissell
and Peto have also adopted it, and have it in use at the N:w Houses of
Parliament. Dr. Spurgin is the patentee, and M. Journet, a French engi-
neer, has purchased from him the universal licence to carry the invention
into operation.

Paris.— The building of the large cellular prison, in the Faubourg St. An-
toine. is proceeding with great rapidity. It is in the form of an open fan.
All the corridors will arrive at a common centre, fivm which the whole may
be inspected. The prison is to contain 1200 cells, and the total expense is
estimated at 4,381,000f. It is to be called La Nouvelle Force.

LIST OP WEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.)
Six Months allowed/or Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

SUPPLEMENT TO PATENTS GRANTED IN JUNE.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improvements in
the preparation of paper designed for bank notes, government documents,
bills, cheques, deeds, and other purposes, wherein protection and safety from
forgeries or counterfeits are required." (A communication.)— Sealed June

Thomas Mitchell, of Dalton, York, dyer, for " a machine and apparatus
for increasing and permanently fastening the face or gloss of all kinds of
woollen, worsted, and fancy cloths, by the application of steam alone, with-
out immersing thegoods in water."— June 15. Two mouths.

Thomas Richard Guppy, of the Great Western Iron Ship Building and
Steam-engine Works, Bristol, civil engineer, for " improvements m the bmld-
inq of metal ships and other vessels." — June 15.

George Edmund Donisthorpe, of Bradford, York, top manufacturer, for
" improvements in combing wool and other fibrous substances." — June 15.

John Oliver York, of Upper ColeshiU-strect, Westminster, engineer, and
William Johnson, of Horseley Iron Works, Staffordshire, ironmaster, for
" improvements in paving or covering roads, streets, and other ways or sur-
faces."— June 15. .

Samuel Mason, of Northampton, merchant, and Caleb Bedels, of Leices-
ter, manufacturer, for " improvements in the manufacture of boots, shoes,
slippers, overalls, and clogs, and improvements in machinery or apparatus
used in such manufacture, and in the preparation of materials for the said
manufacture." — June 15. _ .

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for improve-
ments in apparatus for propelling vessels." — June 15. ...

George Kobins Booth, of Hanlev, Stafford, manufacturer and chemist,
for " an improved mode of applying heat from various combustibles to manu-
faclurinq and other useful purposes." — June 15.

Thomas Oldham, of Manchester, manufacturer, for '■ an improved mode
of manufacturing bonnets and hats. — June 15.

Oglethorp Wakelin Barratt, of Birmingham, experimental cnemist, for
» improvements in gilding, plating, and coating various metallic surfaces, —
June 15. ,_ , ,

Lemuel Wellman Wright, of Gusford Cottage, North Wales, engineer, for
" improvements in machinery or apparatus for bleaching various fibrous
substances, and is also in possession of an invention of improve,,,, nti m
machinery or apparatus for converting or manufacturing the same into
paper. (A communication). — June 15.

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM JUNE 22, TO JULY 26, 1843.

Louis Le Page, of 72 Lombard-street, for " an improved method or methods
for preventing accidents on railways. (A communication.)— June ZZ.

William Wylam, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, merchant, tor " improvements
in the manufacture or preparation 0/ 'fuel.— June 22.

Samuel Ellis, of Salford, Leicester, engineer, for " improvements m
weighing machines, and in turn tables to be used on or in common «•»./<
railways, and in weighing machines to be used in other places. —June --.

290

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[August,

Samuel Eccles, of Hulme, Lancaster, machinist, and Matthew Curtis, of
Chorlton-upon-Medlock, machinist, for " improvements in looms for weav-
ing."— June 22.

Mose Poole, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for " improvements in collars
for horses and other animals. (A communication.) — June 23.

Nicholas Troughton. of Swansea, Glamorgan, gentleman, for " improve-
ments in dressing ores requiring washing." — June 23.

William Needham, of Birmingham, gunsmith, for " improvements in fire-
arms."— June 24.

John Duncan, of 72, Lombard-street, gentleman, for " improvements in
the casting and construction of types for printing." (A communication.) —
June 26.

Charles Townsend Christian, of Saint Martin's-place, Saint Martin's-Iane,
East India army agent, for " improvements in the construction of steam-
engines. (A communication.) — June 27.

Richard Waller, of Bradford, York, coach-builder, for "improvements in
locomotive carriages, and in steam boilers and engines." — June 27.

John Thomas Betts, of Battersea, gentleman, for " improvements in cover-
ing and stopping the tops of boxes, jars, pots, and other vessels." (A com-
munication.)— June 27.

Edward Johnson, of Nelson-square, Blackfriars-road, Surrey, surgeon, for
"improvements in apparatus for bathing." — June 27.

Alexander Parkes, of Birmingham, artist, for "improvements in preparing
solutions of certain vegetable and animal matters, applicable to preserving
wood and other substances, and for other uses. — June 27.

Charles Kurtz, of Liverpool, manufacturing chemist, for " an improved
lamp, for the combustion of naphtha,' turpentine, and other resinous oils." —
June 30.

Charles Tetley, of Bradford, gentleman, for " an improvement or improve-
ments in the construction of boilers, otherwise generators, for producing
steam." — June 30.

James Lancaster Lucena, of Garden-court, Middle Temple, Rarrister-at-
law, for " improvements in steam engines, and in machinery for propelling
vessels, which improvements are applicable to other purposes, being an ex-
tension of a patent for the term of five years granted by his late Majesty
King George the Fourth to Alexander Galloway, of King-street, Southwark,
engineer." — July 1.

James John Green, of Woolwich, surgeon, for " improvements in appa-
ratus for securing, or fixing, standing, rigging and chains, and other tackle."
— July 1.

Charles Phillips, of Chipping Norton, Oxford, engineer, for " improve-
ments in apparatus or machinery for cutting corn, grass, and such like
standing or growing crops, and in apparatus or machinery for cutting vegeta-
ble substances as food for cattle." — Julv 3.

Thomas Wedlake, of llornchurch, Essex, machinist, for " improvements in
machinery for making hoy, ichich improvements are applicable to other
agricultural purposes." — July 3.

James Verity, of Leicester-street, Regent-street, boot and shoemaker, for
" improvements in the heels and soles of boots and shoes."— July 3.

James Hartley, Wear Glass 'Works, Sunderland, glass manufacturer, for
"improvement in the manufacture of glass. — July 3.

James Boydell, junr,, of Oak Farm Works, Stafford, iron master, for "im-
provements in the manufacture of metallic roofs and joists, and improve-
ments injoining sheets or plates of metal, for various pnrpoi.es."— July 6.

Florimond Delcroix, jun., of Norfolk-street, Strand, merchant, for''n»-
provements in furnaces for locomotive and other engine; and in the appa-
ratus used for regulating the escape of steam, and' the passage of air in
chimneys of furnaces. (A communication. 1— July 6.

James Neville, of Walworth, civil engineer, for" improvements in the form
and manufacture of horse shoes." — July 6.

John Wright and Richard Wright,' both of Richmond, York, boot and
shoe makers, for " improvements in boots and shoes, and other like covering
for the feet."— My 6.

Joseph Cooke Grant, of Stamford, Lincoln, ironmonger, for " improve-
ments in the construction of harrows."— July 6-

John Woodhouse Day, of Well Field, Durham Colliery, and land agent, for
" improvements in apparatus to facilitate the loading of vessels with coal,
culm, or cinders. — July 6.

George John Newberry, of King William- street, London, artist, for " im-
provements in the manufacture and construction of window blinds, screens,
shutters, and other similar articles, parts of which improvements are appli-
cable to other purposes." — Julv 6.

Henry Clarke Ash, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for " improvements in
the construction of teapots." — July 6.

James Booth, of Liverpool, clerk, and doctor of laws, for " improvements
in the means of converting rectilinear into rotary motion, and of converting
rotary into rectilinear motion." — July 6.

^ Thomas Masters, of Upper Chariot te-street, St. Pancras, confectioner, for
" an improved freezing, cooling, churning, and ice-preserving apparatus, the
parts of which may be used separately or in combination."— July 6.

James Joseph Brunet, of Limehouse, esquire, for •' improvements in pro-
jellmg, parts of which improvements have been communicated to him by a
foreigner residing abroad." — July 6.

George Parsons, of West Lambrook, Somerset, gentleman, for "a portable
root. tor various agricultural, and for other purposes."— July 7.

George Parsons, of West Lambrook, Somerset, gentleman, and Richard

Clyburn, of Uley, Gloucester, engineer, for " improvements in machinery for
beating, cleansing, and crushing various animal and vegetable materials or
substances." — July 10,

Jacob Samuda, of Southwark Iron-works, engineer, for " improvements n
the construction of steam-engines, particularly applicable to the purposes of
steam navigation." — July 10.

John Laird, of Birkenhead, Cheshire, ship-builder, for " improvements in
the construction of steam and other vessels."— July 10.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " an im-
proved agricultural machine, or implement for ploughing, harrowing, or tilling
land." (A communication.) — July 13.

Richard Laming, Radley's Hotel, New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London,
gentleman, for " improvements in the purification and application of ammonia,
to obtain certain chemical products." — July 13.

Joseph Maudslay, of Lambeth, engineer, for " improvements in machinery
used for propelling z*essels by steam power." — July 13.

George King Sculthorpe, of Frederick's cottages, Coleharbour-lane, gentle-
man, for " an improved method of fastening and securing bedsteads." — July 13.
Henry Pinkus, of No. 1, Duke-street, Portland-place, esquire, for "im-
provements in the methods of applying motive power in combination with
apparatus and machinery, to certain purposes in propelling, and applicable
In railways, to ships, or other vessels afloat." — July 13.

Stephen Geary, of Hamilton-place, King's-cross, architect and civil engi-
neer, for " improvements in machinery or apparatus for clearinq, cleansing,
watering, or wholly or partially covering with sand, or other materials, roads,
streets, or ways, and which machinery is also applicable to other similar pur-
poses."— July 13.

William Midworth, of Mansfield, Nottingham, brass founder, for " im-
provements in the construction of what are commonly called street guard
plates for public water services, and in the mode of constructing the stop-
valves, stoppers, or stop-cocks, used therein, and which stop-valves, stoppers,
or stop-cocks are also applicable to various other purposes, where the flow of
water, or other liquids, is required to be regulated or suspended." — June 13.

Henry Smith, of Birmingham, Warwick, for "improvements in apparatus

for fastening doors, and in apparatus for giving action to alarums." — July 13.

William Hutchison, of Ivy Bridge-lane, Strand, marble and stone mer-

chant, for " improvements in machinery for cutting marble and other stones."

July 13.

James Neville, of Walworth, civil engineer, for •' improvements in obtaining
powerby means of gases, applicable to working machinery." — July 13.

Ann Wise, of Saville-row, Burlington-gardens, Parisian corset-maker, for
" improvements in the construction of stays and umbilical belts." — July 13.

Robert Ransome, of Ipswich, ironfounder, Charles May, of the same place,
also ironfounder, Arthur Biddell, of Playford, Suffolk, farmer, anil William
Worby. of Ipswich, foreman to Messrs. T. R. and A. Ransome, for "im-
provements in machinery and apparatus used for ploughing and scarifying
land, and for raking, and for improvements in machinery and apparatus used
for thrashing, cutting, and grinding for agricultural purposes, and for im-
provements in the construct iun cf irliippte-trees."- — July 15.

James Overend, of Liverpool, gentleman, for " improvements in printing

fabrics with metallic matters, and finishing silks and other fabrics." — July 15.

William Garnett Taylor, of Halliwell, Lancaster, cotton spinner, "for

improvements in machinery for spinning cotton and other fibrous substances,

and in preparing and dressing yarn for weaving." — July 15.

James Gallop Beater, of St. Clement's-place, Worcester, tailor, for " im-
provements in the fastenings for trouser-straps, and in fastenings for wear-
ing apparel generally. — July 20

Henry Austin, of Hattou-garden, civil engineer, for "improvements in the
construction of water-closets." — July 20.

Charles Bertram, of the Borough of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, esquire, for
" an improved mastic or cement, which may be also employed as an artificial
stone, and for coating metals and other substances." — July 20.

Joseph Harvey, of James-street, Buckingham-gate, gentleman, for " im-
prorements in the construction of two-wheeled carriages." — July 20.

William Daniell, of Abercarne, near Newport, Monmouth, tinplate manu-
facturer, for " improvements in rolling iron into plates or sheets." — July 22.

James Nasmyth,of Manchester, engineer, for "improvements in machinery
or apparatus for driving piles, part or parts of which improvements are
applicable also to forging or stamping metals and other substances." — July
22.

Joseph Daniel Davidge, of Greville-strret, Hatton Garden, machinist, for
" improvements in manufacturing certain materials as substitutes for
whalebone applicable to various useful purposes, and in the machinery for
effecting the same." — July 24.

David Napier, of Y'ork-road, Lambeth, engineer, for " improvements ap-
plicable to boilers or apparatus for generating steam." — July 25.

Frederic Lewis Westenholz, of 151, Regent-street, merchant, for "a
double-centred steam-engine." — July 25.

Samuel Faulkner, of Manchester, cotton-spinner, for " improvements in
the machinery or apparahts for carding cotton and other fibrous sub-
stances."— July 25.

Edward Eyre, of Poole's Hotel, London, gentleman, for " improvements
in railways, and in the machinery or opparatus employed thereon." — (A
communication.) — July 26.

William Crofton Moat, of 28, Upper Berkeley. street, Marylebone, sur-
geon, for " a method of obtaining atrial locomotion." — July 26.

1843. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

201

ON THE EFFECTS WHICH SHOULD RESULT TO ARCHITECTURAL TASTE, WITH REGARD TO ARRANGEMENT AND
DESIGN, FROM THE GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF IRON IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS.

Essay to which the Medal of the Institute of British Architects was awarded in 1842.

Decorative Architecture from the Baths of Titus.

Great and manifold have been the disputes on the terms beauty
and taste. Right reason and sound judgment seem to enter princi-
pally into the composition of the latter quality, whether applied to
morals or the fine arts, and with regard to the former, much cloudy
argument may be cleared away by considering beauty in two points of
view — as positive or intrinsic, and relative; the former appealing to
the senses, the latter addressing itself to the understanding. The
agreeable sensations arising simply from the form or colour of an in-
dividual object, is due to its intrinsic beauty. Relative beauty arises
from the fitness of things — from the perception of a means adapted to
an end — from the parts being well calculated to answer the design of
the whole. Relative beauty, therefore, being intimately connected
with utility, is that which we principally recognise in architecture.
Many objects intrinsically beautiful may occupy a prominent station
in an architectural composition; but although strong and abiding
associations of ideas, may often render it difficult to distinguish in-
trinsic from relative beauty, yet it is certain that beauty is produced
in architecture in the most eminent degree, by combinations of parts,
none of which could justly be called beautiful if separated, and con-
sidered singly on their own merits ; and it is no less certain, that the
most beautiful elements of architectural composition contribute nothing
to the beauty of the whole, unless properly associated. They merely
become absurd, as may be seen daily in the base prostitution of the
exquisite models of Greek art.

That beauty in architecture is inseparably connected with the ideas
of fitness and utility, is made evident by the fact, that we acknow-
ledge the highest degree of beauty to subsist in the most opposite
extremes of taste — in other words, that the exercise of judgment and
reason, which constitutes taste, leads us to consider beauty with refe-
rence to fitness and utility ; and if one modification of architecture is
admitted to a pre-eminence over others, it is because its fitness is the
most obvious, and the means by which its purpose is attained, more
simple and immediate. Whether we contemplate the architecture of
the Egyptians or the Greeks, the stupendous piles of the Eternal City,
the gorgeous monuments of the Gothic style, the mazy intricacy of
the Alhambra, or the finished productions of modern Italy, the mind
perceives, in each and all, the adaptation of the means to the end, and
the development of the spirit of the age and country, in which, and for
which, they were created, and these form the essential principle of
the relative beauty of architecture. Now where shall we turn to find
the beauty bom from the spirit of our age and country, in the archi-
tecture of the 19th century ? The very proposition at the head of
No. 72.— Vol. VI.— September, 1813.

this paper is an answer. In the 19th century we are in possession
of a material in extensive operation, offering us new modes of con-
struction, new proportions, the power of creating new forms and com-
binations, differing from every thing that has preceded them in art.
It is now 62 years, since the erection of the bridge at Colebrook-dale
first revealed the capabilities of cast iron in construction on a large
scale; and during that period, science and cast iron have marched
hand in hand, with strides it is amazing to contemplate. But what
has art effected with this new power? The Institute of British Archi-
tects are still at the inquiry " what effect should result to architectural
taste, from its general introduction ? " ! In the real adaptation of cast
iron to architecture as an art, we are much where the Dorians were,
when they had placed four trunks of trees in a row with a tile upon
each. There the Doric order might have remained, had the Dorians
been of our stamp, and there it would have remained had trunks ot
trees instead of cast iron been first used in construction in our time.
Or perhaps the parallel will run closer, if we compare ourselves with
the ancients, when they first adopted the principle of the arch, since
they combined it with architectural forms already established ; as we
shall probably seek to do with cast iron, whenever we begin to bestow
our attention upon it. After 62 years' experience, under circum-
stances through which a new and original style of architecture might
have been developed, we are still where the Romans may have been
when they built their Cloaca Maxima.

To what are we to attribute this stagnation in all our ideas, as
regards art in this point of view? Doubtless, to the blind spirit of
imitation and obstinate adherence to precedent (whether applicable
or not, seems of little importance) which characterises the architec-
ture of the present day. Where cast iron is to be used, the first
requisite seems to be to keep it out of sight, or to make it look as
much as possible like something else. To impress upon it the charac-
ter of a style would be more in the spirit of the ancients, whom we
profess to adore. Not that it is in the power of any man to stand
forth and say, " I will invent a style." A style, like a language, must
be the growth of time and circumstances; and who is to make the
first essay in an age when precedent is "the be-all and the end-all,"
and when he who cannot command success, cares not for the higher
distinction of deserving it ?

The fatal effect of this spirit on our architecture might be evidenced
in various ways. What has been advanced on the subject of cast iron
is very far from being the strongest point in which it might be shown,
but the argument must be limited to the question under immediate con-

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[September,

sideration. may, per.iaps, be further illustrated by a reductio ad
absurdum. Let us suppose that the Greeks had possessed no marble,
but had known the art of casting large weights of iron, and had
thought proper to use it "with regard to arrangement and design," as
it might have been used in their hands ; we will further suppose that
the art had been lost ; we should, perhaps, still have looked upon the
monuments of antiquity so designed and constructed, in the same vul-
gar spirit with which it has been the fashion to contemplate the Par-
thenon— as something to be imitated. How would our "genius have
been cramped " ! (as the phrase is). How should we have lamented
at finding ourselves restricted to the use of stone, or marble, in which
we should have sought in vain to reproduce the light forms of antiquity!
Instead of striking out original proportions, and combinations adapted
to our means, we should sit down perfectly convinced that neither
beauty nor character could be created under the disadvantage of such
materials, and abandon ourselves in despair to the construction of
bare walls, the monotony of which might now and then be relieved by
the crash of a public building, though the laudable attempt of some
classical genius to support it on Bath stone columns five-and-thirty
diameters high. Extravagai.t as this notion may appear, it is not
without its parallel, in the neglect of the present generation to seek
for the elements of beauty in a material which new wants and new
principles of construction are every day rendering more and more
inevitable in our constructive architecture. It is not, of course, with
the intention of suggesting any new mode of treating cast iron in point
of art, that these observations are submitted to the Institute ; but we
may fairly infer that neither the ancient nor mediaval architects who
have bequeathed to us inventions in art, which (lacking as we do the
vivifying spirit of original thought) it cost us something even to
imitate with success, would have overlooked the peculiar capabilities
of a material holding so important a place in their constructive archi-
tecture, as cast iron now does in ours. Material has, in all ages and
styles, performed an important part in modifying design ; and it is
recognised as one of the most important elements of relative beauty,
as exhibited in architecture, that the real and apparent construction
should assimilate, and that the soundest architecture, in whatever
style, is that in which art has turned to beauty and ornament the
forms and proportions dictated by necessity, or by science. Without,
therefore, hazarding any new or startling problems on cast iron, or on
architecture in general, it may be to the purpose to enter into some
inquiry as to the use of metal in the arts, its influence in modifying
design, and the purposes to which it might be applied in architec-
ture, without losing sight of the precedents afforded by antiquity and
the middle ages, to which we seem bound hand and foot.

1. Let us consider first, how far the proportions of the supports,
which is the most obvious eft'ect to be produced by the formation of a
genuine style adapted to the use of cast iron, is to be reconciled with
any principle derived from the works of antiquity. It will scarcely
be disputed, that no proportion of parts, so long as there is a perfect
accordance in the different members of any composition, is incon-
sistent with beauty. That this was a principle of ancient art, may be
inferred from the fact, that among the numerous examples of the
Doric order, which have survived from antiquity, no two present the
same proportions. Nor can it be argued, that on the ground of pro-
portion exclusively, any one is more perfect than the rest, since each
must be viewed with reference to the character impressed upon it,
whether tending most towards majesty or grace; and its beauty will
consist in the perfect accordance between one feature and another.
It was a remark of Sir John Soane, that this diversity in the antique
orders of architecture, was not the result either of caprice or negli-
gence, but of a careful study of the effect intended to be produced.
Thus from the temples of Pcestum to that of Cora, the Doric column
passes through a variety of proportions, ranging from 4i diameters
in height to 9. To what proportions the architects of antiquity
might have drawn out their supports, had metal entered into their
construction as largely and familiarly as it now does into ours, it
would be treading on dangerous ground to offer a conjecture ; but
that they conceived, and freely designed, in a style ot architecture

of extreme tenuity, when they were unembarrassed by solid materials,
is evident, from the decorations of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and

Antique Doric Orders.

Fcestum. Parthenon. Cora.

other remains of ancient art. Nor is the architecture which the
brush has perpetuated on the walls of antiquity, to be regarded as a
mere capriccio. Throughout these decorations a great portion of the
framework is architectural, and presents an assemblage of member*
analogous to those of regular architecture, carried out with a uni-
formity and consistency, which entitle these compositions to be con-
sidered as an organized style, adapted to the purpose to which we
find it devoted. It is not intended by these observations, to propose
that we should solidify the decorations of Herculaneum or the Baths
of Titus, (though it would be easy to do worse,) but it seems indis-
putable, that the ancients saw nothing incompatible with beauty or
good taste, in the proportions thus developed. Had it been other-
wise, they would surely have avoided the semblance of architecture
altogether, instead of elaborating into a regular style these exquisite
creations of the fancy. (See the head piece.)

Although this modification of architecture is confined to painting,
yet there are other works of ancient art in which proportion takes as

Antique Candelabra.

Bronze. Marble.

wide a range, and in which the modifications of design are to be di-
rectly traced to the nature of the materials employed, and most es-
pecially to the use of metal. The cande abra and tripods of anti-

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293

quity, of which such numerous examples are extant, offer the most
convincing proofs of the opposite extremes which beauty may touch,

Antique Tiir/ods.

where it is relative and connected with the principle of reason and
utility. How different are the proportions of these objects, modelled
on the same general form and outline, and destined to the same offi-

ces, according to the material, marble or bronze, in which the artist
has thought proper to execute them. Change the material, and the
one becomes absurdly heavy, the other impracticable. And yet so
little attentiou has been paid by the moderns to a principle which
might be supposed too obvious to be missed, that it would be very
easy to point out candelabra copied from antique marbles and cast in
iron, without regard to the absurdity of executing the mass in metal,
when designs so much more consistent with the material, and equally
authorised by antiquity (since it seems indispensable to copy some-
thing) were to be had for choosing ; and others might be indicated in
which a better feeling, as regards the shaft, only renders more obvious
the disproportions of a lumpy pedestal, substituted for the exquisite
tripedal arrangement, universal in the metal candelabra of antiquity.
Cast-iron, however, being so much more brittle than bronze, would
require a somewhat different treatment, if considered in an original
spirit. Besides candelabra and tripods, we may point to antique
seats, in which the modification from the same cause is no less
striking. And even in those forms, which are less open to variety
from being the direct representations of natural objects, the handling
is with equal skill adapted to the materials. The draperies of sta-
tues are studied with especial reference to this point; and some
works of antiquity which have descended to us in marble, have been
pronounced by competent authorities to be copies from bronze, on ac-
count of their peculiarity in this respect. In vases, also, there is a
marked difference in the design, as the material is marble or bronze

Antique Seats.

as may be seen in innumerable examples in the museum at Naples.
If our means are deficient fur carrying this parallel of the ancient
practice in marble and metal much farther, it makes at least a strong
case, that it is uniform and consistent as far as it goes. It is no ob-
jection to the argument which has been drawn from the decorative
architecture of Heiculaneum and Pompeii, that the ancients never
attempted to approach that style in execution, by reducing their sup-
ports to the minimum which might have been permitted by the mate-
rials they were in the habit of employing. It is not contended that
cast-iron is necessarily to be reduced to its minimum. The trabeated
system, which is the fundamental principle of Greek architecture,
and the predominant feature in the derivative style of the Romans,
demanded a certain proportion between the masses which were em-
ployed for the architraves, as connected with the marble ceilings of
the peristyles, the pediments, and the roof, and the columns on which
they rest. We learn from Vitruvius that the ancients studied the

nicest shades of distinction in these proportions. And how happily
have they been determined! Human ingenuity has sought in vain
to improve upon them, and every palpable deviation in parallel com-
binations, brirgs with it the sensation, that the principles of relative
beauty are disturbed. Change the material, as in the timber archi-
traves of the Tuscan order, according to the doctrine of Vitruvius,
and the proportions are at once revolutionized — but without any com-
promise of the essential principle of beauty, since the means and
the end remain consonant, and the parts are fitted to the design of the
whole.

2. In considering the works of antiquity with reference to the in-
fluence of the use of metal upon architecture, we have been reduced
to aro-ue upon analogies. The consideration of another style of ar-
chitecture, which divides with the chef* d'ceuvres of Greece itself,
the admiration of posterity, will afford us a much clearer view of the
influence which cast-iron may exercise upon art, and what is more

40*

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[September.

without compromising the darling principle of imitation and precedent.
It is indeed strange, that so little advantage should have been hitherto
drawn from the employment of this material, in a style to which it so
readily lends itself as the Gothic.

The principle of Gothic architecture, as opposed to the Greek,
the prevalence of the perpendicular line, has been well discriminated
by Rickman; and it is not to be doubted that another principle with
the Gothic architects, if indeed it be not identical with- the first, was
the reduction of all the points of support, both really and apparently,
to a minimum. This is especially obvious in the earlier style of
Gothic, where the clustered shafts alculated to effect this impression
on the eye, are detached from the main body of the constructive pier
with which they were at a later period incorporated. Sometimes
this effect is greatly increased by a combination of isolated shafts,
without the nucleus of a central pier, and in the composition of sub-
ordinate parts, as in double and triple lancet windows, where the
support given by the columns is only apparent, we have single iso-
lated shafts of excessive slenderness — and there are some remarkable

Gothic Shafts from the Lady Chapel, Salisbury.

examples, which go far to prove this principle of design to have
been limited only by the capabilities of the materials employed.
Such is the lady chapel of Salisbury Chapel, where four single iso-
lated columns, 32 diameters or thereabouts in height, form, or appear
to form, (it is not very certain which,) the actual support of the main
vaulting of the roof, leaving after ages to marvel at the hardihood of
the design, and the skill of the execution, and though last, not least,
the success which has attended it. There are other cases in which
it is evident that the supports have been reduced as far as prudence
would admit. The nave of Heme Church in Kent, affords an ex-
ample of single shafts, in which the proportions have undoubtedly
been thus regulated.

Now this characteristic of Gothic architecture, which the archi-
tects of the middle ages attained generally by the help of Purbeck
marble, with much limitation and difficulty, we in the 19th century
have the means of producing with far greater facility, and carrying
to a much greater extent, by the aid of cast-iron, which places it in
our power to arrive at a degree of lightness, of which the Gothic ar-
chitects could only dream, though they made bold efforts to realise it ;
and it does appear most extraordinary, considering how popular
Gothic architecture has become, and how well its details are under-
stood, that so few attempts should have been made to render iron
available for the combined purposes of construction and beauty. On
the former consideration, it has sometimes been used, but either in

disguise, or with economical views only, in the naked deformity of a
mere post or joist, without relation to the fitness of the whole, and
with scarcely even a pretence at architectural character. Considering
how essential it is in modern churches that the internal supports
should cause the least possible obstruction, it is strange that the pe-
culiar sympathy between obvious utility, Gothic architecture, and
cast-iron, should not have been more diligently studied. The invete-
rate canker of imitation and precedent, has in this case as in others,
poisoned the sources of invention. There is no original precedent
for cast-iron columns, and we must therefore persist in building them
with stone, or with something whicn*is to pass for stone ; or if we
use iron, we must give up as impracticable all attempt to give it a
genuine architectural character. We may with certainty pronounce
in this case, that iron might be used strictly in the spirit of the
Gothic architects ; and it may even be affirmed that they would wil-
lingly have taken the utmost advantage of this material had they
possessed the art of casting it. If a precedent is yet demanded, the
actual use of metal, if not iron, in columns, may be seen in Exeter
Cathedral, where isolated shafts of brass enter into the composition of
the sedilia adjoining the altar.

Let us bring the search after the kalos in the construction of Gothic
columns in cast iron, to a practical test. The weight of the clerestory
and roof on an ordinary church of forty feet high or thereabout,
standing on lateral arches of eleven or twelve feet opening, may be
about twenty tons on each column, and supposing the shafts of the
columns to be twenty feet long, the requisite strength in cast-iron
would be met by a diameter of six inches. Now there is no reason
whatever why a column of forty diameters in height, should be ab-
stractedly considered deficient in beauty. The effect of this, as of
any other proportion, would depend entirely upon its being in unison
with the other members of the architecture, or the reverse ; but if we
suppose a stone arch to be carried on this column, a very material
practical objection arises, inasmuch as there will not be room on the
top of the column to develop the necessary bulk of the stool of the
arch, either as regards its construction or decoration, unless the
capital were spread to a degree involving weakness, both real and
apparent. Hence an incompatibility between such a column, and
such an arch, destructive of relative beauty. If, however, we con-
sider the properties of cast-iron, we shall find that a solid column on
this scale is the most disadvantageous mode of employing it, since
a much smaller quantity of metal expanded into a hollow cylinder will
possess a much greater degree of strength. If we make the shaft of
a column under these circumstances twelve or fourteen inches in
diameter instead of six, we shall find, while we consult economy and
utility in the column, that the arch will grow from it without exag-
gerating the projection of the capital, or departing in the slightest
degree from any form or proportion authorized by precedent.

There is, however, an original example which might have been put
in the foreground, where the columns are actually re-
duced beyond the proportions which the architect, for
reasons best known to himself, has thought fit to give
to the stool of the arch ; and the capital is pieced
out on each side, by a sort of attached corbel upon
which the mouldings terminate. It is at Winch-
combe Church in Gloucestershire. Whatever may
be thought of the principle of this arrangement, the
effect is very bad, but being a precedent, and there-
fore a desirable addition to the stock of materials
for imitation, it is thought right not to withhold it.
Whenever the rage for precedent and imitation shall
abate, there are stupendous effects to be produced in
architecture, especially of the Gothic character, by the use of iron
columns; but it must be when the material is recognised to be legiti-
mate, and not cased with deal, or " painted and sanded," or "jointed
and coloured," as the price books have it, "as stone."

Thus far, in this branch of the subject, cast iron has been con-
sidered with reference to columns only. In subjecting other mem-
bers of the Gothic style to a similar inquiry, it will be necessary,

Springing of
Arches, Winch -
combe Church.

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205

since we are arguing upon precedents, to argue with more caution, as
precedents become less obvious. We may learn, from a comparison
of carvings in stone and wood,
how completely the mode of
treatment varied with the ma-
terial in Gothic as in classical
art, and especially how well the
relief of the ornamental parts of
the work, was proportioned to
the bulk necessary to the self-
support of the substances em-
ployed. The skill with which a
considerable variety of mould-
ing and outline, and an effective
distribution of light and shade
was produced in wood without
employing unnecessary thick-
ness of material, or exposing a _
high relief to the destroying
action of the weather, is not
one of the least remarkable in-
stances of the ability of the
Gothic architects, nor the least
worthy of careful examination
by their imitators, some of

whom have nevertheless stu- Gothic Muuldings in wood,

died to bestow upon wood-
work, all the amplitude of relief to be found in precedents executed in

i&; ; ^:tmmmw}z i

Srretn of Henry VII. Tomb.

Screen of Isli^'s Chapel.

stone. From the practice of our masters in this respect, we may
safely infer, as we have done before, that they would have displayed
equal skill in devising new proportions and new modes of treatment
for iron, had they applied it to as many and as important purposes in
construction, as might be devised and executed at the present d.iy.

Such purposes and modifications, it must be repeated, it is not the
intention of the present essay to suggest; but the inference is not one
of mere conjecture, since we actually possess works of art of the
middle ages in metal, legihly stamped with the peculiar influences of
the material, to which sundry modern attempts to Gothicize in cast
iron are very unlike indeed.

Before we proceed to more elaborate works, it is worth while to
point out the various patterns in which the iron and lead work is dis-
posed, in the windows of the early Gothic. A series of these designs
will be found in Carter's Ancient Architecture (Part I, plate 79). It
is true that these forms are subservient to the display of stained glass,
but, independently of the glass, they are worthy of consideration and
study. At the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, the iron work rivals the
tracery of later times in the variety and richness of the patterns.
The material in these examples is wrought iron, but very little modi-
fication would be necessary to execute them in cast, and since iron
bars are indispensable in all Gothic windows, it is extraordinary that
so little advantage should have been taken of this mode of turning
them to account.

Although this simple and obvious mode of employing iron in Gothic
architecture has been generally overlooked, more than one instance
might be adduced in which it has been used for the entire window
frames, but without any idea beyond that of imitating stone ; that is
to say, of adapting the material to as inappropriate a model as
possible. In these performances the form9 furnished by precedents
in stone are so closely imitated, and the bulk of the parts, and relative
breadth of the openings so far approached, that the result is a most
uncomfortable sensation of meagreness, weakness, and disproportion.
Had the analogy with stone been openly abandoned, and the supports
made no greater than is necessary, the material would at once be
recognized, and the mind so far satisfied. In what way the Gothic
architects would have treated a metal window frame, we may infer
from two works in metal, in which analogous architectonic combina-
tions are developed; viz., the screen of Edward IV.'s monument at
VVindsor, actually executed in iron, (what can precedent do more for
an uninventive age?) and that of Henry VII. at Westminster, in
brass. A comparison of a portion of the latter with a compartment
of the stone screen of Islip's Chapel, of about the same superficies,
will explain better than many words the peculiar influence of metal,
upon original Gothic composition. Whenever we recognise cast-iron
as a material susceptible of beauty, there is nothing upon which its
capabilities will be more successfully developed than in windows,
Gothic or otherwise. Of closely barred windows and grilles,
vie make abundant use for various purposes, but we have scarcely
thought of decorating them, except when some ambitious ironmonger
presses the favourite " Grtek honeysuckle" into some new invention,
more foolish than the last.

The subject proposed by the Institute, upon which the foregoing
observations have been offered, is one of the greatest importance in
the present state of the arts and sciences in England. The modes in
which it may be discussed are many ; and valuable hints in architec-
tural composition might be elicited, if it were proposed with the
object of studying the capabilities of the material, and suggesting
modes in which they might be made available, in art as well as in
science. In the preceding remarks, it has been taken in a single point
only. The general argument on the effect of material upon design might
be extended, without perhaps digressing more than might be allow
able, and the modifications of our native architecture in the chalk and
rubble churches of Kent — the decorative flint-work of Norfolk and
Suffolk— and the different treatment of the detail, in the contempo-
raneous structures of the counties of Lincoln and Gloucester, con-
tingent upon the quality of their stone, would afford ample and deci-
sive examples bearing not too remotely on the main subject — but all

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[September,

this is too extensive and important to be treated in a mere digression.
It is a vice of the present school of architecture to npglect obvious
and natural resources in construction, to produce showy falsities, and
to be ashamed of sound realities. To support this proposition would
lead to another dissertation, but it would be unjust to conclude with-
out qualifying the general observations already made upon this
tendency, by admitting that there are many honourable exceptions.
To select examples would be invidious, but it may be allowable to
mention what has appeared in print, and it would be throwing away
the advantage of a powerful support to the argument which has been
pursued, not to refer to the letter on ecclesiastical architecture, ad-
dressed to the Bishop of London by Mr. John Shaw.

The most considerable attempt ever made to connect cast iron with
architecture, as an art, is the construction of the new spire of Rouen
Cathedral. In this work, the proportions have been carefully
adapted to the material ; whether the object sought has been as well
attained as it might be is not now the question. The endeavour is
laudable; and as wp flatter ourselves that in a knowledge of Gothic
architecture, at least, we have the advantage over our neighbours
let us try to produce something more satisfactory.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS LII.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as hrfre a charier as the winds,
To blow on whom 1 please."

I. It is with naked windows as with naked figures — the latter may
be either innocent enough or grossly indecorous, just as they happen
to be introduced. Put a naked figure, that may be unexceptionable
in itself, into a picture where other figures are clothed, and it becomes
an indecency — of which, by the bye, there is an instance which had
better have been omitted, among the cartoons in Westminster Hall,
where sans-cutotte gentlemen in puris naturalibus " cut a figure " along-
side of others who are in breeches. As to windows, the rule should
be, if you can't afford clothes, that is, "dressings" for them all, bestow
them on none. It does not, indeed, follow, that all are to be dressed
alike, or in the same degree, for some may be comparatively in un-
dress ; but between undress and a state of nudity there is some little
difference. It is nothing less than a positive violation of the ordinary
and most obvious proprieties of architectural decorum, to give dress-
ings to the windows of the principal floor only, and leave all the others
absolutely bare. Yet how frequently is this done! which being the
case, we must suppose that it is admired as producing at least a
smartish look — something of would-be consequence, like that of those
unhappy people who affect to be above their own class in society, yet
can get into no higher one, and so render themselves objects of ridi-
cule to both. Another most tasteless practice is that of sticking in
columns and pilasters between windows which have no dressings, or
if any at all, such as are by no means sufficient to produce consistencv
of character. Yet it is of such bungling vulgar stuff that the archi-
tectural " magnificence " — so the penny-a-line critics call it — of Re-
gent Street, and Regent's Park palaces, and of Pimlico and Paddington,
is made up. This is the sort of stuff which, as Welby Pugin — who
does not always cull his words for ears polite — says, "absolutely make
us spew to look upon them " ; whence it may be supposed that John
Nash and I. is school must have caused many a dreadlul fit of land-
sickness.

II. Surely architects have an excellent right to claim Mercury for
their patron, as being the God of Thieves. Not content with stealing
ready-made orders and columns, they generally pilfer almost every
thing else, till sometimes there is nothing whatever in a design they
can fairly lay claim to as their own, except the tastelessness with
which they botch together their stolen ware. For their not exercising
their invention at all in regard to columns, the excuse is that they are
things by far too | recicus to be "tampered with," and even the idea

of attempting — not to produce a fresh order, but to modify the stand-
ard examples of the orders, so as to produce others, is reprobated as
presumptious. Yet that they should almost invariably steal ready-
designed windows too, is somewhat unpardonable, more especially as
they afford very great scope indeed for diversity of design and deco-
ration, where decoration is most of all imperatively required, if there
is to be any degree of it at all.

III. Together with the very best piece of design Soane ever pro-
duced, the Bank of England exhibits some of his worst. Did we not
know it to be fact, never could it be imagined that the north-west
angle of that edifice, and the centre of the south front, were by the
same architect; the latter is as complete a failure as the other is
beautiful and picturesque — a mere jumble of ill-assorted parts, and in
its ensemble stamped by a littleness of manner amounting even to pal-
triness. The arched entrances are so utterly at variance in every
respect with the order, that they alone would disfigure the compo-
sition, were it otherwise ever so unexceptionable. Bad enough in
themselves, they look some degrees worse than they else might, owing
to the very strange contrast they make with the large square-headed
blink doors — features of rather questionable propriety in themselves —
introduced into the wings of that elevation. So long as this centre part
remained to be done, it was to be expected that the architect would
here put forth all his force, and give us a veritable coup de maitre.
Instead of which, when he came to what ought to have been his finish-
ing stroke, he seems to have got quite to his wit's ends, and to have
been left without an idea. Fortunately this portion of the facade will
look more miserable than ever now that it is brought into close prox-
imity with the portico of the new Royal Exchange: nor is "fortu-
nately " here either a slip of the pen or error of the press, but se-
riously meant, because it is fortunate that there is now a very sufficient
pretext afforded for remodelling the exterior of that portion of the
Bunk, so that it may not look absolutely pitiful in comparison with its
new neighbour. As this part is here really loftier than the rest, so
also might the order be very well made upon a larger scale than that
of the wings; and indeed it was generally supposed beforehand, that
such was the architect's intention; instead of which he merely piled
up there what shows itself uo better than an excrescence, and one in
pretty much the same taste as that hoisted up on the top of the Man-
sion House, and which has lately been removed — an example that
ought to be followed by the Bank.

IV. The precedent as to alteration set by the Mansion House might,
indeed, be both greatly extended in regard to that building itself, and
be followed by a very great many others, to their no small improve-
ment. Were something, for instance, done to the body of St. Martin's
Church, so as to make it tolerably of a piece with the portico, that
edifice might be rendered far more worthy than it now is of the repu-
tation it holds. The National Gallery would sustain no loss by getting
rid of its miserable dome ; nor would Goldsmith's Hall be improved
for the norse, were its lower part made to agree with the upper part,
instead of being, as at present, two distinct halves, one with mere
holes in the wall, the other with more than usually ornamented win-
dows. Neither Somerset House nor Sir W. Chambers' reputation
would suffer were the paltry "pigeon-house" turrets on the sides of
the inner quadrangle to be swept away. Were, again, the United
Service Club to subscribe to buy a cornice for their building, it would
be a deed of charity — would be clothing the naked, and almost like
feeding the hungry, for at present it has a most famished and famine-
struck appearance. As to Buckingham Palace, that might very well
escape intact, it being altogether incorrigible and unimproveable. No-
thing short of such a judicious "accident" as those which befel the
Houses of Parliament and Royal Exchange, could clear away all its
vices and blunders; and it would be too much to look for a special
interference of Providence to deliver the nation from such a disgrace
as that precious pile of architectural gewgaw and trumpery.

V. It matters not what may be the capabilities of a style, if it be
taken up by those who have no capability of their own. What is
nominally one and the self same style, will show itself altogether
opposite in character according to the talent and taste, or the no talent

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

2''?

and no taste, brought to it, a remark which I have already made more
than once before, but one which cannot he repeated too often. Of
the Italian style and of the very same species of it, we meet with very
striking contrasts in Barry's two club-houses in Pall Mall, and the
Club-house Chambers in Regent Street. The difference as to quality
and taste between the latter and the two former is hardly to be ex-
pressed, for it does not amount to much when stated in words, nor
can it be indicated further than by vague, qualifying epithets. In the
two Pall Mall examples we perceive a refined elegance, and a most
captivating simplicity produced by what most people seem to imagine
opposed to simplicity, namely the most patient study and careful
elaboration of every part, even to the minutest details. There is no
one part that is overdone in proportion to another ; no one that is un-
derdone. Every thing is in its proper place, and contributes to the
beauty of the ensemble. There is nothing you would wish either to
add or take away. Eminently beautiful in themselves, the individual
features acquire redoubled charm, from the felicity with which they
are combined. The Regent Street example, on the other hand, is al-
most the direct reverse : while it is very far from being free even
from decided blemishes that might be easily pointed out, its general
inferiority lies in numerous particulars and circumstances, which
hardly admit of being described or pointed out, except viva voce with
the building before one. One great defect is, that the whole looks
too much squeezed together, and is consequently deficient in repose ;
nor is it less so in regard to richness, notwithstanding that this last
seems to have been aimed at by the variety of parts— which, how-
ever, are all poor in themselves. I have heard it pretended, that the
predominating characteristic of Barry's Italian style, is the corni-
cione : let those who fancy so, try it, and they will soon find out their
mistake. There is no deficiency of cornice in the facade of the
Clubhouse Chambers; but a most terrible deficiency of other merit.
It is to Barry's two designs, what a very ordinary pippin is to a pine-
apple.

VI. One great merit of Barry, as strikingly exemplified in the two
buildings above-mentioned, is that his detail is his own. Every part
of it appears to have been expressly studied and devised for the ac-
tual occasion; whereas in general, even where belter than usual in
itself, detail seems to be taken from books or other authorities, and
applied without the slightest modification, and in such manner, per-
haps, as to be rather injurious upon the whole, by causing all the rest
to appear in very inferior taste. Some will then, probably, ask, what
is the service of purchasing expensive architectural publications, if
we are not to be allowed to borrow any thing from them ? — the bor-
rowing, by the bye, meaning nothing else than stealing — which by
some is practised in so barefaced a manner, that they do not even
pretend to design their own details at all, but set their clerks to copy
it from prints and books. The use of such examples is to study
them, to form one's taste upon them, to learn to discriminate between
what is excellent and what defective in them, and so to profit
doubly by imbibing the true spirit of the former, and avoiding the
latter. The use of such lessons, is to derive ideas from them, there-
fore they are not likely greatly to benefit those who stand most of al]
in need of such aid ; it being a well known fact, that those who have
fewest ideas of their own in their heads, can find least room there for
those to be got from other people.

VII. It is to very little purpose for any one to attempt making a
stir about the British Museum. The case is altogether a desperate
one; and nothing remains for us, but to submit with graceful resigna-
tion to what must be, and to what fate — in the person of Sir Robert
Smirke, irrevocably decreed long ago, shall be. It is true, circum-
stances have greatly altered since bis Post Office was hailed by the
newspapers as a most classical piece of architecture, at which time
there was scarcely any other channel for architectural criticism, or
the expression of opinion in regard to it, than the columns of a news-
paper, which were likely enough to entertain sympathetic admiration
for the columns of the great architect in question. Yet, if there has
been some change in that respect, there has been none in Sir Robert;
as for the matter of that, why should there be any, since he long ago

attained such perfection, that to look for further improvement would
be most unreasonable ? To say the truth, he has given so many ex-
amples of the same sort of excellence over and over again, that half
a score of them might be exported to some of our colonies, and we
at home be nothing the poorer.

VIII. Notwithstanding that so very much has been said upon the
orders, both in books and in lectures, no one — as far at least as I am
aware — has yet entered into satisfactory comparison of ancient exam-
ples and modern applications of them, showing how far their character
and effect has been preserved, or else neutralized, if not quite destroyed.
So far from saying anything on that head, or giving any cautions
at all, although they are evidently enough needed, they leave it to be
inferred, that provided an order or a few columns be tolerably correct
in themselves, all the rest must, as a matter of course, be equally sa-
tisfactory— even admirable. That such vast importance should have
been attached two or three centuries ago to the mere mechanical
study of the orders, is not very surprising, even natural and excusable.
Surprising, however, it is, in no small degree, that such should con-
tinue to be the case, almost as much as ever. Hardly less astonishing
is it, that out of the countless number of publications professing to
supply general instruction relative to architecture and matters of ar-
chitectural taste, there is scarcely one which enters into the principles
and rationale of composition — I mean into the general principles,
the application of which must be left to individual judgment, and to
the circumstances of the particular case ; for what may be very ap-
propriate at one time, may be quite the reverse at another. It is
true, instruction of this kind must be but very limited after all, and
in a manner needless, because those who are most capable of profiting
by it, are also capable of working it out for themselves, which is after
all, the very best and most efficient mode of study. In fact, it is this
sort of study and the capacity for it, which chiefly constitute talent,
or in a higher degree, genius. For want of continued study of this
kind, even those who set out at first with a certain stock of talent,
sooner or later, quite exhaust it; which, however, may be quite im-
material in one respect, because, his reputation once established, a
man's ability is taken upon trust. People — some people at least —
may feel that they are very dissatisfied within themselves with what
has the recommendation of a name ; but then they feel that they
ought to doubt their own judgment, or at all events do not care to
seem to swim against the stream, and accordingly with the discretion
of timidity, leave the world to find out the humbug in its own good
time, which it generally does, as witness "the great Mr. Wyatt,"
now transformed into " James Wyatt, of execrable memory."

IX. Poor Sir John Soane! — now to be made after all an object of
Dosthumous abuse, by the very man who was constantly toadying him
in the most servile manner while he was alive! Yet so it is. The
censure may be merited ; the suppressed work of his alluded to, may
be such that no one can "conscientiously compliment the author or
the man;" but supposing that character of it to be perfectly just, it is
any thing but creditable — absolutely disgraceful to the other party,
that entertaining such opinion of Soane, he should all the while have
professed the greatest admiration and respect for him, and have ea-
gerly seized hold of every opportunity, and even the slightest pretext
at all for doing so. Instead of vindicating his "much esteemed
friend's" professional character from any of the numerous aspersions
that have been thrown out against it, he makes himself an oppor-
tunity for aspersing his moral character, raising suspicions all the
more prejudicial, because, the work itself being suppressed, and no
copy of it even in the British Museum, it cannot be ascertained how-
far it really deserves the reprobation so very pointedly implied. That
the quondam most obsequious admirer of Sir John Soane should now
become his traducer, is indeed startling; but of the two, Soane
showed the greater discretion, for he suppressed his obnoxious work,
whereas the other has been so absurdly indiscreet, as to let it now be
seen what was his real opinion of a man whom he may be said to have
worshipped in public.

298

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. September,

WINDMILL IN WARWICKSHIRE.

By Inigo JuNts.

1!f! f.rf.ncf. to Mouldings.
A, Cornice, top of mill. B, Moulding to window head. C, Impost moulding of piers
mouldings of piers. E, String course above arches.

D, Base
F, Archivolt or arch moulding.

A true master mind is to be recognized not only by its great works,
but by its slightest and least important attempts. In particular to the
artist should apply the motto, Nihil quod teligit non ornaril, the same
general principles of taste regulate details as regulate a grand design.
We certainly must confess that some of our prominent examples of
architectural proficiency recognize this rule, but on opposite grounds;
with them the same frigidity and the same slovenliness prevail in a
palace as in a workhouse, and the same absence of art is to be recog-
nized in each. We do not mean this; on the contrary, we want to
see the true artist exhibit himself in every performance, for negligence
in details can scarcely ever accompany the grand in design ; in fact,
we have ever found that master minds were those of the most ex-
tended information as to minutiae. The mind of Michael Augelo took
in the whole range of art in all its variety of practical manipulations ;
Napoleon and Wellington, in the midst of their vastest schemes of
conquest, knew how many pairs of horses' shoes each trooper had in
reserve, and how they ought to be made ; Homer and Shakspere
have shown the greatest acuteness of observation in whatever affected
their compositions. Is it to be supposed that those possessing such
powers of observation, and exercising them so constantly, would con-
sider it worthy ol them to sloven over the details of their own profes-
sion ? Architects and architects' employers, we are sorry to say, too
often think otherwise, the mens divinwr is some cabalistic idol only
to be brought forward at jubilees, or in times of some public excite-

ment, not to be exerted and exhibited on every occasion. Such was
not the feeling of our Greek, our mediaeval masters ; the Athenian
vase, the tomb, the weapon, at once reveal their classic origin ; the
smallest works of the middle ages show how deeply rooted was the
love of art, the same in the least piece of church furniture as in the
glorious pageant of the minster itself. Such was not the feeling of
our own great masters ; the works of Inigo Jones and Christopher
Wren afford as many points of study in their details as in their gene-
ral aspect. Above we have given a representation of a windmill ' by
the former of these eminent men, a design showing how well he could
bring his resources to bear on what is generally considered such an
ephemeral and trivial occasion for their exercise. This work is in
Warwickshire, and it will be seen that the mill is raised on a base-
ment of six arches, which contains the mill stairs. The cornice at the
top of the mill, the impost moulding of the piers, the base moulding
of tne same, the string course above the arches, and the archivolts,
show that he has not been negligent of due and effective ornament.
It is a study which many of the present day may contemplate with
advantage. Simple yet ornate, not exaggerated in character, not
overstepping the modest bounds of proprietv, and yet giving a pictu-
resque contour well adapted to the situation in which the object is
placed.

' For this engraving we are indebted to our comempjrary, the Builder.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

299

THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sir — Happening to visit (lie British Museum yesterday, I have set
down a few remarks which you will perhaps give in your Journal, as
supplementary to the paper on the suhject of that edifice in your last
number.

The old building is, I find, in statu quo as to appearance, for that
facade has not yet begun to be taken down, but internally there has
been a good deal of work carried on, through which a temporary
boarded up passage leads from the hall to the Townley Gallery.
Here havoc has begun its work, for one of the tasteful little rotundas
in that suite of rooms has been cut nearly in halves, preparatorily to
its final demolition. Those rooms were, it must be owned, rather too
confined, considering that the Museum is open to a sometimes
thronged concourse of persons; still, it is to be regretted that they
coidd not be spared, for they are not likely to be replaced by what
will be more attractive in point of architectural character. Of the
Lycian or Fellowes' marbles, I will only say they are not worth a tenth
part of the fuss that has been made about them, most assuredly not
worth sending out an expedition to secure more of them. Should
the Lycian mania continue, we may expect counterfeit antiques,
equally precious, to be manufactured on the continent and imported
into this country. But look there! there is the very tiling! a real
treasure, and a specimen of art that Sir Robert Smiike ought to go
down on his knees to ! Excuse the harum-scarumness of my manner ;
I am not quite mad — merely a little flighty or so. "There," said I to
myself, " if Sir Robert does not make something of that, he himself
ought to be made into a mummy, and sent to keep company with the
mummy gentry up stairs." However it is of no use to go on rambling
at this rate, for until I explain, you will hardly guess what I am
driving at. Of course you are aware of Sir Robert's penchant for
columns with Ionic capitals; he has favoured us with a vast many in
his time, but with scarcely two good specimens out of the whole
number, forgetting that it is possible to have too much even of a really
good thing. Invention is, of course, not to be thought of; for were
he to give us a fresh idea of his own for any such purpose, good as it
might be in itself, it would excite a hubbub against him from all the
orthodox, and the classical puritans ; yet he has no occasion to invent,
but merely to adopt, for his fayade to the British Museum, what is in
the Museum itself, consequently its legitimacy can be proved on the
spot. All this, you will say, is sheer rigmarole; true, and here comes
the solution of it. What 1 am alluding to is the bold ami rich antique
voluted capital, on each of whose four sides or faces is sculptured a
mask in full relief — a well imagined composition, and, as it seems to
me, one highly appropriate for such a building as a museum, as the
display of sculpture in the capitals would serve to indicate that the
edifice is partly devoted to the purpose of a public sculpture gallery.
Or, shall we say that external character is of no consequence, since
"good wine needs no bush."

In sober seriousness, what are we to have from Sir Robert Smiike
on this important occasion? What we may expect from him we too
well know ; but surely he will not now be allowed to go on as he has
hitherto done — at least, without strong remonstrance on the part of
those who, like yourself, have the means of calling attention to the
subject.

I am, &C,

C. Whyte.

ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA.

Sir — I take the liberty of requesting from some of your readers a
statement of the great public works which have been executed in
Great Britain or Ireland, under the direction of Mr. Hamilton H.
Killaly, Chairman of the Board of Works in Canada; also a reference
to any reports made by him, or papers on scientific subjects which he
may have contributed.

The late Governor General, in a despatch to Lord Stanley, dated
Quebec, 10th July, 1842, speaks of " Engineers of great experience
and scientific acquirements, who, being strangers to the country, can
have no local bias;" and Mr. Killaly "believes" that "the Governor-
General must principally have alluded" to him, (p. 05, and questions
383 and 391, p. 40, Ev. Beauharnois Canal, a copy of which you
have.)

The proofs of the "great experience and scientific acquirements"
must therefore be sought for across the Atlantic; and though tolerably
familiar with, as I supposed, the names of all the eminent British

engineers, and of many of the residents even, I never met with the
name of Hamilton H. Killaly among them; nor did I find an individual
more fortunate among; my Canadian friends — including some of the
first gentlemen in the province — nor in a numerous professional ac-
quaintance here.

This explanation will, I hope, he sufficient to justify the course I
have taken; and I trust there can be no impropriety in my requesting,
or in any gentleman giving, the desired information, as to Mr. H. H.
Killaly's "great experience and scientific acquirements."
I am, Sir, &c,

W. R. Casey.

P.S. I take this opportunity to request the insertion of the fol-
lowing note.

Note to article on " Canadian Board of Works," Journal, Feb. 1843.

The length of the locks on the Welland Canal has been increased
to 150 feet, " principally by representations from the merchants and
forwarders of Oswego," as officially announced. This is in accord-
ance with my view, that the Welland Canal is quite as much a New
York as a Canadian work, onus of cost, and risk of income excepted.

Speaking of the income of the Lachine Canal, a late Montreal
paper says, "Downwards the falling off in the transport is most
serious, the steamers and most of the barges running the Lachine
rapid*, to save canal tolls and towage." The Cornwall Canal, around
the Long Sault, was opened for a short time, large steamers using it
upwards, but descending the rapids. A serious breach has just oc-
curred, and it must be viewed as a very uncertain work for some
time. The tolls on the Rideau Canal have been increased, and, in
answer to a remonstrance, it was observed that the tolls on that canal
should not be so low as to direct all the trade from the St. Lawrence
— a novel mode of improving the communication. Lord Stanley's
Bill puts the trade, via the St. Lawrence, on a somewhat worse footing
than hitherto, about 2s. per quarter of wheat. I omitted to observe
in the paper to which this Note refers, that of £320,000 appropriated
for common roads, £75,000 only are to be expended in the lower
province, containing two-thirds of the population, and the commercial
wealth of the country; whilst £ 170,000 are to be expended in or in
the immediate vicinity of the district, represented by the Chairman
of the Board of Works.

Time is rapidly and only too fatally confirming the views contained
in my communication of February. The present policy, by con-
necting in the public mind the engineer with the political jobber, does
vast injury to the profession; brings in its train taxation on all classes;
odious restrictions on the business of forwarding; and will effectually
prevent the settlement of the province, by frightening the emigrant
to that part of the "far west" where no public debt exists.

W. R. C.

By a typographical error the width of the locks on the Lachine
Canal was stated to be "30" instead of "20 feet," the present width.
The rate of insurance nn one of the notes) should be " three-eighths
of one per cent."

SCREW PILE LIGHTHOUSE, AT FOOT OF WYRE.
Sir,,— It having frequently appeared, not only in the newspapers
and other publications of the day, but also in the report of evidence
before Committees of the House of Commons, that the Screw Pile
Lighthouse at foot of Wyre, was erected by Captain Denham, R.N.,
F.R.S.E, &c, you wili oblige me by giving insertion to the following
letter, addressed to me by that gentleman, inreply to a remonstrance
on my part.

Alex. MrrciiELL.

Dear Sir— At your request I have pleasure in stating, that I be-
lieve the Screw Pile is your own patented invention, and the plan of
fixing lighthouses on submarine foundations (sandbanks) by their
means, is also your's.

And I know that the plan, specification, and estimate of the Screw
Pile Lighthouse, at the foot of Wvre, was, with the exception of the
lantern, wholly prepared by yourself and son, which work you and
your son erected by contract at your sole risk, after 1 had determined
the site, and furthered the operation, by attending the tidal work in
person until all the piles and pillars were planted. This statement is
at your service. Remaining, your's truly,

Fleetwood, July 19, 1843. H. W. Denham.

Alex. Mitchell, Esq., Belfast.

300

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. [September,

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.

The application of the instantaneous transmission of electricity, as a
means of communication between distant places, promises to become
one of the most important inventions of tne present age, and to rival
even locomotion on railways in the facilities afforded of transmitting
information. The science of electricity is yet but in its infancy ; and
though it has, during the comparatively short period of its studv, with-
drawn much of the veil from the works of Nature, that which has
hitherto been revealed and already accomplished by its agency, serves
to show that it is capable of disclosing far greater mysteries, and of
being applied to much more important uses. When the transmission
of electricity instantaneously through miles of wire became known, it
was not long before the possibility of applying that property to the
communication of signals suggested itself to the fertile ingenuity of
man. The inconvenience of using frictional electricity, and the inter-
vals of time requisite for its excitement, however, formed difficulties
which could not be sufficiently overcome. Nothing, therefore, was
effected in the construction of such telegraphs, though the high state
of tension of frictional electricity renders it far better calculated for
traversing long lengths of wire than the electricity of feeble tension
excited by chemical action. The full tension of voltaic electricity,
indeed, prevents it from overcoming the resistance which even the
best conductors offer to its passage, aud unless the quantity developed
be great, ami the conducting wire be perfectly insulated, much of the
power will be lost in passing through a long circuit. It was not, con-
sequently, until after the discovery by Professor CErsted, in 1S19,
that the voltaic current would deflect a magnetic needle, and the
subsequent discovery that the efficacy of a feeble current on the
needle may be greatly increased by multiplying the convolutions of
the wire through which it passes, that the efforts to construct an
electrical telegraph assumed a practicable shape.

When it was ascertained that on causing a current of voltaic elec-
tricity to pass over a magnetic needle freely suspended, the needle
was instantly deflected into a position acrcss the direction of the
current, it appeared reasonable to expect that, by employing several
wires and magnetic needles, and by causing the electric current to
deflect either of the needles at pleasure, their deflections might be so
regulated as to form intelligible symbols. In the first stage of the
invention, it was proposed to have as many magnetic needles as there
are letters in the alphabet, each one having a separate wire passing
over it connected with one of the poles of a voltaic battery. To each
needle was affixed a small screen, which, when the electric current
was not passing through the wire connected with it, concealed from
view a letter or a figure. A number of keys were arranged somewhat
in the manner of the keys of a pianoforte, each of which was connected
with one of the wires of the voltaic battery, and a letter was marked
on the key corresponding with the one concealed by the screen on the
needle to which it appertained. By touching any one of these keys
the metallic connection was completed, and the current of electricity,
on passing over the magnetic needle, deflected it, and exposed to
view the letter beneath. In this manner it is evident a correspond-
ence could be carried on between persons far apart by either spelling
the words, letter bv letter, or by agreeing to certain symbols for (he
expression of words or sentences. As the transmission of electricity
occupies no perceptible time, the deflection of the needle at the
distant station would take effect almost at the instant the voltaic cir-
cuit was completed by touching the corresponding key. This appli-
cation of electricity as a means of telegraphic communication, ap-
peared to realise in principle the most sanguine expectations of its
efficacy, hut in practice many difficulties arose. The number of wires,
and the perfect insulation" each one required, would have pre-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

vented the plan from being practically applied, and the expense
would have been a serious obstacle.

The correctness of the principle having been fully ascertained, at-
tention was directed to render it available by arranging the needles in
such manner that any two of them could act simultaneously, and thus
produce a greater number of signals with a much reduced number of
wires. In 1840, an electric telegraph of this kind was constructed on
the Great Western Railway, for a distance of twenty miles, by Messrs.
Cooke and Wheatstone. Five needles were employed on that tele-
graph ; they were arranged on a diagonal dial, whereon the letters of
the alphabet were painted, so that any two of the needles might be
made to point to the letter required to be indicated. In subsequent
improvements, the conducting power of the earth was rendered avail-
able fur the return-current, and by other contrivances all the signals
may be made with only three wires. This was a great advance on
the earlier attempts at electrical communications, and if nothing
farther had been accomplished, the advantages of this system of tele-
graphing were sufficient to ensure its ultimate adoption. Within the
last two years, however, the progress of invention has brought elec-
trical communication to such perfection that, by means of one wire
alone, and without an artificial voltaic battery, any signal between
distant places can not only be indicated, but actually printed at both
stations simultaneously. There are two claimants for the honour of
the invention of the electro-magnetic printing telegraph, but into the
merits of their respective claims we have no desire to enter. Pro-
fessor Wheatstone and Mr. Bain, a watchmaker from Scotland, are the
disputants, and each contends that the other has appropriated his
ideas, though the mechanism of the two is not alike. The telegraph
of Mr. Bain has this advantage over the telegraph of Professor Wheat-
stone, that it does not require the agency of any other electrical force
than the natural electricity to be derived from the moisture of the
earth.

It had been known for some years that a sensible degree of elec-
tricity may be developed by connecting different metallic veins, and
Mr. Bain has further discovered that by placing plates of zinc and of
copper underground, and connecting them by an insulated wire, a
constant current of electricity is excited sufficient for working the
telegraph of his construction. By this means the uncertainty, trouble,
aud expense of a voltaic battery is avoided, the actuating power is
derived from the earth itself, and the telegraph may be worked by a
single wire. We shall proceed to explain the modus operandi of this
self-actuating telegraph, and without pronouncing an opinion respect-
ing the comparative merits of the two competing electro-magnetic
printing telegraphs, we shall be able to show that Mr. Bain's, at least,
exhibits great ingenuity and vast inventive resources, and that it is
capable of being extensively applied to the most important uses.

The annexed woodcut represents the apparatus in all its parts, an
exact counterpart of which is to be placed at the distant station with
which it is to communicate. F is a main-spring barrel acting on a
train of wheels, G, H, I, which turn the balls of the governor K, and
the hand B, of the dial A, B, C, whereon the requisite letters and
figures are engraved. It will be observed, that the motion of the
wheels is stopped by the arm E, which catches against the lever
affixed to the arbor of the wheel I. To set the machinery in motion,
therefore, it is necessary to remove the stop E from its bearing on the
lever, and this is done by electrical agency in the following manner : —
A- is a coil of wire twisted round a light hollow frame of wood, and
freely suspended on a centre. B-' is a powerful permanent magnet,
fixed within the coil ; and C- C-" are sections of similar magnets. D2
is a spiral spring connected with the source of electricity, buried
underground, which leaves the coil free to move when the current of
electricity passes through it, and brings it back to the original posi-
tion when the electric circuit is broken. The peculiarity of this
arrangement is, that the coil of wire is deflected instead of the magnet,
by which deviation from the usual action, the deflecting force is ren-
dered more energetic. The metal hand of the dial is connected with the
deflecting coil, but it is insulated from the dial itself, the latter being
in metallic connection with the wire laid down between the two
stations, which serves to complete the electric circuit. When a metal
pin is inserted into any one of the holes marked on the dial, the hand
is stopped by pressing against it, and the metallic communication is
then completed. The electricity thus passing through the coil of wire
deflects it into the position represented in the woodcut — its natural
position, towards which the spring D tends to carry it, being inclined
upwards in the direction of the arrow. When the metal pin is re-
moved, aud the electric current is thus broken, the spring carries the
end of the coil upwards, by which action the arm E relieves the
lever, the train of wheels is set in motiou, and they continue moving
until the electric circuit is renewed by again inserting the metal pin
into the dial. The type wheel L, on 'the arbor of the wheel H, is su

adjusted, that when the hand of the dial is stopped at any letter, a
similar letter is presented opposite to the small cylinder M, whereon
the paper for receiving the printed communications is fixer). By the
rotation of the wheels the balls of the governor diverge, thereby
raising one end of the lever V and depressing the other, which allows
the pallet I to escape, but the rotation of the arbor is still prevented
by contact with the second pallet u. When the electric circuit is
again completed by stopping with the metal pin the hand of the dial
opposite to the required signal, the coil of wire A- is deflected to its
former position, and the machinery is stopped bv the arm E. The
balls of the governor immediately collapse, and by 'depressing the end
of the lever V, clear it from the second pallet u, and allow the crank
spindle S (which is moved by a second mainspring in the barrel N,
connected with a train of wheels) to complete its revolution. The
motion of the crank presses the type against the signal-cylinder, and
a piece of ribbon saturated with printer's ink being interposed between
the type and the paper, the letter is distinctly printed thereon. At
the same time a spring z, attached to an arm of the lever y, takes into
a tooth of the small ratchet wheel a, on the spindle of the long pinion
6, which takes into and drives the cylinder wheel, so that, when the
crank returns to its former position, it moves the signal cylinder suffi-
ciently to leave space for the impression of a fresh letter. A spiral
motion is also given to the signal-cylinder as it turns, whereby it is
gradually raised to receive the succeeding lines, and the message is,
in fact, thus printed in one continuous spiral line. As the two appa-
ratus at the distant stations are exact counterparts of each other, and
are set in motion simultaneously by voltaic action, the hands on the
dials always stop at the same symbol, and that symbol is printed on
both at the same instant.

The cost of an electro-magnetic printing telegraph of the kind we
have described, would not we believe exceed 407. per mile. It is no
doubt susceptible of further simplification; but, taking the apparatus
in its present state of improvement, it is capable of extensive applica-
tion, not only in transmitting information from the outports and the
principal centres of manufactures, to the seat of government, but also
for conveying intelligence from mercantile firms to their distant
agents and correspondents. When the facility with which instanta-
neous communications can be made by electro-magnetic printing tele-
graphs becomes better known, and the plan more extensively adopted,
we doubt not that public telegraphs will be established, and be con-
sidered as important as we are now accustomed to consider the esta-
blishment of a regular postage communication between all parts
of the kingdom. Means might be adopted, if necessary, to secure the
secrecy of communications thus transmitted, or the parties communi-
cating might agree upon cyphers, the signification of which would be
intelligible to none but themselves.

Electric telegraphs have already been applied on several railroads
with signal advantage, and it only requires the simplification and
cheapening of their construction, which seems to be now attained,
to render their adoption on railways general. By communicating
from station to station the time at which a train starts, its arrival may
be anticipated with great exactness, and preparations made accord-
ingly. This is essentially necessary in the case of special trains, and
when the roads are undergoing repair, and, by thus forewarning the
approach, might be the means of altogether preventing accidents from
collisions.

Electric telegraphs also present an important economical advantage
in the construction of railroads on lines of inferior traffic, since, by
their aid, the transit of the trains to and fro might be conducted on a.
single line of rails with equal safety as on the most costly double line.
As the departure of each train would be instantly signalled from one
station to another, there would be no danger whatever, of two trains
meeting ; and the times of departure from each terminus could be so
arranged that the up and the down train should meet at a stated
point where a short double line might permit them to pass. We con-
ceive it to be within the range of probable improvements in the
electro-magnetic telegraph, that the wheel of the engine, as it passes
along the rail, should be made to trace its course on the signal-cylinder
of the printing telegraph, so that the position of any trains or number
of trains on an extended railway might be known at a glance, and
each one be seen tracing its own course on the telegraph chart of
every station. But without waiting for further improvements, the
electro-magnetic printing telegraph, in the state of perfection to
which it has been brought by Mr. Bain and by Professor Wheatstone,
affords facilities sufficient to render its adoption on all railways a point
of duty with the directors, as such a forewarner of danger, it is
admitted, would prove a most valuable preventive of accidents.

W

302

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Skptkmbkr,

DOCTOR SPURGIN'S PATENT HOISTING MACHINE,

For Raising Bricks, Mortar, and any ol/itr materials employed in
Building, and adapted to the Unloading tf Ships and Warehousing
oj Goods.

In our last month's Journal we stated tli.it a new machine for hoist-
ing bricks, &r., was to he seen at Prince Albert's Gate, Knightsbridge;
we are now enabled to give our millers a rough sketch of the machine,
together with a description which will explain its operation.

Description of the Machine. — The main part of (he machine, A, con-
sisting of the gearing to set the machine in motion, rests upon the
ground. The second part is a trestle, which may be placed upon the
scaffolding of the bricklaj ers, as it F; in the upper pari of this trestle
is an indented wheel, 13, which corresponds perpendicularly with a
similar wheel, attached to the principal body of the machine, resting
on the ground. Passing round these two wheels is an endless iron
chain, which is put in motion by one or several men, who turn the
handle of the machine, A, consisting of a pinion-wheel working into
a large toothed wheel, ou the axis of which is an indented wheel,

round which an endless chain passes, and also round a corresponding
wheel at the side, of the one at the foot of the vertical chain; the
latter is set in motion when the wheel A revolves, together with the
endless chain just described, over the indented wheels at C and E, by
which the chain operates its rotation. On the. side of the chain as-
cending, the workmen attach their hods full of materials, by means of
a hook fixed in the hod, as at B, and others detach them, as at F, to
carry them to the bricklayers on the scaffolding. The empty hods
are attached to the chain on the opposite side, as at G, ami descend
to the ground, where they are detached, as at H.

The chain may be lengthened and shortened as necessary. When
a story is added to the scaffolding, the trestle is placed upon the new
story, and the chain lengthened as required. At the top is a screw
for tightening or relaxing the chain, as occasion may require.

The figures I, K, L, are accessories used for hoisting the materials,
viz. I, for broken bricks; K, for water; and L, for pieces of stone for
windows, chimneys, &c. M is an enlarged view of the indented
wheel, and N the chain.

The advantages of this machine are, that it relieves the work man
from the most toilsome part of his labour, by doing away with the
practice of ascending the ladder ; and it prevents, as far as possible,
the accidents arising from this practice, to which he so often falls a
victim. It also enables building operations to be carried on with
much greater expedition than heretofore; and at the same time it
diminishes the cost of such works.

Dynamical Table of the Strength of a Man, shotting the number
of Bricks that can be carried up a Ladder by an ordinary Labourer.

To 10 feet .

. 90 bricks

per

minute,

5400

la-

bour,

54,000 in

10 hour

20

45

"

■.Too

"

•2 7.000

"

30

30

"

1800

"

18,000

"

•10

22

"

1350

"

13,500

"

.Ml

18

"

1080

"

10,800

"

00

15

"

900

"

9,000

"

Messrs. Grissell & Peto, and Mr. Cubitt, have adopted the mat lime,
and hive it in use at this time; the former at the New Houses of
Parliament, the latter at Prince Albert's Gate, Hyde Park, where the
machine may be seen in operation.

ELMES' PATENT MOORING AND SIGNAL BUOYS.

Plan of the top.

Section through the centre.

Mn. Elmes, who is the Surveyor of the Port of London, observing
the very great inconvenience and loss occasioned by the constant
sinking of the mooring buoys on the river Thames, through perfo-
rations being made in them either by accident, or by the. shrinkage of
the materials, which cause them to be filled w ith water, turned his
attention to see whether their construction could not be so formed as
to render it next to impossible to sink them; the result has been the
formation of the Patent Buoy, which we shall proceed to describe.
In external appearance and materials, it is the same as those in general
use, but through the centre there is a tube for the bridle-chain;
ami instead of it being attached to the underside of the buoy, it is in
the patent buoy attached to the mooring ring at the top. The patentee
states that the buoyancy is such that any number of holes perforated
in its external surface will not injure it ; and the interior of the buoy
is divided into "vascular cells," which form water-tight compart-
ments.

This invention is also applicable to all manner of floating bodies, as
well as for ship's moorings, such as signal buoys, to indicate the situ-
ations of shoals, roc ks, wrecks, and other dangerous impediments to
navigation, for the carrying of floating beacons, flags, lights, bells, and
other signals of contiguity to such clanger. One of these buoys, a
large beacon or signal buoy, has been floating securely for twelve
months past, including the" last tempestuous winter, in the bay of
Dublin; and a mooring buoy of the largest size has been used, by

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL,

303

permission of the Port of London Improvement Committee, in the

corporation moorings, on the upper outside moorings off' the East
India Dock entrance at BUrkvvall, since the ISth of October, 1841,
carrying in that deep and rapid reach of the river nearly two tons of
mooring chains, and sustaining at its ring some of the largest ships
that enter those docks during the whole of that severe winter till the
autumn of last year. In spite of this severe work, and the fact that
it has not had or required a sixpence outlay in repairs, it is as buoy-
ant as ever.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

REFLECTING LANTERN HELIOTROPE.

Description of a Reflecting Lantern and a Heliotrope, used bij Major J. D.
Graham, as meridian marks for great distances, in 18-11, while tracing, in
his capacity of V. S. Commissioner, the due north line from the monu-
ment at the source of the river St. Croix. — (From the Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society.)

The lantern was constructed by Messrs. Henry N. Hooper & Co., of
Boston, under Major G.'s directions. It was similar in form to the Parabolic
Reflector Lantern, sometimes used in lighthouses, but much smaller, so as to
be portable.

The burner was of the argand character, with a cylindrical wick, whose
transverse section was half an inch in diameter, supplied with oil in the
ordinary manner. This was placed in the focus of a parabolic reflector, or
paraboloid, of sheet copper, lined inside with silver about one-twentieth of
an inch in thickness, polished very smooth, and bright. The dimensions
were as follows : —

Inches.
Diameter of the base of frustrum of reflector .. .. .. 16-

Distance of vertex from base . . . . . . . . . . . . 3'75

Distance of focus from vertex . . . . . . . . . . 2-25

Diameter of cylindrical burner . . . . . . . . . . '50

Diameter of a larger burner, which was never used, but which, by an

adapting piece, could be easily substituted . . . . . . 1*25

The instrument answered the purpose for which it was intended, admira-
bly well, and was of great use in tracing the due north line. While it occu-
pied the station at Park's Hill, 15 feet above the surface of the ground, or
828 feet above the sea, in the latter part of September, and early part of
October, 1811, the light from it was distinctly seen with the naked eye at
night, when the weather was clear, from Blue Hill, whose summit, where
crossed by the meridian line, is 1071 feet above the sea; the intervening
country averaging about 500 feet above the sea, and the stations being 30
miles apart.

The light appeared to the naked eye, at that distance, as bright, and of
about the same magnitude, as the planet Venus. Viewed through the
transit telescope, of 43 inches focal length, it presented a luminous disc, of
about thirty seconds of arc in diameter. From its brilliancy at that distance,
Major G. has no doubt that it would have been visible to the naked eye at
50 miles, and through the telescope at 100 miles, could stations, free from
interposing objects, have been found so far apart.

It was remarked, that the wick employed by Major G. was considerably
smaller than that usually made, even for parlour lamps ; and to this cause he
attributed, in a great measure, the perfection with which the parallel rays
were transmitted from the reflecting parabolic surface, so as to make them
visible at so great a distance. Though a greater quantity of light is
generated by a larger wick, the portion of rays reflected in a direction
parallel to the axis, and which alone come to the eye, is the smaller as the
flame transcends the focal limit. The size of wick most advantageous for
use, may easily be determined by experiment : Major G.'s impression is,
that the smaller its transverse section, provided it is only large enough to
escape being choked up by the charred particles, even one-third, or perhaps
one-fourth, of an inch, the farther the light would be visible.

It has occurred to Major G. that lanterns of this description might be
used with great advantage as station marks, in extensive trigonometrical
surveys, requiring primary triangles of great length of sides. A revolving
motion might be given to the lanterns, so as to make the light transmitted
from them visible from many different stations within short intervals of
time. Their simplicity, and the ease with which they are mauaged, would
perhaps give them, for such purposes, a great advantage over the Drummond
or Bade lights, even though they be not so brilliant as the latter.

The heliotrope, which he employed in the day time, was made by order of
Mr. llassler, at the instrument shop of the coast survey office. It was a
rectangular parallcllogram of good German plate glass, 14 by l£ inch in size,
giving an area of reflecting surface of 2T\£j square in. This also was seen at
the distance of 36 miles.

SELF-ACTING CIRCULAR DIVIDING ENGINE.

At one of the recent meetings of the Astronomical Society, a papei bj
W. SlMMS, Esq., was read describing a Self-acting Circular Dividing Engine.
The engine, in general arrangement and construction, is similar tu that made
by Mr. E. Troughton, though there are several additions ami peculiarities,
which are pointed out. The circle or engine-plate is of gun-metal, 16 inches
in diameter, and was cast in one entire piece, teeth being ratched upon its
edge. The centre of the engine-plate is so arranged that it can he entered
by the axis of the instrument to be divided, and the work by this means
brought down to bear upon the surface of the engine-plate, which arrange-
ment prevents the necessity of separating the part intended to receive the
divisions from its axis, &c, a process both troublesome and dangerous.
Upon the surface, and not far from the edge of the engine plate, arc two
sets of divisions to spaces of five minutes, one set being in silver and the
other strongly cut upon the gun-metal face. There are also as many teeth
upon the edge as there are divisions upon the face of the engine-plate,
namely, 4320, and consequently one revolution of the endless screw moves
through a space of five minutes. The silver ring was divided according to
Troughton's method, with some slight variations. In this operation it
seemed to the authors the safer course to divide the circle completely, and
then to use a single cutter for ratching the edge ; and he believes that the
teeth upon the edge have been cut as truly as the original divisions them-
selves. Another important arrangement is, that the engine is self-acting and
requires no personal exertion or superintendence, nothing being necessary
but the winding up of the machine, or rather the raising of a weight which,
by its descent, communicates motion to the dividing engine. The machinery
is so arranged that it can be used or dispensed with at pleasure, there being
some cases in which a superintending hand is desirable. The author then
proceeds with a description of the machinery, as represented in the drawings
accompanying his paper, and draws attention to the contrivance by which
the engine can discharge itself from action when it has completed its work.
He concluded by observing that the machinery is simple, by no means ex-
pensive, can be made by an ordinary workman, is adapted to all the engines
now in existence, which are moved by an endless screw, lessens the labour
of the artist and increases the accuracy of the graduated instrument.

COATING METAL.

William Henry Fox Talbot, of Laycock Abbey, Esq., has obtained a
patent for " improvements in coating or covering mttals with other metals."
Patent dated November 25, 1842. The specification of Mr. Talbot's present
patent discloses no new principle in the art of metallic precipitation ; but it
supplies some very useful improvements in its manipulative details. — 1. To
prepare metal articles for gilding, Mr. Talbot dips them in a weak solution
of silver in hypo-sulphate of soda. 2. To prepare an article for either gild-
ing or silvering, he first cleans it well, then connects it to one of the wires of
a voltaic battery, next plunges both poles into a vessel filled with some acid
solution, which, decomposing the water, the hydrogen is given oft" by the
article intended to be gilt or silvered. After a little time the article is
detached from the battery, and thrown into a solution of gold or silver,
where it speedily acquires the required coating. 3. To gild metallic articles,
he makes use of a mixed solution of gold, and any one of the baser metals,
with the exception of mercury, which would separate the gold. 4. He also
uses for gilding a solution of chloride of gold, mixed with a solution of
boracic acid, the latter having the effect of greatly improving the colour. 5.
To remove the dark tint which metallic articles sometimes acquire when
dipped in a solution of gold, they are immersed in a very weak solution of
nitrate of mercury. Any mercury which may adhere is afterwards removed
by an acid, assisted by voltaic action. And, 6. When in silvering an article,
the solution of silver ceases to impart any addition to the coating (in conse-
quence of the coating and the solution becoming of identical properties), Mr.
Talbot dips it into a different solution of silver, or into a solution of some
other metal, after which he replaces it in the first solution, when it is found
to act with the same energy as at first. The same method of alternate
dipping is also applicable to solutions of gold. — -Mechanic's Magazine.

OXIDES OF METAL.

John Mcllins, of Battersea, Surrey, surgeon, has obtained a patent for
" certain improvements in making oxides of metals, in separating silver and
other metals from their compounds with other metals, and in making white
lead, sugar of lead, and other salts of lead, and salts of other metals." —
Patent dated October 27, 1842. — Mr. Mullins's improvements are six in
number. First, he produces oxides of lead and other metals by forcing
currents of atmospheric air, or oxygen gas, through masses of the metal in a
melted state, " heated to the temperature of their respective points of oxida-
tion," and then skimming oft' the oxides from the surface. Second, to make
white lead he exposes the oxide of lead obtained by the preceding process,
which is stated to be much superior to the ordinary litharge and vitrified

304

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

massicot of commerce, to the vapours of vinegar ami carbonic acid gas. Or,
third, he exposes a solution of acetate of lead, or other suitable salt of lead,
made from " the oxide obtained as aforesaid," to an atmosphere of carbonic
acid gas. We quote at length the patentee's description of the mode in
which this is effected ; it is new, ingenious, and likely to answer well. " In
chambers, or large jars of earthenware, or other material, are suspended
several large sponges, which are supported in the jars by strings of worsted,
so as not to touch the sides of the jar, or one another. Having made a
saturated, filtered, and neutral solution of acetate of lead, or of other suit-
able salt of lead, from the oxide obtained as aforesaid, and placed this
solution in a vessel above the top of the jars, and having moistened slightly
the sponges with the solution, and also the worsted strings suspending
them, the strings are then made to dip into the solution contained in the
vessel above the jars, and, by the power of capillary attraction, the sponges
are kept constantly moist by a supply of the solution descending down the
worsted strings j and the supply can be regulated at pleasure by the size of
the strings, or otherwise. Evaporation is continually going on, and crops of
salts of lead are formed on the surface of the sponges. The jars are made
to communicate with a gas-holder, or other reservoir, containing carbonic
acid gas, which gas is made to fill the jars in order that the sponges may be
surrounded with an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas. By the action of the
gas, the salt of lead on the sponges is readily converted into ceruse, assisted
probably by the decomposition of the acid of the original solution. When it
has been ascertained that a sufficient quantity of the ceruse has been formed,
the sponges are removed and washed in a vessel of pure water ; and if the
sponges contain any undecomposed soluble salt of lead, which is generally
the case, the water dissolves it, but the ceruse falls to the bottom on the
water remaining at rest. The water is to be re-used for forming the solution
when decanted from the precipitated ceruse. The sponges are then replaced
as before and the .process continues." Fourth, he employs common soot to
deoxidize his oxide of lead, and generally for the reduction of all metals from
their ores or oxide. Fifth, when a mass of melted lead, treated by the pro-
cess just described, contains any silver, the silver, being less oxidizablc than
the lead, accumulates at the bottom of the pot, whence it is drawn off occa-
sionally to be farther purified and separated. And sixth, to separate iron,
the oxides are discharged down a shoot, fixed at an angle of about thirty
degrees, formed of wood, or of some other non-conducting material, from the
bottom of which the poles of a number of magnets project upwards, and to
which a slow, lateral, sieve-like motion is given by machinery ; the magnets
attract and retain the iron, and the oxides pass free. — Jl/itl.

IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON.

J.\mks Pai.mkr IU'iid, of the Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea, fol
priirriiini/s in tlte manufacture oj iron." — Patent dated October 20, 1842;
Mr. liudd's improved process of manufacturing iron, as contradistinguished

from Ncilson's ami (rate's processes, may be called the cold anthracite
blast. The points of novelty to which he lays claim are these — First, t lie
application of anthracite or stone coal, combined with a blast of atmospheric
air, in the natural or untreated state, maintained at a pressure or pxilar of
upwards of 2J lbs. on the square inch, in the smelting or manufacturing of
iron from ironstone, mine, or ore. Secondly, the application of anthracite
or stone coal, combined with the use of water tuyeres, and with a blast of
atmospheric air in the natural or indicated state, in the smelting or manu-
facturing of iron from ironstone, mine, or ore. Thirdly . the application of an-
thracite or stone coal, in combination with four or more tuyeres, and a
blast of atmospheric air in the natural or uuheated state. — Ibid,

GAS.

James Crutchett, of William Street, Regent's Tark, engineer, has ob-
tained a patent for " certain improvement! in manufacturing i/ax, and an ap-
/•nriitns 'fer consuming gas?' — Patent dated July l'J, lsij. — The " improve-
ments in manufacturing gas" consist in producing, by a peculiar apparatus,
described by the patentee, a triple compound, composed, first, of coal or
other gas j secondly, atmospheric air, (in the proportion of from ."> to la per
cent) ; and, thirdly, vapour of naphtha, or other volatile hydro-carbon, (in
what proportions is not stated). The most remarkable feature in the ap-
paratus employed for this purpose is, that the moving power which actuates
it is the gas itself. The improvements in " apparatus for consuming gas"
consist in substituting for the ordinary concentric rings a spiral coil, " by
which the light is. equally concentrated, with the advantage that only one
inlet-pipe is required." — Mechanic's Mag.

dated July 6, 1812. — The plates are so rolled or constructed as to be per-
fectly smooth on that side which is to become the outer side of the vessel,
but along the two inside edges of the plate there are raised two bands or
strips, varying in breadth, according to the thickness of the plate, and, of
course, the strength of rivet to be used in joining them. The plates are to
be punched in the usual way, and afterwards counter-sunk on the outside.
In joining, the plates are brought edge to edge, being flush on the outside ;
and upon the inside is laid a piece of flat bar iron, pierced with two lines of
rivet holes, so as to correspond with the holes in the plate, to which it is to
be riveted. Where it is required to have greater strength, so as to resist in-
creased external pressure, the flat bar has a raised feather along its outer side,
the section of which will form that of a T. The bands, or strips, along the
edges of the plate are to be of such thickness as to make the plate of uni-
form strength throughout when pierced for the rivets ; and thus to obviate
the risk of the plates being broken in that part, which is generally, if not
always, found to be the result in cases of concussion, ixc. The rivets are so
made as to fill the countersink, and thus present a uniform smooth surface
on the outside of the vessel when completed, which of course must meet
much less resistance in passing through the water. — The claim is to the
manufacturing of plates, and joining them as above-mentioned, in the con-
struction of boats and other vessels. — Mechanic's May.

A FIRE-PROOF POWDER MAGAZINE.

An experiment was lately made at Paine's wharf, Westminster, for the
purpose of testing the capabilities of a magazine to contain powder in
ships of war, recently patented by Mr. J. A. Holdsworth, as being impervious
to fire, though subjected on all sides to the greatest possible degree of heat.
A model of a magazine, about nine feet square, was placed on the wharf
within a few feet of the water's edge. This model is formed of a double set
of thin iron plates, riveted together at about two inches and a half asunder,
the hollow being filled with water, and supplied from a vat placed somewhat
above the level of the magazine, and entering it through a pipe inserted
in the lower part of the model. A channel of communication exists through
ever] side as well as the top and bottom, and from the upper surface a second
pipe conveys the stream of water back to the vat from x\hich it is supplied.
The door of the magazine is hung on hinges, made hollow, anil guarded from
leaking by stuffing boxes, so that the water flows into the door through one
lunge and out through the other. The patentee having explained the prin-
ciple of his invention, placed a quantity of combustible matter within the
model, over which some gunpowder was laid on a sheet of paper. A regis-
tering thermometer having been placed inside, the door was closed, and a
stack of dried timber deposited on every side of the model, was set a-light.
The lire was kept up more than ball' an-hour, and the water rose to very nearly
boiling beat, continually passing in a stream through the upper pipe into
the reservoir containing cold water. On the door being opened, the eom-
buatiMe nutters and powder were found to be perfectly uninjured, and the
point to which the mercury bail risen within the model was marked
at LOO degrees of Fahrenheit. A somewhat similar principle has been applied
I" tin stoker's room in the Victoria and .llhert royal steam yacht, where the
bulkheads have been constructed of two plates of sheet iron, instead of
wood faced with iron, a stream of water constantly flowing between, by
which means the temperature of the engine room is kept cool.

METAL SHIPS.

William FairHairn, of Manchester, engineer, has obtained a patent for
" certain iin/iroecmenls in the construction of metal ship*, boats, and other
vessels, an ihe oration of metal vlates to be used therein," — Patent

ORNAMENTAL GLASS.

Mh. John Carr, of North Shields, earthenware manufacturer, and Aarov
ISvlks, of the same place, agent, have obtained a patent for " an iinproved
modt of operating in certain pmcettetfw ornamenting gluts." — Patent dated
9th November, 1841 ; which consists of improvements in toe operations of
staining, stopping out, and obscuring glass. In the improved method of
Staining glass, the staining materials, instead of being mixed with oil of tur-
pentine, or other volatile oils, or water, as usual, are mixed with boiled
linseed oil, or such other oil as is generally employed when printing with
enamel colours on glass; and instead of floating the staining materials over
the glass, hi a liquid state, they are printed or transferred from metal plates,
and, whin dry, are fixed by firing, in the usual way. When operating with
staining materials mixed with oil, as aforesaid, on pot metal, or on flashed
glass, opaque and transparent shades arc produced, leaving the surface of the
glass quite smooth, instead of being raised in those parts, as in the common
mode of applyitig body colour, for the purpose of shading. As regards the
operation of stopping out, the materials, used for that purpose, are mixed
with boiled oil, and printed on the glass, in the manner above described :
the liquid staining composition is then floated over the whole surface, in-
cluding the parts so stopped out, and the colour is fixed by firing. After the
glass has been cleaned, the pattern, which was printed on it in stopping out
materials, is exhibited in the original colour of the glass, and quite distinct
from the stained ground; or a printed impression being transferred to the
glass, in stopping out materials, as aforesaid, the remainder of the ground
may be obscured in the usual manner ; thus producing transparent patterns

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

305

on obscured grounds. The improvement in the process of obscuring glass,
consists in mixing the materials, which are used to produce this effect, with
boiled oil, and transferring impressions from engraved metal plates on to
the glass j thus producing obscured patterns on transparent grounds. — Lon-
don Journal,

PREPARING PAINTED SURFACES OF PAPER.

Henry Martin, of Norton-terrace, Camden-town, painter, has obtained
a patent for " improvements in preparing surfaces of paper." — Patent
dated March 30, 1840. This invention consists in embossing and enamel-
ling the surfaces of paper, and in manufacturing paper-hangings. A coat of
oil-paint, of the desired colour, is first applied to the surface of the paper, as
evenly as possible, with a common paint-brush ; it is then rubbed lightly
over with a brush, similar to a clothes or shoe-brush (giving it a circular
motion), to remove the marks of the paint-brush ; after which, an addi-
tional smoothness is given to the painted surface, by passing a dry brush,
called a " softener," lightly over it. If more than one coat of paint be laid
on, this process is repeated. Or, instead of the above method, the paint
may be applied by conducting the paper between two rollers, together with
an endless felt or other fabric, which is supplied with paint by passing under
a roller partly immersed in it, the superfluous paint being removed from the
felt, as it ascends, by a scraper. The paper, thus prepared, is embossed, by
passing it between engraved rollers or dies ; or is converted into paper-
hangings, by printing the required designs upon it with blocks or other
surfaces. If a glazed or enamelled surface is to be given to the paper, the
oil-pp.int must be used in a thick or round state, and thinned only with tur-
pentine, in the same manner as if it were used for " flatting." When the
turpentine evaporates, the colour becomes set ; the paper is then placed
upon a bed of woollen cloth or other soft material, and a pallet- knife or
trowel, with a polished surface, is passed over the painted surface of the
paper, with a slight pressure ; the eolour being set, yields to the pressure,
and a glaze is thereby produced, which may be afterwards heightened in the
usual manner. Other means may be resorted to for glazing the painted sur-
face of the paper, if preferred. — London Journal,

NEW SAFETY VALVE FOR ENGINE BOILERS.
(From the Transactions of the Liverpool Polytechnic Society.)

The Secretary read an interesting letter on this subject from Mr. Maitland,
formerly a member of the society. It was dated Montreal, where the
writer was then residing. The following are extracts : —

" Shortly after my arrival in this country, a serious explosion took place of
a steam-boiler on a canal high-pressure boat. The boiler was constructed on
the locomotive principle. The effect of the explosion took place immedi-
ately behind the tube-plate of the fire-box. The boiler had no appearance
that indicated that the explosion had taken place from scarcity of water.
The engineer, in evidence, declared that he was allowed to carry 85 lb., but
there is no doubt but that a much greater pressure than that would be re-
qiiired to tear the boiler in the manner the Shamrock's was torn. The
boiler was constructed throughout of -r-inch plate. This, there is no ques-
tion, is too thin for tube plates. The tubes were wrought iron. From
all the circumstances of the case, I have no doubt but the boiler
exploded from a too great accumulation of steam, and having either
a too small or inefficient safety-valve, they did not allow it to blow off.
From this circumstance I was induced to pay some attention to, and, if pos-
sible, to improve, the safety valve. I send you a sketch of one which I con-
sider does away with many of the objections of the present one in use. It
is more especially useful when steam of high pressure is used. If a valve is
constructed to be out of the reach of the engineer — that is, to be loaded in
the box that contains the valve, if the valve be of any size at all — the weight
requires to be enormous, for the pressure is 15, 20, or 30 lb. per inch. Iu
the valve I have invented this objection does not hold, as the same amount
of weight will load a 10-inch valve at the same pressure, as it would load on
the old plan a valve of 2 in. diameter. The top valve is 10 in. diameter, and
the lower one 9f inch; consequently, the area to be loaded is only a ring 10
inches diameter and one-eighth inch broad. As the Polytechnic Society is
established for the advancement of science, I will, if it would be of any
service to its members, prepare a paper on marine engineering in this country.
The boats attain a speed here, with an economy of fuel as you have as yet
not got at home. A boat was started this summer on the St. Lawrence,
called the Montreal ; she is the fastest in North America. Some engineers
visited her here from the Hudson, and they declared they had nothing that
surpassed her. She is 250 feet long; breadth, or beam, 27 feet; depth of
hold, 10 feet; diameter of cylinder, 57 inches; length of stroke, 10 feet;
diameter of wheel, 30 feet; length of float, 10 feet; and depth of float,
2 feet 6 inches; strokes, 21 per minute; steam, 25 lb.; speed, 15 miles per
hour !"

Mr. Maitland's valve consists of a very simple and ingenious modifica-
tion of the common equilibrium valve, now well-known and much used
among engineers. Steam from the boiler enters freely a flat chamber, the

top and bottom of which are formed by two valves, firmly connected
together and both opening upwards. Now if these two valves be of equal
diameter, the steam-pressure above the lower valve will exactly counter-
poise the pressure beueath the upper valve, consequently the valves will have
no tendency to rise, and no steam will be allowed to escape. But if we
suppose the upper valve to be even one-eighth of an inch the larger in diame-
ter, the pressure on it will overcome that on the lower valve, and the two
valves being connected together they will both rise, and allow the steam
rapidly to escape (upward through the upper valve, and downward through
the lower one) ; and it is evident that the weight necessary to load this
valve is exceedingly small, viz., just sufficient to balance the pressure on an
area equal to the difference between the areas of the two valves, whilst the
valve is as efficient as a common safety-valve having an area equal to the
sums of the areas of the two valves. The force necessary to keep this valve
down is so small that the ordinary lever is dispensed with ; and in place of
it a weight corresponding to the pressure required is placed immediately
upon the top valve, thus preventing a tendency to gag or stick from want of
attention, and making the apparatus what it really is — pre-eminently a
safety-valve.

THE SMOKE NUISANCE.

REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE.

The select committee appointed to inquire into the means and the expe-
diency of preventing the nuisance of smoke arising from fires or furnaces ,
and who were empowered to report their opinion, together with the minutes
of evidence taken before them, to the House, have considered the matters to
them referred, and have agreed to the following report : —

In their endeavours to investigate the subject, your committee have
deemed it expedient to call before them a variety of persons. They have re-
ceived the evidence of the most eminent men in the science of chemistry, of
practical engineers of high reputation, of leading master manufacturers and
proprietors of steam-engines, and of ingenious persons who had devised
means and taken out patents for the prevention of smoke. The attention of
the parties called to give evidence has been principally directed to the con-
sideration of the following heads, on which their opinions were given.

1. Whether it was practicable entirely to prevent, or very much to
diminish, the nuisance now so severely felt in large towns and populous
districts from the smoke of furnaces or of steam-engines.

2. Whether, if this were practicable, it would be advisable to take any
steps to prevent the nuisance; as so doing might interfere with the pro-
perty or interests of manufacturers, or of the proprietors of furnaces.

3. If, in the event of the two former questions being answered in the
affirmative, they would recommend some legislative enactment to be framed
to prohibit the nuisance of smoke.

In regard to the first of these questions, it appears from the whole of the
evidence of scientific and practical men, including master manufacturers,
that smoke, which is the result of imperfect combustion, may in all cases be
much diminished, if not entirely prevented.

It appears to be the unanimous opinion of the witnesses conversant with
the subject, that imperfect combustion arises from a deficiency of atmo-
spheric air to mix with and act on the inflammable matter at a proper
temperature, and under circumstances which must ensure its effective opera-
tion ; that this admission of air, properly regulated, is the great, if not the
only, principle of preventing smoke which is generally applicable; and that
all inventions for the prevention of smoke (except where the smoke has been
separated mechanically by an artificial shower of water, produced in a flue
constructed for the purpose,) are only various applications, in different forms,
of this general principle : even the flow or jet of steam which has been
applied by some persons to prevent smoke in furnaces, being merely a modi-
fication of this general principle ; as, though steam may modify combustion,
air must necessarily flow in with it, otherwise the combustion in the furnace is
arrested.

The evidence before your committee further shows, that the admission of
atmospheric air, under proper regulations, into the furnace, is productive of
saving in fuel, by causing the particles of carbon, which would otherwise
rise in smoke and be wasted, to ignite, and thereby to increase the heat in
the boiler.

It appears that the expense attendant on putting up whatever apparatus
may he required to prevent smoke arising from furnaces is very trifling; and,
as some of the witnesses observed, the outlay may be repaid within the year
by the diminished consumption of fuel. F'or additional information on this
subject your committee beg to refer to the evidence.

Several most ingenious patents and inventions for the prevention and con-
sumption of smoke, were laid before your committee, which, from the testi-
mony of the proprietors of furnaces by whom they were adopted, appeared
to answer the twofold purpose of preventing smoke and of lessening the
quantity of fuel required.

The means of preventing smoke might also be applied to the furnaces of
steam boats; but such application would be attended with rather more
expense than on land, from the occasional want of space, and the setting of
boilers, in a steam-vessel. No doubt, however, existed, in the opiuions of

306

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

those examined, that the prevention of smoke could be accomplished in all
steam-vessels.

The use of anthracite coal and of coke, as the means of preventing
smoke, were not overlooked by your committee ; but, being well known,
need not be repeated here.

In reference to the last and most important point under the consideration
of your committee, how far it would be expedient to frame some legislative
enactment to lessen the nuisance from smoke, your committee, after a careful
survey of the evidence before them, seeing that the evils arising from smoke
are severely felt in all populous places, and are likely to increase in propor-
tion as wealth and the use of machinery cause a greater extension of furnaces
and steam-engines, come, without hesitation, to the conclusion, that such a
legislative enactment should be introduced without delay; and they trust
that the perusal of this evidence will ensure cordial aid and co-operation, on
the part of the proprietors of factories, in accomplishing an object so essen-
tial to the comfort and well-being of the surrounding country and popula-
tion; an expectation which your committee feel justified in entertaining, by
the knowledge of the laudable exertions which have lately been made, with
much success, by the manufacturers and inhabitants of Leeds and Bradford,
in Yorkshire, for the prevention of smoke in those districts.

Your committee have received the most gratifying assurances of the con-
fident hope entertained by several of the highest scientific authorities ex-
amined by them, that the same black smoke proceeding from fires in private
dwellings', and all other places, may eventually be entirely prevented, either
by the adoption of stoves and grates formed for a perfect combustion of the
common bituminous coal, or by the use of coke or of anthracite ; but they
are of opinion, that the present state of knowledge on that subject is not
such as to justify any legislative interference with these smaller fires.

In conclusion, therefore, your committee beg leave to recommend that a
bill should be brought into parliament at an early period of the next session,
to prohibit the production of smoke from furnaces and steam-engines.

They indulge a hope that the matter will be thought of sufficient national
importance to induce the government to bring in a bill : but, in the event of
their not doing so early next session, your committee recommend that
the chairman of this committee should frame such a measure, as being the
necessary result of the complete and strong conviction to which they have
come by the prosecution of the inquiry.

1 7th August, 1813.

KYANIZING OF TIMBER.

Sir, — A letter having appeared in your Journal for August, from
Mr. Taswell Thompson, Secretary to the Anti-Dry-rot (Kyan's) Com-
pany, commenting oh my report am! letter on the preservation of timber
from decay, I trust you will allow me a comer in your valuable Journal in
answer thereto.

Mr. Thompson says that I have made statements most injurious to the
interests of the Kyanizing Company.

As secretary to that company, he is no doubt most anxious about its
interests ; but I have no interest whatsoever in any process or patent, and
have only been anxious to find out the best mode of preserving limber from
decav, and the attacks of worm.

Mr. Thompson states that both my report and letter are very inaccurate.
Now, Sir, this charge of "inaccuracy" refers chiefly to my statements re-
specting the decay of sleepers at the West India Dock warehouses, and the
wooden tanks in the Kyan Company's yard.

To justify the truth of my statements, I think you will agree with me,
that it is only necessary to refer to the published minutes of the discussion
at the Institution of Civil Engineers for session, 18-12, in which the follow-
ing appears : —

" Mr. Samuel Seaward said he believed the present method of Kyanizing
to be very imperfect, and alluded to a number of sleepers so prepared for
the West India Dock warehouses having recently been discovered to decay.

" Mr. Martin (Engineer to the East and West India Docks) confirmed this
account of the decay of sleepers, fifty out of seventy were destroyed. They
had been prepared by simple immersion, and had been down about five
years, lie bail understood that some of the wooden tanks in which the
solution was kept at the Anti-Dry-rot Company's yard were decayed.

" Mr. Hull bad prepared considerable quantities of boards for the Calder
and Hebble navigation, by immersing them in the solution for two or three
days which wes about double the period allowed by the patentee. He had
some specimens of boards, and in almost all of them there was an appearance
of del aj in various stages. An oak board one inch thick, Kyanized in 1839,
had lain ever since upon the damp ground, exposed to the air ; the sap part
was entirely decayed, but the heart remained sound; fungus was, however,
growing upon it." Poplar boards, Kyanized in 1838, 39, and -40, were all
partially decayed. In preparing the timbers, he had always followed t lie
instructions of the patentee, and had tested the strength of the solution
with the hydrometer, but bad mixed up fresh solution even more frequently
than was supposed to be required. On dismantling one of the tanks for
holding the solution, be found the iron work partially destroyed, and entirely
covered with globules of mercury."

It appears that Mr. Thompson did himself take part in this discussion. Why

did he not then contradict the statements, if untrue ? or after these minutes
had been printed and published in almost every journal in London, why did
he not explain them away at the time, instead of reserving his explanations
and answer for many months ? And even to this moment, in the absence of
such explanation, I was, and am now, of course, bound to believe the state-
ments of Mr. Seaward, Mr. Martin, &c. But you will observe, Sir, that he
does not, even now, deny the fact of the sleepers and tank having decayed;
he only says the sleepers were not in the West India Dock warehouses, but
were laid down in Kyan's own yard. In my opinion, this explanation makes
the matter worse, because, if the Kyan company's process will not preserve
the timber laid down in their own yard, how can they expect that the public
will believe that it will preserve timber elsewhere.

Mr. Thompson must be well aware that 1 could have cited many other in-
stances of its failure; what says that eminent civil engineer, Robert Ste-
phenson, Esq., in his report respecting the sleepers of the London and Bir-
mingham Railway ? " They were all Kyanized, but the result has been un-
favourable and unsatisfactory, for after laying three years, great numbers
discovered symptoms of decay, indeed many have been removed absolutely
rotten, and he had abandoned the Kyan's process, and adopted Mr. Bethell's
oil of tar.

Why has I. K. Brunei, Esq., C.E. (under whose directions such immense
quantities of timber were Kyanized) abandoned it and adopted the oil of
tar ? Will Mr. Thompson inform us what has become of his Kyanizing tanks
at Bristol, and how many loads of timber were Kyanized at Hastings during
the last two years; and also at Shoreham ? and why were the tanks at the
latter place offered at 10s. per load to be converted into oil of tar tanks.

What savs Mr. Thompson to the experiments in the mushroom-house at
Welbeck, where good Baltic timber lasted longer than the best Kyanized
oak ? and will he tell me how many hundreds of Kyanized sleepers on the
London and Brighton Railway have decayed ?

On the 31st of last month I visited the model-rooms (or museum) of the
Admiralty at Somerset House, and examined pieces of Kyanized oak and fir
now there, which were placed in the sea at Sheerness, and are perfectly
honey-combed and destroyed by the worm.

Dr. Moore proved the same thing at Plymouth : and amongst the Trans-
actions of Civil Engineers, is a report from a gentleman at Dover, proving
that Kyanized timber shared the same fate there, and that the worms eat it
quite as much as they did the unprepared timber. I could bring a host of
other proofs if requisite. But I think 1 have said enough to dispose of Mr.
Secretary's first and second heads.

As to the third head — that of the Kyanized timber at Shoreham Harbour
— I here most respectfully beg to deny, most positively, that there was a
Report and Survey by the Commissioners of Shoreham Harbour; and I say
positively, that every piece of Kyanized timber in the piers at Shoreham
Harbour — that is, placed at any time during the last five years under high
water mark, and exposed to the action of tidal water — is gone through
several stages of decay, and affected by the worm ; and that the oak timber
Kyanized is in a worse condition than the unprepared timber.

I have, in my possession, certificates from eminent professors, civil engi-
neers, &c, and from the largest timber merchant and also builder in tiie
port of Shoreham ; also from all the carpenters, &c, workmen of Shoreham
Harbour, substantiating the above, which I am ready to publish at any time.

As to Mr. Thompson's fourth head, if he had read my letter on Kyanizing
carefully, he would have seen that I grounded my opinion as to the injurious
efffct of the vapour of mercury, on the opinions given to the Admiraltv by
Sir Humphrey Davy.

In conclusion, allow me to state that my opposition to corrosive sublimate
arises alone, which I have publicly announced) from a conviction that in
hydraulic works (and it was such works that my letter and report treated
upon) it is as useless as soft soap, as it does not prevent decay when exposed
to sea water, as hydraulic works generally are.

The importance of the subject of preserving timber, I hope will be a suf-
ficient excuse for the space I have occupied in your Journal.
I am, Sir,
Y'our obedient servant,

William B. Pbichard.

Health of Liverpool. — On the occasion of Dr. Lyon Playfair pro-
ceeding to Liverpool to examine into the causes of the great nnhealthiness
of that northern metropolis, Mr. Henry Laxton, has addressed to him
a short pamphlet, in which he ably lays bare the prominent causes of the
evil, and suggests the requisite improvements. He attributes the unfavour-
able state of Liverpool, as regards health, principally to the following causes :
open cesspools; proximity of buildings; inefficient drainage; smoke from
factories and steam vessels; cellar occupation, and dirty state of buildings;
open spaces, where water and refuse are allowed to collect and decompose ;
inefficient supply of water, and deficiency of pleasure grounds for the school
children.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

307

THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF LONG AND SHORT

CONNECTING RODS, CONSIDERED IN THE EXPOSITION

OF CRANK AND CONNECTING ROD MOTION.

By H. F. Clifford.

The subject of the following paper is one of great importance to the
practical mechanic; and as we have never yet seen any satisfactory
solution of this long disputed question, we have endeavoured to draw
such conclusions from the investigation of the theory of crank and
connecting rod motion as we feel convinced will set at rest all pre-
vious doubts concerning the comparative advantages of long and
short connecting rods. With a given force in the direction of the
piston, our object in the present investigation is to ascertain the best
means of obtaining the greatest amount of that force in the direction
of rotation, and thus render friction as small as possible; in other
words, -whether is a short or long connecting rod the more effectual
method for fulfilling the conditions of our proposed inquiry?

We shall first show that if F be the original force exerted by the
piston rod of a steam engine along its own axis, that there is more of
that force transmitted in the direction of the long rod than the short
one.

Let P Q, Fig. 1, be a cylinder with piston, and let the piston rod
exert a force F, at the point B, where the rods B A, B D, connect it
respectively to the cranks A C, D E.

Fig. 1.

Let A B make an angle (<jj) with the horizon.

BD .. (0)

„. , , . f „ | in the direction of A B =: F cos tp.

The resolved part of F j _ B D = F cos l

Now the magnitude of the force in either direction depends on the
cosines of the angles, which the respective rods A B, B D, make with
the horizon, and since cos tp and cos 0 become a maximum when <p
and 0 = o, it follows the smaller the angle the larger the numerical
value of the cosine, and since 0 is considerably less than tp, the long
rod has evidently more of the resolved part of F in its direction than
the short one.

Again —

mi , , . ,„ (in the direction of A C = F sin *.

The resolved part of F ', ,-. „ „ . T

1 | . . D E = F sin 0.

The magnitude of the forces in this case depends upon the sines
of the angles, and since the larger the angle the greater the sine, the
resolved part of F in A* C, is much greater than that in D E ; in other
words, the pressure into the centre, or friction in the axle, is more in
the short than in the long rod.

Having proved then that there is more force in the direction of the
long rod, we now proceed to show that the resolved part of the force in
B A, and B D, in the direction of rotation, is greater in the case of
the long than the short rod; or,

Proposition. To find the part of the force exerted by the piston
rod of a steam engine which is perpendicular to the crank, in any
given position of the fly.

Let E A, Fig. 2, be the piston rod, the direction of which produced
is supposed to pass through the centre of the fly C; A B, the con-
necting rod ; C B, the crank : B T D, the tangent at B.

Let C B = a, A B = b, A C B = 8, B D — x, A D = z.

L A B D = tp, Z the tangent makes with connecting rod
AB.

The resolved part of F in B A = F cos B A C.

= F cos (A D B + A B D.)

= F cos (<p -f- - — 0)

* i

= F sin (0 — tp)
—f suppose.
The resolved part of F in B D =/cos tp.

= F cos <p sin (0 — tp)

Fig. 2.

Investigating equation A, it is evident that the smaller the angle <p the
greater the force in B D, and the longer the rod A B, the smaller the
angle it makes with the tangent, and thus we have more of the re-
solved part of the force in B A, in the direction of rotation in the
long rod, a fortiori, how much more have we of the original force F,
transmitted by the piston in the direction of rotation in the case of
the long than the short rod.

There is, however, a small arc in the crank's orbit, in which the
short rod possesses an advantage, for let E B, F B, be respectively a
long and short connecting rod, A G H, the fly, G C H, perpendicular to
A E, and let the crank (in Fig. 3) be in such a position that B T, the
tangent, bisects the L between the rods; let D be the point correspond-

* The solution of this equation is rather intricate, as we have to express
the value of F in B D, in terms of the known quantities 6, a, and b ; but, as
it is desirable to know the result, we give the working.
b- + .r- — ~

NOW COS tp

2bx

B D = B C tan 0 = a tan 0.
lin (p sin tp sin <p.

cos 0.

1.

lin ( 2"

z = b

sin tp

= b sin. tp sec.

cos 9

By substitution in equation 1, we have

b- + a- tan.2 0 — b- sin.2 tp sec.2

Cos. i

2a4 tan. 0

2 ab tan. 0 cos. tp = b2 + a2 tan.2 0 — b2 sec.2 0 (1 — cos.2 tp.)
.'. b- cos.17 tp sec.2 0 — lab tan. 0 cos. tp = (A2 — a2) tan.2 0.

Dividing by b- sec.2 0 and putting -

we have

Cos.2 tp — 1m sin. 2 0 cos. tp = (1 — 4 m~) sin.2 0
Completing the quadratic "|
and extracting the root j"

^cos. tp — m sin. 2 0= x sin. 0 -J 1 — 4 m- sin.

Now the positive sign must be taken in order that cos. <p may he always
possible.

.'. Cos. tp = m sin. 2 0 4- sin. 0 V 1 — 4 m2 sin.2 0,

And sin.<£ = V cos.2 0—4 m sin.2 0 (m cos. 2 0 + cos. 0) V 1 — 1 ma sin.2 0.

Let X = the resolved part of f, in B E,
then from equation A, X = F cos. tp sin. (0 — tp.)

= F sin. 0 cos.2 tp — F cos. 0 sin. tp cos. tp.

Putting for sin. tp and cos. tp their respective values, X = F sin.3 0 1 1 + 4 m

(m cos. 2 0 4- cos. 0 a/ 1 — 4 m2 sin.2 0) l — F cos. 0 sin. 0 (2 m cos. 0 +

*/l — 4 m2sin.20) V cos.20 — 4 m sin.3 0(mcos.2 0 + cos. 0 ■/ 1 — 4 m3sin.20,
which is the required equation.

42a

308

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

Fig. 3.

ing to B on the other side of E A, then the points B D, will evidently
lie between G and K, and R and H. Let C P (in Figs. 4 & 5) represent
the other position of the crank, and let P T be the tangent at P. First'

suppose the forces exerted by the connecting rods in their own di-
rections to be equal, then it is clear (in Fig. 3) their resolved parts in
the tangent will he equal, since ZEBT=ZFBT. Now from
F'g. 5, it will be seen, that while the crank moves from B to K and

from K to D, the short rod makes a smaller angle with the tangent
llian the long one, consequently, through this arc, the short one pos-
sesses an advantage ; but, on the other hand, in Fig. 4, while the crank
moves from A to B, and by parity of reasoning, from D to A, the long
connecting rod makes the smaller angle. Hence, if we suppose the
forces exerted by the rods in their own directions to be equal, the long
rod is preferable, since in a whole revolution of the crank, it has the ad-
vantage through the arc DAB, which is > arc B K D, through which
the shorter one has the advantage. But the forces exerted by the
rods in their own directions are not equal, since if F be the force ex-
erted by the piston F cos P E F.the force in the direction of the long
rod is always greater than F cos P F C, the force in the direction of
the shorter one, except when P coincides with A or K, when they are
equal, aud thus the superiority of the long rod in the entire orbit in
the transmission of rotary force, has been satisfactorily demonstrated.
Lastly, since the resolved part which produces rotation is greater in
the long than the short rod, the resolved part perpendicular to this
direction, or tending to the centre of the fly, is less in the long thin
the short rod ; and this resolved part produces friction on the axis of
the fly, which is the chief thing to be guarded against.

// 18 this trifling advantage possessed by the short rod that has induced
several clever practical mechanics, with whom we are acquainted, to
argue in favour of Us Superiority ; but, whilst we agree with them, that
it has the properly of pressing at a more favourable angle during the
progress of the crank through a very s?nall arc, they must not forget the

gradual increase and decrease of the force exerted by the piston on either
side of the dead power point i?,t the inequality of the forces in their own
directions, and that, moreover, this alleged superiority lasts only during
a very limited portion of the crank's entire revolution.

Theoretically speaking then, there is no limit to the length of the
connecting rod of a steam engine, but in practice, we are generally
confined for space in the erection of machinery; still from the pro-
ceding analysis, we should endeavour to make it as long as we con-
veniently can, in order to obtain the greatest amount of rotatory force,
and thus render friction as little as possible. This subject might be
practically illustrated, by taking a steam cylinder, furnished with the
usual appendages, and connecting the piston rod end to the crank
with a rod fitted with a long eye or slot, so that the length of the
rod could be adjusted at pleasure. On the crank shaft put a small
drum, and suspend a heavy weight, that has to be wound up over it.
By comparing the work done in a given time with the same amount
of steam from the boiler, (at an equal pressure in either case,) it will
be found that the result of the experiment, if accurately performed,
will fully attest the superiority of the long rod, as shown in our theo-
retical deductions.

THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

New events produce new institutions. In the beginning of this
century it would have been considered a silly freak of the swinish
herd to have required the inspection of any architectural design, their
functions being limited to mute and confiding admiration, when the
doctors had given their fiat that the plaster palace or warehouse
church was a master-piece of art. What did the public know of art,
and what right had they to interfere? Would they have been
allowed to pass their comments on the lath and plaster palace in
Buckingham swamp? Certainly not! Neither did architects in those
days consider it necessary to pay deference to the judgment of the
public or of any one else. It was quite enough that they were em-
ployed to do the job, and they put it out of the way in the quietest
manner that they could, received the money, and posterity will neither
care for the architect nor edifice. The increasing attention paid to
English art under the auspices of George III. and George IV. led to
the regeneration of public feeling with regard to art, and to those efforts
which have been made of late years for the cultivation of the public
taste ; and as the public have obtained a higher qualification, so they
have necessarily required the exercise of higher powers. The throw-
ing open of the British Museum, the extension of the school in it, and
the establishment of the National Gallery, have opened the way,
which has been followed up by subsequent measures, and it is no ex-
aggeration now to say, that the public have twenty times the power
of artistic instruction which they had twenty years ago. The me-
chanics' institutions have co-operated in this movement by the
formation of drawiug classes ; and the delivery of lectures on art, the
extension of provincial exhibitions, or the establishment of art-unions,
have fostered the public disposition on the subject. Neither has the
government less co-operated; the improvements effected at Hampton
Court, the better administration of public collections, the institution
of schools of design, and the introduction of drawing as a branch of
primary instruction, have all had the same tendency. Contempo-
raneously a demand has been made on public grounds, on those autho-
rities having charge of new constructions, that the designs should be
submitted to public competition and public inspection, and the prin-
ciple of responsibility to the public voice in the case of architectural
works has been fully established. Acted upon by the government with
respect to that glorious monument, the New Palace of the Houses of
Parliament at Westminster, that principle has beeu carried out in a
most satisfactory manner in the exhibition of the Cartoons, for the

t The circumstance of the piston's motion not being uniform is also in
our favour, since the force exerted varies from zero to a maximum, as the
piston travels from K to G and from K to H ; and whilst this fact renders
the advantage spoken of still more trifling, we have the long rod exercising
the superiority at a time when the piston's exertion is a maximum.

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

31)9

interior decorations. That this principle cannot be injurious to the
artist, we are prepared to affirm ; that it must have a beneficial influ-
ence, the competition to which we have just alluded has fully proved.
The incentive to exertion, the sentiment of responsibility, the foretaste
of success, which the artist already feels, all tend to develop the
highest faculties, and to produce the noblest works. We cannoti
perhaps, in this day, reproduce the feeling of religious responsibility
which animated the artists of old, and the. want of which has been
one great cause of the deadness of modern art ; we must, therefore,
avail ourselves of the nearest approach which the institutions of the
present day afford. The vitality of this principle is thus established,
and its general application a matter of necessity. We have already
alluded to the happy effects of public responsibility in the case of the
Houses of Parliament ; we now demand its application in an edifice
scarcely less remarkable, and not less popular — we mean the British
Museum. This is peculiarly the palace of the people, and it is not
unnatural that deep interest should be felt as to the designs contem-
plated for the approaching completion of this edifice, affording, as
it will, in its facade, the opportunity for great architectural display
and having the resources of government available for the purpose.
We consider it most essential, both as a matter of principle and expe-
diency that some satisfaction should be given to the public anxiety by
the announcement and exhibition of the intended design, These are
the views which we most earnestly beg to impress on the proper
authorities, and we confidently hope for every attention to the many
expressions of the public voice on this subject.

DAVIES' RAILWAY CARRIAGE BREAK.

This railway break has now had a long trial on the London and
Birmingham Railway, where it has been adopted to some of the car-
riages with great success, and has been highly approved on the line.
It is the invention of Mr. David Davies, of Wigmore Street, Caven-
dish Square, who is well-known as an extensive railway carriage
builder. The following description, by a reference to the accompa-
nying engraving, which we copy from the Mechanics' Magazine, will
fully explain the action of the breaks.

a a represent the underside of the framing of a railway car-
riage ; 6 6 are the four wheels ; c c are breaks on the extremeties
of eight long levers, whose fulcra are at d d\ e e' is a shaft carrying a
shaft carrying a quick threaded screw, working in fixed bearings, and
furnished with a bevil wheel e, for connecting it with a vertical shaft
and handle, led off to any point at which it may be convenient for
the breaksman to be stationed ; /, is a traversing nut, attached by the
connecting ruds g g, to the two cross levers h h. There are two mor-
tices in each of the cross levers, through which the break levers pass;
these levers are connected by a pin on the extremity of one lever
sliding in a slot in an iron plate on the end of that opposite to it, so
that any motion conveyed to the one, is simultaneously communicated
to the other.

Motion being given to the screw e e', the traversing nut /is drawn
towards the bevil wheel, which causes the several levers to assume
the position shown by the dotted lines, which will occasion the breaks
C c to press against the circumference of all four of the wheels with
immense force, preventing their rotation and converting the carriage
into a perfect sledge. This combination of the mechanical powers is
so favourable to the development of power, that with such an ar-
rangement it would be almost possible to crush the wheels. In all the
breaks we have hitherto seen, there has always been a violent thrust
between the wheel and the carriage, or between two of the wheels,
tending to break or bend the axles; in the present plan there is not
the slightest strain upon the axle, the gripe being exerted on the two
opposite sides of the wheel, and the force that might be thus applied
with perfect safety, would be sufficient, if applied in the usual man*
mer, to cause an inevitable rupture in the machinery. Although the
action of this break is rapid, it is by no means so sudden as to entail
any evil upon that account. •

In illustration of the power of such a system of breaks, let us sup-
pose that each of the breaks c presents a surface of only three times
the area of the bearing surface of the wheel upon the' rail, and that
the total weight of the carriage is ten tons; it follows then that if
each of the eight breaks were pressed against the eiicumference of
the wheel with a force of little more than eight hundred weight, ro-

tation of the wheels would be effectually prevented. When it is
further seen that this small force is exerted through the medium of a
screw, acting upon a system of levers most advantageously disposed
for the multiplication of power, it will be evident that the application
of a few pounds to the break handle would instantly arrest the pro-
gress of the wheels.

NEW BUILDING ACT.

We have a copy of the last bill as amended, and we are happy to announce
that in this the amendments suggested by ourselves and others have been
fully carried out, and the bill in its present shape, with a few trifling altera-
tions, we should be happy to see passed. As, however, the bill is again re-
ferred for further consideration and amendment to Mr. George Smith, one of
the city district surveyors, and architect to the Mercers' Company, Professor
llosking and Mr. Thos. Cubitt, the builder, all well known for their practical
attainments, we defer going again into the details of the measure until we see
the result of their labours and recommendations, which is to be presented to
Parliament in the ensuing session. We cannot conclude these few remarks
without expressing the obligations under which the profession are to Lord
Lincoln, for the readiness he showed to enter into the free discussion of the
details of the first bill, and to amend its defects.

310

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

REVIEWS.

ARCHITECTURE IN THE REIGN OF GEORGE III.
The Pictorial History of England. Part 74.

From a condensed popular sketch very much is not to be expected,
because the writer is so cramped as to space, that he can hardly do
more than touch upon a few leading generalities and summing up of
his opinions — certainly has no room for entering into specific criticism,
nor always for fully explaining his meaning. We can accordingly
look for little more than bare opinions and critical dicta, which must
be acquiesced in as of oracular authority bv those who are unable to
examine into them. Still, even to those who are already familiar with
the subject, an appercu of the kind is interesting if only as refreshing
the memory, and it would be strange, indeed, if some fresh remark or
other could not be picked up from it. Let us begin by quoting the
following introductory one.

"The English school, as it was constituted at the accession of
George ill, could devise no correction of the errors of their prede-
cessors, but by resorting to crude imitations of Palladio, a recurrence
to forms and combinations established under other modes of existence
totally different from their own, at another period and in another
climate. Neither their discriminating taste in the selection of the
beautiful, nor their profound knowledge of the practice of the Italian
schools, can redeem the want of fitness which characterizes their pro-
ductions, their disregard ot the exigencies of our climate, and their
inattention to our domestic hahits ; for in many cases their plans as
well as their elevations are borrowed from the Italian. The conse-
quences were fatal. They had rooted up a vigorous plant for an
exotic which they wanted skill to naturalize; it perished, therefore,
leaving nothing in its place, and another half century found architec-
ture in England reduced to a condition unprecedented since its first
development as an art, devoid of unitv, character, and principles."

While this is, in the main, true, it is also somewhat vague and in-
distinct ; and to us itappears to partake of contradiction to speak of the
il iscri mi nating taste, and the profound knowledge of the Italian schools,
possessed by persons who resorted to " crude imitations of Palladio."
Feeble as may have been their powers of invention, it is strange that
those who it seems were acquainted with, and capable of appreciating,
Italian architecture generally, should not have extended their views
beyond Palladio and other system-mongers. And if, in regard to this
point, we find ourselves somewhat at a loss, still less do we compre-
hend what the writer is driving at when, if we do not mistake his
meaning, he gives it as his opinion that, being adapted to a ditferent
climate, the architecture of Italy is essentially unfitted to be followed
by us — at least without very considerable modifications. It may
be so, but we have yet to learn wherefore ; for though this philoso-
phical remark is a pretty old acquaintance of ours, we having met
with it we know not how many times before, never have we met with
even an attempt at an explanation of it. Hardly is there any thing in
the constitution of such a style that unfits it in any degree for appli-
cation in almost any part of Europe. It provides as effectually against
weather as any mode of building can do, and therefore the difference
of climate must be corrected by other means ; instead of marble pave-
ments or inlaid floor, we require thick carpets, good fires, stoves in
vestibules, and the like ; and instead of sitting with open windows,
we are glad to keep them shut. But matters and circumstances of
this kind have nothing to do with one mode of building more than
another. From what is sometimes said on the subject, it might al-
most be supposed that every ten degrees of latitude would require
quite a different mode of architecture ; and also might it be supp. sed
that the climate of England was as severe as that of the most northern
parts of Siberia. Changeable enough it is, no doubt, and such being
the case, it is impossible to fix upon any mode of building that shall
be perfectly suitable as regards all the fluctuating contingences of
weather: we have seasons when shade is as inviting as in Italy, and
when even the splashing of fountains in marble halls would be a luxury,
and when consequently Italian architecture — supposing that is at all
concerned with the matter, would be felt to be — for the time at least —
the most appropriate of any for ourselves.

Let us test the " climate doctrine " by facts : what say they ; is St.
Paul's found to be at all worse adapted to our climate, than Westmin-
ster Abbey? Is Windsor Castle decidedly better so than Buckingham
Palace? Are Barry's clubhouses found to be at variance with aught
our climate requires? or though they give us the very quintessence of
the Italian style, are they not perfectly English in accommodation — as
thoroughly or rather infinitely more so than many houses, and very
costly ones, too, which exhibit no other style externally than that

called the hole-in-the-wall style ? Still, our climate, it may be argued,
does not admit of arcades and colonnades; why not? — or if not, then
our own old English architecture was badly contrived, for that gives
us specimens of cloisters and covered walks, which are essentially the
same things as the others, differing from them only in style and in
name.

The fault lies not in adopting the Italian style — Palladian or any
other particular species of it, but in not at the same time adapting it
to circumstances, and further improvinsrit. And if this be what the
writer means, we agree with him, at the same time wishing he had
expressed himself more clearly than he has done. Fully do we agree
with him in regard to his representation of the state of architecture
in this country at about the commencement of the present century.
With very few exceptions, indeed, it was deplorable enough: the art
may be said to have been in a state of starvation — reduced to the ex-
treme of meagreness and insipidity. Of this, we have most con-
vincing proof, in the New J'ttruvius Britannicus, which consists en-
tirely of buildings of that period, most of them below mediocrity in
point of taste and design, and all, more or less, infected with beggarly
mannerism and false simplicity, and marked by nothing so much as
the utter absence of all artist-like feeling or study. Even where the
glimmering of an idea seems to have presented itself, nothing is made
of it ; nor is there among the whole collection a single design that is
even decently finished-up. The Adams, the Wyatts, and the Bo-
nomis, bedevilled and vulgarized architecture : in their hands, tawdri-
ness, frivolitv, dullness, and meanness, became its characteristics. In
order to escape the reproach of heaviness, they fell into the opposite
extreme of flimsiness ; while of simplicity they seem to b;ive had
little other idea than nakedness of composition, scantiness of details,
and utter disregard of finish — that sine qua non in the aesthetics of ar-
chitecture, let the style itself be what it may. Even when they
aimed at richness, the result was seldom more than a sort of niggling
prettiness; nor was that always consistently kept up. With the
Adams, such was generally notoriously the case : their designs,
for the most part, exhibit trumpery ornament, patched upon build-
ings that were not even prepared for embellishment of any kind,
being j,) themselves quite in a state of nudity, as is strikingly the ease
with the Adelphi, Caen Wood, &c, which are wretched architectural
stuff", hardly a degree better in point of taste than our modern gin-
palace style. " In the screen of the Admiralty," says the writer in
the Pictorial History, "Adam surpassed himself. It is a work of
great beauty, independently of being the only instance in which he
adopted a recognized stvle in the detail." As to its having much
positive merit, however, we do not agree; on the contrary, our
opinion more fully coincides with that expressed by another critic, in
the London Interiors, Part 23, who speaking of the Admiralty screen,
savs, "It neither agrees in any way with the building to which it is
attached, nor is it on a sufficient scale to be at all suitable as a frontis-
piece to a public edifice ; for it looks too much like a reduced copy
of what was intended to be nearly double — or speaking more cor-
rectly, nearly four times the size, or about 2.">0 feet in length by 45 in
height, instead of only 130 by 22." And again, "As far as the Doric
colonnades themselves go, they are satisfactory enough, but not so the
centre compartment, forming the gateway; for it is poor in its general
character, and too much cut up, especially by the plain blank windows
or panels in the piers, which while they destroy width (breadth) of
surface, produce an appearance of poverty — of theabsence of decoration
rather than of richness: another more egregious and evident defect
is, that over the arch, the architrave and frieze of entablature, other-
wise continued tlioughout, are omitted, and thus the entablature is
maimed and mutilated in the very chief point of the design!"

Adam may very deservedly be commended for one thing — the
study he bestowed on his plans, and for the greatly improved, more
convenient, and likewise more effective arrangements which he intro-
duced into the interior of houses, thereby contributing to the bettering
our domestic architecture, in a very essential point; but as an artist,
his taste was even at the best of a very namby-pamby kind.

James Wyatt was in some respects a sort of Adam riformato. It
was his good fortune to make a decided "hit" by bis first work, the
Pantheon, in Oxford Street, as to which we are unable to speak,
never having seen any designs of it — for none are given in the Nea
tltruvius Britannicus, although that work contains one or two speci-
mens of his, and those not particularly favourable ones ; — yet if we
may judge from the view of the large room, given in the Pictorial
England, where it is styled "a noble conception," we should say that
it must have, been a strangely disjointed and incongruous piece of
design, built up with columns in some places, while there were abso--
lute gaps in others. However, the Pantheon was the resort of fashion ;
the place itself was no doubt splendid and gay enough; and when
fashion is determined to be pleased, it is generally a very little indeed

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

311

that will please it. It was the fashion of the day to admire the Pan-
theon, and Wyatt forthwith bpcame all at once the fashionable archi-
tect par excellence. Business poured in upon him, and he treated it as
business; his business was to please his customers, and please them
he did, very much, in several instances, to the displeasure of pos-
terity, for he has since received some hearty maledictions from both
architects and antiquaries — from one more especially, who has branded
him as "James Wyatt of execrable memory." No doubt very great
allowance is to be made for him, when it is considered that the study
of Gothic architecture was then quite in its infancy, and even the
rudiments of that stvle scarcely at all understood. Besides, Wyatt
did something-, were it merely the helping to bring forward that style
into notice again, and so far he is justly entitled to a prominent sta-
tion in the history of the English architecture of the ISth century,
albeit, Mr. Gwilt has carefully suppressed his name, while he records
such men as Paine and Bonomi. Without any great loss to his fame,
much of Wyatt's Gothic has since perished; the castellated palace
at Kew — a whim of George III., the House of Lords, and his works
at Windsor Castle, have all been swept away, and Fonthill is now a
mere wreck; therefore Ashridge is now one of the chief mansions
remaining, which he did in that style. Less excuse than for his
Gothic can be offered for what he did in the Grecian or modern style,
and which is for the most part very mannered and tame. In fact,
much as lie was favoured by opportunities, Wyatt achieved no really
great work, or such as would entitle him to much distinction at the
present day, and probably did much less in one sense than he might
have accomplished, had his engagements been fewer. He was, too,
in one respect singularly unfortunate, for if his Pantheon at all merited
the exaggerated praises bestowed upon it, it did not remain long
enough to obtain the suffrages and the admiration of posterity, being
burnt down about twentv years after it was first erected, and as we
have already remarked, no satisfactory memorials of it remain.

Fortunate would it be for the reputation of George Dance, were
the front he bestowed upon Guildhall, to disappear as completely as
so many of Wyatt's productions have done; for it is a sad blot in his
professional scutcheon — so utterly tasteless in itself, independently of
its absurdity as an imitation of Gothic, that it is difficult to believe
such a piece of architectural "balaam" could have been perpetrated
by the man who gave us an edifice so stamped with character and
artistic feeling as Newgate. In this last the centre or keeper's house is,
however, comparatively a failure: had there been only three instead of
five windows on a floor, the effect, not only of that part, but of the whole
exterior would have been decidedly better ; the original design has
besides been greviously impaired by the present miserable attic story
substituted for the pediment which crowned that part of the structure,
and both harmonized and contrasted so admirably with the rest. Nei-
ther Newgate, however, nor the Giltspur Street Compter (which is
also by Dance) obtained a place in the Fitruvius Britannicus, before
referred to; although we there find both the Clerkenwell Sessions
House, and the Trinity House — the latter by Samuel Wyatt the
brother of James, and a building possessing more of mere prettiness
than of either dignity or beauty; whose windows are strangely dis-
proportioned to the order, and the dressings of some of them ex-
ceedingly scanty — in fact, little better than a few meagre mouldings.

Though the names of several architects are mentioned by him, the
writer of the sketch in the Pictorial England scarcely adds any in-
formation respecting them, and he is very sparing of dates. In one
instance, indeed, we learn from him what we were not aware of before,
namely, that the India House is not by the person to whom it has
hitherto been universally ascribed ; for we are here told —

"Henry Holland was distinguished by the patronage of George
Prince of Wales, who prefigured the sort of encouragement the fu-
ture monarch was likely to bestow upon the arts, by employing him
upon that extensive structure of lath and tiles, the Pavilion at
Brighton. In 1784, he altered Carlton House, and to him was due the
facade, pleasing and harmonious in all its proportions and details,
with its beautilul portico, turned to a legitimate purpose by affording
shelter for carriages. Holland built Drury Lane Theatre, destroyed
by fire in 1809; and the facade and hall of Melbourne House at
Whitehall, which remains a memorial of his refined taste. He was
likewise the author of the India Home, usually attributed to Jupp,
who was surveyor to the company at the time it was built. It is a
common-place design, and the portico ill-assorted to the wings ; but
porticos were now coming into vogue, which made the impropriety
of their association a matter of no importance."

This last observation is just enough, for we have since had porticos
stuck to almost every thing of any size — even to Bedlam, and that
not only with utter disregard of propriety as to purpose or character,
but so as to be completely at variance with all the rest. We are glad
to find honourable mention made of the fa9ade of Melbourne, now

Dover House: it is, indeed, upon far too small a scale to tell at all to
advantage, where it is placed, for it there shows as a mere bit, and is
in fact so small, that the intercolumniation of the portico is of neces-
sity much wider than it ought to be : still it is marked by much ele-
gance of taste, classical feeling, and artistical quality. Nevertheless,
this piece of design is excluded from the New Vilruvius Britannicus,
and the same is also the case with Carlton House, while so many un-
interesting and exceedingly poor subjects are admitted into it.

We shall probably return to the subject when it is resumed in the
Pictorial with reference to which we have been speaking; and we
suppose that the next chapter of the kind will be the final one, and
will continue the history of English architecture down to the end of
the first quarter of the present century.

Marine Steam Engines in the Royal Navy,

A letter has been addressed to the Lords of the Admiralty on this
subject, and printed, which is likely to excite a good deal of public
attention and much controversy among the members of the engineer-
ing profession. Mr. Alexander Gordon, the author of it, is, it is well
known, the agent of Napier of Glasgow, and consequently, as he sug-
gests, his testimony is open to the imputation of some bias, and he has
been induced to bring forward this pamphlet on the occasion of some
Parliamentary returns, which he has obtained through the medium
of the Hon. Captain Gore. We need scarcely say that the statistics
of marine steam-engines are of great importance, both to the nation
and the mercantile interests, and particularly at a period when one-
fourth of our coasting trade is carried on by the means of steam
vessels, and when there is such certain prospect of its still further
increase. The deficiency of steam statistics, is, however notorious;
and those obtained by Mr. Gordon and Captain Gore are not calcu-
lated to alleviate the evil. They are, as we shall subsequently show,
deficient in the most important details, and arranged so as to produce
particular inferences. If they were not intended to suit particular
objects, why is it that the return is limited to the vessels named in
the order, and not extended to all vessels contracted for within the
period of the last ten years? Had this been done, we should have
had the Medea, Hydra, Gorgon, Driver, and others, now all kept care-
fully out of sight, but most necessary for the purpose of instituting
anv fair comparison, or deducing sound conclusions. Why have
we not the dimensions of the engines, the tonnage and dimensions of
the vessels, and the consumption of coals?

Again, we have a return of the cost of repairs without any state-
ment of the service on which the vessel has been placed, whether in
war service or merely steaming about the coast. Mr. Gordon has
himself said enough to show the many circumstances which interfere
to prevent a fair comparison being drawn, or fair play being given to
machinery ; but there are many others no less calculated to show
the danger of a comparison of the value of a vessel from the cost for
repairs, when the circumstance of the expediency of a vessel is cal-
culated to put it on more severe service, and thus rentier greater
repairs necessary, while an inefficient vessel is shelfed, and thus has
neither service nor repairs.

Under all these circumstances we must protest against any in-
ference being drawn from these very suspicious returns — so incom-
plete that on their appearance they deterred us from making use of
them. That the government have unconsciously lent themselves
to this imperfect mode of inquiry we are convinced, and we trust
they will not leave it to individual members of the House in the
ensuing session to perpetuate this system, but that they will render
that protection to the marine engineers of the country by the publica-
tion of accurate and comprehensive returns, which are imperative as
an act of justice, after a statement so very injurious, from its incom-
pleteness, has been put forth to the world. We call for this as an
act of justice to the marine engine builders of the Thames, the
Mersey, and the Clyde, and as a communication of information ren-
dered indispensable by the growing wants of the commercial steam
marine, and by the necessity of enlightenment upon this subject to the
government itself. Within the last three years not less a sum than
2,000,000 have been expended by the government and the great steam
ship companies upon the construction of vessels of the largest class and
greatest power. A vast annual expenditure under this head has now
commenced, and, as a matter of national economy, it is expedient that
we should be able to profit by all the experience of the past. Let us
have the dimensions and weights of the engines, the number of
strokes they perform, the mean velocity of the vessel, the quantity of
fuel consumed, the length of engine room, the contract price, the ton-
nage and dimensions of the vessel, the peculiar service for which in-
tended (as the Niger expedition,) for instance, what service the vessel

312

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

iSkptember,

AlECTO.

Prometheus.

POLYPHEMUS.

Geyser.

Cyclops.

Vesuvius.

Stromboli.

Devastation.

Names of engineers

Seaward

Seaward

Seaward

Seaward

Seaward

R. Napier

R. Napier

Maudslay

Original contract

£10,700

£10,700

£10,700

£13,933

£22,103

£13,480

£13,480

£1S,650

Extras on ditto

£297

£315

£214

£440

£906

£400

Nil.

£681

Cost of repairs

£1158

£1012

£240

£89

£800

£38

£68

£249

Repairs up to 31st March, 1843,

from

Jan. 1840

March 1840

June 1841

July 1842

Oct. 1840

Oct. 1840

Sep. 1840

Dec. 1841

No. of days incapable of worliing

in consequence of repairs

393

353

162

50

164

38

51

92

No. and diameter of cylinders . .

Two, 53 in.

Two, 53 in.

Two, 53 in.

Two, 62 in.

Two, 64 in.

Two, 63 in.

Two, 63 in.

Four, 54} in.

Length of stroke

4 ft. 6 in.

4 ft. 6 in.

4 ft. 6 in.

5 ft. 3 in.

5 ft. 6 in.

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

Nominal horse power, velocity of

piston 210 ft. per minute

200

200

200

268

286

280

280

410

Diameter of paddle-wheel

26 ft.

26 ft.

26 ft.

26 ft.

27 ft.

26 ft. 6 in.

26 ft. 6 in.

27 ft.

Breadth of board

7 ft. 5 in.

7 ft. 5 in.

7 ft. 5 in.

7 ft. 2 in.

7 ft. 9 in.

7 ft. 9 in.

8 ft. 7 in.

Depth of boards

1 ft. 2 in.

1 ft. 2 in.

1 ft. 2 in.

1 ft. 5 in.

2 ft. 2 in.

2 ft. 2 in.

1 ft. 8 in.

Contract price per horse

£53 10

£53 10

£53 10

£52

£78

£48

£48

£45 5

In (he above table we have added to the government returns the dimensions of the engines.

has been upon, and if it be possible to obtain it through the govern-
ment engineers, let us know what was the cause of so much delay in
the repairs as appears in the returns, and whether the repairs were
executed by the government or the engineers. We shall then have
some materials from which to judge of the comparative merits of
each vessel. We shall also be able to appreciate which engines are
the most serviceable — whether the beam or direct action engine be
preferable. It is time, indeed, that this question should be settled, for
government have now had, or ought to have, some experience on the
subject. We know that the beam engine is still the favourite with
most of our principal engineers, il not all of them ; nevertheless, they
all manufacture direct action engines, and several of them have taken
out patents. If you ask why they manufacture them, they will tell
you the government will have them, and they must comply.

We perfectly agree with Mr. Gordon as to the demerits of the late
system of contracting, and think it requires great reformation. Mr.
Gordon, in the character of a disappointed candidate, makes fierce
onslaught upon it, and deals in home charges, on the Admiralty
mismanagements, which is palpable. Hitherto the system of contract
has iiad all the appearance of favouritism, and if persisted in must lie
open to tile same imputation for the future. We are not, however,
inclined, neither does Mr. Gordon seem to be, at present, to throw
the tenders open for public competition; but we would hue the
Government make application to all those firms which are known for
their workmanship, whether in London, Liverpool, Scotland, or else-
where. Mr. Gordon tells us that

" The manner in which tenders are called for, opened, and treated, is
worthy of some notice. The contracts for marine engines are made in a
manner quite peculiar, unlike all other contracts for the public service. They
are made at that office in the Admiralty where no other contracts are made
for any of the many supplies and stores for the navy.

" The tenders are, or have often been, opened not in one day and hour, hut
without regard to the strict rules of tender and contract known and prac-
tised in other departments of Government. The clause sometimes thought
necessary for protecting the public, viz. that the Board does not bind itself
to take the lowest tender, has not been inserted in the application, and the
lowest tenderers have been disappointed.

" After tenders have been given in, and after some of the contracts have
been made, favoured ones of these very contractors have been allowed to
tender for more engines, as in the year 1840, when a London house, having
obtained an order for two or three pairs of engines, obtained a further order
for two more pairs of engines in the following October by reducing their
tender, making orders for five pairs of engines, &c. at one time ; no other
engineers having had any chance of amending their tenders, or of offering
for these other engines."

Mr. Gordon gives us six causes for the inefficiency of so many new
steamers as appears in the face of the Parliamentary returns, viz.:

" 1st. The novel principle of construction of engines thought necessary for
accommodating them to the limited engine-room. 2nd. The attempt to have
light engines in ships which must afterwards have ballast to keep them
upright. 3rd. Defects in the material and workmanship. 4th. Incompe-
tency of ships' engineers appointed by the Admiralty. 5th. ' Quarter-deck '
interference. 6th. Some unavoidable disaster. I believe that all of these
may be causes of mischief, hut the sixth cause suggested does not seem to
have effected the evils so glaringly apparent on the Parliamentary returns.
The first two suggested causes are discussed above. The third appears also

to have some application. But for any one to attempt to account for such
heavy repairs and loss of service by the fourth and fifth, and to lay the blame
on engineers afloat and officers in command, would only show a bad selection
of the one, and an inexcusable interference of the other."

We perfectly agree with Mr. Gordon as to the necessity of a higher
rating fur engineers in the Navy, with so many engineering offices
connected with that department, and the demand for engineering
talent which exists there, we think it is absolutely necessary that pro-
per measures should be taken to secure the services of the educated
members <f the profession. The rating of another class of scientific
officers in the navy could not but fail to promote that high standing
which the navy is taking as an educated profession, while the many
subsidiary advantages which would accrue from having the services of
engineers available requires no comment.

As to that subject upon which so much reluctance has hitherto been
exhibited, a return of the consumption of coals, no difficulties it seems
to us stand in the way. It can surely be told how many tons of coals
are pot on board a government vessel, and the description of them, at
any rate we cannot see why returns given by the officers of the private
Atlantic steamers cannot be given by those of government vessels.
As Mr. Gordon observes, a difference of one pound of coal per horse
power per hour would make a difference to the country of £ 10,000 a
year. We think an annual return should be made imperative.

We have the returns of duty of Cornish engines, and accurate
returns of the consumption of railway engines, and weluiow the eco-
nomy which has resulted from the experience thus affjrded. Annual
returns should be published, which would operate as a check upon the
coal owner and upon the engineer; and we do not see why a system
of premiums for economy iu the consumption of coals should not be
introduced among marine engineers as it has already worked with
go 1 effect upon the Belgian railways and some of the English.

As we have already observed, before we can come to the same con-
clusii n as Mr. Gordon, we must have more extended returns, and
more accurate information. It is not fair to the parties to judge them
by what is now before us, and as Mr. Gordon appears to have had
something to do with obtaining the present returns, we hope in the
next session he will take care to prevail upon Captain Gore, or some
other member, to move for the extended information we have now
required.

Account of the Museum of Economic Geology. By T. Sopwith,
F.G S. London: John Murray, 1843.

The institution of this museum is an event which cannot but be
considered as most valuable to the engineer. It is a recognition by
the government of the great advancement of engineering science, and
of the influence which it has had in systematically developing the
resources of the country. The labours of the engineer have opened
up districts not before available, and the development of the means
of communication have now given the public an interest in every
locality. Ui.der such circumstances a knowledge of our mineral
treasures, and of their useful applications, is indispensable, and the
establishment of a museum was the most filling means for effecting
this. The establishmeut formed at Craig's Court, Charing Cross, cou-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

313

sequently merits tlie visit of the student and professional man ; and
the descriptive account of Mr. Sopwith is one of the best guides he
can have on the occasion. Mr. Sopwith has devoted much atleution
to this subject, and his shilling manual is a most readable and in-
structive book. The Museum is open to the public gratuitously
every day, excepting Sunday, from 10 o'clock till 4, from November
to February, and until 5 o'clock during the rest of the year.

" The Museum of Economic Geology, as now arranged, comprises an
entrance hall or lobby, an apartment on the ground floor 46 feet long, and
18J feet wide, and a gallery on the first floor 103 feet long, varying in width
from 17 to 25 feet. The department of the Office of Mining Records com-
prises a Record Office 26 feet by 25 feet, in which are tables for drawing
plans, and a gallery on the second floor 103 feet long, containing mining
implements, and models of mines and mineral districts, and of various
engines, machines, &c, used for working and draining mines. In addition
to these are a laboratory, conducted Mr. Richard Phillips, F.R.S., the curator
of the museum ; a workshop in which models are constructed, under the
immediate direction of Mr. Jordan ; and a small library or private room for
the use of the director. To these apartments additions will doubtless be
made from time to time commensurate with the national usefulness of the
establishment, and the more so, as, owing to the extensive opportunities
afforded by ordnance geological surveys, and the great liberality of numerous
owners of mineral property, and other public-spirited friends of science, a
large proportion of the valuable contents of this museum have been, and
will assuredly continue to be, received without, any expense beyond the mere
carriage of the specimens. It is gratifying also to know that the present
administration cordially approve and support the arrangements of this
museum, which was commenced by their predecessors, and by their atten-
tion to its interest, evince their regard for those foundations of our national
wealth, a knowledge of which, as Sir John Sinclair has justly said, is of more
importance to this country than all the mines of Mexico and Peru."

Launch of the Great Britain.
Mr. Davis has got up a lithograph on this subject from the able pen-
cil of Mr. Thomas Allom, which possesses merits not only of artistic
treatment, but of accurate delineation. The view was taken imme-
diately after the launch, and the fidelity of it is evident, as also in
the case of the adjacent scenery and minor details. It is certainly one
of the best representations of the Great Britain which has yet
appeared ; and equally an ornament to the office as to the drawing-
room. We extract the following account of the details of the vessel
and engines, which are appended to the engraving, and we under-
stand are authentic.

Keel laid Dec. 19, 1839 ; floated July 19, 1843. feet in.

Length extreme, from figure-head to taffrail .. .. .. 322 0

Do. on upper and forecastle decks . . . . . . . . 308 0

Do. between perpendiculars . . . . . . . . . . 286 0

Extreme breadth .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 50 6

Depth at midships .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32 6

She is divided into four compartments by means of iron bulkheads, | in
thick, viz., 1st, forecastle ; 2nd, fore saloon j 3d, boiler and engine-room ■
4th, after saloons. !

ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.

Promenade saloon forward . . length 67 0 width 21 9 height 7 9

Do. do. aft .. „ 110 0 „ 22 0 „ 8 0

Dining saloon forward .. .. „ 61 0 „ 21 9 „ 7 9

Do. do. aft .. .. „ 98 6 „ 30 0 „ 8 3

26 state bedrooms with one bed, and 113 with two beds.
Tonnage, builder's measurement, 3,446 tons.
Draught of water when loaded, 16 feet.

Do. without cargo, 12 feet.

Do. without engines, 9 feet.
Displacement of water when drawing 16 feet, 2970 tons.

ENGINES AND BOILERS.

Nominal power, 1,000 horses.

4 cylinders 6 feet stroke, diameter 88 inches.

Slide valves, diameter, 20 inches.

Air-pumps (2), 54 inches.

Steam pipes, 18 inches.

Condensers (2) formed of wrought iron plates £ in. thick, 12 feet long,

S feet wide, 5 feet deep, and contents 510 cubic feet.
Bed plates for cylinders (2), length, 27 feet.

Do. do. weight, each, 16 tons.

Main shaft wrought iron, length, 15 feet 9 inches.

Do. at centre, for driving wheel, 2 feet 3 inches.

Do. for eccentric hearing and cranks, 2 feet 1 inch.

Do. weight in rough from the forge, near 17 tons.
Framing to carry same is of hard wood, 12 in. thick, cased with wrought
iron plates, -£- inch thick.

Boilers having 24 fires, 12 fore and 12 aft, each 0 feet by 2 feet— length,

34 feet, width 32 feet, height 21 feet 6 inchei.

Total surface of fire bar, 288 feet super
Chimney 8 feet diameter, height 34 feet.
Screw propeller, 16 feet 6 inches diameter.

EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING AT SEA.

A paper from the commander of the Vigie, with an account of the effects of
electricity in a recent voyage, was read at one of the recent meetings of the
Academy of Sciences. It states that the mainmast was three times struck
with the electric fluid very severely, but that no damage was occasioned to
the vessel, in consequence of its being provided with paratonnerres. A
sailor was sent up to see what effect the electric fluid had on the paraton-
nerre, and as soon as he reached it, he experienced such shocks as nearly
caused him to fall down, and he felt the same every time he placed his hand
on the base of the paratonnerre. It had become a magnet. The same effect
had been produced on every piece of iron in the vessel. The compasses too
had their needles disarranged, and would no longer serve to guide the ship.
Eight or ten days after, the Vigie met another vessel, and obtained one of
her compasses, but the magnetic action communicated itself to this one, and
the instrument became useless.

THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

SECOND REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS ON THE FINE ARTS.
To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty.

We, the Commissioners, appointed by your Majesty for the purpose
of inquiring whether advantage might not be taken of the rebuilding
of your Majesty's Palace at Westminster, wherein your Majesty's
Parliament is wont to assemble, for the purpose of promoting and
encouraging the fine arts in your Majesty's united kingdom, and in
what manner an object of so much importance might be most effec-
tually promoted, humbly report to your Majesty, that having, in fur-
therance of the objects proposed by us in our first report, and sanc-
tioned by your Majesty, invited a competion in cartoons, we have now
humbly to state to your Majesty that the competition referred to has
taken place, and that we are satisfied with the evidence of ability
afforded, not only by the works of the successful candidates, but those
of many others.

Having satisfied ourselves respecting the attainments of many British
artists in the practice of cartoon-drawing, and respecting their capacity
to attain excellence in those qualities which are essential in historical
painting, we now propose, in pursuance of the plan before announced
by us, to invite artists to exhibit specimens in fresco-painting of a
moderate size, which, by being portable, will enable all candidates for
employment in that method of painting to send in works exhibiting their
qualifications therein as painters and colourists, and which, taken
together with the larger compositions in drawing which they have
exhibited or may exhibit, and with other existing evidences of their
talents, may enable us to proceed to the selection of artists for the
decoration in fresco of certain portions of the Palace. Neverthe-
less, as paintings executed in other methods may be free from a
shining surface, and may therefore be deemed by some artists to be
fit for the decoration of walls, we have invited such artists to exhibit
specimens of the methods in question, and shall regard such methods
as open for consideration.

With respect to sculpture, we have announced that various statues
will be required for the decoration of the Palace, and we have invited
artists to exhibit models, in order to assist us in the selection of sculp-
tors to be employed.

With regard to decorative art of various kinds — namely, glass-
staining, arabesque-painting, wood-carving, oramental metal-work,
and ornamental pavements, we have, in like manner, issued notices
inviting artists and others to send in specimens, in order to assist us
in the selection of persons to be employed.

We have further humbly to state to your Majesty, that the claims
of candidates for employment in oil painting, and other departments
of the art besides historical painting, will be considered hereafter, and
that the order in which the several branches of art and decoration ap-
plicable to the embellishment of the Palace have been considered by
ns, has been, and must continue to be, determined by the time requisite
for the preparation of the works, the study required by the artists in
modes of execution which are new to them, and by t lie progress oj
particular portions of the building.

314

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[September,

We humbly subjoiD, as an appendix to this report, some papers
treating in detail various matters connected with the subject of our
inquiry, and explanatory of the proceedings of the commission; and,
with respect to the architect's report, have to state that we have
taken it into our attentive consideration; but although we have, in
consequence, issued various notices calculated to assist us in coming to
a final decision thereupon, we are not yet prepared to lay any specific
recommendation before your Majesty, both in consequence of the
building not being sufficiently advanced, and the result of the inquiries
and experiments made and making by and under our direction not
being sufficiently ascertained, to justify us in coming to any final con-
clusion in this respect. And with reference to that part of the archi-
tect's reports which relates to local improvements in the neighbour-
hood of the Palace, we consider that, however deserving of attention
the improvements in question may be, they do not come within the
inquiry with which we are intrusted.

Albert. Colborne.

Ltndhdbst. Charles Shaw Lefevre.

Sutherland. Robert Peel.

Lansdowne. J. R. G. Graham.

Lincoln. Robert Harry Inglis.

Aberdeen. Henry Gally Knight.

J. Russell. B. Hawes, Jun.

Palmerston. Samuel RoGEhS.

Melbourne. Thomas Wyse.
■Whitehall; July 28, 1843.

[Here follows Mr. Barry's Report which we published in the
Journal last May, page 173.]

Extract from the Report of the Committee on Westminster Hall.

Your committee, to whom was referred the duty of making investigations
respecting the ancient state and modes of permanent and temporary deco-
ration of Westminster Hall, and respecting the dates and extent of its archi-
tectural alterations, have the honor to report —

That they have examined Westminster Hall with a view to the objects of
the inquiry committed to them.

That they have reason to believe that the original hall of King William
Rufus occupied the same area as the present building.

That they believe, that whatever portion of the fabric of the Norman hall
6f the palace of King William Rufus may remain, it is entirely encased and
concealed by the walls of the actual structure.

That the walls of the actual structure, as they now appear, with the ex-
ception of the surface alterations made in 1806-7, and also the existing roof,
were erected in the reign of King Richard II., in the year 1398; the walls
being then heightened, and the original rubble of the Norman work being
then encased in ashlar, and the buttresses added.

That they have no reason to believe that there were any permanent deco-
rations in the interior of the said hall other than those which now exist.

That the temporary decorations on occasi in of state trials, or of corona-
tion banquets, varied with the need and propriety of the service to which
the hall was applied.

That in the last year of the reign of King Richard II., the hall appears to
have been "hung and sumptuously trimmed," by which phrase your com-
mittee understand hangings of tapestry and other temporary decoration ;
but that there is no reason to believe that there was at any time any deco-
ration of painting of any kind on the walls : though in making this obser-
vation it is right to add, that your committee feel that there is in the ex-
isting hall sufficient light for the proposed exhibition of cartoons.

That the use of banners and trophies suspended from the roof or rafters
of the ball was not earlier than the reign of Queen Anne, and was soon
discontinued. And in respect to the last subject of inquiry remitted to
them, so far as the same has not by anticipation been already answered by
the statement that the hall is substantially unaltered, your committee find,
that in 1821, the two courts of justice which were excrescences on the south
side, and which were comparatively modern erections, were removed ; that a
door in the centre of the south end was opened ; that two smaller doors at
the sides were closed ; that a row of dormer windows was opened in the
roof on each side, and certain doors opened to the courts of law on the west
side.

Your committe observe that one of the windows on the east side has been
partially closed, two windows adjoining the same having been originally
closed externally, so far as it appears by the clock tower of the ancient pa-
lace rising directly against them, and still obstructing them, though it was
reduced in height by the late Mr. Wyatt in the course of the works which
he conducted in 1806-7.

Robert Harry Inglis.
Henry Gally Knight.
Henry IIallam.
George Vivian.
Whitehall, March 24, 1843.

PAYNE'S 'WOOD PATENT.

In the House of Commons on ^Vednesday, August 16, Mr. Barclay put a
question to the noble lord at the head of the Woods and Forests, respecting
Mr. Payne's patent process for preserving timber from dry rot, aud the ra-
vages of insects. He understood that the properties of the patent to this
extent had been pretty fully tested, and more than all by the department
over which his lordship presides, and that it had been satisfactorily shown
that it had the property of rendering wood prepared by it uninflammable, or
at any rate of depriving it of a large degree of combustibility. Lord Lin-
coln said he felt most happy to give the honourable member the fullest in-
formation he possessed on the subject. The matter had been brought before
him in his official capacity, and he had thought it right to take considerable
pains to be well informed on so important an invention. He had paid a
visit to the premises, and inspected the very ingenious machinery and pro-
cess of Mr. Payne, hut not liking to trust his own judgment in a matter
where great professional skill was essential, he had directed Mr. Phillips,
professor of economic geology, to examine into the invention and report
upon it. That report the noble lord said was highly favourable ; and since
then he had directed the erection of a structure in his department in which
the process had been applied to all the timbers, and under the inspection of
the woods and forests surveyors. He had no doubt himself of the great
value of the invention, and believed that experience would confirm his pre-
sent favourable opinion, but time would be necessary to test it. The Admi-
ralty had applied to him on the same subject, and a similar answer had been
returned to them. He should be happy to lay before the hon. member for
Sunderland the report of Mr. Phillips. Mr. Barclay thanked the noble lord
for his satisfactory statement, and moved that the report be laid upon the
table of the house, which was agreed to.

A STEAM METER.

M. Clement has invented an instrument which he calls a manometric
thermometer, for measuring the temperature and tension of steam in boilers
of high and low pressure, and particularly to prevent accidents by explosion.
It ^ formed of twa snips, one oi which is silver, and the other of platina.
rolled up in a spiral form. These strips are soldered together, and one of
the extremities is fixed, while the other is attached to a copper vertical rod.
Owing to the difference in the dilation of platina and silver, when the tem-
perature of the instrument varies, its upper extremity imparts a movement
of rotation to the copper roil, which is communicated by means of a raek-
wheel to two hands, which indicate the variation of temperature.

The Amicable Assurance Office, Fleet Street. — Tenders delivered
August 16, 1843.— S. Beazlcy, Esq., Architect.

STONE FROM PORTLAND. NORFAL.

Messrs. Webb £10,752 £11,000

Mr. Dixon 10.700 10,995

Mr.Herbert 10,640 10,845

Messrs. Cubit t 10.610 10.860

„ Soward and Son 10,590 10.850

„ C.risselland Peto 10.506 10,746

,. Lee 10.280 10. ion

., Woolcot and Son 10.178 10,478

Mr. Winsland 9.800 9,887

Messrs. Piper and Son 9,754 9,954

The Directors have decided to have Norfal stone, and accept Mr. Winsland's
tender. The works have commenced.

Public Works in Paris — The National observes, that it is not without
interest to consider the sums expended within the last 21 years in the im-
provement and embellishment of Paris, which have rendered it one of the
finest cities in the world.

Francs.
Expended on works relative to the distribution of water,
aqueducts, reservoirs, fountains .. .. .. 30,986.347

In flagging and paving .. .. .. .. 17,644,061

In purchases for enlarging the public avenues . . 39,047.708

The construction of commercial edifices as w ell as in ob-
jects of art and decoration .. .. •■ 62,984,919

In the purchase of ground necessary for those edifices.. 17,802,729

Total

168,465,764

184.3.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

31

REMARKS ON THE PRESENT STATE OF ARCHITECTURAL TASTE
AND PRACTICE IN OUR LARGE TOWNS.

(From the North of England Magazine, June 1843. J

I. — General Prtncivi.es of Architecture.

The state of architectural taste in this country is confessedly very low and
imperfect, and does not receive that degree of attention and regard which
from its nature and importance it deserves. As the subject of taste does not
touch our personal comforts and wants, it is apt to be regarded with indif-
ference, by many, wdio have means and opportunities of encouraging the art
and influencing its practice. It would not be right to say that the majority
of such individuals disregard this subject from the direction of their habits
and tastes lying altogether, or chiefly, in personal gratification ; but, I believe,
there are many individuals who, having made it the business of their lives to
acquire wealth, and, from association and circumstances, been led to regard
material comforts and ease as the chief end of their every-day life, have had
no favourable opportunity or stimulus to the cultivation of those refinements
cf sense and feeling, which embody themselves in the productions of the fine
arts. It is true mental endowments are possessed and cultivated in a very
high degree by people of all classes, and the present age is immensely supe-
rior to any previous one, if not in the profundity, at least in the variety and
almost universal diffusion of its scientific acquirements ; but this eminence is
almost entirely intellectual : it evinces little refinement of taste or feeling, or
lively perception of the beautiful.

I do not intend the above remarks to apply, by any means, universally ;
but they apply, I think, equally to all classes. The middle and lower classes
have not the opportunities which are possessed by the upper, of testifying
their taste in architecture, but as far as I am able to judge, the latter do not
evince that superiority, which from their position might have been expected.
There are indeed many distinguished exceptions. There are many who have
a very high appreciation of excellence in this art, but still that the censure
deservedly applies to us generally, cannot, I think, be denied. Without at-
tempting to account for this state of taste, I merely remark that the eflect is
in some degree aided, in manufacturing towns at least, by the fact of the
mind becoming habituated to the contemplation of works of mere utility in
the shape of mills, warehouses, ike, and that the principles which determine
their character are unconsciously, but very improperly, applied to works of a
totally different nature.

The art, as well as the literature of the present day, is too much a subject
of fashion and caprice, and depends too much on the particular taste of the
public which may happen to predominate at the time ; this remark applies
especially to architecture. It may, perhaps, be said that such has been the
case in the best ages of antiquity, but it will be found on examination, that
the changes which were always going on in style, among the Greeks for ex-
ample, took place when the art was advancing towards perfection, and were
the result of a deep study of its principles and capabilities, and of the vari-
ations which are always going on in the manners and customs of a partially
civilized people. Our architecture, on the contrary, wants character, and
application to the circumstances of the times. A building ought to grow
without effort and almost unconsciously out of the wants which call it forth,
and should be the result of these, produced under the direction of taste. It
is this which makes the remains now existing in Greece, Egypt, Sec, so in-
teresting and valuable, as monuments of the past history of those nations ;
and it is only by working on these principles that we can give our buildings
either character or interest.

We must go back to first principles, and apply them to our wants and cir-
cumstances. Such is our want of character, that if half-a-dozen of the
principal public buildings, which have*been erected in this country within
the last half century, should be examined a thousand years hence, without
accompanying history or tradition, it would be a more puzzling question
than has ever yet been proposed to the antiquary, to determine the cha-
racter, civil or religious, of the people who could raise monuments so various
and anomalous. Fortunately the doubt is as to their surviving one century
instead of ten. In addition to this prevailing ignorance and indifference to
architectural excellence, the architecture of the present day is subjected to
the pernicious influence of what is called by some economy, but which is

often more akin to meanness. It has been said by an eminent living architect,
" Economy is the bane of architecture ;" but it is only false economy that
architecture has to dread ; and I cannot but think that true economy, pro-
perly directed, would exercise a very beneficial influence on works of archi-
tecture. How often do we see individuals and committees, in attempting to
avoid the charge of economy, falsely so called, and to acquire a reputation
for liberality and taste, actually commit a much mure egregious error than
the one they seek to avoid. The result in such cases is often little better
than ostentation and a paltry regard for appearances ; the works are sure to
be all outside, and what little enrichment they do possess, is invariably in the
most conspicuous places, to catch the eye of every casual observer. A glance
is sufficient to show all the beauty or interest they possess, and when once
seen, little desire is felt for a second inspection. Hon few of our modem
buildings offer any temptation to explore and examine their beauties. What
have we to compare with our old cathedrals, aobeys, or even small country
churches, where almost every visit reveals some new beauty, or tends to
deepen the impression of former ones ; and this, independent of all interest
arising from association?

The Ignorance from which all these evils spring, is unfortunately not con-
fined to the public generally, who cannot be expected to possess any profound
knowledge on the subject, but is very prevalent among even professional
men. It is much to be wished that some standard of proficiency were es-
tablished, by which the competence of all desiring to enter the profession
might be tested ; for it is notorious, that comparatively few of those prac-
tising as architects, in some of even our most important towns, are really
competent by talent or education, to do credit either to themselves or to the
profession. That this opinion is founded on jealousy or ill will, I think no
one, who looks round on the different buildings in the neighbourhood of
Manchester or Liveipool for instance, will assert. With few exceptions, all
the buildings in those towns which display real taste, or evince originality of
conception, are by non-resident architects; but it would be invidious to re-
mark further, than merely to mention the fact, as regards these localities.
Happily this wide-spread ignorance is now beginning to disappear before an
increasing zeal for the cultivation of the art, and investigation of its princi-
ples ; and it may very safely be prophesied, that the more it is studied and
understood, the more will its claim to a high place in our regard be acknow-
ledged.

I do not consider it necessary to say anything in defence of the fine arts
in general, or of architecture in particular. The time is gone by for its
being looked upon as an art merely of utility ; and there are few now who
will venture to deny its beneficial tendency to elevate the mind to the per-
ception of refined and intense pleasure. I may remark, however, that if
taste be important and worthy of cultivation in the fine arts generally, it is
particularly so as regards architecture, as the productions of this art are
costly, and their influence, whether beneficial or otherwise, lasting as them-
selves. Besides, buildings of some sort or other cannot be dispensed with,
and, being open to the view of all, must have a very extensive influence on
the public taste.

1 propose first to lay down, and explain as familiarly as I can, some of the
chief fundamental principles of the art, including nothing but what may be
called the postulates, or self-evident truths, which are really very few and
simple, and on which it will be my endeavour to found all the subsequent
remarks I may have to make. The chief difficulty in the way of the free
reception of the truth of these principles, and the propriety of their applica-
tion, to our every-day circumstanees, is that of divesting the mind of pre-
judice, or that effect of long habit in viewing objects of a particular cha-
racter as perfect, or least without at the time feeling conscious of their de-
fects. Almost the whole of architectural rule may be comprized in one idea,
which applies equally as a test of excellence in all the arts, viz., Fitness or
Propriety. It is unnecessary to adduce any proof or even illustration of this,
as it would obviously be useless to argue with one who would deny that a thing
is good or excellent, in proportion as it serves the purpose for which it was in-
tended, without redundancy or deficiency, and as it accords with propriety
of feeling and character. This principle applied to works of architecture,
ought to enable a competent and unprejudiced mind, on viewing a building,
to ascertain at once, or at least to form a tolerable conjecture, as to its pur-
pose and destination,

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[September,

This fundamental principle may be considered under three heads, viz.: —
1st, Convenience ; 2nd, Construction ; and 3rd, Character, including Form and
Enrichment. All these departments are of course modified and controlled
by economy, and also combine with and control one another.

We shall consider first, Convenience, which will determine the number, size,
and arrangement of the different portions of the edifice, according to their
use and purpose. These considerations are so various and extensive, that it
would be both tedious and out of place to enter into an examination of them
now. I may, perhaps, at a future lime notice some few instances in which
our practice is defective. When this distribution, depending on convenience,
is determined, the next subject demanding attention, and which is, perhaps,
the least regarded, is Construction. This includes considerations of material,
climate, and durability. As to material, that is obviously the most proper to
be used, which possesses in the highest degree the requisite strength, dura-
bility, and resistance to climate. There sure three classes of materials com-
monly used in buildings— 1st, those which are best adapted to resist com-
pression, as brick, stone, &c. ; 2nd, those best adapted to resist cross strain,
as wood ; and 3rd, those which resist tension, as iron. Now, it is important
to remark, that from the totally different qualities of these three classes of
materials, they require in construction, a totally different mode of treatment!
thus, the first class are obviously best suited for external and internal walls,
those parts of the fabric in short, on which all the rest must depend ; — the
second class are best adapted for horizontal and oblique bearings, as in floors
and roofs, and the third are calculated for ties, and for various other minor
purposes. Of course, there are peculiar cm umstances in uhieh the applica-
tion of these materials may vary, but the above are the general and obvious
uses to which they are best applied. The climate also exercises (or I should
say ought to exercise, for in this country it does not.) a very considerable in-
fluence, not only on the material employed in building, but also on the forms
and features, as pitch of roofs, &c.

Now these general principles, simple and obvious as they may seem, and
indeed are, are very often disregarded in practice, which is one cause of so
much incongruity and want of character in our architecture. 1 may al.,o
mention now, in connexion with propriety, another very important funda-
mental principle, forcibly expressed by Pugin in his " True Principles of
Christian Architecture," and a disregard of which is a chief source of error
in this country. I mean that " the construction of a building should avow
itself:" there should never be any attempt to conceal the real structure, by a
sham apparent one. This every unprejudiced mind will allow ; it is, in fact,
only a consequence of our first rule of fitness. The mind must be satisfied
on this point before it can derive pleasure through the senses: for let an
object be ever so beautiful in form and enrichment, if there be any misappli-
cation of materials, or any attempt at deception ; if it betray any mean de-
vice or contrivance I y which it is made to assume (in material or otherwise)
a character not properly belonging to it, a refined taste can never but be dis-
gusted with the deceit ; while all the beauty which may belong to the mere
form tends only to increase the feeling of dissatisfaction which such an object
would excite. In addition to what Fugin has said regarding the conceal-
ment of construction, I should say that, as a general rule, we should not
only not take pains to conceal it, but that we should also, as far as practica-
ble, expose the real construction to view, livery essential part of the struc-
ture should be apparent. Another rule which follows from the above is, that
every object in art should be in form, colour, and dimension, just what would
be in accordance with the nature of the material of which it consists. It
was on these fundamental principles that the magnificent works of the
Greeks and Egyptians were executed, and also those wonderful structures of
the middle ages, which adorn every quarter of our island.

The rules above given are constantly violated in the present day. We see
in all parts of the country, but especially in the neighbourhood of manufac-
turing towns, hundreds of houses which every body knows to be built of
brick, but which from some fancy or other, are made to appear as though
they were built of stone, betraying at once, the pride of the proprietor in de-
siring an expensive materia), and his poverty in being unable to obtain it
The practice is so universal, that many, I have no doubt, do not see the
matter in this light ; and many follow the custom, because it is come to be
considered necessary for maintaining a respectable appearance , bill I believe
that pride originated it. and that when it is analyzed, it will corns to what I

have stated. Another instance in which plaster is improperly made to as-
sume the appearance of stone, is very frequent ill churches, entrance halls,
&c. ; it consists in lining it in imitation of large square stones. Now this
being a deception is sufficient at once to condemn it, but it also has a very
chilling and comfortless effect, and the practice ought to be abandoned. If I
recollect rightly, Pugin has in the new catholic chapel at Birmingham, left
the surface of the plaster quite plain and rough, a practice certainly not to
be recommended: but he may, perhaps, look forward to its being orna-
mented at some future lime, when means will allow. I am quite willing to
admit the propriety of plastering interior walls, and also the desirableness of
relieving the monotony of a plain flat surface, but there are other and more
legitimate means than the one just noticed, of doing this, which may be used
according to circumstances. For churches or chapels, where there is a great
breadth of bare wall, the best way, as well as the most obvious, would be to
impress the plaster while soft with an appropriate device in the way of seal
or stamp, which would at any rate be consistent with the nature of the ma-
terial, and would afford ample scope for ingenuity and beauty at compara-
tively small cost. The other methods of avoiding monotonous surfaces of
plaster are in common use, viz :— painting and papering, and are perfectly
legitimate when applied consistently. But we frequently see walls and cei-
lings painted in imitation of panelling, or of some other material, as marble
and costly woods, all which are bad, because they are attempts at deception,
and for the same reason, paper hangings which exhibit natural objects,
raised apparently from the surface of the wall, whether in colours, or mere
light and shade, are improper. The ornamental pattern on the paper may
be as simple or as rich and complex as the character of the apartment re-
quires, but to be in correct taste, it is essential it should appear as a flat sur-
face. Imitation of woods, marbles. &c. in plaster, either by painting or
otherwise, are just as bad as imitations of stone by plaster on the outside of
a house ; for though the liner woods and marbles may possess more beauty
than commoner materials, the chief motive fpr inflating them is the desire
of displaying costliness without incurring cost. II these remarks are well
founded, 1 think the use of scagliola cannot be justified on the strut princi-
ples of taste. Even ihe plainest materials are more satisfactory than the
most beautiful imitation of the costliest (foods that ever were seen ; indeed
(he more costly the material imitated, the more unsatisfactory the result, as
the probability ol its being sham is increased in proportion.

But lo return to the consideration of brick and stone. Brick is bell
adapted for plain walls, because if well burnt, it is more durable than stone,
more impervious to weather, and in many places is much cheaper. Both
propriety and economy, therefore, ps int to it as the most proper material lor
general use, ill such localities. But on the other hand, brick cannot be used
where cutting is required, here its place can only be supplied by stone ; but
there is a very simple method of ornamenting brick buildings, which seems
to he almost unknown or forgotten amongst us, viz., by moulding the bricks
into different forms and ornamental devices, and by using bricks of different
colours, as red, bine, and white. In this way a true artist would he able to
produce many beautiful and picturesque effects,; bands or siring courses
might be thus formed either by impressed patterns, or by a different coloured
brick ; chiiunics might also be made highly ornamental, all which would be
in perfect propriety, and might be obtained at a trifling cost, without Ihe use
of stone at all. However, the judicious use of stone in combination with
brick, as round the windows, doors, 8;e., and in cornices, gives rise to many
striking efl els which could not be obtained with brick alone, flits mixture
of materials is most proprrly employed in ordinary dwelling-houses, or
where very little carving is required ; but where this is abundant and el.il'o-
rate, as in a church, ihe use of brick should perhaps be discarded altogether,
as it would form too small a proportion of the wall to justify its introduc-
tion, on the scoie cither of durability or economy. Tins was no dqi
reason amongst others, why Ihe churches of the middle ages were almost in-
variably built of stone ; but it cannot be urged as a reason fpr cm;
this as a sole material for ordinary dwelling houses. Here, good taste re-
quires that economy be consulted, and economy will, in many parts of the
country at least, point to brick as the most proper material. But for sucred
edifices the ease is quite different. In these, economy is hardly excusable
eicepl in extraordinary instances : and as stone is undoubtedly the most dig-
nified material, great exertion ought to be made to secure it.

1843.]

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317

As for timber ami plaster buildings, I Jo not think there is much proba-
bility of their becoming general, though instances do now and then occur of
houses, not indeed of timber, but of brick, painted to imitate the old style of
timber house. This is actually worse than imitating stone in plaster, be-
cause it is disguising a good and honest material in the garb of one decidedly
inferior. Must we then give up for ever all imitation of those beautiful and
picturesque examples of this style, once so ornamental to our ancient
cities':' \V"e must : no circumstances can now arise, which can give any oc-
casion, or call, for such a mode of construction. Ancient remains are, no
doubt, very picturesque and beautiful, and their beauty is of a kind too
which cannot be transferred to any other material. But the old builders did
not employ wood in the construction of their houses, for the sake of the
beauty or effect they could thereby impart to them; the timber was em-
ployed for convenience and economy, and its accompanying beauties were
superadded, and were the result of the taste and feeling of the builders.
And as we must discard the use of wood for such purposes, we must also be
content to forego its accompanying and characteristic beauties, and employ
our taste and ingenuity and love for the beautiful, as they did, on the mate-
rials best adapted, by convenience and economy, for our wants.

The legitimate use of timber in construction forms the next subject for
consideration. The nature of this material points so obviously to its proper
application, that it would be difficult to go very far wrong. But 1 must take
this opportunity of noticing the universal practice of concealing it from view.
What reason can there be for thus hiding a most essential part of our archi-
tecture':' It is only another result of the blind admiration of the classical
styles which has now prevailed so long. What I complain of is the use of
plaster ceilings to conceal the construction of doors and roofs. "What,"
says a writer, in the British Critic, " is the theoretical notion of a flat plaster
ceiling''" What portion of the construction does it represent? It more
nearly resembles " a vast marble slab" than anything else substantial. This
absence of reality gives to a room an appearance and effect of incomplete-
ness, and consequently of discomfort. In spite of habit, I am frequently
tempted, when looking up at a flat plaster ceiling, to ask myself whether it
is really safe, for it seems to be suspended in mid air above one's head with
nothing apparent to sustain it, and this effect is nut improved, though the
monotony may be relieved, by panelling, coving, or any other device. Now,
oi all the portions of an apartment, the covering ought from its position, to
have an effect of security, and that effect should be at a glance apparent ;
we should not have time to ask the question, before being satisfied on this point.
Though people ill general see nothing amiss with a flat clean white ceiling,
this arises altogether from habit, and I am persuaded that were a person to
accustom himself to compare ceilings as they are, with what they might be
made, if the timbers above were shown and appropriately carved and deco-
rated, he in uld very soon think as I do, Ceilings in churches are now hap-
pily going out of favour; but as to dwelling houses, I see no prospect of
even a commencement of reform in this respect ; and I dare say the very
idea of exposing the floor joists to view will be absolutely ridiculed by many ;
nevertheless, 1 am quite satisfied that were we once to get over the novelty,
the change would add greatly to the appearance of security and complete-
ness in our apartments. I might add more on this head, but shall reserve
further remarks to a future opportunity. I merely mention the practice now
as an example of the violation of the fundamental rule, that the construction
of a building should not be concealed from view.

In tieating of construction, I cannot omit saying a few words regarding
the use of cast iron, which at the present day is so very extensively used in
building. Had we gone on right principles, this material would very likely
have modified considerably the character of our architecture, (for, in all an-
cient and independent styles, the nature of the materials employed has mo-
dified their character more than any other cause ;) instead of which we keep
on in the same track of columns, pilasters, architraves, &c, attempting to
emulate and imitate the style of a distant age and country, with totally dif-
ferent wants and climate ; while with a false shame we attempt to conceal
our o«n real constructive resources ; from which, under proper direction, we
might rear a national style, in accordance with our national character and
civilization. At the same time, I confess that the question, how far and in
what manner cast iron may consistently be used in constructive architecture,
is not easily solved. But we may safely lay it do'.ui as a rule, that its use

must be in accordance with our fundamental rule of fitness and propriety
and therefore that it cannot properly be used where, if it is seen at all, it
cannot assume the character and appearance belonging to the materia] itself.
We frequently see portions of stone buildings which are must exposed to in-
jury from being chipped and broken, as base courses, plinths, balustrades,
&c, » constructed of iron, and painted to resemble stone ; under the false
notion that the beauty of the parts will remain with, and depend upon, the
sharpness of their preservation. Now, even supposing that the beauty of
stone work did depend (which I by no means grant) on its perfect preserva-
tion, I contend that such contrivances are bad in principle, are never satis-
factory even when quite new ; and in a very short time the parts become so
rubbed and polished, as to lose what little character of stone they at first
possessed ; and their very sharpness becomes a defect. I would far rather
see genuine honest stone, even if it were a little chipped: indeed, I do not
think a little damage of this sort here and there, in exposed situations where
it is only to be expected, at all detracts from the beauty of stone work where
there is any. To come at once to the point — I believe that for ordinary
building purposes, in the styles usually adopted in this country, iron cannot
be considered a proper material. We may perhaps, at some future time, have
ingenuity enough to give it an appropriate and characteristic appearance,
and then it may be properly brought into general use.

It must, however, be understood, that the above remarks do not apply to
iron w lien used in fire-proof buildings. Here a new element is introduced,
and the style and material have to be modified accordingly. Now, as in this
class of buildings wood cannot be introduced, iron comes to our aid most op-
portunely, and may be used without reserve as a substitute for wood. It may
indeed be considered a most valuable anil indispensable material for such
purposes. It should, however, in all cases assume a characteristic form.
With the above important exception, the chief value of iron is in engineering
and machinery, not in architecture.

We come now to the consideration of character, including form and en-
richment. One of the chief causes of all the bad architecture of the present
day, is a want of propriety and consistency between the outside and the in-
side of a building. The proper method of designing, and that which was
followed by the architects of the middle ages, is, first to get a good and con-
venient plan, and on that to raise an exterior possessing the appropriate
qualities of beauty or grandeur, most consistent with its purpose. Our
system is, I might say almost universally, the direct contrary to this ; wc
either design the exterior first, and adapt the plan to that, or we arrange the
plan or interior with reference to some imagined exterior; and in either case
we very often spo;l both inside and out. We put up with inconvenience in
the plan, for the sake of effect in the elevations; and we so study and con-
strain the latter, that, whether in a symmetrical style or not, they seldom
possess the expected beauty or charm, even if they possess any beauty at all.

This is one of the evil consequences of copying the style of a distant age
and country, and disregarding our own peculiar climate and manners, and
the architecture which arose out of them. Our climate requires high-pitched
roofs to throw off' the water; we must have chimneys for the escape of
smoke, numerous and spacious windows, variety in the parts and purposes of
our buildings; all which are utterly at variance with the classical styles.
On the other hand, we have no occasion for columns, entablatures, open por-
ticos, and colonnades, which are absolutely necessary to the classical styles.
Our requirements and wants are all internal ; Grecian architecture is all ex-
ternal. Hence it follows, that classical architecture is not fitted for this
country ; and our Surprise at its being so persisted in is the greater, from
the numberless examples still remaining, of a style actually the birth and
produce of our own soil. What can be more absurd, than building private
mansions after the manner of Koman palaces, and Christian churches in the
likeness of Creek temples. Some indeed seem to consider that we have at
length had enough of such imitations, and to think that, for the sake of

1 The whole surface of the ground floor of a pile of warehouses I have
lately noticed to be faced with iron plates. If, in the construction of these
warehouses, convenience, and convenience only, had been consulted, instead
of gr.,ndcur of style, we should have had, instead o; a mock imitation of a
palace, a plain, honest, substantial, brick and stone warehouse, suited to its
purpose, and telling its own talc. The doors and windows would have been
in effect widened, by splaying their jambs, instead of being constructs I anil
made perfectly square for the sake of effect i the sharp angle involving the
supposed necessity of using a false material.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

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relief, we had better try what we can do with other styles ; and we accord-
ingly now import from Italy, Switzerland, K.gypt ; and we shall no doubt
very soon have specimens after the Chinese fashion. But, as we cannot im-
port with them the peculiar climates to which they belong, nor the peculiar
manners which created them, we detach them from that which gives them
character and meaning.

Even when the true national style is chosen, the application of it fre-
quently betrays an utter ignorance of the rules of propriety. The many
fine remains of castles and abbeys which adorn our land are no doubt worthy
of admiration, but there is just as much propriety in imitating them in our
modern dwelling houses, as there would be in a man going about in a monk's
habit and cowl, or adopting the manners and defence of the twelfth century.
A great deal might be said on this point, but 1 shall reserve further remark
to a future occasion, when I hope to speak of architectural principles as ap-
plied to particular classes of buildings.

As regards enrichment, my limited space will not allow me to say so much
as 1 could wish. The grand rule for its regulation, as laid down by Pugin,
is, (hat " we should decorate our construction, instead of constructing our
decoration." All the parts or features of a design should be useful first, and
then ornamental or plain, as determined by propriety and consistency. No
part should be constructed for the sole sake of ornament or effect, or which
has not some significance. The essential parts of a fabric should be the only
medium for rendering it beautiful. This rule exists, irrespective of any par-
ticular style: but in passing, I may mention that it is an additional argu-
ment in favour of our own national style. We too often loose sight of pro-
priety and consistency in decoration, which is apt lo be regulated more by
consideration of expense than any thing else. The almost universal desire
is " to have as ornamental a structure as the means will allow." This mania
tor indiscriminate ornament is chiefly owing to the facility enjoyed at the
present day of obtaining it without limit by casting. In ninety-nine build-
ings out of a hundred, where there is any quantity of ornament) it is sure to
consist of casts, eilher in metal, plaster, cement, artificial stone, compo,
papier mache, &c.

In speculation houses, the ceilings and cornices are covered with ornament,
(especially if the builder happen to be a plasterer, who has thus a fine op-
portunity of displaying his taste and his patterns. ) and the same character
of ornament, if not the same degree, is carried into halls, drawing-rooms,
and bed-rooms, and thrust into all sorts of positions where it can be most
seen. We see in cottages, and workhouses, grates and lenders literally co-
v?rcd with ornament, and rich enough for a gentleman's drawing-room.
But, as it would not do for the same patterns to be used Indiscriminately, in
the houses of the rich and poor, numerals grotesque and meaningless forms
have been devised to increase expense, and thus render the patterns fit for
genteel residences. The same principles are acted upon in other materials,
as cement capitals to stone columns, composition trusses supporting wooden
frie7.es, all painted in imitation of stone. I do not mean to censun
the use of cast ornament; but what I insist on is, that it should be used con-
sistently with propriety; and the tendency is, without great caution, to apply
without discrimination, ornaments which in this manner can be obtained
w ithout a corresponding cost.

I think very fa'se and pernicious notions regarding the value of ornament
are commonly entertained. A great part of the charm of ornament consists
in the importance it gives to the parts where it is used, and in the evidence
it conveys of the high estimation in which such parts were held — of the
taste, imagination, and love of beauty in the mind which produced it; and
of similar qualities together with masterly execution, in the artificer. Now,
when ornament is produced mechanically, and consists merely of plaster or
cast iron, all the interest derived from this latter source is utterly lost. It
ceases to he any criterion either of the liberality of the owner, or ot the
taste and talent of the artist. Besides, cast ornaments have never that
freedom and boldness of relief which belongs to genuine carving.

In conclusion, while I urge the curtailment of the excessive use of decora-
tion into which we are so apt to run, I would remark that if judiciously and
consistently emplcyed, its loss in quantity would be much more than coun-
terbalanced by its gain in value and interest.

Henry Bowman.

Manchester, May 1843.

THE DECORATIONS AT THE TRAVELLERS' CLUB.
(From the Jtheneeum.J

Extensive decorations, costing, it is said, some thousands of pounds,
have recently been completed at this very happy adaptation of the Bufalini
Palace. It is a satisfactory sign for the progress of art to find a growing
attention paid to architectural decorations, and, in so far as those lately exe-
cuted at the Travellers' Club are likely to promote that desirable result, we
are disposed to welcome them ; hut, in proportion to their probable influ-
ence, it is the more necessary to protest against that absence of all princi-
ples, which is manifest throughout — on floors, on walls, on ceilings, in pas-
sages, and in rooms. Tasteless and chilling as may be the universal white
paint of Queen Anne's days — of which the library at Blenheim affords a cool
specimen — monotonous and depressing as are the drab and slate colours
patronized by George IV., which abound in Windsor Castle, and are, unhap-
pily, conspicuous in Buckingham House, (the pictures in the long gallery
are hung against a drab-coloured wall,) it may be a question whether they
are not preferable — exciting, as they do, no interest whatever — to bright
colouring so misemployed that the eye cannot turn without detecting some
false principle of taste.

The greatest offences in the decorations of the Travellers' Club arise from
the employment of affectations and unrealities, which abound everywhere —
sham granite walls, sham marbled columns and dados, sham bronze doors,
sham bas-reliefs. As soon as you have passed the hall of entrance into the
corridor, the fictions begin, and you traverse a passage of universal granites
— pink, grey, green, &c. Besides being an affectation itself, this is the af-
fectation of an unfit thing. Suppose the thing for an instant to be all real —
would a granite passage be right in such a place ? We are not entering an
Egyptian temple, or the basement of a castle, but the light, cheerful passage
of a sort of democratic modern palace, free from all fear of outward vio-
lence, and with a portal no more capable of resisting attack than polished
mahogany and plate glass. Granite surely is not a material to be used here.
But if you will use the hardest of stones for such a purpose, then ought not
the forms in which yon employ it to be somewhat analogous to the material
itself? Here you have mock granite adapting itself to Italian mouldings —
so light and elegant that you would select the softest oolite out of which to
chisel them. The ceiling, too, is painted to affect granite. Do not all ana-
logies drawn from nature, as well as all good architectural precedents, tell
us that the upper part of a building should be in all respects of material,
form, and colour, lighter than the lower part ? Let us forget this affectation
of a thing out of place, and look at this passage simply for its colouring,
which indeed begets the first general impression. Banish from recollection
that the colouring is grained, and look at it as a surface of pink and grey —
which is its aspect to most eyes. It may be a right principle to keep the
passages and halls duly subordinate to the rooms, in respect of their deco-
rative characteristics, but surely a passage that faces the north needs to he a
little warmer and more cheerful in colouring than one which looks south.
Yet here, in a due north aspect, we have shades of cool colours. The mate-
rials employed in the building of this hall, and its ornamental parts, are
chiefly wood and plaster, made to be coloured. Would not correct taste,
then,' simply colour them, producing the best effects out of the unlimited
range of colours ?

The wainscot staircase of the club remains substantially as it was before
these recent decorations. Being chiefly of oak, its very reality protected it
from change. The ceiling here has been richly painted in various bright
colours, displayed in arabesque forms and panels, generally resembling those
we also find in the drawing-room — for which very reason we think that these
decorations cannot be altogether consistent — certainly they do not accord
with the oak stairs and banisters. The walls here, as in the upper corridor,
have been divided into panels by arabesque borders and lines. The effect is
light and tasteful; but the carpet, which is a mass of unbroken crimson, is
much too full-toned ami positive to accord well with the delicate pale hues
of the walls. The figures in the arabesque painting do not rise beyond
second-rate decorative art, and the human figures which are sometimes intro-
duced, are by no means well drawn or well proportioned. The highest
academical excellence in drawing ought not perhaps to be demanded under
such circumstances, but in this case, as it was thought necessary to send out
of England for a decorative painter, we might fairly have anticipated some-
thing better than what we could have produced ourselves. In the present
case, the work — both in design and execution — is certainly not beyond the
mark of many of the London decorative painters. If our school of design
has produced any fruits at all, it must by this time have educated a score of
pupils quite up to the standard of these decorations.

Through a mock bronze door — of which a few words presently — wc enter
the drawing-rooms. What is the first general impression, without examining
the details ? The tone of the colouring is neither warm nor cold — though
parts are of both characters, and there is no lack of many varieties of colour.
The aspect of the room is a north one, and being such, the prevailing ar-
rangement of colour should be warm. Modify it as you please to suit the
particular character of the apartment— but do not forget that the room re-
ceives hardly a ray of direct sunshine throughout the year. In these drawing
rooms the greater part of the surface of the walls is of a pale, cool-looking
colour, something between a lemon and a cream colour, arranged in panels,
which are bordered by strong and rather dark contrasts. The lower part of
walls, the dado, and its mouldings, are coloured imitations of marbles, in

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

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which a bluish green predominates. Then the doors and window shutters
are coloured dark green, to imitate bronze — a violent contrast to the walls —
and made the more positive by the deep crimsoned draperies of the curtains.
The ceiling is richly coloured and gilt, whilst the walls are comparatively
plain. The character of both ought surely to he more consonant — or, if
there were any difference, ought not the more attractive features to be on
the walls, where they are most easily seen ? Look from the ceiling to the
carpet, and in the latter there is the same absence of concordance and pro-
priety It has no leading key-note of colour — so to speak — hut is a sort of
helter-skelter of many colours. These rooms cannot be said to have any
general etfect, or any one strong point to which all others are subordinate.
There is nothing positive — nothing consistent — one part is warm, another
cold. Richness in the ceilings, poverty on the walls ;— deep-toned colours
brought into violent contrasts with others of a very low tone. As for har-
mony and due subordination of parts one with another, they cannot he met
with. The whole gives an impression as if it bad been the work of a com-
mittee, where there had been a compromise to suit every one's taste, and
each member bad undertaken the independent arrangement of different
parts — one superintending the floor, another the ceiling, a third the walls, a
fourth the doors and shutters, a fifth the draperies, and so on. Having
looked at the rooms thus generally, we proceed to glance at some of the de-
tails, which, in their want of principle, deserve severer criticism.

The ornaments are inconsistent with each other. Some are early Grecian,
some l'ompeian, some of the age of Louis Quatorze ! as in the cornices of
the window curtains. There is no objection perhaps to a combination of
different styles — but it can only be realized successfully by a principle which,
depriving each of its distinctive and independent character, succeeds in
making all integral and harmonious parts of a novel creation. In architec-
tural forms Palladio and Wren succeeded in accomplishing this, when they
took those of ancient Rome and adapted them to the buildings of modern
Europe. But the decorations at the Travellers' Club are very wide of the
application of such a principle. Each different part — said cornices espe-
cially— looks like an independent impertinence, and to have been brought
together by chance or caprice. It has been noticed that the doors and
window-shutters arc painted in imitation of bronze, of a dark-bluish bottle-
green hue. The same question suggests itself here as below in the granite
corridor. What want could there be even for real bronze under such cir-
cumstances ? The doors are subjected to no violences ; not even exposed to
corrosion in the open air. At best, they are unsightly mockeries. On the
panels of the doors are painted imitations of bas-relief metal work. Imita-
tions are tolerable in proportion to their successful approximation to realities.
When it was decided so to ornament these panels, the use of real metal,
iron, if bronze was too costly, would not have been an impossibility :
A few shillings' worth of Mr. Bielefeld's papier mache ornaments would at
least have given an actually raised surface, and insured natural shadows
whenever the door was opened. Now under fixed painted shadows, every
time the door is opened a positive untruth is told in the face of the light.
What can be said of the drawing-room carpet ? — a thing in which the cost
of pattern is hardly a consideration : certainly not to such a club as this.
It is just the carpet you would chance to find adorning the drawing-room of
a flourishing cheesemonger in Aldgate or the Minories : flowers of every hue
displayed in shaded golden scrolls. It belongs to no recognized style, an-
cient or modern ; even that lowest of styles, the Louis Quatorze, would not
own it. Is it not a mistake to attempt any imitations which cannot succeed ?
If we want the representations of flowers, let them be executed by means
which insure something like a correct representation. Employ colours and
brushes in the production of pictures of them if you will, but surely not
worsted threads. The Greeks took the beautiful forms of nature and used
them not as affectations to recall feebly the remembrance of the originals,
but adapted them in new methods to new purposes — which suggested new
views of their intrinsic beauty. Even the artists of the middle ages exer-
cised a better taste than ourselves. A bunch of flowers or group of animals
worked in worsted, with its angular shapes affecting to imitate the flowing
lines of nature's original, with its crude colouring and hard-marked blotches
meant for brilliant hues and soft graduated shadows, merely reminds you
how signally it is unlike what it has copied. How different is the effect
produced by the pattern of the Grecian honeysuckle or the acanthus leaf on
the Corinthian capital ! We look on both as works intrinsically beautiful in
themselves, as new creations and not as imitations. The Arabs have taught
us how we may have a beautiful arrangement of colours almost independent
of pattern. But we do not now intend to write an essay on carpets ; and
we can only dispatch that of the Travellers' drawing-room by saying that it
has both pattern and abundance of colours — but combined on such false
principles that the meanest of Grecian ornaments or Arab combinations of
colours rise very far above it.

We have thought it worth while to enter somewhat at length into this
matter, because the members of the Travellers' Club belong to a class who
will probably exercise some influence in those decorations of our national
buildings which seem to be likely to be realized at no distant day. Should
the parties who are responsible for the taste of the decorations in this club,
have any voice in directing those of the Palace of Westminster, we hope
our remarks may induce them to reflect that there are principles in such
matters, which cannot be neglected. If it be true that some thousands of
pounds have been spent on these works, we do not scruple to say that a
more satisfactory result might have been produced at a much less cost, had
a more correct knowledge of the principles of decoration been applied.

ON SIMPLICITY OP COMPOSITION, ESPECIALLY IN CHURCHES
OF THE EARLY-ENGLISH STYLE.

(From the Ecclesio/or/isl.J

One very striking difference between ancient and modern compositions
in this style is the characteristic ambition of the latter to attain effect, by
the introduction of a great deal of showy detail, in positions where it is
neither required by use, nor sanctioned by the principles of true architectural
propriety, so far as the general practice of antiquity lie admitted as the test
of correctness in these points. We do not mean that superabundant orna-
ment, properly so called, is the common fault of modem churches, but (hat
genuineness is too often sacrificed for show, and that shallow and poverty-
stricken designs are meretriciously tricked out as if for the mere purpose of
deception, with inappropriate because unnecessary embellishment, while the
really essential elements of strength, utility, and reality, which alone consti-
tute true beauty, are either unaccountably overlooked, or knowingly ne-
glected as matters of secondary importance. For instance, how frequently
do we see a thin shell, though internally destitute of piers and arches (fea-
tures absolutely essential in churches of a certain size), disguised and set off
by a ridiculous display of pinnacles, turrets, ornamental parapets, and
crocketed canopies, where not one of these would have been thought of by
an ancient architect in building a church of the same size and with the same
means. He would have disdained to give affected elegance to his bold and
low massive walls, his stately roof, and his fearless irregularity of buttress,
windows, and gable : much less woidd he have used cast iron props for piers,
that he might have more money to spend in making a fine street elevation.

The fact is that a certain amount of external decoration, or rather showi-
ness, is erroneously considered requisite for the correctness of a church,
merely because it is necessary to ensure a competition design being chosen.
Now it is very important to observe how completely the ancients were influ-
enced by the contrary principle. There is an honesty in their designs which
is very striking, if we contrast it with the spurious architectural pretension
of many modern churches ; and we speak more especially with reference to
those generally erected three or four years ago, though specimens of this
sort are unfortunately common enough at the present day. They never made
their walls a foot thinner, or their buttresses a foot shallower, or their roofs
lower and less substantial, than they ought to be, that they might expend a
larger sum upon a fine doorway, or a superfluous arcade, or a richly decorated
front. With them all was real, genuine, and natural. No one part was ex-
travagantly adorned to the disparagement of the rest ; if one feature was
costly, all was in accordance, and not one half starved that the other might
be pampered. In a word, nothing was attempted that could not be well and
consistently carried out.

Again, as to the kind of ornament now generally used, much grave objec-
tion is to be raised. There is, so to speak, a certain quantity of generally
recognised Early-English detail, culled from every possible source, the mighty
cathedral, the costly abbey, the larger parochial churches, as well as from
books, foreign and English, and the traditional kinds of ornament used, per-
haps with no authority at all, by modern builders, all of which is thrown
into a common stock, to be freely and indiscriminately applied to any build-
ing, without regard to ifs size, character, situation, or conditions of structure.
A few points w"e will proceed to specify, in which, according to the extent of
our own observation, modern designs are not consistent with ancient models.

1. We scarcely ever see a modern early-English church, however small its
size and otherwise humble its pretensions, without showy octagonal pinna-
cles, having heavy cappings and angular shafts around the stem. This fea-
ture would almost seem to be considered an absolutely necessary character-
istic of a church of this style, and accordingly it is repeated over and over
again till the eye is quite wearied of it. Yet who ever saw the like in a
real early-English church of the same size ? These are essentially cathedral
features, and even there are scarcely found, unless of actual use in balancing
a vault.

2. Flying buttresses, and buttresses in general, are, we think, greatly mis-
applied. We scarcely ever see a modern early English buttress without pedi-
mental head and set-oft', though these are in fact comparatively rare in ordi-
nary churches of the thirteenth century. A cathedral or a great monastic
church will have, of course, much rich and costly adornment in every part;
it will have, therefore, elaborate buttresses with lofty triangular heads rising
above the parapet for the spriuging of the flying buttresses which span the
ailes and support the clerestory; but where are these found in smaller
churches ? Here we seldom observe any but bold and plain supports, for
use and not for show, and therefore placed exactly where and as they are
wanted, and not at all unless they are really wanted, without the least affec-
tation of ornament or regularity, in short without a particle of trickery
about them. Examine, for instance, the plain specimens at Barnwell,
Cberry-Hinton, or Histon, and imagine what the effect would be were they
exchanged for the trim and chamfered, but meagre and regular, buttresses
of the modern architect.

3. Gable ornaments. We really have seen very few modern designs
without every gable being pierced with a vesica piscis, a foliated triangle, a
circle, or some fantastic little window. Architects, until the last year or
two, so seldom thought of a good high-pitched roof, that they now seem
frightened at their own gables, and very often greatly injure their ett'ict by
inserting these unnecessary and not always even appropriate ornaments. We

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are satisfied that they ate oi comparatively rare occurrence in ancient parish
churches, and that properly speaking they are adapted only for very large
and rich edifices. An example, indeed, occurs in the chancel at Trumping-
ton ; and in churches of this date circular gable lights sometimes may be
found ; we think, more frequently than in early-English.

4. Of western doors and western triplets we need in this place say no-
thing, having endeavoured in a former number to prove them inadmissible
in small churches. In general, we greatly object to the common practice of
coupling or tripling lancets in every position, and not less so to making them
nf the very exaggerated size and disproportionate breadth we frequently
find in them. The disposition and just dimensions of lancets in general is a
subject requiring the greatest judgment and nicety, and is therefore de-
serving of the most earnest attention, since there is no detail so generally
misused as this. "We have constantly seen small modern churches lighted
by lancets almost large enough for a cathedral, and admitting as much glare
as perpendicular windows. We may instance the new churches of St. Mi-
chael at Stamford, and St. Andrew at Northampton. Wbat a contrast do
such buildings as these present to the sombre and subdued light which was
eminently characteristic of all early- English churches!

j. Apses. We have often had occasion to remark upon the impropriety
of these in any but Norman parochial churches, and even here we by no
means recommend their adoption. We believe that no instance of an early-
English apse in a small church occurs in England. Certainly, if any can be
found, they are but exceptions. Yet our modern architects generally termi-
nate their churches eastward by a semi-octagonal or a semi. circular apse,
jierhaps only ten or twelve feet deep. This is a cheap and in some i
showy substitute for a full chancel; but it is not an English feature, uor is it
hy any means either a becoming or appropriate one, since it is iu fact a mere
altar recess, and in nine cases out of ten is without an entrance arch.
Moreover, as the right position of the altar in an apse is upon the chord of
the arc and not against the east wall, the altar is either so placed as to vio-
late the original meaning and use of the ipse, or brought prominently for-
ward almost into the nave.

6. Parapets and gable-ends. The first are not necessary in small Churches.
The eave-roofs of most ancient examples, we think, fell simply and unaffect-
edly upon the hare walls; whereas an ornamental parapet, with a cornice of
notch-heads, or dog-tooth, or corbels, is now usually Considered indispen-
sable. We recently inspected a design for the restoration of an early-
English church in Lincolnshire, where very insufficient funds were obtained
even for absolutely necessary repairs; yet among the "essentials" a
"moulded parapet to the chancel," though it did not appear ever to have
bad one, was prominently set forth. There is no need to be ashamed of a
great roof, or to attempt any disguise or superfluous decorative concealment.
A parapet will often, by its over-neatness and appearance of affected finish,
detract from the bold and picturesque simplicity of a small church. And
the lower the roof, the more objectionable a parapet becomes. Modern ga-
bles too are generally awkwardly terminated at the eaves by heavy shoulders
or prominent saddle-stones, or look somehow as if the architect did not
know exactly what to do with them ; whereas what he ought to have done
with them was simply to let them alone. The ancients seem seldom to have
cared much about them, but to have let them fall easily away with a not. a-
head, or a bead, or a chamfer; or at most with gablcts, as at Stapleford ;
hut always plainly, and therefore gracefully and appropriately. The complex
gable arrangements we have seen in numerous modern designs are strikingly
contrasted with these.

Nothing, in fine, is left to itself ; nothing is plain, unpretending, simple,
irregular, accidental. Every detail is overdone; we must have nothing but
triplets, and arcades, and wheel-windows, and trefoiled ornaments; and we
must always improve our towers and cast and west elevations by pinnacles
and flying buttresses. Thus much is affected, but nothing attained ; parts
arc strained and exaggerated, but general effect is rather injured than im-
proved. For what constitutes effect as applied to ecclesiastical architei tufe
Appropriateness, solidity, grandeur, honesty, chasteness, boldness ; not un-
necessary and meretricious ornament, but the position of a feature just
where it is wanted and as it is wanted, without disguise, without hesitation.
It is not the insertion of a north window merely because there is a south
one exactly opposite ; not the making one side exactly of the same size and
shape as the other; not having buttresses, windows, ami doors of precisely
the same height and breadth and desigu in every part of the fabric. Such
w, ri certainly not the principles which guided our forefathers in the erection
of their churches, anil we must endeavour to enter fully into their princi-
ples of composition and distribution before we can hope to produce the same
effect merely by the use of the same kind of details; a truth which has in-
deed often been urged, but still has not met with due attention.

It must, nevertheless, be observed that there is a wide and important dif-
ference between plainness and meagreness in church architecture. The
former is simply the absence of ornamental detail, the latter is a scanty and
stinted development of the essential parts of construction. A building may
It plain, and yet perfectly graceful and pleasing; but if it be also meagre,
it necessarily becomes ugly ; as all who have seen Christ church, St. Paul's,
and St. Andrew's, in this town, will readily acknowledge. For in the one
case we perceive at once that all, as far as it goes, is genuine and complete,
and therefore pleasing and satisfactory to the eye. In the other, the affec-
tation without the attainment of the primary characteristics of ancient
models implies deception ; wc desiderate that reality which could alone en-

sure successful imitation. Costliness and ornament should be regarded only
as a step in advance of plainness and simplicity. The same elements of
beauty are contained in both, but in one only is it developed. The ab-
surdity, therefore, of ornamental meagreness instead of simple massiveness
is evident, since decoration was never intended as a substitute for, but only
as an addition to, solid and substantial construction. Yet upon this false
principle modern churches are almost without exception erected.

We have ventured to offer the above remarks chiefly, as will be readily
understood, in reference to designing small early-English churches, from a
conviction that architects arc often content rather to copy one another and
the depraved fashion of the day, than uniformly to make antiquity alone the
test of correctness in their compositions. By neglecting to do this, they
have imperceptibly contracted a formality and a mannerism which is very
detrimental to the revival of the art, and which nothing but a close adhe-
rence to ancient models is likely to remedy. Modern early-English, instead
of being identical or at least closely allied with the style of the thirteenth
century, is quite a distinct and isolated production, which in future ages will
be regarded in the same light as we now regard the debased perpendicular,
namely, an attempt to imitate its forms without a knowledge of its princi-
ples.

FRCCEEDIPJGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

T
1NSTITUTI0N OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

April 4. — WrLLiAM Cumtt, V.P., in the Chair.

"On the !>itj>jili/ of Hater to the City of Glasgmc." By D. Mackain,
M. Inst. ( -.!•:.

This paper contains a history of the progressive increase of the water-
works ot Glasgow, caused by the rapid extension of the city and its manu-
factories, derived from the documents in the archives of the Water Company,
to which the author is the engineer. The statement commences from the
year 1759, at which time Mr. John Gibson, in his History of the City of
ed a desire for several improvements, among which he par-
ticular!;, mentioned abetter supply of water, as although the population
1 t" 23,000 pel i used by the inhabitants was drawn

from the Clyde, fr the several streams running through or skirting the

.1 from wills in ilie streets ; the water from the latter was unlit for
domestic purposes, and the manufactories gradually extending on the sides
of the burns polluted their waters, and (bus rendered a better general supply
absolutely necessary. The various plans proposed in the year 1780 and sub-
sequently are then detailed, and as an instance of the low estimate then
formed of the quantity of water required for a community amounting to
about 43,000 persons, it is stated that the produce of a spring at Whitehall,
was then proposed to convey to the City for its entire supply, is now
found inadequate for the wants of a bouse of refuge for j'nenile delinquents
lately erected near it. In describing the project of Mr. Henry Bell for
j water by a canal from the Falls of the Clyde, his reasons arc given
for rejecting the use of steam-engines. " These engines," he says, " are not
only in themselves objectionable, iu so far as they will be hurtful to the
value of surrounding property, and a general nuisance to that part of the city
or neighbourhood where they are erected : but the consumption of coals
which will thereby be occasioned will tend in no small degree to heighten
the price of that fuel." An account is given of the speculation of Mr. Hur-
ley, who erected pumps at Willow Hank, and forced the water through pipes
into a reservoir in Upper Nile Street, whence it was carted through the
town, its sale producing a revenue of about .C1O00 per annum.

Ai i. ngth a water company was formed, and Mr. Telford was requested to
report upon the proposed plans, all of which he found objectionable, and
recommended that steam-engines should be placed on the banks of the
Clyde, at a spot about two miles up the river, with the necessary reservoirs,
filters, &c, and that the water should be forced by pumps into the city. He
estimated that the quantity of water required for a population of 80,000
persons would be about 500 gallons per minute ; that, including manufac-
tories, the renters would be about equal to 6000 families ; and that the
average rent upon that number would be '-/■ per family, which would produce
±'12,000 per annum. Acting upon this report, in the year 1800 the company
ordered from Messrs. Boulton & Watt two engines with cylinders of 36 in.
diameter, and laid pipes of 14 iu. diameter to a reservoir on the spot, then
called the Callow Muir; from this small commencement sprung the present
extensive works, whose gradual increase is carefully traced in the paper until
the enumeration of its actual position in 1842, when the population of the
city exceeded 300,000 persons, and the annual income was about £j0,J00,
making the average payment about nine shillings per annum for each family.
The works had increased until they consisted of thirteen steam-engines, of
various powers, with their filters, reservoirs, &c, an accurate account of
which is promised in a future communication. In this history many sta-
tistical details are given, obtained from the archives of the company ; and
the difficulties encountered by the engineers who preceded the author in the
management of the works, are clearly described.

The details of the various oppositions from local interests, the several
Acts of Parliament, the fluctuation of the mercantile value of the shares, the

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

321

history of tlic Cranston Hill Water-works, formed by a rival company, with
whom for a time a ruinous competition existed, and whose works it became
necessary to purchase, are given at length. The paper then describes the
natural filter for the water, which was taken advantage of, by driving tunnels
along the borders of the peninsula round which the Clyde sweeps in the form
of a horse-shoe. This spot being composed of sand and gravel would, it was
argued, form a filter, whence the water could be pumped up and conveyed
across the river into the city. Many plans were designed for thus carrying
the water; that which was adopted was suggested by Mr. Watt : he pro-
posed the use of cast iron pipes, fitted, where necessary, with revolving ball
and socket joints, which he then fust introduced, and of which he sent a
wooden model to the company, which model was now presented by them to
the Institution of Civil Engineers. These pipes adapted themselves to the
form of the bed of the river, and the plan was perfectly successful.

Mr. Telford's experiments upon stone pipes are mentioned, and some re-
sults are given. A stone from Rutherglen White quarry, 1 ft. 9 in. long,
18 i in. square, with a bore in it 9\ in. diameter, when subjected to a pressure
of a column of water from GO to 80 ft. in height, split in the direction of the
natural bed. Another stone from the same quarry, 5ft. 2 in. long, 13 in.
square, with a bore of 4-j in. diameter in it, did not emit any water until the
pressure amounted to 100 ft. head ; after that it discharged water freely, and
split when the column a little exceeded 300 feet. A Portland stone, 4 ft. G in.
long, 12 in. diameter, with a bore of G in. diameter in it, did not emit any
water, nor was there any symptom of fracture under a pressure of 350 feet.
Other stone pipes were also experimented upon with such various results,
that Mr. Telford arrived at the conclusion, that they could not he relied
upon, and accordingly recommended iron pipes.

The paper is illustrated by a large map of the city of Glasgow, upon which
is shown, by different tints, the houses which existed when the water- works
were commenced, the ranges of distribution, and the extent of the district
for which the company is bound by Act of Parliament to supply water for
certain periods during each day.

Remarks. — Mr. Simpson said that he was well acquainted with the works
which had been described, as he had repeatedly visited them professionally ;
there were many points of interest attached to them, and the engineering
operations were of considerable magnitude and importance. The late Mr.
Watt suggested the idea of using the sandy peninsula on the opposite side of
the river Clyde to the present works of the Glasgow company at Dalmarnock,
as a natural filter, and it succeeded admirably, until the immoderate quantity
of water was delivered to the city during the competition with the Cranston
Hill Water Company. Of this spot, and the tunnels and wells in it, he pre-
sented a tracing. When he was at the works in the year 1833, Mr. Alex-
ander Anderson, the then resident engineer, had been pumping water on to
the peninsula for many months, and the deficiency of the natural filters,
(nearly half the supply at the time) was made up by that means; at first the
pumps were worked by rocking shafts connected to the engines across the
river; afterwards pumps were erected close to the engines, and the water
conveyed across the river through pipes. A very large portion of the supply
to the inhabitants was drawn from the mains, without the intervention of
cisterns, and a great deal of the water was thus wasted. The filter recom-
mended by Mr. Telford was composed of a series of cells tilled with sand,
the water passing through them in succession ; this filter was not effective
during floods or when the water of the Clyde held in suspension the colour-
ing matter from the peat-mosses ; after passing through the first cell little
more was accomplished, and the water continued discoloured.

Mr. Simpson had, however, seen the Clyde water filtered until it was per-
fectly bright, by conducting the process very slowly, the rate of motion not
exceeding half an inch per hour through the medium — precipitation on the
sand evidently took place; he had in some instances accelerated the precipi-
tation by previous admixture of alumina or pipeclay and other materials, and
had succeeded in throwing down the colouring matter, so that the filters
produced perfectly pellucid water. In a filtering bed, properly arranged, the
impurities were arrested at and near the planes of ingress — great extents of
medium effected little in addition. In some filters which had been worked
for nearly sixteen years, it had not been found necessary during that period
to change the entire mass of materials. The natural filters of the Glasgow
compauy had been injuriously affected by depressing the water in the wells,
thereby increasing the pressure of the water on the bed and the foreshores
of the river, and thus bringing the particles of the medium into too close
contact and forcing obstructions between them. The Glasgow Water-works
was an example of the employment of the largest steam-eugiuc power for
water-works purposes in Britain ; he believed that at one period the engines
at the works were equal to nearly 700 h.p. During the erection, in 1 829,
of the second pair of engines, with cylinders of 54 inches diameter, many
difficulties were encountered ; in the Vale of the Clyde, large quantities of
mud almost in a fluid state lie intermixed with the strata. In sinking the
wells for these engines, the mud was met with much nearer the surface than
was anticipated, and when tapped, it rose up like a fountain in the bottom of
the well ; the pumps were, in consequence, fixed at a higher level than was
originally designed. Mr. Crichton, of Sobo, was of opinion that the altera-
tion of 4 ft. 5 in. in the level of the pumps was immaterial ; he probably did
not calculate upon the water sinking in the filter-wells when the increased
pumping power was applied.

Mr. John Gibb, of Aberdeen, who was consulted about the foundation,
bored to 30 feet lower than the bottom of the new well, and found that the

ground became weaker as the depth increased, so that any attempt to sink
the well to the depth required would be very hazardous,. He therefore ad-
vised the enlargement of the surface of tin: building under the whole super-
structure, with due provision for the weights and strains in the arrangements;
that a strong platform should be constructed of Memel logs and planking for
the foundation, and the spaces between flic timber to be filled in with ma-
sonry flushed in and grouted; this plan was adopted, and proved successful
as a foundation, but the depth was insufficient, and the working barrels of
the pumps were obliged to be fixed so much above the level of the filters,
that they ceased to fill when the water in the tunnels was depressed 22 feet
below tlie tops of the pumps. This was a serious disappointment to the
company, for whenever the water in the river was low, a corresponding de-
pression" occurred in the wells of the filters; and in general, for many hours
daily, these two engines only raised as much water as one would have
pumped, if the working barrels had been fixed at the proper level. The
suction-pipes were inclined towards the filter wells, and the pumps were (lis-
taut from them about 110 yards; this, Mr. Simpson considered, was com-
paratively of little importance, as he had worked pumps with horizontal suc-
tion pipes 500 yards in length.

Mr. Hawkins recommended slow filtering, without pressure ; some years
since he had been engaged in refining sugar by Howard's process, by which
the syrup was applied to the filter under a column of 20 feet in height ; out
of a certain quantity, 300 gallons were returned unliltered, and by the time
GO gallons had been clarified, the filter was choked. He reduced the column
to 2 feet, and out of the same quantity G gallons alone were returned, while
300 gallons were clearly filtered; this, and numerous other cases, had con-
vinced him that pressure was injurious to filtration.

Mr. Braitbwaite believed, that although slow filtration was generally pre-
ferable, yet that the velocity must depend upon the quality as well as the
quantity' of matter held in suspension ; this consideration would also regulate
the time during which the filter could he worked without cleansing.

Mr. Hawkins found practically, that half an inch in depth was the utmost
that was required to be removed from the surface of the filtering medium
when it was cleaned and renewed.

Mr. Simpson said, that in order to filter properly, there should be exten-
sive reservoirs where all the grosser particles could subside or be arrested
previously to arriving at the filtering medium ; with due attention to this
point he had seen filteriug-beds worked for G7 days consecutively without
requiring to be cleansed.

Ari'ENDIX TO THE LAST PAPER.

" Description of a cast iron Reservoir erected at Garnet Hill, by the
Glasgow Water-works Company." By D. Mackain, M.Iust. C.E.

A considerable extension of the city of Glasgow is now taking place to the
north-west of the old town upon an elevation of upwards of 100 feet above
the river; the water-works, which are situated to the east of the city, are
already upwards of 4 miles distant from the extreme point of delivery, which
is almost daily becoming more remote, and the cost of the supply of water
is consequently increased. These circumstances rendered necessary the esta-
blishment of a new reservoir, which should be sufficiently high and capacious
to command and to supply the district. The ground which was obtained for
this purpose was on the declivity of Garnet Hill, and had a fall of 20 feet
in 90 feet extent. It was necessary to keep the bottom up as high as pos-
sible and yet not to contract the space by thick walls, and to erect Biich a
building as should not be offensive to the neighbourhood ; these considera-
tions induced the author to recommend the use of iron plates for the reser-
voir, which should be masked by a screen of masonry designed by Mr. James
Smith, architect of Glasgow.

The construction is thus described. A bearing wall of 4 ft. Gin. in thick-
ness was carried up from the foundation all round to within 1 foot of the
floor of the reservoir. A division wall was built across the centre to carry
the partition for dividing the reservoir into two parts. The space within
these walls was filled in with broken stones, over which was a layer of clay,
and then a layer of sand, upon which was placed a flooring of Arbroath pave-
ment well jointed with cement, and resting at the sides upon the flanches of
the sole plates, which were bedded in a mixture of lime and Roman cement,
in such proportions as afforded ample time for the adjustment to be com-
pleted. The lower tier of plates was 1 inch, and the upper tier 4^ inch in
thickness. Their flandi joints were made secure by inserting between the
faces a lead pipe J inch diameter, filled with lint-gasket soaked in red lead
and tallow, in addition to which the whole was caulked with a composition
of hot lime and linseed oil, which in a short time became very hard. The
reservoir is 123 ft. long by 85 ft. 6 in. wide, and 13 ft. 2 in. in depth; it is
entirely covered by a malleable irou roof supported upon cast iron pillars.

The paper is illustrated by two drawings and four lithographs, giving the
dimensions of every part of the work, and by a specification of the mode of
execution.

Remarks. — Mr. Simpson said that he had examined the reservoir very
carefully, and could bear testimony of the excellent manner in which the
work was done. The mode of construction was novel, and had succeeded
perfectly, as no leakage had occurred since its election, nor had any incon-
venience arisen from the variations of temperature, or from the unequal

322

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

depths of water in tlie two compartments. He thought Mr. Mackain was
entitled to much credit.

Coradino Tank at Malta.

A drawing of the Coradino Tank, erected in 1S41-2, in the island of
Malta, was presented by William Lamb Arrowsmith, Assoc. C.E. (Superin-
tendent of Government Works at Malta).

It was described as the largest modern covered tank in Europe, its cubic
contents being 700,000 feet, and with its settling reservoir it would contain
15,000 tons of water ; the roof was supported by rows of square pillars 15 ft.
in height. It was intended to form a part of the works for supplying the
island with water, a description of which was promised to the Institution to
complete the paper on the supplies of water for cities, the first part of which
has alrcadv been received.

Artesian Wells.

A letter was read from the late Sir John Robison, giving a short account
of the Artesian Well at t/ie Abbaioire (I? Crenelle, Paris.

The Ahbatoire being at too high a level lo obtain an adequate supply of
water by the ordinary means, it was proposed, about eight years since, to
sink an artesian well within the premises, which proposal having been agreed
to, the execution of it was intrusted to Monsieur Mulot. The work liaving
been pcrseveringly carried forward through many difficulties, the boring was
terminated by the auger penetrating the water-bearing strata on the 2Cth
February, 1841, when a sudden and violent rush of water occurred, overflow-
ing at the surface of the ground. As the boring progressed, tubes of rolled
iron, and subsequently of copper, were inserted to support the sides, the first
being 12.; inches diameter, and the lowest about 6j inches diameter, reaching
to a depth of 179-1.' English feet. The quantity of water thrown up while
the bore remained in this state was about 880,000 imperial gallons per day,
at a temperature of 824° Fahrenheit ; the expense incurred up to this time
being upwards of £12,000 sterling. Sir John examined the theoretical rea-
sons which had been given for the contortion of the tubes, which had been
attributed to violent pulsations in the flowing water acting upon the I
of them, crushing them inwards ; he objected to this reasoning as not being
in accordance with the laws of hydrostatic pressure, and attributing it rather
to mechanical causes arising from the force used in forcing the tubes down
the hole, and even more to the violence they were subjected to in being
withdrawn from it.

The letter was illustrated by a lithographic section of the well, which was
presented by William Cubitt, Assoc. C.E.

Remarts, — Mr. Cubitt had recently visited the well, and found the water
flowing with considerable force through an orifice in the vertical pipe about
;s feet beneath the level of the ground; the nozzle of the orifice, which was
10 inches diameter, was about half filled, and the stream was reported to be
supplying about 2500 litres (S50 gallons) per minute, at a temperature of
82° Fah. The water was not clear; it deposited a considerable quantity of
fine sand, and occasionally stones of about 2 inches cube were brought up.
lie was informed that the water bad at one period ascended to between 70
and 90 feet higher than the ground.

Mr. Taylor observed, that the temperature of the water nearly coincided
with that of the United Mines in Cornwall, which were 295 fathoms, or
1770 feet deep. The highest temperature recorded there was, he believed,
96:' Fah. It. was well ascertained now, by the experiments of Mr. Pox, that

the beat was not increased either by the decomposition of the pyrites, or the
number of men ami horses employed in the mines.

Mr. F.nys said, that the experiments by Mr. Fox, as published in the re-
port of the seventh meeting of the British Association (vol. vi, p. 133) gave
a temperature of 92 in the lode at a depth of 290 fathoms, where it was first
reached in the cross-cut; but on proceeding along the same cross-cut, at
10 fathoms from the lode, the temperature decreased to 86° 3', and at 24
fathoms distant it was 85° 3'i this would give a close approximation to the
temperature quoted by Mr. Cubitt.

Mr. Braithwaite inquired at what depth the temperature began to increase;
landsprings were generally at about 52°, and be found the water in wells
600 feet deep usually at 53° or 54°. He bail understood that the tempera-
ture increased 1° for every 65 feet, after a certain depth.

Mr. Enys said, that Mr. Fox's experiments gave a ratio of increase of 1° of
temperature in IS feet, calculated from the surface. He thought that the
close approximation of the temperature of the land-springs, and that in the
wells mentioned by Mr. Braithwaite, might be accounted for by the rapidity
with which the water filtered through the strata of the Loudon basin.

Mr. Taylor agreed that the heat of the water was influenced by the nature
of the strata; the Cornish miners, when they were taken to the North Welsh
mines, were much inconvenienced by the coldness of the water in the latter,
although the depth of the mines in both districts was nearly identical.

Mr. Braithwaite believed that his view of the temperature of wells would
he corroborated by the coldness of the water in the new well at Southamp-
ton, which had now arrived at a very considerable depth, and he understood
that the temperature of the water was about 54°,

Mr. Simpson said, that the well at Southampton had been sunk and bored
to the depth of 1063 feet ; the supply of water was not considerable, and he
was not aware that any observations had been made as to the temperature.
A well at Chichester had now arrived at the depth of 1013 feet, and was still
being carried lower.

Mr. Sopwith contended for the accuracy of the investigations of Count
Brenner on the temperature of two German mines, and of Messrs. Fox-,
Buddie, and others in England; the differences between the results obtained
were so trifling as to induce confidence in the conclusion they bad arrived
at, which was, that after allowing for the radiation of beat at a certain dis-
tance from the surface, the temperature increased 1° for every 50 feet in
depth. This law might not hold good in certain local basins, where from the
nature of the strata the percolation of surface water was rapid, hut in the
extensive mining districts it certainly was correct.

Mr. Cubitt suggested that the close approximation of the temperature of
the water in the well at Paris and that observed by Mr. Fox at the same
depth in Cornwall, might arise in some measure from the large volume of
water in the former, and the rapidity with which it arrived at the surface :
whereas in the deep wells which hail been mentioned, the water had probably
been allowed to cool before the temperature bad been ascertained.

Mr. Clarke corroborated the opinion entertained by Mr. Cubitt ; in a well
which lie had sunk to the depth of 540 feet at St. Alhan's, he obtained, by
an apparatus constructed for the purpose, some water from the bottom of
the well, and found it 4° hotter than that which was pumped up from the
same well. At the bottom of a well at Messrs. Barclay's brewery, 367 feet
deep, the water was 3° hotter than at the water-level in the same well.
Local causes frequently affected the temperature of water in wells; be had
seen instances of the water being warmer at 60 and 70 feet deep than at
300 feet, but these cases would not influence the general law.

Mr. Viguolcs considered the facts mentioned by Mr. Clarke to be very
valuable, and as bearing out Mr. t'ubitt's idea; there could be little doubt
that if, by means of self-registering thermometers, the temperature of the
water was ascertained, at the issue of the springs, at the bottom of deep wells
which were not influenced by local causes, the result would prove in accord-
ance with the observations of Fox and others. By the laws of the circu-
lation of fluids the heavier water, which bail been cooled at the surface,
mingled with the lighter and wanner water as il rose; the sides of the well
also tended to abstract the heat; therefore the temperature should he ob-
tained at the greatest depth in order to make any correct experiment.

Mr. Braithwaite agreed in the influence of local circumstances ; in a well
at (heshiiiii. :il a depth of 40 feet, a sulphureous spring issued, the vapour
of which almost killed the workmen: and when at last it was built out, the
bricks continued so hot that the band could scarcely be borne against them.
Below that point very cold water was met with.

April 11. — Joshua Field, V.P., in the Chair.
Tin; Water-pressure Engine at FnEvnuRn, Saxony.
Description. By William Lewis Baker, Grad. Inst. C.E.

The machine described in this communication was designed by Herrn
Brendel in 1823, and constructed in 1824, for draining the " Alte Mordgrube"
mine, one of the largest silver mines in the neighbourhood of Freyherg, in
Saxony. This engine, which is fixed at a depth of 360 feet below the sur-
face of the ground, has two single-acting cast iron cylinders, each 18 inches
in diameter, and 9 feet stroke, to the pistons of which are fixed strong tim-
ber piston rods, each attached at their upper ends by a flat iron rod and
chain, to the opposite segments of a horizontal working beam, thus connect-
ing the pistons of the two cylinders, so that, when one is being moved up-
wards by the pressure of water underneath it, the other is depressed by the
weight of all the pump-rods and other mm ing parts to which it is connected.
The admission and eduction of water from the cylinders is regulated by slide
valves worked by levers and tappets. The piston-rods give motion to the
horizontal arms of two bell-crank levers, the diagonal arms of which move
the main pump-rods, working 44 pumps in two sets of 22 each placed one
above another, at an angle of 45 with the horizon, each dipping into the
delivery cistern of the pump immediately below it; this is repeated down-
wards for the whole series; and thus the water is raised from the bottom of
the mine to the point where it runs oft' by an adit. Each pump has a lift of
30 ft. 4 in. The duty performed by this engine is stated by Gerstner1 to he
as 70 to 100.

The author then gives a very minute account of the construction of the
engine, illustrating the paper by three drawings giving the general arrange-
ment and the detailed dimensions of all the working parts.

Remarks. — Mr. Taylor remarked that the water-pressure engine was of
Hungarian origin; it was extensively used in Germany, and had latterly been
much improved in construction, particularly by abandoning the rude mode
of placing a series of pumps over each other, as had been described in the
paper. He believed that Smeaton erected the first engine of the kind in this
country. Trevithick built one about 40 years since, with cylinders of 30 in.
diameter. Another was erected by Mr. Fairbaim, and since then, one had

' Gerstner, " Handbuck der Mecbanick," published at Vienna in 1834.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

323

been built, under the direction of Mr. Darlington, with cylinders of 50 inches
diameter, and 10 feet stroke, worked by a force of water of 22 fathoms,
through a descending column of 30 inches diameter ; the pumps worked by
the engine were -42 inches in diameter, raising water from a depth of 22
fathoms; the usual speed of working was four strokes per minute, hut he
had seen it attain six strokes. The concussion produced by the closing of
the valve at the end of the stroke, was generally very prejudicial to these
engines ; but in that made by Mr. Darlington, it was diminished by allowing
the large valve to close a short time before the stroke finished, and bringing
the piston home with a small valve; by this means no noise was heard be-
yond that of the rush of the water, and the violent shocks were avoided.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Thirteenth Meeting, 1843. — Held at Cork.

" On the Application of our Knowledge of the Laws of Sound to the Con-
struction of Buildings." By Mr. Scott Russell.

The object of this paper was twofold — first, to apply our knowledge of the
known laws of sound to the phenomena of speaking and bearing in a given
building; and secondly, to develop certain laws of sound recently discovered,
and not generally known ; and to show their application to the same prac-
tical purposes. Part I. of the paper contained the application of the known
laws of sound to the construction of buildings. The author prefaced this
part of the paper by describing a form of building which had been found to
be perfectly adapted to the purpose of seeing and bearing with distinctness
and comfort. This arrangement of buildings bad been described by him
in a paper communicated to the Royal Society of Arts of Scotland some
years ago, but had not been actually constructed on a large scale until lately,
when a young architect, Mr. Cousins, of Edinburgh, having been employed
to construct some large buildings, and alighting on this paper, adopted its
principles. Buildings were now erected on this principle, and contained
from fifteen hundred to three thousand people, whom they accommodated
without difficulty, and with perfect comfort both to speaker and hearer.
He had little doubt, from experiments he had recently made, that so many
as ten thousand people might be so arranged as to hear with ease and com-
fort a good speaker. Mr. Scott Russell's principle of construction is to
place the speaker in the focus of a curve, which be calls the curve of equal
hearing, or the isacoustic curve ; and to place the seats of the auditors in
such a manner that their heads shall all he arranged in this curve.

" Let A B C D represent the vertical section of a building for public speak-
ing, S the height of the speaker on his platform, D C the floor of the build,
ing; then, for the purpose that all the auditors should hear and see equally
well, they should be placed on the line S R B of the acoustic curve. This
curve is constructed in the following manner : — D Cis first divided into equal
parts to represent the usual breadth of a sitting, and vertical lines are drawn
through these points. R being the place of the auditor 1 , the place of auditor
2 behind him is assigned thus — join S R, and produce it to a — from a upwards
set off a 2 = 9 inches, and 2 is the proper height of the next spectator. Then
join S 2, produce it to b, and set off A 3 = 9 inches, and 3 is the place of the
third spectator, and so on for the place of every spectator. Such was the
vertical section of the building. The horizontal section was either circular
or polygonal, having the speaker at the centre. This form had been found
perfectly successful in affording the highest degree of comfort both to hearer
and speaker ; therefore he submitted it with confidence to the section, as a
practical ami established principle, more than as a mere theoretical specula-
tion. The remainder of this paper was then adjourned till the next day.

" Chromotype, a neiv Photographic Process." By Mr. R. Hunt.

We are indebted to Mr. M. I'onton for the discovery of the first photo-
graphic process in which chromic acid was the active agent. He used a
paper saturated with the bichromate of potash, which, on exposure to sun-
hine, speedily passed from a fine yellow colour into a dull brown, giving,

consequently, a negative picture. E. Becquerel improved upon this process,
by sizing the paper with starch previously to the application of the bichro-
mate of potash, which enabled him to convert the negative picture into a
positive one by the use of a solution of iodine, which combined with the
starch in those parts on which the light had not acted, or acted but slightly,
forming the blue iodide of starch. These pictures are, however, tediously
produced; they are seldom clear and distinct, and failure too frequently
follows the utmost care. While the author was pursuing an extensive series
of researches on the influence of the solar rays on the salts of different
metals, he was led to the discovery of a process by which positive photo-
graphs are very easily produced. Several of the chromates may be used in
this process ; but the author prefers those of mercury or copper, the most
certain effects being produced by the chromate of copper, and, indeed, in a
much shorter time than with any of the other chromates. The papers are
thus prepared ; good writing paper is washed over with a solution of the
sulphate of copper and partially dried ; it is then washed with a solution of
the bichromate of potash and dried at a little distance from the fire. Papers
thus prepared may be kept for any length of time, and are always ready for
use. They are not sufficiently sensitive for use in the camera obscura, but
they are available for every other purpose. An engraving — botanical speci-
mens or the like — being placed upon the paper in a proper photographic
copying frame, it is exposed to sunshine for a time, varying with the intensity
of light from five to fifteen or twenty minutes. The result is generally a
negative picture. This picture is now washed over with a solution of nitrate
of silver, which immediately produces a very beautiful deep orange picture upon
a light dun colour, or sometimes perfectly white ground. This picture is
quickly fixed by being washed in pure water aud dried. The author remarked
that, if saturated solutions were used, a negative picture was first produced,
but if the solutions were diluted with three or four times their bulk of water,
the first action of the sun's rays was to darken the paper, immediately upon
which a very rapid bleaching action followed, giving an exceedingly faint
positive picture, which was brought out in great delicacy by the nitrate of
silver. It is necessary that pure water should be used for the fixing, as the
presence of any muriate damages the picture, and hence arises another pleasing
variation of the chromatype. If the positive picture be placed in a very weak
solution of common salt, the images slowly fade out, leaving a very faint ne-
gative outline. If it be taken from the solution of salt and dried, a positive
picture of a lilac colour may be produced by a few minutes' exposure to sun-
shine. Prismatic analysis has shown that the changes are produced by a class
of rays which lie between the least refrangible blue, and the extreme limits of
the violet rays of the visible prismatic spectrum — the maximum darkening
effect being produced by the mean blue ray, whilst the bleaching effect appears
to be produced with the greatest energy by the least refrangible violet rays.

" On the Construction ofLuntley's Shadowless Gas-burners, and the Shape
of Glass Chimneys for Lamps." By Mr. H. Dircks.

The object of the burner was to bring the gas issuing from the small
orifices into direct contact with atmospheric air at the ordinary temperature.
Mr. Dircks contended that the heating of the air previously to its combus-
tion diminishes the brightness of the flame ; because, while each volume of
carburetted hydrogen gas requires ten volumes of atmospheric air for its per-
fect combustion, the expansion of the air by heat necessarily reduces the
weight of oxygen contained in the same volume of air ; and therefore unless
some means be adopted of increasing the supply of air, the oxygen would be
deficient. Another alleged advantage of the burner arises from the small
quantity of metal through which the orifices are perforated, for by that
means a smaller quantity of heat is abstracted in burning. The peculiarity
in the form of the glass chimney consists in having the upper end enlarged.
The effect of this enlargment, Mr. Dircks said, was to open the top of the
flame and increase its brightness.

Mr. J. Taylor explained to the meeting the recent improvements of Dr.
Faraday in the combustion of gas ; and a short discussion arose, in which
Mr. Hawkins and Dr. Scoresby took part, on the advantage of enlarging the
upper ends, not only of glass chimneys, but of all chimneys for the com-
bustion of fuel."

Tidal Observations.

Mr. J. S. Russell read a report of his observations on the tides of the
Frith of Forth and the cast coast of Scotland. The especial object of this
series of investigations was to discover fully the nature and causes of some
remarkable tides which exist in the Frith of Forth, and to connect them with
observations ou the adjacent tides, and likewise furnish some better data for
the construction of practical tide tables for predicting the time and height
of high water at these places. The methods of observation were distinct from
those which bad previously been made. Instead of merely observing the
periods of high and low water, observers were placed to note the rising of
the water every five minutes, night and day, for several weeks and months
together. This was done at twelve places simultaneously, from Newcastle
along the coast to Inverness, so that from 2,000 to 3,000 observations were
got from the stations in the course of a day. These were daily transmitted
to the central station, and immed ately laid down geometrically ou ruled
paper, so as to represent graphically to the eye the outline of each tidal wave
by a curve. From the form of the curve it was that the most important

41

324

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

results were to be obtained, although the undertaking was laborious. The
results of the observations were most important and satisfactory. Two dis-
tinct set off tide waves visit together the east coast of Scotland, but one of them
has hitherto been much neglected. One goes round the north of Scotland and
runs south ; a second comes northward from the Straits of Dover. These
were demonstrated on two charts ; the progress of these was exhibited. Their
presence was seen in the whole Frith of Forth down to the open sea ; but in
the npper part of the Channel these double tides were thereby distributed,
and rendered more visible. These tides had opposite inequalities which
indicated their age and origin. The paper was of very considerable interest,
and it was stated by Mr. Russell that the Ordnance survey had just been
conducting a series of similar observations in Ireland.

Mr. Hopkins read a paper " On the Motion of Glaciers." Glaciers are formed
on inclined planes by the gradual fall of water, which is converted into ice.
As the ice increases it gradually expands, but in the fust instance the motion
is scarcely visible. He said he had made several experiments to illustrate
this snbject. An inclined plane was erected, on which he placed a box of
ice, which he then elevated to an angle of 3 degrees ; the motion was at
the rate of 7 inches per day ; on being raised to 0 degrees, the motion in-
creased to 12J inches; at 9 degrees it increased to 23i inches; and at 12
degrees to 48 inches, increasing in a very large proportion afterwards. He
then endeavoured to ascertain the least inclination at which the ice would
move, aud found that it would proceed down an inclination of half a degree.

OBITUARY.

Mb. James Hakewell.

Died at his apartments in Adam Street West, Bryanstone Square, May 28
1843, in the sixty-fiftn year of his age, James Hakewell, architect. This
gentleman was principally known by publications on architectural anti-
quities and the fine arts. His fi st work was a novel, entitled " Coelebs
suited; or, the Stanley Letters," 1812. In 1813 he produced a large volume
in imperial lto. called "The History of Windsor and its Neighbourhood,"
with twenty-one engravings and fourteen vignettes from his own drawings,
price five guineas. The views were from his own pencil. It was well re-
ceived at the time, and many years after he was much gratified on receiving
the thanks of Sir Jeffry Wyatville for the publication, coupled with the as-
surance that, in his alterations in that abode of royalty, he had endeavoured
to carry out his suggestions. When the general peace opened the Continent
to English travellers, he went to Italy, accompanied by his wife, whose taste
and talents qualified her thoroughly to enjoy all the beauties of nature and
art that were displayed before them, and there they passed the greater part
of the years 1816 and 1817, which afforded the materials for a "Picturesque
Tour of Italy," which was published, with sixty-three plates, in twelve parts
quarto and folio, 1818-1820, illustrated by parallels of Dorton House, Hat-
field, Longleat, and Wollaton, in England ; and the Pallazo Delia Cancel-
laria, at Rome. This is an interesting work, both in its literary matter and
in illustrations. Among the latter are some engravings from fine drawings
by Turner, one of which, a composition of Roman edifices, surpasses any
picture by Pannini. This work was brought out with great care, and imme-
diately obtained a high rank in the estimation of the public, which it is well
qualified to retain, as, for accuracy of delineation, and excellence of en-
graving, it does not yield to auy that sprung from that fruitful field. In
1825 he published, in folio, " A Picturesque Tour in the Island of Jamaica,
from drawings made in the years 1820 and 1821." In 1828, "Plans, Sec-
tions, and Elevations of the Abattoirs of Paris, with consideration for their
adoption in London," 4to. In 1835, " An Attempt to determine the exact
Character of Elizabethan Architecture," 8vo. In the year 1810 he was en-
gaged in furnishing drawings for a projected work on the Rhine, which it
was intended should have been a counterpart to his " Italy," hut which has
never been published, the drawings remaining in the hands of the engraver.
Gentleman's Mag.

THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.

The interest which this extensive undertaking has excited in this country
and on the continent, has rendered any information upon its present state
and condition, and upon the progress that is now being made towards its
completion, a matter of some value. A correspondent of the Times has fur-
nished the following details, by which it will be seeu that the undertaking is
proceeding in a satisfactory manner.

Without going into the general plan of the work, which is, perhaps, more
easily gathered from the descriptive plates, which are to be found in every
shop window, delineating the figure and outline as also the ground plan of
the building itself, it will be necessary only to call public attention to such
parts of the works as are actually finished, or which are in course of progres-
sion at the present moment. In the first place, looking at the river front,
the divisions of which it is composed (commencing from Westminster-bridge)
will be found in the following state : —

The North Return, or Serjeant-at-Arms' Residence, — The greater portion

of the parapet is completed and ready for the roof, which is now preparing,
and which will be of cast iron, covered with Westmoreland slates. The
present height from the ground level is about 70 feet.

The North Wing and Towers, or Speaker's House — which are intended to
be about 140 feet high, are proceeding rapidly, their present height being
about 66 feet above the ground level.

The North Curtain, or Libraries and Committee-rooms of the House of
Commons, are advanced to about the same height as the north return.

The centre portion, which will comprise the conference-hall, the public
waiting-hall, the upper waiting-hall, the staircase and various large com-
mittee rooms, is fast proceeding, its present level being about 66 feet above
the ground, but it will be eventually carried up considerably above the cur-
tain portions, thus forming beautiful and effective towers over the peers' and
commons' entrances to the terrace. The carving upon this part of the work
will be of the most elaborate character.

The South Curtain 01 Peers' Libraries and Committee Rooms, are at present
about the same height as the north return.

The South Wing and Towers, or Black Rod's and the Librarian's of the
House of Lords residences, stand about 63 feet above the ground level, aud
will be precisely the same as the north wing.

The South Return, or the Lord High Chamberlain's apartments, are also
about 63 feet above the ground level.

The exterior ornamental work and carving upon those parts of the build-
ing just described are perfectly astonishing, both from their extent, their
minuteness, and the enormous amount of human labour lavished upon them.
No description, however, will give more than a faiut idea of the exceeding
beauty and elaborateness of this part of the work.

Extending throughout the whole length of the river front or principal ele-
vation, may be observed a band over the principal floor windows, containing
a series in bold relief of the arms of the sovereigns of this country, com-
mencing with William the Conqueror and terminating with those of her
present Majesty. In the early arms, where there were no supporters (that
is to say, from William I to Richard II), figures in the appropriate costume
of the time have been introduced to fill up the spaces, and at the same time
to illustrate some principal event in each reign. On each side of the royal
arms are panels composed of sceptres and ribands, with mottoes aud foliage
peculiar to each house. Underneath the windows is a narrow band, with
inscriptions in the style of black letter, bearing each king's name, when he
began to reign and when he died, with its initials on each of the buttresses.

The principal cornice is enriched with figures of grotesque animals over
small shafts, and the intermediate spaces are filled in with patera composed
of heads, badges, and foliage, whilst over the whole of this there runs an
enriched parapet having niches containing angels holding shields, with ini-
tials, Ac. In the centre portion above the cornice, and over the two-pair
floor window, are badges of the orders of the Garter, Thistle, and St. Patrick,
surmounted with crow us ; the panels on each side of which are enriched with
the roses of York and Lancaster, with labels and mottoes.

On the Wing Towers. — On a level with the royal arms are panels with shields
and crowns, bearing the crosses of St. George, St. Patrick, and St. Andrew,
with the proper mottoes under each, and on either side of them are other
panels similar to those on each side of the royal arms. The arms of Queen
Victoria are on all the oriels with panels in side lights, composed of shields
with the royal initials entwined with the rose, thistle, and shamrock, sur-
mounted alternately with the crests of the three kingdoms. On the return
of the wing towers in the same level arc panels with the badges of the three
kingdoms, with angels bearing swords of state, &c, and the four patron
saints in four tiers of niches. Between these and in a band over the one-
pair floor windows are their arms arranged separately, with roses and crowns
in the intermediate spaces, and the different badges used by each separate
house from the Conqueror to the present time. On the return of the river
front, or principal elevation, we see on a level with the royal arms devices of
the different sovereigns from the time of the Heptarchy to the death of
Harold, both included, divided between the buttresses by four tiers of niches,
with statues of each king together with their queens ; underneath which, on
a level with the same, is a small band containing inscriptions of a similar
character to those on the river front, divided with shields and ribands, the
shield bearing a monogram of " Anglia," and surmounted with a crown.
The cornice is similar to that in the river front. In the parapets are niches
over the statues, containing lions, holding shields, bearing initials, &c.

It is necessary to be particular in describing the various ornaments intro-
duced on the external parts of the work already finished, not merely to show
the wonderful labour, talent, and richness lavished upon the outside of the
building — for, be it remembered, that these ornaments are neither of com-
position or of plaster, but hewn out of the solid stone — but also as an act
of justice to a very young but deserving artist (Mr. Thomas), from whose
design (subject to the approval of the architect) the whole of these wonder-
fully elaborate ornaments have been executed.

The general effect of this part of the work is exceedingly imposing, and in
point of beauty and minuteness, is equal to that of any other Gothic structure
in this or any other country. Amongst the other parts of this wonderful
building is the Victoria tower, which is now progressing rapidly, and which is
at present about 10ft. above the ground. Much expense has been incurred,
and great labour required to obtain a proper foundation for this portion of
the work, owing to the quicksands and land springs which were found under
it, but which have been entirely cleared out to a depth of 24 feet from the
surface, to a good gravel bottom, which being surrounded, with large elm

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

325

piles driven down into the clay, metallic concrete, 10 feet 7 inches thick,
was thrown in, and a good firm bottom obtained.

In addition and adjoining to this arc the Guard-rooms and Sub-hall under
the Royal gallery, which are about eight feet above the ground level.

The Sub-hall under the House of Peers is carried up nearly to the prin-
cipal floor level, as arc the central tower and adjoining buildings.

The Sub-hall under the House of Commons is about six feet above the
ground level, as are the Commons' residencies, comprising those for the
chief cleric of the House and the librarian.

The clock tower at the north-west angle of the building has the founda-
tion and groining to the vaults completed.

As regards the internal decoration of those parts already finished, it will be
remarked that the only parts completed are — the Public Hall, with its
chimney-piece, with bold jambs enriched with the several orders of knight-
hood, with their appropriate mottoes, foliage, &c, and having over the chim-
ney-piece niches containing the lion and the unicorn separately holding
sbielns. Over each entrance are the present Royal 'arms, the supporters
holding banners with their respective cognizances. The spandrils and en-
riched mouldings are filled in with national devices, mottoes, and foliage.

In the Central Lobby attached to the Public Hall over the side entrances,
are the Royal arms, with helmet and crest. On the sides of the doors are
badges of the three kingdoms in high relief, surmounted with crowns, whilst
underneath the windows are panels with sceptres, swords of state, and
ribands, forming a proper device, and filled in with the national foliage.
On the staircase, leading out of the Public Hall are windows with elaborate
tracery, with a border of quarter foils, filled in with patera;, continued down
with a series of shields.

These, it would appear, are the only parts which are finished in the in-
terior up to the present time, but still even in this short summary enough is
shown to display the magnificent style and character in which it is intended
to carry out the plan of the New Houses of Parliament.

In addition to those parts of the building which came under the observa-
tion of our correspondent, the most striking object was a pattern of the
ceiling, which it is proposed to place in the two halls, which Peers and Com-
mons are actually to occupy. These ceiliugs are to be of wood, and are to
be formed in 18 compartments, divided by spandrils springing from corbels ;
each of these compartments are about seven feet square, aud have upon their
face a plain, but exquisitely beautiful, raised pattern, traced from the design
of Mr. T. Dighton, the artist. It is understood, also, that these ceilings are
to be in colours, and when completed, we have no doubt, they will he magni-
ficent. Taken altogether, the works would appear to be proceeding satisfac-
torily. Our correspondent states that about 600 persons are employed
actively upon them ; aud it is hoped that the part intended for the House of
Lords will be ready for use in about a couple of years.

When finished, there can be no question that there will be nothing in
Europe superior to them, either as regards the taste and magnificence ex-
hibited in the design, the magnitude of the building itself, or the exquisite
workmanship apparent in every part of it.

RAILWAY CHRONICLE OF THE MONTH.

Greenwich Railway. — The half-yearly meeting of the Greenwich company
was held on Tuesday the 1st. The report showed a falling off in the traffic,
as compared with the corresponding period of 1842, of 119,000 passengers
and £2327. There was no dividend for the original shareholders, who
feeling that the course which had been pursued under their sanction, had
been wholly unsuccessful, carried the appointment of a committee of inquiry
to consider what means there were of arranging with the other companies as
to the toll to be paid over the Greenwich line, what alterations were neces-
sary in the fares, and to investigate into the whole management of the con-
cern ab initio. It is to be observed, that the existing board came in under
a committee of inquiry some years ago. On the 15th, the meeting was again
held by adjournment, when a report only as to the fares was given, recom-
mending reduced fares of 6d., fid., and id., return tickets of Is. and lOrf. for
the 1st and 2nd classes, and annual subscriptions of 12 guineas and 10 gui-
neas for the first and second classes. Another adjourned meeting was held
on the 24th, when it was resolved to accept the mileage principle, but with a
guarantee that it should not fall below a certain amount, £13,000 being the
amount contended for by the Greenwich.

Grand Junction Railway.— The meeting of the company was on the 3rd;
the chief features of interest are a decrease on the receipts of £22,542 lis. lie/.,
and in the expenditure of £13,653, on the corresponding half year of 1842.
Dividend at the rate of 10 per cent per annum. No allowance made this
half year for the depreciation fund.
The Manchester and Boltm Railway Company report that they bay* agreed

conjointly with the Lancaster Railway proprietors to supply locomotive
power to the Bolton and Preston Railway company. They have also com-
menced an improvement of the canal navigation, which will render it capable
of admitting vessels of 68 feet in length, 14 feet 2 inches in width, and
drawing 4 feet 6 inches water, boats hitherto being restricted to about 3 feet
draught of water. This is to improve the coal traffic. They state that the
colonnade, forming part of the connecting line with the Liverpool and Man-
chester and Manchester and Leeds at Manchester, is nearly completed, little
remaining to be done but to lay the rails. The dividend was 1/. 7s. 9d. per
share.

The North Union Ruihcay Company recommends a decrease of dividend,
and state the diminution of passenger receipts at £2000.

The Chester and Birkenhead Railway Company mention a decrease of 3970
passengers and 5521. and in the expenditure of £3240. The arrangements
for the tunnel from the Birkenhead station to Monk's Ferry are mentioned
as in progress. The dividenil was 7s. Zd. on the original shares of 50Z. A
resolution was carried in favour of low fares.

The York and North Midland Railway meeting was held on the 4th, and a
decrease was staled in the passenger receipts of £2200, an increase in goods
of £2682, and a reduction in the expenses of £1000. The dividend recom-
mended was 21. 10s. per share, taking a small sum from the reserved
fund. The Directors recommend the prosecution of a branch from York to
Scarborough to join the Whitby and Pickering Railway.

The Leeds and Selby Railway is leased to the York and North Midland.
The dividend declared was 21. 10s. per share.

The Brighton Railway meeting was held on the 8th. A new board having
been appointed, the report was principally directed to the arrangement of
the accounts, which were in a defective state. It stated that eight contracts
remained unsettled. A new wharf is mentioned as having been completed at
Shoreham, for the reception of steam vessels of the largest class, which
cross the channel from England to France ; and also for the loading and
unloading of trading vessels of greater burden, three of which can be ac-
commodated at one time. An opinion was expressed favourable to an amal-
gamation of the locomotive power with the South Eastern and Croydon
Companies. No dividend was declared, as the Directors had charged the
interest account up to the date of making up the books, which had not pre-
viously been done.

The North Midland Railway meeting was on the 9th. A diminution had
been effected in the working expenses of £11,530. A branch to Bradford was
recommended to be prosecuted, and resolutions in favour of an amalgamation
with the Midland Counties and Birmingham and Derby Companies. A di-
vidend was recommended of 11. 10s. per share.

We must observe that with nearly every Company a reduction or prospective
reduction of the rate of interest on loans was reported.

The Northern and Eastern Railway meeting was on the 10th. The report
states that Mr. Robert Stephenson has been engaged as engineer to the com-
pany ; that a contract had been made with Messrs. Grissell and Peto for the
entire construction of the Hertford and Ware branch, for £67,000, half to bo
taken in shares at par ; and that the opening was expected in October. The
Newport extension was to be begun on the removal of the crops. An exten-
sion to Cambridge was urged as necessary, and steps will be taken. The
dividend was 12s. Gd. per share. A proposal from the Eastern Counties
Railway Company tor an amalgamation, not being adequate, had not been
accepted.

Tli£ London and Birmingham Railway Company's meeting was on the 11 til
at Birmingham. It was stated that the decrease in the passenger receipts
had been £13,113, increase on goods £10,019, and reduction in charges o
£20,430. Dividend recommended at the rate of 10 per cent per annum. The
works of the Warwick and Leamington Railway arc stated to be let on satis-
factory conditions.

The Midland Counties Railway meeting was held on the 10th. The Direc-
tors report the continuance of a contest with the Birmingham and Derby
company about the traffic. The dividend recommended was 1/. 4s. per share.
A resolution was passed appointing a deputation to confer with the Midland
and Birmingham and Derby Railway Companies, as to the Chester amalga-
mation.

The Great North of England Railway meeting was held on the 8lh, There

326

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September,

was an increase of merchandise traffic of £754. The dividend recommended
was at the rate of 21 per cent per annum.

The Newcastle and Darlington Railway Company's meeting was held on the
4th. It stated that £135,000 had been expended, that the works were pro-
gressing, that the line would be opened on the 1st of July in next year, and
completed 20 per cent below the engineer's estimate. A negociation for the
purchase of the West Durham Railway was authorized.

The Sheffield and Rotheram Railway Company's meeting was held on the
12th. A falling off in the revenue of £900 was reported, and a saving of
£900, principally in coke, by working the locomotives in conjunction with
those of the North Midland Railway Company. Dividend recommended at
5 per cent per annum. Some altercation took place at the meeting as to the
Committee of the Company having forced the Company to take some car-
riage wheels, which were not wanted. The prospect of a junction with the
Sheffield and Manchester Company was stated not to be immediate.

The Bolton and Preston Railway Company's report was that they had opened
the line to the junction on the 22nd of June, and that the contractors' ac-
counts had been closed. The Directors recommend a double line of rails to
be laid throughout the line. They report that they had leased their locomo-
tive power of the Manchester and Bolton Railway Company, and Lancaster
Railway Company. A kind of competition was going on with the North
Union Railway Company.

The Great Western Railway Company's meeting was on the 17th at Bristol.
The dividend was a reduced one of 5 per cent per annum. The passenger
receipts had slightly diminished, and goods increased. The general expenses
had been diminished £5359. The buildings at the Bristol station, for the
merchandise department, and at Swinden for the engine department, were
represented as completed. The reconstruction of the permanent way I etween
London and Maidenhead is recommended, the timber being of too light a
scantling to be traversed by heavy engines at a high rate of speed. The
conclusion of the arrangements for the completion of the Cheltenham ami
Great Western Union line is reported. The arrangements for the joint
working of the Bristol and Glo'stei line are mentioned. The Oxford Railway
is reported to be laid out. a contract taken for its completion in eight
months; and it is to be laid with a double line of rails. A promise of co-
operation with the Devon and Cornwall Railway Company is given.

A company has been brought forward called the Eastern Union Railway
Company, for the purpose of extending the Eastern Counties by two short
blanches, one to Bury St. Edmunds, of 13 miles in length, and one to Har-
wich of 5J miles in length ; and also to embank about 2000 acres in the river
Stour. The main line is proposed to proceed from Colchester by way of
Maningtree, Holbrook, Ipswich, Needham Market, Starmarket, Cotton, Diss.
Eye, Scole, and Long Stratton to Norwich. The gradients arc represented
as favourable, maximum 1 in 132, earthwork very light, no lofty embank-
ments, deep cuttings, or extensive viaducts. Cost estimated at £16,000 per
mile.

The Devon and Cornwall Railway Company has received the promise of sup-
port from the Bristol and Exeter Railway Company, Bristol and Glo'ster
Railway Company, and Great Western Railway Company. A larj;e sum has
tbscribed in Cornwall, Lady Bassett having subscribed for £5000, and
given the land for two miles in length, Mr. Pendarves, M.P., having sub-
scribed for £5000, and Lord Wodehouse and others having taken shares for
their land.

It will be perceived that among other new lines in progress are those from
York to Scarborough, and from Newport to Cambridge, and a branch tu
Harrow gate.

The Biackwall Railway meeting was held on the 22nd. A deficiency in the
revenue account was reported, so as to make it inadequate to meet the ex-
penses ; the number of passengers had, however, nearly reached the former
number. A change was made in the Board— the chairman (Mr. Routh) and
half of the Board going out— the remaining five directors and live new mem-
bers constituting the new Board.

The South-Eastern Railway. — At a special meeting of the shareholders on
Friday, July 21, the Directors obtained power to raise loans for the following
works. For the extension of the line from C'orbett's Lane to the Brick-
layer's Arms, a distance of about two miles, and forming a station at the
latter place, £177,777 ; this sum docs not include the whole cost of the

branch : a portion of the expense is to be raised by the Croydou Railway.
For the formation of a branch railway to Maidstone, a distance of 10 miles,
£149,300, to be constructed under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson, and finished within 12 months after obtaining possession ot the land.
—For the formation'of a branch railway to Folkestone Harbour, and for the
purchase and formation of the harbour, £266,600; the sum of £18,000 is the
amount agreed to be paid for the purchase of the harbour: it comprises an
area of 10 or 12 acres. Mr. Cubitt, the engineer, stated that the largest
vessel that can now enter the harbour is 300 tons burthen, that is 250 re-
gister. The largest which it will be able to accommodate will be 300 tons,
and the number of small and large vessels about 80 to 100. A pier is to be
constructed 500 feet long, and which will be carried out 200 feet in 10 or 12
feet water.

The London and Croydon Railway.— At a special meeting of the shareholders
on 25th July, the Directors obtained power to raise £70,000 for the formation
of the branch from near New Cross to the Bricklayers' Arms, being for
£60,000, one third the proposed cost ; the other two thirds to be raised by
the South-Eastern ; and £10,000 for reconstructing a portion of the present
line to unite it with the proposed branch. It is expected the branch will be
finished by next spring.

Eastern Counties Railway.— The meeting of this company was held on the
24th. The report states that most of the contracts have been closed, and
that new contracts have been entered into to fill up with soil the Mount-
nessing and Shenfield timber viaducts, which it is expected will be effected in
six weeks. Orders have also been given to fill up the Lexdcn timber framing.
It is stated that this is not done from any apprehension as to the safety of
the viaducts, on the part of the Directors, hut on the part of the public.
Not the least settlement is, it is said, perceptible. The Directors express
their satisfaction with the progress of the traffic, and declared their inten-
tions of again prosecuting the application for the branch from Stratford to
the Thames. They also ask power to negotiate with other Companies for
the formation of extension lines. They express themselves favourable to
leasing the Northern and Eastern. A dividend was declared of 5s. on the
new shares and It. on the old shares.

Bristol and Exeter Railway. — This meeting was held on the 23rd. The re-
port states the probability of an earlier opening to Exeter than had been
before promised, so as to open the line throughout on the 1st of July, 1844,
viz., a year before the period anticipated. The dividend was II. 8s. per share.
With regard to the proposed Devon and Cornwall Railway, the plan of as-
sistance is stated. The Bristol and Exeter to contribute £200,000. of the
proposed capital, the Great Western £150,000, and the Bristol aud Gloucester
£50,000, the rest of the capital, £800,000, to be raised from the public. The
tunnel on the Bristol and Exeter is the chief work remaining uncompleted.
With regard to this some delay had taken place, from the failure of a con-
tractor; but additional shafts have been commenced, and everything done to
expedite the work. About one-third of the whole length is excavated, and
the work is proceeding at 22 different faces, and will be in a short time at 28
if required. The stations are to be let in a few days.

Birmingham and Gloster Railway. — The meeting of this Company was held
on the 25th. It intimated a slight increase in the receipts, and a diminution
in the expenditure to the extent of £2,363. The dividend declared was 12s.
per share. One chief feature in ihe proceedings was a long discussion as to
the disposition of the Great Western Railway to lease the line, and as to the
mode in which the negotiations had been and were to be conducted. Another
feature was the defeat of the Board in the election of Directors. The four
vacancies were filled up by the opposition, who carried the day with a large
majority, by means of the use of stamped proxies.

Bristol and Glo'ster Railway. — This meeting was held on the 24th. The
report states that the branch at Bristol to join the Great \\ astern has been
contracted for. It is 1,100 yards in length, and will be completed in four
months. It states too that no arrangement has been made with the Great
Western as to the working oi the line.

Birmingham aud Delhi/ Railway.— This meeting was held on the 25th. when

a dividend of 5s. per share was declared. As the question of amalgation

with the North Midland is to come before a special meeting, no feature of

interest transpired.

Union or Railway.— The Derhg Reporter states that " the committees ap-

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

327

pointed by the shareholders of (lie Midland Counties and North Midland
Railways have met and agreed upon the terms for amalgamating the thn e
lines, the North Nidland committee having had authority to negotiate (or
the Birmingham and Derby Railway. The terms, wc understand, are, that
the shares of the North Midland and Midland Counties' Companies are to

rank equal, but the 100;. shares of the Birmingham and Derby are to receive
27s. 6d. per annum less dividend— other shares in proportion. It now only
remains for the shareholders to assent, for which purpose special meetings
will be held as soon as (lie forms will admit."

TABULAR STATEMENT FOR THE HALF YEAR, DECEMBER 31, 1842, TO JUNE 30, 1843.

RAILWAYS.

....

RECEIPTS.

PAYMENTS.

Names.

Lgth
in

mis.

Total
Expendi-
ture.

No. of
Passgrs.

Passgrs.

Goods.

Total.

Loco-
motive
Power.

Car-
riages.

Main-
tenance
of way

and
Reprs.

Office
De-
part-
ment.

Taxes
and
Rates.

Total

Charges.

In-
terest.

Profit.

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

Greenwich ' . .

3}

1,030,108

705,204

21,343

26,587

3,500

3,490

1,044

1,551

3,304

13,957

11,550

1,080

Grand Junction -

88}

2,375,134

132,976

49,652

185,093

20,298

29,692

12,675

4,591

2,954

80,320

104,772

Manchester and Bolton

10

777,956

139,408

11,571

6,293

17,811

1,095

3,110

732

754

268

5,959

5,282

9,008

North Union

22

613,212

17,731

6,793

25,337

1,466

2,142

1,171

1,236

1,082

7,397

3,249

14,690

Ches(er and Birkenhead

14]

509,810

11,491

1,298

13,307

2,110

2,382

1,089

237

172

5,990

2,525

2,837

Leeds and Selby 3 . .

20

99,782

3,756

8,158

11,914

1,251

567

444

477

2,739

9,175

Brighton 4

56

2,792,193

65,487

9,002

74,490

9,168

18,150

4,980

3,417

3,003

49,827

43,974

North Midland

m

3,424,766

56,551

46,263

102,814

10,267

13,922

9,012

1,400

2,659

36,760

21,200

44,854

Northern and Eastern Counties s

32:1

887,055

31,853

3,693

35,547

6,702

6,945

2,033

895

20,324

5,695

10,875

London and Birmingham 6 . .

112 i

5,953,831

306,457

84,735

389,658

32,854

41,141

22,451

5,645

8,747

112,238

39,680

223,924

Midland Counties

57

1,725,693

40,421

21,064

62,324

10,780

9,498

7,105

3,3S3

1,378

32,144

12,813

17,367

Great North of England

74

1,230,604

64,177

19,754

13,225

32,979

2,830

3,497

3,700

1,844

1,181

12,355

14,202

7,000

Sheffield and Rotherham 7 . .

5*

185,234

7,040

953

8,116

2,107

486

371

420

3,384

1,199

3,578

Bolton and Preston

lih

373,925

3,846

1,468

5,315

2,000

1,170

185

92

3,447

1,867

Great Western e

118$

6,651,928

725,127

254,603

75,400

330,003

33,403

54,640

23,985

4,118

8,592

159,232

86,836

82,886

Liverpool and Manchester . .

51

1,578,601

225,728

60,752

48,217

108,960

10,182

27,698

4,440

2,193

3,608

48,121

3,777

57,062

Blackwall

3}

1,289,080

17,351

927

18,505

600

1,498

15,385

5,553

Eastern Counties

50$

2,718,620

999,683

43,182

4,551

3,741

2,552

1,284

1,520

20,355

2,116

20,710

Birmingham and Glo'ster

55

1,470,730

35,514

7,104

42,618

7,968

6,956

6,444

1,290

382

26,045

13,633

4,266

York and North Midland . .

27

673,056

165,627

26,369

13,388

45,163

5,846

5,145

1,177

462

974

13,604

3,958

27,600

1 Greenwich Railway received for foot passengers £497, and toll, £4,746. 2 Grand Junction paid Liverpool and Manchester Railway

£8,016, and for rent £2,093. 3 Leeds and Selby locomotive power is included in York and North Midland. ■> Brighton paid Croydon

and Greenwich Railway for toll £11,109. = Northern and Eastern paid Eastern Counties Railway for toll £3,749. It should be observed

that the office expenccs cannot be separated. 6 London and Birmingham paid Aylesbury Railway for rent £1,250. In addition to the

total ouday there is the sum of £13,966 carried (o the depreciation fund. 7 Locomotive power not kept distinct. 8 Great Western

paid Bristol and Exeter and Cheltenham Railway for Rent £34,484. In addition to (he outlay £5,000 is carried (o the depreciation fund.

MISCELLANEA,

The Prince of Wales. — This new iron steamer, built hy Messrs. Miller,
Ravenhill and Co., and fitted with a pair of beam engines of 130 h.p. also
by them, taken out of one of the old Margate steamers, and with new tu-
bular boilers, is the fastest boat on the river Thames. Her symmetry calls
for the admiration of all who see her, and she has made the passage from
Blackwall to Margate in the astonishingly short space of 3 hours 56 minutes,
true railway speed. We must not abstain from mentioning the beautiful
manner in which the saloon has been decorated, and which we understand
was executed by Mr. Bielefeld, with the assistance of Mr. Steedman, who
painted the beautiful views adorning the sides. The accident which lately
happened to the vessel was caused by one of the middle side beams of the
engine breaking, and before the engine could be stopped, they made six or
seven strokes, which caused part of the machinery to punch a hole through
the bottom about 6 or 7 inches diameter, through which the water rushed and
tilled the engine room to the depth of 2 feet ; but in consequence of the
vessel being built with water tight bulk" heads not a drop of water entered
either cabin : this incident proves how desirable, nay, absolutely necessary it
is that all passenger steamers should be thus built, the engine room being
the compartment perhaps most liable to casualties. The vessel was imme-
diately taken into dock and examined, the aperture quickly repaired, and
when she left the dock she was reported to be as sound as when first built.
Her engines also when repaired were in equal condition, and the vessel is
now running again with as great success as before the casualty occurred.

The Cartoons.— The Exhibition will he closed on Saturday the 2nd inst.
The premium of 300'. awarded to Mr. Armitage for his Cartoon, representing
" Caesar's Invasion of Britain," was withheld in consequence of the drawing
having been executed in Paris ; and, agreeably to the conditions originally
laid down by the Commissioners, Mr. Armitage was required to execute
another drawing, the subject "An Ancient Briton defending his wounded Son
from the attack of a Roman Soldier." This he has done to the entire satis-
faction of the Commissioners, who have now paid him the premium.

Russian Steamers. — Messrs. Rennie have just completed an order for
the Russian Government consisting of an Iron Sailing Vessel, and an Iron
Steamer, with a pair of 50-horse direct-action engines ; the latter is a splendid
specimen of workmanship, and no doubt will be equally as effective on trial
as their appearance leads us to expect ; both the engines and the iron steamer
will be sent out in pieces in the iron sailing vessel, and put together in
Russia. The steamer is intended for one of the inland lakes.

Trafalgar Square— The brouze ornaments of the Corinthian capital of
the Nelson Monument are now being fixed. The stone- work of the enclo-
sure and the terraces are finished, and the two basins are in a forward state;
they are to be supplied with water from a well, to be sunk down to the chalk
at the back of the National Gallery, and H huh is to be forced up by engine
power to the cisterns on the top of the Nationar Gallery, and thence by
pipes to the fountains. The water will also be made available for other
purposes, such as supplying the Gallery and Barracks, and also for watering
the roads ; (here is some talk of suppling the public offices of W hitehal with
water from the same source, which will cause a great saving to the public, as
these offices are all supplied by the water companies.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[September

The Atmospheric Railway.— We perceive by the Irish papers, that a
preliminary experiment of the principle upon which the atmospheric rail-
way is to act was made on Saturday, 19th Aug., and it is reported to have
answered in every respect the expectations of the patentees, Messrs. Clegg
and Samuda, as well as of all those concerned in the introduction of this
most important national project into Ireland. The experiment was one
made solely for the satisfaciion of the engineers, the works being as yet in a
very crude and imperfect state, and owing to the long continuance of dry
weather there being scarcely as much water in the reservoir as would charge
the boilers. At five o'clock the scientific gentlemen interested arrived, and
the steam was soon afier laid on, when the leviathan air pump commenced
its labours — the mercury in the barometer soon displayed with what suc-
cess. In sixty strokes an altitude of twenty inches was obtained, and
shortly afterwards it reached twenty -two inches. This was the realiza-
tion of the most sanguine expectations, and left no room for doubt as to
the completeness and power of the machinery and its capability of pro-
ducing sufficient vacuum. Thus far having progressed — the next course
pursued was to introduce the piston into tlie tube at the equilibrium valve
near Glasthule bridge ; but while this was being done the key of the fly-
wheel slipped, and a delay of nearly an hour elapsed before it was adjusted.
It has been stated before that the experiment was but preliminary, and to
this may he ascribed this trifling incident for accident it cannot be called.
The fly-wheel movement being rectified, the engine was set going once more,
but not on its condensation jrinciple, for there was no cold water to con-
dense. It was at high pressure and half power ; the height of mercury in
the gauge varied from 11 to 14 inches. The signal was given, and the piston
carriage, with two passenger carriages, one second and one third class, at-
tached, moved along per se amid the joyous shouts of those assembled. In
four minutes they accomplished the distance, one and a quarter miles, retarded
considerably at starting by the breaks on the wheels to keep the motive
power under proper control, as also at the terminus, not to let the train over-
shoot the line of rails. A few data of the line of railway and the machinery
may not be uninteresting. When finished there will be in length 9,200 feet
of open or valve pipe. The close pipe forming the connexion with the air pipe
is upwards of 400 yards. The engine is 100 horse power— to be worked on ; he ex-
pansive condensation principle. The air pump is double stroke, its diameter
f -7 inches; the diameter of the tube or open pipe 15 inches. The Station at
Dalkey is 76 feet higher than that at Kingstown. The elevation varies — 1 in
.■57 being the greatest, I in 210 being the least, and the main ascent being 1
in 115. It is computed that the train will descend from Dalkey by its own
gravity, at the rate of from 30 to 35 miles an hour. The sharpest curve is
only 547 feet radius.

The Cathedral of Ci.ast.ow. — Amongst other reli, s which have been
turned out of the cathedral in the general clearing up, there is ore for which
we hope a place may yet be found within the pile where it has stood, we
have no doubt for much more than 1000 years. This is a large block of
blue marble, 101 feet long by 5 feet broad, and 0 inches thick, which at pre-
sent lies in the churchyard. It was found in the chancel of the Old Barony
Church, near the tomb of St. Mungo, and from its appearance altogether
there is every probability that it has been used either as the top or the base
of the high altar of the old church, The marble appears to he of the same
kind as that of which the ancient tombs at lona are formed, and probably
enough came from the same quarry. There is nothing similar to it at any
rate in this quarter, and the material is more durable that granite. The
stone is cut as if a plate or some kind of metal or other had been sunk into
it. There is another octagon altar-piece of the same material also lying
outside, and in danger til being destroyed. At the period that this alt ir
piece was discovered, namely, in 1800, there was a skeleton found in the
choir, having 3<i inches of a massive gold chain round the thigh bone. We
trust that these relics will be preserved inviolate; indeed, we have no fear
about the matter, when their supposed antiquity is known; but we have
thought it our duty to direct attention to the subject, lest they should he
broken up^ or sold, as it is said was intended. After the recent removal of
the Bishop's Palace, a picturesque and most interesting ruin which slood on
the hanks of the hclvin, to build a dyke for a kail-yard, we have hut very
little trust in some people's veneration lor the antique.— Glasgow Constitu-
tional.

A Monsti r Bi;m„— On Monday, Aug. 7, an immense bell, the largest ever
cast in Knghmd, weighing no less than 7 tons, 11 cwt. 2 qrs. and 121b., was
shipped on board the Lady Seaton, bound for Montreal, and lying on the
Brandy-quay, London Dock. This splendid bell, which is intended for the
new Catholic cathedral at Montreal, was cast at the foundry ol Messrs,
Mears and Sons, Whitechapel, and has attracted, since it has been finished,
the attention of a vast number of persons. Some idea may be formed of the
immense size of this hell, from the fact that it required 10 tons of fused metal
to form the cast, and the casting itself weighs upwards of seven tons and a
half, that its diameter at the edge is seven leet three inches, that its clapper
weighs upwards of 3 cwt.; the wood work, which is composed of old Knglish
oak, one ton ; the iron work more than half a ton, and that the bell itself is
heavier than the Great Tom of Lincoln by 32 cwt. The bell, as has been
before stated, has been paid for from a fund subscribed by the merchants,
artificers, agriculturists, and inhabitants of Montreal, and has cost, with its
woodwork, &c, upwards of 1,200/. The bell was removed on a truck drawn
by eight horses, from the foundry to the London Docks, preparatory to
being shipped on board the Lady Seaton, but the dock officers refused to
allow it to pass over the bridge leading from the West to the Brandy-quav,
as they were apprehensive the structure was not sufficiently strong to support
so enormuus a weight without being strongly propped, ana it was obliged to
remain on the West-quay, until the bridge was propped up as required, and
the great be 11 was taken safely over, and afterwards shipped on board, a part
ot the deck being obliged to be cut away to admit it luto the hold.

f„jr!'^Pm:w:E'\p-15,K,LivERrooi..-The prizes offered for the best designs
tor terraces in the Prince's Park have been awarded as follows :-For tcr-

races A and B. to Mr. Henry Currey, of London ; for terrace D, to Mr. W.
Papworlh. of London. The elevations for terraces A and B are very beauti-
ful. Mr. Currey was a pupil ot Mr. Decimus Burton. We understand that
two of the designs for terrace D were considered of equal merit ; on this
being declared, Air. Homblower, of Liverpool, who had sent in one of those
designs, handsomely withdrew from the competition, he being in the office of
one of the judges.

LIST OF HEW PATENTS,

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.)

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM JULY 31 TO AUGUST 25, 1843.

Six Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

William Davey, of Bath, slate merchant, for " improvements in covering
the ridf/es and hips of roofs of buildings with slate and other materials."—
Sealed July 31.

Charlton James Wollaston, of Welling, in the county of Kent, gentleman,
for *' improvements in machinery for cutting marble and stone." — August 1.

Peter Borrie, of Prince's-square, St. George's in the East, engineer, and
Mayer Henry, of Crutched Friars, merchant, for " improvements in steam-
engine boilers and propelling machinery." — August 3.

Frederic Stainer, of Hyndburn Cottage, Lancaster, Turkey red dyer, for
" a new manufacture of a certain colouring matter, commonly called garan-
cine." (A communication.) — August 8.

James Home, of Regent's Fark, esquire, for " improvements in the maim-
facture of horse-shoes." — August 8.

Charles Bourjot, of Coleman-strcet, London, merchant, for " improvements
in apparatus for obtaining the profile of various forms or figures." (A com-
munication.)— August 8.

Richard Archibald Brooman, of 1G6, Fleet-street, London, gentleman, for
" the manufacture of /taper, cordage, matting, and other textile fabrics, .from
certain cef/cfablc matters not heretofore Made use of for that purpose, as also
for the application of the said materials to the stuffing of cushions and mat-
tresses."— August 10.

John Wood, of ParklielJ, Chester, merchant, for " improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus for affording additional or artificial buoyancy to sea-
going and other vessels, or for lessening their draught of water, and which)
said improvements arc also applicable to raising vessels or other heavy bodies,
and for securing or snj'porting the same." — August 11.

Archibald Horn, of Aldersgatc-strect, zinc worker, for " improvements in
the construction of shutters for windows, and other purposes." — August 15.

George Bennetts, of Giuinis Lake, Cornwall, civil engineer, "for improve-
ments in steam-engines -ami boilers, and in generating steam."— August 15.

Thomas Young, of Queen-street, mcrchaut, for " improvements in obtain-
ing potter." — August 15.

James Brown, of High-street-place, Stepney, engineer, for " improvements
in tackle and apparatus for working and using chain cables in ships and
otherwise, and Md improvements in the tillers of rudders of ships and other
vessels."— August 16.

Frederick Lipscombe, of University-street, gentleman, for " an hydro-
static engine, parts whereof are applicable as improvements to other engines
and other purposes, and also improvements in railway carriages." — August
17.

John Collard Drake, of Elm-trce-road, Saint John's-wood, land surveyor,
for " improvements in lining walls of /muses." — August 22.

-Mark Freeman, of Sutton, gentleman, for " improvements in card cases."—
August 22.

Gaspare Conti, of Sherard-street, Golden-square, gentleman, for "im-
provements in hydraulic machinery, to be applied as a motive power."—
August 22.

William Fletcher, of Morcton House, Buckingham, clerk, for "improve-
ments for the purpose of securing corks, or substitutes for coris, in the
months of bottles, or vessels of the nature of bottles, whether mailc of pot-
tery, or of pottery of tlie kind called stone ware, or of glass." — August 24.

Alexander Connisou, of Everitt-street, Brunswick-square, engineer, for
" improvements in steam-engines. — August 24. — Dated March 3.

N.B. — This patent being opposed by caveat, lodged at the great seal office,
was not sealed till the 24th of August, but bears date the 3d March last, the
day the patent would have been sealed if the same bad not been opposed, by
order of the Lord Chancellor.

William Wilson, John Hudholme Brownrigg, John Cockerell, and Sir
George Gerard de Hochepied Larpent, Bart., all of Belmont, in the Wands-
worth-road, patent cocoa-nut candle and oil manufacturers, assignees of a
patent granted by his late Majesty King George the Fourth, unto James
Soames, jun., of Wheeler-street, Spitalfields, for " a new preparation or
manufacture of a certain material produced from a vegetable substance, and
the application thereof to the purposes of affording light, and other *«e*."—
For the term of three years from tlie 9th day of September next, the expira-
tion of the original grant. — Aug. 24.

Bryan Corcoran, of Mark-lane, in the city of London, merchant, for " im-
provements in the grinding of wheat and other substances. — (A comoiuaic*.
tion.)— Aug, 25.

329

1843 J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

329

ST. GEORGE'S HALL AND THE ASSIZE COURTS, LIVERPOOL

H. Lonsdale Er.MES, Architect.

( Willi an Engraving, see Plate XII.)

I'erspecliveView,

Block Plan of Situation.

No. 73, Vot. VI.— October, 1843.

330

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

It affords us much pleasure to be able to furnish our readers, through
the kindness of the talented architect Mr. H. Lonsdale Elmes, wilh a
copper-plate engraving of the principal facade of St. George's Hall,
Liverpool, now in course of erection, and which, when finished, will
justly be the pride of Liverpool; and from what we have seen of the
designs of the interior, we can safely say that it will stand pre-emi-
nently as one of the most noble buildings of this country. It is a
pleasure to find, which we desire to see more general, that the Com-
mittee very ably support Mr. Elmes in his designs, and do not attempt
to mar the general effect on the score of penury or false economy.

The judicious appropriation of the spaces with the recesses be-
tween the pilasters, for figures and bas-relievo is excellent ; it will
afford the Liverpool people an opportunity to display their patriotism
by erecting statues with appropriate tablets below, in commemo-
ration of men who have devoted their talents to the extension of the
arts and sciences, to commerce and manufactures, such as Watt, Davy,
Dalton, Brindley, Woolfe, Arkwright, Stephenson, See.

The general dimensions of the building, with some very appropriate
remarks, have already appeared in the "Companion to the Almanac "
for 1842, of these, and the wood engravings, we shall avail ourselves,
with some addition and correction; the wood engraving*, although not
strictly correct in all their details, are sufficiently so to show the
general character of the building and its situation.

It was originally intended that the "Hall" and the "Courts"
should form two separate structures; and ground for the purpose
having been given by the corporation in the spring of 183'.', pre-
miums were offered for designs for the first-mentioned and shortly
afterwards for the oilier building; and in both competitions (the first
of 75, the second of 8li candidates) the first premium (2.'>u ami 3no
guineas respectively) was awarded to Mr. H. Lonsdale Elmes, whose
design for the " Hall " presented a Grecian Ionic colonnade, while
that for the Assize Courts showed a Grecian Doric facade, consisting
of a central portico and lateral colonnades immediately connected
with it. According to the instructions first given, St. George's Hall
was to have been on the site near T in the aunexed block plan of
the situation, while the courts would have been as at present, so that
the two buildings would have stood at right angles to each other, the
"Hall" with its principal front facing [the south, the facade of the
courts being to the cast, and opposite that of the railway terminus,
which is also shown in the plan. This arrangement was, however,
subsequently abandoned, as St. George's Hall must have been over-
lapped by the other at its western extremity, it being impossible to set
back the latter so as to clear the facade of the hall, and allow the
whole of it to be seen in a front direction. As the successful compe-
titor for both buildings, Mr. Elmes was accordingly instructed to re-
model his plans, when it was finally determined to unite the two into
a single pile, and, so altered, his design was finally approved by the
Town Council (May, 1841), and the foundations shortly after com-
menced. The following perspective sketch will serve to show the
general style and composition of the design. The order now adopted
is Corinthian, continued throughout, and arranged so as to produce a
very rich poly style composition, possessing more than an ordinary de-
gree of variety and contrast. In order to make up for the unfavour-
able impression attending the minuteness of the scale of the drawing,
it must be borne in mind that the eastern facade, or the longer side of
the building, is 420 feet, or only 38 less than that of the National
Gallery, and much loftier, the columns being 45 feet high and 4 feet
7 inches in diameter. The south front, which owing to the great fall
of the ground at the end of the site (about 10 feet), has the appear-
ance of being raised upon a terrace, and thereby acquires both addi-
tional dignity and picturesque effect, consists chiefly of an octastyle
diprostyle portico, recessed within so as to make its entire depth
28 feet. The columns are raised upon a stylobate 10 feet high, and
continued along the ether fronts, and the height from the ground-line
to the apex of the pediment is 9a feet, which is only 6 or 7 less than
that of the dome of the National Gallery. This front alone would
constitute an imposing piece of architecture — and is upon a scale
greatly surpassing anything of the kind yet erected in the metropolis

— yet it appears little more than a subordinate portion of the whole
when compared with the eastern facade. Independently of its beau-
ties of design, this latter has the merit of clearly expressing the
general internal arrangement of the plan : the advanced or mono-
prostyle colonnade in the centre is 200 feet in length, and, being re-
cessed, forms within an ample sheltered ambulatory 2(i feet in depth;
this corresponds with St. George's Hall, which comes in between the
two Assize Courts, and defines itself externally in the composition,
by being carried up higher than the rest. This division of the front
consists of 1") intercolumns, and the one on either side of it of 5
more. The architect has placed here square pillars, between which
an ornamental screen is carried up below, while the upper part of
their shafts are insulated ; thus a double contrast is produced, first
between the columns and the square pillars, next in respect to the
closed and open spaces between the latter. The north front presents
a projecting hemicycle in which the order is continued in attached
columns ; thus, while that part is so far in keeping with the rest, a
very agreeable variety is produced, and the view of the building from
the north-east differs considerably from that from the south-east, given
in our cut. Whether contemplated or not, one advantage resulting
from the north end of the building being brought out semicircularly
is, that that projecting part will catch the sun much earlier than it
would else strike upon a front so unfavourably placed as to aspect.
This portion of the plan will form a concert-room to which there will
be a separate entrance, and it makes the entire extent from north to
south, including the steps leading up to the south portico, 500 feet.
Taking into account its unusual altitude, this structure will in point of
magnitude alone have very few rivals in the kingdom ; and how far it
will have any for beauty and magnificence as an example of modern
Grecian architecture, we will leave our readers to judge.

As regards the interior, we shall at present content ourselves with
merely pointing out its principal divisions and their intended pur-
poses. St. George's Hall (indicated in the plan by the letter G),
measuring 169 by 75 feet, and So high, will be further extended along
the upper part of its sides by a series of recesses 13 feet deep, ap-
parently obtained out of the thickness of the walls, but in reality
coining over the corridors which surround this part of the interior,
and both separate it from, and connect it with, the two Law Courts
AA. On the west side of the hall the light will be admitted laterally
through windows within those recesses, and on the opposite one
through small domes, one in each recess. Duiing the assizes this
spacious hall will be opened to the public as the approach to both the
courts. At other times it will be appropriated, at the discretion of
the council, to public or private meetings. The two courts, which
are lighted from above, arc similar in size, viz., GO by 50 feet, and 45
high; and the concert-room at the north end of the building is 75 feet
from east to west, and of the same extent in the other direction,
measured through the spacious hemicycle on its north side. The
other principal apartments and their dimensions are as follows: —

Vice-Chancellor's Court
Sheriffs' Jury Court
Grand-Jury Room
North Entrance Hall
South ditto
Barristers' Library

ft. ft. ft.

25 by 29 18 high

29 „' 25 18 „

41 „ 25 22 „
74 „ 52 30 „
40 „ 25 19 „

42 „ 25 IS „

The whole of the building will be thoroughly ventilated under the
joint direction of Dr. Reid and the architect, and in such manner that
the whole power of the apparatus may be directed to any one or more
of the apartments according as circumstances may require.

The building will be entirely faced with stone from Stanc'.ilVe
Quarry, Darley Dale, near Matlock, Derbyshire, one of the specimens
recommended by the Parliamentary Commission for the new Houses
of Parliament, it can be obtained in very large blocks, which is an
advantage for this style of architecture. Although the columns are
13 ft. from centre to centre, the architraves will be in one length.
The great hall is to be vaulted with a semicylindrical vault of solid

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

331

brickwork, over a spun of 7a feet, ami springing at a height from the
foundations of 73 feet, the crown of the arch being 110 ft. from the
same. It is proposed to extend this permanent mode of construction

to the two courts adjoining, which, if executed, will present a grand
vista of vaulted ceilings upwards of 30U feet in length. From this
we may hope that the architectural character of the exterior will be
fully maintained in the interior.

The building is now rapidly advancing, and is carried up as high as
the bases of the columns, and the contractor has undertaken to com-
plete the exterior in 1S45. The estimated expense, exclusive of
ornamental fittings and finishings, is .£125,000, of which sum the
foundations and basement story have cost nearly £ 12,000.

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS LIU.

" I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the winds,
To blow un whom 1 please."

I. The group of three houses or mansions which are now erecting
in Grosvenor Place, on the site of what was the Lock Hospital, al-
though intended to be a superior specimen of the Italian palazzo style,
a la Barry, with mierostylar Ionic windows to the principal floor, as
in the Reform Club-house, is very unsatisfactory, owing to the nar-
rowness of the piers between the windows, which certainly do not
allow space sufficient for such extended dressings to the windows as
are here applied. The consequence is, the fronts look too much
overdone in that respect, the parts being so much crowded together,
as to lose their value; and the effect cannot, perhaps, be better
described than that of a tasteful style treated without taste — which,
odd as it may seem to a great many, is by no means an uncommon
thing.

Apropos of architectural taste, it seems to be migrating eastward
and cityward. There is a new stone-fronted building — as yet unap-
propriated— just by the church in Lothbury, and facing the Bank,
which, though but of moderate size, being only four windows in
breadth, is not a little remarkable for general elegance of character,
and for careful finish of detail. This charming Utile specimen of the
Italian palazzo style, would be an ornament even to Pall-Mall, for
except, perhaps, just there, it has not a rival at that end of the town
for refined simplicity and gracefulness. It deserves to be noted, also,
that though the return on the west side faces a mere alley, the archi-
tecture is carried on there consistently with the front.

The new Brighton terminus, with its campanile, near London
Bridge, will also, in point of design, be a more than ordinarily taste-
ful specimen of Italian. The bold rustication of the quoins contribute
in no small degree to the expression and finish of the principal build-
ing, more especially as it is not confined to the external angles of the
facade, but is repeated at those of the slightly projecting breaks, at
the ends, in each of which is a door below and a window above ; and
in the intermediate part there are three windows on a floor.

II. There is, just now, an excessive deal of cant afloat about the
moral influence of the tine arts, just as if the line arts were not worth
cultivating for their own sake, without any hypocritical pretence.
Fudge ! Talk of the moral influence of waltzing, or of the ballet as
viewed from the pit at the Opera! I should like to know, if any one
could explain it, what has been the amount of moral influence for good
of all the fine arts, drama and literature included, in the civilized
stages of society. Was the court of Leo. X remarkable for its correct
morality? Was the "divine" Raphael himself a bright exemplar of
moral purity ? Only consider how many Madonnas have beeu painted
from ladies who had qualified themselves for turning Magdalens. If,
on the one hand, art has mainly served to perpetuate the puerilities
of pagan mythology, so, on the other, it has kept alive the puerilities
of papistical superstition, To us, therefore, who can sympathise

neither with the one nor the other, it can have little, value than what
it derives from its mere aesthetic influence. All the rest is but mock-
ery and delusion, carried on by gullibility on the one side, and hum-
bug on the other. If art has no intrinsic worth in itself, and deserves
to be encouraged chiefly as a means, not as an end, let us be honestly
told so ; and let us have done with cant and make-believe, and with
all that frothy flummery with which penny-a-liners descant on art for
the nonce in newspapers.

III. To what purpose do we take such pains to collect architectural
and similar specimens of ancient art; or why should there be such
a prodigious cackling on any thing of the kind, no matter how worth-
less it may be in itself, being brought to light, when some of the finest
studies of the kind are neglected as soon as they come into our pos-
session, without being turned to account in any way whatever? The ex-
amples, of ancient or antique columns and other architectural ornaments,
to be met with either in museums or inserted in Italian buildings of
later date, are almost infinite, both as to nu mber and variety, yet who ever
condescends to derive a hint from them ? There are some fine things
of the kind in the British Museum; — which of our architects has taken
a lesson from them for any thing he has himself done ? Of nearly all
our modern buildings in the Grecian and Roman style, the detail looks
as if it had been supplied from some " furnishing warehouse " for the
purpose, where it is kept ready made. It is just the same with co-
lumns and entablatures, and it frequently looks as if they had been
bought at different shops, or were very ill-matched. Hence it is little
to be wondered at if, so mechanically treated and with such weari-
some sameness, those styles have greatly fallen in public esteem
within the last few years. Notwithstanding that we know that even
the best preserved examples of Grecian architecture are reduced to
lit tie more than the skeletons of what they originally were, quite dis-
mantled and shorn of their splendour, and seen, some of them, in all
but total eclipse, we content ourselves with copying their remains,
without attempting to supply those beauties which are no longer to
be traced in the faded originals. Perhaps were we to set about
making trial of it, we should find that a very great deal might be
done with painted glass, even in the Grecian or Roman style. It is
not to be supposed that any Pecksniff could discover how it ought to
be done ; neither could it be done by adopting Gothic patterns and
Gothic character; yet it might be made to have a sulliciently ex-
pressive character of its own, by being introduced as a species of
transparent mosaic. In such case the apertures ought, perhaps, to be
double glazed, so that the painted window would show itself only as
a mere panel or compartment on the. face of the wall, decorated after
such fashion — which would, to a certain degree, be a substitute for
other polychromy, or else a suitable accompaniment to it. — But it
would be a most scandalous innovation.

IV. Much of our modern Anglo-Grecian architecture is chiefly re-
markable for extreme sulkiness of look ; this, however, may be a merit,
for it may be strongly characteristic of our unfortunate climate- And
though the sun does really shine now and then in this country, per-
haps about half-a dozen days iu the course of the year, its brightest
beams cannot dispel the gloom and sulkiness of some of our ultra-
classical buildings. We have among us, more especially,

" Him, the great master of the sulky style,"

whose buildings have one and all a strange Mawworm physiognomy,
no matter whether it be intended for Grecian or for Gothic.

V. At present, the new Conservative Club-house in St. James' Street
does, not promise to be very much better than the one in Pall Mall,
either as to composition or style; or to be treated with particular
gusto. It might have been thought that, coming after such an example
as the Reform Club House, a certain spirit of rivalry would have sti-
mulated the members of the Conservative to take care this second
time that their building should, if possible, take precedence of the Re-
form in public opinion, as a finished work of architecture; yet the new
Conservative certainly does not challenge comparison with the other,
fur the architect seems to hive nmst carefully avoided wli itcver might
look like borrowing an idea from Mr, Barry; though he might, allowably

•10*

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[October,

enough, have taken a lesson from him in regard to general refinement
of taste. As yet the building is not carried up higher than the top of
the ground floor: neither is that portion finished, still enough may be
made out to convince us that whatever may be the care with the upper
part of the facade, there will be very little beauty below. In fact, the
ground floor is not only plain, but rather bald in style, consequently, if
much richness be affected elsewhere, there can be but very little gene-
ral harmony of character. Although the principal floor of a building
requires a higher degree of decoration than the one below it, it does
not follow that the last is to have scarcely any, or that what there is
may be treated as of no importance ; on the contrary, well studied and
careful detail are there more especially called for, as being in such
situation so much more distinctly seen — in fact the only parts that are
seen by those passing along on the same side of the way, lor in order
to have a proper view of the whole of a front and its upper part, it is
necessary to look at it from the opposite side of the street. Another
reason for paying particular attention to finish in those parts of a
building which are nearest to the eye, is that it will be taken for
granted that equal care of execution has been bestowed throughout,
though the ornaments and details at a distance from the eye may be
less highly wrought up — however richer and more ornamental they
may be in point of design. All this is, of course, to be taken grc.no
salis, because circumstances must decide when and to what extent it
is desirable to treat the ground-floor or lower portion of a building as
air important part of a composition.

In the case of the new "Conservative," such mode might very well
have been adopted, for irow, the lower part of the front will be at
least very tame, if not decidedly poor, in character, yet at the same
time the reverse of sober as to design, for at each end of fronl is i
sort of loggia or recess between two Italian Doric columns, placed
excessively wide apart; and one of these recesses, viz., that at the
north end, has a second smaller recess within it, also between two
columns, and containing the entrance door ; while the south one en-
closes a bay-window, which is segmental on its plan. Owing fo the
prodigious interval between the columns, these loggia*, or whatever
else they may be called, have the appearance of being squai
and that, too, precisely when there ought to have been a decided ex-
pression of strength and solidity. In one respect, the building mani-
fests neither originality nor improvement, having mean horizontal stripes
after the ordinary fashion of those on the parlour floor fronts of
suburban " speculation " houses, without even mouldings of any kiad
being substituted for rustication. To be sure, this is only matter of
taste, but it would be well were such taste wholly exploded, or at any
rate abandoned to speculation builders. One vast comfort is, that the
facade of the British Museum will make ample amends for all other
mishaps — for all our blunderings and all our failures — our National
Galleries, Buckingham Palaces, Nelsonian Monuments, and all the
rest of the tribe.

THE EPISCOPAL CEMETERY CHAFEL, WISBEACH.

O.N'E prevalent foible of the age is Fussiness, a sort of bustling,
fidgetty, over-acted parade, mixed up with a good deal of maudlin
cajolery, manifested ridiculously, and sometimes still more offensively,
so that what ought to be works of charity and sober-minded piety,
frequently appear, in the eyes of the sober-minded, to be acts of
simpering self-laudation, ostentatious display, and almost of self
worship. Charily, now-a-days — at least fashionable charity, cannot
put its hands into its pocket, without a flourish of trumpets announc-
ing to all the world its own prodigious goodness. A very remarkable
instance of the kind occurred at Wisbeach, in August hist, when thai
place presented the spectacle of a general carnival, for about a week,
anil kept up will, great gaiety and carousing, there being a fancy
bazaar, ball, concert, picture-exhibition, and, most strange to say, a
"grand display" of tire-work-, also, on the occasion of laying the first

stone of a small cemetery chapel! We had hoped that "fancy
bazaars" and all such equivocal — or, we might say, farcical— doings
in the aid of charitable or religious purposes, had gone out of fashion,
at least were greatly on the decline: for we cannot help looking with
great suspicion on the charity which requires to have the bait of
amusement and excitement thrown out to it. To make a trading
speculation of what professes to be a work either of benevolence or
public spirit, to resort to such a mode of raising funds as was adopted
at Wisbeach, is, to say the least of it, in particularly bad taste, a suc-
cession of festivities and holiday rejoicings being altogether out of
character with the actual occasion, which would have been more ap-
propriately celebrated by a masque of the "Dance of Death," than by
feasting and fireworks. Besides being altogether unsuitable in them-
selves, the " performances" got up for the occasion were upon a scale
so wholly out of proportion to it, that it was an affair of a mountain
bringing forth a mouse. Were the edifice that has been commenced
at Wisbeach intended to be such a pile of Golhic architecture as
Cologne cathedral, there would have been an excuse for the extraor-
dinary rejoicings which attended the ceremony of laying the first stone ;
but as its internal dimensions will not exceed 30 feet by 16, somewhat
less than those of a not particularly large dining-room, the fuss made
by the good peopl" of Wisbeach does partake somewhat of farce.

What was expended one way or other without airy advantage all at
to the funds for the building, must have amounted to a sum that would
nearly have defrayed its total cost without further contributions. The
fireworks alone, as we are informed by the Cambridge JldveTUier,
which has minutely chronicled all the " small beer" of this mighty af-
fair, cost the " worthy vicar" not less than -10 pounds; and as the same
gentleman kept open house during the week, with banquetting parlies
of " distinguished guests" to the number of sixty in one day, and a
hundred-and-thirty another, he would hardly have been a loser, had
he erected the chapel at his own sole expense, and thereby have
secured to himself some more permanent fame than his " pyrotechnic
tre.it'' is likely to obtain for him. Perhaps this last, by the bye, was
not altogether so inconsistent as it at first appears, for it may have
been intended as a sort of pyrotechnic sermon, symbolizing the brevity
of human life, the (ransitoriness of all worldly splendours, glaring for
,i brief moment in dazzling radiance, and then bursting and vanishing
altogether into extinction and darkness; thereby serving us a most
impressive meincnto-mori !

As mere amusements, those at Wisbeach were innocent enough iir
themselves, but were rendered unbecoming, by being altogether at
variance with the occasion, which was made to serve as a pretext for
them. They may also be taken as one strong manifestation of that
strange spirit now rife in society, which seizes on every opportunity
as one fur indulging a passion for heated excitement and mountebank
display, whether it be that of Father-Matthewism, or Puseyism, or
New mania, or any other mania of the day. Still, we certainly should
not have bestowed any notice on the doings at Wisbeach, or at most
should have pointed to them only as a caricature of the idle and non-
sensical " ceremony of laying the first stone " of a building, as it is
called, were it not that there is something else connected with the
building itself of more immediate interest to our readers.

Notwithstanding that the chapel itself will be a mere miniature
funic two gentlemen are employed upon it in the capacity of de-
signer and architect — not a Wisbeach Pecksniff and Pinch, but persons
of some note in the architectural world, viz. Professor Willis and Mr.
Bascvi, the first of whom has furnished the design, while the other
merely acts as clerk of the works. Such application of the principle
of division of labour and combination of talent, may in certain
be proper and advantageous enough— for instance, in such an exten-
sive and complicated pile as either Windsor Castle, or the "Palace
of Westminster" : but in that of so very small a building there was
no occasion for it — none at least for formally avowing it. The design
being his, Professor Willis might have been allowed to pass as its
architect, lor ii could have been taken for granted that he was not
the operative one, hut had professional assistance of some sort or
oilier. As fir, indeed, is he is concerned, the circumstance of another

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGlNEftll AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

33

name being mentioned, is not surprizing ; but it is somewhat singular
that the architect of the Fitzwilliam Museum should have consented —
not to lend his name to the Professor, but to allow it to be formally
made known that he acts in such subordinate capacity on so trifling
an occasion. It certainly amounts to a formal acknowledgment on
his part that there would be nothing objectionable in occasionally
deviating from the present system, and applying to amateur archi-
tects for designs, and trusting to them for all matters of imagination
and faste, a professional man being employed merely to execute the
ideas of the other. That such course would be wholly preposterous
and unwise, we do not say; on the contrary, we are of opinion that
had there been some "Professor Willis" to many of our public build-
ings, they would have been far more satisfactory, in point of design,
than they now are — perhaps the British Museum among others. It
might, therefore, be not altogether amiss, were professional men occa-
sionally to consult non-professional opinion and taste.

In the case of the Wisbeach Chapel, these are considerations which
give it more importance than it might have else had in itself, because
the course which has been adopted seems to emanate from the Camden
Society, and the authority they assume and would fain establish for
themselves in all matters of Ecclesiology — even to the extent of pe-
danlical, busybody interference, and dictation. We may be mistaken,
but it does look in some degree as if Mr. Basevi has lent himself,
perhaps unsuspectingly, to the views of the Camdenists, in the hope
of securing their patronage ; and what he has done may now be set
up as a precedent by which others are to be noosed. If the pro-
fession once allow that Society to get upon their shoulders, they
will find them quite as difficult to shake oft' again, as Sindbad did the
accursed old man wdio fastened himself upon his. In regard to en-
couraging greater attention to the proprieties of church architecture!
the Camdenists may do some good, but they are by far too bigotted
and intolerant — rigid precisians, denouncing without mercy whatever
does not exactly square with their fanciful, yet starched and straight-
laced code of ecclesiological statutes. They appear sadly averse to
recognizing as lawful any other style or mode of treating it, than such
as are by them privileged: everything else they repudiate as par-
taking not only of architectural, but almost of religious heresy.

As to Professor Willis, he has distinguished himself as an able and
intelligent architectural antiquary, notwithstanding that Mr. Gwilt has
not thought his " Remarks on the architecture of the Middle Ages,"
worthy of being enumerated along with other publications of that
class; but of the Professor's skill or taste in design we are unable to
form an opinion, for the wood-cut of the Wisbeach Chapel, given in
the Cambridge Jldnrliser, is so miserably drawn, that no reliance
can be placed upon it. Making the utmost allowance, however, for
that, the design itself looks very queer, and as if it greatly needed
touching up by Mr. Basevi, unless together with bad drawing positive
mistakes have been committed.

OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE.

By Henry Fulton, M.D.

No. 1.

In the present era of improvement and invention, the science of
architecture is least improved and least understood. I have conversed
with many persons well conversant with all the other branches of art,
who on the introduction of the subject, have met it with "Oh, I
know nothing of architecture." I have met architects, who acknow-
ledged they had no professional library; and I believe they felt this
as no loss, for they seemed to consider any drawing tastefully got up,
and calculated to catch the eye of their employers, quite good enough:
in short, want ol knowledge in the employer, begets carelessness in
the employed. Peeling this strongly, I ventured in 1842 to deliver a
public lecture ' on the subject, to which the architects of Dublin were

1 See lecture in Journal, Vol. V., p. 78 .

invited; but they met m conclave, and decided net to countenance the

attempt of a mere amateur, or even to permit their pupils to attend,
alleging that it was quite improper for a physician to attempt giving
a lecture on architecture. The intention of delivering a course of
lectures was announced. Why has it been given up ( It was de-
clared publicly that " the highest in rank in Italy were not ashamed
of being professors of an art which Vilruvius taught and 1', ill, olio
adorned." Are the architects of Dublin now ashamed of Vilruvius
and Palladio ?

Unless we look for something better than the works of either Pal-
ladio or Vitruvius, the science of architecture will profit but little ;
and as contrasted with the taste displayed in the Parthenon, the Pan-
theon of Agrippa, or the Minster at York, should only be considered
as a mere trade in building, and not as one of the tine arts : and its
professors, instead of ranking with painters and sculptors, should be
classed with decorators and wax-work wig-block makers.

It is to be regretted that traces of this Palladio mania are to be
found in too many of our edifices in London. If Palladio had not
adorned his buildings with coupled columns, would we have had them
in the exterior of St. Paul's ? If Palladio had not placed portico over
portico, would Sir C. Wren have left us — not us, but feathered bipeds
— an aerial entrance facing Ludgate Hill? If Palladio had not
misplaced pediments, calculated only for the terminus of a gable end,
over his windows, would we have them, both acute and obtuse, stuck
in every possible variety, over those of the banquetting hall, and live
hundred other halls and houses in London ? If Palladio had not re-
velled in rustic quoins and rustic fronts, would we have had these re-
ceptacles of dirt and dust meet our eye so often in our streets 3 If
Palladio had not crowned his cornices with balustrades, would we
have had these caricatures of columns entering into composition called
Grecian? If Palladio had not broken up all his buildings and all his
cornices, destroying all repose, all dignity, all simplicity, would our
own buildings of the present day have presented us with so many
examples of the want of dignity, unity, and simplicity ? But we shall
not swell this catalogue of Palladian beauties, but proceed to state
the grounds of objection to them.

Corporal Trim's illustration of the disadvantage of placing too
many sentinels on one post, may serve us as to the first, as no architect
that loved his columns would crowd too many of them together; and
further, no employer who loved his purse, would consent to it. One
column, well proportioned to the superincumbent weight, is better
than two slight ones, and two well proportioned columns are in excess,
where one would suffice. It is true the ancients slightly contracted
the distance between the columns at the angles of the buildings, but
the coupled columns are a caricature of this, when the eye should
have uniformity instead of variety.

Secondly, a portico should be an entrance to a building; and if so,
how can the one pair portico of St. Paul's be so considered, unless for
a set down from an aerial machine? but it will be time enough to
provide for such contingencies when the plans for the machine itself
shall be matured, and in the meantime, let us recollect the point of
view in which columns should appear, and not violate good taste by
placing them too high, either on stilts, or by making one row of co-
lumns and its architrave support another set and accessories.

Thirdly, a pediment is a true and legitimate termination, crowning
the gable of a building in its entire extent; and according to the laws
of fashion, a hat is a proper crown for a man's head : but it by no
means follows that a hat is a suitable ornament (however diminished)
for his shoulder, his eye-brow, or his upper lip: neither should the
hat be of such dimensions as only to cover the centre third of the
caput. But that great authority, Palladio, turned these window pedi-
ments to more account than his followers now do, for he placed a
colossal figure in a half-sliding, half-reclining, though perilous posture,
on each side, like two sentinels on one post. Improve on this, I be-
seech you, ye Palladians, and place one figure, astride your door and
window pediments, and turn them forthwith into hobby horses. If
Mr. Barry had left out of the design for the Reform Club House those
miserable window pediments ami the rustic quoins, that building

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[October,

would have added to his fame. If these pediments were to serve
;iny useful purpose, they ought to have been placed over every win-
dow, and not those of the first floor alone ; and if intended only for
ornament, (?) all should have been thus ornamented. As representa-
tions of military cocked hats, they might have been selected by the
more warlike clubs; but mere civilians have no right to such em-
blems.

Fourthly, besides rustic quoins and rustic fronts, we have the thing
carried out still further; I do not know what name it rejoices in, but
it may be seen on Burlington House and the Town Hall at Birming-
ham : this is intended, no doubt, to give us some idea of rocks. I do
not know that Palladia is accountable for this latter; I rather believe
it had its origin in the times of cutting vew trees into figures of things
animate and inanimate. It may be very proper that a house should
be built on a rock, but that a tree should represent a man, or a house
a rock, is not so evident : the exterior of an edifice should represent
one whole, not made up with a show of patches, but as a composition,
stable and secure, concealing, not thus exposing, the smallness of (he
materials, by the introduction of rustic work, either as quoins or
fronts. As receptacles of dirt and moisture, such work is unsuited to
our climate, and can only be of use to the builder by swelling his bill
of charges.

Fifthly, it is difficult to say why modern architects crown their cor-
nices in almost every instance with balustrades. Surely the advocates
of this practice do not think — if indeed they think at all about the
matter, that a pigmy column can harmonize in a composition with
columns of due proportion, or that a cornice is at all ornamented by
this tasteless expenditure; but in truth the necessity for balusters,
can only occur when the cornice itself is meagre, and dues not suffi-
ciently mask the roof.

Sixthly, broken Kaes and cornices are the most glaring faults of
modern architecture. The only defence of the practice which 1 h ive
heard given is, that it relieves the eye! Relieves the eye from what i
The eye can take in a straight line easier than a broken one. When
an officer wishes to show off his regiment to advantage, does he not
dress his line? I wish our would-be (irecian architects would observe
the same rule in dressing theirs. In order to observe the contrast
between broken and unbroken lines, let us take a model of the Par-
thenon, and break up its cornices, \c, according to modern practice,
and then look at the result. No — in the Greek style, and all those
which attempt to approach it, simplicity must exist where dignity is
desired, and this simplicity is not inconsistent with the highest state
of finish, and with ornament, so rich, as to be beyond our ability to
produce any thing similar, as for instance, the marbles of the Parthe-
non ( but all ornaments should, as they did, harmonize with the edi-
fice.

I believe I have seen all the urban edifices of Palladio; as to the
suburban, I did not see many of them, nor did I think they were worth
going out of the way to see, as I could not observe a single beauty in
any of those I did see. Did Palladio draw on those works of the
ancients, which he measured and delineated ? Oh, yes, he did, just
as Sir Fret ul Plaigery, took the worst parts of the works of others;
and yet these appropriations, whenglaced beside his own productions,
seemed like patches of silk embroidery on a fleecy-hosiery ground 1

As in the lecture before referred to, most of the public buildings
in Dublin are criticised (but not more severely than they deserve) I
would wish to do justice to one erection made since the delivery of
the lecture. And in truth, the breast wall earning out the improve-
ments in Nassau Street in that city, is every thing that could be de-
sired, and although of humble pretensions, yet calculated to give more
pleasure than a view of any of our ornate buildings. A plain straight
breast wall (1300 feet in length) of well-tooled granite surmounted
with a plain and suitable moulded coping on which the rail is placed.
No breaks, no rustics, nothing in the cant of false taste to rehtn the
eye : no. ttie eye needs it not, for all is repose and harmony. I wish
1 could say as much of the railing, but perhaps it would be too tnui h
to expect perfection in it also, and as a contrast it is broken up by
the heads of 48 trumpery pilaster*, on which the arms of the College

are introduced 91, and the name of the iron founder 47 times. From
its locality we may say that this ostentatious display of the name of
the man vf iron, is the foundation of the bad taste of the superstruc-
ture. If the railing anil the ornate stable at the east end of the screen
corresponded with the chasteness and simplicity wdiich characterise the
breast wall, (he entire might be hailed as the harbinger of improved
taste.

Mr. Gwilt, who admires Palladio more than I do, will doubtless cry
havoc, and let slip his pen against the attempt of a mere amateur to
write on these subjects; but I am ready to stand up for my order, and
ask who designed York, and the many other Gothic cathedrals of the
same class ami date ? were they professional architects or mere ama-
teurs? Was William of Wykeham an architect? and yet have pro-
fessional architects since the age of the Parthenon and the Pantheon,
produced any thing to equal them ? St. Peter's itself, the pride and
glory of modern Rome, is perhaps twice as large and cost ten times
the amount required for York, and although, from its vastness, it is
beautiful, yet it cannot stand a comparison with Yoik or the Par-
thenon, or even the Pantheon of Agrippa.

But the amateur of the middle ages found the state of architecture
degraded and debased; fortunately for posterity they knew nothing
of Vitruvius, or of Grecian art as handed down by the Roman school,
else, like Palladio, they might have attempted its restoration, and,
like bin, have failed. No! from the confusion into which the art
had fallen after the age of Dioclesian, they did not attempt to rescue
it, but out of this chaos created a new style, which, in after limes,
architects in derision called Gothic. Perhaps these amateurs may
not have left us any thing equal, certainly nothing which surpasses,
Grecian art, still they have undoubtedly left, at an immeasurable dis-
tance, all their revilers of the Palladio-Yitruvian school.

After the practice of the art had passed from Grecian into Roman
bands, the decline was gradual but complete, and the age of Dioclesian
exhibits its total decadence. That much, both of the Palladian or
Vandal and Gothic architecture, arose out of the Dioclesian, is evi-
dent. In the ruins at Spalatro we have the swelled frieze, arches
raised on slender columns, thesa hitler supported by consols, which
are ornamented with representations of (he human face, just as we
see in the Gothic, as the following, taken from Adam's work on Spa-
latro, plate xvi, will show.

:

It is remarkable that the zig zag moulding on the consul is to be
found on many of (he early specimens of Gothic ; and also, as pointed
out to me by my friend Mr. Petre, on some of the Irish round towers.
The moulding on the archivolt of the. other figure will also suggest a
strong resemblance to the deep doorways of the Gothic.

Let not the profession imagine that I want to transfer the working
of the art from their hands into that of amateurs. Architecture is a
profession the details of which require much experience and study,
and few amateurs will be found capable of working out these details ;
but the same judgment which is necessary to enable a purchaser to
feel the merits of a painting or a statue, is absolutely necessary ill
the science of architecture ; and unless that taste exist, it is in vain
to expect any thing like improvement in the designs for either our

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

33:

public or private edifice?. But it is to amateur?, and not to the pro-
fession, that a more correct taste is tu be looked for, and although
almost every one feels the defects of what has been done in our times
Vet until men of intellect and mind (amateurs though they be) shall
seriously turn their attention to the subject, it is in vain to expect
any improvement.

MARINE DIRECT ACTION ENGINES OF THE "LORD
YARBOROUGH."

A, cylinder and casing; B, the cranks; C, piston rod; D, hanging
link j E, connecting rod ; F, main frame; G, slide valve case; 11, ex-
haustion pipe ; I, main beam ; K, condenser ; L, air pump ; M, hot
water cistern ; N, Iced pump ; O, O, steam pipes ; P, eccentric ; Q, dis-
charge pipe ; a, a, radius rods ; 4, feed pipe ; c, injection pipe ; d, start-
ing handle) e, air pump rod ; f, connecting link to beam ; g, roller to
centre of beam.

Wishing to make this Journal a chronicle of present improvements
in marine engineering as well as a record of the past, we this month
publish a descriptive account of a pair of " direct action " engines,
manufactured as far back as 1825, and erected in a vessel called the
Lord Yarborougtt, and now, and from that date, plying botween
Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight, working in a very satisfactory
manner.

The designer, and we may say, conslructor, of these engines, is
Mr. William Yates, then of the Commercial Road, but now having
charge of the steam machinery at Messrs. Currie's distillery at Brom-
ley, near London; and taking into consideration the date of their in —
traduction, will be found to contain considerable merit.

In the discussion, in this Journal, on beam and direct action en-

gines, the existence of the YarhorongV* engines does not appear to
have been known, otherwise their similarity with the Gorgon engines
no doubt would have been noticed.

In 1821, a caveat was lodged by Mr. Yates, and a patent would
have been obtained for this construction of engine, but for various
reasons, that it is unnecessary to enter upon here. It appears that in
1825 the Portsmouth and Ryde Steam Packet Company gave Mr.
Yates an order for a pair of these engines of IS k.i\, and they were
made as represented in the annexed engraving. The cylinders are
24 in. diameter and 2 ft. S in. stroke, the radius of the crank equalling
125 in. The power, at 17-3 ft. per minute, equals ll>ij n.i\ each cy-
linder. Paddle wheels 11 ft. diameter, and length of paddle equal-
ling 5 ft. Beam of vessel 13 ft. ; draft of water 5 ft. 0 in. ; immersed
section equals 33 ft.

This kind of engine certainly possesses many advantages; among
others may be mentioned, small space occupied, light construction,
and principally, their position in the vessel, near to the centre trans-
versely, and bearing chiefly on the kelson or strongest part of the
ship, the most important part of the machinery being below the
water line, all which points were duly considered by Mr. Yates 22
years since.

Mr. Yates also furnished drawings of a Ihne cylinder engine, de-
signed in 1821, at the request of Captain Borne, of the London
Engineer steam vessel, to increase her power from 70 h.p. to 105 h.p.,
without requiring additional space, but it was rejected on account of
the shortness of the connecting rod; this arrangement might be ap-
plied to large powers with great effect. On the whole, we cannot but
highly applaud M-. Yates for his ingenuity, and see that the opinions
and views he entertained 20 years since, have been lately adopted by
others.

ON STREET MAINS OF CAST IRON, FOR GAS AND
WATER CONVEYANCE.

The present unprecedented low price of iron offers an opportunity
for the extension of gas and water works, which it is surprising has
not been urged with avidity by such places as are yet destitute of the
luxury of either; and at the same time, considering that the furthering
of such works is one of the occupations of the civil engineer, I am
induced to send you a paper on the subject of street mains, being the
collection and collation of examples which have fallen under my
notice during an attention of upwards of one third of the. useful
portion of human life. First as to the direction of the pipes or mains.
They should be laid in as straight a course as possible, and their in-
clination should be uniform and nut to exceed one in a hundred, if it
could be avoided by any possibility ; and where descending mains
meet and form an angle, syphon pipes or receivers should be placed
to collect deposition of mud, &C. The names main and sub-main are
given to leading pipes from 4 in. to IS in. diameter, and for smaller,
the term service pipes is used. Pipes are of two descriptions, socket
and Ranched, a table of each description is given; in measuring
socket pipes, the socket is excluded from the measurement. Pipes
above 4 in. are all cast 9 ft. long, and under 4 in. down to l| in. are
usually 0 ft. long, and lj in. are 4% ft. long. The pipes are generally
delivered at the works, and then previously to being used, are proved
by hydraulic pressure equal to a column of water 250 It. high ; and
in warm weather it is desirable in proving pipes to use warm water.
Practice will enable, a skilful provcr to tell by the ring of a pipe,
from a tap with a hammer, whether it is faulty, either from being
cracked, or deficiency in thickness. It is usual for pipes all above,
say, 4 in., to be charged by the ton, and for the smaller, a certain price
per yard, varying as the size, the socket being excluded from the mea-
sure; the price for straight pipes in 1831, was 150s. per ton, the
bends and branches, or particular pipes, being 40s. additional, and the
boring of the fire plugs also being extra, at, say, ISrf. each. In 1833,
from the same note book, I find the cost of straight pipes was 188*.

33G

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

per toil, the difference of 12s. per ton being altogether due from the
facility of delivery; about the same time also, I have the price per
ton 135s., and the extra for particular pipes, 55s. With respect
to the cost of digging trenches, they will vary as the depth; and I
know they have been done as follows, 3 ft., 4 ft., and 5 ft. respectively,
2id., Sid., and ihd. per lineal yard ; also, in regard to paving, ram-
ming, and removing surplus earth ; and finding stone where deficient,
the price will vary with the nature of the material, as Macadamised
road, square paving, and random paving, which I have done at per
lineal yard, as follows, 3d., 5£tf., and 'id. The depth below the sur-
face of the ground should not be less than IS inches, to guard against
frost and casual disturbance of the street by repair. The contractor
for the work or pipe-layer generally finds his own tools and lights, the
company being at the expense of repairing damage to lead pipes,
repair of roads, and removal of rubbish. I should rather say that
four contracts are usual, one for the pipes per ton delivered, another
for the pavement, a third for the trenches, and fourth for pipe-laying.
Joints of the pipes are usually made with molten lead ; but other ma-
terials are also used for economy, viz., wooden wedges, (see Journal,
Vol. I, p. 242.) also wood with iron wedges interspersed; a mixture
of cast iron borings with sal-ammoniac is sometimes used for socket
pipes. For flanched pipes a wease or washer of yam or sheet lead,
smeared with red or white lead, is used, and the pipes being cast
with a flanch at each end and screw lulls inserted, and when screwed
tight the joint is complete.

In the appendix 1 have riven a table showing the weight of flanched
pipes, and the number of holes in the II inch. In the second table
is the weight and thickness of socket pipes with tin' cost of the
pipes per yard delivered, and the total cost per yard including pipes
and laying, and in the third is a table of detail for 3, -1, 5, 6, and 15
inch pipes, from actual execution, and from which the cost of the
pipes in the 2nd table has been computed. It must be borne in mind,
that the weight of pipes is also applicable to columns or pillars.
In that very useful work Laxton's /.' 1 1 I . . ' Prict Book several tables
are given of pipes, and one in particular gives the usual lengths and
different diameters and weights of lead service pipes.

It has been previously noticed that the boring of fire plugs and par-
ticular pipes are charged extra, but the most costly appendages yet
remain to be noticed, viz., slide cocks with brass and copper facings,
which will cost 21s. per inch of the pipe's diameter for all sizes of pipe,
and for the smaller size as high as 358. per inch. The when, uhv,
and wherefore, of the introduction of these, as also the size of the
mains and their gradual diminution to suit particular localities, must
be left to the hydraulic engineer, but, as a general question, I may be
allowed to state from 11 in. to 15 in. diameter of pipe will be suffi-
cient to supply a population of from 70 to 100,000.

The subject of the flow' of water through pipes of different lengths,
both horizontal and vertical, has occupied a good deal of your pages,
and a paper was read to the Institute of Civil Engineers by
W. A. Provis, Esq., in the session of 1838, and reported in the Journal,
Vol. I., p. 383, containing the following deductions. "In level pipes
the quantity of water discharged is nearly in the inverse ratio of the
square root of the length ; but the departure from this rule is greatest
in the shortest lengths and greatest heads. In inclined pipes, the in-
creased discharge is greater in the long than in the short pipes. The
increased discharge for an increased head is nearly in the same pro-
portion through the long and short lengths." The above extract is
the result of several experiments forming a direct appeal to nature
for facts. At page 40", vol. 5, of the Journal, commences your review
of Mr. Shuttleworth's Patent Hydraulic Railway, which has led to
your pages being so fully occupied, perhaps unprofitably, with the
subject of the flow of water down vertical pipes, which has also been
continued by yourself, and a correspondent T. F — x, in Vol. 6, pages
37, 123, and page 14?, by I. T — N, which as connected with this sub-
ject, I have noted for future reference. The following rules as to
the quantity and velocity of issuing water, I have collected from
various sources ; the first was given me by a friend who is an hy-
draulic engineer, viz. formula for calculating the quantity and velocity

of issuing water. Let h be the head of water in feet, d, diameter in
inches, /, length of pipe in feet :

15 a/-

h d

+ 5d

velocity ;

30

d -a / = gallons discharged per minute.

To find the weight and quantity of water in full pipes, square the
diameter in inches, which will give the weight in pounds in a yard of
pipe ; and if one figure be cut off on the right hand, it will give the
number of gallons.

Quantity of Water discharged by Iron Pipes.

Multiply twice the fall in inches per mile by one-fourth of pipe's
diameter in inches; extract the square root; take ±% of root for ve-
locity in inches per second. Divide by 12 for feet per second. This
is the velocity that will be maintained if the pipe be fully supplied.
For a head of water the velocity will be increased as the square root
of the height.

The manner of laving, direction, usual size and dimensions, depth
below surface and cost of trenches, and making good pavements, have
been alluded to, as also the manner of proving; but the description of
metal and mode of casting has not been noticed. Many parties are
content with casting on a sloping bench, others insist on perpendicular
casting, with a head of metal above the top of the pipe; and as re-
gards the metal, it is now commonly run direct from the blast furnace,
and not from the cupola of little foundries as was formerly the case.
In conclusion : I (hink this a rambling collection, but trust the tables
will be a sufficient apology, as also the wish of contributing, in how-
ever small a degree, to promote the cleanliness, and consequently the
health, of the poorer, although not less useful, portion of the com-
munity.

St. Ann's, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. O. T.

Appendix.
Detail Cost of laying Pipes.
3 fa. Pipes, cost of 9//. length.

G lb. of lead in joints at 14s.

4 oz. of yarn or gaskin, 5d. per lb.
1. ibour in laying
Excavation, refilling and paving

Labour per yard, Is. Id.
Metal per yard, 2s. \ld.

Total cost is. Id.

4 in. Pipe".
Sib. of lead in joints, at 14s.

5 oz. of yarn
Labour in laying
Excavation, filling and paving

Labour per yard, Is. 3i</.
Metal ditto 4s. Irf.

Total cost 5s. 4Jrf.

5 in. Pipes.
101b. of lead in joints, at 14s.

(I oz. of yarn
Labour in laying ..
Excavation, filling and paving

Labour per yard, Is. 4irf.
Metal per yard, 5s. 9i.

Total cost per yard, 7s, IJrf.

s.

d.

0

9

0

lj

0

2

2

0

3

Si

8

9

12 3i

1

0

0

u

0

24

2

6

3

IU

12

3

1

3

0

2

0

3

2

6

4

2

17

3

21 5

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

337

l ii
0 24

Orf. each)

6 in. Pipes.
12 lb. of lead in joints, at Is. 2d.
4 lb. of yarn

1 yarner, 1 clayer and rammer, 1 pelter up, 3s
two labourers, 2s. Gtf., 1 fireboy to 55 joints

Excavation per length
Filling and Paving ditto

Labour per yard, Is. Gd.
Metal per yard, Os. M.

Total cost per yard, 8s. 3d.

16 in. Pipes.

321b. of lead

Excavation per length
Filling and paving ditto

2 lb. of gaskin

Labour per yard, 3s. 8d.

Metal per yard, 24s. 2d.

Total cost per yard, 27*. Md 4 3 6

Table of Weight and Dimensions of Flanched Pipes.

0

3|

1

0

1

6

4

64

20

3

24

9i

3

10

1

10 J

2

9

0

10

1

9

11

04

3 12

54

■M

«

° .

° O

« • !

V «J

V

5 Jr

25 »

Weight of a '

u o
Seq

5

|

a J2
.2 a"

O tt

M "3

iZ —

a £ *o

flu

Thicki

of Flan

9 ft. Length.

cwt. qr. lb.

2

J

64

4

1

43

0 3 0

3

i

74

4

1

6

1

1 0 3

4

*

9{

4

J

7*

1

1 3 5

5

4

104

4

*

«

*

2 1 12

6

i

12

4

*

10

I

3 2 1

7

*

14

6

*

11*

]

4 3 17

8

J

15

G

1

12$

1 I

5 2 9

9

*

164

C

1

14*

6 1 12

10

1

174

0

1

154

14

7 U (1

11

*

19

6

1

16}

8 3 24

12

i

20

G

l*

17*

U

9 3 5

13

i

21

6

1*

18}

u

10 2 0

14

i

22

8

l*

19J

1}

11 0 26

15

i

23

«

14

20}

i!

12 0 25

16

ft

244

8

il

22

12 3 8

17

i

254

8

1*

23

13 2 17

18

l

264

8

14

24

i« !

16 1 15

19

l

28

8

H

25

i*

17 2 13

20

l

29

8

if

26

if

18 0 26

24

l

33

10

l*

30

if

Cost of laying pipes, inclading digging, filling in, and lead for joiuts, but
exclusive of pipes and carting superfluous earth, and making good roads, per
yard.

Inch.

2 ..
24

3 ..

Inch.

1 0
1 1

1 3
1 4J

Relaying, paving, or making good roads, ptr yard
Boxes for plugs, each
Ditto with flaps, each
Spiggots, each
Boring Plugs, each

!

ELECTRO -GALVANIC BLASTING.

Sir — Having read with much interest, in your Journal for August,
the account of the various applications of the electric fluid to the
useful arts, by Mr. Alexander Bain, I beg to communicate to you
another application of the conducting power of water, which, with
the approval of Major-General Pasley, I have lately adopted in liring
sub-marine charges over the wreck of the " Royal George," at Spit-
head, and which the General and myself both consider a great im-
provement on the mode hitherto practised.

My attention had been for some time led to this subject, in carrying
on some experiments in June and July last, on the relative power of
different lengths of wire conductors in use over the wreck, for trans-
mitting the electric fluid. These conductors consist of two stout
copper wires, separated by an 14 inch rope ; the wires are care-
fully insulated and paid over with tape, yarn, and waterproof compo-
sition : the rope is saturated with the same composition, being im-
mersed in it while boiling, and yarn is then bound round the whole
with a second coat of the composition over it.

The apparatus used for the experiments was the voltameter, con-
sisting of a glass vessel with inverted tubes, two pieces of platinum
wire were fixed into the sides of the vessel, and bent at right angles,
to enter the tubes ; on connecting the two ends of the conducting
wires at one extremity, placing a voltaic battery at the other, and the
voltameter within the circuit, the water in it was rapidly decom-
posed, gas was emitted and passed into the tubes, which being gra-
duated with a scale divided to tenths of inches, showed the relative
power of each length of the wire conductors by the quantity of gai
delivered in a certain time.

I was, however, surprised to find that decomposition of water en-
sued, even when the ends of the wires furthest from the battery were
disconnected, and it soon became evident, that as these wires had
been frequently used for firing charges at a depth of 13 fathoms under
water, a certain degree of moisture must have been forced in by the
great pressure at that depth through the exterior coating, notwith-
standing the precautions used to make it and the wires waterproof,
and thus the electric fluid must have been led from one wire to the
other, causing action in the voltameter; this became still more apparent
on applying the voltameter and battery to a length of wire conductor
which had never been under water, as unless the ends of the wires
were connected, there was no gas emitted. There was another con-
vincing proof of the power of water as a conductor, though it in some
measure frustrated the object of my first experiments; but prose-
cuting the subject still further, I have since been enabled to turn thiJ
power to account, by using the water as a conductor in conjunction
with a single wire for firing charges, which are daily required over
the wreck.

The method of doing this will now be stated.

From Mr. Bain's experiments as well as my own, it appeared that
using water as a conductor in conjunction with a single wire, a certain
metallic surface must be present at each extremity of the wire, to
ensure the transmission of a sufficiently powerful current of electri-
city. In the case of sub-marine explosions, it would therefore be ne-
cessary to have one surface of metal at the bottom of the sea, and
another at the top, the depth of water forming the conductor between
them, and as the greater part of the charges used at Spithead are
common oil cans of tin, (a good conducting metal,) varying from two
to five gallons, it occurred to me to make use of the tin can a3 the
metal required at the bottom, and at the surface of the water to use
plates of zinc.

Before lowering the charge to the bottom, the single wire is con-
nected to one of the priming or short wires inserted in the bursting
tube of the charge, and the other priming wire is turned down on the
tin and connected with it. The charge is taken down by a diver,
who places it, and after he has come up, the zinc plates are immersed,
(I found by experiment, that three plates of 10 in. by 7 in. were re-
quired) connected by copper wire passed through a hole in the top of

■ f id

/ J

338

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

each.) T.ie entt of the single wire above water, and that of the
short length attached to the zinc plates, are led to a battery, which
for firing charges in 13 fathoms water, should have a power equivalent
to 6 cylinders of Daniell's battery; this I found to be the minimum :
on completing the circuit, the charge is fired by the transmission of
ihe electic fluid down the single wire, igniting the piece of fine pla-
tinum fixed across the priming wires within the bursting powder, and
returning by the water, which over the wreck of the "Royal George,"
completes a portion of the circuit equalling SO feet.

This method has now been so frequently tried and without a single
failure, that it may be considered as certain and secure, and I consider
it superior to that of the double wires, on account of the greater lia-
bility of the latter to break, or to be brought improperly in contact,
by the shrinking and contraction of the rope after imbibing moisture;
the saving of wire, is also a great object, and the single wire may be
conveniently coiled on a common log reel, and held in the hand while
being passed over the side of a vessel when used on a wreck.

This system may be used for charges contained in vessels of tin,
iron, copper, or any other conducting metal ; but when wooden casks
are used, it will be necessary to attach a certain surface of metal to
the cask.

I annex a sketch of the mode of connecting the single wire with
the priming wires, &c.

I remain, Sir,

Your very obedient servant,

G. R. HOTCHIKSON,
Lieutenant Roval Engineers.

Portsmouth, 10rt September, 1843.

Ukferexce.

A & B, two single insulated wires;

the ends are led to the poles of
a voltaic battery in a boat or
lighter.
C, 3 zinc plates, 10 in. by " in.

A, a single insulated wire con-
ducted

B, a single wire.

The ends of the two wires, A &
B are led to the poles of a vol-
taic battery in a hoat or lighter.
Z, 3 zinc plates, each in in. by
7 in.

C, S gallon tin can, holding about
51 lb. of powder.

P P', priming wires of bursting
charge.

c, point of contact of priming
wire P' with surface of tin cart.

v c, water condueter, 80 feet.

S. W. surface of water, 13} fa-
thoms above the bottom.

MUSEUM OF THE HERMITAGE, ST. PETERSBURG.

On it being first of all rumoured that Klenze had been commissioned
by the Emperor Nicholas to prepare designs for a Museum at St.
Petersburg, the natural supposition was, that the building was to be an
entirely new and distinct one, as was the case with the Glyptothek,
and the Pinakothek at Munich, the reputation of which most probably
led to the architect's being employed by the Russian sovereign. It
now turns out, however, that the structure will not add to the number
of the architectural monuments of St. Petersburg, as it is only a re-
building and extension of the Hermitage Palace, in which the " Raf-
faelle Gallery," so called from its being a fac-simile imitation of the
Loggie of the Vatican, is retained. Still, if description may be trusted,
it is verv greatly superior to what has been removed to make way for
it; and though only an appendage to the Imperial Palace, it is in itself
much larger than many palaces, the general plan funning a parallelo-
gram of 520 by 3s0 ft., English measure, which is not very far short
of the area of the whole of the quadrangle and buildings of the upper
ward of Windsor Castle. The largest of the inner courts is 215 by
130 feet ; the general height of the facade 74 ft., and that of the pa-
vilions at the angles, 1015 ft. In regard to the character of its details,
the style of design is Greek, and it would seem the design itself is in
some respects similar to the architect's idea for the Pantechnikon, at
Athens, published in his "Entwiirfe." Of the actual composition,
however, it is impossible to speak from the verbal description given
of it; for let the last be ever so correct as far as it goes, so many cir-
cumstances indispensably requisite to be understood, are passed over
in it, that it is more tantalizing than satisfactory, leaving altogether
doubtful some very material points. The socle, which is of reddish
granite, is 11 feet high, and must therefore be of colossal proportions,
and produce a most imposing effect, it it be really what the term
applied to it imports — a solid substructure, in appearance at least,
without windows of any sort. Nothing being said to the contrary, we
are left to suppose that such is really the case; but it would have
been far more satisfactory to have been distinctly assured of it, since
it makes a most prodigious difference indeed whether it be so or not.
i lolossal must also be the effect of a mass, nearly the entire height of
the Reform Club House, but with only two ranges of windows, reared
on such a basement. This part of the structure is of greyish stone,
with si'iue intermixture of reddish granite for the details, yet to what
extent the latter is applied is not said; hardly at all, we should think,
can it have been employed for any of the more delicate and enriched
parts, and enrichment does not appear to have been at all spared, for
we are told of arabesque panels, sculptured friezes, statues, some sup-
ported on consoles, others within niches, hermes-pillars, &c. &c. in
short, the description makes magnificent promise to the ear; but
whether the structure itself would keep such promise to the eye, is
what we will not pledge for. Description is equally favourable to the
interior, but equally perplexing also, being by far too indefinite ; a vast
ileal of magnificence is spoken of — variegated marble columns, inlaid
pavements of Grecian design, and other matters of that kind, but it is
all shapeless. Almost the only part which we can figure to ourselves
at all intelligibly is the grand staircase, 130 ft. long, by 50 in breadth,
with its twenty marble Corinthian columns, and three successive flights
of marble steps (22 feet wide), ascending in a direct line. At any
rate, in such a staircase there must be an air of extraordinary pomp.
The rooms on the lower floor are intended for the reception of sculp-
ture, vases, and miscellaneous antiquities; those above for a picture-
gallery, distributed into a series of rooms, some very spacious, and
lighted from above, as in the Munich Pinakothek, for larger pictures;
others as cabinets, for smaller pictures, besides various loggies and
corridors. The contents of the museum will be so arranged, that the
apartments will have more the air of being decorated with them, as in
a private palace, than of being the exhibition-rooms of a public mu-
seum, which sometimes give the idea of a bazaar, at others, of a
charnel-house of art, stored with works, immortal, perhaps, in fame,
but perishable, and even perished ; interesting, but utterly illegible
inscriptions, limbless statues, featureless busts, and pictures touched
and retouched by time, till they have become only so many grim
blackened canvasses, and melancholy memento- mori's. Although the
building was not begun until the spring of IS 12, the Museum of the
Hermitage is expected to be completed by the end of the present
summer, notwithstanding its great extent and the prodigious solidity
of its constructions. In some places such an edifice would have been
the work of a quarter of a century. — Art Union.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

339

FALL OF THE BELFRY OF VALENCIENNES AND TRIAL
OF THE ARCHITECT.

INGE as this hitter may sound in tlie ears of an English archi-
li'cl, it is not less strange than true, that trials of professional men in
France for homicide, produced by negligence or ignorance, are by no
means of rare occurrence. It will be remembered that on occasion
of the accident, and great loss of life some time since on the Ver-
sailles Railway, an engineer and, if we mistake not, several other
persons were placed upon their trial and found guilty of homicide.

In the case which follows, the architect charged with the repairs
of the tower, was adjudged guilty by the local tribunal, and with a
strange mockery of justice, was condemned to expiate the crime of
homicide, by paying the trifling fine of 10U francs. The Com Royale,
however, before which the cause was afterwards tried on appeal, re-
versed this decision and acquitted the architect. The following par-
ticulars respecting the destruction of the tower and the subsequent
trials have been gleaned from the Gazette ties Tribimaux; and although
the description of the building itself is very meagre, yet the account
will show to our readers the kind of responsibility which attaches to
professional men in France for the failure of their works. It is pro-
bable that in point of law the circumstances under which an architect
becomes responsible, as described by the prisoner's own advocate,
will equally apply in this country.

Most cilies in 'lie north of France possess those ancient towers called
oelfries, which are monuments raised in the 12th and ] 3th centuries, since
which time they have stood, like huge sentries, watching over the public
safety and the liberty of the inhabitants. In 1237 the generosity of Jane of
Flanders endowed tbe city of Valenciennes with land for the site of a belfry,
and in the interval from 12J0 to 1260 the edifice was completed. Had this
belfry of Queen Jane been more respected by man than by the band of time,
it might still have been standing. Such was not to be its fate, however ; for
in 1782, under tbe provostship of M. de Pujol, it was subjected to the un-
happy devices of some architect, wdio imposed upon the old tower a roof of a
new construction, formed by a kind of petit dome, ornamented with vases in
the true Pompadour style, presenting a most ridiculous contrast to the severe
architecture of the middle ages ; but not conicnt v. itb this profanation, the
architect erected on the top of the tower 20 enormous stone consoles, weigh-
ing nearly a million and a half of pounds, which immense weight so deranged
the stability of the structure as to throw it out of the plumb line, and open
fissures between the courses of stones large enough to admit tbe penetration
of water. Thus the old belfry, which had gloriously withstood the cannon
balls of 1793 and 1815, was found in 1837 to be labouring under serious infir-
mities.

At this lime the Sieur Petiau, who had recently quitted tbe School of Fine
Ails at Paris, where he hail acquired the most honourable distinctions, was
recalled into the arrondissement Which bad given him birth, in the capacity
of architect to the city of Valenciennes.

The dilapidated state of the old belfry, its rents and crevices, the shattered
buttresses and loose stones, which occasionally threatened the destruction of
passers by, could not escape his attention. In special reports of the 22nd
July, 1837, and 3rd February. 1S38, he pointed out tbe urgent necessity for
reparation, and proposed at the same time a plan for extending the base of
the edifice upon the rock which served for its foundation, for encasing parts
of (he old and decayed masonry, and for tying the whole together in a
strong and substantial manner.

This plan was not acted upon by the municipal council. Another archi-
tect was consulted, who merely advised the underpinning and reparation of
the counterforts. M. Visconti, an eminent architect from the capital, ex-
pressed himself in 1811 to the same effect. A design for effecting this work
was tben required from the architect Petiau, who accordingly transmitted
one to the committee of the municipal council. This design, after a delay of
4 years, was at length decided upon, and received the approval of the com-
mission of buildings for the department of the north.

The works of repair were commenced in October 1842, and were vigorously
prosecuted till January 1843. The inclemency of the season tben caused a
suspension till the beginning of March, and in April, soon after their re-
commend iu» ni, (Hie of the counterforts was observed to be rent by a large
crevice. The lie-bars, to which the architect resorted, could not stop the
progress of this crevice, the filling of stones continued to increase, and by
the 6th of April a general alarm had spread through the city. The architect
had still faith in the solidity of the mass, and in tins lie was confirmed
by" the opinion of the Parisian architect, who had reported in| 1841, " that
there was nothing alarming in ibe state of tbe structure.' The mayor per-
sonally visited the tower on the 6ih of April, and requested the architect to
furnish him with a report in writing, which was remitted to him in the even-
'ng of tbe same day.

lu this report the architect pointed out the various accidents which bad
occurred since tbe commencement of the works, ami in reference to the dan-
ger of passing in tbe neighbourhood of the town, expresses himself in the
following terms : "all human prudence cannot prevenl occasional masses, ot
various sizes and in various st iges of decay, from detaching themselves and
bringing down in their fall sounder parts of the masonry, to the serious risk
of the public safety. I think, then, that every precaution should be taken
by the administration to avert the danger. At the same time, although
accidents are to be feared from the fall of loose stones, I firmly believe that
the mass is solid, and that there is mare danger in the counterforts than in
the walls."

Throughout the 7th of April the symptoms'increased.and during nine suc-
cessive hours M. Petiau was personally engaged in superintending the works
and in hastening the evacuation of the neighbouring houses. At a quarter
before 4 o'clock he was still within the tower, examining all tbe symptoms
of ruin which it presented, and was not able up to that time to detect any
immediate danger. Scarcely, however, had he quitted the place, when
several loud cracks were heard, and the whole tower fell bodily over, while
a huge cloud of dust expanded in every direction, giving to view, as it slowly
cleared away, a scene of destruction impossible to describe. The once lofty
toner was now reduced to a stunted irregular pile, varying from 3 to 10 feet
in height. Many of tbe neighbouring houses were seriously injured by tbe
fall, and several dead and wounded victims were buried beneath a mountain
of ruins. One unfortunate man was precipitated from the top of the tower,
which was 240 feet in height ; several persons who were passing were also
killed, as well as some who were left in the adjoining houses.

This frightful catastrophe, the occasion of so much misery, both public
and domestic, could not escape the notice of justice, and accordingly the
procureur general was speedily on the spot. An inquiry was instituted, and
the architect who had been directing the work became the subject of judicial
proceedings. A commission of architects appointed to examine into the oc-
currence, pointed out several particulars in which the city architect had
acted on his own responsibility, anil enumerated various precautions which
he should have taken. The greater part of these criticisms, however, failed
to have any effect, in consequence of the contradictory evidence which was
afterwards adduced.

Notwithstanding this, the Tribunal of Valenciennes, in its judgment of the
12th August, although admitting in favourof the accused several extenuating
circumstances, such as tbe activity he had displayed, the care with which he
had conducted his operations, and the inspection which he had made at tbe
peril of his own life, only half an hour before the fatal occurrence, yet
adjudged him guilty of homicide through imprudence, and condemned him
to pay a fine of 100 francs. They imputed to him tbe fault of not. having
sufficiently announced the dangerous state of flu .i, ire structure, although
according to the opinion of other architects, this danger was sufficiently
obvious.

The affair has since been tried before the Com- Royale, in consequence of
an appeal from the inferior tribunal. On this occasion tbe accused was de-
fended by M. Hure, who made an able speech in his behalf,

"Tbe arts themselves," said the advocate, "bring at one time great re-
wards to their professors and at another great punishments. At the end of
some perilous enterprise, the architect has sometimes to boast of the palm of
victory and the chaplet woven by honourable success; while not unfrcqucntly
an unhappy failure overwhelms him with shame, and hurls him mercilessly
down from the precipice of fame. Mark with what sobriety and caution,
therefore a vindictive public should descend into tbe arena where the cham-
pion lies already conquered! With what timidity should justice herself'
invade the temple of the fine arts, to slay over again the already vanquished
hero! Let us inquire who is M. Petiau, the person here accused. He bus
lately returned to his native city of Valenciennes, from the School of the
Fine Arts at Paris— he is one in whom the most brilliant talents ha»e been
developed by the most skilful masters, and who, decorated in five successive
contests with the most eminent distinctions, has at length returned to fix
himself in his own country at the foot of this fatal tower, with the modest
but honourable title of Architect to the town.

" I shall not pretend so to interpret the ancient usages and laws upon this
subject as to contend through them for the irresponsibility of the accused,
but I do boldly maintain that it is in architecture as in medicine, in surgery,
and in military strategy, that the innocence or guilt of men is not to be
measured by their success or failure, but by the degree in which palpable
error can be proved against them. Before an unfortunate artist can be made
the subject of punishment, it must be established upon clear evidence that
some inexcusable fault has been committed, some gross olleiice against the
principles ot art, some error of omission or commisjion so obvious as to fall
under tbe notice of the senses, and then, when Ibis has been clearly proved
by correlation of cause and effect, to have led to the accident in question, it
is time to condemn."

Proceeding, then, to the special circumstances of the case, the advocate
shows that M, Petiau is not even the author of the project of reparation

4fi*

340

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

which has thus signally failed. That the project, on the contrary, was con-
ceive I by other architects, was adopted by the municipal council on the re-
port of its own commission, was afterwards sanct;oned by the council of
buildings for the department of the north ; and as for M. Petiau, it was on'y
after having unsuccessfully contended against this project for four years,
that he at length consented, with equal modesty and resignation, to lend his
exertions towards its execution. " When these exertions have proved unsuc-
cessful, is it right that the punishment of failure should be visited upon his
head alone ?

" The prisoner is accused of not hiving foreseen immediate danger to the
whole mass from the great rent which took place on the 3rd of April, but
have you not heard, on the testimony of a municipal councillor, that similar
rents had existed in the tower for the last forty years ? Figure to yourselves
a doctor of medicine placed at this bar on the charge of having promised life
and recovery to a patient whom it had pleased Heaven to remove the very
next day; and then mark this difference, that the doctor has the advantage
of receiving responses from the patient himself as to his most inward feelings
and the symptoms which might indicate an approaching dissolution. But
on the other hand, this massive and impenetrable tower was silent to all
inquiries, and gave forth no sound in answer to the voice which might de-
mand the inward symptoms which preceded its sudden destruction

" The architect, then, is irreproachable in every point of view. Let justice
address herself to oihers. if a victim be indeed necessary. But in my opinion,
the individual is not to be found upon whom the punishment of offended law
••an with justice be visited. The fall of the old tower was one of those mis-
fortunes which Providence, alas, too frequently sutlers to fall upon poor
humanity. These arc the consolations which remain for the able though
unfortunate architect. Pardon, then, in the name of justice! pardon, for the
sake of the academic laurel which yet crowns his youthful brow."

This able address was followed by an honourable acquittal of the architect,
and the court, reversing the judgment of the interior tribunal, ordered him
to be set at liberty without costs.

STYLES AND METHODS OF PAINTING SUITED TO
DECORATION OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS.'

By C. L. East-lake, Esq. R.A.

The numerous public edifices which have of late been completed
in France and Germany have, in almost every case, been embellished
with the productions of painting and sculpture. This application of
the imitative arts has prompted inquiries into the principles which
may regulate the adaptation of those arts, and especially of historical
painting, to architecture; not without reference to the examples of
sue -ess and failure which the decorated buildings of former ages pre-
sent. The same question which is now proposed for solution in this
country, in the intended decoration of the Palace at Westminster, has
been considered and practically answered with various success in
Munich and in Paris. The experiments that have, been made in those
cities by artists of eminence, and the opinions that have been expressed
thereupon by competent judges, form, therefore, an important addition
to the evidence of older works of art, and may assist in the examina-
tion of the subject.

The union of painting with architecture supposes a principle of
adaptation or sell Ction, in the style of one or both. The architect, in
arranging his spaces, might find it advisable to adapt their size to the
distance to which the spectator could conveniently retire to contem-
plate* the paintings; or might be induced to vary the form of such
spaces, with a view to certain subjects. But the principle of adap-
tation is most indispensable for the painter; for if, in sucli a combi-
nation, the productions of painting should appear as adventitious or-
naments, v. uying according to the taste or caprice of each artist em-
ployed, the result might be a mere gallery of pictures. This mistake
seems to have been committed to a certain extent in the church of the
Madeleine at Paris. The defect is said to be the more striking, as
the subjects of several of the paintings relate to the life of the Saint,
who is represented very differently in different works according to the
conception of each painter. In such an assemblage of pictures,
whatever might be the degrees ot merit, the spectator would look in
vain for any evidence of a similarity of aim.

It therefore appears that, whether one or many hands be employed,
some common principle is necessary as a means of ensuring a due
harmony of treatment. But before entering further into the consi-

1 This paper forms Appendix No, 6 to the Second Report of ihe Comnrs-
sioncrs on the Fine Arts.

deration of this question, it may be desirable to examine the opinions
that have been expressed elsewhere in similar circumstances, reser-
ving for the concluding observations the comments which particular
passages may appear to require. An Essay in the " Revue Generale
de l'Architecture " maybe quoted first. The remarks of the writer
are. suggested by the celebrated work of M. Paul de la Roche, painted
in oil on a semicircular wall in the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris. It
is unnecessary to refer to the opinions relating to that particular work,
but some of the more general observations may not be undeserving of
attention. The following is a translation.

" When first the architect opened to the painter the doors of a recently
finished edifice, and showed him the walls which were to be adorned by his
skill, an elevated art arose, the essential principles of which were at once
defined by the conditions of this union. This art may be called mural, or
monumental painting. Its characteristics are so pronounced, and so distinct
from easel-painting, that perhaps the relation between the two might be
aptly expressed by the circumstances attending their respective modes of exe-
cution; by comparing the eternal walls of a temple with the fragile stretch-
ing frame under which the easel trembles.

' Painting being employed to decorate large and solid surfaces, the artist
is no longer intent on the re-production, however ingenious, of reality in its
most limited sense. A dignified subject is essential, and tu this genius is
required to add ideality or elevation of treatment. Lastly, simplicity, the
indispensable characteristic of great works, must be apparent in the compo-
sition and in the execution. Hence arises the especial condition of excluding
from mural painting all that m ly interfere with grandeur of effect — all that
aims at literal imitation and illusion. It is to be remembered that the painter
is, in this case, not alone ; his art is employed, together with that of the
architect, in decorating the same interior. There can be no difference of pur-
pose between these two exponents of one and the same thought ; and if one
art is dependent on the other, it is that of the painter. It is further to be
remembered that the walls must always be felt to exist under the decorations
that cover them, and the skilful and magic effects by means of which the
painter gets rid of the flat surface would here be out of place.

'• Thus, under whatever point of view this question is considered, munu-
mental painting must still be limited to an elevated region, where all is
grand, simple, and unaffected. It is thus that its style was defined by the
great masters who, from Giotto to Michael Angelo. covered the walls of the
palaces and temples of Italy with their works. They painted in fresco; and
Michael Angelo, foreseeing the decline of the grandest style, had reason to
call easel-painting an occupation for women.2 From this period (ihe middle
of the ltifh century), the tradition of elevated art was unstable. Succeeding
painters, down to Pietro da Corlona. poured over vast surfaces their crowded
compositions in which the qualities of fresco became useless. To complete
the decline i f monumental art. it remained only tu neglect the process itself.
Accordingly, from the beginning of the 17th century, oil-painting was intro-
duced commonly on walls, particularly in Fiance ; and the artists looking
00 this mode ul painting as an opportunity for displaying the effects of fore-
shortening, perspective and colour, produced what the Italians called vast
' machine,' differing only from the decorations of the theatre by better
slit lied forms and a more finished execution. We have no right to consider
modern artists responsible for this practice ; it is to be dated from those
painters who first lost sight of the conditions which regulate the style of
painting when that art is applied to architecture.

"The rich and varied effects which characterize cil-painting are ill appli-
cable to a severe style of architecture. The brightness uf tints, powerful
relief, the finish of details, arc resources easily abused, especially when till
artist has been long accustomed to them. Such means require, on the on-
trary, to be subdued and simplified, so as not to transgress the limits of a
well-understood style of decoration. To these objections it may be added
that oil painting applied to walls has no principle of durability or solidity,
especially when employed on large surfaces. The experienced chemist, M.
Darcet, who has made science available for soma' y practical objects, thought
that he had remedied this defect by preparing walls with new grounds for
painting."'

'■ Tins often misrepresented expression of Michael Angelo appears to have
been uttered in a moment of irritation, and to have been intended as a re-
buke to Sebastian del Piombo. Vasari thus explains the occasion, in bis life
of thai artist : •■ A misunderstanding arose between them, in consequence of
Fra Sebastiano having persnaded the I'ope (Paul III.) to direct Michael
Angi lo to paint the Last Judgment in oil, whereas lie would only consent to
execute it in fresco. But as he was silent at first, ihe wall was prepared for
oil painting, under the direciion ol Fra Sebastiano. Michael Angelo suffered
several months to pass without beginning, and being at last pressed to pro-
ceed ii the work, be declared that he would not undertake it unless he was
allowed to execute it in fresco ; adding that oil painting was an art for wo-
men, an 1 for persons in easy circumstances and of indolent habits, like Fra
Sebastiano. The Prate's priming was therefore removed from the nail, and
the surface was prepared anew for fresco.''

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

341

The writer here refers to the dome of the Pantheon, painted by Gros,
and adds, that the work has already suffered in some places. '

" It may be admitted," he continues, "that fresco is not better fitted to
resist the action of a humid climate ; yet the frescos of Mignard, in the
church of Val de Grace, are well preserved, although the retouches in co-
loured crayons, added by the artist after the work was completed, have faded.
After all, the question of durability need not be considered so all-important ;
even if we could succeed in rendering oil paintings on walls durable, it would
be impossible to give them those qualities fitted fur architectonic decoration
which belong to fresco, and which caused that method to be preferred by all
the great masters of the Italian schools. But although fresco admits of the
design being studied to any extent in cartoons, yet in its ultimate execution
it is not an art for the hesitating and timid. It requires a grand style of
drawing, a broad and simple treatment of colour, an eye steadily fixed on the
whole effect, and an energetic and rapid hand— all qualities which it must be
confessed are rare in these days. But if fresco cannot be successfully en-
countered by all artists, there is another method which is at least as ancient,
and which Prance had first the honour to revive, though its practice is now
familiar to many; I mean encaustic painting, which is applicable to ail
grounds, and which consists in employing the colours mixed with wax, and
prepared for painting by means of essential oils. The colours, which are
used as in oil painting, may be blended so as to give the effect of the highest
finish by subjecting them to the action of fire, by means of a cauterium.
This method, which has been employed with success of late years for monu-
mental decoration, has all the resources of oil-painting ; but the artist may
moderate the brilliancy of tints as he pleases, and give them to a certain ex-
tent the mat (unshining) but luminous tones of fresco ; be may return to his
work as often as be pleases ; while the painting, notwithstanding the changes
of temperature, attains a solidity greater even than that of fresco.

" The school of Munich, which has at least the merit of adhering to the
ancient traditions of monumental painting, has employed these two methods
only ; one for religions and philosophic subjects, the other subjects borrowed
from history and poetry."

To the above may be added the following extracts translated from
a " Memoir presented to the Prefect of the Seine, by MM. Lapere and
Hittorff, architects, relating to the decoration of the new church of
St. Vincent de Paul."

" In the present advanced state of the church of St. Vincent de Paul, it
becomes necessary to consider its permanent decoration. We have therefore
the honour to submit our ideas as to the fittest application of painting and
sculpture for this end.

"In studying the must remarkable monuments of the best ages of art, it is
invariably found that the architect's work was completed by the production of
the painter and sculptor, and that those monuments, by a happy union of the
three arts, presented the most striking and attractive effect which human in-
genuity could devise.

" Another circumstance, not less important, which is apparent in such an
examination is that, wherever this union of architecture with painting and
sculpture has produced great results, one directing thought appears to have
influenced the whole.

"If there are few instances in which a single individual has practised the
three aits with sufficient power to conceive and execute alone an entire mo-
nument, there arc many to prove that edifices prepared by the architect to be
decorated with paintings and statues have been intrusted to one painter and
one sculptor. This was the surest means of obtaining a characteristic result
in harmony with the architect's creation, and which, instead of weakening
the effect of that creation, would contribute to its complete impression. It
was thus that the immortal works of Greece and of ancient Rome were pro-
duced, as well as the masterworks of modern art.

"That this system was in itself judicious, is easily comprehended. The
force and clearness of the idea, the agreement between the conception and
the execution, in a word, harmony— that quality without which no work of
art can be complete, was the result of one pervading feeling which, in the
infinite multiplicity of detail, preserved the unity of a whole."

After referring to the decorated architecture of the Greeks, the
authors remark that

" Many later edifices, imperfect as they may be in details, are yet admi-
rable for this unity of impression.

" Among such examples may be mentioned the Basilica of Monreale and
the Koyal Chapel of Palermo, as true traditions of the principle of Hellenic
art; for in these, historical painting in the form of mosaic (the only decora-
tion employed) is so adapted as to leave no doubt in the spectator's mind on
two points, viz. that the buildings were designed for the paintings, and the
paintings for the places they occupy.

Compare the opinion of Mr. Wilson, before quoted.

" We here find pictures in » Inch the subjects, importance, number, treat-
ment, and distribution have depended on the situations which the architect's
arrangements afforded, all as if guided by one directing thought.

" In contemplating the harmony and majesty which these churches present
in their masses, and the poetic and moral impression produced by their.
decorative details, the spectator at once feels that this grandeur of eftect is
mainly owing to the unity of creation. It is also easy to conceive that this
impression would have been destroyed, or would have been far weaker, if the
decorations had been subdivided and allotted to a great number of artists,
whose works would have been variously conceived and executed. The merit
of such productions, in individual instances, would nut have compensated so
great a defect."

The authors proceed to express their conviction that the similarity
of the grounds on which the figures were painted, in addition to the
similarity of style, contributes to the effect of the whole.

" The use of gold for these grounds shows, besides, that the artists did not
then attempt to do away with the walls, but only to give to the stone the
appearance of a precious material. The simplicity and sedateness in the
attitude and expression of the figures, as well as in their execution, are not
calculated to disturb the impression as to the reality of this wall of gold.
Hence we find none of those abrupt effects produced by grounds of all colours
and varieties, nor those attempts at illusion which in historic mural painting
are so injudicious, presenting hollows where there should be solidity, undu-
lating lines where there should be plane surfaces ; in short, uncharacterizing
the architectural forms — forms which painting should preserve and assist, buj
never alter or suppress."

The authors then refer to three kinds of art which have been re-
vived or invented of late years, namely — encaustic painting, painting
on glass, and enamel painting. The last, it is observed, combines all
the qualities of mosaic and porcelain with many important advan-
tages. The authors remark, that

" Painting even on the exterior of sacred public edifices was not confined
to the south, but bad been employed in severer climates. Germany and the
old and new capitals of Russia contain examples. Such external decorations
lasted better in Egypt than in Greece and Italy, and better in the south of
Europe than in the north. Hence more durable materials are required in
the latter cases. Mosaic had been first adopted with this view ; porcelain,
treated as it was at the revival of art, could in some degree have answered
the same purpose, but nothing could fulfil all the desired requisites so satis-
factorily as the enamelled lava.-' More durable than mosaic, more under the
command of the painter, so as to enable him to give the greatest perfection
to his work, this beautiful invention, in its application to the exterior of the
Church of St. Vincent de Paul, may rival the most remarkable effects of the
kind that art has produced."

The authors afterwards propose that Raphael's compositions from
the Old Testament should be executed in enamel, to adorn the cella
of the portico of the new church.

In the decoration of the interior they recommend encaustic paint-
ing,

" Now sufficiently tried at Fontainebleau, at Munich, and in Notre Dame
de Lorette and in the Madeleine, at Paris."5

MM. Lepere and Hittorff next recommend that certain prominent
portions of the internal decoration in the nave and sanctuary, and
which belong to the general coup d'ceil should be entrusted to one, or
at most to two artists ; but the side chapels and various other places,
they admit, might be allotted to various hands. They assume, how-
ever, that the universal gold ground which they propose to adopt,
will compel all the artists to a sufficient unity of style and effect.
The observations on sculpture are dictated by the same principle of
preserving a harmony in the general effect and in the style of those
works that are seen together.

The opinions of German artists and critics, on the adaptation of
painting to architecture, correspond with those above quoted. 6 Mr.
Wilson states in his notes: —

" Professor Hess observed to me that great care must be taken to avoid
contrasts of effects in a series of pictures on the same wall. The same sp rit,
he observed, must pervade the whole in the design and colour, and as nearly
as possible in the light and dark. If, for instance, an artist were to repre-
sent a broad daylight in bis first picture, in the next a fiery sunset, and be-
side that again a night scene, such contrasts would interfere with the archi-
tectural unity which is essential."

4 Lava slabs of large dimensions are obtained at Volvic in Auvergne ; they
are fire- proof, and figures the size of life are executed on them in enamel.

5 The trials of encaustic hitherto made have in many instances been far
from satisfactory, chiefly owing to the effects of dump in ill-prepared walls.

0 Sec the article Fresco, in the " Conversations Lexicon."

342

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

After noticing the works in the church of the Madeleine, before
referred to, Mr. Wilson quotes some defective Italian examples, and
adds : —

" Paul Veronese, as might he expected, from his nil pictures, is more effec-
tive, and perhaps may be said to paint in fresco on truer principles of colour
than any other Venetian master ; but his taste in design is open to criticism.
In the Villa Mazer lie has everywhere annihilated the architect's intentions,
and has so painted the walls and ceilings as to convey the idea that the spec-
tator is looking i ut to the country and up to the heavens, while the win-
dows in the room contrast the reality with the artist's intentions. Such
extravagances, perhaps pardonable in the fanciful decorations of a villa, were
carried to excess by the later Italian artists. Vaulted roofs of Churches or
rooms were frequently painted with perspectives of gorgeous edifices, while
portions of clouds and figures were brought down, by means of express plas-
tering, over the real cornices and mouldings. In S Andrea dclla Valle in
Rome, even Domenichino has indulged in such perverse and unworthy con-
ceits.

"'We may, on the other hand, gather from the examples of the best mas-
ters, that an idea of unity should pervade a series of pictures executed in
one place ; but still there ere difficulties in firming a just opinion of the true
mode in which painting should be thus applied. By some of the German
artists the difficulty has been met. by representing the pictures as tapestries
nailed to the walls;7 in other cases they have painted the figures on gold
grounds, in imitation of the mosaics in the ancient Byzantine churches."

Adverting to the decoration of churches at the revival of art, Mr.
Wilson proceeds : —

•'Blue was substituted at a later period for gold, and this is exemplified
with most completeness in the Cappella degli Scrovegni at l'adua. painted by
Giotto, which may be deemed a perfect example of Italian Gothic church-
painting.

" In this building, as in other Italian Gothic edifices, the vaulted roof is
painted blue, and is divided into compartments with stripes of ornament ; in
other buildings where there are ribs in the vaulting, this ornament, which is
of a geometrical character, is confined to these, and to a small space on
either side of them. In each compartment of the vault there are circles of
characteristic ornament, in which are painted heads and even whole-length
figures of the Evangelists, or their symbols. At a subsequent period the
circles were dismissed, and the figures were painted standing on light thin
clouds: at all times the blue background, sometimes very dark, at other
times light, was spangled with gold stars, frequently executed in relief. In
Sta. Maria del Popolo, in Rome, Pintiuicchio has introduced a beautiful
variety in this mode of decoration ; he has seated the figures on thrones, and
diapered the blue background with a rich gold pattern. To return to the
Cappella degli Scrovegni ; the paintings on the walls are divided from each
other by broad ornamented bands vertically, and by narrow ones horizontally ;
inUhe vertical bands arc octagonal spaces, with heads of sainis, coats of
arms, and Subjects composed of two figures, and all these bands are richly
painted with various colours. The figures are all on a ground of plain blue,
of the same time as that of the vault overhead.

'■ In the Farnesina, Raphael has restored the ancient mode of treatment,
which bad been departed from even by Giotto himself i n the walU i i
and which was never revived by any other artist till Raphael adopted it in
the above instance."

The extreme opinions of the continental artists and critics above
quoted, are to be tried by a reference to the masterworks of Italian
art, and by an examination of the conditions resulting from the union
of painting with architecture.

Fresco having been decided on for the decoration of portions of
the Palace at Westminster, the question of methods need not for the
present be further discussed ; but it may be remarked that the argu-
ments for or against particular modes appear to depend on the fol-
lowing considerations: — the influence of the practice of a given me-
thod on the style of the artists; the inclination of the artists; dura-
bility; applicability to architecture; the resources of the method;
and the convenience of execution. The absence of a shining surface
for paintings on walls seems to be generally considered desirable, and
in the present case is especially recommended by the architect 8 It
is easily attainable in all modes, the enamelled surface above referred
to excepted. The employment of other methods than fresco, it has
been observed, might admit of the work being executed on strong
panel, to be afterwards inserted in walls, thus avoiding the objections
to canvas; but panels of the sizes required could not be easily intro-
duced into painting rooms of ordinary dimensions. M. Paul de la
Roche, who recommends painting in oil on the wall itself admits that,

7 There are examples of this in the Hall of Constantino and on one of the
ceilings of the Stanze in the Vatican.
6 See Architect's Report,

to avoid the black and heavy appearance which old oil-paintings thus
executed present, it is necessary to adopt a light style of colour, and
to admit a large proportion of illumined masses. 9 This leads to the
consideration of the question of style, and of the restraints to literal
imitation which are supposed to be necessary.

The gold ground, recommended by the writers above quoted, might
be at once dismissed without comment, as it has never been proposed
as a background for figures in the intended decorations ; but it is to
be observed that there is no example of it in the celebrated paintings
of the great masters, with the exception of Raphael's first work in
the Vatican, viz., the ceiling of the Camera della Segnatura. It may
have been objectionable to them, even in works whore no background
was introduced, because, as is evident from the instance just quoted,
it is an unsatisfactory imitation of mosaic: the comparative dulness
and heaviness of the colours contrasting ill with the splendour of
gold. It is just, however, to state that all who have seen the works
of Professor Hess, thus executed on a large scale at Munich, have
been no less struck by the general splendour of effect than by the
grandeur and beauty of the inventions.

The opinions respecting the supposed necessity of preserving the
flatness of the real wall, whatever means may be adopted for such an
object, must be especially objectionable to painters, who feel that the
triumph of their art greatly consists in apparently doing way with the.
plane surface. Nevertheless, it will be admitted that an art which
professes to be the auxiliary of architecture, may require to be more
or less modified in particular cases in order to attain the union pro-
posed. The qualities which constitute the abstract completeness of
imitation are limited, even in ordinary practice, by various causes;
by the style of art, by the subject, and by dimensions, without any
reference to the particular place for which the work may be destined.
The conditions of situation, and of relation to a building, are new to
artists in this country, but must be acknowledged to be as obligatory
as those which they are in the habit of fulfilling.

M. De la Roche, though, as before observed, an advocate for oil-
painting on walls, thus writes to Mr. Wilson: " Monumental painting
is an art by itself, requiring no less experience than invention, and
should an opportunity of the kind again present itself for me, I shall
endeavour to show that I have profited by the observations which I
have made during and since the execution of my work" (the hemi-
cycle before mentioned, in the Ecole des Beaux Arts.)

The arrangements with respect to light being assumed to be satis-
factory, the general conditions in question may be reduced to three —
the purpose of the building, the magnitude of the halls or rooms to be
painted, and the style of the architecture. The purpose of the
building must regulate the selection of subjects, and, to a certain ex-
tent, their style. It is inexpedient here to enter upon the considera-
tion of the selection of subjects, but the dimensions of the rooms are
given by the architect, and must always constitute an important con-
dition, not without some influence even on the subjects. Figures in
paintings which are required to decorate vast halls may require to be
larger than nature, and it will generally happen, as a consequence of
such enlargement, that little space remains in the picture for back-
ground. On the other hand, colossal figures in a small room, even
where the idea of a supernatural size is intended to be conveyed, are
unsatisfactory, as the spectator is quite near enough to perceive de-
tails, and finds none, except those belonging to the execution of the
work and which ought not to be visible. This unpleasant effect is
produced in the " Sala de' (iiganti," bytiiulio Romano, at Mantua.

In the suite of apartments or Stanze in the Vatican painted by
Raphael, the compartments for pictures are as large as they can be
consistently with the size of the rooms. In the first work there exe-
cuted by him, even the foreground figures are not larger than life.
As the great artist proceeded in his labours, he increased the size,
and reduced the number of the figures, till his eye was satisfied.

The limited distance, compared with their size, at which these
works are seen, may in like manner have determined the style of exe-
cution, and ultimately in some degree even the subjects. In the
Camera della Segnatura, which at first appeared to be the only room
which could be allotted to Raphael (the others being then occupied
by the works of older artists), the subjects, such as philosophy,
poetry, &c. are abstract; but when directed to re-paint the remaining
rooms, the experienced artist adopted or approved of a class of sub-
jects which required various details, such as it is natural to look for
in objects seen near.

On the same principle differently applied, when Michael Angelo
began the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, he tilled three compartments
with numerous small figures ana a variety of incidents; but finding
that such a style produced no effect from below, he suddenly enlarged

» Letter from M, De la Roche to Mr, Wilson.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

343

the figures of the next compartment to a colossal size : they thus oc-
cupied the whole space, leaving no room for hack ground. Having
once satisfied himself as to the necessary size, lie adhered to it
throughout.

The tapestries executed from Raphael's cartoons were originally
destined for, and ultimately hung up in the Sistine Chapel, round the
Presbyterium. In the cartoon which, from the intended situation of
the tapestry and from other circumstances, appears to have been exe-
cuted first, viz., the Miraculous Draught of Fishes, or Calling of
Peter, the figures are comparatively small; in all the rest, the size of
the figures is greatly increased. ""

These examples may suffice to show that the distance from which
the spectator is supposed to contemplate a work (sometimes as a part
of an extensive decoration), not only defines the size of the figures,
but also regulates in a great degree the quantity of detail, and conse-
quently the selection, or at least the treatment of the subject.

In the instances of the Stanze of the Vatican and the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel, the great artists made their own arrangements
respecting the spaces or compartments. In the Palace at Westmin-
ster the distribution of the spaces has already been fixed by the ar-
chitect. The distance at which paintings in the Victoria Gallery
will be seen will be considerably greater than in the Vatican, not so
much from the difference in the dimensions of the rooms (the Victoria
Gallery being 45 feet wide, and the Hall of Constantine, the largest
of the suite in the Vatican here referred to, being not much short of
that measure), as from the smaller space which the architect proposes
to allot to each painting. As it is, the moderate size of 12 feet is
fixed.

The apartments of the Vatican to which the Hall of Constantine
forms the approach, vary in dimensions and are not all rectangular.
The room called the Camera della Segnatnra measures about 35 ft. in
the longest dimension. Single frescos, with the addition of a painted
frame-work, occupy each wall. The paintings called Theology and
Philosophy (or the Dispute of the Sacrament and the School of
Athens) measure, without reckoning the painted frame-work, about
20 feet 8 inches wide;11 so that the utmost distance to which the
spectator can retire from either is not sufficient for the eye to em-
brace the whole composition. The base of the paintings is, however,
above the height of the eye (in the other rooms higher than in this),
which somewhat increases the distance ; but in the Hall of Constan-
tine, measuring about GO feet by 12, the large fresco of the Battle
with Maxentius, about 3G feet in extent, 12 on one of the side walls,
cannot be viewed at the minimum of distance which is necessary to
see the whole of a picture. 13

The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is about GO feet from the ground ;
the size of the single compartments has no relation to this distance
which would admit of pictures measuring from 30 to 40 feet wide;
but the size of the figures (with the exception of those in the three
compartments before mentioned) is perfectly well calculated for their
situation. Those in the coved part of the ceiling, as is well known,
are still larger, partly perhaps with a view to counteract the effect of
the curve. The head of the Delphic Sybil measures about 2 feet,
giving a height for the entire figure, if it were erect, of nearly
1G feet.

Thus, even where single paintings and compartments can be duly
embraced by the eye, the Italian painters seem to have considered
that the effect of each should be subservient to that of the whole wall
or ceiling, though that whole, strictly speaking, could not be compre-
hended at one glance. Instances, it also appears, are not wanting in
which the size of the apartments does not admit even of single paint-
ings in it being embraced by the eye at once. This may be a suffi-
cient excuse for the absence in such works of any general effect of
chiaro-scuro. The principle of making the effect of the various
compartments subservient to the whole scheme of decoration appears
therefore to be one of the points in which the equality of architec-
tural embellishment may, in some degree, require to be extended to
painting, and in which the unpicturesque principle of repetition is in
danger of superseding concentration. The resource of the painter, as
exhibited in all the examples quoted, is effective composition, through

10 The cartoon of Paul preaching at Athens may offer an exception : the
subject demanded a display of architectural magnificence ; but even here the
principal figures are much larger than in the cartoon of the Calling of Peler.

1 ' Passavant, in his life of Raphael, gives the dimensions 25 ft. by 15 ft.,
French measure.

12 Passavant (ib.) and Bunscn (Beschreihurg der Stadt Rom), give the di-
mensions 50 palms by 22,

13 Once and half; the width of a picture is considered the minimum of
distance to which the spectator can retire to see its whole surface. A circle
cannul. he embraced by the eye til! the spectator retries to a distance equal
to thrice its semidiameter.

wdiich, elevation, isolation, fee., may render the principal objects
striking, and a gradation of importance may be attained by skilful
arrangement. There are, however, instances in which the effect of
mural paintings of vast size, and which are seen alone, approach the
concentration of effect common in easel pictures. A cupula seems to
suggest this treatment; a single painting occupying the end wall of a
chapel, or of a hall, and which may be seen at a sufficient distanee,
admits of the principle of concentration (subject to the conditions
arising from its adaptation to architecture), inasmuch as it is a whole
in itself. Thus, judging from its present remains, there appears to
have been a treatment of light and dark in Michael Angelo's Last
Judgment different from that of the ceiling subjects. The enlarge-
ment of the figures in the upper part of the fresco is rather to be
accounted for by the principle before followed by the great artist in
the ceiling, namely, that of adapting the size of the figures to their
real distance from the spectator; for it may here be observed, that
the perspective diminution of figures is confined to narrow limits in
the works above mentioned, and in those of most of the Italian
masters, Correggio and his imitators excepted. This restriction is a
necessary consequence of the general aim of the severer schools — an
aim which was only recognized by Correggio in subservience to his
favourite qualities of chiaro-scuro and gradation. The other great
painters seem to have considered that figures reduced to minute di-
mensions by perspective may express distance, but, in general, no-
thing more. The real subject of Correggio's cupolas may be said
to be space ; the subjects of the mural paintings of Michael Angelo
and Raphael are rather human action and thought.

With respect to the attempt to do away with the real surface of
ceilings by perspective appearances, a practice so much abused in
the decline of art, it would be a mistake to suppose that the repre-
sentation of an immeasurable space overhead, with violent fore-
shortening, as seen in the cupolas of Correggio, was altogether new in
Italy in his time; and it would be equally erroneous to conclude that
the great artist who painted for Julius II. were unacquainted with
efforts of the kind. There was a remarkable and early example in
the Church of the SS. Apostoli in Rome, by Melozzo da Forli, in
which a foreshortened figure of Christ, represented in the subject of
the Ascension, "seemed," to use the words of Vasari, "to pierce the
roof." 14 Michael Angelo, of all artists, would have been the last to
shrink from the difficulty of foreshortening, but he preferred the more
judicious, because more intelligible and expressive representation of
figures, seen as if opposite to the eye, and not as they would appear
above it. In his as well as in Raphael's ceiling pictures, the horizon
is often introduced as it would be in a painting on a wall.

But to what extent, is the characteristic aim of painting, viz., the
representation of roundness and depth on a fiat surface, to be sacri-
ficed or limited in the adaptation of painting to architecture, and how
far are the observations, on this point, of the writers above quoted to
be looked upon as valid ? The answer may be furnished by the ex-
amples before mentioned. From those examples it is apparent that
the larger the dimensions of the figures, (the necessary consequence
of the distance at which the work may require to be viewed,) the
more abstract must be the representation, and the more it requires to
be reduced to expressive essentials; that, on the other hand, where
the spectator can only retire a few feet to contemplate a painting, the
eye demands a greater fulness of parts, and more gradation ; but that
in no case can the. imitation descend to the style of cabinet pictures,
in as much as the compartments, however small, are always to be con-
sidered as portions of an extensive whole.

The apparent contradiction of the omission of detail, in proportion
to increase of size, was adverted to in a paper in the appendix to the
former report, and, bearing as it does on the question under discus-
sion, may be more fully stated on the authority of various examples,
as follows : —

The representation, without reference to its frame or boundary, is
required to expand as it recedes from the eye ; this increase of size
with distance (or of distance with size) being indispensable, in order
that the work, as a whole, maybe duly seen. But this progressive
enlargement is confined to significant forms and objects; things less
important are gradually omitted, notwithstanding the general increase
of size. The extreme effects of proximity and distance correspond
in some respects, for works of art may be so small that their leading-
features only can be perceptible : this effect is equivalent to that of
distance. Thus, engraved gems often exhibit a grandeur of style fit
for colossal figures. On the other hand, the degrees of distance to
which the style of highly-finished cabinet pictures may be said to
belong, are defined by the average range of most distinct vision.
Beyond and within that limit, whether the pictured plane diminishes

>•> Part of this work is now preserved in the Vatican.

344

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[OcTOBERj

as it approaches, or expands as it recedes from the eye, detail is
either less compatible with effective representation, or is less per-
ceptible.

The following considerations may tend to explain the practice in
art to which this statement refers. The scale of mere magnitude
still increases with increasing distance, as the picture becomes en-
larged, and it would at first appear that, at any and every degree of
distance, the eye must continue to receive an equivalent impression.
This cannot, however, be literally the case; for the scale of other
qualities, such as sharpness and softness, and light and darkness, may
be already complete in a picture requiring to be seen near; conse-
quently, that scale cannot be increased by increased dimensions, while
it must be reduced by increased distance. But as it becomes re-
duced— as sharpness, force and gradation become impaired, notwith-
standing the increase of dimensions, the omission of detail becomes
unavoidable ; for it is essential to completeness that the quantity of
parts should not surpass the existing technical means of expressing
their relative importance.

The restrictions which in this instance are a consequence of dis-
tance and dimensions, are more or less expedient in all modes of imi-
tation in which the organ of sight is less fully informed. The incom-
pleteness in the appearance, as in the case of the absence of colour
in sculpture, being compensated by greater general distinctness, and
by a representation unencumbered bv accidents.

Perhaps the most remarkable examples of this relative completeness
or independence of style occur in the outlines and monochroms of
Greek vases. In these works, the line being assumed to vary but
little in thickness, the means of representation may be said to be re-
duced to the lowest degree. Yet a certain gradation is still pre-
served. The quality of smoothness in forms is expressed by the
omission of internal markings ; without background, the scene is in-
dicated by a significant stenography. Parts only of some objects are
introduced ; others (the presence of which may be inferred or imagined
from the position of the figures) are entirely omitted ; as if that which
reduced figures to a mere outline, rendered subordinate objects in-
visible altogether.

Flaxmau has shown that the language of abstract form ("apparently
requiring no addition of light and shade to assist its meaning) can be
employed quite as emphatically with less convention ; but the same
general principles are recognised in his designs.

The consistency which is maintained even on so limited a scale, is
not less apparent in the works of great artists, in modes of imitation
which afforded ample means of expression. From the restricted de-
partment of art referred to, in which so much beauty was nevertheless
condensed, to examples of painting, which have exhausted the resources
of imitation, the world has always awarded its approbation to com-
pleteness of style, and to the docility which has kept it in view under
the conditions o! subject, material, place, and dimensions.

Sir Joshua Reynolds observes that Michael Angelo, in the Sistine
Chapel, attempted little more than could be attained in sculpture;
nevertheless, it has been remarked that the ceiling of that chapel, as
an example of decoration and of the due adaptation of painting to
architecture, has never been surpassed. ' ■'■ The inference is, that dis-
tance, large dimensions, and the grandeur of style which is the result,
are favourable to the fulfilment of the union proposed. But a'though
there are few examples of perspective or of backgrounds in the com-
positions of the Sistine Chapel, the individual figures are remarkable
for roundness, and the fresco of the Last Judgment may originally
have exhibited the quality of depth in a remarkable degree.

The extreme doctrine which assumes the necessity of aiming at
flatness, because a wall is flat, may therefore be pronounced erroneous
on the authority of the best mural paintings, and may be considered
unnecessary, even as regards the end proposed. As a proof, it may
be sufficient to remember that examples of oil-painting in which the
effects of aerial perspective have been represented with consummate
mastery, when hung up in a room are immediately seen to be flat sur-
faces, more or less agreeably coloured. At the same time it is appa-
rent that the breadth of treatment which must ever be an attribute of
" monumental " painting, must tend to reduce the fulness of relief.
The limitation of chiaro-scuro which this supposes, involves, however,
an especial attention to colour, and it is to be observed that the prac-
tice, common with the painters of Venice and Friuli, of executing
large figures, calculated to be seen at a considerable distance, on the
exterior of buildings, may have led those painters to feel the import-
ance of depth of local hues, and the necessity of laying a stress on the
permanent rather than on the mutable qualities of nature. The requi-

15 The remarkable alteration in the size of the figures before referred to,
interfering as It does with the architectural symmetrv, is not however to be
overlooked.

site which M. De la Roche thinks essential, viz., the predominance of
light masses, is quite compatible with this aim ; and the lightness of
effect, without deficiency of force, which is the result, is a quality sel-
dom wanting in Italian frescos. Those by Annibale Carracci, in the' Far-
nese Palace, form a remarkable contrast to the heaviness of some oil-
pictures by the same master.

With respect to the alleged expediency of intrusting the execution
of a series of pictures to a single artist with a view to unity of effect,
it appears, from the examples before given, that the change of stvle
consequent upon first experiments, which may be exhibited in a series
by a single artist, may interfere as much with architectural symmetry
as the varieties of treatment resulting from the employment of manv.

In the instance of the frescos in the Stanze of the Vatican, it should,
however, be remembered, that although the contrast which some of
those works present to the rest might not have been satisfactory had
they formed a series in a vast hall, yet as each picture occupies an
entire side, and is seen almost aloDe, the incongruity which to a cer-
tain extent exists is not apparent. Again, the architectural and other
back grounds, which are sometimes elaborate, might have been too
prominent had the compartments been of the ordinary shape ; as it is,
their semicircular form sufficiently reduces the space above the
figures.

The condition of a peculiar style of architecture is altogether a
question of taste; even authority here fails, the greatest Italian mas-
ters never having been called upon to paint in a Gothic building. The
example which is most applicable may be found in the works of Luca
Signorelli, at Orvieto. In those works there can be no doubt that the
artist's object was not to imitate, but to surpass the ruder productions
which may have been executed, there or elsewhere, about the time
when Italian-Gothic structures were erected. The Tudor style of
Gothic (the style of the Palace at Westminster) is coeval with the
highest development of art in Italy; and buildings erected in the
time of Henry VII. or Henry VIII. might have been decorated by the
hand of Raphael, bad he accepted the invitation of the last-named
monarch to visit England. 1<;

From the foregoing considerations and examples it appears that,
whether the decoration of a wall or ceiling consist of one or of manv
paintings, the treatment should have reference to the whole extent of
such wall or ceiling; and that, consequently, if the compartments be
small, that circumstance does not of itself involve the necessity of a
corresponding style. Hence the dimensions of the figures are not
always referable to the size of the compartments, but are rather calcu-
lated for the distance from which the whole, or a considerable portion
of the decorated surface can be conveniently viewed ; and the usual
consequence is that little space remains in the pictures for background.
The cartoons of Raphael may in general be cousidered as models in
this respect, the tapestries for which they were designed having been
to all intents permanent mural decorations. It may here be further
remarked that, when figures differing in size from those in the prin-
cipal compartments are introduced among the architectural embellish-
ments, they are often painted in chiaro-scuro, or in imitation of bronze,
gold, or some such material, or, if imitative of nature, the subjects are
supposed to be on tapestries. Such portions thus profess to be works
of art, and the difference of size, as compared with that of the figures
in the principal compositions, involves no inconsistency. Such, with
occasional exceptions, examples of which have been before noticed,
was the practice of the Italian painters.

'« Dallaway's Walpole, vol. i. pp. 106—187.

Ap.rii.Eoi.ui.ir.M. Institution of Rome. — The annals of last year's pro-
ceedings of this Society have been recently published, and contain drawings
and description of the Temple of Mount Ocha, near Carystus, in Euboea,
communicated by Professor Ulrichs. of Athens. This temple is generally
believed to be the oldest and best preserved specimen of the kind in (ireece,
ami is particularly remarkable for the massiveness of its walls, and the pe-
culiar structure of its roof. The prize proposed by this Academy in 1842,
for the best essay on the Coinage of Italy, has been gained by Dr. Achille
Gennarelli, author of the text of the " Museo Gregoriano." lie opposes
many of the opinions advanced in the work published by Marche and Tes-
sieri, under the title of " Acs grave del Museo Kercheriano," which al-
though up to this time the standard work on Italian coinage, was yet so
faulty as to indue the Areha-ological Society to propose a prize for another
on the same subject.

St. Mary's (nine h, Reading. — During the course of last month three
very ancient sedilia, of the early English architecture, were discovered in
ruins behind the wainscotting on the south side of the chancel, the fresco
painting at the back of them and the encaustic tiles being still in excellent
preservation.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

345

THE PHILOSOPHY OF CORAL FORMATIONS, AND THEIR
ARCHITECTS.

Coral (Corallium, Lat. from Kopn, a daughter, ami a\os, the sea; so derived
by Minshew, because it is generated from lite sea;) generally described as
an animal growing in a plant-like form, or a congeries of animals of the
polype khid : there are 15 genera at present known to us, embracing nume-
rous species. The ancients are wholly silent on the subject of coral reefs
and their architects, their knowledge, according to Dioscorides and Pliny,
being confined to the white and red corals of commerce, of which they enu-
merate six varieties or various shades, from dull white to bright red or scar-
let, the latter being held in the highest degree of estimation by the Romans,
who classed them among the most valued gems. But although silent, it
cannot be supposed that they were altogether ignorant of their existence, the
Red Sea, sometimes termed by the Hebrews the Sea of Zupli, or Weeds, hav-
ing been navigated from the earliest ages by the various tribes bordering on
the coasts, the dwellers of ancient Mesopotamia carrying on a constant trade
of drugs, spices, &c, with Egypt, Syria anil Palestine, and eventually with
European nations. We are therefore to assume that the perilous reef and its
beautiful architects were well known to them, as they are to the Arab an 1
Abyssinian traders of the present day, under the general term of stony
plants or weeds. C'nesalpinus, Boccone, Ray, Tournefort, Geoffroy, and Hill,
class coral among marine plants, maintaining that it is propagated by seed
like unto vegetables, and Count Marsigli, who was a very attentive observer,
supposed he had discovered its (lowers and fructification ; but the more mi-
nute observation of M. de Peyssonnel led to the discovery that what Count
Marsigli mistook for flowers, was no other than a congeries of minute insects
inhabiting the coral : for upon taking the branches out of the water, they
immediately retired into the cellular cavities, re-appearing on immersion in
water. Recent observations by Linna5tis, Ellis, and others, confirm these
latter views to a certain extent only, for in the face of these authorities, and
of many indisputable facts, it is still a subject of dispute as regards fungi,
sponges, and other species, and throughout the whole, the link of life between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms is so finely drawn as to be indivisible,
the beginning and the end being lost in the subtilty of nature's workings.

The coral polyps, which are invisibly minute in their atomic structure,
perform a most astounding part in the production of earths, and of fossil and
mineral compounds. Governed in their distribution by habit and generic
character, they generate in groups and families in localities favourable to
the propagation and increase of their kind ; or they are disseminated by the
tidal currents, or by organic or inorganic substances to which they attach
themselves, throughout the various regions of the element in which they
live- In the colder latitudes, or in the lower depths, they are known as
naked polyps, being of the lowest order of organization and simplicity of
structure, gelatin and albumen together, or gelatin alone, with sea water,
being the chief, and in many instances their sole elementary compounds :
' ut, as they approach the surface of the waters in temperate or tropical
regions, their organic structure becomes more rigid, and to the above simple
material is added, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, ammonia, marine acids,
and other well known products, by which, in warm and tranquil seas, they
become the unconscious architects of hills and chains of hills, mountains and
chains of mountains, rising above the w:aters as islands anil portions of
continents.

The coral polyps are living but not sentient bodies, being m;re imputations
of life ; they are rapidly generated in warm and tranquil waters, and as the
grasses of the field, as rapidly disappear before the influences of climate, of
disturbance, and of the countless creatures of the deep that prey upon them.
Preserved from those contingencies common to all forms of life, such is the
peculiar economy of their structure and organic action, as to admit of a very
brief period of individual existence, the tender offshoot, like that of the
flowering shrub, being soon hidden in the more consolidated structure of the
compound body; every simple body, however minute on its parts, having
limits to its extent, such limits being defined by ami depending in its nature,
quantities, and qualities, and the influences by which it is generated and
governed : every compound body having also limits to its extent, such
■pending, in like manner, on its nature, quantities, qualities and local

influences, the same being perfect results of the day, still perfecting by ac-
quisition of parts and quantities, and passing througli the brief but successive
stages of development, from birth to maturity and from thence to decay.

Many of these bodies propagate their kind by separation of parts, every
particle of the body having capacity, under favourable circumstances, to pro-
duce life : thus species are propagated and sustained : of such are the naked
polyps. Other species increase by the multiplication of their parts until they
have attained a certain size, defined by the accidents of clime and associ-
ation ; and becoming matured, their gemma or buds drop off, and carried
away by the waters, are generated therein, affixing themselves to some organic
or inorganic body where they increase and multiply their species; others
are permanently fixed to their primary bases, and increase by multiplication
of parts in a manner precisely similar to the growth of plants, ramifying
into shoots and branches, and becoming eventually one peculiar body of a
plant-like form, and having the appearance and qualities characterizing
species. The progressive development and growth of fung.sa or mushroom
species in the ocean and on the earth is precisely similar, although the one
is said to belong to the animal, the other to the vegetable kingdom ; both the
one and the other spring from corruption or decomposed organic matter —
both are developed by a gradual enlargement of the entire body, stem an I
crown produced by multiplication of parts — both attain a defined size and
form distinguishing species and characteristic qualities— both multiply by
their seed given forth through their cellular cavities — and both are incapable
of propagating by slips and cuttings. The same beautiful coincidence may
be remarked in many of the madrepores and millepores, their organica], me-
chanical, and chemical action similating with terrestrial plants, each having
root and stem, branches and leaves, each having its ascending and descend-
ing sap, and a governing action embracing the whole system ; the stems of the
corallines are composed of capillary tubes whose extremities pass through the
calcareous crust, and open into pores on the surface, and such is the d spo-
sition of plants. Many of the corallines consist of a single tube, as for in-
stance, Tubelaria, or pipe coral ; here the tube rises in the form of the cup of a
flower, such as the primrose: at first it is merely a flesh-like film contracting
towards the base when taken from the water, and expanding when replaced
in it ; Ihis film, consisting of gelatin, calcium, and sometimes a small portion
of animal oil, is the germ of the body, which strengthens with its growth,
and finally becoming rigid, its individual organic action is impeded, its pro-
geny appear and close the apex, and thus they continue to ramify into joints,
and when united in groups and families, the whole contribute to form one
vast catacomb, many of these jointed tubes rising up together, the living
crowning the whole, and still continuing to increase so long as they are unin-
terrupted by destroying causes. These polyps have the usual characteristic
of animal matter, but their mode of generation and development fully justify
Dr. Paris and others in insisting upon their belonging to the vegetable king-
dom. The same may be said of other species of the Polypiers Calciferes, which
in the place of a woody fibre have a calcareous substance mixed with their
animal juices, or forming their outward covering, the like organic action and
development being common to the vegetable kingdom.

Polyps pass through the like gradations of change with shell fish ortender
succulent plants ; those of most calcareous nature not excepted. The stony
polyps develop two distinct stages of existence ; in the first they are naked
and flexible, and it is in this state that they are mistaken by naturalists, on
the one side, as tentacula of the animal, on the other as the flowers and fruc-
tification of the vegetable body. The fungous matter covering some, and the
flesh-like matter exuding from or covering others, is the rising progeny of
the consolidated mass beneath, convertible, and converted in the course of
time into like consolidated matter ; the basis beneath the external covering
of fungous matter consists of consolidated matter in which vital action is
still manifest, and consolidated matter in which vital action is extinguished,
the la'ter being in many cases converted into solid limestone rock, or as is
manifest in the corals of commerce, the degree of organic action simila'es to
that of forest trees. The Madrepora Fungitis, as Rumphius observes, while
living is covered with a thick viscid matter like starch, the more elevated
folds or plates having borders like the denticulated edges of needle-work lace,
which are covered with innumerable oblong vesicles formed of the same
gelatinous substance. This, and the coarse visible rind, is the active porlion
of the compound body appertaining to its calcareous bases, an I drawin [ its

47

346

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

vital action therefrom, as well as administering nourishment thereto, as it
consolidates by abstracting its food from the medium in which it moves, so
its lower portions gradually assimilate to the calcareous basis on which it is
placed, and new offshoots arise to vegetate in turn their fleet existence, until
they enter the second stage, and eventually into the fossil kiDgdom. It is
upon the gelatinous viscid matter covering the surface of corals and coral-
lines that the animals of the deep feed, it is to the vast plains covered with
half naked and naked polyps, that whales, turtles, and other species repair to
revel in abundance, cropping the surface, which is rapidly renewed again.
Mr. Darwin is decidedly m error when he talks of fishes browsing upon the
coral branches ; it is true that calcareous matter is often found in the sto-
mach of fishes, particularly those of the coral species, but it is equally true,
as previously observed, that many of the polyps, while in their soft state,
contain a great portion of calcareous matter, and to the continued increase of
this matter the coral owes its eventual solidity. On the other hand, the ge-
nerality of species while living, are filled with a milk-like fluid, fat, sharp,
and astringent, and in some of the Gorgonia in particular, so powerful are its
effects, as to draw blood when applied to the tongue, for while in the living
state a strong electric excitement is evident in the living system : it is also a
fact that minute or naked animalculae are seldom, if ever, found located on
the coral branches, the intruders being generally shell-bearing animals of
like constituents with themselves. And finally, months of observation among
the coral reefs have convinced the writer of this article that the delicate
brandies always remained uninjured by fishes, which feed upon them as ants
feed upon the aphides, robbing them of their sweets alone, and leaving the
body uninjured.

Lythophyta, Tubipora, Millepora, Madrepora, and Fungosa, propagate
their kind through the means of their juices, which exuding from the parent
trunk, fall upon the surrounding soil, become attached thereto, and if cir-
cumstances be favourable, are speedily generated, being governed in their
first development by electro-chemical action, where light and heat are neces-
sary adjuncts ; in their increase, by the forces which govern vegetable bodies
in their multiplication of parts ; and, in their advance towards maturity, by
the laws of organic life as their organical structure becomes developed. Their
food is received through the cellular pores, and consists of water and the
atomic particles floating therein, which, received into the living system,
undergo chemical change, forming products similating with the organic
bod] . eventually converted into the milk-like fluid, which, like the sap of a
tree or the blood of an animal, pervades the whole system. From the deve-
lopment of the gemma or buds in many species to their full maturity of
growth, they exhibit all the phenomena of terre.-trial plants, being uniform
in their development, growth, and decay, and propagating by their seeds and
ci ttings.

This similarity of action and organical arrangement would at once identify
them with the vegetable kingdom, was it not for the animal matter manifest
in all of them ; it is certain that they difler little from fucuses and confervas,
and like them are uniform in their growth, development, and decay ; we can
therefore only come to the conclusion that Life throughout nature is one,
although differing in degrees ; that by nature animal has no distinction above
Vegetable life, but acquires powers, under favourable circumstances, from the
superiority of its elastic compounds and peculiarity of its organic action,
which is not distinguishable in lower organizations: that when organic
is impeded by the rapid secretion of calcareous matters, the body or
form, unless under intense energy of light and heat, and other favourable
circumstances, is not enabled to pass the boundaries of simple organization,
such as distinguish vegetable bodies : and so far as respects the stony polyps,
the mixed qualities which compose the juices and the animal framework, as
lime, soda, magnesia, &c. are inimical to their attaining any considerable
size, or to the development of nerves, marking an advance in organic charac-
ter. As regards life, they may, therefore, be considered as one with the vege-
table kingdom, and that while the animal matter secreted by the functional
operations of life identifies them as belonging to the animal kingdom ; the ac-
life by which their animal matter, carbon, lime, ammonia, and other
compounds are produced, and the organs of reception, retention, and motive
power, by means of which they draw their nourishment from the medium in
which they live, as also the act of procreation by division of their parts, and
the ultimate development of peculiar form to a definite extent only, and the

organical arrangement of the several compounds of which the body consists,
as strongly identify them with the vegetable kingdom.

The colourless pellicle which distinguishes many species of the zoophyta
planta, and is also distinguishable in some of the stony species, is formed in
every individual of the vegetable kingdom ; the cellular texture is formed
from the membranous in like manner, varying in form in different genera and
species ; the ligneous fibre is substituted by the stony matter, which supports
and constitutes the solid part of the body, being also formed by a series of
depositions, which, after the body has attained maturity, gradually encroach
upon the vascular vessels, and, by arresting further circulation, destroy the
vital principle. In like manner with vegetables, many species are perma-
nently fixed upon bases, advancing in their growth towards the rays of the
sun in the direction of light and heat, and this vegetative process is mani-
fest, not only in the Zoophyta Planta, but also in numerous species secreting
lime, as sea ferns, sponges, madrepores and millepores.

Many of the stony polyps, while in the living state, continue soft and
yielding to the touch, but as the sap vessels fill up, they gradually indurate,
and if this take place beneath the waters, they become converted into limestone
rock ; thus it is with the beautiful Meandrina spreading over its consolidated
bases in moss-like clumps : its external covering is exceedingly soft, similating
to the living sponge, and as it enlarges, so it enlarges on every side; its animal
matter is converted into a kind of bony substance, which is filled with living
juices passing to and fro through the whole system, until the entrance to the
cellular pores becoming filled up, the lower portion dies, but still remains
attached to the living body.

The time that each species requires to perfect its growth is very variable,
necessarily depending upon latitude, dip, and inclination ; and again, upon
its preservation from those numerous accidents to which it is subject in com-
mon with all forms of life, sucli as local or general disturbance of the me-
dium in which it is placed, or the predatory warfare urged against it by
almost all the living species of the deep. An erroneous idea is entertained
by men of science, that the stony polyps are of exceeding slow growth, such
being the natural consequence of their consolidated nature; thus F,hrenberg
calculates that the specimens of Meandrina seen by him in the Red Sea were
at least 2000 years old ; but these, it would appear, were of the dead and not
of the living coral: and even if living, the calculation is ridiculous, for, in
fact, they attain a very great size in 20 years when uninterrupted in their
growth. In tropical regions, where they enjoy heat and quietude, their
growth is exceedingly rapid, rivalling, in this respect, terrestrial plants and
grasses ; but like the latter they are the food of myriads of creatures which
greedily crop off the flesh-like surface, and thus retard their growth. In the
lower depths and beneath temperate climes, like the leaves of the forest, they
die off annually, or, otherwise, their growth is retarded by adverse circum-
stances of low temperature and local disposition. Much also depends upon
their freedom from tidal disturbance, for the tender and delicate gemma or
buds of many species are easily washed away by the ocean tides, or destroyed
by the intrusion of sands, or other matters inimical to their freedom of action
or alien to their nature.

Some idea of the time required to mature their growth, may be derived
from our knowledge of the growth of the white and red corals of commerce,
in the Mediterranean Sea. Marsigli informs us that the white coral of this
sea is most abundant in caverns to the south, and where the sea is smooth
and tranquil ; that it is seldom found in a western exposure, and never to
the north ; that when the caverns are despoiled of it, ten years are allow ed
by the fishers for its regeneration, and in this time it attains its extreme
height and thickness ; at greater depths it disappears. This is confirmed by
Spaglanzani, who says that in the neighbourhood of San Stephano the coral
does not attain half a foot in 10 years, and in proportion to its depth so it de-
teriorates in quality, and gradually disappears ; that the greater quantities
are at depths varying from 60 to 125 ft., and some fisheries are carried on to
the depth of 900 ft. ; at this latter depth it is said to require 40 years to at-
tain the same size which, at the depth of GO ft., it attains in 10 years. Ill all
parts of the ocean, local influences determine the time requisite for maturing
the coral. M. de Peysonnel found that the coral grows in different directions,
sometimes perpendicularly downwards, sometimes horizontally, and some-
times upwards, and in the caverns of the sea open to every exposure. La-
mouroux remarks. " we find some polypidoms placed always on the southern

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

347

slopes of rocks, and never to that towards the east, west, or north ; others,
on the contrary, grow only on those exposures, and never to the south.
Sometimes the position is varied according to latitude, and the shores inclined
towards the south, in temperate or cold countries, producing the same species
as the northern exposures of equatorial regions." Again, it is evident that
the duration of their existence is variable; some are but the creatures of an
hour, of a day, of a few months, falling off and disappearing according to
their nature, and to the climate to which they are subjected ; thus in the
colder seas, numerous tribes are cut off every winter to be renewed in spring.
Some continually throw off their parts, and thus new generations are pro-
duced, and these gemmules being carried away by tidal action, or by attach-
ing themselves to locomotive animals, cause such tribes to be more generally
diffused. But although, as Lamouroux remarks, many species are periodi-
cally destroyed, it must not be supposed that entire destruction takes place,
the matured portion of the compound body remaining, as a tree stripped of
its leaves, being reclothed with verdure in the ensuing spring, and still add-
ing to its strength and size by multiplication of its imperishable parts. In
tropical countries, where the heat is general, the polyps spread abroad over
the valleys and troughs of the deep, without reference to inclination, as in
colder seas, their nature and qualities being determined by the temperature
and depth.

The present accepted term of polype is much too vague and undefined to
be rightly understood, being made to embrace many animals of higher orga-
nization ; thus, according to the present acceptation of the term, every plant
and every animal may be classed as polype — every organic body, whether
it be animal or vegetable, increasing by the multiplication of its parts. The
term polype ought, therefore, to be confined to those simple organic bodies
which act independently in their parts and quantities, so that on separation,
the several divisional parts, as in the hydneda and other species, they expe-
rience no loss of power in this division, but still continue their functional
operatii ns, being perfect results in their separate state, and perfect results
as one whole. On the other hand, there are species of coral and corallines
where life is in entirety as in shrubs, and some of these cannot be propagated
by slips or cuttings.

Numerous species are, from their nature, confined to particular localities
of the water, or to certain depths ; others are generally, and some are uni-
versally, diffused, maintaining their form and qualities under every latitude ;
but with few exceptions, locality has a marked and determinate influence in
their organic structure, and in their qualities and quantities, which almost
invariably depend on food and temperatuie, in consonance with the
known laws governing all animated nature, for beneath all latitudes like
Causes produce like Effects; when the temperature and local and general
action similate, the results similate also. Thus the stony corallines and corals
abounding in eastern seas, are of similar conformation and character to those
dwelling within western and southern seas; and thus it is in the uniformity
of living species, there is a uniformity of matter produced by the functional
operations of life, the depositions of matter forming strata composed of
oceanic organic bodies and their decomposed particles, being the unerring
indication of the temperature under which they lived and propagated in
their generations. Thus the fixed or locomotive animals or animo -vegetables
which secrete lime, and by deposition age upon age, form hills and mountain
chains of calcareous matter and of solid limestone, (such, for instance, as
much of the British strata is composed,) make us acquainted with the primary
causes of effects produced, being unerring indications of the vast and wonder-
ful changes w Inch this planet has undergone, and which it must still undergo
ere the end of nature is accomplished ; such organic beings as are hourly
manifested to us. having of necessity existed and propagated within a medium
and beneath a temperature adapted to their habits and character ; thus it is
that every formation of chalk, oolite, ocean marl, and calcareous matter,
however remote from those latitudes in the present day, however far re-
moved, however high it may be elevated above the present level of the sea,
however changed and disguised by time or circumstance, must, while gene-
rating and perpetuating their species, have been beneath tropical and quiet
seas duri ng those ages requisite for the completion of so vast'a mausoleum.

The calcareous polyps, comparatively speaking, are scarcely known in the
depths of northern seas; the delicate corallines are equally scarce in the
depths of tropical seas, species being most abundant in latitudes where there is

warmth and tranquility; all in their growth advance towards the rays of light
and heat : but where the sun is nearly vertical, they extend themselves in every
direction, without reference to latitude and dip. The sponges, sea mushrooms,
millepores, and many species of madrepore, together with echini, sea worms,
and numerous other species, are seldom found at any considerable depth,
intense heat communicated through the shallow aqueous medium and re-
fracted from the calcareous bed, being most favourable to the full develop-
ment of many species, and essentially necessary to the existence of others.
In proportion to the degree of heat, so is the quantity of lime, soda, mag-
nesia, and other compounds.

To those who have seen the splendid collection of corals in the British
Museum, I would observe, that in many of the beautiful specimens, such as
Astrea and Meandrina, they behold the skeletons alone. The beautiful con-
volutions of the one, and the star-like appearance of the other, were once
covered with their animo-vegetative covering, exhibiting varying colours, as
green, blue, purple, white, &c. ; the now empty cells were then replenished
with living juices circulating throughout the compound body ; the dendro-
phillia, sensitive to the slightest touch, contracted its beautiful flowery head ;
and Gorgonia, approaching nearest to terrestrial shrubs, interposing its dark
twigs, gave relief and additional interest to the fairy scene, mimicking the
fairest gardens of the earth; the sponge too, light and tremulous to the
touch, was then filled with a thick viscid juice, and many species, now rigid
as marble, while living, waved their branches to and fro as agitated by the
tides, or by the passing monsters of the deep.

In all and through all, we find the link of animal and vegetable life to be
so finely drawn as to prove inseparable; the nature of the material may
differ, but the mechanical action of the one and of the other at all times
assimilates, and in both we observe a beautifully graduated scale of life, from
the simple spark or mere imputation, to the most elegant and complicated
form, from the simplicity of union of primary principles to the development
of innumerable proximate principles and atomic compounds. Philosophic
observers of polyps may discover in their elementary properties, actions,
and sensibility to external impressions, identifying their animal organization,
but the body formed is one body, and, in numerous genera, is governed by
one influence ; and in these, the act of the tentacula is extrinsical and invo-
luntary ; not depending on the will of matter placed within the cellular ca-
vity, but upon the internal filament which passes through and connects the
whole in place of nerves, or upon the vital fluid, whose action pervades the
whole. It is of no real importance to man to be assured that the lethophy ta
and keratophyta are animal or vegetable ; the great and important question
is, what part do these minute developments of living action, fixed or loco-
motive, simply gelatinous, or converting into stone, perform in the economy
of nature ? From whence is derived the material of the animal or vegetable
body ? The important part they perform in giving increase to the earth and
to the most ponderable bodies of which it is composed, is manifest at every
step we tread, in every region of the waters ; the simply gelatinous and al-
buminous animals attach themselves to every consolidated substance, and
propagate like the grass of the field, thus ere the oyster has attained matu-
rity, its calcareous covering becomes the basis of a world in miniatuie: the
rock, the mineral body, and the ocean bed are concealed from observation by
the incrustation of countless myriads ; the waters teem with animalcula?,
witli numerous organic species, destroying, or becoming the prey of others :
as local influences determine, so they propagate or are destroyed ; and, fa-
voured by heat and quietude, so they diverge into species, and exhibit new
phenomena.

In my next I shall proceed to consider the importance of the lime secreting
polyps in the economy of nature, and the results manifest in all parts of the
earth.

H. G. M.
( To be continued.)

Life-Preservers at Sea.— Experiments have lately been made at Leith
harbour on a newly-invented safety cape, which may be worn, and thus pre-
serve a person from the danger of drowning in any depth of water ; and like-
wise a pillow inflated with air. Two persons jumped into the sea thus pro-
tected, and exhibited several m«ns of preserving the lives of shipwrecked
mariners.

47*

348

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

PROCEE3JKGS OP SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
April 11. — Joshua Field, V.P., in the Chair. — (cantinued.J
Screw Cutting.

Some specimens were exhibited of screws cut in lathes constructed by
Messrs. Shanks and Co., of Johnstone, near Paisley. They were sent by the
late Sir John Robison, who described the principal advantages of the ar-
rangement of the lathe for cutting them to consist in the cutters acting
during the incursion as well as the excursion of the slide, and when forming
long screws, in their being alternately stayed on the side opposite to the too!
which was in action ; that by these means, good work could be produced
with such dispatch, as to reduce the cost of turned screw bolts, as low as
that of similar articles produced by screwing machines, which worked with
dies acting by compression.

A drawing of the lathe used in cutting the screws was presented with the
specimens.

Mr. Field observed that the machine was ingenious and appeared to do
the work well; but as far as could be ascertained from the drawing there
was not any novelty in it. A similar machine made by the late Mr. Mauds-
lay, had been in use in Maudslay and Field's manufactory for the last 15
years. The screwing dies invented by Mr. Whitworth, cut out the threads
of screws as clearly as if done by a chasing tool, and entirely without com-
pression.

April 25 and May 2. — The President in the Chair.

" An Account nf the Brick-making at Blechingley Tunnel, during the
whiter of 1840 and summer of IS 11." Bv Frederick Walter Simms. M.
Inst. C. E.

As the forming of this part of the Dover Railway was not let by contract,
it was necessary to make extensive preparations previously to commencing
the work, and amongst these the brick-making department was one of the
principal, the whole being under the personal superintendence of the author.
The bricks were all made on the surface along the line of the tunnel, the
brick-grounds being so arranged on each side of the shafts, that when the
bricks were delivered from the kilns and stacked, but little labour was neces-
sary to convey them to the spot, whence they were lowered to the under-
ground works. The mode of manufacture adopted was that of " slop-
moulding," in which process the mould is dipped into water previous to its
receiving the clay, instead of its being sanded as is the case in making
sandstock bricks; the workman then throws the clay with some force into
the mould, pressing it down with his hands to fill all the cavities, and strikes
off the overplus with a stick ; an attendant boy, who has previously placed
another mould in a water trough by the side of the moulding tabic takes
the mould just tilled, and carries it to the floor, wnere he carefully drops the
brick from the mould on its flat side and leaves it to dry; by the lime he
has returned to the moulding table and deposited the empty mould in the
water trough, the brick-maker will have filled the other mould, for the boy
to convey to the floor where they are allowed to dry, and are then stacked
in readiness for being burned in clamps or kilns. Minute details of the
manufacture are then given, the average results of which arc shown in the
following table : —

Force employed.

Area of
Land.

Duration

of
Season.

Produce

per

Week.

Produce

per
Season.

One temperer . . .

Roods. Prchs
••V
•• 1
.. 1- 2 Hi

Weeks.
22

Bricks.
16,100

Bricks.
351,200

One carrier bov .
One picker-up bov

J

A careful comparison is then made between the two nodes of sandstock
and slop-moulding, from which it appears that while the production of sand-
stocks is as 30 to 1G of the slop process, the amoi:nt of labour is as 7 to 4,
and that the quantity of land required and the cost of labour per thousand
are nearly the same in both processes. The bricks were all burned in close
kilns constructed with soft bricks set in pugged clay, the quantity burned in
them at a time varyiag from 30,000 to 40,000. The fuel employed was that
known by the name of the Bell Robson Netherton, or South Hartley coais,
and for the purpose of more accurately determining the cost of this ele-
ment, the author caused the quantity of coais consumed in burning °4 kilns
of bricks to be carefully noted : this is given in a table accompanying the
communication; the average of it is, that 10 cwt. S lb. of coal were used.

in burning each thousand of bricks. The floor of the drying-houses was
made of pugged clay about nine inches thick at the furnace end, and gra-
dually diminishing to two inches at the extreme or chimney end, so as to
equalize the heat of the floor. The temperature of the interior of these
drying-houses when in full operation varied from 50' to 70° Fahrenheit.
The estimated cost of the bricks delivered at the shafts was 2?. Is. lOd. per
thousand ; but the actual cost, obtained by dividing the total expenditure by
the whole number of bricks made, was only 11. Is. 6d. per thousand, which
includes waste and all other expenses that were incurred.

The author notices the substitution of Mauritius sugar mats for the ordi-
nary hack-caps made of straw, and that they were durable and serviceable.

The paper is accompanied by two drawings showing the elevations and
sections of the kilns and drying-houses with their flues.

Remarks. — In answer to questions from several members, Mr. Simms
stated that the price of moulding bricks by the slop process was 5s. per
1000; that slop bricks occupied less time in drying than sandstock bricks;
that the former kind were full one pound each heavier than the latter, which
he attributed to the greater amount of pressure they received when being
moulded ; for this reason also the sandstocks were made somewhat quicker.
The price of the ordinary hack-caps made of straw was 4d. each, and they
lasted one season ; the Mauritius sugar mats which were substituted for
them, cost about Id. each and would last two seasons.

Mr. Bennett thought that the quantity of bricks which could be produced
by each gang of men was under-rated, for, at Cowley, the average number of
sandstocks moulded was 32,000 per week ; while his men very frequently
made 37,000, and sometimes they reached as far as 50,000. The space oc-
cupied for moulding at Blechingly appeared small; in Mr. Bennett's brick-
ground 10 stools occupied 20 acres ; this might arise in some degree from
more time being allowed for drying in the sandstock process : he believed
this to be an advantage; the principal part of the shrinkage took place
while drying previously to being burnt. The total amount of contraction in
his bricks was ±$ inch in 10 inches; but all clays differed in the amount of
contraction.

Mr. Farey directed the attention of the meeting to Hunt's improvements
on the Marquess of Twceddale's machine for making bricks ; it had not, he
believed, yet been brought into general use in England, but it was em-
ployed extensively at Hamburgh and other places on the continent, and was
stati .1 to produce stronger and better shaped bricks, of more uniform quality
than those made by hand moulding ; the process was a kind of intermediate
one between slop and sand-moulding; the moulds being wetted as in the
former process, while the clay was tempered in a pug-mill as in the latter
process.

A very ingenious system of moulding without wetting the clay had re-
cently bee:; introduced by Mr. Prosser of Birmingham. At present the
system was confined to the production of buttons, small tiles, and slabs for
painting; but the patentee asserted that the machine could he advan-
tageously used in making bricks. A few had been made which in burning
only shrunk j^tb of an inch in 0 inches.

Mr. Bennett said the Marquess of Twceddale's machine hail not been
adopted generally, because of the first cost, and that the necessity for em-
ploying horse power, or a steam-engine, for working them, rendered the
bricks more expensive than when made by hand.

Mr. Ilomersham stated that steam or horse-power was not indispensable;
that Messrs. Simpson and Co. had made several of Hunt's machines for the
Tweeddale Brick Company to be worked by manual labour, and that they
succeeded perfectly. He found the bricks so produced about one-sixth
stronger than those made by band, which he attributed to the degree of
pressure to which they were subjected.

Mr. Simms objected to the use of machinery chiefly because it would
only effect an economy in the moulding, which was but a small part (about
one-eighth) of the expense of making bricks.

The contraction of the bricks varied according to the nature of the clay
employed ; the moulds used at Blechingley were 10 inches long by 5 inches
wide and 3 inches thick, and the bricks when burned were 9 inches long by
4J inches wide and 2^ inches thick. The chemical constitution of different
clays, and the relative proportions of alumine and silcx contained in them,
would be a subject of much interest and practical utility, to be brought
before the Institution by some member possessing the necessary chemical
knowledge.

Mr. Bennett mentioned the existence of a brick machine invented by Mr.
Ainslie, and now working in Scotland ; it was, he believed, somewhat cum-
brous, and required to be driven by steam power, but he had understood
that it produced very good bricks and tiles, but was chiefly employed to
make the latter.

In answer to a question from the President, Mr. Simms said that the
bricks at Blechingley had been made without any cavity in the top and
bottom, in order not to waste the cement in which they were laid. En-
gineers entertained very opposite opinions as to the utility of the cavity in
the bricks.

Mr. Cubitt preferred the bricks having a cavity, if they were to be laid in
mortar; with cement it was of less importance.

Mr. Farey believed that when the cement was stronger than the bricks,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

319

cavities on the surfaces were desirable, but if the bricks were good and
stronger than the cement, the cavities were not necessary.

Mr. Farcy exhibited specimens of tiles, eVc, made by Mr. Prosser, of Bir-
mingham, and described the process of manufacture. The clay was first
dried upon a slip kiln as if for making pottery, then ground to a fine pow-
der, and in that dry state it was subjected to heavy pressure in strong metal
moulds : by this means it was reduced to about one-third of its original
thickness, but the clay appeared to have contained sufficient moisture to give
it cohesion, and the tiles retained the most perfect sharpness at the edges —
they were then carried direct to the kiln, and baked in " saggers " or cruci-
bles, without any previous drying, and they did not appear to crack in baking.
A brick of the usual dimensions, which was exhibited, had been made by
this process from the common brick-earth of Staffordshire, ground fine : it
was of a clear red colour and of homogeneous texture, and the edges were
sharp ; its weight was 6J lb. and the specific gravity was 2-5.* Mr. Farey
stated that this brick was not vitrified, but merely baked, and that it bad
acquired its density from the great pressure used, which was equal to 250
tons.

Mr. Pellatt had seen Mr. Prosser's machine at work, making buttons and
other small objects ; the ground clay appeared to retain a certain degree of
moisture which, combined with the pressure, gave it such tenacity, that on
leaving the mould it could be handled and carried direct to the kiln; it was
compressed to about one-third of its original thickness.

The clay of the Staffordshire potteries contained chiefly silicate of alumine ;
it was principally valuable for, and was employed in, making "saggers" or
crucibles wherein the china was baked. The clay from which the china and
crockery-ware was made, was brought from Devonshire, Dorsetshire, and
Cornwall, and was used with certain mixtures of silex and other substances
according to the manufacture.

Mr. Blashfield stated that of the specimens of Prosser's manufacture on
the table, the small hexagonal tile 3} inches diameter and three-eighths of an
inch thick, had sustained a pressure of 30 tons, without the edges being
crushed ; another of the" same diameter and 2-J inches thick, bore 35 tons,
and the 9 inch stock brick remained perfect under a pressure of 90 tons :
the largest sized slab hitherto produced by the process was 34 inches long
by 8 inches wide, and half an inch thick : but he believed that as soon as
the new hydraulic presses were completed, it was Mr. Prosser's intention to
make large bricks of varied forms for architectural purposes.

In reply to a question from the President, Mr. C'owper explained that the
tiles, &c, after being subjected to the pressure, were released by the action
of a treddle, which raised the bottom of the mould, and thus brought out
the object without injuring its edges.

Mr. Hunt exhibited a model of the brick-making machine (see Journal
for June last, p. 202) used by him, and described its construction and action.
The principal working parts consisted of two cylinders, each covered by an
endless web, and so placed as to form the front and back of a hopper, the
two sides being iron plates, placed so that when it was filled with tempered
clay from the pug-mill, the lower part of the hopper, and consequently the
mass of clay within it, had exactly the dimensions of a brick; beneath the
hopper, an endless chain traversed simultaneously with the rotation of the
cylinders; the pallet boards were laid at given intervals upon the chain, and
being thus placed under the hopper and the clay brought down with a slight
pressure, a frame with a wire stretched across it, was projected through the
mass of clay, cutting off exactly the required thickness of the brick, which
was removed at the same moment by the forward movement of the endless
chain ; this operation was repeated each time that a pallet board came under
the hopper. Mr. Hunt stated that the chief object of the machine, which
was worked by hand, was to produce good square compact bricks, of uniform
quality, using only a slight pressure. He had found that it was very difficult
to dry bricks made by machinery where considerable pressure was employed;
because, before the evaporation from the centre of the clay was completed,
the surfaces were overdried and they frequently scaled off. These machines
were in operation in several parts of England, producing usually about 1200
bricks per hour, and er-.ch machine required two men and three boys to feed
it, turn it, and to take off the bricks ; the clot moulders were dispensed with,
and all the persons employed were common labourers; professed brick-
makers were thus not required ; he found this of much importance in the
contracts which he had taken for making bricks, both in this and in foreign
countries.

The machine for making tiles (Journal for June, p. 202, Fig. 2) is on the
same principle as Fig. 1 ; it consists of two iron cylinders, round which webs
or bands of cloth revolve; by this means the clay is pressed into a slab of
uniform thickness, without adhering to the cylinders. It is then carried
over a covered wheel, curved on the rim, which gives the tile the necessary
form ; the tiles are polished and fiuished by passing through three iron
moulds of a horse-shoe form, shown in the centre of the cut ; the; are at
tiie same time moistened from a cistern placed above them. The tiles are
then cut off, to such leugths as may be required, and carried away by an
endless web, and are placed by boys on the drying shelves. Flat tile's, or
soles, are formed in nearly the same manner, being divided into two portions

~ The average weight of Hunt's machine-made bricks is Gib. 7oz., and
of Con ley Stocks, 51b. joz.

while passing through the moulds; the quantity of clay used for one draining
tile being the same as for two soles. In answer to questions from the Pre-
sident, he stated that the density of the bricks could be augmented, but in
that case, the time required for drying them must be increased, and fre-
quently artificial means were resorted to, which rendered them more expen-
sive.

Captain Buller inquired whether any advantage was obtained by the pro-
duction of bricks of such a density as that exhibited by Mr. Prosser ; whe-
ther builders would not consider them objectionable from their great weight,
the difficulty of handling and cutting them, and the increased expense of
carriage. He had understood that the lightness of the London bricks,
which was chiefly owing to the ashes used in their composition, was con-
sidered an advantage, and that they were sufficiently strong for all building
purposes.

Mr. Parkes was of opinion that the weight of Prosser's compressed bricks
would be objectionable for ordinary purposes, and he did not think that the
mortar generally used would adhere to such smooth surfaces as they pos-
sessed. The Roman bricks were very dense, but they were small in propor-
tion, and they were used with mortar or cement which had been carefully
prepared for a long period before it was used. The Dutch clinkers, which
were so very durable, were small in proportion with their density; and the
same might be observed of all foreign bricks, some of which were made
with great care ; for ordinary work he should prefer a brick of a less dense
quality than the compressed ones.

Mr. Blashfield explained that Mr. Prosser's bricks could be rendered
lighter, by an admixture of ashes or other substances with the clay, if it was
considered desirable.

Mr. Newton had recently examined a wall which had been built with very
dense bricks, and had twice fallen ; the bricks appeared to have absorbed the
moisture from the mortar, before it could adhere to their surfaces. He pro-
mised to exhibit on a future occasion, some bricks which were brought from
the pyramids of Egypt; they appeared to be composed of sand mixed with
chopped straw, and had not much cohesion ; yet they were strong enough
for the construction of such massive buildings as the pyramids.

Mr. Hunt said that engineers generally preferred dense bricks as their
works required strength ; he had found it advantageous to use mild clay
instead of a stronger quality, as compact bricks made from the former, when
well-tempered, were better than those of the same density made from the
latter.

Mr. Fowler said that the value of bricks depended upon their strength :
but he doubted whether density and strength were in this case synonymous;
and he thought that bricks of a cellular structure would not only be
stronger, but would unite better with the mortar. He thought, however,
that Mr. Hunt's machine would prove advantageous, as the bricks produced
by it would be of more uniform character than those made by hand mould-
ing.

Mr. Pellatt believed that light bricks were generally porous, and that
when they were used for building external walls the moisture soon pene-
trated; this was not the case with dense bricks, and if they were generally
made more compact, thin walls would resist damp as well as thick ones.

Mr. Cowper believed that for architectural purposes so much density was
not absolutely necessary. Houses three stories high had been constructed
by the mode of building called " Pica" work, which was merely ramming
down tempered clay into moulds of the thickness of the walls, and aliowing
the mass to be dried by the sun as the work proceeded. In countries where
the climate was very dry this method succeeded perfectly.

Mr. Braithwaite understood that several kinds of brick were made for the
London market, that they were devoted to different uses and were sold at
various prices; some qualities were capable of supporting a great amount of
pressure, and were generally used with cement, while others were almost
rotten.

Mr. Bennett said that the principal varieties of bricks were calied " malm
paviors," "stocks," "grizzles," "places," and "shuns"; for the first kind
the clay was washed and selected with care : the bricks so produced were of
superior quality. The other kinds were all made from the same clay merely
tempered, the difference between the sorts being produced entirely in burn-
ing them ; common stocks were good enough for all ordinary building pur-
poses ; but the inferior qualities could not be trusted for important works.
As to the relative prices of the several sorts, the difference between malm
paviors and stocks was 15s. or 20s. per 1000 ; between stocks and places 10s. ;
the grizzles obtained a price midway between the two last named, and the
shuffs were sold for an inferior price governed by their quality, as they were
frequently quite rotten.

Mr. Lowe inquired what object there was in the mixture of " breeze " or
ashes, with the clay for making bricks; was it intended to render them less
dense, or to assist the combustion, when in the clamp or the kiln ?

Mr. Bennett believed that the principal advantage of using a mixture of
ashes with the clay was, that it rendered the combustion more regular, when
the bricks were burned in open clamps; the sifted breeze was employed for
fuel instead of coal, which would otherwise be used for burning in close kilns.

Mr. Hunt explained that the method of making bricks in the vicinity of

350

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

London, differed from that of almost all other places, because the material
employed was not pure clay ; it was a substance nearly resembling loam, of
a slightly cohesive nature, which would not admit of its being used in the
natural state and burned in close kilns with coal, but that with an admixture
of ashes it became sufficiently tenacious to be formed into bricks ; the ashes
performing the same office as the chopped straw did, in those made by the
ancient Egyptians. Of the sixteen hundred millions of bricks made annually
in England and Wales, about one-fifth part only was made according to the
London method, with a mixture of ashes. As to the density, he did not
think that the weight of bricks should be received as an iiu!?x of their quality ;
for bricks made by exactly the same process and equally compact, would be
heavier or lighter, as they were made of strong or of mild clay, and yet their
strength would be equal.

Mr. Pellatt observed that nearly if not all argillaceous or aluminous earths
were, with certain modifications or admixtures, suited for making bricks.
The term silicate of alumine, might include the various earths, whether deno-
minated clay, marl, loam, argile, &c. The best fire bricks were made from
native clay, containing alumine combined with a large proportion of silex.
The cohesive or plastic property arose from the former, but too much of it
rendered the bricks fusible. As most of the common clays contained a large
proportion of alumine, with occasionally lime or other fusible substances, a
mixture of coarsely pulverised burnt clay, sand or cinders, became necessary,
in order to counteract that tendency. Alumine had a great affinity for silex,
as well as iron and sulphuric acid, and the large use of cinders as a mixture
with the London clay might be accounted for, not only as it reduced the
proportion of alumine to other substances, but because it had a tendency,
when submitted to heat, to carbonize the sulphates, aud to diminish the
fusibility of the brick. Bricks made of common clay could not be burnt
under the same high temperature as fire bricks, and they contracted much
more in burning. All dry substances, which were used to decrease the pro-
portion of alumine, in making bricks or crucibles, were included by the
French under the general term of " ciment." The most useful properties of
"ciment," when well pugged or kneaded with the clay, were to hasten the
drying, and to diminish the contraction, and the consequent risk of breaking
in the kiln : the addition of " ciment " was economical for fire bricks, par-
ticularly when they were manufactured at a distance from the mines ; the
fire clays of Stourbridge, Newcastle, and Glasgow, were found amidst the
coal strata ; Stourbridge clay was the most esteemed, and when carefully
picked, ground, sifted, &c., would bear, for brick-making, two proportions
(by weight) of burnt clay or " ciment " to one of native clay. The sagger
clay from the Staffordshire potteries was also a fire clay, and was well suited
for making tiles or bricks of a compact character, but was probably more
liable to be vitrified than the Stourbridge clay. China clay, or the "kaolin"
of the Chinese, was decomposed felspar, called in the potteries "Cornwall
ston";'' the undecomposcd felspar was interposed with it, and used by the
French and the Chinese as porcelain glaze, the term used for it by the latter
was " petuntse." The constituents of " kaolin " were —

According to Dr. Ure.

Murrav quoted
•i. ,. , , • \auquehn s analysis

\ auquehn s analvsis — » ,,H „, ; ,

Murray stated

uquelin's analys

of Hessian Clav to be

Silica.. .. 52

Silex .. .

. 74

Silex . . . . 69

Alumina .. 4 7

Alumina

. 16-5

Alumina .. 21*5

Oxide of iron 0-33

Lime . . ,

2

Charcoal . . 1

Water . .

7

Oxide of iron 8

Mr. Parkes believed that in addition to the ashes giving a cohesive charac-
ter to the material of which the bricks were composed, they were of advan-
tage in the process of burning, because they enabled the fire to spread
gradually from the lower tiers, through the mass in the kiln, without per-
mitting an intense partial beat, such as sometimes occurred where coal alone
was used, the effect of which was, that all the bricks around were vitrified
and their surfaces became glazed. He had given some attention to the
subject, and had tried experiments, by ascertaining accurately the quantities
of ashes and of water which were incorporated with the loam in a certain
number of bricks, and had found that the evaporation, during the process of
burning, exceeded that of any steam boiler, as it amounted to as much as
14 lb. of water by 1 lb. of breeze. The mode of making bricks near London
was peculiar to the district, and the workmen did not understand any other
method ; the blue clay was not used because they did not know how to work
it. In a work published by Mr. Aikin,1 which was a selection from the
papers read before the Society of Arts, the subjects of brickmaking and
pottery were very correctly treated.

Mr. Dickinson observed, that the ashes used in making stock bricks, could
not supply the place of the straw now discovered in the Egyptian bricks,

• "Illustrations of Arts and Manufactures," by Arthur Aikin, p. 1",
12mo. London, 1841. The paper, with additions, was published in the
Journal fur October, 1841 , vol. iv. p. 340.

because the process of burning would have destroyed the straw as it appeared
to do the ashes ; he had burned bricks extensively in clamps and in kilns,
and it appeared to him that the ashes assisted in fluxing the brick earth, for
on breaking a good stock brick it was always found that the interior appeared
to be vitrified, and was extremely hard, and he remarked, that if the ashes
worked in with the clay in pugging, either exceeded or fell short of the
ascertained proper quantity, the bricks were fragile and less durable.

May 9. — The President in the Chair.

" Observations on the periodical drainage atid replenishmmt of the sub-
terraneous reservoir in the chalk basin of London." Continuation of the
paper read at the Institution, May 31st, 1842. = By the Rev. J. C. Clutter-
buck, M.A.

The author commences by answering an objection founded upon a passage
of Conybeare aud Phillips' Geology Book 1, chap. IV. sec. 11) which was
urged against his former statements. The water, it was said, appeared to
rise in different places to different heights — at Mile End it stood at the level
o:" high-water mark in the Thames ; at Tottenham 60 ft. ; at Epping 314 ft. ;
and at Hunter's Hall, two miles beyond Epping, at 190 ft. above that level.
Especial stress was laid on the height to which the water was supposed to
have risen in the well at Epping, namely, to within 26 ft. of the surface,
and to 314 ft. above high-water mark. It appeared from a note appended
to the statement referred to, that the first 27 ft. from the surface of this
well consisted of gravel, loam, and yellow clay, and that after sinking 200 ft.
and boring 220 ft., as no water was found, it was considered a hopeless
labour, the boring was discontinued, and the well covered over; that at the
end of five months, it was found that the water had risen to within 26 ft. of
the surface; from which it might be inferred, as was afterwards proved, by
information obtained from the owner of the well, that this supply of water
was to be attributed to a landspring, and was not derived from the sand of
the plastic clay formation, to which the boring had not penetrated. Having
thus answered this objection, it is shown that a line drawn from the water
level at Hunter's Hall to mean tide level in the Thames, 10 ft. below high-
water mark, would cut the level in the other wells, and give a water level
dipping at an average inclination, very nearly coinciding with that insisted
on in the statement to which the objection was raised. It appeared that the
difficulty of determining the exact dip of the water level between the river
Colne and London, had in some measure been removed, by the sinking of
three wells in the direct line of the author's observations, namely, from the
river Colne one mil© N.E. of Watford, in a straight Hue to Edgware, and
thence by the high road to London ; the information thus obtaiued, proved
the general correctness of the author's former calculation as to the line that
would represent the natural water level. It is then shown that a line drawn
from a point three miles south of the Colne, at the level of that river, or
1 70 ft. above Trinity high-water mark, to mean tide level in the Thames
below London Bridge (a dip of about 180 ft. in 14 miles, or an average in-
clination of 13 ft. in the mile) cuts the water level at the point whence it is
drawn, at Hendon Union Workhouse, and at Cricklewood, between that
place and Kilburn, whence it may be inferred that up to this point there is
no apparent trace of a depression of level caused by the exhaustion of water
under London. ■' At Kilburn, the water level (which is known to have stood
some years since about 20 ft. higher than at present) is considerably de-
pressed below the line so drawn, which depression may lie attributed to the
influence of the London pumping — it is suggested, that it is desuable that
the wells on the confines of London, and throughout the district, should be
periodically measured, to ascertain at what distance, and in which direction
this yearly increasing depression may be found to extend. The author pro-
ceeds to describe a phenomenon connected with the periodical replenishment
of that portion of the London basin which underlies the London and plastic
clays, and whicli cannot, as in the upper or chalk district, be fed by infiltra-
tion. This phenomenon is by him called the " oscillations of the water
level," caused by the irruption of rain water, which runs from the surface of
the London and plastic clays, and which sinks into the subjacent chalk
through " swallow holes," on its arrival at the outcrop of the sand of the
plastic clay formation. This point of irruption lies to the southward of the
river Colne, and forms the line of demarcation between the clay and chalk
portions of the surface of the London basin, leaving a belt of the latter
varying from two to three miles, or more, in width, between the river and
the outcrop of the clays. The water level rises to a point within the out-
crop (called the fixed summit level) at an angle of not less than 10 ft. in the
mile, when most depressed by the springs ; below an angle fixed on as the
lowest line of inclination to which the water in the chalk will fall. From
the fixed summit the level declines towards London ; in the line taken, it is
found at the level of the Colne, three miles from the river. After heavy
rains, when the clays throw the water from their surface, the irruption of
water may be seen at the outcrop of the sand of the plastic clay formation ;

2 Minutes of Proceedings, Journal vol. V. page 385.

3 The surface levels on this line having been obtained, and a section having
been made, the line drawn from the two points, namely, three miles south of
the Colne, to mean tide level in the Thames, enabled the author to determine
the height to which the water was found to rise at Hendon Union Work-
house and at Cricklewood (the only points at which the height of water
could be ascertained) in both cases to within three feet.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

351

the level will then be raised in proportion to the quantity of water which
passes through the sand into the chalk beneath it, the elevation of level ex-
tending towards the river in a ratio increasing with the distance from the
river ; the fixed summit will remain unaltered, until the level at the point of
irruption has attained aii elevation at which the water can flow towards the
south. After a period of protracted drought the level will decline in the
same ratio as it had risen, until it assumes a line in which little or no varia-
tion can be traced. In a given line from the Colue at Watford, to the vil-
lage of Bushey, 1J miles distant, in the autumn of 1841, the level was found
to rise from the river, at a regular inclination, to a point within the outcrop
of the clays. After heavy rains, the level, near the swallow-hole which re-
ceives a large body of water, began to rise rapidly, the fixed summit level not
being affected till the level, at the point of irruption, rose above it ; the total
rise at the point of irruption was 20 ft., and at the fixed summit 2 ft. The
position of the summit level had then varied from the fixed summit to the
point of irruption ; coincidental!}- with this elevation the level under London
rose also, and began to decline at the same time that the level, at the point of
irruption, sank below the fixed summit. The subsidence of the level at the
point of irruption, was — in April, 4 ft.; May, 3 ft.; June, 2 ft.; July, 1ft.;
August, 9 in.; September, Gin. ; in October, and to November 8th, 14 in. ;
the average inclination, from the fixed summit to the river, then being about
15 ft. in the mile. The subsidence of the level to this inclination, was coin-
cident with a visible defalcation in the product of the springs discharging
themselves into the river Colue. In the autumn of 1842, and in the prece-
ding spring, similar effects were observed, both as to the rising of the level
at the point of irruption, and the coincident elevation of the level under
London. This oscillation of level has been traced at various points, both to
the east and west of that here described. It is probable that near the junc-
tion of the Colne and the Vtr, the level dips directly from the level of the
latter river, at a point where the plastic clay extends itself under the Colne
to the margin of the Ver. This suggests the probability of that to which
the author alluded in his former communication — namely, the possibility of
connecting a periodical defalcation observed in the waters of the Ver or the
Colne, at those seasons when the water is short, with the exhaustion of
water under London. The evidence in favour of this supposition has been
strengthened, during the past year, by a repeated coincidence of variation in
the London level with the supply of water in the river. The height of the
water in the river (about 210 ft. above Trinity high-water mark) gives the
same average inclination of level towards London as observed in other places,
and strengthens the probability that the supply of water to the river may be
affected at this point by the London pumping, the daily increasing demand
of which will, if (as is contended) there be any ground for this supposition,
very soon put this question beyond a doubt.

Remarks. — Mr. Dickinson said, that Mr. Clutterbuck's observations had
been caused by a project for obtaining a supply of water for the metropolis,
from wells to be sunk in the valley of the Colne. It had been stated, in
support of the plan, that the rapidity with which the rain water percolated
into the bowels of the earth, in a great measure prevented evaporation, and
hence it might be assumed, that the quantity which descended upon the sur-
face of the chalk found its way, with very slight diminution, into the fissures
below. This reasoning was not in accordance with the deductions Mr.
Dickinson had drawn from an extended series of observations, and, fearing
that his mill property might be injured by the diminution of the supply of
water, he had opposed the project. He had found it necessary, several years
since, to investigate strictly the nature and extent of the supply of water to
the springs and rivers of the chalk district, for which purpose he had a
common rain gauge, which was corrected by observations upon that kept in
the same district by the Grand Junction Canal Company; he also fixed a rain
gauge on the principle suggested by Mr. Dalton, which demonstrated the
quantity or proportion of the rain falling on the surface, which descended so
far into the earth as to be beyond the reach of evaporation, and, therefore,
must be calculated to reach the internal reservoir of the country whence the
springs were fed. This gauge demonstrated that the greater part of the
rain that fell on the surface, was either consumed by vegetation or evapo-
rated. It furnished information of the most valuable kind, both as regarded
his mills and business, and as to any engineering operations, having reference
to the perennial supply of water in the springs and rivers of the district.
Mr. Dickinson presented a tabular statement of the comparative result of
his two gauges for the last eight years, pointing out, as was generally the
case, that none of the rain-water penetrated to the springs between the 1st
of April and the 30th of September. He also stated that the indications of
the gauge were not only certain, but that they preceded generally by about
two months, any thing that could be deduced from the observation of wells,
with reference to the effect upon the rivers ; and that, as to the latter, the
only guidance to be derived from the state of the wells, was from those in
the higher range of the chalk, because, along the valleys where the streams
flowed, the level of the wells continued nearly the same throughout the
year.

Mr. Clutterbuck perfectly agreed with Mr. Dickinson as to the satisfactory
results yielded by Dalton's rain-gauge ; but he had, from the first, expressed
an opinion, that the same practical results might be obtained by a periodical
measurement of the wells, in any part of the chalk district. If a line was
taken, extending from the river or vent to a point midway between the
rivers Gade and Ver, or any others, and observations made during different
periods of the year, and the same periods of different years, the height to

which the water rose or fell, would indicate the quantity which had actually
percolated to the water level, and would give the relative quantity to be de-
livered out by the springs. The ratio of alternation throughout the line
would be maintained with such undeviating regularity, that by the measure-
ment of the wells at the two extremes, the rise or fall of all'between them
might be calculated with the greatest exactness. He had chosen, by way of
illustration, a portion of the line, of which a section, three miles in length,
was given, extending in a direction north aud south between the rivers Gade
and Ver, a locality whence a considerable portion of the water, which in
part moved the machinery at Mr. Dickinson's mills, was derived. He took
the seasons which govern the supply of water, as shown by Dalton's gauge.
In the season 1840-41, the gauge indicated the percolation of less than 5 in.
of rain, a quantity which must be far short of that which found its way to
the water level. The gauge recorded no percolation of water immediately
after the melting of the snow on the 16th of January, 1841, within a month
of which time the level rose in some localities more'than 15 ft. To make a
proper estimate of the quantity of water to be delivered from the springs,
it was necessary to ascertain the state of the level before the percolation
commenced; to this the rain gauge was no guide; but by Mr. Clutterbuck's
observations he was enabled to determine the exact re'lasive depression of
the level. The first day taken was September 13th, 1841, between which
period and November 8th, the level rose at one point 18 ft., and at other
points in due proportion, which distinctly proved that " the indications of
the rain-gauge do not precede by two months any thing that can be deduced
from observations on wells." His next observation was February 14th,
1842, showing the highest point at which he measured the level, giving a
total rise of 34 ft. ; though from observations elsewhere it must previously
have risen even higher, and have fallen to that point in consequence of the
accelerated drainage caused by the breaking out of springs at higher levels,
when the water in the chalk attained a certain elevation. On the 7th of
May the level had fallen considerably, and on the 24th of October had de-
clined to within a few inches of the same level as in the September of the
previous year. In the season 1841-42, Dalton's gauge indicated the perco-
lation of 17-98 in. of rain; in 1842-43, 10-64 in. ; but from the causes be-
fore alluded to, and from the rain not having percolated till a later period,
the level continued to rise till May, consequently the quantity of water then
in the chalk was greater in proportion, than as 10 to 17. He conceived
that the great practical question was, what supply might be reckoned upon
from the 1st of May to the end of October ? The reply to this was, he con-
tended, more distinctly given by his observations than by the indications of
Dalton's rain gauge. With reference to the rapidity with which the water
found its way from the surface to the level, except when there was a great
quantity of rain within a veryshort period, the percolation would be gradual,
as indicated by a steady and progressive rise in the wells, which he had as-
certained to amount sometimes to 1 or 2 in. in a day in the upper district,
and continued generally to the beginning of May. In the neighbourhood of
the swallow-holes the level rose very rapidly: a well sunk 50ft. in the
chalk, in which the water stood at 40 ft. from the surface, was affected
within 15 hours after a late heavy rain commenced ; the quantity of rain,
which amounted to 1 in. in 12 hours, appeared to have retarded by a fort-
night the exhaustion of that portion of the level to the south of the Colne,
which is fed by the irruption of water through the swallow holes. On a
former occasion, between the 10th and 25th of November, 1842, there fell
on the surface 3-88 in. of rain ; the level near the swallow-holes rose 6 ft.
within the same space of time. When the water had reached the level, the
influence of one part on another was very rapid : thus when the distant level
was raised, as Mr. Clutterbuck had described, there was a simultaneous rising
of the level under London. The continuity of the level, as shown iu his
section, was the best evidence in favour of the supposition, that the water
to London was mainly supplied from the source to which he had attributed
it. He had not met with any evidence iu favour of the supposition that a
distinction was to he drawn between the water from the chalk and that from
the sand ; he believed that it was all derived from the chalk, whence it rose
into the sand, to which there appco :edno impediment. At the points where
the water broke through the sand, it invariably sunk into the subjacent
chalk, a space being left between the bottom of the sand and the top of the
water; following the water level, it might be traced in the chalk, and rose
into the sand when the surface of the chalk sunk below the inclination
at which the water level dipped towards London : from whence he in-
ferred that the whole level of water might be called the " Chalk water
level."

Mr. Simpson reiterated his opinion respecting the waters iu the sand and
in the chalk being different. He had seldom found the water from those
strata stand at the same level, and in the majority of instances, the water
from the chalk rose to higher levels than that from the sand. Towards the
west of London, prior to 1830, there were numerous cases of overflows from
bore-holes ; and he believed, from an account drawn up by him from actual
inspection of the wells when they were sunk, or soon afterwards, and which
he presented to the Institution, it would be found that in the majority of
instances of overflowing wells the water proceeded from the chalk. This
paper gave an account of 67 wells, detailing in several cases the various
strata passed through, and in all, the total depth, the levels at which the
different qualities of water were met with, the quantity of water yielded,
and the height to which the main supply rose in the well. He had found
from recent inquiries, that in many of these wells the water had now ceased

352

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

to overflow. It would appear that as the number of wells and bore-holes
had increased in some districts, the water levels had been depressed ; in
several cases, the cause of this had been traced to wells which had been
bored at extremely low levels, and in others to the increased pumping.

Messrs. Worsencroft and Brothwood, of Hammersmith, who practised
well-sinking extensively some years since, were most succcessful in wells
where their competitors had ceased working when they had pierced some
distance into the sand strata, whence the water only rose to some distance
beneath the surface ; but by continuing the boring down into the chalk, they
obtained overflowing wells.

Mr. Scanlan said that the difference between the water from the two
strata was easily discovered by analysis : the water from the sand contained
common salt and no lime, while that from the chalk contained lime and no
common salt.

Mr. Clutterbuck said, in answer to Mr. Simpson's objection as to the
identity of the chalk and sand water levels, the disparity of level that he
spoke of, occurred in localities where there was an exhaustion by over-flowing
Artesian fountains, in which case a discharge of water was created below its
natural level, which would cause the same kind of depression either in the
sand or the chalk, as that which was caused by pumping the same quantity
of water from a corresponding level where the water would not flow above
the surface ; the only difference being, that in the former the depression was
permanent, and in the latter it was coincident with the temporary exhaustion
of the pumps. As the water was discharged from the Artesian fountains
more rapidly than it rose through the sand from the chalk, a permanent de-
pression took place in the wells sunk into the sand, whilst a lesser depression
occurred in the chalk, and thus caused a disparity of level. Thus the water
level, hi the wells sunk into the sand in London, was temporarily depressed
by pumping from others in the neighbourhood, and the level was regained
when the pumping ceased.

Mr. Braithwaite eulogized the industry and observation of Mr. Clutter-
beck, and he hoped that he would extend his investigations to the point of
the outcrop of the basin of the river Thames, which he had stated to be
near Woolwich. He must, however, dissent from the author's views as to the
supply of water to the sand under the plastic clay, being derived from the
chalk, and also, that if no rain fell during a period of three years, the water
in the wells referred to in the section, would retain their relative levels, at
an inclination of not less than 10 ft. in a mile. He believed that any con-
tinuation of dry weather, which would affect the land springs, would also
diminish the filtration, and the upper part of the basin on all sides would be
affected before the greater depths. He also differed from Mr. Simpson as to
the supply for the overflowing wells at Kingston, Mitcham, and other parts,
being from the chalk ; on the contrary, he was of opinion that it proceeded
from the sand under the plastic clay, and he instanced Mr. Palmer's well at
Kingston, and that sunk by Mr. Clark at the Kingston Union. The latter
well was within 100 yards from the former: it was 420 ft. deep to the sand
spring, and the water rose to within 7 ft. from the surface. While the water
stood at this level in the well at the Union, it overflowed at Mr. Palmer's ;
but when the level at the Union was reduced by pumping to 20 ft. from the
surface, the water at Mr. Palmer's well ceased to overflow: thus, he con-
tended, establishing the fact that the water in both wells was derived from
the sand, and not from the chalk.

Mr. Clutterbuck observed that the reason why there was a depression ob-
servable at Kilburn, and not at Cricklewood, was easily explained, if the de-
pression caused by pumping in London was laid down on a diagram. In the
centre of London the depression amounted to 50 ft. below Trinity high-
water mark ; at the Hampstead Road, to 38 ft. ; and at the Zoological Gar-
dens, to 25 ft. This line, if produced, would show a depression below the
natural water level at Kilburn, and fall into the non-depressed level about
Cricklewood. Though it was impossible to prove the assertion, that the
water level in the chalk would never assume a less inclination than 10 ft. in
the mile, he was led to the supposition by observing that the level ceased to
decline when it became depressed to that extent ; and many wells at a dis-
tance from the vent, which at the time of such depression cointained only
3 ft. of water, were never known to become dry.

Mr. Clark stated that he had found the water rise from the chalk to very
different levels in the various wells and bore-holes which he had sunk, and
be had not observed that the supply of water was affected so immediately
after rain as had been described by Mr. Clutterbuck. He presented a paper
containing memoranda relative to wells sunk and bored for a considerable dis-
tance on both sides of the river Thames. This document gave the depths at
which the chalk was arrived at and the water was found, and the height at
which it stood in several wells round London. It stated also, that in
London the average depth to the chalk was 220 ft. ; that the water generally
rose to within 70 ft. of the surface, but that near the river it rose to within
50 ft. In some particular cases, such as the Lunatic Asylum at Wandsworth,
the depth to the chalk was 323 ft., yet the water rose to within 30 ft. of the
surface.

Mr. Davison presented a copy of a drawing made in the year 1822, show-
ing the depth of sinking and of boring, and the height to which the water
rose, in ten of the principal wells in London at that period, which it was
remarkable was exactly Trinity high-water mark. It appeared also that the

water did not now rise in the same wells to within 50 ft. of that point,
showing a depression of nearly 2 ft. per annum. '

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Thirteenth Meeting, 1S43.— Hehl at Cork.

;From the Jthenaum.)

(Continued from page 324.J

Tidal Observations on the Firth of Forth, and of the East
Coast of Scotland.

Mr. Scott Russell read the concluding " Report of a series of Observations
on the Tides of the Firth of Forth and of the East Coast of Scotland,"
noticed in last month's Journal.

These observations extended over several seasons, and no complete report
had been hitherto presented, as the observations of each former season had
only shown the necessity of further extending the observations. The obser-
vations of the first season had proved the existence of certain anomalous
tides, which had not formerly been accurately examined, and proved that
these anomalies were more extensive than was at first conceived. Next
season the observations were more widely extended, so as to comprise the
whole phenomena, including many adjacent places, to which the same ano-
malies were traced ; and thus the general nature and extent of the pheno-
mena were determined with accuracy and precision, and reported to the last
meeting. But it was found that great differences of opinion existed with
reference to the cause of these ascertained phenomena, and rendered it ob-
vious that the observations required to be extended still further, in time and
extent, in order to settle conclusively the questions which had arisen out of
the former inquiries. But this last series, from their extent and complete-
ness, had now been so fully examined and discussed, as to afford ample
means of deciding on the nature of the phenomena, and determining their
origin. Simultaneous observations had been luade at nearly twenty stations
on the east of Scotland, from Newcastle and Shields to Inverness, and as
many as 2000 observations a-day registered and discussed. The results of
these were exhibited in the tables and diagrams accompanying the report :
and the result of the whole had been to elucidate, in a remarkable manner,
the mechanism which propagates along our shores and rivers the great ocean
wave, which carries from one place to another the successive phenomena of
the tides — in such a manner as could not have been attained by any system
of observation less extensive than that which had been adopted. It is pretty
generally known that the phenomena of the tides with reference to their
generating cause, the influence of the mass of the sun and of the moon in
the various relations of distance and direction of these luminaries, have re-
cently been examined with great success, in a series of researches carried
on. first by Mr. Lubbock and then by Mr. Whcwell, partly with the co-ope-
ration of this society. By means of their labours we are now enabled to
predict, with unlooked-for accuracy, the time of high water, and the height
of the tide in many of the harbours of Great Britain. But many of the
local phenomena of tides remained unaccounted for, and these had been the
object of a special series of researches, of which the present formed a part ;
the object being to determine in what way the conformation of the shores,
and of the bottom of the sea, and the forms of the channels of rivers and
friths, affect the phenomena of the tidal wave. The rivers Dee and Clyde
had been formerly examined with this view. To these were now added the
Forth, the Tay, and the Tyne, and the northern shores of the German Ocean.
The manner in which these observations were conducted, is not the usual
one, of noting down simply the hour at which high water occurs, and then
the hour of low water, along with the height at which the water stands at
these times. Such a method had been found quite inadequate to the pur-
poses for which such observations are required, and, indeed, he thought it
of importance that all tide observations should, if possible, be made in the
manner he was now about to describe, especially all tide observations made
for scientific purposes. This plan was, to carry on simultaneously at the
places examined, a series of continuous observations, every five minutes night
and day, by successive observers, without intermission, for the period of a
month, or of several months, as might be required. Printed forms were
sent to all the stations, and in them, the observers simply noted down every
five minutes, the height of the tide on a graduated scale placed before him.

1 In a letter to the Secretary of the Institution, dated April 28, 1843,
Dr. Buckland says, " I think that Mr. Clutterbuck has added many new facts
in confirmation of the theory he maintained last year, as deduced from his
observations previous that time. He has also, I think, found a satisfactory
solution of the apparent anomaly afforded by the well at Epping. I consider
the series of observations he has been making near Watford, to be very im-
portant as throwing light on the movement of the subterraneous sheets of
water which supply springs and rivers. I believe these observations to be
correct, as I know that he has been indefatigable in collecting facts, and I
consider them calculated to illustrate a problem of high interest to civil en-
gineers as well as to geologists."

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

£53

Every day at noon all these papers were sent by post to the central station,
and immediately on their arrival, the papers of the different stations were
compared, and their observations laid down on paper, so as to give a gra-
phical representation to the eye of all the observations, by means of which,
they were at once verified and compared with great facility. From the exa-
mination of these tide-waves thus laid down, certain characters of the tide-
wave peculiar to each locality had been discovered. As in the former obser-
vations of the Clyde and the Dee, it had been found in this series, that the
form and dimensions of a channel produce important changes in the form of
the tide-wave. Where the sea was deep and the shore open and abrupt, the
form of the tide-wave was symmetrical, and of the form predicted by La-
place, where he says, that in rising and falling, the water covers in equal
times equal arcs of a vertical circle. This is the form of the ocean tide-
wave ; but, on approaching a shallow shore, and travelling along a shelving
coast, the tide-wave undergoes two changes — its summit becomes displaced
forwards in time, its horizontal chords become dislocated, and the wave
ceases to be symmetrical. This peculiar dislocation and displacement are
characteristic of a littoral tide, and in the case of running streams, the cur-
rents still further affect the tide-wave, and give to it a peculiar distortion
characteristic of fluvial tides. To these were further added the exaggeration
and elevation of the tide, by means of narrow channels. All these pheno-
mena were fully proved by the present series of observations. The author
of this paper also considers it to have been fully established by the observa-
tions on the Firth of Forth, that there exists on the eastern coast, satisfac-
tory evidence of the presence of a second tide-wave in that part of the
German Ocean, and that the southern tide- wave, a day older than the
northern tide-wave, sensibly affects the phenomena of that part of the
coast. To this he attributes the double tides of the Firth of Forth, the
nature of which he fully explained. Regarding these double tides, various
theories had been formed — and there were various ways in which such tides
might happen, whenever tide-waves arrive by different paths in different times.
But this kind of double tide was, in this case, only to be explained by the
method he had adopted, and which removed the difficulties in which the
subject had formerly been involved. He then proceeded to explain the
mode of discussion which had been adopted. It was the semi-diurnal ine-
quality, so accurately examined by Mr. Whewell, which enabled us to decide
on the ages of two tides. If the two tides which appeared together, pre-
sented opposite inequalities both in time and in height, regularly alternating,
varying with the moon's declination, disappearing with it, and re-appearing
with it, and following it regularly, without regard to other simultaneous
changes of a different period, then it became plain that ho other inference
could be drawn, than that which he had mentioned ; when, further, he had
proceeded to treat these tides as compounded of two successive tides, one
due to a transit 12A 24m later thau the other, and had used for this purpose
two simple river tides super-imposed at a distance in time corresponding to
that at which the northern and southern tides could enter the Firth, he had
obtained a close representation of the double tides of the Firth of Forth ;
when these two methods of examination ended in the same conclusion, he
conceived that it had obtained a very high degree of probability. By means
of these observations tide-tables had been formed, which were designed to
afford a more accurate means of predicting the local tides of the east coast
of Scotland than any we now possessed.

Dr. Robinson and the President put several questions to Mr. Russell, for
the purpose of eliciting the facts more clearly.

Lord Mountcashel inquired whether Mr. Russell had observed and ac-
counted for any of the tidal phenomena which were denominated bores, and
described one which he had witnessed in the river Seine, the rapidity of
which far outstripped that of the steam-boat in which they were proceeding.

Mr. Russell said that he had frequently observed this phenomenon, and
described the bore of the river Dee, and of the Solway frith. He then
briefly accounted for it on the principal of the tidal wave coming with
enormous rapidity from deep water, where it was freely propagated into shoal
water, where the upper part, retaining its velocity less impaired while the
bottom was retarded, it toppled over, at length, breaking in its rapid onward
course.

Captain Larcom observed that the ordnance survey would contain a very
full account of the tidal phenomena along the coast of Ireland. Captain
Larcom hoped before long to lay before the Association the result of the ob-
servations made on the coast of Ireland in the course of the ordnance
survey. Gauges were established at different stations, and observations have
been made every five minutes during the course of three lunations. The
direct object of them was to obtain data for the plane of mean sea level ;
but while the observations (which are now in course of reduction) are likely
to decide this, they also give much valuable information as to irregularities
Uke that just mentioned. He might mention that in Lough Swilly the spring
tide high water was eight feet higher than in Lough Foyle.

Mr. Hawkins read a paper on the Friction of Water on Water, as exem-
plified in the well-known experiment of emptying a vessel full of water by-
sending a jet of the fluid through it. This friction of the particles of fluid
against each other, caused the principal obstruction to the motion of ships
through the water ; and he conceived that it would be advantageous to grease
the bottoms of ships to diminish the friction.

On the Form of Ships.

Mr. Scott Russell read the " Report of the Committee on the Form of
Ships."

The report was voluminous ; it contained the reductions of a large number
of experiments, and about 20,000 observations, made on more than 100 ves-
sels of different forms ; accurate drawings of all of which, on a large
working scale, were laid on the table. It was the hope of the committee
that this report might be published, in order to give the public all the benefit
which accurate knowledge on this point was likely to convey. He did not,
therefore, enter fully into the details of these voluminous results, but would
confine himself to a general account of the objects which this committee
had in view, the methods of inquiry which they had adopted, and a few of
the more general conclusions to which they had been led. These experi-
ments had now occupied the attention of the committee during a period of
five or six years, and it afforded him peculiar pleasure to be able to present
the concluded investigation to this meeting. It was appropriate to this
meeting, inasmuch as Cork was an important sea-port, of increasing pros-
perity, whose interests were involved in everything tending to the improve-
ment of our mercantile navy: it was. further appropriate, inasmuch as there
existed in the vicinity of Cork a class of the fastest sailing vessels in exist-
ence— he meant the fleet of yachts — by the successive trials of which many
improvements had been made in the form of vessels ; and, indeed, he con-
sidered it due to the yacht clubs of this country to say, that much had
everywhere been due to their exertions in the improvement of the speed of
our ships. He had had the good fortune to find in Cork a gentleman who,
in the recesses of his own study, had been carrying on, for many years,
valuable scientific investigations on this subject, who had submitted his
views to experiment with great success, but had long felt the want of just
such a series of researches as he had this day the pleasure of laying on the
table. The beautiful models by which the report was illustrated, had been
constructed by Dr. Phipps, to whom he had thus alluded; and in Mr.
Beamish, also a native of this place, he had found another scientific and suc-
cessful investigator in the same field of inquiry. On this account he should
enter more fully into this subject, as one in which Cork was especially inte-
rested. It had long been the reproach of science, that so little had been
done to enable the practical man to proceed with certainty in his attempts
to improve the speed of ships. There are some points in which science has
done all that can be desired. The immersion of a ship, her trim, her centre
of buoyancy, her stability, can all be determined, with accuracy, beforehand,
and the scientific naval constructor can proceed with certainty upon fixed
principles. It is otherwise with the speed and resistance of a ship. In
nothing does calculation more completely fail them than in the attempt to
determine beforehand the speed of a ship constructed on given lines, or to
show how a form may be so altered as to render it faster than before. To
calculate the resistance opposed by the water to the passage of a ship
through it, and to find that form which, at a given velocity, will pass through
the water with least resistance, and, of course, with the smallest expenditure
of power — such was the problem hitherto the least solved, and always one of
the most important, which these experiments were intended to investigate.
There were also two phases in which this problem presented itself, the scien-
tific and the practical view of the subject. There were, therefore, two
classes of experiments — one designed to advance our knowledge of the
laws of hydrodynamics which govern the phenomena of resistance of fluids,
and the other, the experiments serving as a basis to the operations of the
practical construction of ships — the E.vperimenta lucifera and the Evperi-
menta fructifera of Lord Bacon. To the latter class, he would confine the
remarks of to-day, as belonging more especially to section G, the former
having been discussed in section A. Many experiments had formerly been
made on this subject, but we had, at that time, so imperfect a system of
hydrodynamics, that the conclusions drawn from them could not be relied on
with confidence by the practical man. The Academy of Sciences had made
a series of such experiments at a large expense defrayed by the French
government. Colonel Beaufoy, in our own country, had made an important
series of such experiments, at an expense of £30,000, but these were of
comparatively little value, for the same reason, viz., that the forms did not
comprehend such forms as were actually required for the purposes of naval
construction, and because the state of science was not such as to enable us,
from the resistance of one form, to deduce with certainty that of another.
For the purpose of giving practical value to the present series, experiments
had been made on many different scales of magnitude, some in narrow chan-
nels, others in large canals, and finally on the open sea. Some were made
on models 3 ft. in length, others of 10 ft., some on vessels 25 ft. long, 75 ft.
long, and some on vessels 200 ft. long, and nearly 2000 tons capacity. Thus
it was trusted that the scale of the experiments was such as to give confidence
in the results. Next, as regards the forms of vessels made the subject of ex-
periment, these were similar to those required for the practical purposes of
construction. One class consisted of such forms as were required for steam
navigation. Plans of steam ships of the best construction and others of
worse forms, were accurately laid down on the same scale, in the same way,
and with the same accuracy of proportion as if they had been for actual ser-
vice, and along with these were some of new forms. A given form having
been found to be a good one, was then varied by lengthening, first in
or.e ma'inpr then in another, to discover the best mode of improving a given
goo<! form. In sailing vessels, some of the celebrated Chapman's best forms
were taken, and treated in a similar manner, and along with them were com-

48

354

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

pared the common forms of merchantmen and other ships. The class of
fast-sailing yachts and cutters was treated in the same way, the object always
being the determination in given circumstances of the method of giving
such a form to a ship as shall enable her to pass through the w ater with the
least resistance, the greatest velocity, and of course the smallest expenditure
of force, power, and money. The methods of drawing these vessels through
the water, varied with the scale on which the experiments were made. Those
on the smallest scale were drawn by a weight arranged i;i such a manner as
to supply a uniform force through any given distande — and on the largest
scale, the experiments were made on the sea by means of powerful towing
vessels. In this way the experiments were made on a wide range of magni-
tudes, both as regarded the vessels themselves and the sheet of water on
which they were propelled, an element of resistance not always sufficiently
taken into account. The resistance was accurately measured by dynamo-
metric apparatus of great accuracy, through which the moving force was
communicated to the vessel; the velocity being determined, in certain cases,
by a peculiar apparatus designed for this purpose, and in other cases by in-
struments for measuring and marking time with accuracy. After the obser-
vations had been reduced by independent calculators, and not till then, were
they made the subject of special examination, with reference to any theory;
and thus it was conceived that the greatest amount of authenticity had been
secured. The author then proceeded to give to the meeting a number of
specimens of the results which the experiments afforded, such as he knew
were likely to interest those members of the section who were acquainted
with the principles of naval construction. He demonstrated a remarkable
law, by which it appears, that each velocity has a corresponding form and
dimension peculiar to that velocity ; and he showed, in a variety of diagrams,
the means of constructing such forms. To show bow much influence form
alone, without any other element or dimension, affects the question of re-
sistance, he adduced the following as one of the most important experiments.
Four vessels were taken, having all the same length, the same breadth, the
same depth, the same area and form of midship section, and all loaded to
the same weight, displacement, and draft of water. The only difference
being in the character of the water-lines ; No. 1 being of the new form in-
dicated by these experiments as that of least resistance ; No. 3 the old form,
very nearly the reverse of the first ; No. 2 intermediate between them, and
No. 4 intermediate between No. 1 and No. 2. The following table shows
the result of the comparative trial : —

Speed in miles per
hour.

Resistance in pounds.

3 miles

4 ..

5 ..

6 ..
7

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

10
18
28
39
52

12

22
38
61
96

12
23
12
72
129

11-3

21

35

56

84

These c'.iffcreiices showed how much might be gained, everything else being
equal, by the adoption simply of judicious form in the construction of the
water lines of a ship. The vessel No. 1 was constructed on the wave-line;
the methods and rules for which he proceeded to explain in diagrams, too
numerous for our space to admit. But we hope the speedy publication of
the report itself may soon remedy this omission.

Mr. Perry observed that the position of the paddle-wheels in steam vessels
was an important subject, which required to be determined, especially as
different opinions were entertained by practical men whether the paddles
should be nearer to the stern or to the head of the vessel.

The Marquis of Northampton remarked on the importance of these expe-
riments, which lud been carrietl on by the British Association. The results
would possibly produce a change in the naval architecture of every country
in the world; and if the British Association had done nothing else than
carried out these experiments, anil attained those important results, all the
efforts they had made would have been amply rewarded.

Mr. J. Taylor observed that these experiments had been carried on for five
years, and that the late Sir J. Uobisou, who had been associated with Mr.
Russell in their prosecution, had watched over them with great anxiety till
within a short period of his death. The Association had expended £850 in
making these experiments, and now came the question, what was to be done
with the valuable body of information that had been collected ? It ought
not to lie idle on their shelves, but ought to go forth to the public; and the
best manner of accomplishing that would be a subject of consideration for
the Council.

Mr. Russell said, that with regard to the position of paddles, the subject
had been already taken up by the government, and some practical results
might shortly be expected. In conducting the experiments for the British
Association, Sir J. Robison and himself having satisfied themselves as to
the correctness of their system, they had endeavoured to get it introduced

without exciting opposition. The experiments were made in a ship-building
country, and ship-builders every now and then borrowed the forms of the
boats that had been found to move the fastest through the water, and thus
they had been gradually introduced. The Flambeau, which was built on the
Clyde in 1839, on one of the experimental lines, beat a vessel of greater
length, though having but 75 h.p. against 120. In smooth shallow water
the vessel on the old construction was a match for the Flambeau, but in a
deep and heavy sea the experimeutal vessel beat the other by two miles an
hour. There had been since constructed in that part of the country a whole
class of vessels built of that form. The Great Britain had the wave water-
line ; and the Vanguard, which made her passage last week from Dublin to
Cork in two hours less time than bad ever been previously accomplished,
constructed by the same builder who had made the models for the British
Association experiments.

Elasticity of Materials.

" Experiments to prove that all Bodies are in some degree Inelastic, and a
Proposed Law for estimating the Deficiency." By E. Hodgkinson, F.R.S.

Mr. Hodgkinson said it was a principle generally acknowledged in the
present day, and employed by those who have written on the subject of elas-
ticity, that, when bodies are acted upon by forces tending to elongate or
compress them in a small degree, the changes produced are in proportion to
those forces; and that equal extensions and compressions are produced by
equal forces. That this principle is true, so long as the change produced in
bodies is very small, is not to be doubted ; aud as regards extensions it is the
basis of the irly investigations of Jacques Bernouilli on the elastic curve ;
of ilooke who was it* anther (Theory of Springs, Phil. Trans., 1666,);
Maiiotte, Leibnitz (I>- Resistentia Solidorum, 1684). With respect to elas-
ticity, it was adopted in the profound inquiries of Euler on the strength of
columns, which were corroborated by Lagrange (Berlin Memoirs); and with
respect both to extensions and compressions, it forms the basis of the calcu-
lations on the strength aud elasticity of bodies in the principal theoretical
and practical works on mechanics of the present day ; as the Mecanique of
Poisson, and the works of Whewell, eie. — the practical treatises of Navier,
Poncelet, Tredgold, Barlow, Moseley, &c He hoped, however, to convince
the section that this principal does not operate alone in the resistance of
bodies subjected to tension, or to compression, or to both. He hoped, too,
to show the law which the clemeut, not considered by writers, nor generally
known to exist, is subject to. This element is a defect of elasticity, or a set,
to which all bodies made to undergo a change of form, however small, seem
to lie liable, The defect here mentioned was known to exist only when the
body had been strained with a considerable force, or such as to be equal to
one third, or upwards, of the breaking weight. But the experiments which
he ^ould adduce would show that the defect commences with the smallest
changes of form, and is increased according to the square of the extension,
or compression, or of the weight. Thus, if e represent the extension or
compression which the strained body had undergone, and a e the force which
would have produced that extension or compression if the body bad been
elastic, the real force necessary to produce this change, e, will be
1. thi n the former b> a quantity, b e-, representing the defect of elasticity.
Hence the force req'iii' 1 to produce a change, e, is a e — b e2, where a and b
Bl i taut quantity . He bad found this law to obtain when the change
in the bod; rose from extension or compression alone, but when
the change arose both from extension and compression, as in the flexure of a
rectangular body, the force of a fibre was to that due to perfect elasticity, as
a i — h i- to a x ; or it was equal to ax— I x;- where X was the height ap-
plied, and a b constant quantities, as before. In proof of these statements,
Mr. Hodgkinson mentioned that having remarked, in his experiments made
for the British Associa' m on the subject of hot and cold blast iron, that the
elasticity of bars broken transversely was injured much earlier than was
generally assumed, he paid particular attention to this circumstance in his
future experiments, and had bars so formed that he could separate the elas-
ticity of extension from that of compression ; by these bars, which were
very long and of small depth, he perceived that one-fiftieth or one-eightieth
of the breaking weight was sufficient to injure the elasticity. He mentioned
the matter to his friend Mr. Fairbairn (who was associated with him in the
inquiry), soon after he had made the discovery ; and Mr. Fairbairn's subse-
quent experiments made to determine the strength of rectangular bars of
iron, from all parts of the kingdom, were conducted in the same manner as
Mr. Hodgkinson's bad been; the deflexion and quantity of set, or defect of
elasticity, from each weight being always observed. Mr. Fairbairn's experi-
ments were on bars cast one inch square and five feet long, and were made
with the utmost care; Mr. Hodgkinson has, therefore, adopted their results
with respect to the " set," and taking means both from Mr. Fairbairn's re-
sults and his own on the same sort of bars, he has sought for the relation
between the weights and the mean sets from those weights, these sets being
the deflexions or deviations from the original form of the bar, after the
weights have been removed. To ascertain the relation above, Mr. Hodg-
kinson has curves described from the results of the experiments, making the
sets the abscissae, and the weights the ordinates ; and the similarity in ap-
pearance of these curves to the common parabola, led him carefully to exa-
mine whether they were not in reality represented by that curve. The exa-
mination was successful — the parabola was the curve ; and the mean results

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

355

of the observed sets, together with the calculated ones, from equal additions
of weight, from 56 to 4481b., derived from 44 kinds of cast iron, and from
90 to 100 experiments, were as follows : —

Weights .. 56 112 168 224 280 336 392 448

Mean sets .. -003 -013 -026 -047 -069 -102 -136 -197

Computed sets parabolic -003 -012 -027 -047 -072 -102 -138 -181
Mr. Hodgkinson made experiments on stone, timber and wrought iron, and
observed the quantity of set in all. These different materials, when the re-
sults from them were constructed, all gave the form of the parabola, though
less perfectly than in cast iron, as the experiments on them were but few.
It appears, from the above-stated experiments, and others that were made,
that the sets produced in bodies, are as the squares of the weights applied.
Hence, there is no weight, however small, that will not produce a set and
permanent change in a body ; all bodies, when bent, have the arrangement
of their particles altered to the centre; and when bodies, as the axles of
railway carriages, are alternately bent, first one way and then the opposite,
at every revolution, we may expect that a total change in the arrangement
of their particles will ensue. It appears, too, from the results of these ex-
periments, that all calculations hitherto made, on the strength and elasticity
of bodies, have been only approximations. Mr. Hodgkinson stated, that he
laid the results of this communication before a meeting of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester a short time ago, soon after he had
made the discovery which it contains. In the prosecution of the experi-
ments he had received every assistance which the works of his friend, Mr.
Fairbairn, could supply ; and Mr. Robert Rawson had kindly assisted him in
the reduction and arrangement of the results of the experiments.

This communication gave rise to much conversation, in which the Presi-
dent, Prof. Lloyd, Dr. Robinson, and other persons joined, and in which all
agreed, that these experimental inquiries were of the utmost importance in
supplying a solid foundation for the speculations of the mathematical inves-
tigator in this most difficult branch of physical inquiry. Dr. Robinson also
inquired, if Mr. Hodgkinson had observed whether the molecular structure of
the bodies, on which he had experimented, was altered in any manner, and
if so, how did the change take place, during the progress of the experiments ?
Mr. Hodgkinson replied, that he had no means of determining this point
satisfactorily, but he had no doubt, that matter, when subjected to strain,
long before it broke, had its molecular structure permanently deranged.
He exemplified this by the axles of locomotive engines, which, as they
turned round, had the parts that were extended and compressed successively
underneath and above ; and after this action had been continued for a long
period, they were found to become of a kind of crystalline structure, inter-
nally, and of course were much impaired in strength. — Prof. Stevelly said,
that the forces to which they were subjected were in kind, though not in
degree, something like the alternate bending back and forward of a piece of
wire under which it at length broke. — Mr. Hodgkinson assented.

" On Changes in the Internal Construction of Metals."

Mr. Lucas, in the absence of Mr. Fairbairn, reported the progress of the
Committee appointed at the last meeting, to ascertain experimentally whether
any and what changes take place in the internal constitution of metals ex-
posed to continual vibration and concusssion. (The results of these expe-
riments were stated by Mr. Hodgkinson in the last paper). — The effect of
concussion on the shafts of tilt hammers is very remarkable. The shaft- are
made of the best ash, but after three or four months' use the strength of the
wood is so much deteriorated that the shafts break off short as if they were
rotten. Copper is also similarly affected by concussion, and in working
copper articles, and in rolling silvered plates of copper, the workmen find it
necessary to anneal the metal to prevent it from breaking..— Mr. J. Taylor
observed that this subject had been much discussed at Manchester, and with
the same results. He alluded to the difficulty of procuring good chains, and
said it occurred to him that probably it might arise fronTthe chain maker
being too good a workman, and that the evil was caused by too much swaging
in finishing the work. If, however, the quality of the iron could be restored
by annealing, as might be inferred from these experiments, that would pre-
sent the means of obtaining good chains in the first instance and of strength-
ening them after use.

On Contoured Maps, by Captain Larcom.
It is important that maps constructed by the government should exhibit
the levels of the country in the most intelligible manner ; showing heights
not uierely on the tops of hills, but round their sides, and through the valleys
which traverse them. Such a system is offered by these contours. They
are a series of horizontal lines, at a certain distance asunder, and at a certain
height above a fixed datum. The datum most commonly used is the level of
the sea, doubtless from the shore line being the limit of the land, and the
point at which roads must cease, as well as from an impression that it is
itself a level line ; and therefore, as the first contour, the most appropriate
and natural zero, from which to reckon the others. The Section were aware
that it has been a point much discussed, whether the high water, the low
water, or the mean state of the tide, offers the most level line. This is a
point which it would be out of place to discuss here, but it may be stated
that, in order to determine it, as far as Ireland is concerned, a series of lines

has been very accurately levelled across the island in various directions, and
permanent marks are left in all the towns, and on numerous public buildings ;
and at the end of each of these lines on the coast, tidal observations have
been made every five minutes during two complete lunations. These obser-
vations, and the connecting lines of level, are now in process of reduction —
the degree of accuracy attained is such that a discrepancy of -2 of an inch is
immediately apparent — and from them we may expect many points of in-
terest. The steeper the natural slope of the ground is, the closer together
the contours, of course, will he, aud the more oblique the road ; where, on
the contrary, the ground slopes very gently, the contours are further asunder,
and the road may he proportionally more direct. By examining the maps of
the Irish Survey, on which contours have been drawn, it will be seen that
they tell sad tales of the existing roads, every one of which ascends and
descends frequently, instead of keeping ou a gradual slope for its whole
length. In order to exhibit these lines, it is proposed, instead of adding
them to the original copperplate, which has a peculiar value as an official
record of boundaries, to make a copy of the plate by the electrotype, for the
purpose of receiving these lines. Contour maps were thought of early in the
progress of the survey, but means were wanting for their execution; at pre-
sent, however, the outline survey being complete, and the general map, or
map of the surface, being in progress, affords a convenient opportunity,
which it is hoped will not be lost.

Dr. Robinson inquired of Capt. Larcom whether the process of contouring
the maps was proceeding, and how soon he supposed it would be completed
for Ireland. — Capt. Larcom replied, that for the present it had been sus-
pended.— Dr. Robinson observed, that whether he considered the value of
this process in relation to the general interests of science, or the most im-
portant practical economies of the country at large, he could not but deeply
deplore the suspension, temporary though he hoped it would be, of this great
national undertaking ; and he trusted that, before the British Association
closed its present sitting, the most energetic steps would be taken to make
such an application to government as would induce them to resume this
most valuable work. He begged to inquire from Capt. Larcom, what
the expense would probably be. — Capt. Larcom replied, that he should esti-
mate it certainly at less than a farthing an acre. — Dr. Robinson : And the
original cost was probably sixpence or cightpence. — Capt. Larcom 6aid,
perhaps sevenpence to ninepence. — Dr. Robinson : Then, at a cost of about
one thirty-second part of the original expense, this invaluable additiou to that
splendid work, the Trigonometrical Survey of Ireland, could be accomplished.
If it was determined finally to suspend this work, he should say that it was
very like what the homely adage characterized as penny wise and pound
foolish.

" On a Method of ascertaining Inaccessible Distances at Sea or Land."

Mr. P. Leahy read a paper on a method of ascertaining inaccessible dis-
tances at sea or land, for which he claimed the advantages of greater accu-
racy and expedition than by the method of measuring a base line by the
log. On his plan two small telescopes are fixed at the greatest distance the
vessel will admit of, and so as to form some multiple of ten feet. This dis-
tance forms the base line on which the calculations are to be made. — Mr.
Macneili. being requested by Dr. Scoresby to state his opinion of the in-
vention, the latter said that it was sound in principle, but he thought with so
short a base line aud with the difficulty of taking simultaneous observations
at sea, it would be liable to inaccuracy.

" Formation of Concrete."

Mr. Hawkins made a communication on the formation of Concrete,
showing more particularly the importance of having the stones of the proper
sizes, so that the smaller ones should as nearly as possible fill up the inter-
stices of the larger. Where the sizes were properly adjusted, he found that
one proportion of lime to twenty of shingle, formed a stronger concrete than
when larger proportions of lime were used. Some engineers are in the habit
of using one of lime to six of shingle, and the proportions generally used are
as one to eight. A specimen of concrete made in the proportions he recom-
mended, and with shingles of proper sizes was found after a short time to be
stronger than an old Roman wall. — Mr. Macneili. said he preferred artificial
cement to lime, and he had found great advantage to result from allowing
the mass of concrete to fall from a height, by which means the shingle be-
came more compressed together. Mine dust mixed with lime, he believed,
made the most perfect concrete. — Mr. Jessop and Mr. Taylor also approved
of mine dust. The latter observed, that it was probably from the quantity
of iron in mine dust, that its adhesive properties were derived.

" Raising Sunken Vessels."

Sir T. Deane explained the method adopted by his brother. Mr. A.
Deane, to raise the Innisfaile steam vessel, of 500 tons, which was sunk by
striking against an anchor in the Cork river a few years ago. The ordinary
methods of raising sunken ships having proved ineffectual, a coffer-dam was
made round the vessel in the middle of the river ; and pumped dry by means
of eight or nine chain pumps. The leak was ascertained by digging under
the ship, and a cow hide was nailed over it to keep it water-tight. The
coffer-dam was removed as quickly as possible, when the Innisfaile again
floated by her own buoyancy, and the steam having been got up, she was
taken to Passage to undergo the necessary repairs. The whole cost was
400?., and the work was done in the course of four tides.

48*

356

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

KYANIZING TIMBER.

Anti-Dry -Rot Company, (Kyan's Patent).

(An Advertisement.*)

Mk. Editor — Mr. W. B. Prichard has recently published a letter in several
periodicals, in which he expresses astonishment that I should state that both
his report and letters are inaccurate, and, because I used so mild a phrase, he
has thought proper to make further statements of a like character ; I there-
fore feel it my duty to state and prove, that in some instances he has omitted
to state the whole truth, and in others he has challenged what is decidedly
untrue.

He omitted to state that the sleepers that had shown symptoms of decay
were prepared, by way of experiment, with solution only half the strength
required by the patent.

He stated that, at Shoreham Harbour, a waling piece, the very heart of
English oak, Kyanized, in use only four years, was like honeycomb, com-
pletely eaten away by the teredo navalis.

A full board of the commissioners of the harbour, appointed a committee
to view, who have reported the Kyanized timber as sound as irhen first
put in.

He stated that he had removed the oak waling, and that the decay was
oelow water mark. I annex the certificate of five witnesses, three of them
gentlemen of unexceptionable character, and the other two are his own wit-
nesses, who assert that he could not have taken an oak waling from below
water mark, as those walings are exclusively of beech, and that no Kyanized
waling lias been removed within the last six years ; they also report, that
after a careful survey they can find no symptoms of decay in any of the
piles.

Mr. Prichard has inserted a certificate from Mr. Buckwell and Mr. Butler,
in confirmation of his assertion, that the piles are decayed, which I have as-
certained was written before the inspection took place, and objected to after-
wards, and nevertheless published in its original form ; how much depend-
ence can be placed on this certificate may be ascertained from the annexed
letter, (No. 3.) from the gentlemen who signed it.

Mr. Prichard also inserts a certificate from the workmen at Shoreham
Harbour, that they inspected the piles in the presence of Mr. Meredith, en-
gineer to the Brighton Railway.

The workmen positively deny that Mr. Meredith did accompany them
during the survey.

Mr. Prichard asserts that Lord Manvers has impugned Kyan's process. I
am authorised by his lordship to state that " after very extensive experience
of its effects, his early impressions in favour of the discovery has been abun-
dantly confirmed," and that he continues to have " unshaken confidence in
its efficacy as a preservative of timber of every description."

Mr. Prichard insinuates, that Mr. Brunei, under whose directions immense
quantities of timber were Kyanized for the Great Western Railway, is now
opposed to our process.

1 annex a letter (No. 1) from the engineer's office of the Great Western
Railway, from one whose name will well vouch for the truth of the state-
ment, " that after Kyanizing upwards of 40,000 loads of timber he is well
satisfied with the result, as after six years' trial, the timber, on every exami-
nation, has proved as sound as when first laid down."

Mr. Prichard asks how many hundreds of the sleepers on the Brighton
Railway have decayed.

I submitted his question to the chief engineer on that line, and he stated
in reply, that he is not aware that one Kyanized sleeper is decayed.

Mr. Prichard states, that the opinion he has given about Kyanizing is per-
fectly disinterested, although he strongly recommends the process belonging
to his friend and solicitor.

These statements of Mr. Prichard are so void of truth, that I feel it my
duty to expose them, and having done so, am convinced that any further
statement Mr. Prichard may make will prove innoxious, and not require any
reply from me on behalf of the Company.

2, Lime Street Square.
Kth Sept., 1843.

Taswell Thompson, Sec.

Letters and Certificates' above Referred to.
No. 1. '

We, the undersigned, baring at the request of Mr. Taswell Thompson,
this day minutely inspected several of the piles of in the east pier of Shore-
ham Harbour, embracing all those represented to have heen Kyanized, and
many which have not been subjected to that process, do certify that we find
no symptom of decay whatever in any.

We have carefully surveyed the whole of the two lower waling pieces, and
find no indication of any of the original having been removed. The material
employed for this purpose is beech exclusively.

* We cannot allow this controversy to be continued unless the communi-
cations be paid for as Advertisements, — Editor.

We further report, that the pUes both descriptions, on the east side of
the said pier are slightly touched by the worm, just above the sand.
J. B. Balley, Ship Builder.
William Tate, Timber Merchant.
Shoreham, Thomas Thornton, late Harbour Master.

August 22th, 1843.

No. 2.

We, the undersigned, have worked as carpenters at Shoreham Harbour
for the last six years, and well know all the Kyanized wood, and can state
positively that not one of the Kyanized walings have been removed since
they were first fixed in the pier ; and we can also state positively, that the
two lower walings are formed alone of beech.

Witness, Wm. Jingle. Robert Burt.

Shoreham, William Ratcliff.

August 29M, 1343.

No. 3.

Sir — In reference to the report of our view of the piles of Shoreham
Harbour, on the 3rd June last, published by Mr. Prichard, we beg to state
that its contents, both surprised and annoyed us, as we did not intend to say
that any of the piles referred to are decayed, but requested Mr. Prichard to
erase the words " gone through several stages of decay," and state instead,
that the unprepared and prepared were in a like state of preservation ; and
we beg to add, that in giving our opinion, we were led to believe, that the
Commissioners of the Harbour had requested us to report upon the condition
of two chips of wood submitted to us, and not for the purpose of publishing
our report as to the efficacy or non-efficacy of Kyan's Patent : and that we
had no means of judging which was the prepared wood and which the un-
prepared, but deemed Mr. Prichard's word sufficient authority, as he was at
that time an officer under the commissioners.

Shoreham,
August l<)th, 1843.

Mr. Taswell Thompson,
Lime Street Square, London.

Chas. Dowlen Buckwell.
George Butler.

No. 1.

Great Western Railway, Engineer's Office.
27, Portland Square, Bristol,

Dear Sir — I have sent you by the carrier a section from the centre of
one of our longitudinal timbers of the permanent way; it was Kyanized and
laid on the line about six years ago, and you will perceive it is as sound as
the day on which it was first put down ; it is not singular, with us but in all
my examinations I have found it equally sound. I think this simple fact will
be' highly interesting to you, and you will not begrudge the expense of the
carriage.

I would remark that the pickling having been entirely under my manage-
ment, I was very particular in having the strength of the solution maintained.
Upon first immersion the strength was 1 in 14, at a temperature of 62°, and
the time of immersion for seven-inch timber was eight days, during this
time the solution was kept at a uniform strength by pumping. In this way
I have pickled upwards of 40,000 loads of timber, and the quantity of sub-
limate consumed comes out at about 1 Jib. to the load.

T. Thompson, Esq.
August 31s7, 1843.

Y'our's truly,
J. Hammond.

THE PYRAMIDS OF G1ZEH.

The last monthly meeting of the Egyptian Society was very fully
attended, as it was announced that Dr. Lepsius would give some de-
scription of the researches made by the Prussian Expedition.

Mr. E. W. Lane being unanimously called to the chair, Dr. Lepsius
commenced by stating that he felt it to be his duty, whenever he had
the opportunity of visiting Cairo, to communicate any information that
he might consider interesting to so useful and liberal a Society. He
felt assured, from the great progress already made in the few years
since its establishment, that it was destined to fill an important place
in the history of scientific research in this country. The Doctor then
alluded, in proof, to the valuable memoir lately published by the Society,
contributed by M. Linant " Sur le Lac Moeris." He offered some ob-
servations on the mode of constructing the pyramids, and enumerated
the many theories that had been advanced concerning the objects and
the construction of these vast monuments. He, however, considered
the fact established, that their object was simply to mark the places of
tombs, and he then proceeded to explain to the meeting the manner
in which they were constructed.

The great pyramids of Gizeh are (in comparison with many others)
in a good state of preservation. From the largest, little besides the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

357

casing stones have been removed. In the second pyramid a part of
the casing yet remains. In these it is impossible to see the interior
construction of the stone work. But some of the small ruined pyra-
mids at Gizeh consist of several steps, each of several courses of stone-
work in height, instead of the usual form of four sides regularly con-
verging to an apex; and in the more ruined parts of these pyramids
it is seen that the steps are formed by walls built against each other,
as shown by the dotted lines in the following sketch.

The masonry of the pyramids of Abousir and Saccara is very in-
ferior to that of the pyramids of Gizeh — in all of these the step con-
struction is clearly seen, and also that the steps are separate walls
built against each other. The pyramid at Merdoon, again, exhibits
this mode of construction. In its present form it rather resembles a
huge square tower, the walls of which are slightly inclined, than a
pyramid : the outer layers having been mostly removed, the core or
central part is left standing alone. In short, in the examination of a
great number of pyramids, from Gizeh to the Fayoom, the same mode
of construction was found.

To explain a mode of building apparently so contrary to sound ma-
sonry, we must suppose a chamber a for the tomb, in or under the

small pyramid B B B, built over it: by filling up the angles of the steps,
and adding the fine smooth casing stone, this small pyramid would be
completed ; but if it were desired to enlarge the work, instead of
filling up the angles to prepare for the casing, another step, of the
same height and depth as the first, being added to each step of the
first-mentioned pyramid, the outline touching the exterior angles of
these steps, c c c, Sic, would be parallel to the outline of the first
pyramid ; and so on, by continually adding steps of the same section,
the pyramid would be increased to any size. The foregoing sketch
thus shows five pyramids, one within the other. Dr. Lepsius stated
that he was indebted to Mr. J. Wild, architect, for this suggestion,
and it agrees with and explains the account given by Herodotus, who
states that machines were placed upon the steps, and the stones raised
from one step to another. The Doctor then explained, in confirmation
of his views, the remarkable pyramid of Dashour; he considered the
obtuse angle of the upper part, as the original angle intended. More-
over, Dr. Lepsius observed that this mode of proceeding is in harmony
with that adopted by the Egyptians in their tombs excavated in the
rock. It is found at Thebes that the first care of the reigning king
was to excavate in the rock, and complete and decorate, a chamber
for his tomb. If his life continued after the end of this labour, another
chamber was added, and then another, and so on ; and it is found that
the largest tombs are those built by the kings who have reigned the
longest. In the same manner, the pyramids may have been continually
enlarged during the lifetime of the kings for whom they were in-
tended. All the evidence that remains shows that the largest pyra-
mids were of kings who reigned a long time. It must be remembered,
that among the Egyptians it was the duty of the individual to provide
a tomb for himself; his successor was immediately occupied upon his
own, and thus we find many tombs either hastily or imperfectly finished,
and chambers left in all states of progress. Could a monument of such

stupendous size as the great pyramid of Gizeh, have been contem-
plated as an original plan, to have been finished, or nearly so, in the
lifetime of one man ? but it is easy to conceive that by perpetual
additions during a long reign, such a building may have been com-
pleted.

Dr. Lepsius then exhibited a selection of beautifully finished draw-
ings of the subjects and inscriptions decorating the tombs round the
pyramids of Gizeh and .Saccara, architectural plans, sections, &c. The
time allowed was too short for more than a slight examination of them.
The explanations given of some of the subjects was very interesting.

The Doctor did not refer to his researches in the Fayoom. I am,
however, enabled to inform you, that he lias fixed satisfactorily the
place of the labyrinth near the pyramid of Howarra, and has traced, from
what remains, a general plan of it. Its complete ruin is owing to the
walls having been built with rude brick, and merely faced with stone;
from the same cause, the tombs at Saccara are nearly all destroyed,
while those at Gizeh, which are entirely built of stone, are in good
preservation.

By the liberal regulations of the Society at whose rooms this lecture
was delivered, strangers are permitted to use the library and attend
the lectures, if introduced by a member. I had thus the opportunity
of hearing the paper I have endeavoured to report to you. The
library, although not very large, contains nearly all the valuable works
on the antiquities of Egypt and the surrounding countries, the works
of the best travellers and historians, some upon Arabic literature, &c.

Dr. Lepsius left Cairo to-day for Upper Egypt. — Athenaum.
Cairo, August 17.

ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL, WINDSOR.

The extensive alterations and embellishments which have been in
progress since the early part of May last (from which period the
chapel has been closed), at an outlay of several thousands of pounds,
throughout the interior of this sacred edifice, having just been brought
to a close, the following description of the ornamental and newly em-
blazoned portions of the chapel of St. George, the curious discoveries
made during the progress of the works, and of other objects of inte-
rest connected with the late repairs, will, no doubt, be interesting to
a numerous portion of our readers.

It is now nearly a century since this chapel had undergone any
repairs. At a chapter held by the dean and canons in February last,
it was resolved that the chapel should undergo throughout a thorough
cleansing and renovation ; that new stained glass windows should be
introduced in various parts ; the organ repaired, ornamented, and
many additions made to it ; the whole of the elaborate wood carvings
and the alabaster and marble monuments in the several private chapels
and aisles, restored to their original state ; and other embellishments
added, so as to render this ancient building one of the most magnifi-
cent sacred edifices in the kingdom.

The beautifully groined ceilings of the nave and choir has been
thoroughly cleaned by means of immense scaffolding reaching from
the floor to the roof; and the whole of the defective parts carefully
pointed and restored by experienced workmen. The groined ceilings,
also, of the side aisles, chapels, and transepts, have undergone the
same careful and extensive renovation, and likewise the organ-loft
and that portion of the chapel at the back of the altar. The whole of
the whitewash and colouring matter upon the stone pillars, window-
jambs, arches, and piers, and upon the hitherto half-hidden Gothic
screens to the Hastings, Beaufort, Lincoln, and other chapels, have
been removed, restoring the stonework to its rich and varied natural
tints, and producing a most beautiful effect. The numerous monu-
ments, and the interiors of the private chapels, belonging to noble and
distinguished families, have also been carefully restored.

The whole of the splendid Gothic oaken stalls of the Knights of
the Garter (on either side of the choir and those facing the altar) have
been cleaned, and repaired where necessary, so as to render them
strictly perfect, at an enormous expense. The richly and most elabo-
rately carved canopies over the stalls of the knights (above which are
suspended their banners, with their mantles, swords, helmets, and
crests, were taken down to undergo a similar renovation and repair.
They have also been re-stained and varnished.

The dark and dingy-looking paint which covered the exquisite
wood carving of the stalls, has been carefully scraped off, and the
wood left in its own tint, which has considerably improved and heigh-
tened the general effect of this portion of the interior of the chapel.

It may here be mentioned that on the pedestals of the stalls the life
of our Saviour is represented in richly carved work, and on those
under the organ-gallery are the adventures of St. George. In lt>14

358

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

an addition was made to the number of knight?, and six new stalls
were in consequence added, in front of which are carved represen-
tations of the attempt of Margaret Nicholson to assassinate George III.;
the procession of the King to St. Paul's on the day of thanksgiving for
his recovery, in 1789; the interior of the cathedral on that occasion,
and of Queen Charlotte's charity school. On the outside of the upper
seat of the stalls, a broad girth, continued round both sides of the
chapel, is carved, in Saxon characters, with the 20th psalm, supposed
to be intended as a supplication for the sovereign of the Order of the
Garter.

The projecting front of the Royal closet (over the north side of the
altar, and above the tomb of Edward IV.), which bad always been
considered to be composed of carved stone, was discovered, upon
cleaning off various thick coats of paint and whitewash, to be of carved
oak, of a very early date and in a most excellent state of preservation.
Such is the rare character of the style of its carving, that there is but
one other specimen of its kind in the kingdom, and that is to be found
in the Cathedral at Lincoln. The wainscot carved front of Her Ma-
jesty's closet has been stained and varnished, and it has now a most
pleasing effect as it strikes the spectator upon entering the choir from
the west.

The three principal lines of the heraldic bosses on the vaultings of
the nave and transepts have been emblazoned with the arms of former
Knights of the Garter, and of the most ancient and distinguished
families in the empire, and the entire of the bosses, pendants, and
knots of the vaulting in the choir have been similarly emblazoned,
and in the same rich and gorgeous style, under the immediate super-
intendence of Willement, of London, to whom the whole of this por-
tion of the embellishments of the chapel, the restoration of the great
west window, and the introduction of new windows of stained glass,
had been confided by the dean and canons.

A magnificent and highly wrought brass lectern (upwards of six
feet high), which had lain in a dilapidated and neglected state,
amongst some rubbish, in a vault of the chapel for upwards of a cen-
tury, and which had been fortunately discovered by the Dean, has
undergone a perfect restoration, and now occupies its proper place in
nearly the centre of the choir, at the west end of the stone over the
vault of Jane Seymour, the Queen of Henry VIII. The top, which is
in the form of a double desk, constructed to bold the sacred volume
on one side and the Book of Common Prayer on the other, turns round
upon a pivot, and from this lectern the lessons will, in future, be read
by the minor canon at divine service in the morning and afternoon.

Ten windows (five on either side), of stained glass, containing in
compartments the heraldic bearings of all the Knights of the Garter
from the institution of the order, have been completed bv Mr. Wille-
ment on the north and south sides, and at the eastern end of the choir,
some portions being over the banners of the Garter Knights. Four
other windows (two on either side at the western end) onlv remain to
be similarly emblazoned with the arms of future knights of the order.

A most pleasing and picturesque effect is produced throughout the
choir by the introduction of these stained glass windows, which give,
a rich, yet soft and subdued tone, to the whole of the interior, in per-
fect harmony with the religious character of the sacred edifice.

The stained glass of the great west window, which may now be
classed amongst the most splendid and magnificent in the kingdom,
has been carefully and skilfully restored by Mr. Willement, and an
entirely new and improved arrangement of the ancient and scriptural
figures and devices has been effected under bis superintendence.
Within the four chief compartments, at the upper part of the spacious
arch, are the badges, initials, and crowns of the following sovereigns:
Edward 111., Edward IV., Henry VIII., and Queen Elizabeth. In the
centre of the window are the arms of the patron saint of England,
with the initials " S. G." (Sct7ictus Georgius), and at the apex the
initials " I.H.S." The whole of the numerous figures contained in
the other compartments represent saints, prophets, and apostles; but
from the absence, with but very few exceptions, of either emblems or
inscriptions, it is difficult to distinguish others than St. Luke, the
physician, St. Catherine, St. Dunstan, St. Edmund, St. Edward the
Confessor, and St. George.

The general appearance of the sacred edifice, viewed from any one
point, is now gorgeous and magnificent in the extreme. The removal
of the present wretched specimens of coloured glass in the east win-
dow over the altar, and the restoration of its fine tracery and old
stained glass, somewhat similar to that at the west end, are nearly all
that is now required to render perfect the labour which has been so
liberally commenced, and, thus far, so admirably brought to a close.

THE FACADE OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sir — You may probably be of opinion, that having alreadv called
attention more than once to the subjec*of the British Museum, it is
unnecessary to return to it so soon again, more especially as it has
since — and, perhaps, in consiqt.mce — been taken up by other journals.
But this last circumstance ought of itself to encourage you not to de-
sist from the good work you nave begun, since it must convince you
that there exists in other quarters a disposition to support the same
views, and, if at all possible, yet secure for us such a facade to our
National Museum, as shall eclipse every thing hitherto attempted in
the same style, in this country, and triumphantly vindicate the cha-
racter of Grecian architecture.

A good deal has been said as to the beneficial and widely extended
influence which the example of the "Palace of Westminster" will
have upon architecture and art generally among us ; let it then now
be shown : let us have a decisive proof of such in our ne,xt greatest
national edifice — one where all refinement of art will naturally be
looked for, and where even lavish embellishment will be no more than
properly characteristic of the purposes to which the building itself is
devoted. The one at Westminster is hailed as a very great stride
forward in architecture, and as leading to a very much better system
of management than has been hitherto observed iu regard to our
public edifices; are we then now, to step back all at once to our old
courses, and to relapse into the apathy we have but just shaken off?
Shall we lay the blame, in this instance, on the Trustees of the Mu-
seum for their supineness, and their indifference as to what its facade
may prove as a piece of architecture, provided there is houst-room
enough within its walls for the various valuable collections deposited
in it? Do we yet know if the design has been examined or approved
of by them or any one else — Sir Robert Peel, of course, excepted —
or has been more than merely assented to as matter of form, without
a thought being given to the design itself?

All that can be said at present is, that they appear to have placed
themselves entirely in the hands of their architect, to do exactly as he
may think fit, or as his ability will permit him. Yet, however they
may confide in him, he does not appear to have any great confidence
in himself, else wherefore does he maintain such suspicious reserve ?
It is true, he has not been caller) upon formally to produce his design,
before the public, neither has lie formally refused to do so; yet he
must be aware — now it least, if not before — that there exists an ear-
nest desire to be made acquainted with it in some way or other — as
might very easily be done by a model in relief of the facade, upon
rather a large scale, which might be placed for public inspection
in the Museum itself — either in the entrance hall, or in one of the
galleries.

The very circumstance of the design having, up to the present time,
been kept a profound secret, is a strong reason wherefore we should
now be plainly informed what it really is ; and on aii occasion of such
high importance, it would be a piece of very false and misplaced de-
licacy, to refrain from demanding of Sir Robert Smirke to let us see
his design beforehand, and judge for ourselves if it be really worthy
of being carried into execution, because if not, or is incapable of
being rendered so, it had better be laid aside altogether, coiite qui
coiite, and some more satisfactory one be now prepared in lieu of it,
either by himself or some one else.

The facade of the Museum might even now be made the subject of
competition : there may, indeed, be no precedent in this country for
such course of proceeding, and it might accordingly be considered a
strange innovation, but it would at all events be a iudicious and safe
one. Let a liberal premium — say five hundred guineas — be offered
for the best design, on the understanding that that will be the sole
emolument derived from it, the carrying it into execution being left
to the present architect, unless he should prefer to withdraw himself
altogether from the business. Thus, he would not suffer pecuniarily,
and perhaps less in reputation than he is now likely to do, if allowed
to proceed as hitherto, and produce what, when completed, will be
found to be a signal failure, and will occasion quite as much public
dissatisfaction as Buckingham Palace and the National Gallery. Far
more prudeut would it be in him to acquiesce, however reluctantly,
in what might be construed as a tacit acknowledgment of his incom-
petency, than to leave a lasting monument of such incompetency
behind him.

How do we know, it may be asked, that such will prove the case,
when no one as yet knows any thing of the design itself? Justly or
unjustly very unfavourable suspicions are entertained, and since no
attempt is made to dispel them, by producing the design and con-
vincing us how idle are our fears and apprehensions, it is but natural
to conclude that such argument is felt to be a very dangerous one to

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

359

resort to, and by no means calculated to secure our admiration for the
intended fncade.

Surely the Institute might, on such a highly important occasion,
exert themselves a little, and stepping a little out of their ordinary
course, might venture, in their character as a public body, to recow-
iiu:, that satisfactory information should be communicated relative
to the completion of the British Museum, and all pains be taken to
secure its being completed in such manner as to stamp it a national
edifice worthy of the nation and of the name it bears-— which it is
not likely tn prove by many degrees, if we can obtain no more valid
security for its excellence than the former productions of the archi-
tect to whom it is now blindly confided. No satisfactory pledge for
requisite grandeur and beautv in the facade, is afforded by the archi-
tecture of the inner court or quadrangle; on the contrary, if the former
is not to be of very superior quality and design, it may as well be at
once a mere plain and substantial piece of "homespun" building,
making no pretensions to any sort of beauty. The subject is one
which affords ample scope for the display of imagination and refined
taste ; and to what purpose, I would ask, are subjects of that poetical
class — one so very unlikely there should be any after occasion for,
proposed to architectural students at the Academy, if, whenever an
actual occasion does occur, nothing better than arrant common-place,
and dull humdrum, without even a particle of poetry in it, can be
provided. Leaving you and your readers to crack me this question,
I remain,

Yours, and all that,

Br.rrus Britannicus.

[For inserting the above, in addition to what has already been said
in our Journal on the same subject, apology is unnecessary. It is one
of exceedingly great importance, if not to architects in particular, to
architecture and to our national credit in it. Either very much greater
importance is attached to the Houses of Parliament and their embel-
lishment than is consistent with public economy, or equal liberality
ought to be shown in the case of the British Museum — that is, in re-

fard to what now remains to be done to it. Whether it be now ren-
ered a worthy monument of art, or not, a monument it will be, for
ages to come, unless it should happen to be destroyed by fire — a ca-
lamity no more to be apprehended for it than for the new edifice at
Westminster. The obstinate silence maintained in regard to the de-
sign for the fafade, is, however, of most evil omen in itself, and be-
speaks a determination neither to show, nor to make any appearance
of showing, the slightest deference to public opinion, unless upon the
extreme compulsion of a general public outcry to that effect. We
ourselves have done, and shall continue to do, all we can to force the
matter on the attention of our readers, but it is one that ought to be
taken up earnestly by the whole of the public press — at least by that
portion of it which affects to attend at all to the interests of art.
Yet such is not the case at present; for although we do not stand
exactly alone, in our anxiety as to the British Museum, there seems to
be a strange reluctance on the part of the daily press to bring forward,
or even touch upon, the subject in any way. We say " reluctance,"
because a correspondent informs us that he addressed a letter to the
Times newspaper, relative to the intended facade of the Museum,
but it was neither inserted, nor made use of as a hint for any remarks
on the part of that paper. — Ed.] ,

"THE LIGHT FOR ALL NATIONS" LIGHTHOUSE.

Sm — He who builds a lighthouse on the Goodwin sands, builds an
imperishable name and a monument to his fame, not only as a skilful
and successful architect, but also as the enviable deliverer of thou-
sands, and most probably of tens of thousands, of bis fellow creatures
from the jaws of destruction. The Goodwin bank, about 10 or 11
miles long from north to south, and between 3 or 4 broad, consists of
finely comminuted particles of sand firmly compacted together, offer-
ing a great resistance to the introduction of smaller bodies, but quickly
entombing ships of burthen which are so unfortunate as to be driven
upon them, being, as William Lambert remarks in his "Perambulations
of Kent, written in the year 1570, " a most dreadful gulfe and shippe
swallouer."

Many years ago the Corporation of the Trinity House formed the
design of erecting a lighthouse upon these sands, but the idea was
abandoned when, after boring to a very great depth, no solid foundation
could be obtained; and since then no determined attempt has been
made to build a solid structure until the recent one of Mr. William
Bush, whose plan was certainly an excellent one as adapted to sands
of known superficial depth ; but wholly irreconcilable with tie con-

stitution of this particular embankment. Not having these experi-
mental borings of the Trinity House before his eyes, and forgetting
the golden maxim "Never to begin a thins; until the end is well con-
sidered," he launched his caisson in an unknown void, to rest eventu-
ally on he knew not what: for although he speaks of a rock bottom,
this, at best, is but problematical, and our geological ideas lead us
rather to infer that the under soil is analogous to the low coast around
Pegwell Bay being intersected with chalk cliffs: be this us it m ijr, it
was absolutely necessary to the success of this particular plan, that the
exact depth of the quicksand should have been previous!) as-
certained.

For carrying out the plan ! am now about to propose, this prelimi-
nary step is not necessary, other than in choosing the site upon which
to commence operations; and here I am far from thinking that the
most elevated portion of the bank is the best for the purpose, from the
simple reason that being the apex of the submarine hill, the sands are
here most probably the deepest, but I would rather choose that portion
of the bank which presents the most precipitous front to the sea, for
here it is highly probable the sands rest upon chalk hills or cliffs. The
site chosen, let

A B C D, be a given area or superficial square, the angle A beiug
towards the most violent action of the waves : at E, the centre of the
square, let a circular well about eight feet in diameter be commenced,
the masonry about two feet thiok to be firmly cemented together, and
so secured as to resist the pressure it must experience as it descends.
Commencing at the lowest depth convenient, let the building be
rapidly carried on until above high water mark, still continuing it as
the lower portion disappears, every means being used to facilitate its
descent, should this be requisite. There is little doubt, however, of Jhe
building gradually sinking, the increasing weight giving the necessary
impetus to its descent, and thus must it continue without reference to
the depth, until it meet the consolidated bed on which the quicksands
rest: this object attained, the sands are then abstracted from the well,
and after the foundations are properly examined the wdiole is to be
filled up with solid masonry.

Having by this central well ascertained the depth of sand, and the
nature of the lower bed, proceed to form wells of magnitude and
strength proportioned to the depth of sand to be passed through, at
points, A, B, C, D, and simultaneously or consecutively the connect-
ing well, as exhibited by the accompanying section, to be filled up in
like manner: thus a coffer dam of solid masonry will be formed, from
the midst of which the sands, if not very deep, may be abstracted, aud
solid masonry introduced in lieu thereof, binding the whole as one vast
solid foundation capable of supporting a noble edifice.

The idea above given, so far as regards building upon quicksands,
is not original, for during my travels in India, my admiration has been
more than once excited by vast piles of solid masonry having their
foundations within the dry quicksand, a much more difficult under-
taking I presume, than building upon the Goodwin Sands, which, from
their compactness must offer great opposition to the intrusion of
bodies of this nature. The beautiful Scotch Church at Madras may
also be quoted as having its foundations laid within the quicksand,
being pillared on a great number of wells, as suggested by native
architects.

The whole of the wells, and the entire foundation being completed,

360

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[October,

immense blocks of stone, contributing to bind the whole together, will
then be laid upon it, beginning as far beneath the sand as practicable,
and continued full twelve feet above high water mark, and upon this
the shaft will be raised, the whole superstructure being left to the skill
and taste of the engineer. I have only to add that the expence of the
wells, however numerous they may be, will be comparatively trifling,
and wholly unworthy consideration, taking into account the vast im-
portance of this truly national undertaking.

M.

ENGINEERING IN IRELAND.
Improvement of the River Shannon.

gIR_I shall feel obliged by your inserting the enclosed paper, re-
ferring to a portion of the extensive improvements which are in pro-
gress in the river Shannon, in the forthcoming number of the Journal.

I forward with it a small plan of the site, shewing the weir A. B.,
and describing (by dotted lines) the three large portions into which
the works were divided by dams, for the convenience of their execu-
tion. I am> Siri

Killaloe, County of Clare. Your obedient servant,

4M Sept. 1843. Thomas Barton",

Resident Engineer.

Scale, 800 ft. to an inch.
Reference.
C. C County ot Clare. C. T., County of Tipperary. A. E., The Weir.
The budge which crosses the river leads from Killaloe, county of Clare, to
Ballena, county of Tipperary. C, canal.

On Tuesday, 15th August, Lieut. Col. Harry D. Jones, R.E., Shannon
Commissioner, and Thomas Rhodes, Esq., principal engineer, accom-
panied by William Mackenzie, Esq., the contractor for many of the
important works on the line of the Shannon, arrived at Killaloe, and
on the following day, inspected the works which are in progress in
that beautiful neighbourhood, and are fast verging to completion ;
after which Col. Jones proceeded on his periodical tour of inspection
to the works in the Lower Shannon ; having previously visited the
Sc.irriff River, where an improvement is carrying on that is likely to
be of the utmost advantage to the Towns of Scarriff and Touryvaney,
and to a very extensive agricultural district surrounding them.

On Tuesday (22nd ultimo) the gallant Colonel returned to Killaloe
for the purpose of witnessing on Wednesday, according to arrange-
ment, the admission of the water to that part of the great regulating
weir, which had lately been completed, but Old Shannon, grown impa-
tient, would no longer be held in artificial bonds, and bursting forth,
resumed his dominion, sweeping with magnificent and easy flow along
the improved level of his bed, and thus anticipated the spectacle in-
tended to have taken place on Wednesday.

In October last, a portion of the weir, on the Clare side of the river,
amounting to GOO ft. in length, had been finished, and the water being
turned over it, dams were made, and the Tipperary side of the river
was laid dry for the purpose of reducing the shoal, and constructing
the remaining portion of the weir, during which operations the river
had been confined to a channel of one half its usual capacity.

The Shannon, at Killaloe, now flows over a line of weir 1100 ft. in
length, and it is anticipated that this erection will effect a very con-
siderable permanent reduction of the winter flood, and solve the prob-
lem (somewhat difficult to be understood by persons not conversant
with the laws of fluids in motion, but which is clearly appreciated by
the hydraulic engineer), that a Bar or Weir may be constructed across
a river in such a manner as to obtain an increased discharge.

There is in the apex at the weir, a small deviation of level at one
period, so formed as to assist in the annual migration of the salmon, a
deep pool being constructed at the foot of the weir, opposite this
point, for the purpose of facilitating the leaping of the fish, and at the
termination where the weir adjoins to the rock on the Tipperary side,
there is a roughly formed inclined plane, by which the young eels,
spawned in the estuary, will be enabled to climb the summit of the
weir, and pass into the upper waters.

Leaving the question of navigation untouched, some notion may be
formed of the improvement likely to result with reference to drainage
only, when it is stated that the maximum height of floods at Killaloe,
have been known to attain to 9 ft. above the level of the apex of this
weir, and that hereafter their utmost height will scarcely surpass
three feet above the same datum.

It must be a source of peculiar gratification to Mr. Rhodes, the
commissioners' principal engineer, to see, after years of unceasing
study and anxiety, that his arrangements are attaining completeness,
and evincing success such as could only follow the workings of a
genius like his, so particularly fitted to this abstruse branch of the pro-
fession, and of which Lord Stanley, (then the Rt. Hon. E. G. S. Stanley)
seems to have been so well aware, when, in 1S31, he directed this
eminent gentleman's attention to The Shannon.' our own Shannon.'
the dominant stream of Ireland, and the pride of British rivers !

T. B.

REVIEWS.

Illustration* of lh Crohn Auuiduct. By J. B. Tower, of the
Engineer Department, (U. S.) Wiley and Putnam, New York and
London, 1843.

We have here* an elaborate memoir of one of the greatest works
of our Anglo-American brethren, a work entailing an expence of up-
wards of a million sterling, and of that colossal character as to take
a high rank among the triumphs of engineering science. It is one of
those works which the people of English race on both sides of the
Atlantic can look upon with equal pride. We have no doubt that the
elaborate and extensively illustrated volume of Mr. Tower will be
acquired by many of our readers no less as a record of the Croton
aqueduct, than of the high standing which the engineering profession
has taken in America, and of the way in which its reputation is
mentioned. To do adequate justice to it, it would be necessary to
give several illustrations, and we hope at some future time to be able
to do this. We make the following extract, to show the reason why
the aqueduct form was adopted.

" Having fixed upon the Croton River as a stream possessing the requisite
advantages for a supply, questions naturally arose as to the manner in which
it should be conveyed to the city. The distance being ahout forty miles, OTer
a country extremely broken and uneven, and following a direction for a por-
tion of this distance, parallel with the Hudson River, encountering the
streams which empty into it and form deep valleys in their courses. It will
be interesting to notice the different plans which were suggested for forming
a channel-way to conduct the water. The following modes were presented:
— a plain channel formed of earth, like the ordinary construction of a canal
feeder : — an open channel, protected against the action of the current >>y
masonry: — an arched culvert or conduit, composed essentially of masonry,

1S43.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

361

and iron pipes. In deciding which of these modes should he adopted, it
was necessary to make a comparsion among them as to their efficiency for
conducting the water in purity, and in the quantity required, their perma-
nency as structures, and their cost.

" The disadvantages attendant upon an open canal were, that by filtration
through the hanks there would be a heavy loss of water ; — the difficulty of
preserving the water from receiving the wash of the country, and preventing
injurious matter from being thrown into it and rendering it impure, and the
impurities which might be contracted by passing through different earths.
Evaporation would also occasion a serious loss of water. The hanks would
be liable to failure in seasons of long-continued rains, and the city depending
upon this for a supply, would he cut off, except there should be sufficient
in the reservoirs to furnish a supply during the period of repairs. The canal
could never be subjected to a thorough repair, because of the necessity of
keeping it in a condition for furnishing water constantly during the whole
year, so that all repairs would be done under great disadvantages, and the
channel would be yearly growing worse until its failure might become a pub-
lic calamity. In regard to the open channel having the sides protected by
masonry, the objections were found to be such as would apply equally to
every species of open channel ; namely, that it would be exposed in many
situations to receive the wash of the country ; that it would be unprotected
from the frost, and liable to be interrupted thereby, and lastly, that there
would be a loss by evaporation. It was supposed that these objections
might he obviated by certain precautions ; for example, the wash could be
avoided by making sufficient side drains ; and the interruption liable to occur
from frost and snow, and the evaporation to a certain extent, could be pre-
vented by closing the channel entirely with a roof over the top. The close
channel or culvert, composed essentially of masonry, seemed to possess all
the requisite advantages for conducting the water in a pure state and keeping
it beyond the influence of frost or any interruption which would be liable to
occur to an open channel. In point of stability this plan had a decided pre-
ference over either of the other plans proposed, and the only objection
offered was the cost of the work constructed in this way. To avoid too
; great expense it was proposed to make use of a mixed construction, using
the close channel or culvert in situations where deep excavations occurred,
and it would be desirable to fill in the earth again to the natural form, also
where the line of aqueduct intersected villages, and using the open channel
with slope walls for the residue of the distance.

" In regard to iron pipes for conducting the water, it was found that a
sufficient number of them to give the same sectional area as would be adopted
by either of the other plans would be more expensive, and considering the
great distance and the undulating surface over which they would extend,
other disadvantages were presented which added to the objections, and the
plan was considered inexpedient. Could a line be graded so as to give a
regular inclination from the Fountain Reservoir to one at the city, then the
expense of laying iron pipes for conducting the proposed quantity of water,
would be greater than for constructing a channel-way of masonry ; and when
laid, the pipes were thought to be less durable. Should the pipes follow the
natural undulations of the ground, there would be so much resistance offered
to the flow of water that the discharge would be diminished in a very great
degree.

The close channel or conduit of masonry was adopted as the plan best cal-
culated to answer all the purposes of conducting the water to the city.

We should like the managers of the New River to read this, and
see if they could not take a lesson from it witli regard to their recep-
tacle for dead dogs, ditch-water, and diseased bathers, with which
they supply the metropolis with pure water. The sooner that con-
cern is covered over the better, the more creditable will it be to the
managers, and the more acceptable to the community.

Illustrations of Indian Architecture from the Muhammadan Conquest
downwards, selected from a portfolio of architectural drawings, from
buildings at Agra, Delhi, Juanpur, Benares Chunar, and numerous
other places. By Markham Kittoe, Esq. (Parts 9 to 17, containing
21 plates.) Calcutta: W. Thacker and Co., 1838.

To us it affords great gratification to receive these new fruits of
^ Air. Kittoe's labours, whether we consider them as the productions of

\a gentleman of great taste and mental culture, or whether we con-
template them with regard to their architectural influence. If there
are still those who doubt that no new resources exist for art but in the
plagiarism and piracy of Greek design, let them examine these
i ilnwings, and see how oriental artists have availed themselves of the
itjj.iile range of natural objects, cultivated by every real school of art,
injiid neglected by us alone. The Greek, the Roman, the medieval
chitect, the Moor, was perpetually engaged in the delineation of
0 gfV forms and the re-adaptation of well-known objects, while we,
desigr\never we tread in the path of antiquity, find nature, as it were,
Sir, arFrin§ ueHeal'1 01lr fingers, and presenting no resource but the re-
col1cenf.ictions of used-up studies. We have protested against such
Engine! °^ '"dustry and want of genius, against such mawkish and

thievish degradation of art; and we are glad to be reinforced by
arguments so practical as those which are afforded in the works of
Mr. Kittoe. If our reader be a lover of the classic or of the pointed
style, he will find in the numbers before us numerous beautiful studies
from nature, which he may examine with profit. In fact, were several
of the plates of the. present work laid before the connoisseur, he
would be tempted to refer their subjects to the buildings of Athens,
or the internal decorations of Pompeii, rather than to the far East.
There are candelabra, tombs, arabesques, to which our associations
would allow no other birth-place than the Pelasgic lands. On the
other hand, there are corbels, brackets, and ceilings, in which we tn
retrace every lineament of the pointed styles. There is a great west
window, which we might think of European origin. If we want to
be convinced that art is catholic, and catholic because she must look
everywhere to the beauties of nature for her inspirations, we find
ample proofs in these records of the labours of those far removed from
European sympathies and European studies. We cannot, however,
bring ourselves to believe that the monuments of classic genius to be
found in western Asia, have been unstudied by oriental architects, and
on the contrary, we are inclined to look here for another proof of the
vitality of Hellenic principles. We do not believe that those who
doted on the labours of Aristotle, and who preserved and reproduced
the literary and scientific monuments of Greece, at the same time
that they actively cultivated the liberal arts, could have been unim-
pressed by the material monuments or Greek genius, which were
within their reach. We know that bigotry prevented many of the
Mahometan literati, the geographers particularly, from availing them-
selves of contemporary information; but that certainly did not operate
with the mass of enlightened and educated men, who showed every
disposition to profit by those labours of the Giaours which were
within their reach. We therefore believe that the architecture of the
Moors was no more without the impress of Greek influence than was
their science, and what we have seen in their various monuments
tends to confirm us in those views. To the antiquary and to the,
student of art we therefore recommend these engravings of Mr.
Kittoe, for we cannot but believe that it must act as an encouragement
to exertion, when it is seen how much has been done by those la-
bouring under less advantages, and possessing less cultivation. Al-
though the monuments described in those parts are principally of the
Muhomedan period, yet they abound in features of interest, and Mr.
Kittoe is particularly useful in giving numerous examples of details.
In oue or two of the plates will be found ingenious combinations of
the dome and the pyramid or spire, producing a novel and striking
effect.

In conclusion, we leave the work to the study of our readers, with
an expression of our obligations to Mr. Kittoe for this employment of
Indian residence. We sincerely hope that these labours will be con-
tinued, and that he will find his exertions have not been fruitless in
calling attention to the state of the fine arts in our vast and neglected
Indian empire.

Black's Picturesque Tourist and Road Book of England and WaUs.
Edinburgh : Adam and Charles Black, 1843.

This is an attempt to bring the old road book up to the pitch of
modern improvement, and we are. bound to pronounce it successful.
It is cheap and portable, at the same time that it contains an immense
mass of information, closely compressed, and well printed, illustrated
with numerous maps and copper-plate engravings. The letter-press
appears to be well executed, as are the maps, with the exception of
the general map, which is so much neglected, that we feel it our duty
to call Messrs. Black's attention to it, as we presume they cannot be
aware of its condition, having bestowed so much care and expence in
every other department, and maintaining as they do a reputation so
high for accuracy and research. We should not, perhaps, complain
so much that the Northern and Eastern, and Eastern Counties Rail-
ways are left in their original proportions uncurtailed, we might have
passed over the omission of all the recent additions to the railway
system, the Hertford and Ware, Peterborough, Warwick and Lea-
mington, Oxford and Maidstone branches, but we are sorry to find
such numerous and serious omissions as those of the Manchester
and Birmingham, Chester and Crew, Chester and Birkenhead, Bristol
and Glo'ster, Llanelly, Taff Vale, Gosport, Hayle, and Canterbury
and Whitstable Railways, all of which, with one exception, have been
some time in operation, and which are to be found in the district
imp; df this same work. We are further induced to make this com-
plaint from the negligent way in which railway maps, and maps gen"-
rally, are produced.

362

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

The "Prince of Wales" Iron Steam Vessel.
Miller and Ravenhill, Blackwall.

Built by Messrs.

People are not generally fond of recording misfortunes and mis-
haps, though such a record would often be productive of great public
advantage in preventing the recurrence of such events. Messrs.
Miller and Ravenhill know, however, how to make the best of every-
thing, and they have in a lithograph given us a representation of the
"Prince of Wales" iron steamer, in a most perilous position.

" The vessel is entirely of iron, and is intended for the Margate
station; she is 180 ft. long between the perpendiculars: in launching, the
cleets on the bow gave way, in consequence of the bolts breaking, and
let the vessel down, so that the bilge came in contact with the wharf;
she was ultimately forced off by screw jacks and two tug vessels,
cutting her away deeper into the concrete and planking of the wharf,
until she assumed the position represented in the drawing, and at that
period the distance measured from the face of the wharf to the point
of contact of the vessel and the surface of the water was 110 ft.; the
whole of the deck in the centre of the vessel was left unfastened for
the reception of the machinery; when completely afloat, it was found
that the shear of the vessel was not broken, and that she had received
no injury except that the bow was twisted in consequence of letting
go the stern rope, and thus exposing the vessel to the sweep of a
strong ebb tide. On examination it was found that three of the angle
iron ribs or frames were broken, and one of the plates cracked, occa-
sioning a considerable leak, which was accompanied by no other in-
convenience than that of filling the bow compartment as far as the
first bulkhead; and after hauling the vessel into dock, the necessary
repairs were effected in four days."

This shows what iron steamers can do, and we feel indebted to
Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill for giving us this record of an occur-
rence which only served to test the powers of the vessel in question,
and to prove the care with which they had provided for its future
efficiency.

' The Locomotive Engine, illustrated on stone. By James Basire. Jun.
London: George Hebert.

The designer of these plates has been impressed with the necessity
of a better popular acquaintance with the locomotive engine, now
that it has become, as it were, a material institution of the country.
He has consequently brought forward the present work, which con-
sists of four lithographs drawn in chalk upon a bold scale, representing
the external and internal structure of the engine in every detail.
We only wish the letter-press had been more copious ; however, it
will be an acceptable work to those for whom it is intended.

View of the Parish Church of the Holy Trinity, tvith its proposed
Improvements, now in progress. By John Bloke, Architect.

This is a beautiful lithograph by Hawkins, and printed by Day and
Haghe, in light and shade; the improvements have been judiciously
introduced, and will add considerably to the beauty of the church ;
we could wish to see similar additions to more of our modern cheap-
built churches, in which they are much wanted.

Old London Wall. — We are glad to be able to state that, in conse-
quence of Mr. G. Godwin's representation to the Institute of Architects, and
a letter which that gentleman afterwards published in this Journal, a memo-
rial .signed by Mr. Hudson Gurney, Lord Mahon, Sir Henry Ellis, and other
office bearers of the Society of Antiquarians, and by Mr. Donaldson,
Mr. Poynter, and Mr. Bailey on the part of the Institute, was presented to
the Society for promoting the building of churches in the metropolis ; and
that on the motion of Sir R. H. Inghs, it was resolved that the wall should
he preserved entire.

Improved Drawing Scales. — Mr. J. Smith, lecturer and teacher of
perspective, has prepared for the use of the profession drawing scales, formed
in box and ivory, of very superior workmanship, and at an unusually low price,
when compared with those in common use. They are divided with great
accuracy, and although several scales are upon some of them, there is not
that confusion in the figures too often witnessed. Mo. 1 and 4, are arranged
for architects ; No. 2 and 5, for land surveyors and civil and military en-
gineers; and No. 3, is expressly prepared so as to simplify the practice of
isometrical perspective, a system of drawing which ought to be in more ge-
neral use than it is at present.

IMPROVEMENTS ON BROMIELAW HARBOUR AND RIVER CLYDE.

The following interesting description of the works that have been exe-
cuted on the River Clyde, and for which we are indebted to the Glasgow
Herald, shows what continuous exertions directed in the right way will do in
effecting improvements of rivers, there are several of our most important
ports which might be equally improved, now being silted up, and which in a
few years will he almost useless as harbours.

" We are delighted," says the Glasgow Herald, " to observe the rapid pro-
gress made the last two months in the works which have been for a con-
siderable time in operation for the improvement of the harbour at the
Broomielaw, and which, when completed, will most amply supply the wants
of the Glasgow trade for years to come. The works upon which the Clyde
Trustees, by means of their able engineer, have of late been bestowing their
principle attention are — first, the new harbour below Napier's Dock; second,
the new timber and small craft wharf, between the Glasgow and the Accom-
modation Bridges ; third, the additional timber wharf at the Glasgow Bridge
for river steamers; and, fourth, the cutting of a new deep channel through
the Port-Glasgow bank. Having seen the state of the works so recently as
Saturday last, (Sept. 16) we should say that all of them will be finished
within a week or ten days from this day, and some of them finished, too, in
a manner so massive and substantial, that they promise to resist the action
of the elements, and the wear and tear incident to the operations of com-
merce, for ages to come. The accommodation within the harbour will then
stand as follows : —

Feet.

" Length of quay walls on the north side of the harbour . . . . 3700

Length of quay walls on the south side of the harbour . . . . 2300

The new quay in the course of formation on the north side, below

Napier's dock .. .. .. .. .. .. 550

The new timber wharf in the course of formation on the north

side, between the bridges . . . . . . . . . . 530

Total accommodation at the Bromielaw

7050

In addition to this a ruble dyke has been formed on the river-side ground
recently acquired below Todd's mill ; which, by the excavations made, has
added a space of 100 ft. to the breadth of the river for 800 ft. downwards,
and from which 25,000 cubic yards of earth have been removed in the course
of the excavations. This, it may be observed, is only the commencement of
a series of operations which will eventually have the effect of widening the
harbour from 160 ft. (its present breadth at the Kinning-housc Burn) to as
near as may be 400 feet throughout. The excavations at this spot have
already extended to nearly low water line ; but in due course it will be fur-
ther operated on and deepened until there is at least 12 ft. below low water
line, which at high water, in ordinary tides, will at all times afford from 19
tn 20 feet in the harbour. In addition there is the basin at Bowling, 10
miles below the Broomielaw, which is employed for the laying up of large
ships and steamers during the winter months. The basin contains an area of
11 acres. The extension of the harbour between the bridges for small craft
is generally looked upon with much satisfaction. It has been long battled
for, and is now effected.

" The weir which so long obstructed the navigation at the Glasgow Bridge
has now been as near as may be removed, and a new weir has been placed
down at the Stockwcll Bridge for the maintenance of the top level of the
river for the purposes of the Water Company at Dalmarnock. The removal of
the old weir has been very rapidly effected, considering that 15,000 cubic yards
of stone and earth hate been carried away, and from 500 to 600 piles drawn.
The depth of water already obtained between the Bridges at full tide is 11 ft.,
and now that the weir is nearly removed, it will afford accommodation for
timber rafts, and all the small craft of whatever tonnage. It is not unlikely,
therefore, that the time is not far distant when the river steamers will be
provided with tumbling funnels, as upon the Thames and the small craft
with folding masts, so that the benefits of steam navigation and of commerce
may be brought almost to the heart of the city.

" The operations during the last and present summer, in cutting a chanuel
through the long obstructing Port-Glasgow bank, have been of the utmost
importance to the navigation of the river. The cut formed by the dredging
machines extends to about 700 yards in length, by 400 feet in breadth, and
the result is, that while there is now a depth of 12 ft. of water at low tides,
there is no less than 22ft. 6 in. at high water in spring tides. Last year not
fewer than 90,000 cubic yards of stuff were exravated in making the cut
through the bank, and this season the excavations amount to 70,000 cubic
yards, giving a total of 160,000. When it is remembered that this bank was
one of the greatest obstructions in the river, and that there have been some-
times from 10 to 15 vessels lying aground on it, we cannot too heartily re
joice at its removal. Since last summer there has not, so far as we know,
been a single vessel impeded in its course in sailing over or through the nf;e
channel : and when we mention, that this season the Commodore, a lc, jj)
ship in the American trade, sailed up the Clyde to the Broomielaw, dra^g
17 ft. 9 in. water, it will give one instance, out of many, of the len;,te(i .
which the capabilities of our river now extend. In addition to the b
which will be derived from the cut in the Port-Glasgow bank itself, ,( ijy
vastly facilitate the navigation of the river in other respects, permitti:onrv .

i

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

363

upward passage of a vastly additional quantity of tidal flow. We cannot con-
clude these remarks without bearing our warm testimony to the liberality
and enterprise of the members of the River Trust, who have directed ,and
the ability of Mr. Bald, their engineer, who has planned and executed, these
stupendous works, and when we consider that within a comparatively recent
number of years, more than half a million of money has been sunk in these
operations, and that the revenue varies from £42,000 to £47,000 per annum,
we may well say tbat there is scarcely a similar instance on record of such
vast enterprise and such rapid advancement."

ORDNANCE SURVEY.

We are not of those who entertain prejudices against or for the Royal
Engineers or any other class, we are staunch supporters of that eminent
body, when engaged in the discharge of their legitimate duties, but we could
not have been so many years employed in watching the interests of both
military and civil engineers, without seeing that a very general attempt has
been made to introduce the government officers as competitors with their
civil brethren. Government no more wants an exclusive corps of civil en-
gineers than it wants an exclusive corps of architects or lawyers; but as a
matter of economy, it is of course right that it should avail itself of the
Services of the military officers at its disposal for its own works. It is, how-
ever, quite clear as a settled principle of political economy that it is most
dangerous for a government to meddle at all with the general market of
labour. When a corps of officers is kept up at the national expense greater
than is required for the discharge of military duties, and nork has not only
to be made for them, and to be made at the expense of private professional
parties, it becomes a great grievance. The want of adequate responsibility
of the royal engineers, and the evils attendant upon their employment where
they are not required, is well shown in the following letter; and it must be
obvious to every man of common sense that their employment in the Ord-
nance Survey, of England, Ireland or London, must have the same ulti-
mate effect, upon the members of the engineering profession, as the employ-
ment of paupers from workhouses to ruin the existence of the poor semp-
stresses and shirtmakers, about which so much outcry has been made. At the
present moment there is a greater dearth of employment in the engineering
profession and its subsidiaries than at any former period ; and when a legi-
timate occasion for occupation occurs it is to be given to men who have no
impulse to adequate exertion, and no pecuniary penalty to check their errors
or their ignorance. We say with the writer, that this state of affairs claims
redress.

TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR R. PEEL, BAP.T.

Sir— It appears by the Parliamentary reports in the newspapers, that you
have moved for leave to bring in a bill relative to a survey and the construc-
tion of maps, on a large scale, of the city of London : I trust it will not
be deemed an impertinent intrusion on my part to make a few observations
in connexion with this undertaking.

It has not yet been formally declared who the parties are that will be en-
trusted with the execution of this important work ; conjecture, however, has
awarded it to the Royal Engineers, acting nominally under the Board of
Ordnance. I have watched the proceedings of these men for years with a
lively interest ; early associations have, in some measure, excited that inte-
rest and kept it alive. Being intimately acquainted with their modes of
operation, and enabled thereby to form correct conclusions relative to their
value as practical men, I now come forward to deprecate the measure which
would entrust to them the survey of the city of London, and to contend for
the propriety of its being left open to competition.

You, doubtless, will be furnished with an estimate of the time and expenses
necessary for the execution of this work. I can readily believe that if esti-
mates were the data which would determine your choice of parties, the Royal
Engineers would at once crush the pretensions of all competitors ; but per-
mit me to ask, have the estimates heretofore made by the Royal Engineers,
relative to works of this nature, proved correct? It is most notorious that
they have not. You are aware that the survey of Ireland has been executed
by these persons ; this undertaking was commenced in 1824, the estimated
time for its completion being seven years, and the estimated expense
£300,000 ; did subsequent experience prove the truth of this ? No, it proved
its utter fallacy ; you, perhaps, will be surprised to hear, that far from bear-
ing out the previous estimate, the scientific operations of these seven years
were almost, if not entirely, useless; the maps and other documents proved
so grossly incorrect — so utterly unfit for the purpose for which they were
designed, that the greater part of them were ordered to be destroyed. Thus,
Sir, and for these reasons were the materials which bore the impress of the
concentrated talent of five captains and twenty -five lieutenants of the Royal
Engineers, for a period of seven years, reduced to their primitive elements :

the survey of the island was not completed till 1842, and it incurred an ex-
pense little short of three quarters of a million sterling.

But a specious objection may here be started — It may bo said that the
above would be unfair premises whence to draw conclusions relative to the
present claims of the Royal Engineers, inasmuch as they were at the time
alluded to comparatively inexperienced. I shall not wait to discuss the merits
of this plea, but I shall meet the objection on its own ground. In 1841, an
act was passed for the survey of the six northern counties of England, the
estimated time for its execution being six years j two years of this lime have
already elapsed, and there is not one county finished yet. The expense, up
to the present time, is about £120,000, or £60,000 a year; the quantity sur-
veyed at present amounts to about 2,000,000 acres, and before the mapping
and calculation of this will be finished, three years will have expired. We
are here furnished with data to find the expense of this survey, and the time
of its completion. The contents of the six northern counties are, —
Northumberland .. ,. .. 1,197,440 acres

Cumberland .. .. .. 974,720 ,,

Westmoreland .. .. .. 487,680 „

Lancashire .. .. .. 1,130,240 ,.

Durham .. .. .. 702,080 .,

York .. .. .. 3,835,040 „

Total .. 8,327,200 acres.

Then, by a plain statement in the rule of three, if 2,000,000 acres require
three years for its completion, 8,237,200 acres will require about twelve years.
So that though the Act contemplates that this survey will be finished in
1846-7, it will not be completed till 1853, and will incur an expense of
£700,000.

You may now judge, Sir, what effect the experience of the Royal Engineers
has upon their estimates. And will you, Sir, permit the continuance of such
an expensive system at a period of such financial embarrassment as the pre-
sent? Let an examination be made before the House of Commons into the
pasi history of the Ordnance survey of Ireland, and the history of the Ord-
nance survey of England, which is at present in a state of progress — let per-
sons be examined who will give plain facts as to the progress of the work
and the outlay of public money— let some of the most intelligent of the
Royal Sappers and Miners, and assistants, be examined before the House,
and afterwards you can judge of the propriety of entrusting to the Royal
Engineers the survey of London. Captain Boldero's reply to a question
lately asked by Lord H. Vane, proves that there exists on the part of the
Government gross misconception relative to the present state of the survey
of the six northern counties. The proceedings of the Royal Engineers have
ever been mysterious ; in 1835, an Honourable Member moved for an exami-
nation into the state of the Ordnance survey of Ireland, but Sir H. Vivian
assured the Honourable Member that the work was getting on rapidly, and
that an examination would only cause dispirit. When this assurance was
given the Ordnance surveyors were plodding their weary way over a district,
the survey of which had been previously executed so incorrectly as to need
a complete revision.

Since their arrival in England the Royal Engineers have adopted a line of
conduct which strikes at the very vitals of a respectable profession — they
have entered into a most unfair competition with the civil surveyors of Eng-
land ; I refer to their contracting for the surveying of townships for tithe
commutation, their estimates of which work are so low as to wither in the
breast of the civil surveyor every hope of successful competition. But, Sir,
in point of accuracy, they may be ranked with the other estimates spoken of
— they are utterly false. I challenge contradiction when I assert that the
actual expense of the tithe plans executed by the Royal Engineers is far
beyond the estimated expense, so that the public service must suffer from such
undertakings.

Now, Sir, contrast the case of these men with that of a body of civil sur-
veyors similarly circumstanced : the latter have a professional character at
stake— the former need not rely on theirs. The Royal Engineers may cal-
culate on their salaries, maugre all their blunderings— the civil surveyors
have no such prop. The Royal Engineers have a ready salvo for each mis-
take— the public purse is their panacea— the civil surveyors have nothing but
their talents to bear them out, and a single error such as those wh'u h are
so common with the Royal Engineers would injure their professional charac-
ter for ever.

These, then, Sir, are the grounds on which I contend for the survey of
London being left open to competition. I am satisfied that the civil pro-
fession are able to do it as correctly, as quickly, and more cheaply than the
Royal Engineers. Let engineers and surveyors put in tenders for certain
sections of the metropolis, all to be executed on a uniform system;— let all
parlies be bound to a certain time ;— let the Ordnance surveyors put in their
tenders also, bnt let them stand on their own merits— let them have no funds
to fall back on as heretofore, in case of failure ; let their own pecuniary loss
be the result of any error in their estimates, and the issue will prove that
the civil profession are able successfully to compete with them.

49*

3(34

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[October,

] would not have you infer from what I have stated thai the Ordnance
survey is altogether wanting in point of talent ; I am free to admit that there
any intelligent, respectable men connected with it ; but I do contend
that the treatment which these men receive is sufficient "to wither all their
energies. It has been the boast of individuals in high places, that they can
procure the best draftsmen in Europe at the rate of 2s. 6rf. and 3». a-day. 1
willingly admit that, at the present moment, there are first-rate draftsmen
on the Ordnance survey, who are condemned to toil for this miserable pit-
tance ; but does not the individual " glory in his shame " who would thus
make a boast of his ability to crush merit? and I appeal to you, Sir Robert,
what interest will a man of talent take in that situation, the pecuniary emo-
luments of which amount to no more than 2s. 6rf. or 3s. a-day. and even
that much lessened by travelling and other expenses incidental to the emi-
grating life of the operative Ordnance surveyor? 1 could abundantly prove
icy of a system of economy which would treat deserving men thus ;
could show that the best, and ultimately the cheapest, mode of pro-
cee i- would be, to make a situation on the Ordnance survey wort!-, holding,
the man of merit properly, and thus excite in bim an interest in the
d to him for execution.

. on the proceedings of the survey is the employment of per-
. still lower rate of paj than the above, several of whom are utterly
unfit lo take anj part in the undertaking ; the great majority of th

belong to this class, and their misery beggars description. If the
nld permit me, I could detail to you the suBi
numbers of unfortunate Irishmen, who, after having been lured from their
vnisfatum bope nissed without a fault from their

employment, and thrown upon the world houseless and penny'ess. in a
country , ttbies often run counter to the name of Irish:

coul.l show you the quondam Ordnance surveyor craving at the Workhouse
r a morsel oi bread, and more ' ilsed as an impostor. I

could show you the faithful servant of the survey toiling alone, a miry road
lie business, on a fearful nighl in December, the rain and snow beating
in his teeth, i mil, ovi rpowered with toil, he sinks and dies, while his lifeless
body Kent interment, is thrown like a cuml

the grave, at the expense of the parish in which he lost his life I

I know there are persons whose interest it would be to damn the credibility

of what, in their parlance, will doubtless be dubbed "an anonymoi

bier;'' but with reference to such I have to say, let them contradict me If

Why, 1 would ask. is there not a single Englishman employed on

the Ordnance survey ?— because he would spurn the paltry meed which the

rulers of the survey would oiler for bis services. The Ordnance surveyors

man, natives of Ireland. I have before stated there are many men

, the most unl I has been

taken, both of the peculiar circumstances of these men, and tin sc of their

y be thought that I havi n the proper topic in the course

of this letter— that I have foi th which I commenced ;

•. though partially, of the ma-
t-Inner, of the Ordnai ee urvi ) ment which those employed on
itreci it the hands of th, nasters, will [ trust, strengthen
hat I have before stated—4' That the civil profusion c

I •idort as quickly, as t rrectly,ana Htm the

Royal Engineers;" and that, therefore, thi work hould be lei i
petition.

Sen
/h;t;. 18*3.

of Cm Surveyor. — A Court of Common Council was held
1 9th of September for the purpose of electing a clerk of the ■
the room of Mr. Montague, di ceased, win .Mr. Bunning was chosen by a
majority over Mr. Young, who had been several years principal clerk in Mr.
Montague's office, of 38 votes. The numbers were —

For Mr. Bunning .. .. .. .. .. lUo

"or Mr. Young

Sie/.m Plough on Locbab Moss.— Lately Mr. Curtis, the eminent en-
gineer, invited about 20 of his friends to witness the machinery connected
with this plough put in motion; and it was trulj astonishing to'see such an
immense fabric travel with the greatest facility" over ground so soft that a
man can scarcely stand upon it 'without sinking. Mr. Curtis politely ex-
plained the objects of the different parts of the machine; and, so far as an
unprofessional person ecu judge, the principle of the construction appears
sound, and we have uo doubt that when completed (which it will be in a
short time), it will fully answer the purpose. — Dumfries Courier.

Reclaiming I,.v.sd from inr. Sea.— The sea banks at Long Sutton, Lin-
colnshire, under Sir John Rcnnie's direction, are now nearly finished. TLe
contractor for the work is Mr. Henry Sharpe.

RAILWAY CHRONICLE OF THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER.

This month has been distinguished by the amalgamation iuto one concern,
of the three midland lines, the North Midland, Midland Counties, aud Bir-
mingham and Derby. Special meetings for that purpose were held on the
18th, 20th, and 21st, when resolutions iu favour of the scheme were passed
almost without opposition. The terms are, that the capital aud debt of the
united company should be distributed according to the following scheme.

North Midland
Midland Counties
Birmingham and Derby

Total

Capital. Debt. Total.

412,905,400 £863,000 £3,768,400

1,275,000 581,000 1,856,000

978,500 411,000 1,389,500

>, 158,900 1,855,000

,013,900

The shares to be converted into stock, and the profits to be divided pro rata
except that the Birmingham and Derby is to receive 27s. 6rf. per cent, per
annum less dividend. An incidental question arose at the Birmingham and
Derby meeting as to the eighths shares which had been issued at a very great
discount, but which had not all been called up. The holders of eighths
claim that the whole shall be called up to entitle them to the benefits which
would have accrued to them had the whole amount of money been required.
It was pretty generally agreed that they ought to have £8. 3s. 5rf. per
£1. 10s. paid up, but what they claim is £10. 18s. lid. for £2. Is. bd. paid
up. The question is put off till a future date, when it is supposed the holders
of eighths will rr-t satisfied with what they have got. At the Midland
Counties meeting the Chairman very clearly showed that that Company
would be placed in a more disadvantageous position than it would have been
under any of the schemes formerly proposed and rejected. The majority,
howi vei . felt that thej were obliged to submit to the new terms. The effect
of the amalgamation is to create a Company, which adds another to the
number of colossal railwae institutions, and which stands thus : —

Great Western '
United Midland
London and Birmingham -
Grand Junction

Capital and
Loan.

£6,670,000

7,013,000
7,000,000

'-'.104,1)00

Annual
traffic.

Length

opened
in miles.
190 £750,000

1781 400,000

119$ 800,000

119 360,000

It will thus be seen that the London & Birmingham is hard put to it to
keep the pre-eminence, and that a number of gigantic companies are being
erected in the country, into which all minor lines must sink. Within three
years there will be perhaps not more than half a dozen railway companies in
the country, aud the new system will develop some extraordinary results,
particular!) as to economy. The saving on the United Midland line is es-
timated at £30,000 per annum, besides a considerable revenue to accrue
from better arrangements of the trains.

The half-yearly reports of the two other companies wc gave iu our last
number ; that of the Birmingham and Derby, not then published, presents no
very extraordinary results. The estimated amount of savings to be effected
was upwards of £7000 a year.

Edinburgh Sf Glasgow Railway. — This Company have adopted the plan of
making up their accounts to the 31st of January, and 31st of July of each
year, instead of 31st of December, and 30th of June, by which the half
year's accounts made nearly equal in receipts, but the present accounts show
7 months' income and expenditure. The dividend recommended was at the
pel i at. pel annum. A junction line was in progress to the
Monkland and Kirkintilloch to cost £3000.

Hull and Sell/;/ Railway. — This report slates a diminution iu the passenger
traffic, anil an increase in the goods, the accommodation for which had
required further provision.

Toff Yale Railway. — The Taff Yale meeting was a stormy one, and the

more particularly as it was to receive the report of a committee of inquiry

into the conduct of the concern. It appeared pretty clearly that the under-

jrrosslj mismanaged, and there appears little prospect of its

uenf, for a great part of the capital is held by the proprietors of the

and iron works, whose interests seem to be opposed

to those of the shareholders. The owners require a further reduction in the

tolls, and the shareholders require an augmentation of the tolls.

Dublin <y Droijhedn Railway appears to be progressing favourably, and
its success is likely to he the best railway measure for Ireland, by inducing
private capitalists to make investments there. A difference having taken
place with the Ulster Railway as to the width of rails, it was referred to the
Board of Trade, aud General Pasley eas recommended a gauge of 5ft. 3 in., a
most extraordinary measure, and seemingly not having very powerful argu-
ments for its support. Mr. Mac Neil, C.S., is having about 4 miles laid with
permanent rails, on which he means to try some experiments as to the best
forms of carriages and engines for working the line. lie holds out hopes of
some new results.

1 The Great Western has a considerable length of line yet to be opened,
and the capital and lean do not include the cost of the B'ristol & Exeter,
Bristol & Gloucester, aud Cheltenham & Great Western.

- The London 8i Birm;ngham has about 47 miles of branch still to open.

1834.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

365

South Western. — The accounts of this Company showed a slight increase
in the traffic, but the savings in the working expenditure had been counter-
acted by the great increase in parochial rates. The dividend was 30s. per
share for the half year. The main features of the discussion which took
place were relating to the parochial rates. It seemed to be felt that no
other mode of checking this oppression existed than a combined application
of the Railway Companies to the legislature for an amendment of the present
law in relation to the subject.

Greenwich Railway Company. — After all the meetings chronicled in our
last, and the adoption of the mileage principle, a final meeting upset the
whole proceedings, and the question of toll remains in statu quo, the com-
mittee of inquiry being summarily dismissed. The Directors have, however,
since offered to the Croydon Company, a modified toll of id. for each first
class passenger, 3d. for each second class passenger, and 2d. for each third
class passenger, which has, we believe been refused, the other companies
trusting to the eft'ect of the Bricklayers' Arms branch to bring the Greenwich
to their senses.

Manchester and Birmingham Railway. — The dividend recommended here
was 15s, per share. There had been an increase in the income, and a dimi-
nution in the expenditure. The Directors had been making some experi-
ments with cheap fares, which had fully answered their anticipations, and
they were about to apply the principle to a greater extent.

Maryjiort and Carlisle Railway — This line is not yet finished, and the
secretary, a Mr. Mitchell, who was a country school-master, having ousted
the engineer, has installed himself in that capacity too, so that the profession
is likely to see some strange performances. The traffic, and the whole con-
cern is in a wretched condition, hut the reports published do not admit of
particulars being given.

Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock Sf Ayr Railway. — The passenger traffic
is reported to have remained stationary, the goods to have advanced. The
Kilmarnock branch was opened on the 4th of April ; an arrangement with
the competing canal company had been effected. The subject of steam boats

in connexion with the railway, was recommended to the proprietors, but
nothing effective seems to have been done. The proceedings principally
relate to this subject, and the means of effecting a saving in the working
expenses.

Glasgow, Paisley §■ Greenock Railway. — The proceedings of this Company
at their half-yearly meeting were much the same as those of the preceding.
Steam boats had already been taken into connexion with the Company, but
further measures were urged.

West London Railway. — The works on this line were reported at the
half-yearly meeting to be going on well, and the opening is promised for
November. The total disbursements are £174,967.

London and Croydon Railway. — The half-yearly meeting of this Company
was marked by a long exposition from Mr. Wilkinson of the conduct of the
Croydon Board as to the toll transactions, and the announcement of the
Greenwich offer alluded to above. The traffic had of course, in the state of
the toll question, shown no improvement.

Manchester and Leeds Railway. — At this meeting a general increase in the
traffic was announced, as also an arrangement with the Calder & Kebble
Canal Company, which had been competing for the traffic. A complaint was.
made here also of a great increase id the parochial rates. The dividend was
at the rate of 5i per cent, per annum, and the works on the extension line
and Halifax branch are reported as going on well, the Halifax branch to be
finished in the spring. Surveys have also been made for branches to Hud-
dersfield, Ashton, Bury and Bradford, which are likely to be prosecuted.
This company, it seems, is threatened with a competition by the way of the
Sheffield & Manchester from Penistone to Barnsley.

Yarmouth and Norwich Railway. — This company have expended £49,072,
and the works are represented as in a forward state, so as to get the line
open by June next year. It seems that the estimates are likely to be ex-
ceeded by £12,500, in consequence of some landowners' claims which the
Company has been obliged to satisfy; at this meeting measures were taken
for promoting a line from Norwich to Brandon.

TABULAR STATEMENT FOR THE HALF YEAR, DECEMBER 31, 1842, TO JUNE 30, 1843.

RAILWAYS.

RECEIPTS.

PAYMENTS.

ILgth

Total

No. of

Passgrs.

Loco-

Car- | Main-

Office

Taxes

Total
Charges.

In-
terest.

Names.

1 '"
mis.

Expendi-
ture.

Passgrs.

Goods.

Total.

motive
Power.

riage
Dep.

tenance
of way

De-

part-

and
Rates.

Profit.

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

£

Greenwich 1 . .

3|

1,030,108

705,204

21,343

26,587

3,500

3.49C

1,044

1,551

3,304

13,957

11,550

1,080

Grand Junction -

88|

2,375,134

132,976

49,652

185,093

20,298

29,695

12,675

4,591

2,954

80,320

104,772

Manchester and Bolton

10

777,956

139,408

11,571

6,293

17,811

1,095

3.11C

732

754

268

5,959

5,282

9,008

North Union

22

613,212

17,731

6,793

25,337

1,466

2,145

1,471

1,236

1,082

7,397

3,249

14,690

Chester and Birkenhead

14i

509,810

11,491

1,298

13,307

2,110

2,382

1,089

237

172

5,990

2,525

2,837

Leeds and Selby :!

20

99,782

3,756

8,158

11,914

1,251

567

444

477

2,739

9,175

Brighton 4 . .

56

2,792,193

65,487

9,002 74,490

9,168

18,150

4,980

3,417

3,003

49,827 43,974

North Midland

72

3,424,766

56,551

46,263 102,814

10,267

13,922

9,012 1,400 2.659

36.760 21,200

44,854

Northern and Eastern Counties 3

32

887,055

31,853

3,693

35,547

6,702

6,945

2,033

.. I 895

20,324

5,695

10,875

London and Birmingham G . .

112J

5,953,831

306,457

84,735

389,658

32,854

41,141

22,451

5,645 ! 8,747

112,238

39,680

223,924

Midland Counties

57i

1,725,693

40,421

21,064

62,324

10.78U

9,498

7,105

3,383

1,378

32,144

12,813

17,367

Great North of England

74

1,230,604

64,177

19,754

13,225

32,979

2,830

3,497

3,700

1,844

1,184

12,355

14,202

7,000

Sheffield and Rotherham ' . .

5$

185,234

7,040

953

8,116

2,107

486) 371

420

3,384

1,199

3,578

Bolton and Preston

14-i

373,925

3,846

1,468

5,315

2,000

1,170

185 ..

92

3,447

••

1,867

Great Western 8

118$

6,651,928

725,127

254,603

75,400 330,003

33,403

54,640

23,985 4,118

8,592

159,232

86,836

82,886

Liverpool and Manchester . .

51

1,578,601

225,728

60,752

48,217 108,960

10,182

27,698

4,440

2,193

3,608

48,121

3,777

57,062

Blackwall

3*

1,289,080

17,351

927' 1S,50S

600

1,498

15,385

5,553

Eastern Counties

50$

2,718,620

999,683

43,182

4,551

3,741

2,552

1,284

1,520

20,355

2,116

20,710

Birmingham and Glo'ster

55

1,470,730 ..

35,514

7,104 42,618

7,968

6,956

6,444

1,290

382

26,045

13,633

4,266

York and North Midland

27$

6"3,056| 165,627

26,369

13,388 45,163

5,846

5,145

1,177

462

974

13,604

3,958

27,600

Birmingham & Derby

48

1,173,158

19,194

9,794, 29,282

6,015

6,701

3,676

2,296

729

19,418

7,542

2,323

Edinburgh & Glasgow

46

1,569,887

318,682

41,225

18,584 60,809

5,687

11,328

3,756

1,429

333

22,535

12,168

26,106

Hull * Selby

31

627,626

80,549

12,359

13,668 26,027

3,490

5,027

1,893

937

704

12,043

5,064

9,910

South Western11

92$

2,588,983

116,700

26,326 143,523

18,451

27,859

13,579

5,238

65,128

15,827

69,386

Manchester & Birmingham . .

40

1,890,640

37,673

6,644 50,149

3,516

8,175

1,345

1,787

1,477

16,301

13,254

20,593

Maryport & Carlisle ' °

28

584

3,090| 3,675

. .

11,588

2,053 1

33

Glasgow & Ayr "

51

1,029,602

475,012

22,191

8,18ll 30,372

. .

15,451

7,204

9.328

Glasgow & Greenock

22i

635,512

20,176

6,853

27,029

..

17,042

6,173

6.215

Croydon ' -

8|

672,630

402,443

20,922

6,145

2,452

1,173

390

10,160

4,629

9.166

Manchester & Leeds. .

51

3,125,696

552,639

56,951

53,640

112,523

12,758 13,793

6,751

2,085

5,141

40,528

36,248

Hartlepool13

15

.. | ..

.. 1 44,708 !

.. 1 ..

24,529

• ■ II

20,116

nwich Railway received for foot passengers £497, and toll £4,746. - Grand Junction paid Liverpool and Manchester Railway £8.016, and for
rent £2.093. a Leeds and Selby locomotive power is included in York and North Midland. * Brighton paid Croydon ami Greenwich Railway for
toll £11,10!'. s Northern and Eastern paid Eastern Counties Railway for loll £3,749. It should be abserved that the office expences cannot be sepa-
rated. e London and Birmingham paid Aylesbury Railway for rent £1.250. In addition to the total outlay there is the sum of £13,H66 carried to the
depreciation fund. '■ Locomotive power not kept distinct. 8 Great Western paid Bristol and Exeter and Cheltenham Railway for rent £34,484. hi
addition to the outlay £5.000 is carried to the depreciation fund.

9 The carrying and office or general department cannot well be separated in the South Western Company. 10 The accounts of the Mary pool and
Carlisle Company do not allow further information to be given. xl Part .of the Glasgow and Ayr, and Glasgow & Greenock being a joint line worked in
common, it is impossible to divide the items of expenditure. lS The Croydon accounts being divided into a toll account snd a traffic account, the table
of income cannot be divided. 13 The Hartlepool accounts have not been published.

366

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[OCTOBRB,

Northern and Eastern Railway. — A meeting of this Company has been
held for the purpose of authorizing a loan of .£67,822 for the extension to
Newport. At this meeting it was announced that measures were in progress
for an extension to Brandon, so as to make a complete line from London to
Norwich and Yarmouth.

REGISTRATION OF DESIGNS ACT.

A new act of Parliament came into operation on the firs; 'lay of Septem-
ber last, which promises to be of some benefit for many purposrs, but not to
that extent, we think, which some of our contemporaries imagine, as the
articles only obtain a protection so far as the configuration goes. The act
does not in any way "protect a principle ; therefore, if the article manufactured
partake of the form of a circle, and another article for the same use be made
in the form of an ellipsis, there will be no protection. The following is the
principle clause of the act : —

" And with regard to any new or original design for any article of manu-
facture having reference to some purpose.of utility, so far as such design shall
be for the shape or configuration of such article, and that whether it be for the
whole of such shape or configuration or only for a part thereof, be it enacted,
That the proprietor of such design not previously published within the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland or elsewhere shall have the sole right
to apply such design to any article; or make or sell any article according to
such design, for the term of three years, to be computed from the time of
such design being registered according to this Act ; provided always, that
this enactment shall not extend to such; designs as are within the provi-
sions of the said Act, or of two other Acts passed respectively in the thirty-
eighth and fifty-fourth years of the reign of His late Majesty King George
the Third, and intituled respectively an Act for encouraging the art of making
new models and casts of busts, and other things therein mentioned, and an Act to
amend and render more effectual an Act for encouraging the art of making new
models and casts of busts, and other things therein mentioned.'"

Tlit following is the Table of Ff.fs which since the passing of the Act have been
authorized bu the lords Commissioners of the Treasury.

Stamp. Fee. Total.
£ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d.

Registering Design 500 500 10 0 0

Certifying l.-rmer Registration .. ..500 100 600

Registering and Certifying Transfer .. ..500 100 600
Cancellation or Substitution .. .. .. 100100

Inspecting Index of Titles 0 10 0 10

Inspecting Designs (expired Copyrights) each

volume 010010

Taking Copies of ditto, each Design . . .. 0 2 0 0 2 0

Inspecting Designs (unexpired Copyright)

each Design 050050

We know not upon what authority a £5 stamp is inflicted by the Lords
ssioners, not one word in the act authorises it ; we therefore contend,
that they have no power to order one to be affixed, and that if the Registrar
refuses to register a design without the £5 stamp, upon the fees being ten-
dered, he will, no doubt, render himself amenable to the law for damages, and
that, if an application be made to the Court of Queen's Bench, it will grant a
mandamus to compel him to register and certify.

LIST OP NEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.)

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM AUGUST 31, TO SEPTEMBER 28, 1843.

Six Mont/it allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Charles Louis Felix Franchot, of Arundel-street, Middlesex, engineer, and
Cyprien Marie Tessic du Motay, of Arundel-street aforesaid, gentleman, for
11 an improved method of connecting and laying pipes or vessels beneath the
surface of water, for the purpose of forming therewith tunnels or viaducts
for the conveyance of passengers and goods." — August 31.

George Catlin, of Queen-square, Bloomsbury, Middlesex, artist, for " im-
provements in the construction of vessels for navigation, designed to prevent
the loss of life in cases of shipwreck or other accidents at sea." — Sep-
tember 4.

William Thomas, of Cheapside, merchant, for " an improved fastening for
wearing apparel, and which may also be applied as a fastening to portman-
teaus, bays, boxes, books, and other things. (A communication.) Septem-
ber 6.

Alexander Spears, of Glasgow, merchant, for " improvements on or apper-
taining to, glass bottles proper for wines and other liquids. (A communica-
tion.) September 6.

Fierre Pelletan, of Fitzroy-square, Middlesex, Esq., for " improvements in
the production of light. September 6.

William Denly, of Hans place, Sloane-street, bricklayer, for " improve-
ments in the construction qf fire-places, flues, and chimneys. September 21.

John Baptist Wickes, of Leicester, framework knitter, for " improvements
in machinery employed in the manufacture of framework knitted and looped
fabrics. September 21.

George Robert D'Harcourt, of Argyll-street, Middlesex, gentleman, for
" improvements in sorting, checking, and delivering letters, newspapers, and
other articles. September 28.

Omitted in last month's list.
John Charlton, of Birmingham, factor, for " improvements in castors for
furniture. August 17.

MISCELLANEA.

Midland Counties Railway. — The platform across the Trent at the
Weir, building by the Midland Counties Railway Company, has all been
carried away by the floods; the works are going on slowly, and in a different
manner from the first operations.

Canals in France. — A canal is now in progress in the south of France,
under the direction of Mr. Thomas Woodhouse, C.E., formerly resident
engineer on the Midland Counties Railway.

Manufacture of Bricks. — A description of brick is made in the neigh-
bourhood of Nottingham called copper monld. They are compressed after
partial drying in hacks ; the arris is very sharp, and equal to dressed bricks.

Derby Drainage. — The Commissioners intend to apply to Parliament
for a new Improvement Act, and several plans have been proposed for im-
proving the drainage, relieving the town from flood waters, and improving its
present dangerous and unhealthy state. Two reports have been published,
one by Mr. Harrison and another rather lengthy bv Mr. John Roe, Assoc.
Inst. C. E.

Steamers on the Trent. — A twin boat is building at Lenton, to ply
between Nottingham and Gainsborough, to carry both goods and passengers,

Newcasti.e-on-Tyne. An opposition boat is to start between here and
London to compete with the General Steam Navigation Company, the fare
to be 30s. instead of as at present 42s.

Edinburgh. — A tunnel is being driven from the present terminus of the
Newtyle Railway to the centre of the market place ; and a line has been
projected to Berwick, under the auspices of Messrs. Grainger and Miller,
engineers.

Dundee. — The east church adjoining the Steeple Kirk, which was burnt
to the ground about two years ago, is now beautifully restored, and will be
shortly opened for use ; it is in the florid Gothic style, and of excellent
workmanship.

Sir Walter Scott's Memorial. — It is now completed to a short dis-
tance above the arches, which carry the cross or about one-third of the whole
height ; the situation, on the south side of Princes Street, is well chosen,
and when complete it will be the boast of Scotland as to masonry.

Incorporated Companies. — At the head meeting day of the company
of house carpenters, a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Henry Glynn, for a
present of five pounds worth of books, being the Civil Engineer and Archi-
tect's Journal from its commencement in 1837.

St. James's Palace. — We understand that the whole suite of State
apartments, at St. James's Palace, is about to undergo an extensive and
thorough repair, cleansing, and decoration. It is expected that the apart-
ments will not be again ready for royal use for several months, probably not
until the early part of next spring.

The Princess Alice. — A new iron steamer, built by the well known firm
of Messrs. Ditchburn and Mair of Blackwall, for the Folkestone and Boulogne
station made a trial down the river Thames, on the 2nd ult. ; she is 12ft. long,
20 ft. beam, and draws 6 ft. 6 in. of water, and is built with water-tight bulk
heads, as all steamers ought to be ; her lines are very fine and of that form
which is sure to obtain a good velocity. The engines are 120 horse power
collectively, and have the annular cylinders patented by Mr. Joseph Maudslay,
drawings of which are to be found in our Journal for 1841, Vol. 4, p. 369,
The object of this form of engine is to obtain direct action and a long stroke,
but we are no admirers of the principle, nothing but the superior workman-
ship of the firm of Messrs. Maudslay* & Field could ensure its working ; in
such an exposed station as crossing the channel she will have some rough
work to encounter. The wheels are 19 ft. 3 in. diameter to the extreme
edge of the boards, they are a modification of Morgan's wheels, excepting
they have three of the boards connected in such a manner that by the aid of
an eccentric on the shaft, the paddle boards enter and leave the water verti-
cally ; these wheels are similar to those fitted on board the " Victoria and
Albert." There is another addition to these wheels which we understand
Messrs. Maudslays have fitted to otherjvessels, consisting of an iron ring of
the same diameter as the rim of the wheel ; it is fixed on the inner side of
the wheel ; this ring is jagged, and formed like a thin cog wheel, and is
turned by means of a pinion worked by one or two men on deck to each
wheel ; by this means a vessel might be got ont of dock without getting up
the steam. At the trial of the vessel the engines made 30 to 31 strokes per
minute, and it is stated to have obtained a rate of 14 miles per hour. Her
engines are fitted with an alarum whistle which we have seen adopted si
some of our provincial porta.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

367

DIRECT ACTION ENGINES.
(With an Engraving, Plate XIII.)
Description of a pair of George Forrester & Co.'s improved Double
Cylinder Marine Engines, constructed by than, and Jilted on board the
"Helen Mac Gregor," Hull and Hamburgh steamer. Engines in-
vented by Benjamin Hick, of the above Jinn, Liverpool.

These engines are of the form usually denominated "Direct Action
Engines," but differing considerably in arrangement, and possessing
many advantages over the various forms of direct action engines
hitherto made.

The collective power of the engines is 220 H.P. The accom-
panying engraving represents a perspective view of one of the en-
gines when looking towards the boiler, with part of the boat in
section. Each engine consists of two inverted cylinders, a a, mounted
upon four strong wrought iron columns, b b, &c, which are secured at
the lower ends to the foundation plate c, and passing through suitable
boxes on the sides of the cylinders, and secured by means of nuts at
their upper ends immediately to the. entablature plate and crank
pedestals, d, above. The cylinders stand "athwart ships " with their
stuffing boxes, e e, looking downwards, and at such a height from the
bottom of the vessel as to allow the main cross bar, ff which con-
nects together the two piston rods, g g, to work the full length of its
stroke below them : the stuffing boxes are made double ; that is, they
have a space for packing, both top and bottom, and are fitted with
self-acting oil cups for lubricating the rods : /;, is a long connecting
rod, by means of which the power is transmitted directly from the
main cross bar below, to the crank, i, above the cylinders. In order
to ensure an equable action of the two piston rods and their con-
necting cross bar, they are further secured and made to work uni-
formly together, by means of a strong cast iron vibrating frame
forming part of the parallel motion, and which, with side levers, K K,
serves also to work the air-pump, /, as well as the feed pump, n, bilge
and brine pumps. The paddle shafts, p, wheels, and bearings, are
constructed in the usual manner. The slide valves are of the usual,
D, form. The condenser, m, is placed immediately underneath the
slide valve case, and the air pump, foot and discharge valves, are ar-
ranged as shown, being very similar to those of the ordinary side
lever engines. The connection between the air pump and condenser
is underneath the foundation plate, r; o, is the hot-well from which
the waste water is discharged by an overflow pipe through the ves-
sel's side in the usual way. The cross forming the support of the
side levers is of wrought iron. When working, these engines are re-
markably steady, there not being the slightest perceptible tendency to
motion in any part of the framing. It is well known that in all recipro-
cating engines, of whatever form or construction, the parts of the en-
gine subject to the greatest strain, are those which lie between the point at
which the cylinder is secured, and the centre of the crank shaft, to which
the power of the engine is communicated; hence in this engi- ,the onlv
portion of the framing through which the power of tlit engine is
transmitted, is from s to 8, and there is no other part of the engine
framing whatever subject to the strain of its power, except the short
space intervening these two points. The elevated position of the cy-
linders also secures them from liability to water from the boilers, as
they are at a higher level than the water line ; and accidents from
the above cause (to which marine engines are frequently subject)
cannot occur. The space occupied by the cylinders is so much above
the engine house floor, that there is considerable more space below
than in the ordinary engine, to get round about the working parts,
which are all below, and occupy a comparatively small space under-
neath each set of cylinders; both the upper and lower covers of the
cylinders are removable, and by taking off' the upper ones only, there
is clear room (without the intervention of the piston rods) to examine
and clean the pistons, or adjust them, witLOut disturbing the stuffing
boxes below, or uncoupling any further part of the engine. The po-
sition of the condenser and air pump is such, as to render them acces-
sible on all sides, and the condensers being directly below the slide
valves, the exhaustion is rendered more immediate and perfect, by its

No. 74. Vol. VI.— November, 1843.

proximity to the openings of the cylinders. The connecting rods are
necessarily of great length, and the strain and consequent friction to
which engines with short connecting rods are subject, is thereby over-
come. The motion of the air pump, as in the side lever engines, is
effected upwards whilst the pistons are descending, and the weight of
the air pump, bucket, cross head, &c, counterbalance that of the con-
necting rod and its appertenances. There is a clear passage between
the engines, below the cylinders, on the engine floor, and from this
point all the working parts of the engines are within reach of the en-
gineer. The saving of weight and space is very great as compared with
that of the ordinary marine engine. The total length of room occupied
by the above engines and boilers and GO tons of coal, is onlv 34 ft. li in.
from bulkhead to bulkhead. The centre of gravity of engines and
boilers is not higher than that of the ordinary marine engines, and the
saving of weight renders that of engines, boilers, and boat consi-
derably lower.

It may be observed, that in principle of action there is nothing new
in these engines, steam of 5 lb. pressure is used in the boiler, and the
slide valves cut oft' steam at three-fourths of the stroke. The
novelty consists merely in using two inverted cylinders, and in the par-
ticular mode of disposing the different parts, and so arranging them,
as to confine all the requisites for a more effective and durable engine
with the greatest possible saving of weight and space.

The boilers are of the tubular form, and are the first of the kind
made at Liverpool ; they generate an abundance of steam, and have
brine pumps attached. An apparatus is fitted to each fire-place for
consuming the smoke, upon the principle of admitting heated air.

The following are some of the principal dimensions, &c, of the
engines : —

Cylinders, 42 in. diameter ; length of stroke, 4 ft. G in.

Air pump, 33d in. diameter ; length of stroke, 2 ft. Ah in.

Capacity of condenser, including passage to air pump, 44 cubic ft.;
ditto of hot well, 3ii cubic ft.

Wheel, 23 ft. G in. diameter, to the outside of floats.

Number of revolutions, 23s.

Pressure of steam in cylinder, 3| lb.

The vessel is of iron, and one of the strongest hitherto constructed.
She is divided into five compartments by strong water-tight bulk-
heads; her speed by the log during a late trial trip, was 12 knots,
(engines making 23 revolutions per minute,) and having 200 tons of
coals and cargo, dead weight, on board.

Dimensions, extreme length, 175 ft.; breadth, 25 ft. ; depth, 1G ft. ;
burthen, 573 tons ; draft of water with 400 tons dead weight,
lift.

This vessel is the last of between 50 and GO built by Mr. John
Laird, who, we are happy to hear, has now on the stocks an iron fri-
gate of 1400 tons for Her Majesty's service, as well as several for the
Honourable East India Company, and other parties.

REMARKS UPON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE HARBOUR

OF CORK AND THE RIVER LEE.

Communicated by George White, A.I.C. E., &c.

The eligibility of Cork as a harbour is so generally known, that it
would be superfluous, on the present occasion, to dwell at any length
upon its merits. It may not, however, prove uninteresting to take a
short notice of its capabilities as a place of refuge. Considering the
spaciousness, security, and other advantages which this harbour pos-
sesses, it appears difficult to account why Waterford should have
received such favour in the late inquiry before a select committee of
the House of Commons, instituted fur the purpose of determining the
most proper station for a mail communication with the south of Ire-
land,' the latter being, as is well known, a bar harbour, having only
ten feet water over it at low spring ebbs, besides other disadvantages,
with which nautical men are well acquainted.

Cork is the only place on the south coast of Ireland fit to accom-
modate ships of the line, with the exception of Bantry Bay. There
are, perhaps, few natural harbours so perfectly devoid of danger; the

1 See Evidence of William Preston White, Esq., Ilarl otu-mastcr, in the
Parliamentary Reports of 1842.

50

3(58

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

~OWvrr 0/~ 7~//'£" C/7"

COR*

COP K

AB, bar! of proposed line of railway from Cork to Cove. DH, oM purl of navigation wall, commenced in 1761. UK new part of navigatwn wall, buill
about 1835. ccvi, proposed jetties for sluicing. -- -- Dotted lines denote the direction ol ihe proposed ne* channel, R, Blackrock Castle. 1.. Son Lodge-

only obstruction of any note (if such it can be called) is the Harbour
Rock, which is a pinnacle of such small dimensions as to be easily
removed by blasting : accidents are, however, of such very rare occur-
rence, as to render such a precaution unnecessary. The soundings
outside the mouth of this harbour are so regular, as to enable ships to
run for it in thick or foggy weather by using the load, an advantage
which Waterford does not possess, the entrance being very rocky, ami
the soundings consequently irregular. The accommodation which
Cork is capable of affording is great beyond conception, as nmnv as
500 sail of vessels having frequently enjoyed its shelter. Its store-
houses are on an extensive scale, occupying the greater portion of the
Island of Haulboluie. The most interesting part of the subject, how-
ever, in an engineering point of view, is the river, which it may be
advisable to pass on to, rather than dwell upon the advantages which
nature has so lavishly b'-stowed on this harbour.

The River Lee, the subject of the present memoir, rises on tin' Con-
fines of an adjoining county (that of Kerrv), at a considerable distance
from Cork. It does not, however, become of sufficient importance to
be considered in connexion with the navigation until it approaches a
large weir within a mile of the city, which has been erected for the
purpose of damming up the river, the town Lting supplied with water
from this place, which, as may be expected, has the effect of doing the
navigation considerable injury. The river is here divided into two
branches, which do not again unite until they reach the Custom House,
a part of which is marked on the accompanying plan, D. Before pro-
ceeding to describe what has been effected in the deepening of the
channel by the dredging operations constantly going on, it may be
useful to take a cursory glance of the various proposals which were
made to improve the navigation. The first attempt worthy of note
appears to be the building of an embankment or wall, marked DH, for
which the Irish parliament advanced .t'-lOUH in 17(>1. It w is erected
for the purpose of confining the flood waters of the Lee, and in this
way it was expected to keep the river from filling up. However well
it may have preserved that portion of the channel along which it was
formed, it appears to have done so at the expense of otlMt parts, for
large deposits of mud were constantly taking place below it ; and the
navigation was becoming so much obstructed from shoals, that it was
found necessary to consult Mr. Alexander Niromo, and to invite him
to report upon the best means of remedying the increasing evils.
Accordingly we find this eminent engineer, in ISIS, complying with
this request by making a most elaborate survey of the river, accom-
panied with a report.

The principal works suggested by him appear to have consisted in
forming a still-water navigation, one end of which was to have termi-
nated in ths deep water of Lough Mahou, below Black-rock Castle ;
the other at some waste land near the Custom House, which he pro-
posed forming into wet docks, for which purpose the locality appeared
to offer peculiar advantages. The expense of such an undertaking
(about £160,000) at a time when the funds of the corporation were
by no means great, was most probably the cause of this proposition
not being adopted. It has not been marked on the accompanying
sketch, tearing that it might have become confused from the small-
ness of the scale. It was likewise intended that the present channel
should have beeu deepened by dredging so as to admit vessels of
greater burthen to come to the quays. He was also of opinion that

the building of an embankment at the north side of the channel, where
it bends towards the King's Quay, would have been most beneficial.
The position of this wall would be well represented by supposing the
present embankment, HE, removed to tin' other side of the channel.
There can be no doubt that such a work would have been most advan-
tageous to the navigation, as the current on the ebb setting in the
direction of this embankment would have the effect of materially deep-
ening the channel. It would also afford an opportunity of reclaiming
nearly 200 acres of waste slab, which, from its proximity to the city,
would, in course of time, become valuable property, and handsomely
repay the expenses incurred. From its running parallel and close to
the channel, ves>els could have used it as a towing-path until they
came up as far as the old wall, DH. It is much to be regretted th.il
Mr. Nimmo's recommendation in this particular was not followed:
expense in the present case cannot be pleaded as an excuse, as we
find the harbour commissioners building such an embankment, HE,
but unfortunately at the wrong side of the channel. It would require
no very great amount of foresight to perceive that the erection of
such a work in such a situation would have been attended with the
most injurious consequences to the navigation. This does not appear,
however, to have occurred to the Cork Harbour commissioners ; for a
line of railway from Cork to Passage being then in contemplation, we
find them proposing to continue this wall for the purpose of carrying
the railway over it; the projectors of which, it would appear, consi-
dered the rnluay oj much more importance that the navigation of the
river. The scheme, however, not succeeding, the wall was not
finished, and in this condition it now remains, a monument of disgrace
to its projectors.

About the same time a railway was proposed from Cork to Cove,
a part of which is marked AB on the plan. The promoters of this
speculation appear to have had the improvement of the river more at
heart, for ttind in the report a plan proposed for the improvement
of the nav igation by Mr. M'Neil, in which the subject is treated
with his usual ability. The principal improvements consisted in cut-
ting a new channel, as represented by the parallel dotted lines, from
the Custom House to Black-rock Castle ; this would be nearly a
straight line; and it was intended that the embankment for the rail-
way should have formed a great portion of its northern boundary, to
which might have been added a towing-path for the accommodation
of vessels. It may be well to premise that this new channel was to be
cut entirely through the slab, which consisted of a material well suited
for filling up the embankment. The works were thus to be carried oul
in concert, each being made subservient to the other, and the expense
would have necessarily become in this way very much reduced. Tin-
part of the wall represented as being cut in two places by the new
channel, and which it would have been necessary to remove, would
have gone towards forming a barrier at H. The northern boundary
of the channel would, under this arrangement, have been well defined.
At the south side it will be seen that there is a great extent of slab,
probably from 300 to 400 acres in extent, over which the tide ebbs
and flows twice in every 24 hours. This vast body of water, which
may be regarded as the possession of a power of great value, was pro-
posed to be usefully employed by scouring the channel : this was to
be effected by building jetties (marked CCC, &c, on the plan), over
which the water was to flow at every half tide, which, returning on

1 843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

.-wo

the ebb tide, would be directed by the jetties towards the north wall,
and thus materially tend to deepen the river. It would also be
attended with the advantage of keeping up for a considerable time a
depth of water in the channel, which could not otherwise be main-
tained. The effect upon the channel of such an operation constantly
going on would speedily be felt in the improvement of the river. It
was also proposed to make a wet dock of the old channel for a space
of 600 or 700 yards, in the direction of DH, capable of affording ac-
commodation for ltlO sail of vessels. This could have been done at a
comparatively trifling expense. The space of ground, H, before
referred to, between the new and old channels, would be peculiarly
suitable for ballast quavs, affording opportunities for supplying ballast
in the wet docks, or to vessels lying in the channel. Having now
taken a short but accurate review of what has been proposed as im-
provements for the navigation of this river, it may be well, before
bringing these remarks to a close, to notice the effect of the dredging
operations constantly going on. We find, at the time Mr. Nimmo
made his report, that vessels drawing more than ten or eleven feet
water were not able to go up to the quays of the city during spring
tides, and with neap tides not higher than the King's Quay. From
constant dredging the bed of the channel has been very much deepened,
for vessels drawing eighteen feet water are now enabled to come up
to the quay during ordinary springs in one tide, which they were
before unable to do in consequence of being obliged to wait below the
Flats (a shallow some distance from the Meelagh Bank), until nearly
the top of high water, the consequence of which was that, by the time
they arrived near the King's Quay, the tide was too low for them to
proceed further, and were consequently obliged to wait until next tide,
a circumstance in many cases attended with no small inconvenience.
A channel having been now cut through the Flats, this inconvenience
has, in a great measure, been remedied. These have always been con-
sidered as the most formidable obstacle to the improvement of the
navigation. The channel, since it has been cut, has at this place
undergone very little change, which is so far encouraging. The
dredge-boats are at present employed in cutting off an angle of the
Meelagh Bank which projects much into the channel : when this is
accomplished, the greater part of the impediments to the navigation
below Black-rock Castle may be said to be removed. The straight-
ening of the channel as far as practicable has been at all times a desi-
deratum. The most obstinate shoal in the river above Black-rock
Castle is in a part of the channel a little below the end of the embank-
ment, H E, before referred to : this it has been found necessary to
dredge away several limes since the building of the wall; and it is
probable, from its so quickly accumulating, that it would before long
become a field of corn, were it nut for dredging, which will, as long as
the wall remains, be continually necessary, as the cause must be
removed before the effect can cease.

The slab behind the embankment, DHE, is, as may be expected,
constantly filling up with mud, which is occasionally again dislodged
after heavy rains, and deposited in the channel. It will be evident,
from what has been already said, that dredging can never be entirely
dispensed with in this river under existing circumstances.

The commissioners do not appear to exert themselves in this
matter as much as they ought, probably owing to the fact, that a por-
tion of the material raised is very suitable for ballast, which, being in
great demand, pays a great portion of the expenses incurred in raising
it. From the returns made bv the Ballast Office it appears that from
17,000 to 18,000 tons of this river clearance is annually supplied to
vessels leaving the port, which is paid for at the rate of a shilling per
ton, leaving a clear profit, after paying dredging, lighterage, and other
expenses, of about sixpence per ton.

The quantity of material which the boats on this river are capable
of raising is very variable, being entirely dependent on the nature and
depth of the cutting, it being possible to raise a much greater quan-
tity of gravel than clay in the same time. The largest boat, which is
about lti-horse power, has raised as much as 60 tons of mud and
gravel in 26 minutes; this, however, must be. considered as a maxi-
mum, and worked under the most favourable circumstances. The
average expense of dredging may be estimated at from %£d. to 3d.
per ton.

Hoping these remarks have not been extended to too great a
length, we must now bring them to a conclusion: before doing so,
however, we cannot help remarking that, had the various sums ex-
pended from time to time (in building embankments and other useless
works) been judiciously spent under competent advice, the necessity
of dredging would most probably be altogether done away with after
the channel had been once formed. On few rivers has so much been
done by nature, and so little, by art.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE MORE EXTENSIVE EMPLOYMENT

OF CONCRETE.

( Concluded from page 158.,)

In a former paper on this subject will be found the particulars of a
dwelling house constructed entirely of concrete. As this is only an
example out of a great many others in which this substance has been
employed in France, for general building purposes, it cannot fail to
excite astonishment that it has never yet been tried in this country
for building cottages and dwelling houses of the humbler class. The
price of concrete is less than one-third that of either brick or stone:
so that the proprietor of the soil or the speculating builder would
effect a great economy by introducing it. It is deplorable to see in
many parts of this rich and highly favoured country — to say nothing
of the unhappy sister kingdom — -those miserable mud hovels in which
the honest labourer is compelled to rear his family. And yet there is
no hope of amending such a condition of things unless some material
be substituted, which possesses the solidity and durability of brick or
stone, without at the same time being nearly so expensive as either of
these. Such a material is concrete with respect to the two former
qualifications, while in point of expense it can probably be built at
least as cheap as a good wall of mud. The construction of mud
walls, in fact, although common in many of the northern counties, in
Scotland and in Ireland, has never been practised amongst us with the
same degree of skill, nor with the same success as in France, in
southern Russia, and in many parts of Asia. In those countries the
method of building en phi', as it is called by the French, has been
carried to considerable perfection, by skill in the tempering and pud-
dling of the clay, and by mixing with it various ingredients, such as
chopped straw, hair, &c, which increase its strength and cohesion.
It is important to observe, however, that wherever building en pise
has been successfully practised, there has been the advantage of a
nearly tropical sun to bake and indurate the newly formed walls. On
the other hand, in this country, the walls of mud, however well formed,
are subject to destructive atmospheric influence, before they can well
be hardened, and it is therefore no wonder that they are far inferior to
the pise walls of warmer climates.

Concrete as a foundation for Roads.

The first account we have met with of the use of concrete for this
purpose, occurs in Hughes' Treatise on Roads. ' It appears to have
been used by him on the Highgate archway road, under Mr. Telford's
direction, as long ago as the year 1828. Mr. Hughes' practical ex-
perience on this subject is extremely valuable, as he tried on the same
road another kind of concrete foundation, made of Roman cement and
gravel, and although the latter is of course far more expensive, he
decidedly gives the preference to lime concrete, owing to its greater
toughness and its consequent capacity of resisting fracture. His pro-
posal for the use of concrete in the roads round London is worth
quoting, and we entirely agree in the propriety of it: — "I should re-
commend for all the principal roads round London — after all the sup-
plies of water from the sides as well as that falling on the road have
been properly intercepted by longitudinal side drains and transverse
ones leading" into them, and occurring as often as the nature of the
subsoil may require — that a bed of lime concrete six inches in thick-
ness, be laid all over the breadth of the road, and that this bed be
afterwards covered with six inches of the best flint or pit gravel that
can be procured, in two courses of three inches at a time ; or with
what in my opinion would be a much more lasting and serviceable
material, four inches of broken granite stone: and I am convinced
that a road so constructed, however bad the under stratum may be,
will prove one of the hardest, most durable, and at the same time one
of the cheapest roads ever formed in the neighbourhood of London."

Of late years concrete has been occasionally employed as a founda-
tion for the street pavements of London, and in some few instances,
road surveyors of more than ordinary intelligence, have introduced it
into their practice with very great success. All those who have tried
it for keeping down the subsoil of the London clay, have been highly
gratified with its success, wherever the proper precautions have been
taken to prevent traffic until the concrete has completely set. We
have heard of one instance where a concrete foundation was laid
down for a road near London, and a few inches of broken stone being
placed on it, carriages were immediately allowed to pass over it.
The wheels of these vehicles were actually in contact with the raw
unhardened concrete, and it is scarcely to be wondered at that it wore
into holes and became almost impassable. In this case the concrete
was pronounced a failure ; but it is scarcely necessary to observe how
unfair were such a trial and such a condemnation. We could mention

1 The Practice of making eind repairing roads. London : Weale, 1838.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November

several other instances where considerable lengths of road, passing
over the very worst descriptions of subsoil, have been successfully
treated with a concrete foundation, which has ever since kept the clay
from rising, and served more than any other contrivance could have
done to keep the road in a sound and perfect condition. At the same
time it is deplorable to witness the miserable and barbarous expedi-
ents which are resorted to, even at the present day, to form a founda-
tion for the roads in the neighbourhood of London. It is generally
known that the tough blue clay of the London basin, in common with
the yellow plastic clavs, on which the former rests, is one of the worst
possible, subsoils over which a road has ever to be formed, in conse-
quence of its tendency to work up amongst the metalling. When the
clay has thus become mixed with the metalling — whether consisting
of gravel or broken stones — the most favourable condition for grinding
down the crust of the road is at once realized, because the stones are
separated from each other by a soft yielding matter, so easily squeez-
able and easily set in motion, that every pressure upon the road ne-
cessarily unsettles more or less the stability of part of the crust.
The constant grinding of the stones against each other of course
effects a destruction much more rapid than where the stones contain
no more matter mixed up with them than just what is sufficient to fill
up (heir interstices, and where this filling up matter is bard and firm
instead of being soft and yielding, like the clay which has been
spoken of. Few of the surveyors round London are ignorant of this
troublesome property of clay, and they have in consequence com-
monly adopted some means which they have considered suitable for
keeping the clay in its proper position beneath the metalling. For
this purpose they have resorted at different times and different places
to some one or other of the following expedients — large flat stones,
broken bricks, bushes, ur tin eliippings. All these have been tried
with various degrees of success, but with the exception of the broken
bricks they are all either highly objectionable or perfectly useless.
The flat stones become unevenly bedded in the clay, prevent the
metalling from setting and binding, and cause the road to wear in a
very irregular manner. The bushes are worse than useless, for they
cause the road to be spongy and elastic while they continue to retain
the least vestige of vegetable life, and when thev decay and rot, the
clay becomes Kneaded and worked into them with the greatest fa-
cility. The tin clappings are of course well calculated, by the sharp-
ness and hardness of their edges, for working and cutting into the
clay, so that they actually do harm, and increase the evil they are de-
signed to prevent. Of the several expedients, therefore, which hive
been mentioned, the broken bricks alone are entitled to any favourable
attention. This substance being of a dry absorbent nature will in
some degree correct the unctuous and slippery nature of the clay,
tend to keep it at rest, and prevent it from working up so rapidly.
It is evident, however, that this effect of broken bricks will be only
temporary, for they cannot resist the repeated saturation of the clay,
which must at length cause the latter to rise up through any thickness
of brokerr bricks which may have been laid mi. There are probably
some of our readers who maybe sceptical as to the employment of
such a substance .is bushes for the foundation of roads at the present
day, and in 1 lie immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis. Such
barbarous expedients, however, are by no means rare, and as an in-
stance, we may mention tin' well known cemeteries on the south side
of London at Norwood and Nunhead Hill. The approaches to these
cemeteries and the paths mule through them, have been executed
according to the must approved system ol bushing, as it is called;
that is to say, upon a foundation composed of boshes covered 1 vi 1
with a huge, depth of clean sharp angular flints, without one particle
of binding matter to unite them together. We need not say bow
much cheaper anil more effectual it would have been to lay a concrete
foundation, which might have been done for Is. per square yard, and
to cover it over with six inches of metalling abuut half the thickness
w hich is laid on at present. When a concrete foundation has been
mice, formed for a road, the subsoil is effectually cut oil' and for ever
prevented from rising. Then fore it is of little consequence whether
the top covering be rather clayey in its character, or whether it con-
tain only just sufficient clayey admixture to make it hind well to-
gether. In the woist case, that is, where it contains too much clay,
the latter will soon work through the stones up to the surface, and
during wet weather may be scraped off* in the shape of mud. Where
the concrete, however, is nut interposed between the subsoil and the
metalling, all the labour that can be bestowed in selecting good mite-
rials and in reducing them to a clean state, is absolutely thrown away,
for it will all be entirely counteracted by the rising of the subsoil,
which it must be. remembered is quite inexhaustible, and will con-
tinue to rise through sui cessivelaj ers of gravel or broken stone, however
thick they may be. Even in the best macadamized roads in London
there is more mischief done by the working up of the clay, and by

the consequent grinding of the stones together than by any other
cause. The grinding action on a soft subsoil, is at least double what
it would be on a hard foundation of concrete.

Materials proper for making Concrete.

There is no part of the country which is destitute of materials fit
for this purpose. Amongst them may be mentioned any kind of pit,
river, or sea-side gravel, any kind of granite, sandstone, or limestone,
broken bricks, fragments of pottery, oyster shells, and in fact every
description of hard mineral substance. Should none of these be
easilv procurable, a very good substance for concrete may be made by-
burning clay in open heaps with any description of refuse coal. Clay
burnt in this maimer costs about 2s. 6d. to 3s. per cubic yard, mea-
sured in the heap when burnt, and will be found a very good substi-
tute for stone, when the latter cannot be procured for making con-
crete.

Sand is an important ingredient which should never be neglected,
but there are many substances which will answer equally well for
mixing with the lime in concrete. Where sand, properly so called,
is made use of, it should be clean, sharp, and not too fine, should feel
gritty when rubbed on the palm of the hand, and should not soil the
fingers, otherwise we may be sure it contains clay or loam, or some
other substance which will injure the concrete. Amongst the sub-
stitutes for common sand may be mentioned the scales of iron,
pounded iron ore after roasting, brick or tile dust, road drift, or
pounded cinders. Any kind of clean sand may be used, whether
from the sea shore, from pits, or from the beds of rivers. The
Th noes ballast, as commonly used for concrete in London, contains
about the pioper proportion of sand, namely, about one of sand to
three or four of stones, conceiving all that to be sand which will pass
through a sieve with wires one-eighth of an inch apart.

The varieties of lime, or what is the same thing, of the limestones
which yield a lime proper for concrete or mortar, arc so well known
in this country, as not to require enumeration.

There is scarcely a locality in England wdiere lime of some kind or
other cannot he procured it the distance of a few miles; and al-
though these limes are widely different in their quality, some being
much purer and weaker than others, it may be taken as a genera] rub:
that the same quantity of sand which it would be pruper to mix with
the lime for making good mortar, will be just that same quantity which
should be used with the same lime in making concrete. Thus the
common white chalk lime, which if properly burnt — as it seldom is —
will take 3 or 3* sand, may be used with the same proportion in
concrete, while the grey chalk lime should not be used with more
than '2 or 2| sand. The common chalk lime should never be used for
concrete where it is subject to water or even to moisture in the
ground ; but the grey chalk lime may be used with perfect confidence
in any situation, however damp. Specifications for concrete should
always direct that the lime is to be ground into powder, otherwise it
will net go nearly so far in the concrete, as innumerable small frag-
ments will remain unslacked. This is of the highest importance, and
should never be neglected, because no care, however great, bestowed
upon tin' slacking, will so effectually bring out the virtue of the lime
as when il is slacked in the state of powder.

The proportions which we would recommend for concrete in the
neighbourhood of London, are the following: —

1 part bv measure of pounded quick lime, burnt from the lower or

grey chalk of Dorking, Merstbam, or Hailing.

2 to 24 parts by measure of clean sharp sand, road drilt, or other

suitable material, as already described,
ti to S parts by measure of gravel or broken stones, &c, none larger
than 'J1! inches in its largest dimension.

Where the river gravel is used, and where it contains a sufficient

quantity of sand, it may be mixed with lime in the proportion of

part of lime to 8 or It) of gravel.

The best way to make the concrete for the foundation of a road, is
to spread a stratum of gravel mixed with its proper proportion it
sand to the depth of about six inches. This stratum should be
formed across the road for the width of about four feet, and a cover-
ing of ground lime spread evenly over it about two-thirds of an inch
in thickness. Three or four men should then turn the stratum ol
gravel and lime several times over, piling into heaps and again
spreading it so as thoroughly to diffuse the lime. Lastly, it should be
formed into a ridge about two feet high, and the water added only in
sufficient quantity to mix with it by degrees, so as to form a thick
still' paste, in which every particle is just moist. In this state it
should be spread and smoothed to the required depth, which for roads
in the neighbourhood of London should be not less than six inches.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

371

Underpinning Walls.

Concrete has been employed with great success by G. L. Taylor,
Esq., Architect to the Admiralty, for underpinning walls of consi-
derable extent. At Chatham the walls of a storehouse 540 feet in
length were underpinned with concrete in about four months. The
walls of this building had been founded about 40 years before on
timber sleepers and planking, which had since decayed. It was neces-
sary to excavate on each side of the walls to a depth of from 1(5 to
26 feet to take out the decayed timbers, which varied from 2 to 6 feet
in height, and were 0 or 7 feet wide. The concrete was put in in a
liquid mass to within a foot of the bottom of the old walls; at this
level a large slate was bedded on the concrete, and the remaining foot
was presstd in by an iron frame with two strong screws on each side
of the wall. The concrete was placed in lengths of four feet, and the
next day the weight of the superincumbent wall, 50 feet high and
5 feet thick, was allowed to come upon it, and no subsidence has ever
been observed. In another building at Chatham which had settled
about three inches, Mr. Taylor raised the part affected to its proper
level, by forcing concrete under it in a similar manner.

Ranger's Concrete Stone.

Notwithstanding the failure of Ranger's patent cement stone when
injudiciously used, it is said to have been successfully employed on
several occasions. The Architect to the Admiralty, G. L. Taylor,
Esq., lias used it for building a school at Lee, on the model of the
Propylfea at Athens.

In the concrete dock which was built at Chatham, Ranger's stone
was used in the form of blocks for the bottom, but the sides were
formed of concrete laid in mass and lined with granite. The expense
of this dock is said'to have been barely one-tenth of the amount which
a dock built wholly of masonry would have cost.

The patent stone has also been partially employed at Woolwich in
a river wall at the east end of the dockyard. This wall is 270 feet
in length, 26 feet high, 7 feet broad at bottom, and four feet at top.
The work was at first commenced on the plan of the concrete wall at
Brighton, namely, by filling the concrete in mass behind a fence of
boards placed in front of the face. Latterly, however, the face of the
wall was formed of concrete blocks cast in boxes, with the massive
concrete filled in behind as a backing.

Use of Beton by the French.

When beton was first introduced into France, it was made up in
heaps and allowed to set. The heaps were then broken up, and the
br"ken lumps of beton or concrete thrown into the foundation which
they were intended to form. The following translation from Belidor
explains the method in which the beton was prepared for the works
of the Dock at Toulon.

"Having fixed upon a spot where the ground is firm and solid,
take 12 parts of puzzolana and 6 parts of sharp sand free from earthy
particles; having mixed these together, form them into a circular
border about b' feet in diameter. Then fill the interior with 9 parts of
well burnt pounded quick lime, which is then to be quenched by ad-
ding water in small quantities. For maritime works sea water is to
be used, and the lime is to be turned over from time to time to facili-
tate the process of quenching. When the lime has been thus reduced
lo a paste, the border of sand and puzzolana is to be incorporated
with it. The whole being well mixed, throw into it 13 parts of broken
stone or stone drippings and 3 parts of broken iron cinder or scoria.
When this hitter cannot be obtained, 1G parts of broken stone may be
employed, or Hi parts of pebbles may be used, provided they do not
exceed the size of a lien's egg. The whole composition must then be
turned over and mixed together with shovels for about an hour, until
every part is thoroughly incorporated, and then the mass is to be
made up into small heaps. These heaps must remain untouched till
they acquire sufficient consistency to render a pickaxe necessary to
hreak them up. The time occupied in acquiring this consistency will
be 24 hours in the summer in warm countries, and in winter time
about three or four days. The heaps should be covered to protect
them from rain."

Speaking of beton formed in this way, a writer in the French En-
cyclopiedie MHhodique, states that by way of experiment, a box con-
taining 27 feet cube was filled with it and plunged into the sea, where
it rem. lined for two months. When taken up the cohesion of the
heap was so great, that it was more difficult to break up than a block
of the best stone.

ON WARMING AND VENTILATION.

The objecls proposed to be accomplished by the different methods
of warming apartments, namely, those of producing an economical
heat, and at the same time of ventilating them, by causing a continual
circulation of air, in that state which is most conducive, to health and
comfort, are certainly of great importance and difficulty.

In all the different modes by which these effects are usually more or
less produced, there are involved two very distinct principles, which
produce corresponding changes in the condition of the air contained
in the rooms where they are brought into operation. One of these
principles may be termed that of diffusing heat by radiation from fires
and heated surfaces, and the other that of heating air and making the
diffusion of it a vehicle for conveying heat to the places where it may
be required. The alterations produced in air by heat, so as to render
it more or less salubrious, according as one or other of these prin-
ciples is brought into operation in the different modes adopted to
warm and ventilate rooms, will now form the subject of consider-
ation.

When rooms are warmed by radiated heat as from ordinary fires,
the temperature of the air which they contain is not so greatly raised
as when heated air is made the vehicle to convey and diffuse heat.
Bv radiation heat is diffused independently of air. Air, like all other
gases, is eminently a bad conductor of heat ; and hence it is that any
particle of air, being heated by contact with hot bodies, does not
appear to communicate any portion of the heat so acquired to the
contiguous particles, but its repulsive energies becoming developed,
it pushes the adjoining particles to a greater distance, and thus in-
creasing their volume and rendering their specific gravity less, they
necessarily rise and make room for others to follow the same course.
Nor is the mass of air in a room warmed by radiated heat being
transmitted through it, but this heat meeting with more solid forms of
matter, as with walls, &c., is absorbed by them. These walls and
other bodies thus becoming heated, radiate in all directions, heating
the air in contact with them; and this heated air then translates itself
as when heated in contact with fire. There is thus a continual but
gradual warming and circulation of air from all heated surfaces.

Now if we suppose a room of the following dimensions, 30x20X20
feet, its cubic contents will be 12,000 feet. Let us suppose 1 foot, to
be the sectional area of the flue by which the products of combustion
and draft escape to the atmosphere, say with a velocity of 10 feet per
second. There would then be transmitted through such a flue in 10
hours, 360,000 cubic feet of air, which would renew the air of the room
30 times in that period, or 3 times in each hour during the day, an ex-
tent of ventilation sufficient for the most crowded apartment.

It follows, from the non-conducting and non-absorbing power of air
in relation to heat, and from its being so frequently renewed, that the
temperature of air contained in rooms heated by ordinary fires can
never be great, but that the warmth which is felt in them is in a
great degree the effect of radiation, and not that of heated air. This
process of warming and ventilation is exactly that adopted in the
general habitation of man and all organized beings — a strong a priori
proof that their physical organization is adapted to such conditions of
the air as this process induces, and to no other. That such conditions
do obtain in the physical atmosphere, is evident. If air absorbed the
heat of the sun it could not reach the earth, but would produce a
temperature in the upper part of the atmosphere, that might precipi-
tate showers of rain little short of boiling heat, and cause tempests of
the most violent character, owing to the great extremes of tempe-
rature to which it would be liable, for under such circumstances the
temperature of all bodies must be as the quantity of heat they in-
tercept.

In all methods of warming rooms by heated air, as by passing it
through hot pipes, or by means of cylinders containing coils of pipe,
heated by the circulation of hot water, the mode of diffusing heat is
the same. The air is made hot and poured into the. rooms in a con-
tinued stream, supplying heat and ventilation. The important dif-
ference between this' and radiation is, that the air is first made hot
and gradually communicates its heat to some parts of the room.
Air so circumstanced, must be hotter than any object to which it im-
parts heat, while the reverse is the case where radiation is employed.
As heated air is lighter than cold, it is quite evident it will chiefly
occupy the upper part of rooms so heated, especially when it is dif-
fused from one aperture, and that at some distance from the floor.
By testing with a thermometer, it is found that rooms heated by hot
air are increased in temperature about two degrees per foot from the
floor upwards, so that a person of ordinary dimensions might be said
to have his head in a summer and his feet in an autumn tempera-

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ture; a condition which justly and generally considered the reverse is
of what it should be.

But by far the most important and injurious are the effects which
heat produces on the air with respect to the quantity of aqueous
vapour which it contains, for on this depends its power to absorb more,
or to precipitate that which it holds. According to Dr. Dalton, the
amount of aqueous vapour which the atmosphere can contain at any
given temperature in a state of invisible steam or vapour, is a fixed
and definite quantity for that particular temperature. If that tempe-
rature be lowered, the point of saturation is also reduced, and the
particles of vapour losing a portion of their repulsive power, coalesce
and form sensible humidity or dew. If, on the contrary, the tempe-
rature of air be raised above any given point of saturation, the con-
stituted tendency of water to become vapour is permitted to take
effect, with an energy proportional to thp increase of heat; hence the
dessication of all surfaces exposed to its influence proceeds at a rapid
rate, when they are immersed in air raised much above the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere. At all times and places the atmosphere is
generally at or near the point of saturation with aqueous vapour.
Taking two rather extreme cases, Glasgow in Scotland with a humid
state of air, and Funchal in the island of Madeira, the mean tempe-
rature of which are 47° 75' and 66° 3', the mean dew points are 45°
and 61°, indicating forces of elastic vapour of 0*3 and 0*538 inches of
mercury, all respectively. We thus see in a moist and also in a dry
climate of great salubrity the near approach of the air to saturation
with aqueous vapour, so that its general tendency to absorb water is
not great.

It will probably be thought by some, that the general state of the
atmosphere in the consideration of this subject, is inapplicable; but
it should be recollected that the same wisdom which contrived the
organization of all living beings made also a state of atmosphere
adapted to that organization.

Now, suppose air in the cold of winter at a temperature of 20'
raised to that of 70°, by passing over coils of heated iron, or in any
other way, it mnst absorb with avidity, everv particle of moisture
thinly spread over large surfaces. Having just been transferred from
an atmosphere of 20°, it could not be much more than saturated for
that temperature; and consequently the heat has produced a condi-
tion of air which is nowhere to be found in nature, unless, indeed, we
except the sirocco of the arid sands in Western Africa.

Persons who pass large portions of their time in apartments heated
and ventilated in this way, feel extreme dryness of the skin, fulness
and throbbing about the head, soreness of the eyes, a dry and kind of
asthmatic condition of the mucous surfaces, general excitement, and
in some degree prostration of strength.

Medical men have frequently employed hot air baths for their sti-
mulating effects; but that which generally exercises a beneficial power
in extraordinary states, as in disease, must surely have a deleterious in-
fluence when permanently in operation, even in a less degree than that
commonly employed for medical purposes, and especially in states of
bad health of an opposite character to those for which it is employed
as a remedial agent, as for instance, when any tendency to apoplexy
exists.

It has been proposed to remedy the dry state of hot air, by evapo-
rating water, conveying steam with the heated air, &c. ; but all such
means are too complicated for the intended purpose, and incapable of
adaptation to the circumstances of the case. For during the time
when the apparatus is not in use, if the air had been near a state of
saturation with aqueous vapour during the day, a large precipitation
of dew would take place on cooling, and also during the day, owing
to considerable changes of temperature. From these facts and cir-
cumstances it is evident that an ordinary fire fulfils all the principal
objects of warming and ventilation, better than any of the unnatural
modes which science, ingenuity, necessity, or desire for novelty has
yet given birth to.

W. G.

THE FORMS OF SHIPS.

The great importance of naval architecture induces us to return to
the report of experiments conducted by a committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, which was read at their
last meeting at Cork. The account copied into the last number of our
Journal, from the Athtnceum, was chiefly limited to the notice of the
experiments themselves, and merely adverted casually to the deduc-
tions founded upon them, without describing the form of least resist-
ance which the committee recommend as the result of their five years'
labours. We have since been supplied with a further account of Mr.

Scott Russell's exposition, and as the experiments have been more
numerous, and have been conducted on a larger scale than any pre-
viously made on the subject, we think it desirable, in the absence of
the voluminous report of the committee and drawings, which may not
be published for years, to state at least some of the results of these
long-continued and costly experiments.

In Mr. Scott Russell's exposition of the labours of himself and Pro-
fessor Robison, after mentioning minutely the mode in which they had
conducted their experiments, and their results, he proceeded to de-
scribe the form of construction which they had determined to be the
best, not only as offering the least resistance to motion through smooth
water, but also as best adapted for rough seas. It is to be regretted,
however, that in this, the most important part of his exposition, Mr.
Russell was less explicit and not so minute as in describing the pre-
liminary experiments. He stated facts, but did not explain the prin-
ciples by which they were regulated, therefore it is difficult from one
isolated form of construction, which was all he exhibited, to determine
how far it is adapted to vessels of other sizes. He observed, that the
great point which, in the first instance, was endeavoured to be gained
was to get rid of the wave at the bow, which has the same effect in
retarding a vessel as if it were immersed so much deeper in water.
It was found that this object might be attained by lengthening the
ship, and that whenever speed was required, there must be an absolute
length without regard to breadth.

Mr. Russell having stated that each velocity has a corresponding
form and dimension peculiar to that velocity, he exhibited the form of
the light-water line of a steam-vessel intended to be propelled with a
velocity of 17 miles an hour, and explained the mode of constructing
it. Suppose the breadth, C D, of the vessel to
be 25 feet, there must be set off forward from
the greatest midship-section 120 feet, and for
the after-part, S5 feet. To make room for the '
engines, there is no objection to putting in a
piece in the middle of the vessel, called the
middle-body, of equal width to the greatest
midship section. On half the breadth of the
vessel, fore and aft, describe the semicircles C,D,
E, G. Divide the fore part, o A, into a given
number of equal parts, and divide the semicir-
cles also into the same number of parts; in the
accompanying diagram, we have divided them
into not more than four, for greater distinctness.
Then draw lines parallel to the keel, A B,
from the divisions o, v, o, of the semicircles to
the corresponding divisions p, p, p, and r, r, r,
of the keel, and the points where the lines
intersect show the form of water-line required.
The form thus attained, it will be observed,
is very sharp both fore and aft, though the
after part, or run, being shorter, is necessarily
more full than the entrance of the vessel.
This form is much opposed to the ordinary
practice inasmuch as the line is hollowed
out or partly concave, instead of being of the
convex form, or full bow, which old ship-
builders so much admire.

Having thus described the form of the light-
water line, Mr. Russell promised to give the
view he entertained of the principle on which
the superiority of its construction depended;
in this particular, however, he failed to make
himself very clearly understood. He first
alluded to the notions entertained of the man-
ner in which the water is displaced by the
motion of a vessel. It is commonly supposed,
by ship-builders, that the water passes round
the vessel ; some imagine that the. fluid is rolled
under it; whilst, according to the French phi-
losophers, the impact of water obeys the same
laws as the impact of solid bodies, and the
water is reflected from the bow at an angle equal
to the angle of incidence. From the latter as-
sumption they deduced that a round full bow is
best adapted to meet with least resistance. It
had been proved, however, in the course of
these experiments, that the particles of water
displaced by the bow of a vessel move into new
places, that peculiar motions are given to them,
and that they never return to their former
positions. The motion of displacement, also,

P

^"yn

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

373

was found to be not confined to the vicinity of the vessel, but to have
an extensive effect in a region anterior to the bow, and extending to a
considerable distance on each side; and some time before the bow
approaches a particle of water, the fluid has commenced moving.
Viewing the sea as composed of innumerable vertical columns of water,
the effect of the approach of a vessel is to produce greater pressure
on one side of such columns than on the other, and water being, prac-
tically speaking, incompressible, the particles pressed against can
move only in a vertical direction, and thus a heaping up of fluid is
produced before the bow of the vessel, sometimes ranging as far as
half its length. The next object the committee had in view was to
examine the direction of the motion of the particles of water displaced
by a vessel. It was found that when the form was that of least re-
sistance, the motions of the particles of water were in semicircles ;
and that they deviated from that curve when the form departed from
that of least resistance. It was also determined, that the replacement
of the water as a vessel moves forward, takes place entirely from
below. The result, therefore, to be attained, as appeared from these
experiments, was to ascertain the form of the solid of least resistance,
which would communicate these motions to the particles of water. In
experiments on the forms of waves, conducted also at the expense of
the British Association, it had been ascertained that the motion of
water itself is that which the committee had endeavoured to give to
the water when ships pass through it. Thus it happened, that the
form best adapted for least resistance in smooth water, being itself
the form of the waves of the sea, the vessel of that shape moved
through the sea with the least motion and the least resistance. The
consequence was, that in the course of these experiments it was found
that a vessel built in the form of least resistance in smooth water,
instead of being, as was formerly supposed, likely to be wet and
uneasy in a rough sea, in fact passed through the waves without doing
more than modifying their motion, and that in proportion as ships
approached to the form of least resistance, they were dry, easy, and
good steering boats. The concluding experiments were made on
ships of 2000 tons, differently formed, and the same law which was
found to prevail in smaller vessels was also followed in the large ships
and in the roughest seas.

We have endeavoured, on the foregoing report, to give as intelli-
gible an account of the deductions from the experiments on the form
of ships as could be collected from Mr. Russell's exposition. It is
evident, however, that there are many points of importance not suffi-
ciently elucidated ; and though the principle on which the advantages
claimed for the wave form is attempted to be established as regards
easiness of motion in a rough sea, the reason why that form is the one
of least resistance in smooth water, is by no means clear.

It is a very difficult, and perhaps an impossible task to extract the
pith from a voluminous mass of papers, calculations and drawings
adapted to differing circumstances, so as to present, in a comparatively
small compass, a satisfactory view of the whole ; nevertheless, we wish
to arrive at some fixed laws, and the principles on which they are
founded. It appears that in all the experiments the object aimed at
was to ascertain the form of least resistance in culling through the
water, and that no attention was bestowed on the form best adapted
to cause the vessel to glide over the head-wave. The experiments,
however, which were made a few years since on the Scotch canals
with passenger boats, in which we believe Mr. Russell himself took
part, show that the head-wave may be prevented by the boat being
raised in the water by the oblique impact of its bow with the fluid.

BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sir— If but small, it is some satisfaction to find that within the few
last weeks, the subject of the British Museum has made a little stir ;
and whatever journals have touched upon it at all, have been pretty
unanimous as to two points— first, that the building— at least the fa-
cade, ought to be made a noble piece of architecture ; secondly, that
it would be futile to look for any such production from Sir Robert
Smirke.

Such, too, is the opinion which has been expressed bv the Spectator,
in an article headed " Completion of the British Museum," wherein
are quoted, as from a correspondent, " some severe, yet deserved
strictures on the architect," in which the journalist himself appears
fully to acquiesce. Yet after so far inculpating Sir Robert's proies-
sional character, and quoting a long list of his architectural failures,
the Spectator is still of opinion that we ought now to abide by the
bargain we made with him— or rather, which has been made with him
lor us.

" Any glaring defect," it says, " in the front, ought to be amended,
as far as it may be, by Sir Robert Smirke ; but we question if it
would be right and just to take the work out of his hands, and intrust
the completion to another architect, even if the Trustees of the
Museum would do so — which is not very likely."

Certainly not; for the Trustees — who have shown themselves not fit
to be at all trusted with their building, as far as architectural taste is
concerned — appear to care nothing about the matter. They are satis-
fied themselves, and whether the public is or will be satisfied, is to
them perfectly indifferent.

The Spectator, too, thinks, that as things have already gone so far,
we ought now to be reconciled to what can't be helped, stipulating
only that "Any glaring defect should be amended!" Now, in
the first place, Sir Robert Smirke is not at all the man to commit.
" Glaring defects;" much less is there any danger of his violating the
decencies of common place, he knows what the mere good-breeding
of his art requires, too well, to shock us by gross improprieties — he
has " lamt manners."

In the next place, it is truly astonishing to find a writer professing
to be a critic in art, well content, if instead of a facade worthy to
rank high as a finished work of art, we do but get one free from
"glaring defects."

But just now, I said that Sir Robert was not the man to commit
glaring defects, yet must correct the observation, for one most glaring,
pervading defect stamps all his buildings: they are all alike sullen
and soul-less — dull and unimaginative — the very best of them of that
kind whose highest praise and damnation are condensed into the
epithet "Respectable!"

His designs are of a sort that do not admit of being corrected,
otherwise than by being remodelled and recast, and having some spirit
— some ideas, infused into them.

The Spectator concludes with saving, "let us hope that the facade
will be 'respectable,'" and in this there may possibly be a sneer of
contemptuous irony ; for hardly is it possible to conceive that any one
should seriously mean to say we ought to consider ourselves well oil'
if, instead of a magnificent edifice capable of challenging any other
work of its kind in any part of Europe, we do but get what will barely
pass muster as " respectable."

For Sir Robert Smirke himself I have no pity; he deserves none :
he merits all the obloquy and ignominy he is about to draw down on
his devoted head. Fortune he has made — fame he has missed ; why
then does he not now distinguish himself in the only way left for him.
Let him act the Roman part — let him claim if not the applause of his
country as an artist, its gratitude as a patriot willingly immolating
himself for the public weal. Let him heroically resign the British
Museum to some one worthier of the task, and then, be all his sins
forgiven.

C s.

OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE.

By Henhy Fulton, M.D.

No. 2.

The Houses of Parliament, the Exchange, and the Conservative
Club in St. James's Street, are in progress; and the facade, of the
British Museum is spoken of. I trust Mr. Barry in the first will avoid
an error in his otherwise much to be admired school of King Edward
at Birmingham, and give us windows of a bolder and broader cha-
racter.

There are only three orders of columnar architecture worthy of
imitation, viz., the Grecian Doric and Ionic, and the Corinthian. I
most sincerely wish that the knowledge of all others was lost.
The indignation of a man of taste should boil, at seeing tin' orna-
ments and emblems of these beautiful orders prostituted, by being
coupled with the vile trash which is given to the public as their imi-
tations : the triglyph indicates symmetry and stability in the J)uri'-
compositions of the Greeks; but in the lower order of the Exchange,
weakness and an overburdened architrave. Could not Mr. Tite re-
move this index of overweight and undue proportion, and call his
order Tuscan, a name more to be honoured than any other form of de-
based Doric.

At least the Conservative Club iu St. James's Street aims at having
one advantage over the Reform in Pall Mall, namely, tin- representa-
tion of a collection of the boxes used by Her Majesty's ministers, (for
such is the shape of the quoins,) intending by this, perhaps, to show
the determination of the Conservatives to retain their places : il such

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[November,

be not the indication, we must seek the reason, for the rustic work, in
a similarity of taste with New Zealanders and other polite nations of
the Pacific, who tattoo their faces, and consider scars and scratches as
so many lines of beauty ; for my part, as I prefer the face human
without the scars, however geometrical, so do I the face mural,
without the rustic lines and gashes. A writer in this Journal, with
much wit and truth says, that lawyers and architects are the only men
who are the slaves of precedent. I wish that some high authority, in
addition to experience, could be brought forward to show that as the
savages in vain attempt to hide the nakedness of their bodies by
tatooing, so do some architects, by treating their buildings in the same
way, in vain attempt to hide the nakedness and meanness of their
designs.

Much dissatisfaction has very reasonably been expressed at the
secrecy observed with regard to the expected facade of the Museum.
Sir Robert Smirke, no doubt, says, " From the character of my other
works, you may safely rely on the fitness of the forthcoming facade."
The delineator of Magna Grecia said the same thing under similar
circumstances with respect to the National Gallery: for my part, my
faith in Sir Robert is not so strong; the only work we have of his fl
believe) in Ireland, is the Wellington testimonial, and a decided
failure it is. Of all the works of a monumental character which the
ancients have bequeathed to us in possession, the pyramids are the
least, and the obelisks the most pleasing: the Wellington testimonial
partakes of the character of both, but approaches more nearly to the
deformity of the first, than the beauty of proportion to be observed
in the latter; the height of the shaft is only about 5 J diameters,
instead of being '.) or 10 as in the obelisks.

Without being possessed of any private information on the subject,
we can easily say what the facade will be — a portico of six columns,
with plenty of triglyphs on the frieze, in compliment to the Lapithae
and Centaurs of the Elgin marbles, and to show the possibility of
having an architrave which shall appear to be uvr rhurthened anil yet
not give way ; to borrow a phrase used in the description of civic
feasts, like the tables loaded with viands it si all appear to groan!
Then we shall have a pseudo portico at each fl.mk by way of wings,
with sham pediments also, stolen from the gable end of some Greek
temple, not to surmount another gable, but a long colonnade like the
river front of Somerset House, requiring three, and spaces between.
On these misplaced pediments we shall have various apothecary-
looking works, copied either from those of Somerset House or from
the antique models to be found in the Museum. These three porticos
will be advanced a little in front, for the purpose of showing that they
do not belong of necessity to the building, but on the contrary, may
safely be removed for any other purpose Si oput sit. No, Sir Robert
avoid these peculiarities, and give us a front something like that of
the Berlin Museum; and do not be afraid of the spectator's eye re-
quiring to be relieved by broken lines and cornices, nor seek to give
your design a military character, by the introduction of cocked-bat
pediments over your doors and windows.

I formerly made some observations on the^e ornaments, (?) to which
a critic under the signature of (i. \V. R., m the fifth volume of this
Journal, page 1"JS, s.iys in their defence that, if these gable tops be
absurd iii Palladian architecture, shall we not be obliged to condemn
quite as much the beautiful pedimeuted canopies over the windows of
York cathedral. This does not appear to be a siquiter any more than
that it should he argued th.it because pointed arches, flying buttresses,
pinnacles and tiuials are introduced into such edifices, with complete
success, it would be advantageous to mix them up in a Grecian com-
position. But although G. W. R. truly says I was unable to discover
the use of these window tops, yet lie might have observed that, with
great disinterestedness, I gave Palladia all the merit of the discovery,
and that 1 merely suggested that one figure would answer as well as
Palladio's two. If any architect who admires these window pediments
so much, would have the kindness to exhibit himself undressed, and
Bacchus like, astride one of those at the Reform Club House during
certain hours of the day, admiring spectators might at a glance decide
on the advantage of my suggestions, as compared with the practice
of Palladio, the elfect of whose plan might be shown by two other
architects on an adjoining window. '

I have to complain that the same critic misrepresents me, (and
critics do some times misrepresent,) by making it appear that I de-
rived the pointed style directly from the Roman. Now I asserted no
such thing, but referred to the ruins at Spalatro for the origin of the
semi-circular arch on slender columns, supported by consols, (see
Vol. V., page 79 of this Journal;) and as it is generally admitted that
the pointed arch was formed, and in point of fact can be formed, by
the interlacing of the semicircular arch, it is not going too far to say

' See Palladio's works, book II, chap. 3rd, plates iv, vi, and xviii.

that even the beautiful pointed style may owe its origin indirectly
to the debased Dioclesian.

I cannot see the force of G. W. R.'s objection to my saving that the
graduated basement of a Doric temple might be considered as the
base of the columns : the observations made by me on that head were
with reference to a portico, which has no basement raised above the
level of the street, (see page bO.) But if G. W. R. had read the
paragraph preceding the one he censures, he would not have raised
an objection.

To return to the Museum— if pure Grecian architecture must abide
its time, and that we are not yet fit to appreciate its merits, let Sir
R. Smirke consult the magnificent works on Egyptian antiquities,
published by the Imperial Government of France, and give us an
Egyptian front. No building ever was, or perhaps ever will be,
erected in London, more suitable for that style than the Museum.
But I speak of the court yard as it was when I last saw it three years
ago.

In College Green, one of the best situations in Dublin, there is in
course of erection a gin palace — I beg pardon, it is intended for a
bank, but the fitness of the thing might well excuse the mistake, anil
indeed it is quite impossible to look at it without being struck with
the resemblance. I had intended to give a drawing of it, but as there
is no lack of palaces in London, it would be a waste of space in this
valuable Journal; besides, the building, a'.though of cut stone, is of so
slight a nature, that it does not appear intended to remain very long.
The architect of it, (if such there, be,) with a taste which does him
credit, and with a spirit of chivalry worthy an architect belonging to
a free and enlightened people, viewing the over-burthened state of
columns in the hands of modern architects, has in the present in-
stance relieved his from any such irksome tasks, and nut obliged them
to support anything, for the perpendicular line of the edifice falls
behind them ; to be sure there is a kind of cornice on a level with the
commencement of the first floor; but what of that, the whole is in "a
free unhoused condition :" and by this expedient he has been enabled
to make the columns more slender and graceful than any example
with which 1 am acquainted. And after all, the idea of making the
edifice resemble a palace was not a bad one, for with little or no alter-
ation, it can at any time be turned into one, should it no longer be re-
quired for a bank, or should its neighbours of Trinity College, t lie
Bank of Ireland, or the Royal Irish Academy, require a gin palace in
their vicinity, xic transit gloria muudi, that is, "to what base uses may
we return, Horatio."

THE PALACE OF WESTMINSTER.

Sir — Reports both official and popular relative to the Palace of
Westminster are all highly favourable and satisfactory; still there is
one point, and that of no small importance, in regard to which nothing
has yet transpired, nor have any questions been put. Far as the
stiucture is now advanced in appearance, it is appearance chiefly —
along the east side of the plan : considering, therefore, the immense
mass of inner buildings and courts there will be behind, and that all the
present buildings on the west side will have to be cleared away, a
very great length of time must elapse, before the entire pile can be
constructed in its main walls, roofs, &c.

If I mistake not, the Peers' House is to be finished within about
two years from the present time; but surely that does not include de-
coration, supposing that fresco-painting is to form any portion of it.
And even then, the accommodation for public business, so far afforded,
will be very limited and imperfect, unless all the contiguous parts of
the plan can be carried on at the same time. Should that not be pos-
sible, no small inconvenience is likely to be felt, both by their Lord-
ships, and by the architect, who will have to exercise a good deal of
management and contrivance for which there would be no occasion,
were none of that part of the building required to be taken possession
of, until it was thoroughly completed. '

The question — when is, or when can, the work of embellishment
commence/ is perhaps one which no one can yet answer; neither
may any one be as vet prepared with a readier reply to that of —
J/' htrc is it to commence 3 As fresco-painting will at first be somewhat
of an experiment among us, surely the artists will not be allowed to
try their "'prentice hands" on any of the principal rooms intended to
be so decorated. It is most probable, therefore, that they will begin

1 A similar sort of inconvenience is now experienced in the British
Museum, where temporary passages and partitions are obliged to be erected
while the workmen are employed on those parts of the building which have
to be added ur adapted to those already finished.

IS-13.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

375

their operations in tlie corridors; vet if tliev are to be carried on
there to the extent now contemplated, it must be either very rapidly
<ir very slowly : either the whole work must there be executed with
all dispatch possible when once begun, so that it may be got out of
hand ; or, it must proceed very gradually indeed, and perhaps only at
intervals during a long series of years.

Our artists, I conceive, are likely to have ample time to prepare
themselves for study, ere their services will be required Cor the Palace
at Westminster, which may not be till some of them are grown grey-
haired. As a last question — one which deserves to be well considered,
will it be possible to grant the public that free access to the interior
of the building, which it now seems to be taken for granted will be
the case.? The verv plan shows that it is not at all adapted for the
purpose of a public gallery of art, and that to convert it to such would
be incompatible with the more important purpose for which the
building is destined.

I remain,

Your obedient servant,

J. B.

THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

( With Plan of Facade.)

Whether or no any positive beneficial result ensue from public at-
tention being kept alive as to the British Museum, the subject is one
that is very far from being vet exhausted, and which ought not yet to
be dropped. In fact, with the public generally it is but just begin-
ning to make any sort of stir, and interest— at least curiosity, has been
so far excited, that several inquiries have been made as to the possi-
bility of obtaining a sight of the model which is deposited some-
where in the building itself. It was not very long ago rumoured that
it was open to public inspection there, yet this turns out not to be the
case, applicants being informed that the model cannot be seen without
an express order from the architect himself: which is tantamount to
a civil sort of peremptory refusal, since it compels individuals to
solicit as a particular favour and indulgence what ought to be matter
of public right, for if there be no general claim of that kind, the ap-
plying for the favour is no more than what might be done with equal
propriety in any other ease.

We were told that we might write to Sir Robert Smirke, but we
were not at the same time assured that such application would be at-
tended to ; so thinking that it might after all, be very much like sum-
moning spirits from the vasty deep, we declined making the attempt,
as, we suppose, most others have dune. The precaution adopted, is
in itself a very politic one, for while it makes a show of a little libe-
rality, and renders it impossible to say in strictness of truth, that the
model is not allowed to be seen by any one, it effectually excludes
those who are the likeliest to be able to judge of the design, and to
express their opinion of it. It requires some sort of assurance to ask
a man as a favour to be permitted to inspect a production of his, that
you want to see for the express purpose of telling the public your
opinion of it — be it ever so unfavourable. Accepted as the boon of
courtesy, the permission itself becomes a bribe to criticism — a pad-
lock upon its tongue : at any rate one does not feel at liberty to ex-
press one's opinion altogether so freely and independently as if he had
paid his admission shilling at the door, or as where gratuitous admis-
sion is universal.

That the refusal of this last should still be persisted in is strange,
yet by no means inexplicable, on the contrary, it suggests at once to
the dullest apprehension, both of what kind, and how powerful the
motives are which prevent compliance with what is but a reasonable,
demand on the part of the public; — more especially as it is impossible
to allege in this case the slightest difficulty or inconvenience in
granting facility of access, nothing in the world being easier than to
remove the model from its "prison room," and place it in the hall of
the Museum. In general, architects and artists rather rejoice than
otherwise, when they find the public take particular interest in, and
make inquiries as to the progress of the works they are employed
upon. So far is it from being usual to show such excess of caution,

silence, and reserve, as has all along been kept up in regard to the
British Museum, that it is quite common for architects themselves to
exhibit by publishing or allowing to be published, designs or views of
buildings, while in progress, or perhaps onlv just begun. We could
quote numerous instances of this : two may suffice — and those can be
verified by our own readers, for we were enabled to give designs and
descriptions of the Reform Club-house, long before that structure was
completed, and have in our last number laid before them an elevation
of St. George's Hall, Liverpool, nor has its author had any cause to re-
pent of the publicity which his design had previously obtained. Why
then, should so much mystery be made of the design for the facade
of the Museum ? as if the public had positively no right to feel any
curiosity about it, to take any interest in it, or make it in any way,
any concern of theirs. Such extraordinary reserve shown in this in-
stance by the architect, may pass with some for modestv — for the
natural bashfulness, not of sixteen, but sixty. Far more likely does it
proceed from pride, or likelier still from the conscious foreboding
that to exhibit his model to public scrutiny would be to sign its death
warrant.

Notwithstanding, however, the most jealous precautions, something
has transpired, and enough to lift up a good part of the veil hanging
over the front of the British Museum, for knowing its plan, we can
give a very tolerable guess at its elevation, and might even undertake
to draw it out, and exhibit it as the architect's own; for such is his
mannerism — so unvaried and stereotype, so bare and poor are all his
vertical plans, that they may be dispensed with, and we may prettv
confidently rely on such particulars as can be gathered from a ground
plan alone, knowing that of ornamental design and decoration, there
will be nothing except what arises from the order itself, or rather
from the columns, all the rest being bald and naked. Such being the
case, there is, after all, very little necessity for demanding to see the
design, since we may fairly be said to have been made fully acquainted
with it already, the plan being published in a parliamentary report,
so long back as five years ago; nor is it at all likely to have since
undergone any alteration — any correction or modification, for Sir Robert
is not given to vacillation; he knows his own mind — abides by his
first idea, instead of foolishly endeavouring to improve upon — per-
fection.

At all events, nothing has been said as to another design having
been since substituted, as would undoubtedly have been done, were
such really the case, in order to disabuse the public of a very great
mistake. We may, accordingly, with that design or plan before us,
and here exhibiting a reduced copy of it to our readers, which will
enable them to follow us in our remarks, and spare ourselves a great
deal of tedious explanation — proceed to criticize it.

It will at the first glance be seen that there will be a considerable
degree of effect — and that of a kind we are unaccustomed to, pro-
duced by continuous columniation, breaking round the outline of the
plan, and thereby displaying lines of columns at right angles to each
other, consequently varied in their perspective appearance, and in
regard to light and shade. We freely admit that so far we shall
have something classical, even striking in character. Strange, indeed,
would it be, if forty-two fluted Ionic columns, ranged continuously, but
on different lines, did not produce a certain sort of grandeur; and we
may venture to say that the first-tight coup d'teil cannot very well fail
of being impressive. So far, therefore, all very well; yet in such a
case, surely so far is very far indeed from being far enough, since it will
be by no means sufficient if the facade be calculated merely to cap-
tivate the eye, on a first and cursory inspection of it : on the
contrary, all the more likely is it, in consequence of the pretension
and promise so made, to cause disappointment and dissatisfaction,
after the feeling of mere curiosity has been gratified, and it. is then
discovered to be one of those things which have the peculiar merit
of "looking best at a distance," a merit, by the bye, which is more
common than we could wish to find it. It is neither every building,
nor every person, that improves upon further acquaintance : of both
there are not a few to whom we may apply the line of the epigram —

" He less bad liked you had be seen you twice."

51

376

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

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So, too, in the case of the facade of the Museum, it proves on exa-
mination to be very far from fulfilling the promise made to the
eye at first sight: the circumstance of there being windows at all
must prove, if not fatal, a very serious drawback, where the most
starched classieality is affected as far as the mere order is concerned.
.Such apertures must inevitably destroy one essential characteristic of
a Grecian colonnade— breadth and repose. Hardly any skill can re-
concile together the style represented by the columns, and that by the
windowed wall behind them: at any rate purity of style is forfeited,
and a mixed one substituted for the original, therefore it becomes in-
dispensable to render that mixed a compound one, wherein the respec-
tive conflicting elements shall be brought into harmony — the whole into
keeping. Having passed the Rubicon it is of no use to halt, for then to
stand still is to have done nothing; so when an architect has not scrupled
to violate the simplicity of Grecian architecture, by introducing win-
dows, he must either convert them into features of positive beauty in
themselves, or leave them to be reprobated as solecisms and blemishes,
No excuse will it be for him to say that he has no sufficient authori-
ties to guide him for windows of rich and ornate character in the
Grecian style ; since neither has he any authority for introducing win-
dows at all, and if he can break through authority as to the one, he
surely need not scruple to do so as to the other — especially when by so
doing he would have an opportunity of showing his taste and inven-
tion, and convincing us that his study of antique design had furnished
him with resources not at every one's conn,;

We admit that we are here setting up a high standard of taste,
and exact much more than is generally to be looked for; yet not at all
more than the occasion both demands and admits of. Surely it is not
at all unreasonable to expect that a Museum — a National Museum —
one perhaps the first in the world in regard to the treasures it con-
tains— should be also a splendid and perfect work of art, as a piece
of architecture. Are we to be content with merely having something
tolerable — decent — respectable — passably good, and so forth ? That
humble degree of merit could be obtained much more cheaply —
without such an array of columns, without so much pretension, the
effect might perhaps be all the more tolerable in consequence. We
have had quite enow samples of tolerable Grecian architecture be-
fore ; and now, we fear are about to have one again, where it, to be no
more than tolerable, will be actually insufferable and disgraceful.

That the plan will be exactly followed in regard to there being
windows within the colonnades and portico, is now but too evident,
for the main walls of the building forming the west pavilion or wing
of the facade, are now raised — that is, in rough brickwork, to be
afterwardsyhctfi with stone, just as an old building might be ref routed
with new material ; and from them we perceive that there will be a
single range of windows, on about the same level as in the quadrangle
or inner court; and they will, no doubt, be nearly of the same cha-
racter, with no more dressing than will just be sufficient to prevent
our saying that they have absolutely none. In this respect, therefore,

the colonnades of the Museum will be almost exactly such composi-
tions us is that which forms the centre of the Custom House, with all
the less excuse, because if Sir Robert could not foresee the effect
before, that experiment ought to have convinced him that it would
not do to be repeated in the Museum, more especially as the public
will naturally look for greater refinement of taste and display of ima-
gination than in a Custom House or a Post Office — even for some evi-
dence of poetic inspiration ; but we suspect that the architect of the
Museum is better acquainted with per-centage than with the muses.

Were the number of the windows in the facade reduced to half,
— the plan should have been so contrived that there should have been
no necessity for any — corresponding with the alternate intercolumns ;
there would have been some, degree of breadth and repose, when. is
now they will cut up the background, and what is more, they will not
correspond with the intervals between the columns, at least not on the
sides or returns facing east and west, for there, instead of falling ex-
actly in the axes of t lie intercolumns, there will be — according to the
official plan, at least — no regularity in that respect, for in sonic in-
stances the windows will be partially, and in two others, exactly be-
hind columns! besides which, there will be some windows thrust
quite into the inner angles of the plan. How such a very strange
disregard to the most ordinary rules of symmetry should have arisen,
it is casv enough to perceive, it being evident enough that being
unable to hit upon any mode of keeping up symmetry of arrange-
ment in his windows, both internally and externally, the architect has
sacrificed exterior to interior appearance, thereby incurring, we think,
the far greater evil of the two, since defects of that kind, if to be

tolerated at all, might more easily be excused in such rooms as co

into this part of the plan, since they will not be seen by the public,
the former being for manuscripts, the others for the Trustees, than in
the "grand and classic" facade, where such blemishes are likely
to be noted by every one as most strange and sad architectural
bungling. Surely Sir Robert Smirke could never have given a second
thought to his own plan, or even he must have detected such very
palpable "school-boy" mistakes. Or are we to suppose that detect-
ing, he could not remove them?

Come we now to the central portico : here an advanced line of
columns added to the general colonnade forms an octastyle which
w ill, doubtless be crowned by a pediment ; thus, besides some variety
being imparted to the elevation, there will be some richness and a
more than ordinary degree of perspective intricacy will attend the
inner range of columns seen behind those in front, of which disposi-
tion of them we have as yet no example in any of our London por-
ticos. Still it may be questioned if sucb arrangement of the columns
is the very best suited for the occasion, because there is hardly suffi-
cient space for so many columns in that direction within the portico,
the latter being rendered thereby nearly as shallow as far as actual
serviceableness is concerned, as the other colonnades. There will be
no amplitude of space any where, the entire plan of the portico being

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

377

subdivided into so many lesser squares of uniform size; whereas, had
Hie hinder part of the portico been made to recede within the build-
ing— either wholly or to the extent of the three or the five centre inter-
columns — then the effect of passing through two outer rows of columns
would have been more striking; — there would have been sufficient
space within, and also far greater variety in the general composition.
As it is, we suspect that, however good it may be in itself, such dis-
play of columniation will be upon the whole rather prejudicial than
otherwise, inasmuch as all the rest is likely to fall very short of the ar-
chitectural pretension made in regard to columns. The omission of the
lour centre columns of the second range might therefore be rather an
improvement than the contrary, for at any rate then some space
would be gained — perhaps some monotony also avoided, while the two
remaining columns would give all the greater expression of solidity
to the angles where the octastyle advances before the other colon-
nades.

Should there be nothing else that will contrast strangely with the
columnar pomp here affected, one thing there will be which cannot
fail materially to impair whatever dignity is thereby aimed at. The
door, it will be observed, is placed between two engaged columns
at the same distance from each other as the rest, and must therefore
be of exceedingly insignificant size in proportion to the scale of the
order, the width of the opening not much if at all exceeding the di-
ameter of one of the columns ; low it must also be in the same de-
gree, and will, besides, look quite squeezed in between the columns :
truly a most splendid and august portal for that of a national mu-
seum ! ' With such a door, and with windows also, the general cha-
racter of the design will be any thing but classical or imposing, in
spite of the show made by columns. Columns, however, constitute
the alpha and omega of Sir Robert Smirke's architectural ideas, and
capability of design — we had nearly made a mistake and said, his
powers of invention, but invention he neither has nor pretends to
have. Whether he intends on this occasion to stretch a point, and
give us — not any thing new, but some variation of his usual Ionic,
some richer example of that style in regard to the capitals, and some-
thing less mean and dowdyish than his entablatures hitherto have
been, we know not ; yet unless such be the case, even his colonnades —
letting alone all the rest — will form but a very sorry "set out."

It is possible that, having only the plan to go by, we mav have mis-
conceived some matters, and may in consequence have expressed our-
selves more unfavourably than we might have done could we have in-
spected the model. If thai would at all refute the injurious surmises
now spreading abroad, the withholding it from the public is no less
foolish than it is, at the best, ungracious. However, the public voice
may even yet prove too strong for Sir Robert Smirke and his sup-
porters—and his admirers, too, if he really has any now, which we
very much question.

Lengthy — some may say tedious — as our remarks have been, we
could very easily have extended them, because we have only animad-
verted upon it as it is, without pointing out what might have been
introduced into it. Still one circumstance remains to be noticed,
more especially as it does not show itself in the wood-cut plan; which
is, that in addition to the main building, there will be two subordinate
wings or ranges of building for the official residences; and these
cannot fail greatly to interfere with the general effect — to detract
from and neutralize the display made by the facade itself, unless
they were to be altogether shut out from view by screen walls,
adorned architecturally — perhaps, with Doric colonnades, thereby
continuing such porticos along the sides or ends of the front court,
and yet with some variation of character.

' So tar from showing any improvement in respect both to the entrance
itself, and to commodiousness of space, the portico of the Museum threatens
to be considerably inferior to that of the Post Office, and hardly better than
that oi the College of Physicians.

A CONTOUR— GRAPHIMETER.

Sir — In the accounts published in your valuable journal oi tin-
meeting of the British Association at Cork, I observed a statement
respecting the progress made in the contouring of maps by Captain
Larconi. I have addressed myself to you in order to give publicity
to my claims for the application of a method of contours in delineating
another kind of object. It was some years ago my attention was
directed to the subject, and since then I have fallen, I think, on the
rationale of the correspondence between the representation of an
object by contours, and the drawing of the same in the ordinary way.
In all drawings, the outline being of course first made out, we next
proceed to give the appearances of solidity, or roundness, or flatness,
to the figure. Now this may be done in two ways very different from
each other, one by means of shadow and shading laid on smoothlv,
and of various depths in the proper places, but another by employing
lines only of a form suited to the shape of the model. We find the
latter method employed in academical drawings and line engravings,
where round limbs are faithfully imitated with circular sweeps of the
chalk or graver, and objects bounded by plane faces, as walls, &c, are
lined and parallel; and whilst other lines are generally necessary over
these to shadow the parts, still they also partake of the form of the
surface, and this I conceive mainly concurs in assisting the spectator
to form a judgment, of the shape of the object the artist intends to
portray.

It is easy then to see that a good drawing may be made without
shading, and consisting only of lines, properly shaped of course, and
more or less close according to the varying inclination of the surface.
Any one who examines a clever pencil drawing will see ample illus-
tration of this in many parts of it. But the best proof in favour of
this method is the well-known medallion printing, where the drawing
is so true to nature that the surface of the figure appears to rise above
the ground. Now the machine used in this beautiful art is liable to
create considerable distortion, and cannot bemused if a bust or solid
object is made the subject of trial. In 1839, wdiile on service at
Malta, I constructed a new machine acting on a modified principle, by
the use of which all distortion was avoided, and I proved its efficiency
satisfactorily to myself by copying some small casts. I had long felt
the want of some such instrument, for I had had repeated oppor-
tunities of collecting casts both of remarkable living individuals and
other subjects; but the limited space allowed to an officer on board a
man-of-war precluded any attempt to form a collection of them, and
therefore a machine to copy and measure these in every dimension,
back as well as front, was a great desideratum, inasmuch as it flat-
tened, as it were, solid objects, and enabled them to be so packed
that a hundred casts might be put into a portfolio. Now the machine
to which I allude is contrived to give all the outlines of successive
planes of parallel section, or contours as they have been aptly called ;
and here I beg to remark the coincidence between the contours of
Captain Larcom and my section drawings, not that Captain L. may
well deserve all due praise for his important applications of the prin-
ciple, but that it may not be forgotten that the same had been devised
and put in practice by me in 1839. I have said that the machine
measures as it draws — I mean that any measurement in any direction
may be readily taken from the drawing. Now this is important to
those who wish to copy subjects in illustration of national or indi-
vidual peculiarities of countenance or form of skull in tribes of men
or species of animals. It therefore commends itself strongly to those
who cultivate physiognomy or phrenology in the practical way of
comparative measurement. I proposed it once to an eminent phre-
nologist, who stated that such an instrument was indeed very much
wanted, but he thought the photogenic process would in time supply
that want. From this opinion I have reason to differ, as I believe
none but linear drawings will ever give the necessary basis of
measurement.

The annexed engraving is a representation of the instrument.
A B C is the drawer or part moveable by the hand ; it is so constructed

51*

378

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

with regard to its flat foot or base, B C, that it keeps the point A
always perpendicular to the plane D E of the drawing-board at the
point B ; thus the line A B, in every position whatever of the sliding

Fig. 1.

drawer, ABC, keeps always parallel to itself; and, therefore, if a
pencil is placed at B, whatever A traces at one end is drawn exactly
at the other by that pencil. If A traces the contour A F, B draws the
contour at B L. When it is requisite to draw another contour the
drawing-board is screwed back the distance required by the adjusting
screws II H, then the point A will trace another contour, A F, which
of course is drawn at B L as before. In this way the whole solid, G,
may be traced over. It is hardly necessary to notice that if a metal
plate be substituted for the drawing paper, and a grater for the pen-
cil, we may secure an engraving plate, whence copies may be taken.

By this apparatus profiles of the countenance, of architectural
mouldings, and models of maps, may be taken without the use of the
screw; and if constructed on a large scale, the lines of a boat, &c,
may be taken with ease and expedition.

If it be desirable to make a drawing having the effect of a picture,
the contours should be drawn close and blunt; but if a measurement
drawing, they must be wider apart and sharp, so as to produce no
confusion when the back parts are traced over.

Fig. 2 represents a plan of a piece of land with three hills laid
down in contours from a model ; each contour is a representation of
the surface at certain given perpendicular distances, say one inch of
the model ; then, by taking the outer contour as the base or datum,
each contour within will represent so many inches perpendicular
above the base ; it will thus be seen that the height of the three hills
in the model by the annexed plan are respectively 6, 7, and 8 inches
above the base.

If it is requisite to rind the distance on the surface between A and B,
I. e. how far they are apart in the original model. From B or A, as is
most convenient, draw a perpendicular BC equal in height to all the
sections between A and B, then will the line AC be the distance on
the surface between A B.

Suppose it be required to make a section of a cast from P to Q, of

which rig. 2 is a drawing, it will be first necessary to draw perpen-
diculars from the several intersections of PQ with the contours by
means of parallel rulers, and then taking P' Q' for P(j at a distance

Fig. 2.

from the drawing, to avoid confusion, draw parallel lines to it distant
from each other the height of each section. Where the former inter-
sect the latter, draw the outline PTRS (i, which will give the sec-
tion required. In the same manner a measure may be taken from the
back to the front also, because the machine can draw, if necessary, the
contours at the back within the same space as those of the front, and
thus a solid object is drawn back and front from one point of view,
and measured in every possible direction.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

Salter Livksat, M.D., R.N.

GTPSOGRAPHtC SKETCHES' PROSJ TUB PRIORI CHURCH OF
ST. BARTHOLOMEW, SMITIIFIEED.

With ii Gypsoffrnphic Drawing, Plate XiV.

Among the great facilities which the metropolis affords for a school of
architecture, must not he omitted the many monuments of different styles
which it possesses. With regard to the early periods of English architecture,
many admirable specimens exist, which, although abounding in points of
interest, are not adequately studied— in some cases, indeed, are not adequately
known. Many of these, from their recent restoration, have, it is true, at-
tracted public notice, but many others, of no less merit, remain in compara-
tive obscurity or neglect. To enumerate all the metropolitan works of the
middle ages would he impossible, but to remind the student that they are
not contemptible, we may call to his notice Westminster Abbey and the
Chapter House, Westminster Hall and St. Stephen's Chapel, St. Mary Overy's,

1 This method of Engraving (of which our present Journal contains several
specimens, particularly those in this article of the Priory Church of St. Bar-
tholomew the Great,) is a recent invention which bids fair, if it continues to
progress with as rapid strides as it recently has done, to effect a very con-
siderable revolution in the art of engraving, more especially in that depart-
ment of the art termed wood engraving, or engravings printed from the sur-
face at the type press. Our readers are doubtless aware that in the latter
process a drawing is made by the artist upon a piece of box wood in pencil,
I and that those portions of the wood or block uncovered by the drawing are

PLATE XIV.

mt&SSSm Mkcr

T :-~ C.^'P. .

|^|ypfp

Fig. 1.— View of Arches of the old Tower am] Transepts.

Fig 2.— Arch in spandrel.

Fig. 3.— Prior Rahere's Tomb.
SKETCHES FROM THE PRIORY CHURCH OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW.

Mil er * Co.'* Gyjmgraphic Engnumg.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER aND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

H7U

Fig. i.

Fig. 8.

the Temple, besides many others. Several of these present points of great
interest, and we hope we shall he affording some gratification to our readers,
by devoting a series of illustrated articles to the architectural antiquities of
the metropolis and its vicinity. The subject we have selected for the present
occasion is the church of St. Bartholomew the Great, in Smithtield. Smith-
field is a place it might be thought but little attractive for the architectural

carefully removed by the wood engraver, a process extremely expensive,
tedious, and often unsuccessful in producing the effect intended by the de-
signer, all which evils appear successfully removed by this new method. The
finer descriptions of wood engravings are also at present extremely limited
in size owing to the impossibility of obtaining the material box wood of a
larger size than six or seven inches square, but by the Gypsographic process
there is no limit to size. It may by necessary to explain the term Gypso-
graphy: it derives its name from Gypsum or Plaster of Paris, which forms
the etching ground used in this method.

The extreme simplicity of this invention is not the only great advantage it
offers to the artist, draughtsman, or engraver, and may be readily understood
by the following description : —

A plate of copper is thinly covered with a composition of which plaster of
Paris forms the staple ingredient, and through which to the surface of the
copper, the drawing or design is etched with an etching point ; when the
etching is completed the plate having the lines sunk in or drawn through
the composition forms a matrix or mould, the plate then is cast in type metal
by the stereotyping process, and a perfect cast or block is taken reproducing
an exact facsimile of the artist's original design and which may be immedi-
ately transferred to the hands of the printer.

Wood engravings have hitherto been the only description of illustration
capable of being conjointly used and printed with type, the great cost both
of engraving and printing on steel or copper having been an insurmountable
barrier to the general use of the latter in ilustrating works requiring pictorial
additions, hut now as the Gypsographic process combines with it all the ad-
vantages of wood engravings both in printing and effect, as well as many of
the peculiar advantages of steel and copper-plate engravings, we have hut
little doubt it will be generally and extensively used in the illustration of all
descriptions of bookwork. Messrs. Milner & Co. the patentees of the process
have several specimens exhibiting the art applied in a variety of ways which
they will be most happy to show to any person who may favour them with
a visit at their office in Racquet Court, Fleet Street.

or antiquarian student, and yet to both it is of equal interest. Originally a
large fen or waste, draining, probably, into the river Fleet, or some of the
then pure streamlets of the city ; it was, in the twelfth century, in a very
neglected state, occupying a much larger district than now, and used as a
market, the higher ground being the site of a gallows for thieves, and the
scene of frequent executions. It seems to have been, at that time, the pro-
perty of the crown, and, lying outside two of the city gates, it attracted the
notice of the founder of more than one religious house as the convenient site
of a large conventual establishment. The priory of St. Bartholomew was
founded on the south, that of St. John of Jerusalem on the west, and that
of the Chartreux on the north ; and in their remains, and in the disposition
of the modern buildings are to bejound many interesting architectural relics,
and very good studies of the arrangement of the ancient religious houses.
Three establishments, St. Bartholomew's and Christ's Hospitals, and the
Charter-house, keep up the hospitallary character.

The convent of St. Bartholomew the Great was founded about 1113- by
Prior Rahere, who begged the site of King Henry I, for Black Canons of the
order of St. Augustine ; and upon the strength of a legend that it had been
hallowed by King Edward the Confessor, obtained abundant alms from the
Saxon people of London. Some, indeed, have supposed that the present
edifice is founded on one of Saxon origin, as to which no records exist, but
it is not improbable that some Saxon chantry or hermitage might have
existed here. It is such a spot as the religious mendicants often chose ; out-
side the city walls — close to a main road, and on the scene of traffic and of
death, it would be a tempting settlement. Indeed, it was by no means un-
common for religious houses to be instituted on such foundations, and we
may well suppose Rahere to have occupied some deserted oratory or cell
Be this as it may, the bulk of the existing structure is clearly of Norman
origin, and was raised by Prior Rahere during his lifetime, under the direc-
tion of Alfune, who built St. Giles's, Cripplegate. It was abundantly

- The Cottontail MSS. Vespasian, Book IX, says in one i place. 110.3.
another 1113, and according to Dugdale it was 1123.

380

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

strengthened with privileges, some of which are enjoyed by the inhabitants
of the parish to this day. It is clear that the present church is only part of
a much larger structure, and we shall endeavour to give some idea of its
former extent and its present remains. On entering from Smithfield, a nave
and two aisles, about 90 feet long, extended to the door of the present church,
opening under the great tower, on each side of which was a transept. The
nave was continued into the choir, the part now used as a parish church, and
which is surrounded by a series of aisles and chapels. On the right or south
of the nave were the cloisters, and attached to the east wall of these, and
extending from the south transept, were a hall standing over a chapel, and
latterly used by the nonconformists and Wesleyans, and a refectory, also,
with a crypt underneath. Behind the east end of the choir was the prior's
house. The whole length of the church was about 220 feet. Of these
buildings the nave, the transepts, the greater part of the cloisters, the chapel,
the chapter-house, and the upper part of the tower are destroyed. The
church, itself, we shall describe subsequently. We may observe, however,
that the entrance to the south aisle of the nave exists, and forms an entrance
gateway from Smithfield. This relic is most deservedly admired, and is
composed of a pointed arch, consisting of four ribs receding one within
another, and beautifully decorated with numerous zig-zag mouldings and with
roses. The south wall of this aisle is also in existence. The eastern cloister
is the only one of which there are any remains, though the lower part of
them is buried in the soil. A recent visitor2 says that it has suffered much
of late years from the fall of the roof and part of the wall, and consists of
live arches more or less entire on the eastern side, ' and one on the west,
besides a portion attached to the church, which is complete, but is walled
up. The workmanship is said to be very line, the breadth about 15 feet, and
the length about 95. The refectory is also described by the same writer.
"It is now occupied as a tobacco manufactory, and a large portion of it still
forms but one apartment, roofed over with oak of the finest kind and con-
dition. There are now two or three stories, hut, after a careful examination
of the general arrangement of the multitudinous timbers of the roof of the
highest story, we cannot but express our opinion that the whole has been open
from the first tloor to the roof, and that the latter has formed one of those
oaken coverings of which Westminster Hall is so magnificent an example,
though most probably of a ruder character. All appear to show that there
was but one siory, one room : and a glorious room it must have been, mea-
suring some forty feet high, thirty broad, and a hundred and twenty long."
The crypt under this magnificent hall is of the same extent, but crossed by
an arched passage. It has a double row of aisles of pointed arches, and is
in an excellent state of preservation. The prior's house is now used by a
fringe manufacturer, and is an ancient building in pretty good preservation.
The length is about 83 feet

The external appearance of the church requires no description, being muti-
lated with facings of brick and stucco. The interior is, as we Lave said,
composed of the under part of the tower and the choir, surrounded by aisles,
separated from the choir.

The tower was formerly attached to the transepts now destroyed, and is
formed by four arches, two of them, the one opining to the choir and the
one opposite t<> it, circular, the transept arches being uf less span and pointed,
as shown in the accompanying illustration, (Plate XIV, Fig. 1,) so that the
four form an oblong tower. They are all in good preservation except the
western round arch, which is slightly shaken, and seem of the same age, as
far ;is can be judged from the external inspection. The pointed arches are
rather ruddy formed. The whole four arches have, however, the same zig-
zag moulding, Fig. 4 ; the two cir-

cular arches spring from corbels
(Figs. ."' & 6). In each of the span-
drils close to the angles, there are
smaller arches, nearly at right angles
to each other ; one of them is shown
at large in Fig. 2 ; with a peculiar zig-
zag or indented border, and a column
in the augle. There are also in the
spandrels small lozenge-shaped panels
remarkable for their singularity, the
ornaments of three of them, shown
in Tigs. 7, 8, & 9, are something
similar to the Grecian honeysuckle.

Fig. 5.

» London • No. 29, p. .30. Charles Knight.

i ennant, London, p. 199, says eight arches in his time.

This part of the church is of the Fig. G. Section of arch.

greatest interest, the mixture of the
pointed and round arch seems to
point to the contemporaneous use of
the two styles at the period of the
transition, and has been the subject
of much controversy, and Mr. Britton

(Chronological History of Christian Architecture in England) says " The
cause is evident ; for those sides of the tower being much narrower thau the
east and west divisions, which are formed of semicircular arches, it became
necessary to carry the arches of the former to a point, in order to suit the
oblong plan of the intersection, and at the same time make the upper mould-
ings and lines range with the corresponding members of the circular arches."
Whether this be the cause or no, it is not easy to determine, but the two sets
of arches seem almost without question to be of the same age.

The choir, which is in continuation of this tower, is in three stories; the lower
part is in the Norman style, resembling some parts of Winchester cathedral.
On each side are five round-headed arches, ornamented with a billet moulding,
a peculiarity connected with which is that it is in some places carried over
the cap of the column to the next arch. The second story consists of a tri-
foriiuu of five arches corresponding with the lower story. Each opening is
divided into four by small columns and round-headed arches. On the south
side one of the openings is occupied by a beautiful oriel window, Fig. 10,
built by Trior Bolton (about 1500). Above the triforium is a clerestory of
pointed windows, and the piers are pierced longitudinally so as to form a
gallery all round the upper part of the choir. The roof is of timber and not
very remarkable in its construction or very handsome. The east end is of
modern workmanship by Mr. Blyth, who repaired the church lately, and
contains in the lower part a range of round-headed arches. In repairing this
part, the stone wall behind it was found to be painted in water colour of a
bright red spotted with black stars. ' We think it a great pity the church is
not so painted now, instead of the abundant supply of whitewash.

Behind the altar is a chamber, supposed by Mr. Godwin to be the chancel,
the interior of which well merits inspection, and which it is desirable should
be thrown open to the church.

The aisles are about twelve feet wide, arched in the simple Norman style,
lighted with windows of various dates. Over the south aisle is a school-
room, or vestry, containing a beautiful Norman arch. The vestry which is
attached to the south aisle seems to have been anciently an oratory dedicated
to the Holy Virgin."

The choir and aisles contain many ancient and interesting monuments, the
most remarkable of which is that of Prior Habere, the founder, which we
have selected for one of om* illustrations (Kg. 3, plate 11). "We find the
monument of the founder in the north-eastern corner, almost immediately
opposite the beautiful oriel window which Prior Bolton there elected, in
order, perhaps, that when he sat in it the home of the ashes of his illustrious
predecessor might be for ever before him. This is a work in every way
worthy of the man whom it enshrines. It is one of the most elegant speci-
mens of the pointed style of architecture, consisting mainly of a very highly
wrought stone-work screen, enclosing a tomb on which Raherc's effigy ex-
tends at full length. The roof of the little chamber, as we may call it, is
most exquisitely groined. At what period the monument was erected is
uncertain ; but the style marks it as of a later date than that of the founder's
decease. But it was most carefully restored by Bolton (about 1500), and
the fact is significant of its antiquity. As the latter found, no doubt a labour
Df love in making these reparations, so time itself seems to have seconded
his efforts, and to have shared in the hopes of its builders that a long period
of prosperity should be granted to it, by touching it very gently. Here and
there the pinnacles have been somewhat diminished of their fair proportions,
and that is pretty well the entire extent of the injury the work has experi-
enced. The monument, it must be added, is richly painted as well as sculp-
tured, and shows us the black robes of Itahere and of the monks who are
kneeling at bis side — the ruddy features of the former, and the splendid coats
of arms on the front of the tomb below."' There are also other monuments
of interest as those of Sir"Walter Mildmny, and Archbishop Waldcn, Lord High
Treasurer, remarkable for his patriotic resistance to the See of Rome.

As to the dimensions of the edifice great uncertainty prevails. .Mr. Cud-
win has given no measurement. Malcolm gives it as 138 ft. long, 60 ft.
broad, and about 10 high. Osborne as 132 ft. long, 57 broad, and 17 high.

■'• Churches ol London, by G. Godwin. Jun. and John Britton.

> Malcolm's Londinium Redivivum, Vol. 1. ~ Knight's London.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

381

WINDOW FOR A LUNATIC ASYLUM.

Sir — The humane treatment recently observed towards unfortunate indi-
viduals labouring under (he affliction of 'lunacy, rendered it necessary that
extensive alterations should be made in the establishments provided for their
reception, and in consequence, architects were invited to send suggestions for
the improvements of St. Patrick's Hospital, (Swift's.) in this city, and then
submitted by me, were approved. The most important arrangement was the
window, in which it was indispensable to obtain strength and proper ventilation,
without having any appearance of confinement, and if possible produce an
elegant and cheerful effect, proper provision being made for the easy repair
of them when requisite. In all these I succeeded, and as many of your
readers may be called upon to make similar alterations, my suggestions may
he of service; if you think so, I have sent you herewith a plan, elevation and
section of the window, to which you can give publicity. I may observe,
that I should have preferred having the window a little wider, but did no}
think it prudent to disturb the old arches, the windows being numerous,
thirty-one in each corridor, in a length of 300 feet.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your obedient servant,

Henry Hart, Architect.

86, Talbot Street, Dublin.

Plan.

DeS< I'.IITION.

The sashes are made of cast iron \\ inches thick, fixed in Memcl frames
in three parts, the centre one being immoveable ; the top and bottom sashes

are hung separately, are each 12 inches deep, and allowed to open to the
extent of G inches only, stops being fixed upon the frames to prevent their
opening wider. The pullies are placed above and below the opening points,
A A, Fig. 2, of the sashes, so that no ropes are perceptible; small rollers
are placed on the sashes to assist the action and to obviate the cross binding,
which frequently takes place in small sashes. A bracket is cast to the top
sash, through which a rod is placed, by which means the sash is opened.
B, in Fig. 1 ; and to ensure a perpendicular pull, eyes are cast on the centre
sash through which the rod passes, C C, Fig. 1. The rod is cranked at the
bottom to give freedom to the hand. The frames are made of 1} Memel.
and screwed together. Fixings, D D, Fig. 2, being left at the bottom to get
at the weights, and on the outside at the top, D D, Fig. 1, to remove the
upper sash, thus facility is given for immediate repair should it be required.
The old windows were casements with large square mullions; the sashes con-
tained each six squares, G inches wide and 10 deep. Perpendicular iron bars
were placed one to each light, and the windows being placed very high in
walls two feet six inches thick, very little light was admitted, and the cor-
ridors had a very gloomy appearance, they now present a cheerful aspect,
and form an elegant promenade. The cost of each window, including the
cutting of the openings, was about 4/.

ON THE ADVANTAGES OF EXTENDING INLAND STEAM
NAVIGATION IN INDIA.

India presents to the civil engineer and architect of this country an almost
illimitable fieid of action, and an interminable source of honourable and pro-
fitable employment. Its rivers, among the largest and noblest of the world,
and coursing plains redolent with all that life can require, are rendered inutile
and sometimes altogether valueless from the want of steam vessels and boats
suitable to their traffic. Its plains are impassable from the want of roads ;
its roads and nullahs are useless from the want of bridges; its mines are
useless from the want of talent to conduct them ; its best manufactured pro-
ducts are lost to the home market from the want of skill and machinery ;
and. in fact, in every department of agriculture, manufacture, and commerce,
the want of European talent and of the appliances of steam and steam
engines, railroads, foundries, and clever men to conduct them, is most dis-
tressingly felt throughout India.

We have acquired by our arms another portion of this vast country, to
which (heat Britain, in fertility and extent, cannot be compared ; and with
this acquisition additional inducements are held out to talent— additional
incitements to industry, on the expansive waters of the Indus, and the vast
plains which derive their extraordinary fertility from the presence of that
river: talent to direct the construction of suitable vessels, to open internal com-
munication, and to introduce the European arts and machinery, in order to
enhance the value of the rich and varied products of the earth. The country
traversed by the Ganges and its chief tributary, the Jumna, contains up-
wards of G0,000,000 inhabitants: it is intersected with navigable streams,
and the traffic, which is already very great, is annually increasing, as the arts
and manufactures of Europe become justly appreciated by the natives. We
are informed by Mr. Bell that the produce of the interior, in 1S3G-7, amounted
to 179,458 tons, valued at £6,327,995 ; and it is presumed that returns to at
least an equal amount were made in goods or specie : the annual traffic
on the Ganges may therefore be rated at more than 12,500,000 ster-
ling. A great portion of the trade is carried on by native boats dragged up
the river by human beings, a tedious, expensive, and unsafe mode of convey-
ance, rendered still more so from the vilely-constructed boats and dogged
indifference of their crews. Of steam boats, so essential to the free inter-
course of Europeans in this country, and so much desired by the natives,
there arc six only, which start at intervals of three weeks from Calcutta and
Allahabad. These steam boats belong to the Bengal government, and are
employed principally for the transport of troops and stores, their extra ton-
nage being disposed of by public auction in Calcutta ; and on the Gth April,
1841. the exorbitant price of £24 was paid by those who chose this most ex-
pensive mode of transit of their goods. This fact alone speaks volumes in
favour of an extension of inland steam navigation by members of the commu-
nity of this country ; for the great competition of European and native mer-
chants which leads them to pay this extraordinary price, is a convincing proo f
how much the extension of this mode of transit is required, and how exceed-
ingly profitable it would prove at half the above rates, to those who chose to
introduce them in numbers suitable to the demands of the market.

The transit of passengers by the steam boats on the Ganges has lately be-
come of great magnitude; and by this mode the interchange with Calcutta
and the great cities on the Ganges, Moorshedabad, Patna. Guazepoor, Be-
nares, and Allahabad on the Jumna, is found to be, even at the present high
rates, the most economical, as it is the most speedy. The natives of India, as
well as the European merchants and residents in Calcutta and in the interior,

382

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

are extremely desirous to adopt these as well as other European improve-
ments ; and it appears extraordinary that, in the depressed state of the iron
trade at home, capitalists have not been found to supply the requisite num-
ber of steam tugs and flat-bottomed vessels of iron fitted for navigating these
rivers in all seasons of the year, as well as for manufacturing machinery,
which is at all times in demand. For it must be borne in mind that, although
India possesses some of the richest iron mines in the world, she has neither
miners to work them, nor foundries to manufacture the prepared material ;
it is, therefore, to England alone she must of necessity look for her supply of
machinery and wrought iron.

The extent of traffic on the Indus is not so much known to us. Dr. Burns,
speaking of the advantages of opening a commercial intercourse with Scinde
proper, says, " Although the miserable poverty of the people of Scinde for-
bids the hope of mercantile interchanges to any extent with them, yet the
natural advantages of the country for commerce need scarcely be pointed out ;
security to trade and property is alone required to render the Indus the
medium of introducing our manufactures among vast nations, which, occu-
pying climates resembling our native land, would gladly welcome the pro-
ducts of British industry, and offer to the speculations of our ingenious and
enterprising countrymen ample encouragement and reward." In the preface
to his interesting narrative he observes, "In the end of 1835. Messrs. Med-
dle and Wood had the gratification of exhibiting to the astonished natives of
Hydrabad the first steam boat that ever entered the Indus. Vessels laden
with rich wares from Bombay and Moultan. have now hailed each other on
1s waters, and while bazaars of Western India ale already teeming with the
shawls of Cashmere, and the products of the Punjaub. received by the long
forbidden route, not only for private speculators, but in large investments
rom Maharaja Runjeet Singh himself."

There is abundance of coal in the several districts of Bengal, and in lieu
of coal, on the banks of the Indus, the •' jew ur," a species of wood abounds,
which, in the absence of coal, is found to be an excellent substitute ; there is
little doubt that coal will eventually be found in some of the extensive valleys
of this river.

An estimate of the expense of steam boats tells us that each iron steam
boat, with engines of 100 ii.r. including freight from England, and expencis
of putting together in Calcutta, with wood work complete, costs £12,000 ; an
iron flat (accommodation boat) capable of carrying 100 tons of goods and 30
passengers. £3000; the total expense being ,£l.r>,000; the profits may be
fairly estimated at 20 per cent.

It is to be hoped that the rivers of India, like those of America, will, jn a
few fleeting years, abound with these most useful auxiliaries to man's happi-
ness; and that with increased facilities of communication, corresponding im-
provements will take place in the cultivation and manufacture of the staple
commodities of this country. Articles, such as cotton and sugar, which to us
haw now become essential necessaries of life, and for the supplies of which
we have at present to depend upon foreigners, are but little valued at home
in comparison to the same kinds of produce coming from foreign countries,
simply because due attention has not been paid to their culture and manufac-
ture ; and although some slight efforts have been made by the East India
directors to introduce a better order of things, and some few Europeans have
embarked their capital for the same laudable purpose, yet, comparatively
speaking, little or nothing has been done; , lor much until

the means of communication from one pari i thil I i 1 continent to the other
have become more extended — until many of the fine old, ancient roads are
reopened and new roads are formed— until aqueducts, viaducts, and bridges
are built, steam boats crowd the broad, expansive rivers, mines are opened,
and foundries and factories are erected : all these objects may be gradually
attained by the employment of British talent, capital, and enterprise, thereby
increasing our own riches and prosperity, and at the same time administering
more immediately to the wants and desires of 150,000,000 of inhabitants of
India, who, as fellow-subjects, have a right to demand thus much otthe inha-
bitants of Great Britain— of that country which, for two centuries past, has
used its wealth, and diminished its internal resi

TO PREVENT DAMP PENETRATING THROUGH WALLS.

Some distinguished French chemists have lately directed their attention to
the means of excluding damp from the internal surface of walls. The fol-
lowing is a translation of some observations on the subject by M. M. Tlu'-
nard and D'Arcet. The experiments made by them were begun in 1813,
when M. Gros undertook to paint the cupola of the church of St. Genevieve
(then called the Pantheon). "The surface of the cupola had been previ-
ously prepared like a primed cloth : after the stone had received a coat of
strong size, a ground of white lead and drying oil had been superadded.'"
Fearing that this priming was not sufficiently firm, M. Gros came to consult
us. We did not hesitate to say it was far from safe. The moisture might

in time, we observed, act on the size, and a painting executed on such a
ground would consequently change. We came to the couclusion, that it
would be necessary first to saturate the stone as deeply as possible with an
unctuous substance, liquified by heat, and which, solidifying as it cooled,
would stop up the pores of the stone. We were strengthened in this view
by the authority of the ancients, who sometimes passed melted wax over the
surface of the walls which they intended to paint, and we were induced to
try a coating of wax and linseed oil, rendered drying by litharge. " After
some experiments on stones similar to those of the cupola, we were led to
prefer a composition, consisting of one part wax and three parts oil boiled
with one tenth of its weight of litharge. The absorption took place readily
by means of heat, and the liquid penetrated the stone to the depth of from
a quarter to half an inch. The composition as it cooled acquired solidity,
and in six weeks or two months became hard. Having made these experi-
ments, we proposed to adopt the same means on the cupola, and the opera-
tion was to be conducted as follows. The surface was first to be scraped,
so as to entirely remove the paint and size, and lay the wall bare, then by
means of a portable furnace, the whole superficies was to be heated, about a
square yard at a time, and the composition was to be applied at a tempera-
ture of 100°, with large brushes. The first application being absorbed, a
second was to be added, and so on till the stone should cease to absorb.
To promote the absorption the stone was to be warmed repeatedly ac-
cording to its porousness. In every case the heat ought to be as great as
possible, but not so as to carbonize the oil. At length the stone being
saturated to a certain depth with the composition, and the surface being
smooth and dry, it was to receive a coat of white lead mixed with oil; and
on this preparation the painting was to be executed. Our plan was adopted
and put in execution, and thus M. Gros was enabled to produce a new
niasterwork which could undergo no change, except that which light and air
might occasion. Drops of water like dew, which covered the whole surface
of the cupola, every morning at first alarmed the artist; the drops appeared
and disappeared without the slightest had consequence, and a trial of lf>
years has now dissipated all apprehension." A letter is then inserted from
Baron Gros, certifying that in the course of 15 years his work had under-
gone no change. The memoir goes on to state that four pendentives in the
same church, painted by Gerard, were prepared in a similar manner. In this
case the stone was so hard that the composition could not be made to pene-
trate more than one eighth of an inch. The result was however quite satis-
factory. The painting by Gros was first begun, as before stated, in 1813,
and has been n centlj examined with a view to its state of preservation ; it
baa been pronoun ed to be in a sound and apparently unchanged condition.
For ordinary purposes resin might be substituted for wax, the ingredients
then are one part of lithargi/.ed oil to two or three parts of resin. (Ap-
pendix to the second Ueport of the Commissioners of the Fine Arts.)

WIRE ROPES. '

Seam Wire Rape Works,

Gateshead, ->st/, Sept., 1813.

Sin — In your magazine for July in giving an account of the launch of the
" Great Britain " at Bristol, it is stated that she is to be rigged with wire
ropes made by a Mr. Andrew Smith; we beg to inform you that the wire
rigging used on board of her was manufactured by us some time previous to
her launch, and beg to annex a ropy of a note from T. K. Gappy, Esq., the
builder of the " Great Britain," which we will feel obliged by your inserting
along with this in your next number.

We are, Sir,

Your obedient servants.

K. S. Nkw.u.i. A Co.

Great Western Steam Ship Works,
Bristol, 5th Sept r, „/,<>, ■, 1843.
Gentlemen — In reply to your favour of the 2nd inst. I beg to inform you
tliat the whole of the iron wire rope used on board the Great Britain is of
your manufacture, and that I decided on adopting it after testing its strength
against other specimens.

I am, Gentlemen,
Messrs. R. S. Newall & Co. Your obedient servant

Gateshead. Thos. R. Cuppt.

1S-13.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

383

THE PHILOSOPHY OF CORAL FORMATIONS, AND THEIR

ARCHITECTS.

No. II.

According to the doctrine of the Pythagoreans and Platonists, there is
life in all things, the living principle being omnipresent and inseparable from
matter, regulating, modulating, and reconciling the various actions and
parts of this mundane system. This living principle is the electric fluid of
modern philosophers, being equally manifest in the living, the fossil and
mineral kingdoms, giving form and properties to all : thus plants are distin-
guished from minerals only from their flexile nature, which enables them to
multiply their parts and quantities to a certain extent without impeding the
action of the living principle : the line of division of the animal, the vege-
table and the mineral, is life, the link of life being one unbroken chain, com-
mencing with the, to us, invisible point, and ending in the beautifully com-
plicated mechanism of man: life in all being a measure of quantities and a
measure of motions, continually varying, and finally dissolved. The great
inherent property of organic life is to condense the elements, and to unite
them in fixed and definite proportions within the body as animal and vege-
table matter, which on the cessation of living action, becomes under many
new combinations, fossil and mineral matter. The living and the dead are
bound by the same chain of necessity for the preservation of foim and
quantity, and for the capacities, qualities, and powers which they severally
develop, cause depending upon cause, effect depending upon effect.

In the lowest development of life, plants and animals closely approximate
to each other in external character, the animal assuming the plant-Jike form,
and multiplying by involuntary action, as is manifest in millepores, sponges,
tubipora, and some species of coralline, and from thence distinguishable from
vegetable species by voluntary action. In these orders and in monas, the
line of demarcation as established by naturalists is removed ; the zoophytes
increasing by the vegetative process, their growth being perpendicular to the
plane of position, although not invariably so, for many species of coralline have
root, stem, and branch, the root increasing with the increase of the super-
structure. As life advances in the scale of organization, so the distinction
becomes apparent, until it becomes strongly defined, every advance in the
organical structure being indicated by the development of organs peculiar to
the animal, and explanatory of its habits and character.

Linnaeus observes, "all calcareous substances are most truly of animal
production ; therefore corallines consisting of that substance do certainly
belong to the animal kingdom :" but even admitting this to be true, it offers
very little assistance to us. when we attempt to classify oceanic animal and
vegetable life, as exhibited in the numerous species of naked polyps and sea
weeds. On the other hand, it requires no very great stretch of imagination
to suppose that plants having great absorbent powers and disposed very
often un a calcareous soil, or otherwise in waters holding in suspension car-
bonate of lime, should receive and retain within their system or become en-
veloped with a crust of this material.

Mr. Kllis, demonstrating the animal nature of corallines, tells us that the
softer and harder parts of zoophytes are so closely connected with one
another, that they cannot separately exist, being constituent, parts of the
same body, the polype-like suckers being so many mouths thereto. 'Ibis is
correct, as regards species having these suckers, and is equally applicable to
many of the stony corals, the suckers being the seat of sensation and volun-
tary action of all that part of the calcareous base which admits of the in-
gross and egress of the circulating fluid. The branchiform corals have their
suckers disposed at the extremity ol the branches and offshoots, and through
these alone the whole body receives its nutriment, and by their expanding
and contracting action and conducting powers of heat, the descent and ascent
ol the circulating juices is regulated. The cellular cavities covering the
mam trunk and branches lined with a membraneous substance bear no simi-
litude to the suckers disposed at the extremities, nor do they perform the
like diuies, but similate more to the respiratory vessels of plants, gradually
diminishing in size, and eventually when the entire form is developed, closing
nllo'-elher, leaving the trunk still accessible in all its parts, until the whole
lower portion consolidates, or it becomes entombed by increasing generations.
It is certainly a mistaken notion that every cell throughout the body
is the habitation of a polyp, for while we admit that animal matter pervades
the whole body, we can only admit it to be one body in entirety, increasing
and propagating through the instrumentality of its suckers which perform
the active duties, conducting the food into the main trunk and branches,
wherein it is elaborated into lime, gelatine, oil, phosphorus, and other peculiar
compounds, the b dy fixed and immoveable being the passive medium of
action, and receiving increasing size and solidity nom continued accession of
elaborated matters.

Ehrenberg tells us that tripoli, chalk, and other substances, when micros-
copically examined, display a cellular structure, the tenanted and untenanted
habitations of polypidoms ; and that every cell is undoubtedly the habitation

of a polyp living, maturing and generating, independent of those connected
with it. The radiate corals are of compound animal formation, the several
tentacuhe or suckers being one body, united at the base, and governed by the
one impulse; thus it is their growth is uniform and their form defined.
Each of these suckers forms during the period of its growth a series of cells
or joints, which communicating with the main body, accelerate the general
increase of the whole, and enatile the polyp to withstand more effectually
outward influences, and to propagate its species : the branched madrepores
are as previously observed, of plant-like growth, covered with cylindrical
turbinate pores, the whole compound body being one, and uniformly governed
by one impulse.

The polypous animal like the plant is the unconscious architect of its own
existence, both advance in the line of light and heat, and ramify into shoots
and branches according to their cellular composition and structure, both are
the unconscious agents of production and reproduction of peculiar ele-
mentary compounds, and botli perform an equally important part in the
economy of nature.

The very recent report of Mr. Edward Forbes on the Mollusca and Radiata
of the vKgean Sea, drawn up at the request of the British Association, con-
firms in a most remarkable manner the laws I have laid down as regulating
oceanic animal and vegetable life, in disposition, quantities, and qualities
illustrating the progressive development of species, habit and character, and
consequently the gradual development of the fossil and mineral kingdoms
He observes, that in eight distinct regions of depth, each presents its peculiar
association of species defined between 0 and 230 fathoms ; the most superfi-
cial of these, although the least extensive, having a depth of only two fa-
thoms, being most prolific of animal and vegetable life, and most various in
mineral character. The second region ranges from 2 to 10 fathoms, the
third from 10 to 20, the fourth from 20 to 35, the fifth from 35 to 55, the
sixth from 55 to 75, the seventh from 75 to 105, the eighth exceeding in ex-
tent all the others combined, ranging from 105 to the lowest depths explored,
and presenting a uniform mineral character throughout and peculiar fauna.
Certain species were found to range through several of these zones, and two
through all. It was found to be a law, that the extent of range of a species is
correspondent with the extent of its geographical distribution. On the other
hand, species having a very limited range in depth were found to be either
peculiar Mediterranean forms, or such as are extremely rare in the zKgean,
but abundant in more northern seas. The testacea of the /F.gean are for the
most part dwarfs, as compared with their analogues in the ocean, and the
number of medusae and zoophytes are comparatively small. Below the
fourth region in depth the number of animals diminishes as we descend,
until, in the lowest part of the eighth region the number of ttstacea leas found to
be only eight. In the upper regions the more southern forms prevailed,
wdnlst those of the lower zones presented a northern character, indicating a
probable, law, that in the distribution of marine animals, regions of depths are
equivalent to parallels of latitude. A corresponding succession and replace-
ment of forms by similar forms was discovered in depth. Each species at-
tains a maximum in development of individuals, and gradually diminishes in
numbers as we descend ; out before its disappearance in many genera, a re-
presentative species commences, attaining a maximum after the disappear-
ance of its predecessor, and then in like manner, diminishing to a minimum
and disappearing. Genera are in like manner, represented and replaced by
corresponding genera. This is equally true with vegetables as with animals.
Green luci were found as deep as 55 fathoms, and millepora extends its
range to 105 fathoms.

Within the waters of the Pacific Ocean several hundred thousand square
miles of habitable land have been formed or are now forming, through the
agency of gelatinous and lime-secreting polyps, aided by innumerable fami-
lies of shell fish, marine plants, and locomotive animals with which the
waters abound. Hills and chains of hills, mountains and mountain chains,
running alone the tidal lines gradually enlarge their summits as these waters
decrease, and for upwards ot 4000 miles not a single island occurs that is not
of coral formation. The great reef on the coast of New Holland extends
its uninterrupted course 350 miles, and forms a continuous line with others
to the extent of 1000 miles, varying in breadth from 20 to 50miles : the lower
plains of the vast continent of Australia have the l;ke origin, and throughout
the whole Australian seas there is scarcely one league without a coral reef,
rock, or island, raised from the lower depths by polypous animals, though
close to within the reef ihe sea is fathomless : thus the whole extent of this
portion of the ocean is rapidly filling up, and the main continent continually
enlarges its geographical area.

In the south sea, particularly to the eastward of the Friendly Islands, from
the 10th to the 15th latitude, a reef of coral surrounds the island of Ota -
heite rising like a wall from unfathomable depths. Palmerston island, the
islands of Tanea, Middleburgh, Tongataboo, Magea, and numberless islands
of the South Sea and Pacific Ocean are of like formations. The coral reef
and islands called the Maldives form a chain of 480 geographical miles in
length, running due north and south. The whole line of coast of Eastent
Africa, the island of Madagascar, and other islands scattered over the

384

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

Indian Ocean, owe their origin and increase to like causes. The islands of
the West Indies and vast barriers on the shores of the main land are coral-
line— the Persian Gulf and the whole of the Red Sea are both rapidly filling
up, the latter sea being at present barely navigable by vessels of large burthen
through a very narrow channel, and by far the greater portion of the main
continent of Africa and of Asia, including all the great deserts and mountain
chains intersecting them in various directions. Charles T. Bell supposes the
advance of land upon the gulf of Persia to be more than 280 miles since the
last catastrophe ; and all writers unite with him in supposing that great en-
croachments have, and continually are taking place in these latitudes. The
clay of the Euphrates contains an excess of sodium, and on either side are
immense deserts of sand, salt, bitumen, naphtha, magnesia, soda, and calca-
reous matter, while the hill chains dividing them, are wholly composed of
matters almost exclusively oceanic. At Cutch and the whole of the northern
shores of India, the land has encroached upon the sea to a vast extent; the
great Run, 7000 square miles in extent, is one sandy flat containing vast beds
ot salt, and the elevated tracks surrounding it demonstrate their origin. The
great deserts of Africa, Zaharah, Nubia, Lybia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
many others, stretching from the Atlantic through Asia, are exclusively
oceanic, the entire soil being sands and calcareous matters, beds and hills of
salt, chains of hills composed wholly of corals, balani, oysters, and numerous
species of shell fish, interspersed with vast accumulations of petrifactions,
and the skeleton remains of fishes. Approaching towards Europe the like
phenomena have been noticed so far back as the time of Diodorus, Pliny,
and Strabo : further proofs of the decrease of the waters are afforded, by the
fact of the drying off of large inlaid seas, thus the communication between
the Caspian and the Black Sea, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, have
been broken off, and the vast salt lakes of Russia are standing and incontes-
tible memorials of the seas retreating therefrom.

The Red Sea is most abundantly stored with coral formations, lime secre-
ting animals, fishes, animalcule and sea treed] i the vast shallows embracing
full three-fourths of its entire surface present to the eye of the naturalist
the stupendous workings of nature, and the primary causes of many effects
manifest in terrestrial earth. Sailing over them during the long continued
calms common to this sea, when not a ripple disturbs the surface of the waters,
which are bright and blue as the lake of Como, the eye is delighted with
the panoramic view beneath. Gardens abounding with animal flowers of
every hue, the red pipe coral, green meaudrina, black gorgania, and sponge,
purple, blue, yellow, white and brown madrepores and millepores interspersed
in clumps and groups with corallines and plants of the most delicate texture.
Plains covered with green verdure tenanted by Crustacea, turtles and fishes,
valleys covered with a white sand, partially hidden from the view by wings,
murices, sea eggs, sea snails, pens, star fish, and scarlet, soldier and
hermit crabs— elevated plateaux of pearl oysters— hills of cirrhipedes, and
chains of hills of reef coral, whose toweling summits sometimes resemble the
roofs of palaces and temples of the richest and most elaborate workmanship,
from which pedunculated cirrhi pedes and purple mussels are hanging in clusters,
while beneath, wide and magnificent portals open into caves of beautiful coral,
where the coral fish resplendent In azure and silver, and green and gold,
resort in numbers for their delicate food, cropping the equally gaudy animal
flower from its living hud. Above, the sea teams with its living mvriads of
phosphorescent anjmalculse, sharks, bonetas, dolphins, black fish, n
and numerous other species.

The calcareous matter covering the valleys and troughs is analogous to the
chalk deposits of the earth, consisting of the atomic particles, entire bodies,
and portions of bodies ol generation upon generation mixed with the di-
gested matter continually deposited by the living. The sands vary in their
nature and quantities, in localities being extremely fine, when formed by the
death and decomposition of young mollusca, which are thrown up in vast
abundance on some of the shores near which they are deposited by tin- pa-
rent ; and much coarser when they are produced by the decomposition of
murices, oysters, gigantic cockles, and other shell fish having heavy calca-
reous shells. The outward reels towards the ocean arc invariably consoli-
dated, consisting of the reef coral and various lime-secreting species enve-
loped in consolidated rising formation; the reefs always form along the tidal
line, and when the rising structure causes the tide to diverge right or left,
then, within the disturbed space the zoophytes cease to work, and an opening
is left of considerable width and depth, of much advantage to mariners,
who are thereby enabled to take refuge within the reefs during stormy wea-
ther. This outer reef presents a perpendicular wall to the tidal currents,
but generally has a gentle inclination towards shores with two or more pa-
rallel chains, thus from Mocha to Yambo there is a continuous reef, and for
upwards of 500 miles a tiiple chain of reefs is seen running parallel to the
coast, and to the mountain chains of Arabia bordering the sea. The inner
reefs are variably composed, their elevated parts being generally or the like
conformation of the outer wall, but the interior is sometimes filled by coral
banks heaped up by storms, consisting of broken coral sands and weeds;
upon these, in the long continued calms common to this sea, vast multitudes
of mollusca resort, which are buried in the next periodical disturbance, thus

stratum upon stratum is formed, until the bank tops the water, sometimes
cutting off vast tracks from the main ocean, which, when perfectly isolated,
soon become a portion of the desert. The reef is sometimes formed by the
united labours of numerous species of lime-secreting animals, separately
working in groups and families, or confusedly blending together and em-
bracing each other in the general ruin, the coral polyps enveloping all the
crustace;e and corallines, and the relics of the dead in their stony folds.
Many entire hills are formed by particular families, such as serpula contor-
tuplicata, balani, and white tube coral, and others are wholly formed of cal-
careous matters or sea weed, the whole united mass being one vast receptacle
of the dead, and so long as covered by the waters, one general birth place of
the living: the like phenomena of coral formations is common to all tro-
pical seas.

Mr. Dalrymple, who first drew attention to this important subject, observes,
that in the eastern seas, coral banks grow by a quick progression towards the
surface ; but the winds heaping up the coral from deeper water, chiefly acce-
lerate their formation into shoals and islands. They become gradually shal-
lower ; and when once the sea meets with resistance, the coral is quickly
thrown up by the force of the power breaking against the bank ; and hence
it is that in the open sea, there is scarce an instance of a coral bank having
so little water, that a large ship cannot pass over it, but it is also so shallow
that a ship would ground on it. The coral banks were observed by him in
all stages of growth, some in deep water, others with few rocks appearing
above the surface, some just formed into islands, and others covered with
land vegetation. Bars of sand and coral also form, cutting oil large portions
of the waters, the isolated portion being soon filled up by this material. The
violence of the waves, he observes, gives the direction and form to the reefs,
which are long and narrow ; but [when .not exposed to the common monsoon
they assume irregular forms, according to the accident of circumstances.
Such in truth is the origin of many coral banks ; but this mode of formation
cannot apply to those barrier reels and rock built islands which constitute
the by far greater portion of coral formations. It is true that all reefs re-
ceive increase by continued sedimentary depositions; but many of the inner
reefs of seas being beyond the action of the storms, are entirely built up by
the living architects, without the aid of broken coral and sands from deeper
waters : thus all navigators speak of these enormous barriers and local ac-
cumulations as presenting seaward a solid wall of limestone of unfathomable
depth, and such could not be the case were they built up by the sands and
broken coral alone.

Ihc analogous formations intersecting the earth in hill and mountain
chains of limestone, oolite and chalk, give correct ideas of the disposition and
shape of these reefs now forming within tropical seas ; the limestone has in-
variably one or more perpendicular faces, the same inclination pervading the
reef, the extreme height not exceeding 4000 feet: the chalk having also oc-
casionally one abrupt face, but being in many instances dome shaped ; the
larger formations generally running for a considerable distance in a direct
line, the smaller being grouped together, being as evidenced by their organic
remains formed in the shallows of warm and tranquil seas.

1 he Red Sea, as previously observed, is literally choked up w ith coral reefs,
sands, and embankments, composed of broken corals, shell fish, Ike. ; and the
lower depths are also rapidly filling up with the finer decomposed particles
of lime secreting animals, fuci and other organic remains ; since the days of
the Pharoahs, thousands of square miles have been abstracted from this sea,
from the Persian Gulf, and hundreds of islands have reared their crests far
above the surface of the waters. Sea port towns once accessible to vessels of
heavy burthen, are now lost in the distant desert plain, or are inapproachable
for miles. Ehrenberg tells us that the ancient harbours are filled up
with the debris washed into them by storms, but this is not the fact ; the
present sue of Yambo is on a recent coral reef,- from which the inhabitants
say the waters are continually receding. Djeddah is inapproachable by our
vessels for two or three miles, the solid coral limestone rock approaching in
all parts of this intervening space to the very surface of the waters, and
Lohheih, the great coffee mart, once a well frequented port, is inapproachable
for full five miles ; the coast on the Arabian side is bounded by continuous
reefs of recent coral, now standing from 20 to 00 feet above high water mark
and chains of lakes are formed both by this general decrease of the waters,
and also by accumulating sand banks. Beds of pearl oysters, and hills of
peculiar species of lime-secreting animals common to this sea, may be found
many miles inland. The accumulations of coral, sand, and calcareous matter
are of Incredible extent and thickness, embracing many thousand square
miles between the sea and the hills of Arabia and Africa. Few of the is-
lands are or can be inhabited, being desert soil, wholly devoid of vegetation,
with the exception of the amphibious mangrove, and a few stunted shrubs
and coarse grasses, and such plants that love a barren acrid soil : they arc
the resort of pelicans and other sea birds, whose dung sometimes covers the
surlace to a considerable extent. In consequence of the want of rain, these
islands continue bare and desolate from generation to generation.

The phenomena of coral reefs similate in a 1 parts of the ocean where they
are produced, but the after changes which take place on their surface depend

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

3So

on tlic nature of Uic latitude under which they are disposed. As in the Red
Sea, in the absence of rain, we find them for ever desolate ; so in the Pacific
and Southern oceans, wdiere the rains are frequent, the surface soil of the
islands soon acquires aptitude and power to produce vegetables, and to sus-
tain animal life, the acrid salts and other organical compounds being washed
into the waters or into the bowels of the earth, where they have united with
the free alkalies : thus the island no sooner tops the wave, than the cocoa
nut and other tropical plants cover its surface. In and throughout the
whole, the coral formations originate from similar causes in action, the lower
depths of the ocean fill up with sands, fuci, and naked polyps, upon this
basis the calcareous polyp builds, assisted in its labours by numerous species
of mollnsca, and furnished with material by the myriads of creatures living
and in death decomposing in the medium in which they are placed. Upon
the ruins of preceding existencics conchifera and mollusca dispose themselves
in groups and families, or are heterogenously united with the general body,
adding during the whole period of their existence and by their death to the
soil, and similating to the general body their elementary constituents, con-
tributing to form the one great whole, or general sum of earthy matter.
Donati speaks of the bed of the Mediterranean being filled up to the depth
of 800 feet with the calcareous bodies of the dead : what then must be the
depths of these deposits in tropical seas where species are infinitely more
numerous and diversified, and where lime-secreting polyps build from depths
unfathomable, filling up a geographical range many times larger than the
Mediterranean Sea.

Nor is it to the coral polyps alone that we are indebted for the formation
of islands and continents of the earth. Many localities of the deep are
overspread in vast patches with fuci, which as they generate, contribute to
fill up the void of waters by administering to the wants of numerous finny
tribes resorting to these submarine meadows, and by contributing to the di-
gestive process of those fishes, and, also in decomposition of their parts ad-
ding thereto. Again, the fecundity of many species is most amazingly great,
and were it not for the eternal warfare waged against each other, and the
numerous accidents to which they are subject, the whole ocean would speedily
become corrupt with the living of the dead: thus we are told that in
the ovula of a flounder of 2 oz. weight have been counted 133,407 eggs ; in
one of 24 oz. 1,357,400 ; herrings weighing from 4 to 5oz. from 21,285 to
36,960; lobsters from 14 to 36 oz. 21.699 ; mackerel of 20 oz. 454,967 ; stur-
geon of 160 lb. nearly 1,500,000; cod fish are supposed to spawn annually
9.000,000, and ling 19.248,625. Leuhenhoeck also tells us that a globular
body of one inch diameter of oyster liquor may contain 1,728,000 embryo
oysters, besides animalculae, 500 times less than the spawn. The Crustacea
are all exceedingly prolific, and advance rapidly to maturity, and in warm
tranquil seas the several varieties of shell fish are strikingly abundant ;
while throughout the aqueous medium fishes, animalculae. medusa?, and other
locomotive animals abound, and in their abundance contribute to fill up the
valleys of the deep, and to raise the submarine hills and mountains to the
surface of that element to which their operations are confined. Other causes
in action contribute to the ultimate result, the waters slowly disappear, and
the virgin soil which, from its base to its summit, as composed of the reliqua?
of the dead, becomes exposed to new influences, whereby its future character
is determined.

The number and variety of living species inhabiting the ocean, and by the
functional operations of life contributing to increase the consolidated matter
termed earth, is far beyond the imagination of man, and every species
from monas to the monster mammalia, derive their elementary constituents
from the medium in which they move, abstracting matter from the atmosphere
and from the waters, and maintaining form and characteristic properties
through the agency of light, heat, and electricity, becoming wholly or
partly in death a portion of the soil, and of those peculiar compounds gene-
rally disseminated through the waters. Of the food received within the
living system nothing is lost, one portion adds by secretion to the rising
strength and maturity of the body, and to the propagation of kind, and from
thence to decay, the remainder passing out by excretion or respiration ;
and as the nature of the aqueous medium and the elementary influences ex-
ercised therein determines the nature of the organic body, so does the nature
of the body determine the nature of the organic compound generated by living
action, and the sum of existence of species uniform in their parts and qualities
determines the nature of the formation produced by their combined opera-
tions. The consolidated atomic quantities, or the entire animal frame may
lose a portion of their elementary constituents, which volatilize and return
to the primary slate, or are disseminated through the waters ; but every or-
ganic body performs in its degrees the general operation of converting the
elements constituting air and water into consolidated matter, or into definite
results, in which their previous combinations are dissolved and new creations
arc formed belonging to the class of undecompounded bodies.

Oceanic species arc governed by the same laws of distribution as terrestrial
species, habitude being absolutely and indispensably necessary for the exis-
tence of particular orders, and for the full organical development and acce-
lerated growth of others, Coral formations like tropical forests flourish in

analogous latitudes, and if removed from those latitudes, they quickly diverge
into species by losing some of their characteristic properties, and if the
change be in the extreme the order becomes extinct : thus the pearl oyster
and other peculiar species of shell fish degenerate as they approach tempe-
rate regions, and many of the lime secreting polyps become divested of their
calcareous clothing when removed from the direct influence of light and
heat. All orders affect particular latitude, dip and inclination, and although
many, from their peculiar formation, are enabled to resist and overcome the
destroying influences of change, by adaptation of parts to that change,
others, and perhaps the more numerous, are of necessity confined to parti-
cular latitudes. As living beings all are subject to the like vicissitudes, the
one species, or the comminuted or consolidated parts of the many, being the
accident of production of other species, the one contending with and de-
vouring others, the tenure of existence being perpetual warfare, species
against species, life against life ; in death all unite in one vast social compact,
the devourer and the devoured contributing unconsciously to accomplish the
one vast magnificent end, the ultimate perfection and maturity of this planetary
body: living, they produce by their chemical and mechanical action, animal
and vegetable matters, earths, acids, gaseous and etherial fluids, all of which
by the unceasing generation of living beings as continually increase ; i
death nothing is lost, groups and families uniting to themselves countless
myriads, become the architects of beds, hills, and mountain chains, the finer
particles of bodies contribute with the reliqure of fishes to fill up the troughs
and valleys with marl, the sands are formed into sand banks, the fuci accu-
mulate in vast heaps, and uniting with calcareous matters pass into the
mineral kingdom as schistose rock or peculiar clay, and every organic body
contributes by its death to the formation of some one particular earth.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
May 16. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of an improved form of the Journals of the Axles for Rail-
ways." By Captain Elias Robison llandcock.

The paper commences by enumerating the principal disadvantages of the
common railway axles, noticing particularly, the great consumption of oil ;
the wear and tear, not only of the axles, but also of the boxes and the
brasses ; the oscillation occasioned by the wearing away in length of the
latter, producing destructive effects alike to the engine, carriages and rails,
as well as being disagreeable to the passengers. It then describes the new
form of axle, which it is contended is calculated to remove these evils. The
chief peculiarities of its form, consist in substituting for the abrupt shoulder
at either end of the journal, two cones ; the outer one, which is loose on
the axle, is capable of being forced forward by a screw on the extremity ; it
is prevented from revolving on the journal by means of a tongue, and is se-
cured by a screw nut, and key. The two anti-friction collars of hard brass,
which take the places of the ordinary journal brasses, are about three-eighths
of an inch iu thickness, and are fitted on the journal sufficiently loose to en-
able them to turn freely in the bored cast-iron boxes which support them ;
these collars extend over both the cones and along the journal till their ends
meet within about a quarter of an inch in the centre, and acting as an inde-
pendent moveable power between the journal and the cast-iron box into
which they are fitted, they reduce the amount of friction when it becomes
greatest. Among the advantages derived from this new form, are the uni-
form smooth and steady motion, consequently reducing the wear and tear ;
allowing the collars to be at all times tightened, avoiding the lateral action,
which is detrimental to the carriages, and to the line of rails; the smaller
consumption of oil ; one pound of oil being found sufficient to lubricate a
six-wheeled engine and four-wheeled tender, while running a distance of
nearly 1000 miles, and the absence of any tendency to heat. The paper
concludes, by expatiating on the benefits already found by experience to
result from their use.

Remarks. — Captain llandcock exhibited the journal of a common railway
axle, with its box and brasses, which had been in use, and pointed out that
the principal abrasion had taken place at the ends, that a new brass for the
same journal would require to be nearly an inch longer, and therefore, that
the oscillation of the carriage must necessarily be great, whenever the
brasses began to wear. He explained that it was usual, in order to save the
expense of new brasses, to weld an iron ring upon the journal against the
collar, and showed one, which had worn such a cavity in the end of the
brass, as to bury itself completely within it. it appeared also that there
was much wear both on the journal and in the box, and that unless an axle
possessed the means of having its brasses tightened up endways, oscillation
and abrasion were inevitable. A journal and its cones of the improved form,
which had run over 21,000 miles on the Southwestern Railway, exhibited

52*

380

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

no visible amount of abrasion, and Captain Ilandcock contended that the
practice confirmed his previous ideas.

Mr. Field thought the form of the axles a decided improvement. They
were somewhat on the principal of those which had succeeded so well for
common roads, and he believed that they must prove of considerable advan-
tage for railways.

Mr. Fairbairn approved of the construction of the journals, and had no
doubt of their practical efficiency; he particularly liked the cones, as in ad-
dition to their affording the means of preventing lateral motion and dimi-
nishing the friction, their form added strength to that point near the shoulder
where it was most wanted.

Captain Handcock stated that the average consumption of oil on railways,
was for an engine and tender with common axles and brasses, about 6 lb. for
110 miles ; of this quantity, 2 lb. were used for lubricating the axles.

General Pasley observed that bis attention had been drawn to these axles,
and although on account of his official position, he scrupulously avoided
giving any opinion on the merits or dements of an invention, yet he might
say that if he was a proprietor of a railway, such was his opinion of Captain
Haudcock's axles, that he certainly would give them a trial.

" On the application of Zinc by the process of Electro-deposition, for the
preservation of Iron, as applied to Engineering and other purposes." By
Frederick Pellatt.

The object of the paper is to direct attention to the properties of zinc as
a protecting coating for iron ; to describe the processes already employed for
that purpose ; the reasons of their failure, and the peculiar fitness of the
process of electro-deposition of metal for the purpose. Iron is, it is stated,
from its superior affinity for oxygen, liable to rapid decomposition, and it
has ever been a desideratum to discover some cheap mode of protecting it ;
the ordinary methods of painting aud tinning uot being sufficiently lasting.
By the laws of electricity, when metals are in contact, the negative metal is
protected at the expense of the positive : and under all ordinary circum-
stances zinc being the positive metal, it becomes a protector to the negative
metal — iron. Zinc, like most metals in commerce, is not to be met with
pure ; in the other metals, however, the impurities do not generally tend to
the injury of the metals with which they arc combined ; such, however, is
not the case with zinc and its impurities, as when in contact with moisture,
they generate a galvanic action by which the zinc is rapidly destroyed. Those
who have made use of zinc, especially where it has been exposed to exciting
fluids, such as milk, or any other fluid easily converted into acid, are well
aware of the rapidity of its destruction. The impurities existing in ordinary
zinc are then noticed, as well as the difficulty and costliness of the process
uf sublimation, in order to refine it. It is also contended that impure zinc
being in itself so easily destructible, is of little value, as it cannot afford
protection to any other metal which may be coated with it : and therefore
the mode of plating iron with melted zinc (of commerce!, must be objec-
tionable.

The Report made to the French Academy by Monsieur Dumas, is quoted,
in which he says : " the zincing of iron by steeping it in a bath of melted
zinc, has many inconveniences : besides, the iron combining with the zinc,
constitutes a very brittle superficial alloy, the iron losing its tenacity. The
presence of foreign matters used in the process, in order to keep the zinc in
fusion, increases the amount of impurity, and being less fusible than the
zinc, a great loss is created in consequence of the zinc volatilizing at a high
temperature. It is well known that in the dtposition of metals from me-
tallic salts by the electro-process, the pure metal only is deposited, so that
the process described in the paper, is not open to the objections against
ordinary metallic coatings. The iron also being coated with zinc in a cold
solution, its state is in no way changed. The expense of the process is stated
net to exceed that of four coats of oil paint.

Though to men of science the properties of zinc in connexion with other
metals have been well known, (and the opinion of Drs. Graham, Kane,
Daniel, and Monsieur Dumas, are quoted on the subject,) yet practically this
knowledge has not been much applied, chiefly from the difficulty of obtaining
pure zinc. The electro process, it is stated, entirely overcomes the diffi-
culty; at the same time it affords facilities for covering iron-work of any
form or size, and as it requires no great outlay, the process may be carried
on in any locality. Zinc has another great advantage : although it is easily
oxydized, the oxyde in ordinary circumstances is insoluble, and affords a
protection to the metal below. For roofing and many other purposes, of
which a long list is given, it is suggested that zinced iron would be found
very useful.

Remarks. — Mr. F. Pellatt exhibited a number of specimens of iron covered
with zinc and copper by the process of electro-deposition, which he de-
scribed. The pieces of iron were first rendered perfectly clean and free from
oxyde by plunging them into a bath of heated sulphuric acid and water : they
were then placed in a cold solution of sulphate of zinc. The positive pole
of a galvanic battery being attached to a zinc plate, and the negative pole to
the piece intended to be covered with metal, the deposition commenced
equally all over it, and was continued as long as was considered necessary.
By this process the pure metal alone could be deposited, and the amalgama-
tion of the zinc and iron, which occurred when the iron plates were dipped

into melted metal, was avoided. For zincing, he preferred an acid to an
alkaline solution of the metallic salts. Some thin plates, which had been ex-
posed for eight months, on roofs iu London, did not exhibit any appearance
of rust. The process could be applied on any scale, as all the apparatus that
was necessary was some wooden troughs to contain the solution and the
pieces of metal to be covered. He had not made accurate experiments as
to the efficacy of the process, when applied to iron exposed to the action of
sea- water, but he feared the result, on account of the formation of muriate
of zinc.

The President said the subject was one of great importance to engineers,
as if the deposited coating was found to stand the test of time, it would
enable the use of iron to be extended ; but the main point to which he
would direct Mr. Pellatt's attention was the defence of cast-iron from the
destructive action of sea water.

May 28. — The President in the Chair.

" Account of some Egyptian Bricks from the Pyramids of Dashoor"
By J. 1'erring. Communicated by William Newton, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The author states that the ancient Egyptians used bricks for every'purpose,
except for the erection of temples and tombs ; that they were generally
crude bricks dried in the sun, and in the dry climate of Egypt they sufficed
for all ordinary purposes. The only instances in which he found they had
been subjected to the action of fire, were for a quay-wall, aud for the found-
ations of a town near the Nile in a damp situation. From the drawings in
the tombs, and the narrative of Holy Writ, it would appear that the captives
were generally employed in manufacturing bricks, and as many are found
with the name of the reigning monarch stamped upon them, it is not im-
probable that they constituted a government monopoly. It is a curious fact
in connexion with the Biblical account of the labours of the Jews, that more
bricks bear the stamp of Thothmes III. than of any other monarch; and
according to Wilkinson and other learned authors, it was during bis reign
that the exode of the Israelites took place.

The bricks, which are 16 in. long, 8 in. wide, and about 5 in. thick, are
made of the alluvial soil of the valley of the Nile, mixed up with chopped
straw to bind the whole together. They were formed in wooden moulds,
and dried in the sun. It would appear from drawings, that the earth was
tempered and the straw was mixed in, by men treading the mass with their
feet. With such bricks as these the Egyptians formed the walls of their
towns, using the alluvial earth also as mortar. The author states that he
found some remarkably well. formed arches, of 12 ft. to 1-1 ft. span, built in
concentric half-brick rings, at Thebes, the bricks of which were marked with
the name of Scsostris ; consequently they must have remained uninjured by
time upwards of 3,180 years. They all have a cavity in the sides to retain
the mortar, similar to what is practised in modern bricks.

The pyramid from whence these bucks were taken, was built, according
to Herodotus, by a king named Asychis, who lived about 2000 years before
the Christian era. The body of the pyramid is composed entirely of crude
brick, but it bad an external casing of limestone as a protection from the
action of the weather. The author says that not a single brick appears to
have settled from its place, aud that it is difficult to imagine a mass more
solid and compact, iu spile of the great pressure the bricks had to support
in a pyramid of 215 feet high.

Deposit in Pipes from a Brewery.

Mr. Davison presented a piece of copper pipe, 0 in. diameter, through
which the wort bad been forced during a considerable period, at Messrs.
Truman, llanbury, and Co.'s brewery. It was nearly stopped up by a de-
posit of a black substance, which opposed such resistance to the passage of
the fluid as to induce an examination of the pipes, and the discovery of their
state.

Dr. Ure said that the deposit was a good example of what Lcihig called
" Ereniacausis " — product of slow combustion. The substance was a carbo-
naceous matter, resulting from the slow combustion of the gluten and starch
contained in the brewers' worts.

May 30. — The President iu the Chair.

Corrosion of Iron and Steel.

" On the action of Air and Water, whether fresh or sail, clear or foul,
and at various temperatures, upon Cist and Wrought iron, and Steel." By
Robert Mallett, M. Inst. C. E.'

The author iu this paper gives the completion of his researches upon this
subject, on which he has been engaged for nearly five years, during the in-

1 This paper, which forma the continuation of the ctmmunication which
nas read I elorr tin- Institution, May 26, 1840, (Minutes of Proceedings,
Journal, Vol. ill., p.i'li,) occupied the attention of the meetings on t»o
eve ings.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

387

tervals of professional avocations. The experiments, originally undertaken at
the request of the British Association, had reference merely to the action of
air and water on iron, in various states and under several conditions ; but in
the progress of research, the author has extended the investigation to many
other connected branches of practical importance, such as the several modes,
or assumed modes, of protecting iron from corrosion, in which he has pro-
posed improved methods dependent upon known principles, which are deve-
loped at length, and which appear likely to be of great importance, in rela-
tion to the circumstances affecting the durability and corrosion, whether
general or local, of iron ships, to which he has devoted much attention.
The protective powers of various paints and varnishes have also been deter-
mined in many conditions, and the peculiar circumstances of corrosion pre-
sumed to attach to railways bars, are partially investigated.

The main numerical results of these investigations are given in two vo-
lumes of Tables, which show on inspection the absolute and relative losses
by corrosion, in given times, and under six several conditions of experiments,
on nearly all the various qualities of cast and wrought iron, and steel, made
at the most important works in Great Britain. During the experiments, the
metals were exposed at two several periods of 387 days, and of 732 days
respectively, to the action of —

1. Clear sea water, at temp. 56° to 58° Fahrenheit.

2. Foul sea water „ ditto.

3. Clear sea water ,, 110 to 125 ditto.

4. Clear river water „ 32 to 68 ditto.

5. Foul river water „ 36 to 61 ditto.

6. Freely exposed to the atmosphere, and its precipitations, at

Dublin.

Tables are also given containing the amounts of corrosion of cast and
wrought iron, in sea and fresh water.

1. When coated with zinc, or galvanically protected by its contact.

2. When painted and varnished in various ways.

3. When in contact with various definite alloys of copper and zinc, and

of copper and tin, as in brass and gun metal, which are both elec-
tro-negative to iron in water.

4. Of cast iron, with the surface variously modified by the method of

coating, as by chilling, &c, or with the surface or coat removed by
planing.

5. Of the specific gravities, rigidly ascertained, of all the specimens of

cast and wrought iron and steel, experimented on, and determina-
tions, for the first time made, of the changes in density, produced
by casting iron under a variable head of metal, and of the effects
on density of changes in the mass or bulk of castings in iron ; all
which, the author has shown, affect the ratio of corrosion of a
given sort of cast iron.

These tables, which the author intends to contain the chief information
requisite for the engineer, to enable him in practice to allow for the loss of
his structures by corrosion in any given time, and to choose the most desi-
rable irons, &c, are followed by others, which condense into one view the
whole results arrived at. and fit them for practical reference.2

Another principal object held in view in the tabulation of these results,
and effected by the author, was by discussion of their contents to discover
upon what variations in the texture, density or chemical constitutions of the
metal, maximum and minimum corrodibility under given conditions de-
pended ; for this purpose numerous exact analyses of the cast and wrought
iron, &e„ of maxima and minima corrosion, became requisite. These have
been made by the author, and are given in separate tables, together with the
details of the methods adopted for obtaining correct results ; a matter of
admitted difficulty in the case of the analysis of iron.3 These analyses show

- These tables are not susceptible of abstract, but they are being prepared
for publication in the forthcoming volume of the Transactions of the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers.

3 The author thus describes the mode of analysis practised by him : —
" The method adopted by me, in most cases, was a modification of Reg-
nault's process, which consisted in mixing the east iron, finely pulverized,
with about twelve times its weight of chromate of lead properly prepared,
and mixed with a little chlorate of potash. This is burnt in an ordinary
combustion tube, in the remote extremity of which some dry powdered chlo-
rate of potash is placed, and heated after the combustion has been completed,
so as to pass a current of oxygen over the ignited mass. This precaution is
indispensable with the harder and denser irons, containing most of their
carbon in combination. The total amount of constituent carbon is thus ob-
tained, and weighed as carbonic acid: but this consists of graphite and of
combineil carbon. By a separate assay, the graphite is obtained, on solution
of a weighed portion of the metal in nitric acid, as residue, consisting of
graphite, extractive matter (from the carbon of combination) and silica, and
occasionally some oxydes of combined metals. The residue is filtered and
washed, boiled in caustic potash, by which the silex and extraction are taken
dp. The graphite remains: it is ac;ain washed with dilute muriatic acid,
theu with water, and weighed after drying. The difference between this and
ihe total amount of carbon given by the combustion is equal to the carbon
of combination.

" For the other constituents, after a preliminary qualitative trial, about
120 grains of the cast iron were dissolved in nitric acid, evaporated to
dryness with a strong heat, and ignited in a platiua crucible with three and

that corrodibility does not depend upon the proportion of constituent carbon
in cast iron, and still less upon that of the ether foreign matters usually
found in it; but upon the stale in which carbon exists in the compound;
upon the state of aggregation of the whole mass; upon the density, and
upon the voltaic uniformity, or otherwise, of the surfaces exposed to corro-
sion. Thus the same sort of cast iron corrodes much faster, in given condi-
tions, if cooled irregularly, and faster than it does when cooled uniformly
and slowly.

Hot or cold blast produces very little difference iu corrodibility of cast
iron, and this results chiefly from difference in density; recollecting that
carbon exists in cast iron iu two very different states, viz., as diffused gra-
phite in a crystallized form, and as combined carbon ; that the dark grey
and softer irons contain more of the former, while the harder and brighter
irons have more of the latter; that the latter kind have much less uniformity
of surface, when cast under similar conditions, than the former; while the
highly graphitic irons, though more uniform in large specimens, are the least
dense and softest in texture — we arrive hence at the ultimate choice that
the bright grey irons of high commercial value, while they are in all, other
respects the most useful for construction, are also the most durable when
exposed to the action of air and water. The second prolonged period of
immersion of all the specimens was necessary, in order to determine the "law
of progression of corrosion, with respect to time." The author finds that
where the coat of oxyde and of carbonaceous matter or plumbago formed,
is constantly removed from the surface of cast iron exposed to corrosion in
air and water, the progression of the latter is a decreasing one, because as
the metal is removed, the inner portions become more uniform in texture,
and fewer minute voltaic couples are formed ; but where the oxydes and
plumbago remain untouched, these being both electro-negative to the metal,
nearly equilibriate the effect of the regular texture ; and thus the rate of
corrosion remains uniform, or is nearly in direct proportion to the time of
reaction. This is demonstrated experimentally, and is most forcibly exhi-
bited in corrosion by sea water. Hence in practice, cast iron immersed
without any protection, will corrode less if occasionally scraped and cleaned;
or if in a tide- way, than if untouched and in still sea water.

The rate of corrosion, as dependent on the metal itself, is a minimum
when the cast iron is most uniform and hard, and free from suspended gra-
phite, and as dependent upon the water in which it is immersed ; is a maxi-
mum in foul sea water, and a minimum in clear river water, both being at
mean temperature, and containing nearly the same volumes of combined air
and carbonic acid. The kyanized oak boxes, 2 in. in thickness, in which the
specimens were immersed in Kingston Harbour, were eaten through in about
two years by the limnoria terebrans. Cast iron freely exposed to the weather
at Dublin, and to all its atmospheric precipitations, was corroded nearly as
fast as if in clear sea water, when the specimens in both cases were wholly
unprotected.

The results of experiments on wrought iron and steel, show that they con-
sist of two or more different chemical compounds, coherent and interlaced, of
which one is electro-negative to the other. The electro-positive body being
that which suffers first from corrosion, the electro-negative portions of the
iron and steel remain bright, and hold a perfect metallic lustre until the
whole of the other portions are removed, or at least are so to a great depth,
when they begin likewise to oxydate. In general the finer the quality of
wrought iron, and the more perfectly uniform its texture, the slower and
more uniform is its corrosion in water; minute differences in chemical con-
stitution produce little change in this respect. Highly silicious wrought
iron, however, corrodes very locally, and appears to be partially defended by
a thin coat of silex formed on it. Fagoted scrap bars, made from best Staf-
fordshire rivet iron, was found of all the irons experimented upon, to be the
most durable ; next to this was Low Moor boiler plate, and it is thence pre-
ferable for iron ship building. Foul sea water, evolving sulphuretted hy-
drogen, gives the maximum corrosion of wrought iron and steel. The con-
tact of soft putrifying mud appears to be still more destructive. Steel gene-
rally corrodes more uniformly and slowly than wrought iron. Hardened

a-half times its weight of carbonate of soda. After cooling, water is poured
over it, which carries off the excess of alkali and an alkaline phosphate or
sulphate, if the iron contained sulphur, which should lie ascertained before-
hand, leaving the peroxide of iron to be separated by filtration. The filtered
liquor must now be bailed for some time to destroy the manganesiate of
potash in solution, and precipitate the manganese; again filtered, nitric acid
added, evaporated to dryness, and silicic acid separated, if any exist, on
heating with water, after moistening with acid in the usual way. Ammonia
is now cautiously added, and if the iron contained aluminum, a basic phos-
phate of alumina precipitates. The solution, again filtered, is acidulated
with acetic, and the phosphoric acid precipitated by acetate of leal. From
the phosphate the phosphoric acid cannot be estimated with certainty ; it
was therefore converted into sulphate of lead, and the phosphoric acid got
from its weight.

" The silex and manganese were always obtained by precipitation from Ihe
iron, 8k„ in separate assays; the method with benzoate. or succinate of
ammonia, though inconvenient, is one of the best where the amount of iron
is considerable. Leibig's process of separation, by boiling with carbonate of
baryles, succeeds very well, and presents no difficulties; but whin the
amount of manganese is so very small in proportion to the iron, I preferred
the former mode. The iron itself, from its inconvenient bulk, was generally
estimated from the other constituents. SeparaJe assays are also best made
for sulphur or earthy bases; but as far as my observation goes, these are
extremely rare in British cast-iron.

388

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

cast steel, after " tilting," has the average minimum corrosion, and low
shear steel, which is in fact a sort of steely iron, has the maximum.

The author has made researches on the nature of the peculiar carbona-
ceous substance which he has called " plumbago," formed by the decompo-
sition of cast iron in sea water, and in other conditions, and also occasionally
from wrought iron and steel, and on the other organic products of such de-
compositions. His reasonings tend to show, that this plumbago in part re-
sults from the decomposition of carbonic acid in solution in the water, and
is therefore highly interesting to the chemist, as an instance of crystallized
carbon being so formed. The rust produced by the prolonged action of air
and water on iron, is brown haematite; and omitting all minute or accidental
constituents of the iron, its formula is 2 Fe2 03 + 3 HO, more or less mixed
with spathic iron ore = Fe 0 x CO2. When very old, these lose water, and
become " fer oligiste," or anhydrous peroxide. The author then discusses
the conditions most and least favourable to corrosion in marine steam-boilers,
with reference to the degree of saline concentration, boiling temperature,
&c, of the sea water; and gives tables of the saline contents at various
stages of concentration. Sea water, to act least on boilers, should be heated
to 190° Fahrenheit, and be deprived of air before entering as feed water,
and the less concentration takes place, the less will be the amount of corro-
sion. The tables of the amounts of corrosion of cast iron, in contact with
definite alloys of copper with tin and zinc, are now extended to wrought iron.
The corrosion of this is accelerated by the contact of either brass or gun-
metal in sea water, but more so by the latter than by copper. He confirms
his previous results that, except in atmospheric air, a coating of zinc, or
contact of zinc in a massive form, affords to cast or wrought iron only par-
tial protection from corrosion.

In foul sea water, the zincing is converted into artificial blende = (Zn + Fe
+ S). Elkington and Ruolz's zincing process he finds capable of many
useful applications for iron exposed to air, but he questions its efficacy in
water, or where there is abrasion. Zink paint he states to have been found
the most durable of all the paints and varnishes tried, except coal-tar laid
on hot, and the asphaltic varnishes. The author then enters largely into
many questions relative to the corrosion and fouling of iron ships, applying
to them the laws he had previously deduced. Based on the known effects
of a slightly alkaline solution in preventing corrosion, he proposes lime-
water to replace bilge-water, and thus to prevent internal corrosion in iron
ships. He describes his prolonged experiments on the means of preventing
their external corrosion and fouling, and the details of his methods of pre-
venting both. These consist in coating the plates with an alloy of zinc with
mercury, and a very minute portion of the base of cither of the alkalies.
The coating is effected by peculiar methods to ensure perfect uniformity;
and the principle of protection is, that the alloy produces by the first action
of a menstruum, a surface of amalgamated zinc which is insoluble. This
coating is protected by an asphaltic varnish, to prevent the contact of the
slightly soluble poisonous paint, with which the ship's hull is payed over to
prevent fouling. Several metallic salts are fitted to act as poisons to the
molluscous and testaceous animals which infest ships' bottoms ; but the
author's experience leads him to prefer oxychloride of copper, which is, in
fact, the salt formed on common copper sheathing, and which by its poi-
sonous qualities keeps it clean.

The author's method has been in use for some time on vessels which have
made voyages to the tropics, and its usefulness in preventing fouling, Sic.,
has been fully proved. He discusses and explains the errors which have
been made as to the non-corrosion of ships kept in motion, and shows that
corrosion docs take place, but that it is not so perceptible as when the ship
remains at rest. He shows that magnetism has nothing whatever to do with
the amount of corrosion in iron vessels, and also discusses at length, various
contingent circumstances promoting partial corrosion in iron ships : the
nature of cargo, the mode of fastening the machinery, the contact of boilers,
of various timbers, and of the same when decayed, &c. ; all of which are of
practical importance to the iron ship-builder or marine engineer. Kyanized
timber is rapidly destructive of iron, in contact with it ; in sea water it more
than doubles the rate of its corrosion. After giving a table containing the
numerical values, for iron ship-building, of a number of qualities of British
wrought iron, the author proceeds to discuss in detail the principal methods of
protection for iron, which have been recently promulgated by Berry, Neilson,
Shore, Elkington and Koulz, Hall of Bermondsey, Crawford and Fountain-
Moreau, all of which are patented ; but none of them, except that of El-
kington and Uuolz, are, he contends, proved to be of practical value in the
conditions above mentioned.

Lastly, he states that as uniform corrosion cannot be ensured in the case
of iron ships, and as local action is liable to produce fatal accidents at un-
looked-for moments, protection from corrosion and fouling, must be consi-
dered essential to the safety of iron ships ; if so protected, the author con-
tends that they are safer in every respect than the best vessels constructed
of timber. He also gives instances from various authorities of the rapidity
with which foulness accumulates on ships' bottoms, even of wood, and more
so if of iron, and dissents as to the possibility of removing the fouling of
iron ships by any scraping process, unless performed in the dry dock, and
constantly repeated.

l| The communication concludes with some observations, as to the presumed
differences in the rate of corrosion, between railway bars in use and out of
use, or traversed in one or in both directions. Upon this subject the author
has experiments in progress on several railways, and expects at a future time to

lay the results, as to the amounts of loss by corrosion and abrasion, before
the Institution ; at present his belief is that railway bars, being otherwise in
the same condition, corrode alike, whether travelled over or not.

Remarks. — Dr. Ure said that the part of Mr. Mallet's paper which was
most interesting to chemists, was the mode of analysis. This was always a
subject of delicacy, difficulty, and labour. His own mode of analyzing cast-
iron was somewhat analogous to that which had been described. He took a
portion of iron, reduced by filing to a fine powder, mixed it with the same
quantity of chlorate of potash, and five or six times its weight of clean sili-
ceous sand, to dilute the mixture : this was heated in the usual way, in a
combustion tube with more chlorate of potash, whereby all the carbon con-
tained in the iron was converted into carbonic acid, which was passed through
a solution of the sub. acetate of lead, instead of potash water. Carbonate
of lead was thus produced, and its amount, when washed and dried, gave the
quantity of carbon in the iron operated upon, 134 parts of carbonate of lead,
indicating 6 parts of carbon ; therefore -j-^th of a grain of carbon might be
detected by this method. The question as to the state in which the carbon
existed in the iron was more difficult of solution. Karsten's mode of deter-
mining this point was very delicate and accurate : the pulverized iron was
mixed with moistened chloride of silver, which acted upon the metallic iron
alone, leaung the carburet of iron untouched, and its amount could thus be
determined with great nicety. With white iron which could not be filed,
the chloride of silver was formed into a mass. A disc of it being placed at
the bottom of a vessel with a little water over it, the piece of iron was laid
upon it; a few drops of muriatic acid were then added, and in eight or ten
days the iron was dissolved, leaving untouched the carbon, which existed in
the form of graphite.

Mr. Williams agreed in the advantage of preventing the corrosion of iron
vessels, but he feared the expense of the mode proposed by Mr. Mallet, par-
ticularly as at present, although comparatively unprotected, they were very
durable. He instanced particularly the light boats on the river Shannon,
which, although constructed of very thin iron, and had been at work between
six and seven years, exhibited no signs of decay.

Mr. Uendel said that the durability of iron canal boats was well known.
On the Tavistock canal, there now existed some boats which had been em-
ployed for 25 years in carrying coals, iron, and copper ores, or other goods,
and yet they were not extensively corroded.

Mr. Field stated, that although in India iron generally corroded rapidly,
the iron vessels that had been sent there, did not appear to be affected
sooner than in England. He had been informed by Mr. Laird, that the
boilers of the Garry Owen iron steamer, had been renewed twice in nine
years, and on every occasion it had been remarked, that although the bot-
toms of the boilers were entirely destroyed, the iron plates of the bull of
the vessel immediately beneath them retained their original coat of paint,
and were not at all corroded.

Mr. Jordan suggested the probability of the hull of the vessel being pro-
tected at the expense of the boilers, on account of the electric character of
the metal being altered by the heat of the boiler, and the general circum-
stances induced.

Mr. Field said that the boilers in question had lasted as long as they would
have done on board a timber-built vessel.

Mr. Williams corroborated .the statement. The boilers had worn out in
the regular time, and bad failed first in the usual spot, which was the bent
plate, where the sides joined the bottom. There was not any thing remark-
able in the wear of the boilers.

Dr. Ure thought that the heat of the boilers having probably been suffi-
cient to dry up any moisture from beneath them, might have tended to pre-
serve the hull of the vessel from corrosion in that spot. It was easy to ac-
count for a less degree of corrosion taking place in iron ships, or on rails of
railways, as long as the former were constantly kept moving, and the latter
were regularly travelled over. In these cases any oxydation which took
place was rubbed off as it was formed; but if either were in a state of in-
activity, the scale of rust permitted an accumulation of moisture beneath it,
an active galvanic pile was completed, and oxydation went on with increased
rapidity.

Mr. Vignoles remarked that the paper did not notice the iron water-tight
hulk-heads for vessels, which had been introduced by Mr. C. W. Williams.
Their practical utility was now generally admitted, and he believed they were
about to be adopted in the navy.

Mr. Williams said that about nine years since, he first introduced the
system of dividing the hull into five compartments, by four water-tight iron
bulk-heads, with the intention of their adding to the strength of wooden
vessels; but it occurred to him that they would he otherwise useful, and al-
though the ship builders opposed it, he persevered, and now all the vessels
under his superintendence had them. Their value had been proved on many
occasions, and by them, the Rmjal William and several other vessels bad
been saved. With four hulk-heads it was impossible for a vessel to sink,
unless three of the compartments were broken into, which was scarcely pos-
sible.

The President believed that the James Walt, which was built at least 10

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

3S!»

years since, had three close Umber hulk-hcails, intended for Hie same purpose
as the iron ones.

Mr. Williams replied that they would not answer the same purpose as the
iron ones, and that if a vessel had only three hulk-heads, making four com-
partments, if one of them was broken into, the vessel would sink, hut with
five compartments it would he saved. With regard to the general durability
of iron vessels, he recollected an iron vessel being built at the llorseley iron-
works more than 20 years since, which be believed was still in existence ;
and a small boat, built for him by Mr. Grantham, of very thiu plates in the
year 182-1, was still at work.

The Secretary stated that the vessel alluded to by Mr. Williams, was the
Aaron Manby, which was built by, and named after his father in the year
1821. It was the first iron vessel that ever went to sea ; it had been very
roughly used, and the engines and boilers bad been more than once renewed ;
yet the hull bad scarcely required any repairs, and it was very slightly cor-
roded, although it had been severely tried by being used in both fresh and
salt water upon the river Seine, for which service it was built.4 It was well
known in Staffordshire, that many iron canal boats which were used indis-
criminately for carrying coals, iron ore, limestone and other cargoes, and
had received scarcely ordinary attention, were upwards of 40 years old, and
were still serviceable. °

Mr. Braithwaite said that he had recently heard of the sale of a wooden
vessel 15 years old, which was still sea-worthy, and was capable of being
insured.

The President observed, that although part of two evenings had been de-
voted to Mr. Mallet's paper, yet that such was its value, that it could scarcely
be discussed until members could pursue it at leisure, and enter into the
wide field of observation which it embraced : it was a paper of undoubted
merit, and the attention of the Publication Committee had been directed to
it by the Council, in order to its general circulation, with the former valuable
paper, by the same author, as soon as was practicable.

Electro-Magnetic Telegraphs.

A pair of electro-magnetic signal telegraphs, constructed for the Aix-la-
Chapelle railway, from the plans of Professor Wheatstone, were exhibited.

Professor Wheatstone explained, that the principle of this signal telegraph,
which he considered to he the most efficient arrangement for practical pur-
poses, was the same as his last electro-magnetic telegraph, in which a dial,
or hand, was caused to advance by the alternate attractions and cessations of
attraction of an electro-magnet, occasioned by corresponding alternate com-
pletions and interruptions of the circuit, by means of a peculiarly con-
structed apparatus, placed at the opposite end of the telegraphic line. The
present signal telegraph was intended for the use of the inclined plane on
the railway at Aix-la-Chapelle, where only a limited number of signals were
required ; the entire alphabet of the complete telegraph, was therefore dis-
pensed with, and the instrument was restricted to six elementary signals.
The letters M, s, c, t, b, &c, on the face of the dials were the initials of the
German words for engine, rope, train, telegraph, &c. The dial was eight
inches in diameter, and the characters were conspicuous, so that they might
be readily seen at a distance ; the hand, which was required to be made very
light, and to keep its form, was of blackened mica. The cross being re-
served to indicate the quiescent condition of the apparatus, there remained
five available characters, which, combined two and two, gave 25 signals— a
number amply sufficient for the purposes of the railway. It being esta-
blished as an invariable rule, that each signal should consist of two charac-
ters followed by the cross ; were the telegraph to act in any way irregularly,
the index would, at the end, point to some other character, instead of the
cross, and this would indicate that the preceding signals were wrong, so that
if the signals received, should not correspond with those sent (which, how-
ever, could not be the case if ordinary care was taken), no mistake could
possibly arise, because they carried with them the evidence of their error.
The instruments were furnished with a simple means of bringing the hand
immediately to the resting point, without interfering with the circuit. As it
might be occasionally required to transmit a permanent signal, which should
remain, until a person arrived to inspect it, the five simple characters could
be employed for this purpose.

■' '• Iron as a Material for Ship-building," by J. Grantham, Svo., London,
1 £.42. p. ti.

5 In a letter from Mr. John Laird, dated June 29, 1843, he says, respecting
the probability of corrosion in iron vessels, " I beg to state that the following
vessels have iiad their boilers replaced (some of them twice), and that the
bottom and sides of the vessels near the boilers have been found quite free
From corrosion ; in fact, the paint originally put on was almost perfect: —

Lady Lansdowne, built in 1833

Garry Owen 1834

ElizaPrice 1836

Duncmnon 18,'iti

Duchess of Lancaster 18311

" The En pinnies steamer, built in 1834, has had her machinery taken out,
and been converted into an accommodation boat for passengers for the Indus.
The hull of the vessel was found quite perfect, free from corrosion, and as
perfect and sound as the day she was launched."— Sec. Inst. C. r..

The instruments at each station consisted of a telegraph, an alarm, and a
communicator; they would be arranged in the circuit, in several ways to suit
particular purposes, but no other alteration was requisite to ell'ect this, than
a change in the disposition of the terminal wires, and of their connexions
with the communicators. The telegraphs might be so placed, that they
would act simultaneously, when either of the communicators was worked,
or they might be so arranged that the instrument at one station, should only
be acted upon by the communication at the other, which, in many cases, was
preferable, as a great resistance was thereby taken out of the circuit. Other
arrangements, useful under particular circumstances, were also practicable.
This telegraph, even when all the letters of the alphabet were employed,
required only a single circuit of communications between the two stations.
Professor Wheatstone's former permutating magnetic needle telegraph,
though possessing a power of combination far exceeding that of any pre-
ceding telegraph, in which magnetic needles were proposed to be employed,
required a number of wires proportionate to the number of signals.

By employing the earth, or an extent of water, to return the current, or
complete the circuit — which might he done, by connecting the two extremi-
ties of one of the communicating wires with plates of metal, and plunging
them into the earth or into water — one of the communicating wires might
be entirely dispensed with ; this plan would be adopted at Aix-la-Chapelle.
That a large extent of earth, or a portion of a river, could be made to com-
plete an electric circuit, was long since established with respect to electricity
of high tension, by the extensive experiments of Dr. Watson, in 1748, and
others ; and the same thing was proved with regard to voltaic electricity, by
the independent experiments of Erinan, Basse, and Aldini, made in 1803.
Enqan's experiments were performed in the river Havel, near Potsdam ;
those of Basse in the river Weser, and the environs of Hamel ; and Aldini's
researches were prosecuted on the shore near Calais. Professor Steinheil
also employed the earth as a means of completing the circuit, in the electro-
magnetic telegraph which he established at Munich in 1838.

A pair of Professor Wheatstone's telegraphs were established at Berlin in
the beginning of 1812 : the line of communication was a single wire, carried
through the air upon wooden posts, and plates of metal attached to the ends
of the wire were buried in the ground. In the same year he formed a com-
munication between King's College and the shot tower on the opposite side
of the river: the communicating wire was laid along the parapets of Somer-
set-house and Waterloo-bridge, and thence to the top of the tower, where
one of the telegraphs was placed ; the wire then descended, and a plate of
zinc attached to its extremity was plunged into the mud of the river; a si-
milar plate was attached to the extremity at the north side, and was im-
mersed in the water. The circuit was thus completed by the entire breadth
of the Thames, and the telegraphs acted as well as if the circuit was entirely
metallic. The peculiar construction of the present signal telegraph, enabled
a magneto-electric machine to be substituted for a voltaic battery. This
source of electric action not being subject to cessation or diminution, the
attention necessary for keeping a voltaic battery in order, was dispensed
with, and the instruments were always ready for action, without any previous
preparation.

ON ITIESCO PAINTING.

Abridgment of Mr. Charles II. Wilson's Report to the Com-
missioners of the Fine Arts. '

Mr. Wilson in this report first describes and considers the construction of
the walls on which frescos and other mural paintings are executed, and then
proceeds in order with the other portions of his subject.

Mural paintings were executed upon plaster of various kinds, laid upon
walls variously constructed ; several examples also occur of frescos which
were painted upon plaster laid on lathing. The comparative durability of
works executed under these circumstances Mr. Wilson explains by several
examples, on the Continent. They are found on three kinds of wall : —
ashlar walls of Gothic edifices — brick walls of buildings of different dates —
and upon coarsely built rubble walls of different kinds. To these are to he
added frescos on lath, of which there are many examples in different parts
of Italy. From the observations which have been made by Mr. Wilson, it
appears that plaster will not stand well upon ashlar walls, unless the stones
he small and the seams open ; for if the plaster he loosened from this kind
of wall by damp or accident, it entirely falls away in large masses, showing
that it does not adhere firmly to the masonry. Brick walls are the best for
fresco, and the practice of the careful Germans and modern Italians are in
favour of this opinion.

There are many specimens of frescos upon lath in Italy ; the most ancient
is that of the "Trionfo della Morte," by Orgagna, in the Campo Santo of
Pisa. The artist probably adopted the precaution from having entertained

1 C. H. Wilson, Esq., Director of the Government School ol Design :>t
Somerset House, was, in the course of the last year, employed by Her Ma-
jesty 's < 'ommissioners on the Fine Arts to proceed to the Continent to collect
information relating tu the objects of the Commission. Having been fur-
nished wiih the necessary instructions be left England in August and re-
lumed in January last.

300

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[November,

doubts as to the fitness of the walls of this edifice to receive frescos. The
ceiling frescos in the upper Loggia of the Vatican hy Giovanni da Udine
are upon stoja or lath : the wooden framing to which the lath is attached is
executed with a rudeness that would seem almost incredible, and these
works have suffered severely from the original defective carpentry and from
neglect and damp. (See Figs. 1 & 2.)

Fig. 1.

L, T.allung or Stop.
I.. Boarding.
R, Rihs.

From various instances quoted in the Report it appears that frescos may
safely he executed upon lath.

The Mortar. — It is not possible to make many observations on the
mortar on which mural pictures of the period before referred to are executed,
as, fortunately, there are not a great Dumber which are in such a state of
dilapidation as to permit a particular examination of th< in in this respect.
The majority of these pictures arc painted, as is well known, upon an into-
naco composed of lime and sand. It is evident that there was a diversity
of opinion with regard to the quantity of sand to lime to be used, and the
same diversity of opinion exists amongst the modern freacanti. From such
examination as it was possible to make, it appears certain that those frescos
have stood best in which it is apparent that there is a considerable proportion
of Sand in the lime ; and 1 am disposed partly to attribute the bad st ite of
the frescos by Correggio in the Duomo of I'arina to bis having used what is
called a rich intonaco (that is, with a small proportion of sand), and the
faintness of the colours is perhaps to be attributed to the same cause.

A number of mural paintings are executed upon an intonaco formed of
lime and marble dust; these however arc not frescos but distemper pictures;
that is, pictures which, although in many instances commenced in fresco,
yet were finished in distemper. Pictures of this description arc also found
upon intonacos of lime and sand ; and if at first the practice may have
arisen from necessity, it appears to have been continued afterwards from
choice, even after complete works in pure fresco had been executed.

There is nothing to be learnt apparently from old Italian plastering. In
point of execution, it is surprising that such careless work could ever satisfy
the artists. The Venetians have shown themselves in many instances clumsy
plasterers beyond all others ; the works of Pordenone especially exhibit the
rudest, workmanship, the surface being very uneven, and the joinings of the
intonaco which mark the different day's work being very carelessly executed:
such is also the case in the frescos of Titian. The Florentine practice is
better, but still far from presenting, in many of the early examples, sufficient
attention to the preparation of the surface. If the wall was even, the plaster
was made even, but if the wall was altogether the reverse, the plaster was
allowed to he so also, and it is only in the works of later masters that we
find this workmanship so attended to as to secure an even surface : the
frescos of Allnri in S. Lorenzo and in the Palazzo Vecchio are models in this
respect.

In the Baths of Titus examples will be found of — first lime and coarse
sand, half an inch thick; then lime and pozzolana, of one inch in thickness,
in which, however, there is an admixture of sand and pounded brick ; the
last and upper coat is of lime and pounded marble. It will be found that
this, a-, regards the two last coats, is the identical preparation which is so

commonly used in Italy for floors under the name of Venetian pavement,
except that in the latter the fragments of brick in the substratum and the
fragments of marble in the superstratum are much larger. It is also quite
plain, from the size of the fragments of marble in the specimens of ancient
plaster, both in the Baths of Titus and at Pompeii, that the wall could not
possibly be brought to a smooth surface cither with the trowel or float ; it
must have been allowed to dry, and was then polished. It follows that in
walls of this description the red, yellow, and other tints with which it was
painted must have been subsequently applied, and had nothing of the nature
of fresco, an art which, however, is apparently exemplified in ancient exam-
ples, for instance, in the Nozze Aldobrandini.

It may be generally stated, without adducing other examples of this pe-
riod, that where the plastering is uneven, the ruin of the fresco, or its se-
rious injury, is the result, whilst those frescos which have smooth and even
surfaces will be found to be generally in good condition; and the most per-
fect specimens in point of workmanship and preservation arc the frescos of
the Caracci and of their scholars. These, in the majority of instances, are
quite perfect, and may be quoted as triumphant specimens of the durability
of this mode of painting.

The Execution of the Picture. — We find that whilst several mechanical
modes of outlining (first Report) were adopted for fresco, each artist used
these means in his own peculiar way, little influenced apparently by any
received rule ; and as every artist commonly adheres to his own method,
the execution of the outline may assist in deciding on the authorship of a
work of art.

The practice of indenting the plaster with a point or stylus is very ancient,
and we find that the figures painted in Etruscan tombs were thus outlined,
that is, the point was used to mark the external outline of the figure only.
It was employed by the early masters at the revival of art in Italy precisely
in the same way in outlining their works in distemper on panel; thus Giotto
drew, and his followers ; and we find the same practice follow in the Sienese
school, with a singular exception, which is, that the figure of the Madonna
is entirely marked in with the stylus, that is, not merely the external outline,
but the outlines of folds in the drapery are drawn in in the same manner ;
and a notice of this practice, confined to the school of Siena, is useful, as it
establishes a clear distinction between the early pictures of that school and
those of the contemporary Florentine masters. It has been supposed by
some that these outlines were intended as a guide to the plasterer in spread-
ing the intonaco, but in no case do the joinings in the plaster coincide with
them. If we suppose that the composition was thus sketched in to enable
the artist to judge of the proper proportions and positions of the figures,
n hat then was the use of his cartoon in this respect? it would have been
more easy to place it against the wall, as is now frequently done.

Another mode of outlining, that is by pouncing, was extensively adopted ;
this method, as well as the last-mentioned, of course implies the preparation
of a large cartoon ; and there was still another mode, or rather union of the
modes above alluded to, viz. the outline was first pounced and then, the car-
toon being removed, the forms were retraced with the stylus; this is the
practice of the modern Italians, and although imposing names may he quoted
in support of it, an uncertain and feeble outline is the result, and besides, in
sudden turns it breaks out bits of the plaster, leaving unsightly holes in the
picture.

Painting. — In studying the art of fresco- painting, it is necessary to con-
sult the works of the old masters for examples of execution. In everything
that is merely mechanical, we may profitably study the proceedings of the
modern Germans: every process may be learnt from their practice, without
visiting Italy, the graceful use of the brush excepted. Amongst the works
of the present Italian fresco-painters, there is perhaps no example which it
would be desirable to follow. The execution of these artists is to the last
degree mannered and heavy, and however satisfactory may have been the
progress of the French in other modes of painting, they have entirely failed
in the few attempts which they have made in fresco.

Avoiding the errors into which we may conceive that our continental
brethren have fallen in the actual painting of their frescos, we must look to
the works of the old masters as examples; in these we shall find painting in
fresco, in as many styles, and exhibiting as much diversity of touch and
handling, as may be observed in the works of the same artists in oil. There
is the same liberty of thought in the treatment of both methods, and ge-
nius exhibits its powers with as endless a diversity in the one art as in the
other.

We find in the frescos of the old masters every quality of execution that
has a name in oil-painting, although those qualities are necessarily exempli-
fied in different degrees; we have transparency, opacity, richness; we have,
thin and thick painting, nay loading, and that to an extent that cannot be
contemplated in oil. We have the calm transparent elegant painting of the
Florentines and Romans, the rich variety of the Venetians, and there are
eases in which the well-nourished brush of Rembrandt seems represented in
the works of the fresco-painters of old Italian times.

The distemper paintings of the elder masters have already been alluded
to ; it was their practice in laying in the preparatory tints in fresco, to make
some of these totally different from the colour to be used in finishing in
distemper: thus, a dark red colour was almost invariably laid in as a prepa-
ration for blue, and this practice was generally adhered to with very few
exceptions till after the time of Raphael. In the works of Giotto, in the
Campo Santo, at Pisa, the plaster seems to have been painted black in the
first instance. Time did not permit a satisfactory examination of these

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

.-591

works, but there is an example of the use of black as a preparation for blue
in the Farnesina, where Daniele daVolterra in his frescos on a ceiling in that
edifice has first laid in a coat of black in fresco, and then a coat of blue in
distemper. In some pictures, as for instance in those by Andrea Mantegna
in the Eremitani at l'adue, the blue of the skies has either partially changed
or entirely faded, whilst that of the draperies is comparatively well pre-
served, it is thus evident that from motives of economy different blues were
used in different portions of pictures. There are many other examples of
this in other parts of Italy.

The Cardinal Bonaventura, in the fresco called the Dispute of the Sacra-
ment, by Raphael, is represented in a purplish-black robe which has been
painted over red; this is an instance of the adoption of an indirect process
with reference to another colour besides blue. It may be observed, that the
cardinal was a Franciscan, an order which is distinguished by a brown dress;
and, as it is not brown in the picture, this may perhaps be an instance of a
change of colour : but one object of this mode of painting seems to have
been the security of the colours against change, while another may have
been, the attainment of more harmony in the tone. In the picture just
mentioned, Raphael has followed precept in painting the blues in distemper
over red, and these have stood perfectly. In the School of Athens, on the
contrary, he has painted in the blues in fresco, and they have perished or
nearly so, as they have been in most instances in every part of Italy where blue
has been thus used; both in pictures of this and of previous times. In the
great works which Raphael subsequently painted in the Stanze he returned
to the old practice of painting the blues above red, probably dissatisfied with
the crudeness which was the result of using them on the wet plaster. The
blue that has thus been generally used seems to have been of a vegetable
nature, as in many instances it has changed to a brilliant green. It may be
urged that the use of ultramarine or cobalt may obviate all necessity for
such preparations, and secure the pictures against change ; but whilst the
former is by far too expensive a colour, the latter is crude and harsh in
fresco. It seems to have been the blue which was used by the Caracei, and
in their pictures, as in those of Gnido, it will be found to be frequently out
of harmony with the other colours ; either these have in some degree faded,
the blue remaining the same, or the blue has increased in intensity. Dome-
nichino used distemper extensively in his works; but in those of Guercino
will be found a triumphant solution of the difficulty ; his blues are put in in
fresco, and yet are in fine harmony with the other tones, they have generally
a warm purple hue, and may be either smalt, or cobalt tempered with red,
such as colccthar of vitriol. This is strongly exemplified in the Zampieri
Palace at Bologna, where the harmony apparent in a fresco of Guercino is
an agreeable relief, after the crudity which offends in those of his masters in
other rooms of the same palace : a comparison between the Aurora of Guido
in the Rospigliosi at Rome (all the blues in which are not retouched) and
that by Guercino in the Ludovisi, further corroborates the above observa-
tions.

As has frequently been stated in the previous report, it was the practice to
retouch when the fresco was dry, more especially in the shadows. In some
cases it is now easy to detect this retouching : it will generally be found to
be proportionally somewhat darker than the painting around ; and whilst in
many frescos a remarkable polish or gloss may be observed even in situations
where that effect could not be produced by rubbing, the retouched parts are
invariably dim ; this is exemplified in the Evangelists by Domenicbino in the
church of S.Andrea della Valle at Rome: these are historically known to
have been retouched ; and in viewing them from particular spots, their sur-
faces arc seen to shine as if varnished, whilst some parts, which it may rea-
sonably be inferred are retouches, such as darks under the arms and in the
deep folds of the drapery, are quite flat and dim.

There are portions in Raphael's pictures which present the appearance jus-
described ; in the School of Athens there are a few distemper touches evi

Fig. 3.

A, The entire sp.icc above the .lolled line is painted in
flowing hair included ; the cm being made at the dotte

B B, represents the joining that, less carelul
C C C, Boundary of anotlwr day's work.

me day, and the
lino C. The line

trtists Mould have made.

dently by the master's own hand, which have darkened: for instance, in one
bead he has had recourse to distemper to represent the external locks of
hair. This seems to indicate a difficulty in fresco which at first sight appears
formidable. In a picture by Gaudcnzio Ferrari, at Milan, a female head with

long flowing locks is repre-
Fig. 4. sented, and the joining is made

next the locks, and has a very
bad effect; the difficulty is suc-
cessfully overcome by the Ger-
man artists without having re-
course to distemper, and with-
out placing the joining so as to
injure the appearance of the
picture. This may best be ex-
emplified by a sketch : the fly-
ing tresses are painted in on
the back-ground on one day,
and the head is put in the next
day; the joining is indicated
by the dotted line in the figure
("Figs. 3 & 4). The foliage of
trees is managed in the same
Work (or portions of work) of two days. way- It would be vain to think
The dotted line shows the cutting. The of cutting round the outline of
drapery under the beard is executed the foliage; the outer leaves and
same day as the head. thin projecting branches are

executed on the same day with
the back-ground, and the cutting is kept quite within these.

Transparency. — This important quality is perfectly attainable in fresco-
painting ; it is found in the works of the Roman and Florentine masters ;
amongst the latter, more especially in those of Andrea del Sarto ; in those
of the Lombards it is admirably maintained ; and its excess is seen in those
of the Venetians.

It is not easy to explain how transparency is to be attained in fresco ;
there is, perhaps, no quality in which our German brethren are more defi-
cient; the brushes which they use are to an English eye small for the work,
and the first tint laid on with these presents a streaky appearance, which
perhaps could be obviated in some instances by the use of larger brushes,
and a different mode of using them. It will be easily understood how this
streaky appearance is produced ; having first given one wipe of the brush
full of colour, the artist follows it up with another, the colour sinking in
instantly, and as he cannot lay the second wipe exactly to the edge of the
first, the one overlaps the other in parts, and those parts are consequently
twice as dark as the others which have got only one wipe, and so he pro-
ceeds laying a tint composed of light and dark streaks, but nevertheless
transparent : this quality is lost in uniting the tint, for he continues to go
over the surface till he obtains what he seeks, a quiet flat tone, which how-
ever generally proves a heavy one. Now, in the ancient examples, this
union is obtained without sacrificing transparency. In a church near Cone-
gliano there are some curious frescos by a Venetian painter, in which the
excess of this quality is exhibited ; they do not merit the name of works of
art. and are very slightly executed ; the colours seem laid in in one wash
only, the plaster ground shining through ; but these bad pictures nrovc that
it is possible to lay in tints in a transparent and yet flat manner.

Titian frequently makes use of the bare intonaco in particular places;
thus in his fresco of The Healing of the Foot of the Boy &c, in the Capi-
tolo of St. Antonio at Padua, the shadows are laid in with brown in a very
transparent manner, and for the half-tint he has left the bare lime. It may
lie doubted whether this practice is to be recommended ; it is never found
in the frescos of the Florentines or Romans, and that great fresco-painter,
Luini, obtains equal lightness and transparency without having recourse to
it. Such a practice gives a work a sketchy character which is objectionable,
especially in the principal figures.

How the effect of transparency is to be mechanically obtained it remains
for the artist to discover by practice.

A Milanese professor says that with a view to transparency it is necessary
to lay in the first tints early in the morning, and then to leave the work and
not resume it for two hours. He further says that the lime, if it have any
remains of an injurious caustic quality, exhaust its fury, to use his own
words, on these first colours, and may be more safely painted on afterwards.
It must be confessed that the frescos by Appiani, which he instanced as ex-
amples of the practice, are very far from exhibiting the quality of transpa-
rency. Other artists, however, hold the same opinion, and it is therefore
proper to state it.

Hatching. — The prevalence of this practice amongst many of the old
masters (for it is evidently not always the result of retouching) seems to
prove that they also found a difficulty in getting flat tints ; in some of the
later masters it is a mere manner, but in earlier and better examples it may
have been adopted in the hope of getting a flat tint without destroying
transparency : whatever was the reason the practice was very general, and it
is to be observed that the great masters did not cross in this batching; the
lines lie all in one way, and Signor Colombo of Rome, says that the tempera
hatchings in Michael Angelo's Last Judgment are thus laid on with great
evenness and dexterity.

In the works of Raphael, the most perfect of fresco-painters, there is no
hatching anywhere, nor is there in those of Correggio. The hatching with

53

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

which the Cupids of the last named painter in the Convent of St. Paolo, at
Parma, are covered and destroyed, is manifestly the work of another hand ;
the lunettes underneath have fortunately escaped this profanation.

Solid Painting. — This is a quality that is easily attainable ; it will be best
understood by observing, that whilst the plasterer lays on a preparatory in-
tonaco of lime and sand with the trowel, the artist lays on a finishing one of
lime and colour with the brush, and he may employ it as thickly as he
pleases. I observed in the works of Pordenone in Sta. Maria in Campagna,
at Piaccnza, that the lights were laid on with such a body of colour that
before the lime had time to set, the artist's sleeve, or mahl-stick, or some-
thing else in his way, has accidentally ploughed through his work, which he
has not been able, or has not cared to mend.

Paul Veronese, in his frescos in the Villa Mazer, has charged his lights;
and his imitators in their works, both in the above villa and in that of the
Obizzi near Padua, have loaded so much that the lights stand up in lumps
upon the wall. Such extravagancies, like the washing iu of the shadows in
the pictures near Conegliano before mentioned, are poor substitutes for a
careful imitation of nature.

The lights must of necessity he thicker than the shadows, as there is more
lime in the colours of the former than in those of the latter. The great
masters laid in their colours without ostentatious handling ; their works ex-
hibit no tricks of manipulation ; but it is surprising to observe the manner in
which some artists seem to have worked their tints. Pordenone has already
been alluded to, and Polidora da Caravaggio produces an effect as if liis
brush had been full of macguilp, as may be seen in his frescos in Rome, viz.
in St. Andrea on Monte Cavallo, and in the Farnesina.

It is necessary to mention these instances to prove the extraordinary dex-
terity that has been attained in painting in fresco, a dexterity however, which
is not to be admired when it produces such effects, and which too often dis-
tinguishes the pencil of mediocrity.

Glazing. — This process is frequently exemplified in the fresco-works of the
old masters ; its most successful application is seen in those of Razzi at
Siena, where the celebrated picture called the " Cristo alia Colonna," in the
gallery of the Academy, is a particularly interesting example of its legitimate
application in fresco, that is, of its use while the plaster is still moist; in this
instance parts are made out by means of it, and much lightness and transpa-
rency are attained.

Pordenone invented or adopted some process which resembles that common
in oil-paiuting ; his works have evidently been glazed after the lime had been
allowed to dry; the flesh in all his figures is richly glazed — the transparent
colour filling up the hollows arising from the peculiar loading already
described as so remarkably exhibited in his frescos, if they can he called
such. Polidoro da Caravaggio seems to have adopted some analogous
method, hut probably these are the only masters who can be quoted a having
adopted a practice so foreign to fresco-painting. Perhaps the artist who
lpainted the papal chair-bearers in the Ileliodorus may be added to this brief
list. The adoption of such a practice evidently arises from a misapprehension
of the legitimate application of fresco-painting. Jt will be found that the
Venetian painters generally had no clear idea of the true mode of employing
this art i even Titian fell into the mistake of trying to produce effects of
light and shadow and colours, like those which he had been in the habit of
producing in bis oil-pictures. The light and brilliant colouring uf Paul
Veronese enabled him to paint with more success in fresco than the gene-
rality of his Venetian brethren ; but in his works it is evident that this is
merely the result of his system, not any attempt at an application of the
principles of colour suited to the peculiar art of fresco-painting, which he
sometimes practised, and most successfully at the Villa Mazer. Palma
Vecchio alone of the Venetian masters seems to have truly estimated the
powers of fresco ; there are two saints by him in S. Liberate at Castelfranco,
which have breadth and dignity.

Razzi has already been alluded to as an artist whose works most promi-
nently exemplify legitimate glazing in fresco; it is not apparent in the works
of any other master to the same extent.

Time occupied in Painting. — It is not difficult, in examining some frescos,
to ascertain the time occupied in painting them. In some examples, the
joinings by means of which this calculation can be made are distinctly
visible ; in others they are either so well executed, or are so concealed by
the use of distemper, that it is very difficult to trace them. It is evident
that the old masters painted with great rapidity; large and important works,
judging from the following examples, were executed in a mouth or six weeks.

The " Incendio del Borgo," in the Stanze, seems to have been painted in
about forty days; the group of the young man carrying his father has been
executed in three days. The exquisite group of the traces, in the Farnesina,
by Raphael, has been painted, at most, in five days. The Cupid and the
head of the Grace, with her back to the spectator, have occupied one day;
the back and part of the lower limb of the latter figure, another. In this
day's work the rest of the leg may have been included. There appears to
be a joining across the knee; there was certainly one across the next ; both
these joinings do not follow outlines, but are iu parts of the figure which
are in shadow. It is of course better, as has been already observed, to cut
by outlines ; but this is not always possible, especially iu very large figures.
The Germans prefer cutting across a broad light when circumstances compel
the artist to make a joining where there is no outline. The graceful com-
position called the Galatea, also in the Farnesina, has been entirely executed
in eleven or twelve days; the head and body of the principal figure have
been painted in one day. This subject will be further incidentally illustr

Duration of Frescos. — The circumstances which must be taken into con-
sideration in judging of the duration of frescos have already been adverted
to. It has been shown that where proper constructive principles have been
attended to, and where the walls are of good and appropriate materials, the
safety of the paintings is in a great measure secured, and it may he cer-
tainly proved that fresco is a very durable mode of painting, not surpassed
in this respect by any Other, if indeed equalled. But independently of the
most careful building, various causes luay contribute to the deterioration or
destruction of frescos, and as these have been very distinctly described in
the First Report it is not necessary to say much on the subject further than
to state a few facts. Damp is the greatest enemy of this kind of painting;
it ascends through the walls from the soil, and descends from ill-constructed
or dilapidated roofs. In Venice, where the houses actually stand in the
water, the external plastering falls off entirely to a height of twenty feet ;
in Milan, Padua and elsewhere, I obi :ryed that paintings arc obliterated on
walls to a height of from seven to eight feet from the ground. The destina-
tion of many fine works on roofs and on the upper part of walls is entirely
to be attributed to culpable negligence, or to ignorance ; this is painfully
exemplified in the Duomo at Parma ; the uld insufficient roof over the dome
still exists under the new leaded one which has been added to save the
wrecks of Correggio's works from final destruction; and the inadequate
construction of the former is sufficiently apparent in the section, Fig. 5.

Fiu'. 5.

Duomo, Parma.

Many examples might be adduced of injury resulting to frescos from imper-
fect rooting, and the fact having been recognized, precautions have DOW
been taken alter irreparable injury has been done. The tiled roofs of Italy
have everywhere been a constant source of injury to frescos, but in some few-
instances precautions of an extraordinary nature have been taken to make
the roof water-tight. At the Villa Mazer flat tiles have been laid at right
angles to the roof-timbers, the joints being filled with lime. These tiles re-
present the planking under slates in this country, and the ordinary roof tiles
arc put over them in the usual way ; this makes an impenetrable but very
heavy roof. The plan has lately been adopted in the Palazzo del Giardino at
Parma, the frescos there by Annibale Caracci having suffered from damp. The
Caracci have evidently been alive to the necessity of taking precautions
against damp : the vault in the Farnese Palace in Rome, which is under an
open loggia, is covered with lead ; at the Palazzo del Giardino the upper
surface of the vaults has been carefully plastered; but this has not sufficed.

Some frescos by Allori, in the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence, which are on a
six-inch brick wall, have lately been destroyed by plastering the back of the
wall. In the Library at Siena, the paintings on the vaults were ruined by
some masons who mixed lime above them. All these facts prove the neces-
sity of preventing, by every possible means, the passage of damp through
the walls, and there is no difficulty whatever in effecting this.

External frescos may never be executed in this country, but their preser-
vation iu some parts of Italy may encourage their adoption in corridors and
porticos. Paintings are found to be well preserved on external walls turned
to a favourable weather quarter. Thus, as at Genoa and Treviso, although
frescos are nearly obliterated by the action of the weather on some walls, it
is to be observed that wherever they are protected by the projection of a
roof or cornice, they are well preserved. External damp or sea air has no
bad effect. The obliteration of external frescos in Venice cannot be attri-
buted to this, since those at Genoa are preserved ; and those in the Campo
Santo at Pisa, are doubtlessly destroyed by damp from the soil and roof.
As has already been observed, that by Orgagna, in the same place, has not
suffered at all from the action of the atmosphere.

The paintings iu the upper loggia of the Vatican have suffered severely,
owing to the inefficient construction of the roof. Those beneath, from Ra-
phael's designs, have been much obliterated, partly by damp (the corridor

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

303

above having been left open till lately), and partly from their having been
painted on an intonaco of lime and marble dust ; they have also suffered in
some measure from violence and mischief.

Effect of Stained Glass on Paintings. — A few facts and observations con-
nected with the employment of stained glass in rooms with paintings in them
may not lie unimportant, as an opinion lias been expressed that windows
coloured in any degree are incompatible with paintings in rooms so lighted.
It rather appears, however, from many instances, that stained glass may be
sometimes so employed with great advantage; and that the excess of light
may be thus subdued or otherwise modified so as to produce the most
pleasing effect.

In the cathedral at Munich the windows are coloured to a certain height,
and although the effect is far from pleasing considered in itself, yet it is very
useful as regards the pictures in the church, as the light is brought in from
above in an advantageous manner.

At Saronno, near Milan, there are two small frescos by Luini with a
coloured circular window between. The pictures are lighted by a window
on one side, and could not be seen at all but for the exclusion of white light
by the coloured glass in the centre window. In St. Patrizio, at Bologna
there is an altar-piece under a window tilled with richly stained glass ; the
picture is well lighted from an opposite window, but if the window over it
had been of white glass it would have been impossible to see the picture,
which is very dark. The sun happened to shine through the rich hues of
the window above, and I observed here, as I had previously remarked at
Saronno, that the picture did not suffer in consequence.

At Assisi in the upper church, all the windows, one excepted over the door,
are coloured, but in those which are painted, much of the glass is left white ;
the light is weak in this church, and it is thus apparent that it does not al-
ways answer to tint all the windows, even although pure light is partially
admitted, but where the light is sufficient every window in a room with
paintings may have a certain proportion of stained glass in it, provided pure
light be not altogether excluded. It may be objected that coloured rays
will he thrown on the frescos when the sun shines, but white rays are quite
as objectionable, and besides, frescos never should be placed where the suu
can shine upon them, as, like other pictures, they fade sooner or later under
its influence ; coloured glass in such a case might be an advantage, and the
inconvenience from the coloured rays would be temporary.

Fresco-secco. — Certain processes of painting allied to fresco having been
referred to in the foregoing statement, it may be desirable to add a brief
account of them.

The early mural pictures, although commenced in fresco, were, as before
observed, usually finished in distemper, and the vehicle employed was a mix-
ture of yolk of egg and vinegar. This mode of painting was adopted also
on panel and on canvass ; and it is probable that many Venetian pictures,
supposed to be entirely in oil, were painted in this manner, and then glazed
and finished with oil colour.

There can be no doubt of the durability of this mode of painting on walls,
as there are many well-preserved examples of it by the early masters ; but I
am unable to quote any instance of the successful adoption of the process in
modern times. Professor Overbeck informed me that he painted in this
manner at Assisi, but that it was necessary to lay a ground of whiting on
the wall in the first place — a process which is manifestly objectionable, and
not in accordance with ancient practice.

An Italian artist informed me that it is necessary first to give the wall a
coat of strong size, and then to give it a second coat mixed with the yolk of
egg and vinegar.

Another mode of painting, of which there appear to be a few early exam-
plea, and of which there are many later ones, is called by the Italians/z-eseo-
secco. I was informed that a large painting by Orgagna, in the church of
Sta. Maria Novella, is in fresco-secco. I examined it. but hesitate to pro-
nounce an opinion.

The later masters painted extensive works in this manner: the ceiling of
the great hall in the Barberini Palace in Rome appears to me to be in fresco-
secco ; and in Rome, Florence, and Genoa, the ceilings of most of the pa-
laces are covered with paintings executed in this manner; it is the mode of
painting still adopted in Italy for nearly all decorative purposes, is easy of
execution, and unquestionably durable, whilst it is certainly the most econo-
mical process which can be followed.

Fresco-secco has been practised for some time in Munich : the ceilings of
corridors of loggie and those of staircases, are thus painted in the palace ;
and the Chevalier Von Klenze, who first introduced the process at Munich,
is satisfied with the experiments which have been there made with it.

The following is a description of the method. The plastering of the wall
having been completed and lime and sand only having been used for the last
coat, the whole is allowed to dry thoroughly.' When a wall is intended to
be painted, the surface of the lime is rubbed with pumice-stone, and on the
evening of the day preceding that on which the painting is to be commenced
the plaster is thoroughly washed with water, with which a little lime has
been mixed. The wall is again wetted next morning, and then the cartoons
are fastened up and the outline is pounced. The artist then begins to paint.
The colours are the same as those used in fresco-huono, and are mixed with
water in the same way, lime being used for the white.

If the wall should become too dry, a syringe, having many fine holes at
the end, is used to wet it. Work done in this nay will bear to lie washed as
well as real fresco, and is as durable : for ornament it is a better method
than real fresco, as in the latter art it is quite impossible to make the join-

ings at outlines, owing to the complicated forms of ornaments; on this ac-
count walls thus decorated in real fresco present an unsatisfactory appear-
ance. The joinings are particularly observable in the loggie of the Vatican.

Painting in fresco-secco can be quitted and resumed at any point. The
artist need not rigidly calculate his day's work, and can always keep the
plaster in a good state for working on. But whilst it offers these advantages,
and is particularly useful where mere ornamental painting is alone contem-
plated, it is in every important respect an inferior art to real frerco. Paint-
ings executed in this mode are ever heavy and opaque, whereas fresco is
light and transparent. Fresco-secco has been chiefly adopted by late and in-
ferior masters, and none of the works executed in this manner are of great
reputation. The early pictures which are designated by the Italians as
works in fresco-secco are not probably executed in this manner. The method
may have been adopted in repainting parts, and this may have led to the idea
that entire works were thus executed.

Fresco-secco is extensively used in Italy at present, and with great suc-
cess : the chiaro-scuro decorations executed in this manner are excellent ;
but I found that at Milan, where I had an opportunity of examining some
specimens, it did not bear washing like the Munich process. The method
seemed the same, but the result differed in this respect, and I bad no oppor-
tunity of seeing the actual process of paintings executeil in this mode, in
any other part of Italy.

At Genoa, where the paintings in the churches and palaces have no claim
to be called frescos, although generally so described, a compound process has
been followed in their execution. They were all commenced, or partly
commenced, in fresco, but were finished in distemper, and size has been used
for mixing the colours, as they can easily be removed by washing. The
object of the Genoese artists has been to supply the fancied deficiencies of
fresco- painting in point of colour; but, although they have succeeded in
making use of vermiliion, brilliant green, and bright yellow, they have not
produced satisfactory works of art. The paintings are garish, and out of
harmony ; the colours subsequently added in distemper do not harmonize
with those previously used in fresco, and the general effect is totally devoid
of that transparency which is distinctive of good fresco-painting. The Ge-
noese have brought fresco down to the level of mere size-painting; and the
works which they have left are proofs of the danger of carrying the practice
of retouching too far.

In the Doria Palace instances occur in which it may be observed that the
entire picture was not prepared in fresco and then retouched in distemper,
but that portions were painted in fresco and then, the plaster being allowed
to dry, the remaining portions, not previously touched when wet, uere begun
nd finished in distemper. Pierino del Vaga, or perhaps Pordenone who
painted in the same palace, may have introduced this practice as well as
others equally objectionable.

The annexed wood-cut, Fig. G, exhibits a contrivance for a scaffolding, &e.
formerly and still in use in the practice of fresco-paintiug.

Fig. 6.

Steps with a moveable sent, and which has an iron bo. I. ot clamp on the
end, and a leg equal in heighl in two steps.

391

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

THE ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING OF AGRICUL-
TURE ; OR, COLONIAL DIVISION OF LANDS AND
ITS RESULTS.

Under the above paradoxical and high-sounding title, I propose to
draw the attention of the landed genlrv and fanners of this country
to the results of the proceedings of the Colonial Land and Emigration
Office, in their treaties with the North, South and West Australian
colonies; also the colonies established in New Zealand. The Crown
granted to the New Zealand Company, established in 1S39, lands to
the extent of lt!0,0U0 acres, at Port Nicholson, in one block, or more ;
of such blocks six might be 5000 acres, and the rest 30,000 acres, each
block to be a continuous tract bounded by the natural landmarks of the
country. The government is to define and make the survey of the ex-
ternal lines of every assigned block ; and arbritators nominated by the
Government are to determine the price of the interior survey of each
block of 1000 acres. The land is to be sold progressively, as the
surveys are completed, at one uniform price of 20s. per acre.

A second colony was formed in March, 1841, under certain stipula-
tions, viz., the site to be chosen in New Zealand, (the site is since
selected and named Wellington,) and to extend to 201,000 acres, which
was to be divided and sold in allotments, each allotment to consist of
three sections, one of 150 acres of rural land, one of 50 acres of
accommodation Kind npur the proposed town, and one of 1 acre of
town land. Priority of choice to be decided by lot; the fixed price
of each allotment to be £300, and upon which a deposit of 30/. was
to be paid to the Company's bankers ; and on the payment of the full
purchase money, three separate hind orders to be given, which were
also to be determined by lot. The Company reserving a right to pur-
chase 100 out of the 1000 allotments, subject to the same conditions
as the other purchases. An amount equal to 25 per cent of the pur-
chase money paid by the colonist to be allowed towards cost of cabin
passage, outfit, &c, in the order of their respective, applications; and
the other 75 per cent to be appropriated towards the Emigration
Fund.

A revival of the sales of land is now hi course of being established
by the New Zealand Company, lor planting a third colony, to be called
New Edinburgh, the site to be a block of 120,550 acres. The original
grant from the Crown to the Company was at the rate of 5s. per acre;
and from what precedes this, it will be seen th.it the Company charge
in the first instance a uniform price of 20s., ami which is increased in
the second and third colonies to 30s. per acre. '

What I propose to denominate the architecture of agriculture, is
the terms and limits employed in the dealings with the Company and
the Government, and the terms employed between the Company and
the emigrant purchasers. I propose to call the engineering of agri-
culture, the means to be used to occupy or make the land tenant-
able. First then as to architecture, we have the term block used,
to specify an indefinite extent of country ; then specific blocks, to
specify a continuous tract of country, bounded by its natural land
marks: these specific blocks are limited in size and number, as in the
instance of the first settlement of the New Zealand Company; six
may be of 5000 acres and the rest of 30,000. The Government
survey the boundaries of the specific blocks as soon as they are as-
signed. We have now the term specific assigned blocks, and a pro-
prietor, who now appears for the first time entitled to a block of land,
say one of the six of 5000 acres, as mentioned above: so much for
architecture of agriculture.

The engineering, or means of occupation by the proprietor, is now
to be considered. The external boundary of the blocks, as before
stated, is first surveyed by the Government, and the Government ami
Company fix a scale of prices for the interior survey of each lOHO
acres. When a purchaser is obtained for one of the blocks, we have
a proprietor of an assigned block ready to treat with purchasers of
lots of 1000 acres each, or a section, viz., a portion of a large lot;
we have then a large landed proprietor ready to treat with a pur-

» The New Zealand Company, it must be remembered, have received these
grants in compensation tor the claims they hail derived by purchases from
tbe native chiefs, in the same manner that compensation was granted 10 other
holders of native claims. Moreover, it is to be observed that it is the prac-
tice for government to make sales ol large tracts in ibe colonies to land com-
panies at a reduced juice, by which the government immediately receives a
large sum, while tbe Company lay out a large capital in improvements, ami
tbe introduction ot emigrants. On such principle large grants have been
made to the Canada, New Brunswick, Australia. Van Dieman's Land, British
American, South Australian, New Zealand, and Australina Land Companies.
I In \,'u Zealand Company, we believe, do not purpose to lake a larger sum
than 5s. per acre for ilieir own prufit. the rest being devoted to emigration,
education, churches, steam navigation, roads, harbours, 8tc— Editor.

chaser for a section of land. Suppose the block to obtain a name
from some peculiar feature of the country, as a mountain, say Mount
Barker, the block then has a distinct name, and the term is changed
to a district, as in this suppositious one, " The Mount Barker District ;"
this district will afterwards contain several surveys of 1000 acres
each. Now supposing a purchaser has been found for a section of
land, another name is then required for the allotment, say in this case,
that it shall be called Dutton; the purchaser is then entitled to ask
for a survey, which when complete, he will be ready to sell into smal-
ler sections to be occupied by purchasing emigrants. On the ar-
rival of emigrants, they generally employ an agent on the spot to
select a section of land for them. Supposing the agent to have fixed
a location, it would then be designated, in the phraseology of emigra-
tion, a section situated in New Zealand, the name of the country, in
the Mount Barker district, in Dutton's survey, section 420S, or as the
case may be. Next, suppose the emigrant's hut built, and he gives it
a name, say, Balhannah, and others follow his example, we then begin
to get rid of all sections and blocks, and in the mind's eye, have ar-
rived in Her Majesty's loyal town of Balhannah, new Zealand.

But to return to see what has been actually done in carrying the
above plans into effect; we first have the settlement of the New
Zealand Company, then the district called Wellington in Port Nichol-
son. In this district in July, ls39, 1123 emigrants had arrived, and
in March, 1840, the town contained 3000 inhabitants. The amount or
extent of the land order in this case was for one acre of land and 100
acres of rural land. A second Company was then called into exist-
ence, which has subsequently merged into the New Zealand Company ;
they erected a settlement called New Plymouth, where the amount of
land orders was reduced in extent to a quarter of an acre of town ami
50 acres of agriculture, the whole block consisting of 57,500 acres,
exclusive of roads, which was divided into 2200 town sections, con-
taining in the aggregate 550 acres, and 209 suburban or agricultural
sections, constituting the remainder. Before the emerging or amal-
gamation of the New Zealand and the rival Companies, the latter had
sold 1000 town sections, 54 suburban sections, and 149 sections of
rural land, (a third term now introduced for the first time;) and there
have been sent out by the emerged Companies, to this, the second
settlement, called New Plymouth, 3ns male and 204 female colonists.
The second settlement of the New Zealand Company, or third yet
projected, is to be called Nelson, the site of which is not yet chosen;
it is to be divided and sold in sections of 201 acres, viz., one acre of
town, 50 suburban, and 150 agricultural, to be sold at the uniform
price of 30s. per acre, which is at the rate of 71, per acre for town
lands, and so on.

From what has been previously said, it will be seen that one of the
stipulations was, that the Company reserved the right of purchasing
in the first instance nearly one half of the whole settlement, and by
introducing three terms into the conditions, and consequently three
different orders of land. The land orders sold in this country are for
the suburban and agricultural, the town land being retained as a gre-
vious monopoly, and with a non residence of thousands of miles.

In Mr. Jamieson's account of New Zealand, who was surgeon-super-
intendent of emigrants to South Australia, and to whose account I
am indebted for many of the details of the size of blocks of land, he
says, at page 1 12, " The owner of a land order entitling its holder to
the first choice of a town allotment in the New Zealand Company's
settlement of Pott Nicholson, refused to sell his priority of choice for
£1000;" and that sheep farmers now proceed beyond the boundaries
of location by paying for the pasturage, or a squatting license. As a
further proof of the establishment of the land monopoly in the colonies
of the New Zealand Company, I may add the substance of a letter in
the limes, September 20, 1843, and dated Wellington, March 9, 1843,
from an officer of artillery, practising as a private surveyor; he says,
" I wish something could be done, if not to tax the absentees, at least
to give encouragement to bvnafidt settlers. The agents are confined
by the absentees to grant no other terms for forest land than a lease
for seven years," which is evidently of no use to the settler, the ab-
sentee coming in for all the settlers improvements almost as soon as
any improvement has taken place. To Charles Dickens's Martin
Chuzzlewit the public are deeply indebted, for the bold manner in
which he shows up ths system pursued in America, with regard to
emigration, in his graphic description of taking possession of an al-
lotment, he says, " At last they stopped — at Eden too — the waters of
the deluge might have left it but a week before : so choked with slime
and matted growth, was the hideous swamp which bore that mine."

I will now state what has been achieved in Australia. New South
Wales was colonized in 17S8 ; West Australia in 1829; South in
1834, and North in lsds, and their populations in 1839, were respec-

* Published 1S42; Smith & Elder.

1 843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

395

tively 78,000, 4,000, and 13,000; the population of North Australia is
not given, but Van Dieman's Land is stated at 43,000. Australia has suf-
ferred equally vvilh New Zealand in regard to the disastrous effect of
a slow and inefficient survey, and from the injustice of the Special
Survey Law prohibiting the cutting of wood and cultivation of the
ground in unappropriated lands. The enormous amount of £4000 is
requisite to get a special survey- The squatting system is mostly
acted upon, which is a complete bar to the cultivation of the land for
agricultural purposes, in consequence it only remains pastoral. The
squatters pay a licence of 40s. per annum per square mile, and who
upon (heir leaving are paid for the stock yard by the proprietor.

I have perused the letters of a relative who arrived in Adelaide,
South Australia, in September 1839, and from whose experience and
residence I am indebted for the following fact connected with the
county as regards the system pursued with respect to lands, its price
and suggested improvement. The cost of a Special Survey has been
stated, which entitles the parties to a selection of as many acres as
pounds are paid for the survey out of 23 square miles which is allowed
to extend twelve miles in length, and any breadtli ; to make up the
quantity, by this means the county is gutted of good land, and the re-
mainder is unsaleable on account of its distance from a common cross-
ing or reserved acre with water ; it also prevents cultivation as good
land is kept for sheep runs, to prevent which, as also the bad land re-
maining for ever on the hands of government, it is recommended to
divide the blocks into G40 acres or square miles, and again to divide
them into sections, say two of fine land with water, three hilly with
water, and three wood and mountain, and to make the price propor-
tional to the 20s. value, and to fix a maximum price for each descrip-
tion to prevent malignant bidding, at 40s. for fine land, 20s. for hilly,
and 6s. Sd. for mountain. At present the special surveys generally
bring from 50 to cent, per cent, profit after examined by the public,
five per cent is paid on a survey to the party who discovers and marks
the boundary of the proposed survey, and five guineas is paid to an
agent for the selection of each section, which is a much cheaper and
better plan than exploring the land personally, and if a special survey
is required, a year will elapse in waiting for the leisure of the surveyor,
and of these surveys already completed the proprietors pick out por-
tions and delay the rest, and monopolize the district by reserving
those containing water; and to prevent small holders of land orders
coming and settling and sharing with the large resident proprietor
the sheep runs, they have large districts surveyed, and then allow
them to be occupied by squatters, the proprietor picking out all
the best sections. To counteract this an attempt is sometimes made
by an association of small capitalists joining and getting a special
survey jointly, and fixing previously a sole arbitrator to fix the site of
each location ; but this plan did not succeed on account of the squabbles
occasioned by the selection and the delay in fixing the site of each
party to the joint survey although land has been obtained by this
means that sold for 30s. to 70s. per acre. Unsurveyed lands in Mount
Barker district of South Australia have been sold as high as £60 per
acre. Of those land orders which have not been appropriated, the old
ones have a priority, and are reserved to pounce on good sections as
soon as they are surveyed, in preference to recent emigrants. Some
of these land orders have been sold with three months credit as high as
£70, and one a year old for £90, and one of older date for £100.

I will now proceed to give a description of the result of the emi-
gration of my relative as regards his prospects, and a description of
his location. He sailed from Scotland March 15, 1S31J, and arrived at
Port Adelaide on the 30th Aug. following. On Sept. 20, he removed
to Adelaide Town, and took a lease for fourteen years of a coiner site,
70 ft. front, and 70 ft. deep, in Hindley Street, at a rent of 15s. per
foot per annum. He bought, through an agent, an 80-acre section of
suburban land for £240, in Mount Barke'r District,3 on which he
erected an inn at a cost of £'.)0, built of turf, and thatched, which he
has let for five years, at £100 for the first, and £125 for four follow-
ing years : he has sold two and half acres in allotments, which yield
£2s per annum: lie has also sown 25 acres, which with seed cost £120;
also one acre of whins, furze, or gorse, and planted 70 trees, viz. apple,
pear, plum, peach, quince, apricot, citron, gum trees, and vines ; he
has also sown the following seeds — cherry, damson, cape gooseberry,
hop, cocoa-nut, peas, beans, turnip, water and rock melons, pumpkin,
cucumber, cabbage, sixteen varieties of greens, potatoes, plum,
orange, grape, cotton, silver tree, capsicum, and aloes.

The tliermometer in the shade stands at 70° to 90°, and in the sun
at 115° to 120°. In the colony of South Australia there are about
12,000, although Mr. Jamieson says 15,000 inhabitants, and in Ade-

:l Section 4208 in Button's Survey, near Onkapannga or Anyus River and
road to Smallies survey, anil passes one end and the ride or ruad to Mount
Barker in which 8080 acres are survcye I.

laide alone one-half reside. The price of land in town is from £8 to
£20 an acre. In the town of Adelaide the streets are laid out recti -
linearly, there being about three houses on each acre; it is divided
into two portions by a valley, in which runs the chain of pools called
the River Torrens : the intervening ground is reserved as a common.
Seven miles is the distance to Port Adelaide, the nearest point at
which vessels can load. The principal street is Hindley Street, three
quarters of a mile long, and its continuation, Rundle Street ; but
King William Street, leading from the Government House and Post
Ollice, will be the most superior. Currie Street, next Hindley Street,
to the south, is being filled up, but not closely; and beyond it houses
are erected having little appearance of a town. Rosina Street is the
name of another, in which my relative temporarily set up his tent.
In Hindley Street a site, 25 ft. X IS ft., was let for two years on
lease at a rent of £83 per annum, and £40 was paid for the lease :
another, with a frontage of SO ft. X 100 ft., was let for 50s. a foot per
annum.

The following is a description of the buildings. The Capitol is a
mud house, with a reed roof, a sheet for a door, and an apron for a
window, the Pise is cornered with brick. There are a few brick
houses. The English church is built with rubble stone, and is already
in a dilapidated state, and has been partly rebuilt with a square tower
at one end, with a shingle pyramid and transept intersecting the
other. The Methodist building is ornamented with four Doric
columns and pediment the span of the roof. The Independents are
seeking subscriptions; and the Seceders and Kirk of Scotland are
also about erecting places of worship. In the vicinity are several
Germans who have settled, carrying with them their peculiarity of
construction : four miles north 200 are settled on the division of
labour and profit; and at a distance of 28 miles is their settlement of
2000 acres called Klemzig : it is a long street, with isolated houses
in gardens, with the gables towards the street. They have another
settlement eighteen miles off, and which was one of the first special
surveys: it is named Hansdorf; it is not so clean in appearance as
Klemzig.

The port where the Post Office and bonded stores are is badly
situated, boats of two feet draught grounding in the mud. Large
ships lie at the intersection of the north arm of the creek nine miles
from port; but four miles higher up many ships lie there having fif-
teen feet water. The height on the bar at top of tide is sixteen feet.
To remedy the inconvenient situation of the port the South Aus-
tralian Company is making a road to the creek, and propose to erect
jetties. A canal is already cut through the swamp, and a road is
making alongside, towards which each cart visiting the landing brings
a load of sand from the hill as toll. The creek is called the Sixteen-
mile Creek, and for twelve miles is lined with mangroves, the distant
hills backing the landscape. The range is a gradual rise from En-
counter Bay : Mount Lofty is six miles from town, and is 2200 feet
high; Mount Barker is a few feet less, and commands a view of a
dozen surveys. Both these mounts have given names to the districts
adjoining. The roads are laid down straight, with cross roads every
four or six sections.

Mr. Jamieson, in his work before alluded to, mentions crossing the
hill range in Mount Barker District with two Scotchmen, one of whom
was my relative, and from whose letters I have collated the preceding
notes. They took the old Tiers road by Mount Lofty, and visited the
Cattle Company's station, and passed through Meadous' Survey,
Smallies' Survey, and the Three Brothers' Survey, on the bank of the
Onkaparinga or Angus River, and then proceeded 25 miles south on
the Wollinga River, where the land is good, and some eligible sec-
tions taken. The Angus River and Hindmarsh River, the latter near
to Lake Alexandria, are the discoveries of Mr. Cock, who is fully
described in Jamieson's work as a successful emigrant.

The colony was founded in 1830, and in a Parliamentary Blue
Book published in 1842, the present governor states that the entire
population is 16,000, of which there are in the town 8474 ; anil that
there are 63 public-houses ; and that in 1841 the government revenue
was £30,000, and expenditure, £ 150,000; and that 3000 acres were
under cultivation; and that a jail, which is incomplete, had been
erected at a cost of £32,000, or more than one year's revenue.
Duriug 1S42, the land under cultivation had increased from 300U to
10,000 acres, and the crops were valued at £98,000 ; so that, from
the above account, the trial may be said to be over, and the colony
fairly planted ; the trials that have been undergone being the reverse
of Dickens' Eden, and more like the terse language of Scripture,
Australia being a land " wherein no waters be;" at least the fact of
water being reserved as a monopoly is prima/acic evidence of the
scarcity of it.

In conclusion, the division of the land by arbitrators, the effect of
nefficient survey, the Company's reserves, and the squatting system,

396

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

have all been alluded to ; as also the variation of land orders in extent
and a description of the land, the terms on which the absentees onlv
will grant leases of wood lands, and the restrictions imposed as regards
cutting wood, and the cultivation of the ground, and the enormous
amount of rent charged for the best town sections, have also been
stated ; and I will leave it to your readers to say whether the freedom
anticipated on emigration is likely to be obtained ; and the statement
of the governor of South Australia, as to the number of public houses,
I think sufficient to prevent the man of retirement and fine feelings to
seek for a home there. Instances are mentioned, from Mr. Jamieson's
work, of sellers of rum and bullock drovers realizing large fortunes in
almost no time, from preying on the new arrivals. This also shows
that there is no association — no sympathy with new comers ; and tint
the fight for a living will have to be continued with even greater
vigour than in this country; and it must also be considered that in in-
dividual gain originated the scheme.

With respect to the price of manual labour, the emigrant is paid 9s.
a week and food, until he finds a master, and the wages given by
masters is from 15s. to 21s. a week and keep; and men working by
job-work will earn from 7s, to 10?. a day ; and wood-splitters will
he enabled to earn on an average '20s. a day, and instances are known
of 50s., 00s., and 100s. per day having been made. The cost of fenc-
ing seems almost the standard of wages— ten to fifteen yards being a
day's work at a cost of Is. &d. to 2s. per yard.

I would have sent you a list of provisions for emigrants on the
voyage, as also a tariff list of purchases made and profit realize. I by
the sale on arrival, but your Journal, not being exactly the medium, I
forbear doing so.

As far as my individual opinion goes, I am so prejudiced in favour
of the crowded city, and like so well to be on the full tide of civiliza-
tion, that I am almost inclined to think, with a quondam friend, who
said "he would rather be executed in London, than die a natural
death elsewhere." I hope what I have already said will tend to give
parties the means of better judging of their probable position on their
arrival in the colonies.

St. Ann't, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. o. T.

REVIEWS.

Specification of a Patent granted to P. M. Parsons, of Waterloo
Rridge Road, Surrey, for "certain improvements in steam engines and
boilers, and in motive machinery connected therewith, Sec." G. Hebert,
Cheapside.

Mr. Parsons has evidently great expectations anil hopes to ascend
to the pinnacle of fame by his inventions — of which consummation
we have very considerable doubts. If we were to judge of his abili-
ties by the extent and number of his improvements, we should rise
from the perusal of his pamphlet with a high sense of his merits :
but unfortunately, if the wise saw was ever applicable, it is so here —
that " what is new is not useful, and what is useful is not new.

But to show that we are not among those who would condemn all
novelties, without enquiry and examination, we will poinl out where
Mr. Parsons has encroached on the property of others, and where his
own ideas (and they appear to us to be few) are in a practicable point
of view untenable and useless.

Mr. Parson's patent is divided into eleven branches, the first of
which contains eleven claims ; the second branch has two ; the third
the same; the fourth one; fifth one; sixth five; and the seventh,
eight, ninth, tenth, and eleventh, one claim each; in all no less than
I/iu nty-seten distinct claims or inventions, so that our readers will
perceive we have taken upon ourselves a somewhat laborious office,
even if we notice only the most prominent. The first branch applies
more particularly to the employment of high steam and locomotive
boilers, surface condensers, and double cylinder engines; for marine
purposes, of all these suggestions, one only is new, the locomotive
boiler; we use the term in its strict sense, and as it is evidently
meant to be by the patentee — namely, constructed on the same plan
as those employed on railways, and as he has drawn them, Figs. 1 & 2,
sheet A. Now, we believe it is generally known, that for three or
four years past, boilers on the locomotive plan have been adopted in
steam vessels on the river Thames and elsewhere, and although gene-
rally, and more appropriately, termed " Tubular Boilers," are in all
essentials exactly identical in principle with the railway locomotive
boilers; and we have reason to know such are now working under a
much higher pressure of steam than the public have any conception;
or is a knowledge of the value of expansion new, either in theory or

practice : and Mr. Parsons will find that we have made much greater
progress in the art than he appears to have any knowledge of.

There can be no doubt, that when the proper time arrives, when by
safe and careful experience we can make a further advance in the use
of high steam, by an increase in the amount of pressure, that a
considerable saving will arise in the consumption of fuel, and a de-
crease in the necessary boiler room; theory has told us this for many,
many years past; but in these matters, theory awaits upon practice,
and the slate of the latter may be judged of from the recent works of
some of our most eminent engine makers.

But is it probable that the railway locomotive boiler, as figured by
Mr. Parsons, will be introduced on shipboard? We think not, be-
cause their shape is that of least capacity compared with space occu-
pied ; and experience has detailed better forms and arrangements,
quite capable of bearing as great pressures, and which enables the
engineer to occupy to advantage all the space allowed for his ma-
chinery. If, therefore, Mr. Parsons does not strictly adhere to his
specification in this particular, he will merely follow in the footsteps
of Penn, Seaward, and others too numerous to enumerate ; and his in-
vention is therefore "useful but not new."

We could have wished that some scale had been attached to the
drawings in the pamphlet, so that we. might have brought to bear
upon Mr. Parsons' schemes the test of figures, combined with prac-
tical experience of the tequirements of marine machinery; and it
appears to us, we could have satisfactorily shown that he is Far behind
both in bis theory and practice of such engineering. Dismissing,
therefore, the boiler, we pass to the engine, and we have (although
disguised by Mr. Parsons' ingenuity), nothing more nor less than
Hornblower's scheme, as patented by him in 1781, (see Farey,
page 384, and Gregory's Mech. Vol. II., page 385;) or perhaps more
strii ily speaking, we should say Woolf's engine, inasmuch as Mr.
Parsons proposes to use high pressure steam in his small cylinder,
and expand it in his large one ; ' Hornblower, on the contrary, em-
ployed low pressure steam. But, Mr. Parsons' complicity is beyond
all endurance, valves upon valves, and steam and vacuum pas-
sages without end, the former placed in situations where they
cannot be conveniently examined, the latter rendering the casting of
the part a most difficult and critical proceeding; it further occurs to
us, that by the employment of two piston rods, he somewhat en-
croaches on Maudslay's patents of 1840 and 1811, (see our Journal of
March 1840 and October 1841,) and is in this and in its method of
securing the lower end of the connecting rod, an exact infringement
upon the designer of the Prince Albert's engines, whose name we
forget, but believe to be by birth a Swede ; and between who and the
Messrs. Maudsl iys, we bear, a tacit understanding exists, arising from
mutuality of invention, or rather adaptation or use, for we cannot
dignify such things by the term " invention."

And what are Mr. Parsons' condensers but surface condensers ? dif-
fering only in detail from Cartwright's of 1707, from Mr. Watt's
gridiron condenser, and later still from Mr. Hall's; the latter employs
pipes, Mr. Parsons corrugated iron plates; disbelieving, as we do,
the advantages said to arise from the use of surface condensers, we,
however, cannot allow this opportunity to pass without bearing our
small tribute of admiration to Mr. Hall, for the ingenious and scientific
way in which he has carried out his improvements upon Cartwright's
surface condensers; for although it was formed of plain plates, we
contend the principle is the same, Mr. Watt introduced pipes, and
tried numerous experiments, but failed. We have yet to learn that
Mr. Hall is more fortunate; but be that as it may, his arrangement for
supplying the loss of distilled water is really beautiful, and upon
which Mr. Parsons' is a sad parody and burlesque.

We have hitherto principally treated of what Mr. Parsons does not
claim per se ; but collectively, as an entire machine; let us endeavour
to trace out what is his individual merit, and how far he has added to
our stock of knowledge.

The eleven claims in the Jirst branch put us in mind of what is called
" ringing the changes," being a species of involution of surface con-
densers, high pressure, and double expansion engines. The third claim
in this branch, is, we believe perfectly new, whether useful or not re-
mains to be proved; we allude to the. double action air pump, with
separate valves and offices, the one at bottom to remove the condensed
water, that at the top to pump away the air and uncondensed vapour
accumulating in the condensers; it is but an experiment, and we have
doubts of an advantageous result, particularly when we reflect that
the single acting air pump in the common engine produces a vacuum
of 27i in. frequently 28 in., the condensed water being at a tempera-
ture of 100° or thereabout, which experience shews to be the best for

1 We do not enter into the question as to the advantage of expanding in
one cylinder, as Watt, or in two, as Hornblower.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

397

economical purposes. By Mr. Southern's rules (an authority above
question) as given by Farey, page 73, it follows that the vapour arising
from water heated to 102° is equal to a pressure of 1-97 in. of mercury,
therefore taking 27*54- 1-97 we have 29-47 in., or only 0*53 in. below
the mean barometric column in this country, which we opine, leaves
a very small margin for inventors. We now pass to the stcond
branch, which describes a double cylinder engine. Woolf again, with
a small spice of Mr. Joseph Maudslay's patent of 1S41 (before adverted
to) we have here, two piston rods and an annular cylinder, the internal
cylinder to be used a la Woolf, for high steam ; besides a patent by
Mr. Gillman has been already secured for using two cylinders one
within the other, and adopted for the same purposes as Mr. Parsons
proposes.

Without being hypercritical upon descriptive drawings to so small
a scale, we shall content ourselves with remarking, that we cannot see
how Mr. Parsons means to fit, adjust, and repair the. small sliding
valve, E F, Fig. 7, sheet A ; or how to make good the wear and tear
of the valves, N and M, with their Iriple faces, or to secure and make
tight the cylinder cover; and lastly, how all this complication is to be
manipulated and worked ? These are practical points which suggest
themselves to us, for the means described in p. 6 are, in our opinion,
totally inefficacious.

The third branch comprises a scheme that really provokes our
cachinnation ; — we believe it to be entirely new, although Mr. Parsons
does not claim its leading principle — the reciprocation of the cylinder
upon a fixed piston, stating it to have been used : if so, we conceive it
must have been on a very small scale.

The fourth branch consists of an arrangement of steam engine, "hav-
ing for its object the better application of the power for driving screw
propellers." It is on Woolf's plan, but evinces considerable inge-
nuity ; — but it is objectionable on account of the spur gearing, which
has been found the great difficulty in applying and working screw
propellers.

The fifth branch, for disconnecting paddle-wheels from the engines,
so that they may revolve when the ship is under sail, would be ex-
pensive in fitting, and useless in practice. Many other schemes are
known of far greater superiority; among others, that of Tiewhit is
prominent.

The sixth and seventh branches introduce more complication where
there is necessarily too much already, namely, in the locomotive engine.
The eighth branch is an invention for supporting the main plummer
blocks of marine engines. This is verily an "invention," for we feel
assured nothing of the kind was ever seen before. This, like the
third branch, assures us of what we previously had an idea — that
Mr. Parsons's ingenuity far exceeds his practical knowledge.

The ninth branch, an improved packing for pistons and shifting
boxes, like the fifth, is useless, because far better means are in use, as
those of Maudslay and of Robert Napier.

The tenth branch, an improved cock aud plug, is absurd.
The eleventh branch, for preventing cams turning round with the
shaft, is absolutely preposterous, because it can be, and is done, by
more simple arrangements.

This, then, completes our analysis of Mr. Parsons' patent. We
cannot, however, conclude without protesting against this wholesale
mode of making up a patent, and observing that he cannot re-
concile, with the honour and dignity of the profession, thus bringing
together other men's inventions, disguise them under a thin veil of
doubtful improvement, and make the compound the subject for a
patent.

WealCs Quarterly Papers
John Weale.

TVcal,
John Weale

Engineering
quarterly Papers on Architecture.

Part I. London:

Part I. London :

Mr. Weale, having succeeded so well with some of his annual
publications, particularly the papers of the corps of Royal Engineers,
has now commenced two quarterly miscellanies, one devoted to engi-
neering, and the other to architecture, as the means of preserving
those papers which, without being of sufficient bulk to justify an inde-
pendent publication, are yet too long fur our columns, or require a
greater extent of illustration than we can devote to any one subject.
We see that the design includes scientific memoirs, the lives of emi-
nent professional men, republications of American works, and trans-
lations of important communications from the French, Dutch, and
other foreign languages. When it is considered that the works will
each torm a handsome volume at the end of the year, expensively
llustrated, and at a moderate price, we are sure these new enterprises

will receive that support from the two professions which they well
merit.

The engineering part not inappropriately commences with a
copious life of Brindley by Mr. Hughes, C. E. It gives full details as
to his works, and is illustrated with a copper-plate portrait. Another
memoir succeeds this, namely, one on Wm. Chapman, CIO., for
whom is claimed the invention of the skew arch, first applied by him,
in 17S7, on the Kildare County Canal in Ireland. Originally employed
in the merchant navy, his attention was early directed to hydraulic
engineering, which, on the advice of Watt, Bonlton, and others, he
determined on pursuing as his profession. He was consequently
employed on a number of canals and docks, and, among others, on the
London Docks. He was also the author of several useful professional
works, ami of many valuable inventions and improvements in mechan-
ical processes, particularly in rope-making, and the shipment of coals.

We have afterwards a paper on the dredging machine, with three
engravings, and entering into the history of that invention, but to
which, as it is likely to be the subject of controversy in this Journal,
we will not at present enter. The plates describe a machine con-
structed under the direction of the late Mr. Rennie, in 1S02, for rais-
ing mud out of Messrs. Perry's dock at Blackwall, and another used
at the Hull docks in 1S0S. In this paper it states that "the piles (600
in number) for the coffer-dam of the Wapping entrance of the London
Docks, constructed by Mr. Rennie, were driven by one of Boulton &
Watt's eight-horse engines in the year 1801. Next comes an account
of the engines of the Russian war steam frigate, the Kamschatka,
constructed at New York by Messrs. R. & G. L. Schuyler. Four
plates illustrate this subject, and a description is given of several
peculiarities in the construction, for which we cannot say much in its
favour. We will, however, let the engineers give their own reasons.

" In the United States, the most aproved method of using steam is
expansively, that is to say, by having a high pressure in the boiler,
cutting off the steam from the cylinder after the piston has performed
say one quarter of its stroke, and allowing this high steam to expand
through the remaining three quarters of the stroke. To this system
to work to the best advantage very long cylinders are required.

" Having determined upon adhering to this method, so successful
in our river steamers, it became necessary to adopt some plan by
which the length of cylinder could be preserved without elevating the
engines above the deck, or cramping the action of the connecting rod,
as is seen in some English government steamers. By reference to the
drawing, you will observe that any desired length of stroke can be
obtained without adding to the elevation of the engines, and also that
the connecting rod has great length and free action. The advantages
of placing the cylinders in a horizontal position, firmly secured to the
keelsons, and bolted down through the hull, are also very great. The
strain of the engine is fore and aft, which tends greatly to relieve the
ship. The engine takes up much less space in width than any other;
there is consequently room for coal-bunkers four feet wide on eacli
side, thereby rendering the engines completely shot proof. In this
plan we retain vertical air pumps, force pumps, and valves. The
steam and exhaustion valves are of the kind commonly used in the
United States, known as double balance valves. The valves used for
expansion are of our own contrivance, and peculiar to this ship; they
are worked by a separate eccentric and rocker shaft, which is so set
as to follow the motion of the steam valve, cutting off the steam at
any point of the stroke which may be desired ; they can be thrown out
of gear instantaneously, without stopping the engine. The triangle
or half beam, which forms the connexion between the piston rod and
the connecting rod and cranks of the engine, can be so arranged, by
altering the centres, as to make the cranks of any length which is
thought most advisable, without reference to the length of stroke of
the piston. In the case of the Kamschatka's engine, the cylinders are
62£ in diameter, and have ten feet stroke, while the cranks are but
four feet in length, and you will readily perceive that any leverage
lost in shortening the crank is exactly counterbalanced by the gain
upon the half beam. The steam is cut off at one third of the length
of the cylinder. The number of strokes of the piston are from 26 to
34 per minute — on an average 30; thus requiring 1260 cubic feet of
steam per minute, of an average pressure of 12 lbs. per square inch
above the atmosphere. She has four copper boilers, (constructed for
burning anthracite coal), each 10 feet long, 12 feet 6 iuches wide, and
11 feet high ; the flues all centering in one chimney, 7 feet in dia-
meter, and 46 feet high above deck. Each boiler has four separate
furnaces; the heated current is taken from each furnace through 400
copper tubes, each 28 inches long, and one inch in diameter in the
clear. From any one of these furnaces, by a peculiar construction of
a revolving grate, the coals can be instantly dropped, and the tubes in
that furnace can be swept out and cleaned while all the other furnaces

398

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November,

are in active operation. Some doubts were entertained by engineers
in this country as to the possibility of keeping these small flues tight,
and also as to their choking up on a long sea voyage. Our expe-
rience in the Kamschalka completely settles that point. Of the ti40U
tubes in her boilers, not one is known to have failed in any respect.
After passing through these small tubes, exposing an immense quan-
tity of fire surface, the heat is carried by ordinary cross flues through
the upper part of the boiler over the arch of the furnaces to the
chimney. The consumption of anthracite coal in the Kamschalka, to
furnish ths supply of steam above stated, varies from one ton to one
ton and a quarter per hour. We would also remark, that the same
boilers answer, though not so perfectly, for the consumption of bitu-
minous coal. On the voyage from Southampton to Cronstadt the
latter coal was used, the average consumption being 32 tons in 24
hours.

" The plan of engine used in the Kamschalka, and known as
' Lightall's Patent,' is gradually coming into general use in these
waters. A new steamer for the Hudson river, now building, 325 feet
long, which is expected to excel in speed all others, is to be supplied
with these engines, the proprietors having already tested the plan for
several years in the largest and finest boat on that river.

" The Kamschatka, planned and constructed by us for the Russian
government, is a man-of-war steamer of the largest class, carrying a
heavier armament than any steamer. She is a double decker ; carries
on the main deck eighteen long 36-pounders, and on her spar deck
two guns of 10- inch bore, one forward and one aft, revolving in whole
circles; and two guns of 8-inch bore, revolving in half circles. Her
length is 21li feet; beam, 45 feet 6 inches ; depth, 24 feet 6 inches;
tonnage, 2049^ ; draught of water with crew, ammunition, provisions,
water for a cruize, and fuel for 26 days, Id feet. The performance
of the ship, in a very stormy and tempestuous voyage from New York
to Cronstadt, in the months of October aud November, 1841, was en-
tirely satisfactory. Her rate of speed was from 10 to 12, and occa-
sionally 12A knots per hour. Under sail, her engines being discon-
nected, she has made 197 miles in 24 hours. In the heaviest weather
she was steered with perfect ease, and shipped no sea during the
whole voyage."

Mr. Joseph Gill has contributed some hints and improvements of
the steam engine, which require to be separately considered.

We see that for the next number much matter of interest is pro-
mised by Mr. Weale, and particularly papers on the light-houses of
England, France, and America, the hydraulic works of Holland, and
tbe ship-building of the United States.

The Quarterly Papers on Architecture commence with "an Essay
on those Powers of the Mind which have reference to Architectural
Study and Design," by Mr. George Moore, well known for his talent
and abilities in architecture, as well as the fine arts generally.

The next paper refers to the Greenwich poor-house, by Mr. R. P.
Browne, the architect of the building. It is accompanied by four
plans and an isometrical view. The arrangements for classifying the
inmates appear to lie well carried out, ami are of an extensive cha-
racter, affording accommodation for near 1200 persons, the cost being,
on an average, about £24 per head. The following is the cost of the
land and buildings:

t 8. d.
Purchase of land and expenses .. .. . . 1,^ >5 2 6

Forming a sewer to the river, about 25U feet, and

other works 1,200 0 0

Contract for house .. .. £18,674 0 0

Additional works in buildings and

fittings 3,004 0 O

Artesian well and three-barrel pump 208 11 11
Boilers and furnaces for washing .. OS 5 0
Steam cooking apparatus, eight baths,

boilers, stores and fenders . . 720 0 0

Additional works for enlargement of
infirmary department . . . 1,54G 0 0

24,880 10 11

£27,945 19 5

The next paper is the Life of the late Mr. Morrison, architect of
Dublin. We learn from the memoir that William Vitruvius Mor-
rison was a kind of hereditary architect, his father, grandfather, and
greatgrandfather having also exercised the profession. Sir R. Mor-
rison, the father of William, and under whom he was brought up, is
also a subject of the memoir. William Morrison, according to this
paper, was the first to introduce the Tudor style into Ireland in
modern days, and was the designer of a number of the finest modem
seats in Ireland, principally in the style just named

We next have four plates of stained glass windows, selected from
the ancient churches of York by Messrs. Bell and Gould, architects.
The plates are beautifully printed in colours by Mr. Cheffins, and have
a very rich effect. The concluding paper on the Primitive Churches
of Norway, with six drawings of doors, with carved frames and fron-
tispiece in wood, highly ornamented, and of a peculiar arabesque cha-
racter, are well deserving the study of the architect; and, as the
author observes, they afford hints and ideas that might be turned to
account, and, among other purposes, for ornamental metal work.

Ecclesiastical Architecture. Illustrations of Baptismal Fonts.
Parti. London: Van Voorst.

The present ecclesiastical fever will do some good if only for the
interest it excites in architecture and its details. Parsons are looking
about them, brushing off the whitewash, and brushing up antique fonts,
pulpits, screens and pews, a zeal which we hope will also be caught by
the Church Building Commissioners. The old rule was when one of
the large workhouse buildings, misnamed churches, was run up, to
stick in a few sheep-pens or pews, and consider the job completed.
Attention to details, or the necessary ornaments, was not to be ex-
pected, the same ice-fiend ruled in cold propriety in the interior who
had pared the outside to bare walls, simplicity, or as we should call
it, nakedness, reigned supreme, and the carpenter aud joiner finished
tastefully what the bricklayer and labourer had so artistically begun.
We hope, however, that the reign of the Goths is checked, and I hat
we shall see better things. The present work will do much good in
this respect, for it gives some excellent examples of what may be done
in all styles in that neglected attribute of a church the font. The pre-
sent number contains no less than sixteen engravings all by first rale
artists, and produced with that excellence Mr. Van Voorst knows so
well how to display in his illustrated publications. We hope to see
this work carried to a great many numbers.

RAILWAY WORKS— ABBOTT'S CLIFF, DOVER.

We arc indebted to Mr. Hodges, engineer of the South-Eastcrn Railway,
for the following details. Another of those blasts by which the progress of
the works have been so greatly facilitated, and having for its object the
clearing out the angle of the slope to form the face of the Abbott' Cliff tun-
nel, was intended to have been effected on Thursday ; but, from sonic unac-
countable cause, the circuit of one of the voltaic batteries was prematurely
completed, discharging a portion of the mini's, and leaving the rest unsprung.
In this blast (although minor in point of power, yet, as a piece of engineer-
ing, much more difficult than any of the preceding), 31100 lbs. of gunpowder
were to have been exploded. This was divided into 28 charges, varying from
28 lbs. to 0(10 lbs. each, and placed upon two platforms, 100 feet apart ; the
upper having 12, and the lower Hi charges, the whole of which were intended
to have been simultaneously ignited. The arrangements had all been most
carefully made by Mr. Hodges, assisted by Mr. Graves, and it is impossible
to account for the partial and premature ignition which took place. So,
however, it was; some of the mines first exploded, and Mr. llodges, finding
that to he the case, completed the circuit of the whole of the batteries, by
which the 12 mines on the upper platform were discharged. Upon examina-
tion, it was found that the spoil, caused by the prematurely exploded mines,
had disarranged the whole of the wires connected with the lower mines, and,
of course, prevented their being discharged until this spoil could be removed.
The dislodgment effected by the upper mines is precisely what was required ;
aud there is little doubt hut that the lower mines, when discharged, will pro-
duce the desired result, although not fired with the upper. This partial
check, for it can scarcely be called a failure, is the first with which
Mr. Hodges has met in the course of the numerous explosions which have
been planned and executed by him during the progress of the works, and
by which so many thousands of pounds and so much time have been saved
the company and contractors. Since the above was written, the lower mines
were discharged, and the result is precisely what was desired by the pro-
jectors. The works are progressing here with great rapidity ; the outward
piles of the viaduct are now been driven, and its completion will take place
during the month. These piles go completely into a rocky substratum, and
give great security and firmness to the work. The sea-wall is in a state of
rapid completion, and, when erected, will prove a most perfect barrier to the
inroads of " Davy Jones," from whose attacks, such is the natural formation
of the beach, we think there is nothing to be feared. The Archcliff-fort
Tunnel will be finished next week ; and the preparations are now being made
for laying the permanent rails in the Shakspeare Tunnel. According to ap-
pearances at present, we have little doubt that Mr. Cubitt's expectation of
opening the line to Dover before the end of next month will be realized; at
all events we feel quite satisfied that the year 1843 will witness the carriages
of the South-eastern Railway running to Dover. — Dover Telegraph.

J 843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

399

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

BIELEFELD'S PATENT DRESSING GLASS STAND.

In the construction of glass stands every kind of form has been given to
the frame and pillar supporting them, but it is somewhat remarkable that no
attempts have been made to improve the principle of construction : in seek-
ing graceful forms we appear to have hitherto forgotten to inquire whether
the mechanical structure may not be improved ; — a circumstance the more
remarkable, as the usual mode is admitted by every one to be very faulty.
The glass in all cases hangs on two stems, and turns on two pins : after
leaving the workman's hands, for a few days or weeks, the glass turns obe-
diently to our will, and retains the desired angle ; but soon a little obstinacy
shows itself; the glass seems bent on resuming its vertical position : a turn
is then given to the screws to keep it in its place : again another and another
turn gives us a brief control over the pertinacious mirror ; but. it is soon
found that every turn of the screw increases the evil, for, in pressing against
the glass, it mechanically forces the stem which holds it out of its proper up-
right position; and thus it is at length compelled to leave the glass, and take
its own course, or to endeavour to resist it by wedges, props, or other shifts.
Never yet, however, has this difficulty been overcome; for, by some strange
oversight, inventors have never sought a new principle of hanging. Mr.
Bielefeld, however, the inventor of the article before us, which be calls the
Qudr/iirirersal Glass Stand, has at length adopted the right course with com-
plete success.

It will be at once seen that the simple stem which holds up the mirror can
be raised or lowered, so that it may be used either sitting or standing; that
the mirror itself can be turned to the right or the left, and set at every
possible angle : and it is also obvious that the screw which keeps the joint
tight can never cease to do so, as it acts on a principle the very reverse of the
screws on the old plan. The accompanying figures and description will ex-
plain the construction.

Description .—a is a simple stem, sustaining the mirror, which can be
placed in a more or less vertical position by means of 0 a joint fitted with a
thumb-screw, to admit of being tightened or loosened at pleasure, c is a
hollow shaft, or column, in which the stem a is made to slide freely, d is a
felt collar.'fitted on the end of the stem a, to ensure an equal bearing on the
hollow column, e is a collar, turning freely on the hollow column, and is
fitted with a screw stuffing-box, which allows the mirror to be fixed at any
degree of elevation, and at the same time admits of its being turned either to
the right or to the left. / is the foot, which is made to screw off or on, by
which means it may be packed in the smallest possible compass,— a great
desideratum in exportation.

ARMSTRONG'S HYDRO-ELECTRIC MACHINE.

The machine which, under the above name, is attracting crowds of ad-
mirers'to the Polytechnic Institution, is an apparatus contrived by Mr. Arm-
strong (au enthusiastic scientific gentleman of Newcastle) for the purpose of
collecting, on a large scale, the electricity generated by the friction of par-
tiallv condensed steam. The vivid streams of electric fluid which are drawn
from every part of the machine, and which appear almost inexhaustible, fill
the reflective beholder with a mixed feeling of awe, of pleasure, and of pride ;
of awe, at beholding so vast an accumulation of a power so fearful— of plea-
sure, at its novelty and beauty— and of pride, that man has attained the
power of making 'subservient to his will, this mysterious agent, apparently
more concentrated than the forked lightning, one shock of which, if passed
through his body, would stretch him a lifeless corpse. The victory of mind
over force is indeed daily extending, whether it be exercised over beasts or
the elements, whether steam or electricity.

This discovery, like many others which are now changing the pursuits anil
opinions of men, is of very recent origin, bearing date but two or three years
ago. It appears that an attendant to a fixed engine at Newcastle, whilst
standing in a current of steam rushing from a leaky valve in the boiler, ex-
tended his hand towards it, and perceiving a slight spark, concluded that the
boiler was full of fire. Mentioning his suspicions to Mr. Armstrong, the latter
tried it, and from thence proceeded with experiments, which have ended in
the production of the present machine. It is said that from the fall of an
apple, Newton worked out his beautiful theory ol gravitation — that the
swinging of a lamp in a cathedral, suggested to Galileu the law - of tl
dulum — and although we would not put this new discovery on a par with
these, yet it is of the same nature. Thanks to t!:i wide diffusion of scientific
knowledge, there are now multitudes of minds who, imbui 'I with true philo-
sophic zeal, beholding an accident or an isolated experiment, which formerly
would be viewed with the eye of superstition or considered as the result of
chance and unaccountable, would immediately consider its cause and effect,
and see in what manner it might assist in the advancement of science.

Description. — It may be considered to consist esseutially of three parts;
a boiler 7' 6" by 3' 6" from which the steam passes, by two tubes in the top,
into the 2nd part, a long horizontal tube, from which issue 111 curved pipes,
terminated by wooden nuts with orifices -±, of an inch, allowing high- ; >
steam, mixed with a great quantity of condensed water, to rush upon the 3rd
part, the conductor, which is composed of four rows of brass pins, contained
in a zinc box, 7 ft. long by 1' 10" wide. The boiler is insulated by standing
on six strong glass legs; the funnel is suspended, and when the machine is
in action is raised up ; the conductor is in electric communication with the
earth.

Theory. — It appears from the investigations of Dr. Faraday, that no por-
tion of the electricity is due to the steam ; it acts only as the driving
power to the particles of water which are condensed in the curved pipes.
That, in fact, it arises from the particles of water, rubbing against the small
orifice from which it rushes. Positive electricity is excited, which the con-
ductor instantly carries to the earth ; the water then, in order to return to
its normal state, robs the boiler of its share, and leaves it in an intensely
negative state. Thus we see, that although derived from a new source,
we have not to add to the list of thermo, magneto, chemico, and frictional
electricities, as the latter is quite sufficient to account for it. It may, indeed,
be compared to the common electrical machine, by considering the water to
correspond to the glass, and the boiler and tubes to the rubber. The Doctor
has shown, by experiments as simple as conclusive, that dry steam or air elicit
no electricity, but that if either hold in suspension particles of liquids or
solids, electricity is excited ; that in the case of water, it must not contain
a conducting substance, or none would be obtained ; and that if it contain
oil, turpentine, or other resinous substance, it produces electricity of an op-
posite kind.

It appears strange — the only difference between steam and water at 212"
being the latent heat the former contains — that electricity cannot be produced
from both ; and it would lead us to consider steam as being a definite com-
pound of oxide of hydrogen + electricity + latent heat, the latter being in
a much weaker state of combination, and always being parted with before
the electricity.

The reader is, we doubt not, aware that Faraday discovered, some years
ago, that carbonic acid gas, by being generated in immensely strong vessels,
may be compressed into a liquid state; that Thilorier discovered that, if
this liquid be allowed to rush into the air, part of it passes into the state of
gas, and, by the cold produced, freezes some of it into the solid state. Now
it would be an interesting experiment to ascertain if, by insulating the appa-
ratus, electricity could not be collected. The circumstances appear so simi-
lar, that we feel convinced that such would be the case. We should like to
bear of Mr. Addams, who has greatly improved upon Thilorier's apparatus,
whether he has tried it, and, if so, what is the result.

The exceeding beauty of the experiments performed by this machine is
very striking. Water and other liquids have been decomposed by it ; and
every day, beyond the ordinary experiments with tin foil and wires in various
shapes, gunpowder is exploded, and shavings ignited, and the aurora borealis
imitated most splendidly. Metallic leaves and wires are exploded by dis-
charges from the huge battery, which is charged six times in one minute.
Although the battery can be charged in one-fourth of the time by this ma-
chine that it could be by the colossal plate machine that they used formerly,
showing, therefore, four times the intensity, it appears that the striking dis-
tance, that is, the length of flash, is not anything like so long.1

Mr. Bachhoffner, who gives an exceedingly clear lecture on the machine,
drew attention to an interesting spiral movement in the electric fluid, which
occasionally takes place in the aurora experiment, which cannot be accounted
for. We think it may possibly have some connexion with a fact which we
noticed, that, although the apparatus is not shifted at all, yet the discharges
do not take place in the same spot, but arc always shifting: it may be, be-
cause the electricity does not arrive at the same degree of tension on the
spot where a discharge has just taken place.

1 On closely inspecting the paper on which the mi sploded,

which was kindly given to us by Mr, Bai hhoffner, the coloured
are left were found, in several instances, to be composed "i an infinite
series of finer lines, placed at right angles to the general stn

that at the time of the discharge tin y v i i
magnets.

54

400

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[November

We think the proprietors of the Polytechnic Institution deserve all the
success they are reaping, for the spirited way in which they are bringing
forward all new scientific discoveries ; and may, with great confidence, re-
commend our readers, both scientific and otherwise, to witness the splendid
effects of this new machine.

PREPARED PAINTED SURFACES OF PAPER.

Henry Martin, of Norton-terrace, Camden-town, painter, has obtained a
patent fur " improvement! in preparing surfaces of paper. — Patent dated
March 30, 1840; they consist in embossing and enamelling the surfaces of
paper, and In manufacturing paper-hangings. A coat of oil-paint of the de-
sired colour, is first applied to the surface of the paper, as evenly as possible,
with a common paint-brush ; it is then rubbed lightly over with a brush,
similar to a clothes or shoe-brush, (giving it a circular motion.) to remove the
marks of the paint-brush; after which, an additional smoothness is given to
the painted surface, by passing a dry brush, called a " a softener," lightly
over it. If more than one coat of paint be laid on, this process is repeated.
Or, instead of the above method, the paint may be applied by conducting the
paper between two rollers, together with an endless felt or other fabric,
which is supplied with paint by passing under a roller, partly immersed in it;
the superfluous paint being removed from the felt, as it ascends, by a scraper.
The paper, thus prepared, is embossed, by passing it between engraved rollers
or dies; or is converted into paper-hangings, by printing the required designs
upon it with blocks or other surfaces. If a glazed or enamelled surface is to
be given to the paper, the oil-paint must be used in a thick or round state, and
thinned only with turpentine, in the same manner as if it were used for
" flatting." When the turpentine evaporates, the colour becomes set ; the
paper is then placed upon a bed of woollen cloth or other soft material, and
a pallet-knife or trowel, with a polished surface, is passed over the painted
surface of the paper, with B slight pressure; the colour being set, yiebls to
the pressure, and a glaze is thereby produced, which may be afterward!
heightened in the usual manner. ( Niter means may be resorted to for glazing
the painted surface of the paper, if preferred.

RAILWAY CHRONICLE OF THE MONTH.

The Railway proceedings of this month have been principally confined to
the results of the great amalgamation movement of last mi. nib. The inilu-
( nee "I the Great Midland junction has l«'cn to produce the greatest i
all tin- railway interests of England by the creation of a new power, with a
new policy. The London and Birmingham, hitherto the ruling line of the
south, has been the first to feel thi' change. It is said that the Great Mid-
'and has made a proposition requiring the London and Birmingham to let
Hum work their own traffic to London on the same terms as the Manchester
and Birmingham do on the Grand Junction, under the penally of having
their own line from Leicester to London. The London and Birmingham
have, in consequence, taken a bold step by bringing about an amalgamation,
or rather union, of the Northern and Eastern and Eastern Counties, so as to
prevent these latter lines from falling under the power of the Creat Midland,
and assisting them in obtaining the traffic of the north and east of England ;
while it is expected this measure will secure to the London aud Birmingham
the benefits of the Northampton ami Peterborough line. It is most probable
that these hopes of the London anil Birmingham will not be fulfilled : but
the union of the two lines has taken place, meeting of each being held at the
Shoreditch Station on the 25th. when residutions were passed, almost without
opposition, approving of the plan, except that Mr. D.W.Harvey, at the
Kastem Counties' meeting, made a speech two hours long. The plan gua-
rantees 5 per cent, dividend to the Northern and Kastem. then the Eastern
Counties to have i\ per cent., and the remaining profits to be divided in the
proportion of two-thirds to the Eastern Counties, and one-third to the
Northern and Eastern. The joint board to consist of twelve Eastern Counties'
Directors and six Northern and Eastern Doctors.

The Devon and Cornwall Railway is progressing, two meetings having been
held at Plymouth and Devonport on the 25th and 26th, in favour of it, at
which Mr. Saunders, secretary and chief superintendent, and Mr. Brunei,
chief engineer of the Great Western Railway, attended.

Two lines have been started as branches from the Eastern Counties Rail-
way to Harwich, and the pian for the extension to Ipswich is being prosecuted.
A line has been brought forward to carry the mineral traffic in Furnessfor
shipment to the Piel of Foudrey : it will also form part of a West Cumber-
land line.

The Churnet Valley line lias been revived. This railway would proceed from
the Manchester and Birmingham Railway by Leeds to Deri y.

Mr. Rastrick is surveying for a Brighton Railway branch from Shoreham
to Worthing and Chichester.

We ought to have mentioned above that an amalgamation is also on the
tapis between the North Union Railway and the Bolton and Preston. Many
parties justly tear that the uliima'e result of ama'gama:ion will be to throw-

all the lines into the hands of the Government. The French government, in
defiance of the expression of public feeling on the General Railway Act, is
trying to get the lines into its own hand in France. It is said they intend
next session to ask the Chambers for her authority to work the Paris and
Northern Railway and Montpellier and Nismes Railway. This, if successfnl,
would also be an example for our parlies here.

With regard to foreign railways, the great event has been the opening of
the junction line between Liege and Aix-la-Chapelle. This forms a con-
tinuous communication of upwards of 200 miles from Cologne, on the Rhine,
to Antwerp. Oslend, and Lille.

The Darlington Junction Railway has guaranteed the projectors of the High
Level Bridge 3 per cent, on the expenditure of £100,000. as a composition
for toll on railway traffic. Messrs. John and Benjamin Green are appointed
architects, and Robert Stephenson consulting engineer. The idea of em-
ploying wood is abandoned, and either stone or wood will be the material
employed. The capital is to be raised in shares of 20/. each, and the esti-
mate of the cost of the bridge is £80,000; a revenue from traffic of B\ pet-
cent in addition to the guaranteed percentage is anticipated, notwithstanding
which, very few shares have been taken ; the prospectus was issued last Sep-
tember, and John Hodgson Hinde, Esq., M.P., is chairman of the committee.
Another great event of the month, has been the decision in the important
case in Chancery of Ranger v. Tin- Great Western Railway, involving in
itself and the cases depending upon it, upwards of a quarter of a million
sterling, some say £400,000. This litigation has long acted to the disadvan-
tage of the Great Western Railway Company, Mr. Ranger and his advocates
having been large in their demands and loud in their denunciations of fraud
against the company and its engineers, particularly Mr. Brunei's. The Vice
Chancellor of England. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, in giving judgment by special
appointment, at Lincoln's Inn on the 27th, gave judgment on every point in
favour of the company, dismissing the plaintiff's bill with costs, and de-
claring his statements to be devoid of foundation, at the same time that he
vindicated the high character of Messrs. Brunei, Frere, and Babbage. As to
the plea that contractors were not to be guided by the decision of the en-
gineer as to the mode in which the work was executed, the Vice-chancellor
repudiated such a doctrine; he said it was of importance to the safety of
mankind that railways should be executed under the directions of eminently
scientific men, and that in the act of the Great Western Railway Company,
the legislature had set an example, in declaring the opinion of the Surveyor
General of Metropolitan Roads, and of the Engineer of the London and
Birmingham Railway, decisive as to certain works, as to quantities and valu-
ations, however application might be made to that court. He treated as
nonsense the attempt to reject the decision of the engineer, because he was a
shareholder in the company ; it was notorious that engineers and other offi-
cers of railway ei mpanys were shareholders in them : and there could be no
doubt the interest of the engineer was paramount to that of the shareholder.
The Vice-Chancellor, on the plaintiff's own showing, upheld the system of
penalties for the fulfilment of a contract, as a wholesome system to insure
the work being effectually and punctually executed, since the plaintiff him-
self had adopted the same system with his subcontractors, and on the same
gronnds] He also asserted the legality of the taking possession of the wink
and plant. In line, the Vice-Chancellor dismissed the bill on nearly every
ground, with costs, leaving the plaintiff to any remedy he might have at
common law, and allowing an account to be made out subject to the penal-
ties and conditions of the contract. This result was w hat was anticipated
by most reasonable men. though Mr. Ranger and his friends had buoyed
themselves up to the last with the hopes of success. He wil . however, very
probably try to induce his creditors to appeal from this judgment, though it
is not likely with any success. This decision is of important e, not merely on
iis technical grounds, but as it relieves the property of the Great Western
Company from a bearing influence in the money market, secures the present
management in office, which otherwise was in jeopardy, and leaves free scope
for the exercise of the plans of extension entertained by the moving parties
in the concern.

Midland Counties Railway.— We are informed that the platfoim across the
Trent was not carried away by the floods, as stated in last month's Journal,
but was removed at the latter end of August, in consequence of the Weir
being finished.

English ami Belgian Coke.— For the comfort of the Newcastle coal-
owners, and as a set-off" to a paragraph deprecatory of the Newcastle coal,
»e have to mention that serious complaints have been made by all parties
connected with the Paris and Rouen Railway, in reference to the Belgian
coke which has been latterly used upon it. The Journal qf Rouen, states in
a recent number, that on the opening of the railway, and for some time alter-
nards, the locomotives were supplied with Engl sh coke, and all went well.
Ilie stock, however, became exhausted, and recourse was had io Belgian
c. l.e. The trains immediately became seriously retarded, anil the company has
appealed to the Tribune of Commerce, for damages against the merchant who
supplied il.e Belgian coke — and surveyors have been appointed, in consequence,
to estimate the damage.— Gateshead Observer,

1843.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

401

THE GREAT NORTHERN STEAM SHIP.

This fine vessel, which was built hy two or three spirited individuals at
Londonderry, in the north of Ireland, and completed last year, arrived in
the river Thames last January, she has since then, through some imperfection
in her machinery, been laid up in the East India Docks, for the purpose of
having her engines thoroughly examined and set to rights, to adapt them
more particularly to the working of Mr. Smith's patent Archimedean screw ;
for this purpose, the owners placed the machinery in the hands of Messrs.
Miller and Ravenhil], the well known engineers of Blackwall. We know of
no one better qualified for such a task than Mr. Joseph Miller, his superior
practical knowledge of all the details of the marine engine are well know n
to all persons throughout the world, who are in any way connected with
sleam navigation; (bis is farther proved by the very great satisfaction he
has given to the owners, for the very perfect manner he has completed his
task, which has been an Herculean one, when it is considered that he
has bad to alter engines ot a large magnitude which bad been made, not by
one engineer, but by several, and in various parts of the United Kingd; m,
part having been made in Ireland, and other parts by different manufacturers
in England. It now affords us much pleasure to say that at a trial of the
vessel down the river Thames on the 11th ult.. the engines performed all that
coidd be desired ; her performance against tide was fully equal to 7i knots
per hour, her speed through the water may be fairly taken at 10 knots per
hour; when we consider the disproportion of the power to the tonnage uf
the vessel, this is a most satisfactory performance, and shows that the screw-
is nearly equal to the paddle wheel in rivers, and superior in the open sea,
particularly during tempestuous weather. It must be a source of great satis-
faction to Mr. Smith, the patentee, to wdiom all the credit is due, for his perse-
vering industry in bringing forward this new mode of propelling, in opposition
to a whole phalanx of great men.

As the engines have undergone some alterations, we will proceed to describe
them, together with their dimensions, and also those of the vessel.

There are two engines, which are placed immediately abaft the vessel, with
the large spur wheel athwart, between the engines, and the boilers in advance
of the engines, leaving the wdiole of the midships and fore part of the vessel
clear ; and we must here suggest the necessity of placing the saloon or prin-
cipal cabin in the midships, so as to avoid the unpleasant noise of the cog-
wheel gearing, which is very objectionable. There cannot be the slightest
objection to it ; for, if stowage be required, it might be placed in the stern
and fore part of the vessel as well as in the midships.

The engines are of the direct action steeple principle, with cylinders 68 in.
diameter, and 4 ft. 6 in. stroke placed in the centre of the breadth of the vessel:
attached to the top of the piston rod is the cross head, forming the base of a
triangle, to the apex of which is depended the connecting rod, working like a
pendulum ; the lower end of this rod is attached to a crank fixed on to the
shaft of the large spur-wheel, a corresponding engine working a similar
crank on the other side of the spur-wheel, which is, as before stated, placed
between the two engines. There are two air pumps to each engine 19 inches
diameter, anil of the same stroke as the cylinder, worked by rods fixed at
each end of the cross head forming the base of the triangle just mentioned :
these two air pumps communicate by passages with a single condenser placed
in front of the cylinder, with the steam and exhaust valves between. From
this description it will be seen that the power is applied direct to the large
spur wheel, 21) feet diameter, (depth of cogs on the face, 23 inches, and pitch,
6 inches,) which takes into a pinion, below 5 feet diameter, fixed on the iron
propeller shaft, 10 inches diameter, which is firmly attached to the screw pro-
peller with couplings ; the diameter of the screw is 11 ft., length fore and aft
5 ft. 10in., and pitch 14ft. From these dimensions it will be seen that, if the
engines make 20 strokes per minute, the speed of the screw will be equal to 80
revolutions per minute.

The vessel is of the following dimensions, extreme length 247 ft. breadth of
beam 37 ft. length between perpendiculars 222 ft., depth in hold 26 ft. 5 in.
draught of water 18 ft., length of main mast 90 ft. foremast 83 ft., mizenmast
61 ft., length of mainyard 76 ft. and diameter 22i in., she can spread the
enormous quantity of 6700 sq. yds. of canvass ; burthen B.M. 1750 tons ; there
are three decks, the upper one is entirely clear, excepting the forecastle, all
the windlass and capstan gear being 'twixt decks ; she is built remarkably
strong, and is in every way a vessel that will stand severe service.

THE IRON STEAM SHIP "NIMROD."
This vessel was launched from the building-yard of Messrs. Thomas Ver-
non & Co, on 26th Sept. last. The following are the dimensions of the
vessel :

Length from figure-head to taffrail. . 200 feet.
do. between perpendiculars .. 180 „
do. of keel .. .. .. 175 „

Beam . . . . . . . . 26 „

Width over Paddle-boxes .. .. 46 „

Depth of Hold 16 „

and admeasures, old mode, 591 tons. This vessel is built for the City of
Cork Steam Packet Company, who intend to sail her between this port and
Cork. She being the 30th iron vessel which has been constructed at this
establishment, many improvements have been introduced which experience
alone can discover ; she is adapted to carry a large cargo at a very light
draft of water; and by her beautiful lines and model she is possessed of the
qualities of an excellent sea-boat and fast sailer. The hull, rudder, paddle-
beams, and deck-beams are made entirely of iron, and are of extraordinary
strength. She is clinker-built to light water line, and double riveted on the
longitudinal joints : above this line the plates are all flush. She has four
water-tight bulk-heads, and divided into five water-tight compartments, the
absence of which in other vessels has often to be deplored : the Pegasus,
Solway, and Queen, which have so lately gone down, would no doubt have
been saved had they possessed this improvement. The frames of this
vessel are of strong angle iron, with sleepers, 15 inches deep across the bot-
tom ; the length of the fore-hold is 50 ft. 10 in. exclusive of a portion at the
bow for chain lockers and use of the crew ; and length of after-hold, 63 ft. 6 in.
between which and the stern-post is placed a tank to contain water. The
quarter-deck is 55 ft. long, from which the cabins are entered by a spiral
staircase. The principal saloon is 41 ft. long and 8 ft. high ; it is ornamented
by Bielefeld's papier macho gilded mouldings, and, though not of the most
splendid order, presents an appearance exceedingly neat and elegant; it is
lighted from the deck by a skylight of considerable size and very chaste de-
sign : there is a separate cabin for the ladies, and one for the gentlemen, both
neatly fitted up with every convenience for the comfort of passengers. The
entrance-hall is pleasant and airy, and the steward's pantry compact and
conveniently situated. The number of berths which can be made up is 50.
She is intended to have three masts, rigged with Smith's patent wire rope,
and is expected to be ready for sea this month. The keel was laid on the
6th of May last, so that the vessel has been built in the short space of four
months and twenty days.

The engines, manufactured by Messrs. Bury, Curtis, & Kennedy, are of
300 h. p.; they are on the direct-action plan, with a much longer connecting
rod than is generally obtained in direct engines, though they do not reach a
greater height above the deck than that of an ordinary crank scuttle ; they
also occupy a very small portion of the vessel, the length of the engines alone
being 9 ft., and width, 20 ft. 6 in., and the whole space occupied in the length
of the vessel, including engines, boilers, firing-room, &c, is only 35 ft. 10 in. ;
the engine-room is thus so much reduced, that the capacity of the holds is
increased at least 10,000 cubic feet for stowage above that which is generally
obtained when engines of the side lever construction are used. They are of
the following dimensions, viz. :

Diameter of cylinders . . . . . . . . 66 inches.

Length of stroke . . . . . . 5 feet 3 ,,

Diameter of paddle-wheels over the floats 24 „ 6 „
Breadth of paddle-floats . . . . 8 „ 6 ,,

Depth of ditto 2 „ 7 „

The air-pump, which is double-acting and placed between the cylinders, is
37 in. diameter, and 2 ft. 7 in. stroke.

MISCELLANEA.

New Dock at Ellesmere Port. — A commodious new dock, for the recep-
tion of shipping, has just been completed by the Ellesmere and Chester Canal
Company at the terminus of their canal at Ellesmere Port. The opening of
the dock for public use was celebrated on the 13th Sept. The works occupy
three acres, and consist of a spacious dock, with wharfage, berths. &c,
capable of accommodating a large number of vessels of 300 tons burthen. In
connexion with the dock is an extended range of warehouses, four stories
high, being 260 feet in length, and 45 feet wide ; and which are connected
with the dock by threewings. two stories in height, each extending in length
20 feet, and being 40 feet wide, and under which canals extend from the dock
for the convenience of loading and unloading the vessels and boats using the
canal and dock. The whole of the works, with the exception of the river wall,
were designed by the late eminent engineer, Thomas Telford. Esq.. F. R.S.,
whose plans have been carried out under the direction of Mr. Cubitt. The
works, which have been in progress for the last two or three years, were con-
ducted under the able direction of Mr. Provis, the contractor, at a cost of
£100,000, and are a masterpiece of architectural and engineering skill.

The National states that the Government had commenced the construction
of buildings near Vincennes which would cover beyond 300 acres of ground,
and were intended to contain a mociel foundry and complete arsenals, with
barracks lor a considerable force of infantry and cavalry. " These works,"
adds the National, " have been undertaken without the authority of the
Chambers, and the expense of the construction is estimated at 45.000,000f."

Cornwall.— The Town Council of Truro have selected the designs of
Messrs. Cope and Eales of Hloomsbury Square, for the New Stannaries
Hall, Town Hall and Markets about to be erected there. There are two
facades in the Italian style of architecture, one facing ibe river and foiming
an approach to the Pish Market. The buildings are to be executed in G'-anitc
at a cost of about £7000. The second premium was awarded to Mr. K. \V.
Kbnslie of Carlton Chambers. The Town Hall and Markets at St. Austell,
also designed by Messrs. Cope and Eales. are rapidly pr gressing, and will
probably be completed by the ensuing spring.

402

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[November,

Mr. Steward's new Iron Beacon for the Goodwin. — Her Majesty's
steamer Tartarus, Captain Bullock, R.N., arrived in our roads on Saturday
last for the purpose of taking off and planting on the Goodwin Sands an
iron beacon invented by Mr. Steward, and constructed upon the principle of
the ponderous-footed pile, which is the great novelty in Mr. Steward's plan
for the formation of a harbour of refuge. On Sunday afternoon Captain
Bullock having communicated with Mr. Steward as to the best course of
proceeding, the Tartarus sailed for the Goodwin, to fix a buoy at the spot
appointed by the Hon. Trinity Board for the erection of the beacon. On
Monday the Tartarus returned to our bay, having been prevented by the
heavy surf on the Goodwin from fixing the buoy. After a stay of a few
hours the Tartarus again steamed off for the Goodwin, and returned to
Dover on Tuesday morning, accompanied by the large lugger No. 1, from the
deal yard, to take off the beacon. For this purpose the Tartarus, having
upon each visit received the usual flag honours from the castle and heights,
entered the harbour, and being a very fine vessel, upwards of 500 tons, she
was an object of no small attraction. On Wednesday morning, arrange-
ments having been made for shipping the beacon on board the lugger, half
of the shaft, with the ponderous foot, was lowered from the Ordnance crane,
when it was unfortunately found that the boat was unequal to the weight of
this part of the beacon, on account of the position in which it was neces-
sary to place it. It was then considered the best plan to procure from
Sheerness a chain lighter, and the Tartarus left the harbour on Wednesday
afternoon, and proceeded to Sheerness for that purpose. She is expected to
return in a few days to complete her task, and place Mr. Steward's beacon
on that grave of thousands, the all-devouring Goodwin. May success attend
the indefatigable exertions of the worthy inventor ! The beacon was cast
by Messrs. Poole and Co., of this town, and we shall give a description of it
in a future number. The active co-operation of the Admiralty must be
highly gratifying to Mr. Steward, as it ought also to he to the public in
general, evidencing, as it does, the readiness of the Government to promote
all plans of merit projected for the safe guidance of the wooden walls of old
England, and the preservation of their brave crews. — Dover Telegraph.

[jipeovemeni op the River Tv\r.— 'i'lir Town Council of Neni
October I lib. decidi d to take the opinion of Mr. .1. Walker, as to the effect
of the alterations now in progress in contracting the waterway to a line laid
down by (In late Mr Rennie, in which line Mr. Cubitt, Mr. li
Mr. Anderson, the late engineer to the corporaion, and their present en-
gineer, Mr. Brooks, are said to concur. The opinion ol" Mr. Walker i
as engineer to the admiralty, in consequence of a memorial fi
Bouse, shipowners, and pilots, to the Council, against the propo
traction ol the nver at Dents Hole; Mr t uhitl having been i reviously em-
ployed as consulting engineer to the Corporation, it v i consult
him as in the contraction al Dent's Hole ; but Mr. Walker's opinion a
whole questii n . as decided to be taken.

Launch oi \\ Iron Steam-vessel.— On the 5th ult. there was launched
from the yard of Messrs. Fairbaun &Co, of Millwall, a beautiful iron steam -
vi l called Dm /'< Graf, of the. following dimensions-
beam, 20ft. 3 in., depth of hold. 3ft., and abqut 350 tons bun!
pelled by engines equal to 160 K. p. Her draught ol
wasonly2umcbesnp.il, an even keel; and with all her macl

•"i'1 1 on board, it will not exceed thiee feet She ls intended forthi

gation of the River Rhine, and will be employed as a

vessels from Rotterdam as high as Strasburg. Dei Pfalz Graf \s the latest

ol three steamers that have beet n i i ijj the Messi . I

used as towing vessels on the same river; and we

form i two, which were oi nearly equal dimensions with th n

have completely answered the expectations of the proprietoi

Ui til ii di mi: •■ Fire Qoebn."— On Tuesday, September 26th, ■ splen-
did new i steamer, called the Fire Queen, was launched from

ni Messrs. Davenport, Grindrod, and Patrick, south side ol tin 6
Basin. Liverpool. Ibe vessel, which is intended to cam n ei ers and
cargo between Calcutta and Singapore, is about 500 tons burthen, nd will
ini s ol about 200 ii. p.

Km.i isn Locohi m r. Engines on the Ci ntinent. — In Germany fi
of Austria} there are running 180 locomotive engines.bnil in Kngland, of
which Messrs. Robert Stephenson & Co. made 81, running on 14

railway ; Sharp & Co. made 40. running on 1(1 lines of railway ; Tun ei &
Co.. 1 1 ; Rothwell, 10. Longridge & Co., 5 ; Forrester Sc Co.. 5 ■ Kirtly S •
raj li at & Co., 1 ; Bury tt Co.. 4 ; Fenton & Co., 2 ; Gaskell, 2 : Rennie, 1 ■
Hawthorn, I.— total, 180.— Leipsic Journal.

North Shields.— A new gas company, to be called the Borough of Tync-

mouth, was f( e.l last October, with a capital ol £6000, in shares ol 57. each,

and in two hours a thousand shares were taken up, the old company refusing
in light the town on the terms offered by the ( ommissioners, viz.,
lamp per annum.

LIST Or MEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's Lilt. I

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM SEPTEMBER 26 TO OCTOBER 21, 1843.

Su Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Elisha llaydon Collier, of Goldsworlliy- terrace. Kotherhithe, Surrey, civil
engineer, lor " improvements in the construction of furnaces and Hues "—
Sealed September 28.

John Ainslie Farmer, of Redhaugh, near Dalkeith, N. B., for " a new or
improved mode of drying tiles, bricks, retorts, and such like work, made from
clag and other plastic substances." — -Sept. 30.

John George Briggs, of Leicester, coach proprietor, for " improvements in
axles."— Oct. 5.

Edward Banton, of Walsall, Stafford, saddlers' ironmonger, for "improve-
ments in saddles and horse harness." — Oct. 5.

Richard Boote, of Burslem, Stafford, earthenware manufacturer's clerk,
for " improvements in pottery and mosaic work." — October 5.

Benedict Albano, of Piccadilly, civil engineer, for " improvements in pre-
paring materials, and applying them to the manufacture of ornamental
mouldings, and other useful purposes." (A communication.) — Oct. 5.

James Combe, of Leeds, engineer, for " improvements in heckling, cleaning,
preparing, and carding fax and other fibrous substances." — Oct. 5.

Ferdinand Charles Warlich, of Cecil-street, gentleman, for " improvements
in the manufacture of fuel." — Oct. 5.

William-North, of Stangate, Surrey, slater, for " improvements in cover/in/
roofs anil fnls of buildings with slate." — Oct. 5.

Jonathan Saunders, of Soho Hill, Birmingham, gentleman, for " imjirore-
mfints in the manufacture of tyres of railwag and other wheels, and in the
manufacture of railwag and other axles." — Oct. 5.

James Griffin, of Withymoore works, Dudley, manufacturer, for "improve-
ments in the manufacture of spades, shovels, and such like toots." — Oct. 5.

John Baptist Soldi, of Windsor-place, Southwark-bridge-road, Surrey, for
'• improvements in apparatus for measuring of person's heads, and for
filling and retaining hats, caps, and bonnets according to such measure."
(A communication.) — Oct. 5.

Charles Brown, of Woolwich, Kent, surgeon, for " improvements in the
manufacture of dip candles." — October 5.

Lawrence llardman, of Liverpool, merchant, for " improvements in ma-
chinery or apparatus to be emploged in the manufacture of sugar." — Oct. .>.

John George Bodmcr, of Manchester, engineer, for " improvements in
grates, furnaces, and boilers, and also in manufacturing or working iron or
other metals, and in machinery connected therewith." — Oct. 5.

Margaret Henrietta Marshall, of Manchester, for "an improved plastic
■ ■lion, applicable to the fine arts, and to useful and ornamental pur-
poses."— Oct. 5.

George Wall, jun., of Manchester, gentleman, for "improvements in the
methods or processes of manufacturing earthenware, china, and other similar
substances, and also in the machinery or apparatus applicable to such manu-
factures."— October 5.

Philip Walthcr, of Angel-court, Throgmorton-strcet, merchant, for " im-
provements iu the construction of steam-engines." A communication. —
Oct. 12.

John Cleaver, of Ripley, spelter maker, for " an improved furnace for
subliming or reducing to a metallic stale the ores of zinc."— Oct. 12; two
months.

Stephen Hutchinson, of the London gas works, Vauxhall, engineer, for
" improvements in gas meters." — Oct. 12.

clinks Brook, of Waltham mills, cotton spinner, for " improvements in
machinery for spinning and twisting cotton and other fibrous substances."
—Oct. 12.

Moses I'oole, of Serle-street. gentleman, for " improvements in. enveloping
communication.) — Oct. 12.

Stephen Geary, of Hamilton-place, King's-cross, architect and civil engi-
neer, tor " improvements in the construction of panelling and framing, appli-
cable to all building purposes, cabinet work, and other similar uses." — Oct. 1 3.

Richard Beard, of Kgremont-place, New-road, Middlesex, gentleman, for
" improrenii nls in /i rial nig calicoes and other fabrics." (A communication.) —
October 13.

Richard Tanion Nevill, of Llangennech, Carmarthen, Esq., for "an im-
proved mode of separating certain metals when in certain states of combination
with each other." — October 18.

William Watson, Junior, of Leeds, chemist, for " improvements in venti-
lating bouses and other buildings." — October 1 S.

Jnlius Adolph Detmold, of London, merchant, for " improvements in the
lion and arrangement of furnaces or fire-places applicable to various
useful purposes." — Oct. 18.

James Graham, of Wapping, Middlesex, for " improvements in the con-
■ i of pots or vessels, and furnaces used in the manufacture of zink,
and in other manufactures, and also improvements in the treatment of the
ores of zink in the process of manufacturing zink." — Oct. 8.

Thomas Morton Jones, of Birmingham, merchant, for " improvements in
lira 1 1 ni/ liijitiils and aeriform bodies." — October IS.

James Gibbons, of New Radford, Nottingham, machinist, and Thomas Roe,
of the same place, machinist, for " im chinery used for

what is called setting or reading patterns, and stamping or punching them
in jacquard cards." — Oct. 21.

George Edward Mylne, of Albion. terrace, Canonbury-square, Islington,
watchmaker, far " improvements in the construction of watches." — Oct. 21.

ERRATA IN LAST MONTH'S JOURNAL.
mi 1, line 0, for "challenged" I
i ilumn 2, the Pri im o\ " 12 feet long " read

" 120 feet long;" and in the fifth line from bottom, for " this " real " thi >i ."

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

403

THE NEW TERMINUS OF THE BRIGHTON, CROYDON,

DOVER, AND GREENWICH RAILWAYS AT LONDON

BRIDGE.

(With an Engraving, Plate XV.)

We have at length the pleasure of presenting to our readers some
particulars of the New Joint Railway Terminus at London Bridge,
the extensive works of which have been in progress during the last
18 months, and are now all but completed, so far as respects the por-
tion to be executed by the Brighton, Croydon, and Dover Companies ;
and our remarks are accompanied by a view of the entire facade, as
it will appear when the Greenwich Company's portion of the building
shall have been completed, together with a ground plan.

From the time of the passing of the Acts of Parliament for the
construction of the Brighton and Dover lines of railway, it became
evident to the Directors and Engineers of those undertakings, that the
Croydon terminus at London Bridge would be found not only totally
inadequate to the carrying on of the united traffic of these lines of
railwav, but that its position to the north of the Greenwich station
was inadmissible, involving as it did the inconvenience and danger of
crossing the Greenwich line of railway at the departure and arrival of
every train; and in due time arrangements were accordingly entered
into with the Greenwich Company, by which the original Croydon
station was made over to them in exchange for the original Greenwich
station, together with an extent of new works on the south side
thereof of equal area; by this arrangement, combined with the
widening out of the Greenwich viaduct from the Croydon junction
to the terminus, from which point four lines of rails are now pro-
vided, the Greenwich traffic is kept entirely distinct, and to the
northward of that of the Brighton, Croydon, and Dover lines: while
by a happy agreement between the four different companies, assented
to on the part of the Greenwich company, by the advice of their
talented architect George Smith, Esq., a complete unity of design
has been preserved in the entire facade, as seen from the approach
from Duke Street.

The whole extent of surface now occupied by the joint station, is
130,000 square feet, or about three acres. And when it is consi-
dered that tlie whole of this extensive surface has of necessity been
raised by massive piers and arches to an average height of about
23 feet above the natural surface of the ground, some idea may be
formed of the magnitude and cost of these works, in which, exclusive
of the old Croydon and Greenwich terminus, above 8,000,000 of bricks
have been consumed.

On entering the station the spacious and elegant iron roofs attract
notice; the surface covered in by this means includes an area of
48,000 square feet, or upwards of an acre, affording ample scope for
housing and cleaning the numerous carriages of the different compa-
nies, and securing from the weather the spacious arrival and depar-
ture platforms, and the space to the south appropriated to carriages
waiting the arrival of trains.

These roofs are supported by three rows of cast iron fluted columns,
of elegant design, connected together above their capitals by orna-
mented arched ribs, which carry the trusses of the roof; the rain-
water is received into cast iron gutters communicating with the
columns, which being cast hollow, convey away the water to the pipes
and drains of the substructure. In the construction of these roofs,
Mr. Rastrick has observed the same peculiarity of form in the struts
as he employed at the roofs of the terminus at Brighton, but in this
case, instead of being of wrought iron tubing, they are of cast iron,
hollow, and fluted to harmonise with the fluting of the columns, and
the nuts at the end of the king and queen rods are concealed by or-
namental foliated pendants. The whole area is well lighted by sky-
lights on either side of the ridge, running nearly the whole length
of the roofs, and numerous others in appropriate situations.

The arrival and departure platforms, each "21 feet in width, are fine
specimens of Bangor slate paving, in slabs, averaging (> feet 6 inches
No. 75.— Vol. VI.— December, 1843.

by 4 feet each. On the arrival platform is a travelling luggage en-
closure, deserving of notice, as being well adapted to its purpose, and
less unsightly than such contrivances usually are.

To avoid confusion, a back entrance to the station has been pro-
vided by means of an inclined plane, commencing at the south end of
Joiner's Street, by which cabs and omnibusses are allowed to enter
and wait the arrival of trains, by which means the inconvenience of
the confined space in front of the principal entrance is very much
lessened.

The goods warehouse stands on the east side of Dean Street, com-
municating by a bridge with the spare carriage house on the west.
The cranes for hoisting and lowering are worked on the pneumatic
principle, by a small steam engine placed under the tank, which sup-
lilies the station with water.

On referring to our engraving, it will be seen that the advanced
portion of the facade consists of a centre, in which are three door-
ways, and two wings with a doorway in each ; that in the right wing
is the first class passengers' entrance to the booking offices; the right
hand door of the centre is the second class entrance, and the centre
doorway is the way for luggage; and the remaining doorways are the
first and second class entrances to the Greenwich company's offices.
Receding from the principal front on the right is the campanile rising
to a height of 97 feet from the level of Tooley Street to the summit
of the vane, and exhibiting an illuminated clock for regulating the
times of the arrival and departure of trains.

Still further removed from the line of the principal front are the
offices for the arrival and departure of parcels, (forming the extreme
wings of the facade,) united by a lofty archway, which serves as an
entrance for gentlemen's carriages departing by the trains. The in-
terior of the building contains on the ground-floor the general booking
office 53 feet by 21 feet, with separate entrances, passages, and
waiting rooms, for first and second class passengers, so arranged, that
the two classes are kept distinct, until they arrive at the platform, to
effect which objects, the arrangements seem well adapted. On the
one-pair floor, to which we ascend by a stone staircase in the tower,
there is a large room for the public meetings of the companies, and
three others for the use of the joint station committee, secretary, &c,
besides the apartments of the housekeeper; a secondary staircase
from this part of the building leads to the clock room, in the upper
floor of the tower, and above this to the lead flat, at the level of the
principal cornice, from which, between the arches of the upper part,
an extensive view of the metropolis and its southern suburbs is ob-
tained.

To carry out their object, the committee availed themselves of the
professional services of J. N. Rastrick, Esq., and W. Cubitt, Esq., as
their joint engineers, to the judicious counsel of whom they are
mainly indebted for the amount of accommodation secured in so con-
fined and difficult a situation.

In the architectural department, Mr. Henry Roberts has been gene-
rally consulted, the designs being prepared, and the works more im-
mediately superintended by Mr. Thomas Turner, the resident archi-
tect and engineer; and we deem it due to the taste and talent of the
latter gentleman to state that we are indebted to him for the elegant
Italian composition represented in our engraving.

We remember, that in the competition for the new Infant Orphan
Asylum, the second premium was awarded to Mr. Turner, and we
think his present effort entitles him to be considered as one of the
rising architects of the day.

OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE.

By Henry Fulton, M.D.

No. 3.

The Institute of British Architects is making a collection of all the
editions of the works of Vitruvius. As soon as this collection shall
be formed, which ought to contain, as many copies of each edition as

55

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[December,

possible, the entire, together with all the works of Palladio and Sir
William Chambers that can be procured, should be piled together and
burned, and the ashes collected after the manner of the ancients and
deposited in a suitable urn, and let the spirits of these mighty authors
rest in peace. The Institute is in the habit of giving medals and
prizes for essays ; it would be well to give a medal for the best essay
on the propriety of such a sacrifice at the shrine of architectural
taste. Although the destruction of these works would not destroy
the existing memorials of them, nor yet perhaps work out much im-
provement in the taste of those architects who are grown old in the
love of them, yet the advantage to the rising generation would be
great, and a new order of things would arise.

There is a royal road to a correct taste in Grecian architecture
and every other style, (except, perhaps, the Gothic,) it is the straight
and consequently the shortest road to excellence ; it is comprised in
this aim at < HASTENESS, unity, and SIMPLICITY ; ornament as highly
as you please, finish as elaborately as you can, but still recollect that
all must harmonise with chasteness of composition, unity of design,
and simplicity of character: such are the features to be recognized
in the rude remains of Possidonin, and such is the character of the
highly finished, though ruined and despoiled edifices at Athens. This
road will lead us to study the best proportion; will lead us to be more
anxious with regard to the quality than to the quantity of ornament.
There are few things which distinguish a civilized from an uncivilized
people more than the love of displaying extravagant ornaments on
their persons, particularly the softer sex; our own lovely country-
women set off their beauty and show their sense by a few but well
selected ornaments; others, not so highly gifted in pprson.but making
up for that deficiency by good sense and taste, use no ornament which
can make them remarkable ; and others again, deficient both in mind
and person, show the first in attracting observation to the latter, by a
display of too much ornament. Does, or rather did, the gilding of
the nondescript cages, which surmount the National Gallery, redeem
the want of chasteness, unity, and simplicity? By the way, these cages
ought to be removed to the Zoological Gardens,

In pursuing our journey by the royal road, we shall not be templed
to seek for variety for the purpose of " relieving the eye." Yitru-
vius gives us his theory of the proporlions of columns as to that of
the human figure, this is sheer nonsense ; but it is not nonsense to ob-
serve that in the human form there are no breaks, no angles except
those necessary for some purpose in the economy of our being. How
well the Greeks understood the appropriate manner of relieving the
eye, may be seen from an inspection of the Elgin marbles ; the figures
of the pediment, intended to be raised far above the point of vision,
are in high relief, those of the metopes, which were nearer, are in a
lower relief, and those of the frieze of the pronaos still lower, because
intended to be seen directly from beneath ; had they projected, the
effect would have been anything but pleasing. The architects of the
interior of St. Peter's understood the effect of due proportion well —
the figures with which it is ornamented are increased in size in pro-
portion to their elevation, and hence in optics the most perfect unity
of proportion is obtained. To a want of the consideration of this
may be imputed the poverty of our crowning cornices, and the neces-
sity which is improperly created for the use of those hideous balus-
trades on tile tops of our edifices: man dislikes monkeys, they imi-
tate humanity so abominably — and the quadrumana themselves, as
they rise above each other in the scale of intelligence, shun the so-
ciety of those below them : the horse abhors the ass, because it is a
caricature of himself: and if columns were animated they would re-
ject all association with balusters; but although they cannot speak,
the effect produced shows us the incongruity.

An architect should be in his line what Raphael was in painting,
not the pupil of Perugino, nor the disciple of Palladio, but the
scholar, whose mind should be enlighted by a ray emanating from the
works of Da Vinci or the ruins of a Greek temple. And here we
may observe, that as Raphael did not think it necessary to copy the
works of Da Vinci, in order to arrive at the excellence which he at-
tained, neither is it requisite to copy the works of the ancients, pro-

vided the same principles guide the modern architects which enabled
the ancients to produce theirs.

Greek and Latin are called dead languages, and any author writing
in them must, to write well, compose in the style of those authors
who are considered to be classical : the ideas of the modern writer
may be new, but the style and construction are old ; so it is with the
Greek, Roman, and Gothic styles of architecture. We may, indeed,
invent a new order or style out of these, just as French, Italian, and
Spanish were formed on the root of Latin, after it was barbarised by
the Goths and Vandals ; but the new style so invented will require to
be refined and polished, as those languages were in the hands of men
of master minds. Without, therefore, asserting that the door for
change and improvement should be considered as closed to us, it is
folly to require architects to give a composition in any particular
style, and at the same time say that they are not to be bound down
by the rules which governed those who invented the examples from
which we learn it. The lovers of pure architecture have some con-
solation when they see many of the edifices which are every day
served, up to them, for they may hope that even out of absurdity
itself (and we have enough of it), good may eventually arise in the
shape of a newr style, as I have, in former papers, endeavoured to show
that the Gothic did out of the debased Diocletian.

In the last number of this Journal, page 370, a ground plan of the
proposed facade for the British Museum is given; I freely confess
that it promises better than anything which I feared was to be given
to us; and I have no doubt the drawing of the elevation will appear
strikingly magnificent ; but, let Sir Robert Smirke remember and let
the public understand, that the building itself must have a very dif-
ferent effect, for the porticos of the wings being seen first and nearer
to the eye than that of the recessed centre and principal one, will
appear colossal in proportion. In one of two ways, and with the
same number of columns, this might be obviated. First, by making
the centre a colonnade (without any pediment) with steps on the
three sides, and adding another column to the depth of the front of
the wings; or, secondly, by arranging the columns of the centre por-
tico after the manner of the Roman Pantheon — thus :

HBHft=ffl-g

There are two errors of the press in my last paper, page 371
column 1, lines 41 and G5, for "works" read "crocks," and for" //«-
dressed" read " undraped ;" the season is too cold for dress being dis-
pensed with: belter to wait until "the wind shall be tempered to the
shorn lamb," before we request the Palladian architects thus to ex-
hibit on the raking cornices of the window pediments in a doe a dos
IHe a ti'te position as designed by the great Maestro.

ON THE QUALITIES OF TIMBER AND DEALS.

On the several specks of Fir Timber and Dealt »up] lied to >/ie English
Market, and their respective qualities for the purposes of Building.
Read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, Nov. 20, 1843. By
George Bailey, Esq., Hon. See.

In the practical part of the profession of an architect, and especially
in those branches which occupy by far the greater portion of the time
and labour of most of us, the security of our foundations is certainly
the most important object to which we have to direct our attention, —
the second in importance is undoubtedly the choice of our timber.

1843.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

405

The properties of the various descriptions of wood coming under the
denomination of timber — their relative strength and durability — their
lilness for (he various purposes of building, with regard to their stiff-
ness in different situations and under different conditions, have all
been treated scientifically and practically, in a manner highly useful to
the architect, and the results have long been in our hands.

The attention of the profession has even been called, both in ancient
and modern works, to the planting, growth, and felling of timber, and
the varieties which local circumstances and soil may produce in the
same species. That information of this kind is in the highest degree
useful to the architect, and indeed indispensable to be known, is not to
be doubted, and the important practical results which may be derived
from inquiries strictly scientific, must be familiar to ail of us, who, on
a former occasion, have had the pleasure of listening to the Botanical
discources of our friend Dr. Dickson. But in the ordinary routine of
our profession it is seldom, comparatively speaking, that we have to
refer even to the original principles from which our practice is de-
rived, and still less to questions connected with the organization and
natural history of timber trees.

The architect, in fact, has seldom any connexion with the choice or
conversion of his timber beyond certain limits. His choice is restricted
to such qualities of timber, of such length and scantlings as he can
find in the market, and on this point less information has been placed
in the hands of the architect than any other connected with this sub-
ject. It has been thought, therefore, that a few words on the qualities
of timber, to be found in the market as imported from the Baltic and
from America, might not be unacceptable to the meeting. We will
begin with European timber in the log, then proceed to American
timber, and afterwards to the subject of deals.

Baltic Timber.

Memel Timber. — The largest supply of square fir timber brought
from any part of the Baltic to this country at the present time is from
Memel : it is divided into three qualities — the best, termed crown, the
best middling, and second, or brack Memel.

Of the first quality little comes to the London market, but a conside-
rable quantity to the outports. It is of admirable quality and manu-
facture, nearly as clear of knots as the Riga timber, but not quite so
close in the grain, nor so rigid, nor so durable : the more free it is
from knots, the more liable it is to be shaky at the core. The knotty
timber is less liable to this defect at the heart, because the knots serve
as bolts through the limber to keep all the parts together. Crowu
Memel timbprW usually somewhat more than 13 inches square, and the
best of it is Iroui 2S to 55 feet long, that which is longer being usually
knotty at the upper extremity. The best middling is the highest qua-
lity of Memel timber commonly imported into London. Much like-
wise of the second middling or brack timber comes to the London mar-
ket. The chief defect of this quality of timber is that it contains
large knots which renders it unfit to be cut into small scantlings.

Dantzic Timber.— Whenever squared fir timber of great length and
size, coupled with durability is required, the Dantzic timber is to be
employed. On the average, Dantzic timber is the longest and largest
fir timber that comes here from any port in the Baltic. It may be
procured, upon order, as much as 70 feet long and 16 inches square —
it commonly runs 14 or 15 inches square. The cheaper sort of brack
timber has the defect of being full of large knots; the best middling
is knotty in a moderate degree, but the crown Polish-squared Dantzic
timber, that which has been squared in the province where it was
felled, may be considered, upon the whole, the very best timber that
the north of Europe supplies, — next to that of Riga, it is the most du-
rable of fir timber.

The timber from Pillau, Konigsberg, and Stettin resembles that of
Dantzic, but is rather coarser in the grain and more knotty: that of
Stettin, though not very long, is sometimes of very large size, as
much as 20 inches square.

Riga Timber. — Riga used formerly to be the port from whence al-
most all the fir timber in the log, from 12 to 13 inches square required

n this country for building purposes was imported. As timber in the

log.it is peculiarly applicable for beams, girders, and joists, being
very rigid, and bending little under great weights ; it is, moreover,
very regularly squared, very straight, clear of knots, straight in the
grain, and very durable. Owing to its rigidity and freedom from knot',
it is, however, more liable than some other timber to the defect ol
being rent and shaken at the heart, for which reason the fir timber
from other ports on the eastern coast of the Baltic is by many preferred
for building purposes and less of this species of timber is consequently
now imported into this country.

Formerly a considerable quantity of timber in the log was imported
from Narva, St Petersburg, and Archangel, but scarcely any now comes
from these ports— the St Petersburg timber is defective as being very
subject to rend itself and become shaky as it dries.

Norway Timber. — But little timber and that of small scantling
is now supplied from Norway, although at one time, large quan-
tities were imported from Longsouud, Porsground, and Brewick,
but owing to the change in the mode of taking the duty some years
since, by which the small timber of Norway was made liable to the
same duty as the large timber from the Baltic (an exception being
made only in favour of timber used in the Cornish mines), the impor-
tation of timber from that country almost ceased : — it is now, however
again making its appearance in the. London market. Some of the
superior Longsound timber is of an excellent quality, and is, perhaps,
the most durable of fir timber.

The timber from Gottenburgh, Stockholm and Geffle is not usually
well squared, seldom exceeds 30 feet in length, indeed is generally
much shorter, and has, moreover, the bad property of rending and be-
coming shaky if kept in the state of the log, so that unless immediately
converted, it loses much of its value ; very little, however, of this tim-
ber is now imported into England.

American Timber.

The only description of American timber known in this market in
the state of the log, are the red pine and the yellow pine — for although
pitch pine has been brought here, rid Halifax, from the southern
ports of the United States, yet that species of fir timber is scarcely
known in this country as an article of consumption ; it is said to be
extremely brittle.

Red Pine.- — The red pine approaches very nearly in quality to Riga
timber; it is almost as stiff and is free from knots, but. the irregular
manufacture and tapering of the logs occasion much loss in the con-
version of the timber for use in buildings : the manufacture of this
timber is, however, improving, and it is consequently rising in public
estimation. It is the produce of Upper Canada and the adjacent por-
tions of the United States ; it is brought down in rafts from the great
lakes (on the borders of which it grows), by means of the River St.
Lawrence to Quebec, where it is shipped for England. Great caution
is necessary in the use of this timber ; if the voyage from Quebec was
as short as that from Riga it would not, perhaps, be more liable than
Riga timber to take the dry rot, but owing to the length of time that
it remains in the ship, or owing to the yellow pine wood, which, as
deals or timber is generally in the same hold with it, a cargo of red
pine timber seldom arrives which does not exhibit, on some part or
other of the surface of the logs, indications of the presence of dry rot,
and therefore, although the timber, if not so treated, might not be
liable to this defect, yet treated as it has been before it arrives here,
it often is infected, and if then placed under circumstances only slightly
favourable to the growth of the fungus, it will be the means of intro-
ducing the dry rot into a building, unless a closer examination be
made of the surface of each log to be used than is usually done, or
some means adopted to counteract the infection.

Yellow Pine Timber. — The yellow pine timber in the log comes
from Quebec, from St. John's, from Miramichi, and from some other
ports in New Brunswick. That from Quebec is not so fit for the
better purposes to which yellow pine is applied as that of St. John's,
nor is that of St. John's so fit for those purposes as that from Mirami-
chi. That of Miramichi is the lightest and most spongy, and the least
fibrous of all. It is exceedingly mellow, to use the joiner's term, has

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[December

no tendency to warp, and preserves the form that the workman gives
it. Yellow pine timber ought not to be used for rafters, joists, gird-
ers, or plates, in any building; for no purpose, in short, and in no si-
tuation, where strength and stiffness are required, and where the ends
or any part of the, timber come in contact with brick-work or masonry,
or are liable or subjected to damp. Yellow pine timber is not rigid ;
it is deficient in strength; will break with a less weight than almost any
other kind of timber; and, except in perfectly dry situations, or
where it is thoroughly well ventilated, is extremely liable to take the
dry rot.

Deals, Planks, and Battens.
The first thing to be considered, as regards deals, is the quality of
the wood. Many deals are of durable quality, and fit, on that account,
for rough out-of-door purposes, and coarse floors or carpentry, but
they are wholly inapplicable for fine joiner's work ; for when the saw
has passed through and reduced them to small dimensions, they warp
and twist like a piece of whalebone. Deals of this character are termed
by carpenters "strong." Such deals have likewise the bad property
in general, of rending themselves to pieces as they dry, and become
shaky. Deals that, when acted upon by the saw, do not furm saw-
dust, but are torn into long strings or fibres, and, on that account,
termed "stringy" are in general of this strong nature. Such deals
are likewise less uniform in their texture, and vary more in the
alternate fibres and cellular parts than the deals which are. lit for the
joiner. The deal to be good should have a certain degree of softness,
easily yeilding to the knife or chisel. Such deals are to be distin-
guished by their light weight, in comparison with the strong fibrous
deals, and when planed, they exhibit a silky texture. Some deals,
and particularly the stringy deals, are very hygrometric, and never lose
the property (however long they have been seasoned), of expanding
and contracting with change of weather. White Petersburg!! deals are
said to have that property. The deal to be good should be straight in
the grain; if cross grained, it generally becomes shaky diagonally upon
drying, and falls to pieces under the saw; or, if cross-grained in a
lesser degree, it does not yield a smooth surface to to the plane, but
remains rough and fuzzy. The deal should, of course, be without coarse
knots, and the more nearly it is perfectly clean the better. As to the
manufacture of the deal ; it should be square-cut; above all things, it
ought not to have the centre or pitch of the tree left within it, since,
where that is the case, the deal rends on drying. In yellow deals the
sap, or albuinem of the tree, ought to show itself only at the very
edge of that part of the deal which was furthest from the centre
of the tree. Deals are usually cut of three different widths, each
of which has its appropriate name: — those from 11 or 12 inches
wide are called planks, — those from Si to 10 inches are called
deals, — and those from (U to 7 inches are called battens.

Yellow Deals.

Norway Deals. — The yellow deals of Christiania, in Norway, have
always been considered to be of the very best description ; — they are
so in two senses — they are both durable and mellow; mellow meaning,
soft, light, and fit for the joiner. Though soft, they are not wanting
in a proper degree of stiffness. When properly seasoned, previously
to being used, they remain (however minutely divided) precisely of the
form that the joiner gives. This quality applies to the white, as well
as to the yellow deals of Christiania — and to those above the deals of
any other part of the world — and, therefore, the deals of Christiania
will always be the material that the consumer will endeavour to ob-
tain, if the price will allow him to do so.

Of late years the mode of taking the duty caused the deals to be
cut in longer lengths than the timber would afford, so that inferior
wood has been brought into the London market, and the high estima-
tion and price diminished to a certain extent; it is said, however, that
they are now rapidly regaining their former character.

The Yellow deals from Frederickstadt, in Norway, are very nearly
the same in quality with those of Christiania, and generally obtain
nearly the same price in the market. The white deals would be as
good as those of Christiania, but for one defect, which is that the bark

of the tree adheres to the knots, which, therefore, have a black ring
round them ; when the deal comes to be cut into board, a knot of this
kind is ap* to fall out. It may be observed that neither the deals of
Christiania nor Frederickstadt are of as good qualitv as they used to
be, particularly as respects the yellow deals.

There are several kinds of yellow deals not quite so good as
those of Christiania in the quality of the wood, and yet coming near to
them, which formerly used to be imported from Norway in very large
quantities, and still are imported from some of the places of ship-
ment referred to, but to a moderate extent only. The principal of
these ports are Longsound, Porsground, L.irwig, Krageroe and Dram.
The cloister deals from Longsound 2 inches thick, and the broad and
clean deals from Krageroe 14 inch thick and 14 feet long, were
noted for their excellence. From Dram, an immense quantity, both
wdiite and yellow, were imported, usually 10 feet long and 2 inches
thick. The "lowland" deals from this port are of inferior quality,
but the " upland" of superior quality.

Of the deals of most of the above-mentioned ports it may be said
that they are good as regards the texture of the wood, but small in
size, as they are seldom more than from Si to 8? inches wide. Some
few deals (principally white deals) used to come from Tonsberg, oc-
casionally there was a considerable supply from Frederickstadt and
Moss; the yellow deals of those ports are of bad quality, and the
white deals not much better. Of the white lowland deals of Norway,
in general it may be said that they resemble in quality the white
spruce deals of America; they have the same tendency to warp and
to rend on drying.

Deals of Sweden. — The yellow deals of Sweden nearest in quality
to the best yellow deals of Norway, as regards their being at the
same time durable and mellow, are those which come from Stock-
holm and from Geffle in the gulf of Bothnia. If Stockholm or Geffle
deals were quite as mellow as Christiania deals, they would be pre-
ferred to those of Christiania, on account of their full size and free-
dom from sap, but they are somewhat more disposed to warp, and
with regard to Gelfle deals to have coarse knots. There are some
other ports in the gulph of Bothnia, viz., Ilernosand and Sundswall,
from which cargoes of yellow deals are shipped, occasionally little
inferior in quality to those from Stockholm and Geffle. But it may be
said of most of the deals from those ports, that in them there is in
general an exaggeration of the faults perceptible in the deals of
Stockholm and Geffle. A large portion of the deals from Ilernosand
and Sundswall are from IS to 21 feet long and 10 inches wide. The
deals of Soderham and Schonwick are of a still harder and coarser
nature than those last described. The yellow deals of Gottenberg
although very free from sap, and durable, yet have the fault of being
rigid and unfit for the joiner; they are, however, well adapted for
rough purposes, both in and out of doors, on account of their dura-
bility.

Deals of Northern Russia. — The yellow deals of Archangel and
Onega are very similar to each other in quality, and of all deals, they
approach in one respect the nearest to the yellow deals of Christiania;
they are exceedingly mellow, and fit for the joiner — on the other hand
they are not very durable or capable of resisting damp, for which
reason they ought not to be used in the ground-floor of a house ; the
knots are apt to be surrounded by dead bark : they are imported of
the average length of 20 feet. Archangel deals formerly were im-
ported only of the width of 11 inches, or 7 inches, that is, in the
state of plank or of batten, but more recently they have been im-
ported of the width of '.I inches, and from the certainty of obtaining
entire cargoes of the very first quality, without any admixture of in-
ferior goods, (an object which could seldom be accomplished with
regard either to Norwegian or Swedish deals,) these Archangel deals
were made to supersede the use of almost every other superior de-
scription of European yellow deals. St. Petersburg and Narva yellow
deals come of the breadth of 11, 0, and 7 inches: in quality the wood
is inferior to that of Onega or of Archangel : Petersburg deal is less
durable and not nearly so mellow as either the Archangel or Onega
deal ; it is said to be nearly as liable to take the dry rot in a damp

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407

and confined situation as the yellow pine deal of America. A few
yellow deals arp likewise imported from Riga.

The yellow deals from Memel and from Dantzic may next be no-
ticed : — the former 1 1 inches, the latter 12 inches wide ; both of these
are very durable. Memel planks are well adapted for all rough pur-
poses out of doors, for barn floors, and for the steps of stairs when
clean; Dantzic planks are used by brewers and distillers for making
the large vessels for holding the liquor, called backs. The very
best of the Dantzic planks are likewise extremely fit for joiners
work, as they are soft and mellow, and retain the shape, but this only
applies to a small portion of them, and those which are soft, are
not so durable. Dantzic likewise affords the long yellow plank 40
feet long, 3 inches thick, and 12 inches wide used for the decks of
ships. Memel planks until of late years, were not imported in any
large quantity.

There are likewise yellow deals from Finland ; Nyland deals
14 feet long, resembling some of the coarser varieties of Sundswall
deals, are of late introduction. The broad yellow planks 12 inches
wide and 21 feet long from Biorneburg in the gulph of Bothnia, are
of a quality very nearly approaching to the plank of Archangel,
but far more knotty.

White Deals.

We now come to the White Deals manufactured from Spruce Fir,
the yellow deals of Europe being manufactured from the Scotch
Fir. All that has been said of the qualities of yellow deals applies
likewise to white deals, except that the sap in white deals is not
discernible lrom the heart, and therefore the manufacturer of white
deals has so far one difficulty the less to contend with.

Norway is the only country from which white deals of the very
first quality are imported in any quantity; for although the white
deals from Stockholm and Geffle in Sweden, like the yellow from
those parts, are very good, yet the quantity is too small to render them
worth particular notice. The white deals, like the yellow, shipped
at Christiania are the very best in the world ; well fitted for joiner's
work, being above all other deals of the kind, light and mellow. The
white deals of Frederickstadt also are very good, yet rather subject
to a small black knot surrounded by dead bark. All the other ports
in Norway which have been mentioned as yielding yellow deals,
supply white deals of good quality likewise; but from the smaller
ports generally, the deals are somewhat narrow, (from SA to Si inches
wide,) whereas the deals of Christiania and Frederickstadt are full
9 in. wide; the narrow deals fetch a proportionately less price in the
market. The white deals from Wekkeroe are sold by the name of
Christiania deals, the least mellow and the hardest of which they
resemble ; they are of greater average length than the deals of Chris-
tiania, being perhaps of a mean length of 19 feet.

The Lowland white deals of Norway form the exception to the
general good quality of the white deals of that country, the lowland
white deals having most of the bad properties of the white spruce of
America, that is a tendency to warp and to split upon drying. From
Dram two qualities of white deals used to come, the upland and the
lowland, the former as good in quality as the latter is bad, although it
may be observed that both have of late years improved considerably.
The white deals of Moss, though showy to appearance, are of this
bad quality. Those from Longsound, Schien, and Larwig, are good.
A considerable quantity of white deals have of late years been ship-
ped from Gottenburgh — with few exceptions, they are of a hard
stringy nature ; the saw on passing through them tears their sub-
stance into strings instead of saw-dust: the white deals of the width
of 11 and 12 inches from this port are, on account of their cheap-
ness, one of the materials used by the makers of packing cases.

Russia. — Northern Russia exports hardly any white deals, although
the few that come occasionally from Archangel, mixed by accident
with yellow deals, are ol excellent quality — the white deals from that
country that come nearest to those of Norway in quality are. those of
Narva — they are brought of the width of 1 1 and 9 inches — when
properly seasoned they can be used lor all purposes to which Norway

white deals are applied — next in quality to those of Narva are the
white deals from Riga, which are brought both 9 and 11 inches wide.
White deals are imported from St. Petersburgh, both 9 inches and
11 inches wide, in considerable quantities — they are not uniform in
texture, but contain hard veins, and they have the defect, (how-
ever long they may have been kept,) of expanding and contracting
with change of weather, so that if used in the panel of a door, the
wood alternately enters and recedes from the groove into which it
fits, as the paint will show, when that kind of deal has been used for
a panel.

Battens are deals 7 inches wide, and are principally used for floors.
The best yellow battens are imported from Christiania; a large number
of both white and yellow battens were formerly imported from Long-
sound in Norway, but battens of this description are now imported
from Dram ; they are from about Gi to OJ wide. The white espe-
cially are of an excellent quality, and so are such of the vellow as are
not sappy ; the sappy ones preponderate in number, and on account
of their cheapness are frequently used as a substitute for timber, in
building the smaller description of houses. The next in quilitv to
the battens of Christiania and Frederickstadt, are those which are
imported from Archangel and Onega, though few have of late come
from the latter port. Yellow Archangel battens cost usually some-
what more per Petersburg standard than the 11 inch planks. Both
Archangel and Onega battens have the defect of having black bark
round the knots, the wood of which is dead, whereas the knots of
Christiania wood are bright, and firmly united to the substance of
the tree. Yellow battens are imported also from Petersburg consi-
derably inferior in the quality of the wood to those of Archangel and
Onega.

American Deals are of three descriptions, viz., the yellow pine, the
red pine, and the white spruce. A fourth, the hemlock-spruce deal
is sometimes brought, but it is too bad in quality, and the quantity too
small to deserve further notice.

Yellow Pine Dials. — The best of the yellow pine deals are shipped
from the St. Lawrence ; some are floated down the river from the mills
to the port of shipment, and when taken on board are saturated with
water, and covered with river silt, others are put on board craft, and
come bright from the saw to this country. Of the bright deals, the
very best quality are those from the Riviere de Loup. In a very
good parcel of yellow pine deals about two-fifths will be perfectly
clear of knots.

Yellow pine is of a very light and spongy texture, and the more
completely it is of that texture and the opposite to what is hard,
fibrous, and stringy, the better it is for all the purposes to which it is
properly applicable, such as the panels and mouldings of doors
and shutters, and other internal fittings of houses, the framing of
cabinet-work; all those purposes in short for which lightness and no
great strength is required, it preserves the form which the joiner
gives it without warping, and this property, coupled with the facility
of obtaining it free from knots, tits it admirably for the carver, the
musical instrument maker, the maker of Venetian blinds, for pat-
terns lor iron castings and similar purposes; the inferior yellow pine
deals being coarser in the texture of the wood and more knotty, are
mostly used for ordinary packing cases. If the yellow pine is ex-
posed to damp in any confined situation it rapidly decays, but in the
open air, for palings raised from off the ground, weather-boarding
to sheds, and wherever it is completely well ventilated, it lasts a long
time, although exposed to alternations of wet and dry. Its spongy
texture prevents it being rent so much as deals of a more rigid substance
are liable to be, by exposure to the weather. It is now much used for
the decks of ships, as it resists the effects of the sun better than the
European deals.

Red Pine Deals come in very small quantities, so small indeed,
that they are seldom separated from the yellow pine deals with which
they come mixed ; the best description are such as are brought from
the Riviere de Loup. The red pine deals will answer for most of the
purposes to which the yellow or Scotch fir deal of Europe is applied.
When used for floors in houses, these deals have the defect of turning

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

of a very dark colour, but this probably is owing to the resinous texture
of the wood, which causes dust to adhere to its surface, and might be
prevented by washing the floor with alkaline ley, or any other solvent
of resin.

While Spruce Deals. — Of the American white spruce deals, none,
not even the very best, are to be compared for quality to the white
deals of the north of Europe. They have two faults — they are very
liable to warp, and the knots in them (owing to the bark adhering to
the branch while the wood grows over it), are liable to fall out and
leave a hole in the board. However long they may be kept they
never lose their property of warping, and are consequently unfit for
joiner's work. They are used only for the floors of the most ordinary
houses. They are extremely liable, if placed in damp situations, to
decay. An instance of this is mentioned by Mr. Warburton, in his
evidence upon the Select Committee on the Timber Duties, ls3.">, as
having occurred in the floor of his counting house at Lambeth, which
he had caused to be made of spruce deals as the cheapest material.
An unusually high tide in the Thames overflowed it. It was covered
at the time with oil-cloth, and the oil-cloth being replaced upon the
floor before it was thoroughly dry; in less than a week the dry rot had
spread over the whole floor, and had penetrated in some parts below
the surface of the deals. Of this species, as well as of every other
description of American deal, and most especially of yellow pine
deals, it may be observed, that they ought only to be used in situa-
tions that are perfectly dry, or if not dry, that are completely ex-
posed to the air. Spruce deals (particularly the spruce planks 1 1 and
12 inches wide) that come from St. John's and St. Andrew's in New
Brunswick, are chiefly used for making packing cases.

It is stated that every deal of yellow pine that has been shipped in
America in a wet state, when it arrives here, is covered over by a
net-work of little white fibres, which is the dry rot in its incipient
state. There is no cargo (even if it has been shipped in tolerably dry
condition,) in which, upon its arrival here, some deals will not be found
with the fungus begining to vegetate on their surface. If they are
deals that have been floated down the rivers in America, and shipped in
a wet state only, they arrive quite covered with this net-work of fungus,
so that force is necessary to separate one deal from another, so strongly
does the fungus occasion them to adhere -, they will grow together
again, as it were, after quitting the ship while lying in the barges
before being landed. Accordingly if a cargo has arrived in a wet
condition, or late in the year, or if the rain falls on the deals before
they are landed, and they are piled flat, one ou the other, after the
usual manner of piling deals, in six months time or even less, the
whole pile of deals will become deeply affected by the dry rot, so
that wherever the flat surface of one deal lies upon the flat surface of
another deal the rot penetrates to the depth perhaps of one-eigth
of an inch. Its progress is arrested frequently by re-piling the deals
during the dry weather of the month of March, and by sweeping the
surface of each deal before it is re-piled with a hard broom ; but,
perhaps the best way is to pile the deals in the first instance upon
their edges, by which means the air circulates round them, the
growth of the fungus is checked, and the necessity of re-piling them
prevented.

As respects the dry rot, it may be noticed, that there are but very
few cargoes of timber in the log that come from America, in which, in
one part or other of every log, a beginning of the vegetation of the
dry rot is nots. pparent. Sometimes it will show itsplf only by a few
reddish discoloured spots on the surface of the log, which, if scratched
with the nail, it will be seen that to the extent of each spot the tex-
ture of the timber to some little depth is destroyed — it will be re-
duced to powder: a white fibre will generally be seen growing on
these spots. If the timber has been shipped in dry condition, and the
voyage has been a short one, there may be some logs without a spot;
but if the cargo has been shipped in a wet condition and the voyage
has been a long one, then a white fibre will be seen growing over
every part of the surface of every log. It should further be noticed
in connexion with this subject, that there are two descriptions of
European timber likewise very liable to take the dry rot, yellow Pe-

tersburg deals and yellow and white battens from Dram in Norway.
Battens that have been received from Dram and allowed to be a long
time in bond in this country, without being re-piled in time, (as they
ought to have been,) have been as much effected by the dry rot as
manv American deals, though this has not happened in as short a
time as has been known to be sufficient to rot American deals. That
the fungus growing on the surface of American timber is the dry rot
appears to be quite certain: it has all its character, as to appearance
and as to effect, for whenever it spreads over the surface, the deal, if
neglected, is reduced to the state of powder.

These are a few leading facts connected with the important subject
of the selection of such timber as is placed within our reach, and to
which for the most part our choice is limited. For a mass of infor-
mation on everything connected with the subject we may refer to the
documents from which these few particulars have been chiefly ga-
thered, the Evidence given before the Parliamentary Committees on
the Timber Duties.

RAILWAYS IN INDIA.

Ix a preceding article we have spoken of the political and mercantile
advantages derivable from the further extension of steam navigation
in British India: we will now folljwup the subject with a few further
remarks on the still more important subject of railroad*. India is
confessedly an agricultural country; its internal sources of agricul-
tural wealth, and its capabilities of production are literally boundless,
sufficient to supply more than thrice its present population of 150
millions of inhabitants, with all the necessaries and luxuries of life ;
and, so far as regards its exports, to satisfy the wants of Great Bri-
tain, rendering her independent of foreigners for her supply of cotton,
tobacco, sugar, and tea. Lords of the soil, the East India Company
depend chiefly upon agriculture for their immense annual revenue,
and consequently for the maintenance of their power: it is to this
certain source the merchant looks for his wealth, the many millions
for their support, anil the manufacturers of this country for the means
whereby they are enabled to maintain tens of thousands at home, and
to supply every quarter of the globe with the fruits of their industry :
nay, the very existence of the Honourable Company depends at the
present moment, much more upon an immediate development of its
internal resources, than upon continuing their career of conquest and
acquisition of territory now so happily begun. It is not sufficient
that they encourage private or public speculation, that they incur a
large annual outlay in promoting agricultural objects, and use their
endeavours to introduce better modes of culture and manufacture of
the chief staple commodities: other, and more extensive measures
must be immediately entered upon, in order to meet the wants and
expectations of the age in which we live: the country must be thrown
open to class colonization, to men of spirit and possessing some small
capital, and its agriculture must be promoted by the means of railways
in those central provinces which are deficient of navigable rivers.

Upon looking over the map of India it will be observed that many
of the finest and most productive provinces are isolated, possessing
neither good roads nor navigable streams; the rich products of
Malwah, the southern parts of Allahabad, Gundwana, and Hyderabad,
have to be conveyed to the respective markets on the backs of
oxen; thus the cottons of these insulated provinces, after being col-
lected and rudely cleansed, are transported to the banks of the Ganges
in this manner, over, in some places, almost impassable roads, the
journey being performed in not less than 20 or 30 days, during which
time, the loosely packed bales are exposed to a burning tropical sun as
well as to the dews of the night, and other mischances attending long
and dangerous journeys: who then, after considering the rude manner in
which this commodity is cultivated and cleansed, can wonder at its
being inferior to the produce of the West? the only surprize is, that
after this rude journey, and its equally rude modes of conveyance
down the Ganges to Calcutta, it should be worth any thing at all.

The valley of the Ganges extending over a surface of 400,000

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

409

square miles, is so intersected with natural canals, as to render the
adoption of railroads below Calcutta impossible, and many of the
fertile valleys of India, from being annually inundated, will be found
insuperable difficulties to their adoption in these particular parts : but,
the vast plains of upper India, of the Deccan, and the Peninsular,
present an inexhaustible field for the skill of the engineer, the archi-
tect, and the surveyor, in forming railroads. From Calcutta to Benares,
now a distance of 444 miles, a considerable time might be saved by a
railroad passing through the coal district of Burdwan, Magore, and
the rich province of Bahar; or a still nobler road might be formed
from thence through Berhampoor, Bhaugulpore, Dinapoor, Ghaza-
poor, Benares, Allahabad, Etawa, Kajghant Agra, Muttra, Delhia, to
Kernaul, a distance of 1208 miles. Again, let railroads radiate from
the tributary state of Nagpoor to Benares through Jubbulpore, Rewar
and Mow Gunge, meeting the railway half way from Calcutta to Be-
nares. From Nagpoor to Hyderabad, a distance of 315 miles over a
very fair road, from Benares to Lucknow, Barielly, Mouradabad and
Hurdwar; a branch from Agra might be formed passing through
twelve considerable places of trade to Gwalior, the capital of the
Mahratta chief, a place of great note as a commercial and military
depot. From Nagpoor to Saugor via Taru Ghat to Chandar via
Hingun Ghat. Nagpoor from its central position, its vast fertile plains
adapted for the most extensive cultivation of cotton, &c, its proxi-
mity to other fertile provinces, and its position as a British military
station, is invaluable as a central point of railway communication.
From thence to Benares on the one side, and Hyderabad on the other,
there are few natural impediments, none but what might be readily
overcome by the skill of English engineers. Again, from Calcutta to
Hyderabad via Masulipatam, the distance is only 225 miles bv the
present route, and there is little doubt, but that a railroad could be
formed on this route, approaching to within a very easy distance from
Calcutta: from Hyderabad to the Poovrah Ghats, the road is gently
undulating, passing occasionally over narrow valleys rank in vegeta-
tion, which would require to be crossed by viaducts; the chief river
is the Bemab, a deep rapid stream, but having a firm soil beneath
the deep vegetable earth covering its banks, capable of supporting
the viaduct or bridge. From the Madras to the Hyderabad via
Cuddapap, Nundiaul, Pangtorr and Paungaull is a distance of 405
miles by the present route, the natural difficulties are far greater than
other routes previously noticed, there being four great rivers to cross
from the second barrier pass to Hyderabad. There is another route
to Hyderabad via Nellove and Ongole.

Other routes from the central provinces to the presidencies, and
from Calcutta to the Upper Provinces, might be pointed out as appli-
cable to railway communication, but those we have already enumerated
are sufficient to show the importance of railway communication in a
country so densely populated, and so extensive. It may be said that
the Indian government has no power to cause railroads to be con-
structed in the tributary states of Hyderabad and Nagpoor; but, in an-
swer to this we. must observe, that where they must derive such bene-
fits, no reasonable objections can be made on their parts: that common
roads have already been formed under the direction and control of the
Bengal, Madras, and Bombay governments ; and that the expences of
constructing them are so insignificant as not to be worthy notice, in
fact, are not to be compared to the cost of railroads in America, The
land through which they pass costs nothing, labour may be had for
3s. or 4s. per month for each labourer; the Deccan, and in fact all
India abounds with several kinds of acacia and other woods almost
equalling iron in hardness and exceeding it in durability. The de-
structive attacks of the white ant on these wooden rails may be readily
guarded against by the nse of creosote, or mineral solutions, which
will not only effectually remedy this evil, but preserve them from the
effects of dry rot.

It is true that the skill of the engineer practically acquainted with
the formation of railways in this country, is wanting for these projected
improvements; bnt many able engineers may be obtained in this
country, several also in the honourable company's service have greatly
distinguished themselves in forming common roads, building bridges

and other works of improvement, and schools for this department of
engineering might be very advantageously established in the three
presidencies, being placed under the control of practical engineers
sent out from this country.

The only railway ever attempted in India, was that from Saugor
to Calcutta, a distance of 50 miles through a swampy countrv periodi-
cally overflowed by the waters : it was an unfortunate project set on
foot by a few individuals, inexperienced in knowledge of that portion
of the country, and its failure, which was foreseen by everv person of
common sense, had the ill effect of discouraging future plans of the
like nature based on better principles. We can hardly expect that
iron rails can be adopted until such time as foundries are established
in that country for manufacturing the native material, nor is iron at
all necessary so long as India contains wood equally durable. For
the protection and constant repair of these railways, it would be
politic to have walled villages built every seven or ten miles: the
tenure of occupation of land to a certain extent being held by the inha-
bitants to watching and keeping them in repair. Where the land is
very soft and yielding, the rails should run upon piles driven deep
within the earth and resting upon the firm strata beneath.

We trust that the East India directors will take this matter into their
most serious consideration; the example, set by them would soon be
followed by the union of private individuals, both native and European,
as well as by the capitalists of this country, who at present find much
difficulty in employing their capital to advantage. A slight glance at
the amount of import and exports of India, at its internal trade, and
boundless resources, must convince every one that railroads so cheaply
constructed, and kept in order, must eventually prove exceedingly pro-
fitable.

THE NELSON MONUMENT.

(With an Engraving, a Double Plate, XVI.)

Architect, William Railton, Esq.

We feel much pleasure in being able to present our readers with
some particulars as to the construction of this column, particularly
with regard to the scaffolding, which is at once ingenious, effective,
and of great strength, and at the same time of great simplicity ; if
our readers will turn to the first volume of the Journal, page 2G7,
they will there see the drawing of the scaffolding adopted by Sir
Christopher Wren, in the erection of the Monument of London : they
will observe the immense quantity of poles used, and the mode in
which they are put together with some hundreds of cords, so that this
fragile scaffold is greatly dependent upon the tenacity of the cords ;
if one were to break while raising a heavy weight the whole would
be in jeopardy of falling down.

In the scaffold before us there is no hazard of this kind, all the up-
right posts and horizontal beams are constructed of whole timbers,
varying from 11 to 15 inches square: the posts are morticed at the
top into the beams, and the latter are halved on each other at the
angles ; the struts S, springing from the ground up to the level of the
first stage are also of whole timbers, about 11 to 12 inches square ;
the braces or struts of each upper story are of half timbers bolted
together in the centre, and abut at the top with a mortice and double
shoulder onto the posts.

The total height of the scaffolding above the level of Trafalgar
Square is ISO feet by 9G feet square on the ground line, and contains
150 loads of timber. As each story of scaffolding is erected, the
machine called the "traveller," a moveable crane or crab engine, is
placed on the horizontal beams, and travels in the direction from A
to B, on rails with a cogged rack, on the side laid on the top of the
beams; and it also has a transverse motion on cross beams resting on
a carriage, which travels upon the rails A to B ; these cross beams
also have rails with a cogged rail on the side, to allow the traveller to
run in the direction from C to D: it is moved either way by gearing,

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

consisting of a cog wheel, working into the cogged rail, attached to
the machine by the aid of one man standing upon each stage. This
travelling crane or crab, which has received some important improve-
ments from Messrs. Grissell and Peto, is the most important machine
a builder can have for erecting buildings where there is masonry ; by
it the stones are lifted oft" the truck, raised, and lowered immediately
on to their beds, and adjusted with the aid of a mason and his la-
bourer only, besides the two labourers with the machine, by which
means great economy in labour is obtained. As soon as the erection
is brought up to the level of the first stage, the next story of scaf-
folding is erected, and then the "traveller" is removed up to the top,
and so on until the whole construction is finished.

This description of scaffolding was first introduced into use by
Grissell and Peto in the erection of the Reform Club House in Pall
Mall some three years since, and was found to possess so many advan-
tages over the ordinary scaffolding made with poles, that it is not only
used by them at the New Houses of Parliament and in all their other
heavy contracts where masonry is chiefly concerned, but is coming
into general use bv other large builders, as at the Royal Exchange,
Sun Fire Office, and the new Club House in St. James's Street. Its
stability has recently been tested beyond all doubt at the Nelson Co-
lumn, both as to its resistance to wind at a great altitude, and in its
strength and steadiness while hoisting heavy weights. One of the
parts of the statue of Nelson weighed 12 tons, and the load, although
eight hours upon the scaffolding, did not occasion the most trifling
vibration to be observable.

One of the advantages of this mode of scaffolding is, that the
timber is all convertible for the building at which it may be used, as
the scaffolding maybe dispensed with as soon as the carcase is covered
in, and it is generally used up in the internal carpentry of the build-
ing; the enormous waste in scaffold cords is also avoided as well as
the considerable expence of a number of masons' labourers, who are
always necessarily in attendance upon a scaffolding of the ordinary
kind during its use.

Before we close this description of the scaffold, we must not forget
Mr. Allen, the indefatigable foreman of the masons of Messrs. Grissell
and Peto, under whose able directions the scaffolding of the Nelson
Memorial was erected.

The foundation of the column consists of a bed of concrete resting
upon a bed of gravel, upon the concrete is carried up brickwork of
hard stocks set in cement ; the column is solid and constructed of
granite from Dartmoor, each course consists of seven blocks, one in the
centre forming an oblong square, the others have the joints radiating
from the angles and middle of the centre block, and each block is
dowelled together vertically with slate dowels. The bell of the
capital is also of granite, to which are fastened the enrichments and
volutes, which are of bronze, executed by Mr. Clark of Birmingham.
The cippus or pedestal upon which the figure stands is likewise of
granite. The figure is sculptured by Mr. Baily, the eminent sculptor;
it is of Cragleith stone from the Liver rock quarry at Granton in Scot-
land, belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch ; it is of a dark brownish
tint and very hard: it is in three parts, the lower block forming the
plinth, the bottom part of the figure and the capstan at the back,
which is represented with a rope coiled round it, is said to weigh 12
tons, and originally when the block was removed from the quarry it
weighed 30 tons, and formed part of a block 45 tons weight in the
quarry, (see Journal, Vol. V., 1S42, p. 230 and p. 284.) The figure is
fixed to the pedestal by a dowel of York stone 1 foot 0 inches long
and 10 inches square, half let into the top of the pedestal and the
other half into the plinth of the figure. The other parts of the
figure are connected with similar dowels. The figure, we understand,
has been coated with oil and wax, which gives it its present dark ap-
pearance, but it will ultimately get lighter.

The following particulars show the time occupied in raising the
lower block of the figure, it was adjusted on the ground on the 3rd of
November, at 5 h. 20 m. a.m. — it reached the first stage at G h. 45 m.,
second stage Sh. 8 m., third stage 9h. 25 m., fourth stage 10 h. 23 m.,
top lib. 20 m., total time six hours; it was removed horizontally from

the end of the scaffolding to the centre in two minutes, and com-
pletely set in its place at 11 h. 45 m.

The landings and the steps surrounding the base are laid upon brick
arches, and the plinths at the angles are to be surmounted with lions
couchant, aud the panels of the pedestal to be filled in with bronze
bas-reliefs representing the. heroic deeds of Nelson. In our 2nd vo-
lume, p. 279, will be found an engraving of the original design.

In conclusion, we cannot speak too highly of the manner in which
the works are executed. They do the greatest credit to the establish-
ment and enterprise of Messrs. Grissell and Peto.

Annexed we have given a table showing the measurements of the
details.

Details of Column.

Figure of Nelson
Plinth of ditto

Cippus, or Pedestal upon which the figure s

7 ft. Gin. diameter,
Base of ditto, 8 ft. 8 in. diameter

height.
n. ft. i

3 5

1 6

Column : —

Abacus of capital . . . . . . 2 0

Bell of capital in 4 courses, 1G ft. across the volutes 10 0
Top course of column with annulus, 9 ft. diameter top

of shaft .. .. .. .. 3 2

10 courses below 2 ft. 7 in. each .. .. 25 10

9 ditto 2 ft. 11 in. .. .. 26 3

8 ditto 3ft. tin. .. 26 8

Lower course (10 ft. G in. diam.) including [the upper

torus of base . . . . . . . . 3 6

Scotia and lower torus of base . . . . 2 7

Plinth of base, 14 ft. square .. .. 1 10

Height of shaft, base, and capital .. ..

Peoestal: —

Scotia above . . . . . . . . 3 6

Moulded cornice and dentill .. .. 2 3

lied moulding and upper course . . . . 2 3

6 courses, 16 ft. square, 2 ft. 4 in. each .. 14 3

Lower course and part of moulding . . 2 7

Moulded base . . . . . . . . 2 2

Plinth under ditto, 22 ft. square .. .. 2 8

Height of Pedestal .. .. ..

Top step below pedestal, 27 ft. G ft. square .. 3 0

Lower ditto 33 ft. . . . . 3 0

Height of two steps . . . . . .

Solid brickwork in cement to foundation of column, 52 ft.

square at base, 1 ft. 6 in. high, then gradually diminishing

all round, 12 ft. 6 in. high to 33 ft. square, then 1 ft. 6 in.

high ; total height of brickwork
Concrete 80 ft. 6 in. square

Total height, including foundation,

The foundation rests upon a firm bed of gravel 12 feet below the
foot paving of Charing Cross, or 16 feet 6 inches below the level of
Trafalgar Square.

Surrounding the base of the column there is to be a landing 10 feet
6 inches wide, and 10 steps 80 feet square at the bottom, in all 7 feet
high above the level of the paving in Trafalgar Square, m, iking tlje
total height of the column above this level 152 feet G inches, and in-
cluding the figure 171 feet.

The height of Pompey's Pillar is 90ft; Trajan's Pillar, 115 ft. .
The Monument of London, 202 ft.; The York Column, 138 ft. ; The
Nelson Monument at Dublin, 134 ft., and at Yarmouth, 140 ft.; Na-
poleon Column at Paris, 132 ft.; July Column, 157 ft. ; and the Alex-
ander Column at St. Petersburg!), 175 ft. 6 in.

15

6

8

0

187

6

THE NELSON MEMORIAL & SCAFFOLDINC

a

s\ j*

lifting

s>

1 - 1

1

:-

S'

i i\

•t-

\

"-

J!

: L

! 1

t' £

Half FlanNrf Column & Scaffold .

Sca.li of Feet.

from. C to D .

View from, A to B Sasl et West sides.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

411

CANDIDUS'S NOTE-BOOK.

FASCICULUS LIV.

" I must have liberty
■Witli.il, as lar^e a charter as the winds,
To blow on whom I please."

I. Why anonymous criticism should be a whit more odious or more
indefensible upon architectural topics than any other, it is difficult to
understand ; yet so it seems to be considered by some folks— who
would probably be for abolishing criticism altogether, being conscious
of having very little favour to expect from it. Admitting the system
of anonymousness to be ever so reprehensible — what then ? It was not
architectural writers that brought it up ; they found it already
established, and that so far from being considered disgraceful, it was
one which our most eminent writers had supported by their talents.
Anonymous criticism may be stupid, but then censure its stupidity,
not its anonvmousness. At any rate it does not attempt to bias the
reader's judgment by the prestige of a name, and so far its stupidity
is honest and is harmless.

After all, top, is anonymous criticism invariably so dreadful as some
would have us believe ? Has Barry had any cause to complain of its
severity or its unfairness ? or has it never done justice to the produc-
tions of others in the profession? Aye! but then, it will be said, that
it is because it pays deference to names, and takes its cue from
popular opinion. Does it? Egad ! John Nash and Robert Smirke
would tell quite a different tale; they would say that it pays no
respect to names — at least not to theirs, which it has treated very
unceremoniously. We must have either anonymous or milk-and-
water criticism, unless we choose to resort to the only other alterna-
tive, of having none at all — the last, no doubt, a consummation de-
voutlv to be wished for, in the opinion of those excellent people whom
criticism never praises, and never instructs or warns.

II. We are congratulating ourselves upon having reached a new
epoch in art, at having entered upon the Victorian era of it, when it
is to blaze with a lustre yet unknown. Fudge! What if a "morning
star," as Pugin calls it, be rising at Westminster, all is Cimmerian
darkness at Bloomsbury, where Smirkean night- or knight-hood is
suffered to reign supreme. Most certainly all the proceedings con-
nected with the Museum buildings have, up to the present moment,
been kept shrouded in impenetrable mist, mistiness, and mystery.
Not even a single one of the enlightened and vigilant guardians of
art, or of those who compose Fine Art Commissions, has thought fit
to bestir himself on the occasion, and drag the matter formally before
the public, in spite of Peel and his prophecy. It might be thought
that Peel has had a sufficient dose of Smirke at Drayton Manor ; or if
he is really satisfied with that as a specimen of architectural genius,
his opinion in matters of architecture ought to pass for nothing.
Nevertheless, all seem to stand in awe of the prime minister and his
pet: and, strange to say, even the great John Britton himself, who
has always caught at every opportunity of thrusting himself before
the public in propria persona, has not come forward with an " Jlddress"
to any one, individual or body, on the subject of the British Museum !

III. It is impossible for any one to say of Sir Robert Smirke, that
he is a tempurizing or time-serving man, since, instead of at all bending
to the spirit of the present times, or complying with its humour, he
stands out resolutely against it, and shows himself a staunch conser-
vative in maintaining that system of monopoly and irresponsibility
under which he has flourished. The public is to him just the same
ignoramus, insignificant public as it was some thirty years ago;
whether it brays forth its approbation or its censure is to him matter
of utter indifference. Very likely, therefore, he smiles with contempt
at those — and some there are — who would fain coax him into show-
ing some kind of deference to public opinion. Most sulkily serene,
Sir Robert pays no attention either to such cajolery or to reproach.
Why should he now be called upon, for the first time, to satisfy
beforehand the prying curiosity of an impertinently inquisitive public,
after having erected so many public edifices without being subjected

to any such ordeal or surveillance ? Reasons, however, there may be,
although they are not obvious to himself, and one of them is, because
such matters have begun to be put upon a somewhat different and
more liberal footing than formerly ; nor has the confidence reposed in
the public hitherto thwarted schemes of improvement, for the public
has generally urged them forward and encouraged them. Another
reason wherefore the architect of the British Museum should be called
to give some pledge that that edifice will, when completed, be both
satisfactory and creditable to the country, is that no such assurance is
afforded by any or all of the buildings he has hitherto executed ; since,
so far from serving as testimonials of superior talent, they rather
amount to a positive disqualification on an occasion like the present,
one of unusual importance, and all the more important because no
similar one can occur. It is true other museums may be founded in
different parts of the country, and some of them may be, if less ex-
tensive, nobler works of architecture ; yet they will not be The British
Museum; and however gratifying it may be in itself to behold such
structures, it must at the same time be not a little mortifying to find
that the metropolitan and national one is quite eclipsed bv them in
architectural style and design. There are some who might still avert
the mischief, but they evidently do not care to interfere, fearful, per-
haps, of giving umbrage to another Sir Robert who stands as sponsor
to Smirke's museum. What are the royal and noble patrons of art
about, that not one of tbem can spare a moment to bestow a thought
on the unfortunate edifice in Bloomsbury? Is there not one of them
all to come to the rescue, and to avert from that structure the sad
inglorious fate of being duubly Bobbyflid.

IV. And what says that very respectable old gentlewoman, Dame
Sylvana Urban, on this occasion ? What is the old lady's opinion as
to the goings-on at the British Museum? Ah! Dame Urban is a
cautious body, and she therefore does not care to risk giving umbrage
to any powers that be : so that, if her opinion be worth having, we
may guess, from her very discreet silence, of what kind it would be ;
for could she squeeze it out of her conscience to take the part of
Smirke's handywork in Bloomsbury, what a cackling about it there
would be ! However, if intolerable as a specimen of any other, the
British Museum will, no doubt, prove a very respectable sample of the
Milk-and-water style, yet as such superfluous, as we have quite
samples enow of that already.

V. Even royal taste is sometimes grievously at fault, and what is
more, is grievously found fault with. Thus was it with the Albert
military hat, which the gentlemen of the army protested against as a vile
deformity. And if princes can err in matters of taste, a fortiori, so also
may prime ministers, consequently Sir Robert Peel's recommendation
of another Sir Robert's design, according to him the very ne plus ultra
of architecture, ought to stand for nothing. Sir Robert Peel may be a
very good cabinet-maker, Sir Robert Smirke an excellent warehouse-
builder; but let them stick to those trades, and not foist upon the
country such a dowdy design as the one concocted for the British
Museum out of the Post Office and the Custom House. Any Pecksniff
would have produced something as good, and just as "respectable," —
for some, it seems, have expressed themselves ready to be satisfied
if what ought to be rendered a magnificent national work, can be
patched up into something "respectable," in other words, be made a
tidyish sort of a job — so much for the March of Art in England!

VI. One of the most extraordinary excuses ever put forth on any
occasion, is that which has been assigned on the part of Sir Jeffry
Wyatville, for the entire omission of auy plates of the interior in his
" Illustrations of Windsor Castle," for the reason that that part of the
fabric may undergo considerable alteration in the course of time : a
very strong reason, one would imagine, for such illustrations being
given, not merely as present studies, but as faithful records of his own
work, should it at any future period be destroyed, whether by being
changed into something else, or by being burnt down. Would the il-
lustrations he has given us, lose at all in interest or value, were a con-
flagration to sweep away the whole of the pile? How many buildings
there are, in respect to which nothing, or comparatively nothing, can
now be learnt, because authentic and sufficient memorials, taken at

412

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

the time, or when they were in a perfect state, have not been per-
petuated by the graver. All that we now kuow of James Wyatt's
chef d'ceuvre, rest merely upon tradition and conjeclure, perplexed
rather than aided by paltry views, which leave us quite at a loss as to
the superlative beauty and magnificence claimed for the structure in
terms of eulogium that read like newspaper puffs.

VII. Now that symbolism is come into vogue, it is odd that no one
has yet protested against the monstrous paganism and heathenism of
the Nelson column or any other of the kind, as being evidently derived
from monuments of Phallic worship, consequently not unmeaning, but
on the contrary, pregnant with a meaning that will not bear to be ex-
plained. It is true symbolism does not scandalize in such cases,
because do one sees or understands it; and, for a similar reason, other
symbolism may be equally unavailing.

VIII. It does seem strange, that with a frontage of not much less
than 150 feet, the architect of the new Conservative Club House,
should not have placed the entrance in the centre of his facade ; or
if circumstances absolutely compelled him to place it at one end, it
should not have been within a recess. There is, indeed, something
corresponding at the other extremity of the front, yet not sufficiently
so as to preserve symmetry, and even were such the case, gaps of this
kind at the angles of the ground floor, where the expression of
strength and solidity is most of all desirable, would be a defect de-
tracting very much from whatever other merits and good points there
may be in the design. Perhaps the architect was determined that it
should be impossible for any one to say that he had copied — or, in-
deed, looked at Barry ; so resolved, coiile qui co/i/e, to give us a spe-
cimen of something altogether different, and therein he has certainly
succeeded.

IX. A good deal of sentiment and pathos has lately been expended
upon the quondam College of Physicians in Warwick Lane, and that
venerable piece of rubbish ycleped Old London Wall. Yet it might
be better, if instead of all this Parthian retrospectiveness, these long
and lingering glances backwards at antiquity — a lady called by the
poets " hoar antiquity " — it might be better and somewhat more to the
purpose to pay greater attention to the future, to look forwards a
little more than we do, and bethink us what sort of figure we our-
selves shall cut in the eyes of posterity. While people are moralising,
poeticising, fantasticising, on some sturdy remnants of old brick and
mortar somewhere in the ultima Thule of the metropolis, they hive
no eyes at all for the portentous operations now going on in Great Rus-
sell Street. At any rate they have no voice that exclaims against such
doings, and their eyes they employ merely to wink at them. It might
be supposed that the Museum was a mere parish job, which concerned
the good folks of Bloomsbury, or the " Bloomsbury barbarians," as
Hook used to call them, alone ; and with which no one else has aDy
right to meddle or make. Infinitely better wuuld it have been to have
kicked out Sir Robert at once, and plaistered him with a good round
pension, which hist would, no doubt, have convinced him that if he
abandoned the field to another, he had made a masterly retreat for
himself, and could enjoy, if not otium cum digtlitate, his olium cumpe-
cuuiti — a far better thing still. Hew he came to be appointed archi-
tect at all to the Museum, puzzles many; and pity it is that the ap-
pointment was not made a complete sinecure to him, sonu under-
strapper, some "Pinch" being employed, as the great man's proxy.
As matters have been managed, Sir Robert will not be able to find any
convenient sub or proxy, who will bear for him the disgrace he is now
bringing upou himself. It is true the building is not yet done, yet it
is now completely " done for."

X. Thank heaven: though literature is now for the most part re-
duced to a mere manufacture, art is not yet workable by machinery,
although some of those who call themselves artists are in themselves
no better than machines, with about just the same intelligence of and
affection for it as the implements they handle. They have one or two
patterns, which, either through laziness or incapacity, they apply
pretty much in the same way on all occasions, no matter under how
widely different circumstances. No wonder, therefore, that at the
very best no more than mere decent mediocrity and insipid, flavourless

common place are the result. How should that possibly be expressed
which is not felt? How should there be aught of genuine and genial
feeling where every thing and every part is concocted out of second-
hand and borrowed ideas, and those perhaps very ill understood? I
have met with architects who might have been very clever as masons,
but who have had no more notion of art or of the poetry of art than
an Irish labourer, although able to talk more glibly about Vitruvius
and Palladio. Well! those are just the sort of people to admire the
British Museum— perhaps, to build one.

XI. It is cleverly remarked by a German architectural critic, that
it is generally considered quite enough to provide sufficient light in a
building, no matter whether there be any effect of Light or not. Artist-
like study and treatment in that respect are, indeed, hardly to be
looked for in ordinary houses or in mere sitting-rooms; but neither on
we find anything of the kind in superior ones, except on very extraor-
dinary occasions, and partly arising out of mere accident. One may go
over a large mansion containing numerous and most sumptuously fur-
nished apartments, without being struck with a single effect of the kind
in any part of it, or any thing whatever that amouuts to character and
effect purely architectural. One sees what the maximum of cost
and the minimum of imagination if not exactly of taste, can accom-
plish ; and even if there be nothing calling for particular censure, there
is nothing to enchant by novelty of effect, or by decided individuality
of character. As for any peculiarity of arrangement, that might as
well be looked lor in the London stereotype front and back drawing-
room, or in a row of readv-made speculation houses. A good deal
has been said lately about " architecture for the poor! " but it would
be hardly less charity to think of architecture for the rich — for those
who are obliged to conceal the utter architectural nakedness of their
mansions by the mere trappings supplied by the upholsterer, dis-
playing moat ostentatiously the costly poverty of their taste, and the
paucity of their ideas. Exceptions there are — though not in our
royal palaces — and I lately beheld one in an apartment which, though
not very large, and rather sober in regard to decoration than otherwise
was most striking for its high degree of architectural beauty, and the
very peculiar kind of it, arising both from unusualuess of plan, and
from the mode of lighting, and the charming effects attending the
latter. So replete, indeed, was it with beauty of such kind, as to
possess a variety which nothing can stale. From almost every point
a new picture — a fresh combination as to perspective, is presented.
It should be observed, however, that this is an entirely con anion work,
planned by the proprietor himself. It may be wrong for amateurs to
turn architects; one consolation is, there is very little danger of archi-
tects turning amateurs, and giving more study to an episode in a plan
than they now do to a whole building, though it be one as big as the
British Museum — whose merits are all summed up in that little word.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE
OP THE EGYPTIANS.

In the verv earliest ages of the world, man must hive directed his
attention to the art of building, as habitations were indispensable, not
only for comfort, but also for protection ; the necessity for some de-
fence against the parching heat of the sun, the power of the elements,
the ferocious attacks of wild beasts, and the treacherous assaults of
fellow man must have been early experienced, and the rational facul-
ties with which the Deity had gifted him, must at once have been
called into action to accomplish this desirable abject These buildings,
on account of the roving lives which their occupants led, were con-
structed of very slight materials, and must naturally soon have fallen
a prey to the destructive hand of time. To expect, then, after a
lapse of some thousands of years, to find any remains of those pri-
maeval buildings would be most absurd; but from observing the prac-
tices of men, now in an uncivilized and primitive state, as well as the
authority of the earliest records, we have very strong presumptive
evidence of what must have been the first daw:ning of architectural
science.

It is recorded by the author of the Pentateuch, that Cain built a
city, and called it Enoch, after his son. This town, being a collection
of huts, probably constructed in the manner of those now to be seen

18J3.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

413

among the savage Indian tribes, fell to decay, and no vestige of those
buildings now remain, to mark tlieir former existence. The progress
of building must have been rapid, 'and the art of carpentry well un-
derstood, to have enabled Noah to construct the Ark, which, with its
heavy freight, was for many days exposed (o the tossing of the bil-
lows, and the rage of the.elements. The subsequent design of the
Tower of Babel, and the extent to which the proposed work was car-
ried into execution, must convince us, that even at that early period,
architectural knowledge had greatly advanced.

Satisfactorv, however, as may appear those records which mark the
progress of intellectual refinement in the early ages of the world, still
historical evidence alone can be of little practical utility to the mo-
dem architect ; to the examples of the most ancient existing ruins,
must he recur, to trace the features of the science in by-gone days :
and in this investigation, three countries present their claims for the
palm of originality, Egypt, Hindostan, and Persia, where architectural
remains of great magnificence are now to be seen, gracing their al-
most tenantless plains, the admiration and astonishment of the most
enlightened travellers and antiquarians.

As to which of these three countries w'e are indebted for the first
degree of perfection in the architectural science, there are very nu-
merous and conflicting opinions, and seemingly strong evidence has
been produced on each side. A strong argument in favour of the
Egyptian style is the very great simplicity of design observable in all
their edifices. Although the leading features of the ruins in the three
countries are similar, yet it is easy to perceive, from the drawings
which we have of some of them, that the simplicity of the Egyptian
has in some measure been departed from in the Hindostan edifices,
and that the introduction of circular outlines bespeaks a certain de-
gree of perfection in the art of designing, unknown to the architects
of Egypt; and the delicate pillars and refined ornaments of the Per-
sian architecture prove a still further progress in that science, which
must have originated in simplicity. The simplicity of style, in the
absence both of tradition and historical records is evidence, the vali-
dity of which cannot be contended in favour of Egypt having been
the nursery of scientific architecture, and to her the kingdoms of the
East are indebted for those edifices " of other days."

In examining the progress of architecture in this country, we are
altogether left to draw our conclusions from conjecture: for in vain is
the page of ancient history scrutinized ; in vain are the present occu-
piers of this mysterious land consulted about those remains of the
by-gone glory and forgotten wisdom of their forefathers. No clue to
solve the hidden mysteries of those sacred temples ; no recording
monument to satisfy inquiring posterity; ages have gone by, time has
rolled on, many generations have been called to their final account;
still those massive ruins mock the power of time, pointing out a
locality, where, in centuries long since passed away, science and art
had their votaries, and the torch of wisdom burned brightly in those
very regions, where in latter times, ignorance and gross darkness have
sprung up.

Little reflection is required to convince us that those stupendous
works of Egypt are not the production of men, to whom the first prin-
ciples of science alone were known, or that those almost super-human
structures could be the results of merely infancy iu the arts. The
progress of architecture must have made rapid strides, and some cen-
turies of practice must have passed away, before such perfection
could have been attained. It cannot possibly be supposed that men,
whose greatest knowledge of building consisted in the erection of
huts, could at once design edifices of such enormous dimensions and
great solidity, calculated to withstand the ravages of time, and the
erection of which must have occupied many years; or that an igno-
rant people could have devised the means of quarryiug and dressing
those large masses of stone, or placed them in their present positions,
which even now, with our advanced knowledge of mechanics, and
great improvements in machinery, we should consider almost imprac-
ticable. To a very mature age of architectural knowledge must those
ruins be attributed.

The discovery, which it is stated Mons. Denon made at Thebes, of
a stone covered over with hieroglyphics, and which, from its appear-
ance, was evidently the ruined part of some more ancient temple,
forming a foundation stone to one of those now standing, has been
fairly adduced, as a proof of Thebes having been, at some much
earlier period, adorned with temples and other public buildings, which
must have either fallen to decay, previous to the erection of the pre-
sent ruins, or been taken down to build those more ornamental
edifices.

In that mysterious region, where now, surrounded by the scattered
ruins of pyramids, temples and cities, the savage shepherd tends his
roving flocks, once studied the author of the Pentateuch, and freely
imbibed the wisdom of ancient Egypt. In that same district, where

those remains of antiquity attest the departed refinement of the.
Egyptians, in other days Plato instructed his auditory, and Euclid
wrote. Amid these ruins, the remains of three different forms of struc-
ture are to be observed, the pyramid, the temple, and the tomb or
cavern.

To which of these the date of priority in construction is to be as-
signed, is a very difficult question to decide. Arguing from analogy,
it would be reasonable to suppose that nature first pointed out to un-
civilized man, the cavern, as the best form of habitation ; but the su-
perior workmanship observable in the interior of those excavations
must at once dissipate this idea, and the refined and well executed
sculpture on the natural rocky walls must be attributed to an ad-
vanced era in the art. The simple form of the pyramid, as not requi-
ring great talent in designing, may be adduced as a proof of the prio-
rity of this structure ; but the fact of these buildings being found only
near Memphis, the city which historical records assert was built long
after Thebes, must cast a gr<at doubt upon the validity of this claim.
The complicated form and skill required in both designing and exe-
cuting the templps, presents a strong barrier to the supposition of
priority of construction in these buildings. The absence of historical
evidence on this point, leaves this subject altogether a matter of con-
jecture.

Those stupendous erections, the pyramids, which have withstood
the destruction of time, for more than three thousand years, in ex-
ternal appearance may be said to be deficient in architectural cha-
racter, and no beauty in design can be attributed to them ; still, from
their enormous dimensions, their colossal appearance, the massive
materials used in their construction, and from the well executed work-
manship, they must attract our admiration, and be justly numbered
among the wonders of art. The description which Herodotus has
given of the mode of construction of the pyramid said to have been
built by King Cheops, must naturally lead the reader to view with
astonishment, that stupendous erection and the circumstances which
he mentions, of the building of this pyramid having occupied 100,000
men fur 20 years, may be well adduced, as proof oi the devotedaess
of the ancient Egyptians, to works of art.

The building which possesses most architectural character, and may
be said to be the very basis of ancient architecture, considered in a
scientific point of view, is the Egyptian temple ; and though on first
observing the peculiarity of the style, we may be led to form, per-
haps, an unfavourable opinion as to its merits, still when it is kept in
recollection that those people had no models to copy, or no design to
borrow from other nations, but depended altogether upon their own
resources, and followed nature as their guide, we must banish all un-
favourable reflections, and award the well merited laurel to the authors
of the science. The characteristic features of these temples are
the colossal form, the enormous size of the blocks of stone employed
in the execution of the works, the tapering walls of a pyramidical
form, the pillars of vast dimensions, and the arrangement and dispo-
sition of the several parts of the building.

In the columns, the change of outline seems to have been consider-
able. The simplest form appears to be a representation of a bundle
of reeds, bound together near the top, with a cord wound round them
several times, having a square flat stone laid on their top : they are
made to bulge out a little below the binding, in order to imitate the
effect which would be naturally produced in a bundle of reeds, sub-
jected to a pressure in a vertical direction.

In the Egyptian pillars, massive and heavy as they may appear, can
be traced many of the features of those refined Grecian columns,
which by all writers have been justly eulogised, and to which, too
frequently, and very unjustly, the claim of originality of design has
been yielded. The very striking analogy which exists between the
examples of the two countries, must be very apparent, upon exami-
nation.

In the plain and simple pillars of the little temple at Luxor, resem-
bling in form the trunk of a tree, we may behold the origin of the
heavy and tapering Doric shaft. Other columns, representing a
bundle of reeds, placed in a vertical position, and bound round at the
top, bear a strong resemblance to, and most probably furnished the
first idea of the fluting of tliose shafts so ornamental in the Grecian
copies, while in the binding of the reeds we may easily trace the
astragal and necking of the column. The square flat stone placed on
the top of the pillar, and the Grecian abacus are synonymous, while
the flat stone upon which the Egyptian columns rests, fully accords
with the plinth of the Athenian column. The absence of the plinth
in some of the pillars of the Egyptian temples, probably prompted
the architect of the Parthenon to observe the same omission. The
swelling shaft in the temple of Karnac, suggested the similar form in
the Grecian Doric. The introduction of human figures in the place
of columns at the Mcmnonium, certainly dictated to the Greeks the

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[December,

similar application in some of tlieir edifices, which they, claiming
the originality of the design, called Caryatides. The most eminent
writers assert, that this design was derived by the Greeks, from the
Carian slaves carrying on their shoulders heavy burthens, and hence
the name; but certainly the similarity between these figures, and the
more ancipnt ruins of Egypt, could not have been accidental. The
capitals of the columns of the Temple of the Winds at Athens, bear
a very strong resemblance to those of the temple of Appolonopolis.
This strong analogy might be pointed out to a much greater extent,
but sufficient has been adduced to establish the existence of the simi-
larity.

In Egypt, then, may be traced the characteristic features of many
of those splendid temples, which Athens boasts, and which have
justly attracted the admiration of the world. To the Egyptian ruins,
we owe many of those ornamental details of Grecian architecture,
which the practice of centuries perfected, and which ail the talent of
succeeding ages could not improve. But why almost all authors
award the palm of originality, and attribute the cultivation of the
first principles of architectural knowledge, to Greece, seems a pro-
blem exceedingly difficult to be understood. Why, while merit and
praise is heaped, and justly too, upon the perfectors of known princi-
ples, should we deprive the authors of their well-deserved mead of
admiration? and while we, in some measure, and to a certain ex-
tent, agree with many writers, that taste and beauty of design are the
attributes of the three orders of Grecian architecture, should we go
the lengths which they would wish us, and brand those stupendous
monuments of the by-gone glory of Egypt, as the very infamy of taste,
or as Strabo has pronounced them, "barbarous monuments of painful
labour."

It is not to be wondered at, that during the long period, in which
architecture flourished in Egypt, greater progress was not made, and
a greater diversity of design observed, when it is remembered, that
to the management and supervision of the priesthood these erections
were entrusted. This religious scruple and bad selection of superin-
tending power altogether tended to curb the talent of the people, as
the science was placed in the hands of a body of men, whose profes-
sion must have chiefly engaged their attention, and who, if ever pos-
sessed of architectural taste, were themselves so restricted by forms,
as to render that taste useless.

F. V. C , A.B., Arc, C.E.

Diillin, 13M Nov., 1S43.

ANCIENT STRUCTURES IN WINCHESTER AND ROMSEY.
By Mr. George Godwin, F.R.S., &c.

It would be difficult to name a locality more interesting to the
architectural antiquary and the lover of old memories, than Winchester
and its neighbourhood. It is connected with some of the earliest
events in our history, and with ninny of the most eminent men of past
time, who have left there enduring monuments of their own energy
and ability, and of the prevailing spirit at particular periods of time.
Thanks to steam and engineering skill, which in several respects may
bp said to have doubled the length of man's life,1 Winchester, al-
though l>4 miles from London, may be reached in two hours and a half,
so that there is now little difficulty in paying it a visit.

A history of English architecture might be illustrated very satis-
factorily from the Cathedral alone, in addition to which there are the
College, the city gates, the County Hall, the Market Cross, the re-
mains of Hyde Abbey, two or three parish churches, and the Hospital
of St. Cross, — which are all full of interest and instruction. As I nave
said again and again, architecture has a history more exciting and
instructive than half the moral essays and poetical fictions ever
penned : it is, in fact, the history of society written in brick and
stone.

The age of some parts of Winchester cathedral has excited con-
troversy, nor is the question yet settled. The original foundation of
a cathedral here is ascribed to the second century ; the structure then
raised was rebuilt at the commencement of the 4th. In the middle of
the 7th century it was again renewed by Kenewalch, an intimate
friend of Biscop (by whom the arts in England were much advanced),
and in the 10th century Bishop Ethelwold rebuilt great part of it.
The present cathedral was commenced by Bishop Walkelyn in 10/9,

1 The magnitude of the cuttings and embankments which form the rai'-
ways ut Great Britain, looke.l at as a whole, is enormous, and would seem
the work o: aj;es ; yet all this has been effected within a very few years, by
single spadefuls ! Continued efforts, however small singly, work wonders.

and dedicated 14 years afterwards: and according to the generally
received opinion the crypt, the tower, transept and font, belong to this
era. Mr. Garbett, however, and some others, have thought that por-
tions of the structure are of an earlier date than this; nor can I en-
tirely refuse to coincide in this opinion. The tower, Rudborne, the
Winchester annalist, states repeatedly, is the work of Walkelyn.
That part of the north transept which adjoins it is seen, from the
execution of the masonry, to be of the same date; but the remainder
of the transept more northward has a widely different appearance, and
is unquestionably the work of a different period. The mortar joints
are considerably larger and the execution altogether ruder; nor is the
design exactly the same, or the parts of the same height, so that
management was required (and is evident! to bring the two portions
satisfactorily together. My excellent friend Mr. Britton,'- in his His-
tory of Winchester Cathedral, considers " this might have arisen from
different workmen who were employed, even at the same time, and
still more from those who were engaged on the church at different
periods of its erection, for it cannot be doubted," he continues, " that
an edifice of this size must have been some years in progress, and that
many masons were unquestionably employed in its construction."
With the greatest respect for the opinion of our veteran topographer,
and every disposition to look with caution at any assumption of re-
mote date, I am unable to think this argument conclusive in the pre-
sent instance. If this difference in the workmanship had appeared
horizontally throughout the building — if the lower story presented one
appearance, the upper part another — this opinion might be tenable;
but in the case before us, the difference is perpendicular, it is through-
out the height of a particular portion, not the length of the whole;
ami before we can admit that the diversity of construction which is
apparent, results from the different workmen who were engaged on
the church at different periods, we must believe that one half of the
north transept was completed before the remainder and the tower
were begun.

The statement of Rudborne, too, which is urged as proving the
entire rebuilding of the church by Walkelyn, is not sufficiently con-
clusive to destroy an opinion founded on what we see before us. He
says that Walkelyn, a/undemcntis ctepit recedijicare ; words which, if
I mistake not, have been used by chroniclers in some cases where it
was known that much of the previous building had been allowed to
remain, although the whole had been reconstructed even from the
ground. In fact, that some part of the old cathedral at Winchester
was allowed to stand, seems clear, from the continuation ofRudborne's
own narrative; for he goes on to say that within a year after the
completion of the new building, the Bishop's men destroyed the old
monastery, excipto portico uno, et magno altari, or, as Milner words it,
" leaving nothing standing at the end of the year except the high altar
and one porch, which seems to have been the corresponding part, or
eastern end of the cathedral church." The word porticus has a doubt-
ful signification, but unquestionably means more than what we should
now (-.ill a porch.

In pursuing this investigation, there is another circumstance re-
corded which must not be lost sight of, by which (if other discrepan-
cies could be removed) the difference of workmanship in the transept
might be explained. The eastern end of the church (which Milner
considers was of Saxon work, left by Walkelyn) had become dilapi-
dated in Bishop Lucy's time, and that prelate determined to rebuild
it, beginning with a tower. In the year 12u0, according to Rudborne,
this tower was begun and finished. It does not seem probable that
the centre tower was here referred to; it would be inconsistent with
other of the annalist's own statements, and moreover the style of the
architecture is clearly anterior to that date. Garbett considers it was
a tower at the eastern end of the choir. The whole matter, however,
is wrapped in doubt, and it would be safer to say that one portion of
the transept was early Norman, the other late ; but for my own part,
I can hardly avoid considering that the northern extremity of it may
be anterior to the conquest.

The effect of the transept, massive and grand, is very striking, and
will well repay attentive study; the arrangement of the aile at the
termination north and south, is peculiar. The elegant nave, of a very
different period, anil consequently with a very different aspect, is the
work of William of Wykeham, commenced about 1393, when he was
seventy years old. It affords some excellent examples of "perpen-
dicular" Gothic, as, indeed, do many other parts of the cathedral.
Recent repairs have served to prove that much of the old work was
allowed to remain by Wykeham, and was cased and altered.

2 Mr. Britton, to whom every student in architecture, and many beside,
are deeply indebted, celebrated in July last his 72nd birth-day. Time has in
no way diminished his energy or ardour, or lessened that kindness of heart
which has led him, llir ughout a long and useful career, to offer a Iriendly
hand to all « horn he thought deserving. Honour be to htm '■

1843.1

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

415

In sepulchral chapels Winchester cathedral is particularly rich, espe-
cially in those of the perpendicular period. The eastern portion of
the building, behind the altar, is a perfect rendezvous of monuments,
perhaps unequalled, and must be seen to be duly appreciated. Bishop
Fox, Bishop Gardiner, Bishop Waynflete, and Cardinal Beaufort, have
chantries here; Wykeham's chantry and Edington's are in the nave.
A sculptured figure in a vesica piscis has been recently affixed to the
east wall in the north transept. It seems formerly to have been loose
in the cathedral, for it is represented on the ground leaning against a
pillar, in one of the plates in Mr. Britton's history.

The most interesting of the parish churches in Winchester is St.
John's. It consists of chancel, nave, and side ailes, and has a tower
at the west end of the north side. This structure contains most of
the features which distinguished our places of worship "while yet the
chinch was Rome's," and concerning which all information is now
sedulously sought. Where the rood-loft formerly stood to separate
the chancel from the nave, is now placed the organ gallery — most
improperly. The staircase by which the priest ascended to the rood
loft is in a turret against the south wall of the aile, with a doorway in
the wall ; over the aile there was formerly a gallery or passage way
to the loft, with openings through the spandrels of the main arches.
There was an external entrance to this turret, which was probably
used as the "priest's door" to the church.

Two projecting walls from the east end separate the chancel from
the ailes, and in that on the south side is one of the small, oblong
apertures, opening obliquely to enable those persons who were in the
aile to see the elevation of the host, and which have been termed
hagioscopes. If my memory is right (I have no note of it) this was
adapted to serve also as a piscina, an arrangement not uncommon. In
the wall on the north side there is a similar oblong opening inclined
the reverse way, so as to admit a view of the east end of the north
aile, where there is a handsome altar tomb against the north wall, with
a recess above it, which may have been used as an Easter sepulchre.
If so, lights were kept burning in it during the latter part of Passion
week, and the opening in question may have been made to enable the
attendants readily to watch them. On the side and end of the tomb3
are shields, one bearing the five wounds, another the instruments of
punishment, and a third the letters I. S. entwined, standing probably
for Sanctus Jesus, or Jesus Salvator. Returning an instant to the
chancel, there is one sedile and a piscina on the south side of it. It
may be well to remark that although I have described the church in
this memorandum as standing east and west, the altar points in reality
to the south east.

At the church of St. Peter, Colebrook (at the same end of the city
as St. John's) where the tower is at the south-east corner, there seem
to be remains of enriched ridge-tiles. The font is square, supported
on a central pillar with four smaller pillars at the angles, similar in
plan to the very interesting specimens of Norman fonts at the ca-
thedral, the church at East Meon, and other places also in Hampshire.

The County Hall, formerly part of the old castle, although now en-
cumbered by the Assize Courts, has many points of interest. Milner
calls it, "the ancient church or chapel of St. Stephen;" but Mr.
O. B. Carter, architect, who lias examined this building lately, and
has prepared plans for its restoration,'1 considers that it was always
used as a Hall. It is in three ailes divided by clustered columns and
arches, and must have formed a magnificent apartment.

The Hospital of St. Cross, the " alms-house of noble poverty," which
stands about a mile from the city, retains more fully its ancient ap-
pearance and customs than any similar establishment in the kingdom.
The brethren with their black gown and metal cross on the left breast,
the dining hall with the old "black jacks" for ale, and other imple-
ments given by Cardinal Beaufort; the quiet cloister, the ancient
church embowered by trees, and the pretty residences of the brethren
around it, serve to take back the mind to a much earlier period in our
history, and to induce the thought that in a rude and violent age the
monastery — which St. Cross, though never so used (being simply a
hospital and a refuge), closely resembles — must have ottered strong
attractions to all studious or timid men, who were unwilling or unfitted
to encounter in the world the more boisterous spirits of the time.

Originally, besides the resident brethren, 100 miscellaneous poor
were led daily in what was called, in consequence, "Hundred-Menne's
Hall," but is now a brewhouse. At the present time all who apply at
tire gatehouse may receive a horn of beer and slice of bread, that is
until two gallons, the day's allowance, have been expended ; nor are
the applicants for this, few.

3 I rail it a tomb, because there seems to have been an Inscribed brass
around the top edge of it.

4 Mr. Carter Iras recently erected the Alms-houses of St. John, in Win-
chester, lor 14 inmates. They hum a tasteful pile, and cost £3000.

Cardinal Beaufort, of whom Shakspeare says, in the bitter picture
he drew of him,

" Henry the Fifth did sometime prophesy —
If once be cume to be a cardinal.
He'll make bis cap co-equal with the crown ; ''
expended much money on St. Cross, amongst other charitable esta-
blishments, and erected many of the present buildings.

The church, commenced by Henry de Blois, brother of King
Stephen, about the year 1 136, is an interesting specimen of a transition
period in architectural history, when the semi-circular arch was about
to give place to the pointed. It has acquired considerable notoriety
from the circumstance that Dr. Milner, following a suggestion thrown
out by the Rev. J. Bentham,5 has appealed to the interlaced semi-
circular arches in the choir, wher^ pierced for light, as being probably
the first open pointed arches in Europe. The origin of the pointed
style of architecture is still as doubtful as it was before the appear-
ance of any of the numerous dissertations to which it has given rise.
Nevertheless, the inquiry cannot be deemed useless : as in the pursuit
of the philosopher's stone and elixir vitte, the enthusiast alchemist
discovered many new substances and enlarged the science of chemistry,
so, in the vain pursuit of the origin of the pointed style of architec-
ture, much valuable information has been gathered.

Whichever theory may be the most correct, it is certainly not that
deduced from the intersecting arches at St. Cross. Apart from less
obvious objections to any deduction founded on the present appear-
ance of this arcade, the main arches in the choir, below it, are pointed,
as too, is the vaulting of the aisles; by which we must be led to
believe either that considerable alteration was made in the choir at
a later period, when the practice of the pointed style was more ad-
vanced, and which might have extended to the interlaced arches in
question, or that the date of its original construction is somewhat
more recent than that usually assigned to it. Moreover, other struc-
tures in England, the date of which is asserted to be even anterior to
that of St. Cross, as, for example, Buildwas Abbey, display likewise
an intermixture of pointed and circular arches. The circumstances,
however, which occurred in many cases to delay ecclesiastical build-
ings for years after the recorded date of their foundation, and the
difficulty of detecting alterations and reconstructions made at a remote
period, prevent us from arriving with any certaiuty at a satisfactory
conclusion.

At the south side of the altar at St. Cross there is a table of pro-
thesis, or credence, on which the bread and wine were placed previous
to the offertory, and the introduction of which in modern churches is
strongly insisted on by the Cambridge Camden Society. There seem
to be very few ancient examples remaining."

Romsey Abbey church, a few miles from Winchester, is a building
of the same class as St. Cross, and displays an instructive mixture of
the peculiarities and style of various successive periods. It is a cru-
ciform building of considerable size, with a square tower at the inter-
section of the nave and transept,' and when viewed from the neigh-
bouring hills, rises above the houses clustered around it, and forms
the most important part of the town. It is curious to contrast, espe-
cially in a constructive point of view, the churches built by our fore-
fathers and ourselves. Anciently every small village could boast a
sound substantial church of stone, which in most cases has kept its
promise of long endurance, and still serves to give stability and im-
portance to localities which, but for this, had lost their identity long
ago. At the present time little heed is given to the future ; the
immediate wants of the day are supplied for the most part by cheap
and flimsy structures which cannot be expected to outlast the present
generation.

s Bentham says, in his History of Ely Cathedral Church, 1771, when
speaking of the origin of pointed arches, "Some have imagined they^ might
possibly have taken their rise from those arcades we see in the early Norman
or Saxon buildings on walls, where the wide semicircular arches cross and
intersect each other, and form thereby, at their intersection, exactly a narrow
and sharp-pointed arch. In the wall south of the choir at St. Cross is a
facing ot surh wide round interlaced arches by way of ornament to a Hat
vacant space ; only so much of it as lies between the legs of ihe tuo neigh-
bouring arches, where they cross each other, is pierced through the fabric,
and forms a little range of sharp-pointed window s : it is of King Stephen s
time ; whether they were originally pierced I cannot learn."

« According to Milner the church of St. Cross is 150 ft. long. The length
of the transept is 120 ft. It is cruciform, has side ailes, and a large square
tower at the intersection.

» "The length of this church, according to the curious description given
in the addenda to Brown Willis's Mitred Abbies, is 240 ft., and its widih, that
is to say, the length of the transept, 120 It.; his words are — ' Ecclesia de
Rumeseye, defundalione regis Kdgari.continet in lougitudine circa VOsteppyi,
et parum ultra; item in latitudine conlinet circa 4G steppys nieos. ' Hie
height of the tower is about 120 It. and that of tbe_body of the church is said
to be SO exactly."— Sptnce's Descriptive Essay, p. 37.

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

Rom^ey Abbey church was founded in the 10th century, but there
does not seem to be reason to believe that the present building has
any part* of that date. The most ancient portion of the church as it
now stands, is probably the work of the same Henry de Blois who
built St. Cross, in the middle of the 12th century. It is remarkable
for having a small chapel with semi-circular absis, on the east side of
each arm of the transept. The ailes of the choir likewise terminate
in a semi-circular absis formed in the thickness of the wall, so as not
to show externally. The choir, now used for divine service (which
doubtless originally terminated in a similar absis) and the transept,
are Norman: the greater part of the nave, excepting the walls, is of
Early English. The west end contains a singularly loftv triple lancet
window. According to those who maintain the necessity for symbolic
design in churches, a triplet, which they consider to represent the
Trinity, should be confined to the east end ; to place it at the west
end, they say, is a decided fault. We have here one instance, at all
events, and by no means a single one, that this was not always recog-
nised by our forefathers.

In the south wall of the nave next the transept, one of the original
Norman doorways remains, and is now used as a window. It presents
a series of concentric arches adorned with various sculptured enrich-
ments, and supported by two columns on either side, with enriched
capitals. In the external wall of the south transept) next the door, is
a curious sculptured figure of Christ on the cross, about oi feet high,
with a hand from the clouds above pointing to it. Near it is a small
recess in the wall, probably to receive a lamp or taper. The present
appearance of the east end of the choir internally is very picturesque,
and may be advantageously studied. Some of the capitals in the
aili . at the east end, are sculptured with figures of singular appear-
ance, and have led to three communications to the Societv of Anti-
quaries, printed in the "Arcbeologia."'8

The font is square, supported on five square pillars panelled. In
minute points of interest (his church is abundant. There are several
interesting monuments and monumental slabs, some of which present
curious examples of crosses and croaks. Unfortunately
the persons whom they were intended to commemorate, have, in too
many instances, disappeared :

" So perish monuments of mortal birth.
So perish all in turn, save » i Orth."

Amongst the modern works, the last effort of Flaxraan, a monument to
the memory of Henry Viscount Palmerston and Mary his wife, should
not escape notice. It is to be observed with much regret that this
interesting building is, in many parts, in a very bad state of repair:
and that unless some efforts be made to maintain it before decav pro-
reed much further, but little of this structure will remain for succeed-
ing generations.

In the foregoing brief remarks, the writer has had occasion to allude
incidentally to symbolic architecture, and he cannot avoid availing
himself of the opportunity which here oilers itself to add one obser-
vation in connexion with it. He has been accused by some influential
persons of having in "A Chapter on Church-building," (published in
the Civ Architect's Juurnal and afterwards reprinted in

some of the daily journals! urge,: linent importance of

symbolism, and the desirableness of the re-introduction of details, and
arrangements fitted Only for the Romish faith. Now if this were la-
opinion, he would feel no hesitation in respectfully maintaining it:
'• It' I. my Lord, fur nv.
> I
Ami keep mc on the side where stdl I am : "
but it is not so. The little paper in question contained, it is true, a
resume of the opinions to that effect recently urged by some eccle-
siological writers ; but the motive of the paper was rather to utter a
protest against their reception than to urge their adoption, as he ven-
tures to think must be quite evident to those who have happened to
read the whole of it. To quote one sentence from the paper iu ques-
tion: " We would most worthily adorn the house of God, to render it,
to the extent of our means, fitting for its high purpose; but at the
same time we would carefully avoid all proceedings, however agree-
able to our temperament, however enticing to us as an artist, which
should give undue importance to bricks and stones, and man's inven-
tions and devices, which should increase the number of ceremonial
vances, which should threaten to exalt the shadow in the place
of the substance, and so lead to a state of things which did once result
from such a course, and may result again, notwithstanding the in-
creased amount of information possessed, and the general comparative
enlightenment."

s From Dr. Latham, Vol. XIV. p. I3« : from Sir H. U. Englefiekl, follow-
ing the former ; ami from U . Latham. Esq., Vol. XV, p. 304.

BRITISH MUSEUM.

Sir — I have heard, upon what I consider tolerably good authority,
the information coming to me at only one remove from the party him-
self, that a Mr. B., a gentleman in the University of Oxford, is getting
up a design for the British Museum, in opposition to Smirke's; and
intends to bring it before the Trustees in such manner that they cannot
possibly avoid formally noticing it in some way or other. Yet, al-
though I do not question the truth of this as far as mere intention goes,
I doubt very much indeed if anything whatever comes of it.

With whatever ardour and alacrity they may be projected, enter-
prises of the kind are apt to break down very soon, and the mercury
of zeal to sink very quickly from the boiling point to zero. Even
well-wishers to it must consider such an attempt on the part of an
individual, somewhat Quixotic ; the greater probability, therefore, is
that nothing more will ever be heard of it.

Although I agree with many others that the design actually adopted
is almost the very last which ought to be so, I certainly cannot agree
with your correspondent Dr. Fulton, who recommends the Egyptian
style as a very suitable one for the occasion. To me it appears emi-
nently the reverse, for that style is not only not a national but not
even an adoptive one, nor at all naturalized among us in the slightest
degree. I do not say it ought never to be employed by us, for
any purpose, or under any circumstances, but I certainly am of opinion
that to employ for a public and national structure what is'not even an
European style, would partake of absurdity, notwithstanding that the
Museum contains a great number of Egyptian antiquities. Even a
Gothic facade would quite as well agree with the interior of the
edifice.

In regard to this last remark, it may be said that Sir R. Smirke's
own facade will prove a better index to the interior, and prepare
strangers better for the taste there displayed, than a design which, by
rendering the exterior more imposing, uvuld be a sort of architectural
imposition, and lead people to expect a corresponding degree of ar-
chitectural beauty within; nor is there any denying that such is iu
■grce the case. Still there are attractions of another kind
within, and that they are reckoned all-sufficient is evident, for, with
the exception of the Royal Library, no part of the interior makes any
pretension to architectural effect or beauty. The staircases — where,
if no where else, some display of the kind is apt to be looked for — are
remarkable for nothing so much as their ugliness: they might be all
very decent and tolerable in an hospital, but in a national museum they
i i nable.

Some of your " contrumperies " — as Mrs. Malaprop would call
them — have expressed a hope that Smirke would, on tins important
on, give us something at last trulv noble, and a perfected design
worthy to rank as a work of art. Yet, however well-meant, this is
surely preposterous, for how is a man to give us all at once what all his
other works — the occupations of a lifetime — prove him not to possess
iu the slightest degree — at any rate only in the lowest degree. You
might as well hope to turn a brewer's drayhorse into a racer in his
old age. These remarks are, I must own, not particularly courteous,
but Sir Robert Smirke may consider himself very lucky, if he be not
doomed to hear by and bye others far more galling— such as will cause
him to curse the British Museum and the hour he became connected
with it.

I remain, &c,

J. W. R.

Mr. Editor — I can't for the life of me make out why you and some
others should be getting up such a precious rumpus 'bout the British
.Museum. We John Bulls want none of your outlandish Germany
doings — none of your Glyposticks and Wal-fiddlesticks — none of your
Polly-Stiles and Polly-Crome — in short, none of your arrant paganism
— your base-reliefs and yWs/ry-painting— all which I take to be ex-
ceedingly expensive : but merely something smartish as one may say,
yet that will not make our pockets smart for it.

Now, to my mind, there is a capital model to go by, all ready cut
out for us, and a real Museum it is too, into the bargain, though uot
such a big bouncing one as that in Great Russell Street. I mean the
one in Lincoln's Inn Fields: now that I call a tasty, sensible sort of a
thing — genteelish and quite tippy. What the inside may be 1 can't
say, fur there, as I'm told, they let in only the quality people, but it
looks a snuggish, comfortable-like place enough.

As to the Big British, 'tis of no use for you or any other body to
make a botheration 'bout it now, 'cause the /ace-had, as you call it, is
begun, and getting on swimmingly, so you may as well all hold your
tongues.

One of the Million.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

417

THE PHILOSOPHY OF CORAL FORMATIONS, AND THEIR
ARCHITECTS.

No. III.

The ocean is the mother of earlh, the fruitful womb of production, the
tiling principle embodied in forms defined , being the unceasing architect of
substance. Generated from the elementary compounds of air and water,
living creatures are produced, having peculiar generic character, the mainte-
nance of form and quality depending upon climate and association, or, the
more uncommon incident, accident of birth. With the change of climate
and association, organic bodies undergo a change, genera dividing into or-
ders, orders into species; thus the earth multiplies in all its parts, quantities,
and qualities, by the action of the living principle manifest in living forms,
and in the multitudinous changes continually taking place in the fossil and
mineral kingdoms. From the sea weed to the sponge, from the sponge to
the lime-secreting polyp, from the polyp to the molluscous animal, from the
invisible animalcules to the whale, from the fish to the insect, the bird, and
the beast, from the plant to the animal, and from the minutest spark of life
to man, the great chain of life is inseparable.

In the varying strata of the earth, man may see broadly and distinctly
marked, epochs of creation — and epochs of destruction — a series of ages
succeeding each other — of geneiations succeeding generations — of climates
succeeding climates — of local and general changes and catastrophes. Every
region of the waters opens to the inquirer new and beautiful truths of na-
ture, attests to the forming powers of organic bodies, and speaks of changes
to which all species and all individuals are necessarily subject. The coral
formation, its varying composition and character, and the sequence of events
or manifold changes accompanying it, is as plainly delineated in the chalk,
oolitic, and limestone ranges traversing the surface of the earth, as it is in
the waters of tropical seas: the one and the other tell the same truthful
tale, of myriads upon myriads of bye-gone existences, of fossil animalculae
and animals, of species analogous to or identified with those now living
within the waters, whose being and existence as fossil or mineral bodies as-
sure us of long uninterrupted periods of repose, of sudden and violent catas-
trophes, and of causes necessary to effect the end proposed. In the coral
rag of the British strata, in the lias and other formations, we find an asso-
ciation of species peculiar to warm tranquil seas, their aggregate masses tell of
an uninterrupted succession of generations, their sudden extinction, of sudden
catastrophes, produced by changes in the position of the earth's surface, and
consequently cessation for a time of living action in those regions affected by
the change : all distinctly define, by their composition, character, and asso-
ciation, the inviolable laws by which oceanic, lacustrine, and terrestrial life is
governed in distribution and change.

Mr. Darwin, treating largely on this subject, observes, " from the limited
depths at which reef polypifers can flourish, taking into consideration certain
other circumstances, we are compelled to conclude that both in atolls and
reefs, the foundation on which the formation was primarily attached, has
subsided : and that during this downward movement, the reefs have grown
upward." The conclusion he comes to is as weak as is the evidence from
whence he has derived it.

Of the largest lakes disposed within coral groups, such as the Atoll Sua-
diva, which is 44 miles long and 34 broad, enclosing a great expanse of
water from 250 to 300 feet deep, other and more extensive views may be
taken of their mode of formation. We have not yet to learn that the bed of
the ocean is full of inequalities, resembling in this respect terrestrial earth :
its hill and mountain chains and groups are of great extent, and vary much
in their general composition and character ; it has its extensive plains and
deep valleys, and its lands favourable or inimical to life: the mountain
heights of the earth, represent the bases of the submarine mountains, the
one and the other, in the absence of the requisite degree of heat, being in-
capable of producing or sustaining life, for even in tropical seas, there are
regions in which neither plant nor animal can exist: the filling up of the
lower depths must therefore depend upon the matters continually carried
into them by currents, or which are precipitated from the waters above
them. The lowest region where life is produced, is analogous to the boundary
of vegetable existence on the llymalayas or Cordilleras, sustaining species
of the simplest organization, wholly devoid of lime and purely siliceous ; the
next region is productive of other species, and to this succeeds a region
wherein animals secreting calx and other peculiar earths are present in
more or less abundance. Mr. Darwin contends, in vain, that ihe polypifers
do not build from greater depths than 200 feet ; for although their growth is
protracted, and the number of species curtailed within the lower regions,
still we are assured that calyx secreting polypifers exist in beds at or near
2000 feet in depth, and it is these artificers that lay the foundations and
pave the way for the madripora and milleporae, shell fish, erustaceae.&e. that
complete the structure. On the bosom of submarine mountains the polypi-
fers commence their work, and precluded from descending within deeper
and consequently colder regions, they spread themselves upwards, right and

left, as they are enabled to do from the nature of the soil on which (hey
rest: if building on a clump of submarine bills, the valleys can only be
filled up by other means, far slower than those of organic action, conse-
quently, the structure rises as a great amphitheatre or encircling reef, having
openings caused by openings at the foundations, by tidal action, and by
local depositions of sand or marl. At other times numerous structures
slowly arise independent of each other, or united as so many links in the
great chain. The atoll formed, the openings admit the tides, which carry
many substances into the lake, and by their rotary motion contribute to
prevent the coral from growing within the encircling reef.

That the inequalities of the ocean bed as well as tidal action give form to
the barrier, is demonstrated by the Great C'hagos, which is about 90 nautical
miles in lenglh, and 1 in width ; its banks consist principally of rock covered
with sand, arranged so as to form a great basin, the central part consisting
of a vast plain covered with marl intermingled with shells and marine re-
lique ; it slopes outwardly to unfathomable depths : now a circle to this ex-
tent cannot for a moment be imputed to vulcanic causes, nor does it appear
that it could have been formed otherwise than by being carried round the
surface of a vast track of table land, elevated far above the lower plains of
the deep. The phenomena of the African and Asiatic deserts give some
idea of the mode of formation of atolls. We there find valleys varying in
size, surrounded with amphitheatres of hills, the very counterpart of atolls
now formed and formtng in the Red Sea. the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific :
chains of hills nearly 2000 feet in height and hundreds of miles in length,
consisting almost wholly, (from the base to the summit,) of calcareous matter,
beds of coral, of shell fish, 8cc, all united in the general mass, strata with
strata. Many of these chains of hills are wholly calcareous, and consist of
corals and other lime-secreting species ; they are nearly uniform, rising 200
or 300 feet in height, above extensive plains of sand, gravel and marl, the
amphitheatre having seldom more than 1 or 2 openings leading into the valley,
which is generally level with and consists of the same materials as the
plains; although there are often several openings ranged at different heights:
the soil of the valleys is in fact at all times indentified with the soil of the
plains now disposed within the Red Sea, being a greyish marl, (which
Darwin very un philosophically terms mud,) combining with vast quantities of
shells and other marine exuvias, and some of the valleys have been explored
to the depth of more than 150 feet, without meeting with any other material.
Again, we have islets and islands formed of peculiar species of shell fish
and polypifers, clumps of tubiporae, upwards of 30 feet high and of great
width, solid masses of rock formed almost wholly of serpularia, hills of
mummullites bounding the Nile, and vast mounds of sea-weed blended with
salt and calcareous matter. If, therefore, the reef, the islet, and the atoll
sink as they are built up, why have all these vast tracks been elevated ?
and why are the many thousand islets and reefs within the Red Sea continu-
ally nearing the surface and rising above it? Many of the mountains
forming the African chain are also of vast height, and wholly of calcareous
formation : none of them present a growth of one continuous family through-
out the whole extent, but all demonstrate the vast depth of the calcareous
or solid limestone formations : between these mountains and the sea the
plains in many places embrace avast area, and while the mountains show
that their bases have formerly been washed by the sea, the plains demon-
strate their organic origin and end in a fringing reef, which in some place3
is wholly removed from the action of the sea, in others, is still laved by the
waters, and contains many singular grottos of dead coral, rising from 15 to
30 feet from the beach: the beach is of fine shell sand, and gradually shelves
into the waters.

If, as Mr. Darwin would lead his reader to infer, the reef gradually sinks
as it is built up, there is nothing to prevent its being uniform to the depth of
many thousand feet, but the revealed reefs of chalk, limestone, and oolit-
formations of terrestrial earth tell a widely different tale, for even the most
solid limestone rock is formed, not of one but, of numerous species, of nume-
rous families, of countless individuals, and of the atomic particles of these
countless myriads which have undergone decomposition, all of them pos-
sessing the same elements, and consequently in their union in the fossil and
mineral kingdom, producing the one result, under its several forms of car-
bonate and sulphate of lime. Where the reef is built up by living polypi-
ters, there the valleys and plains are built up also by broken coral, calcareous
depositions and sands ; but, unless aided by tidal contributions, the latter
advance towards the surface far more rapidly than the former: aided by
tidal action sandbanks form, filling the lower depths, capping submarine
mountains, or forming mountains of themselves, as is the case most particu-
larly in the Atlantic Ocean. It is to the vast deserts of the earth, virgin is-
lands, and fossil formations, existing under every latitude, tint Mr. Darwin
has to look for an explanation of coral atolls, islets, islands, and barrier
reefs; he says we cannot believe that the broad summits of mountains lie
buried at the depth of a few fathoms, and he asks in his simplicity where we
can find terrestrial mountain chains many hundred miles in length. A slight
glance at the map of the world will answer the latter question, and the very
child in navigation will inform htm, that the irregularities of the ocean bed are

418

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

analagous to those of terrestrial earth, that they form hill and mountain
chains and clumps, and consequently valleys and extensive plains : there is
no reason required why their summits do not appear above the waters, the
sandbank and the hidden rock are quite sufficient proof that they are there.
The fishers of the Mediterranean tell us that coral is found, even in those
latitudes, growing at the depth of 900 feet ; therefore, if heat necessary to its
existence, propagation and increase, is here manifest, how much deeper have
we a right to expect it in tropical seas. Were the great barrier reefs and
atolls uniform in their growth and material, from their bases to the surface
of the waters, and was this sinking strikingly manifest in all coral regions,
then might we embrace Mr. Darwin's hypothesis; but wdien we find the
whole earth we inhabit intersected and covered with like formations, we are
naturally led to conclude that nature perfects her works without violence :
he very candidly tells us that he cannot furnish, nor are we to expect proofs
of continued subsidence, and so says Mr. Lyell, when he talks of elevatory
forces in action.

The poly pifers build in regions adapted to their nature; and bearing in
mind that lime-secreting animals cannot exist without heat, if, perchance,
they do without light, which I much question, we must conclude that Malte
Brun is in error when he asserts that light only extends 270 feet in depth,
and that heat extends but a little farther. The temperature of the ocean
diminishes as we descend, much in the same manner as it decreases as we
ascend elevated portions of the earth ; and the same laws of nature which
regulate the distribution, habits, and characters of species, are applicable to
both. It matters little to the philosopher whether the coral reef, islet, or
islands, or the vast amphitheatre existing wilhin tropical seas (unwisely
termed atolls) are built by one or by 1000 species of polypifers, we feel assured
that they are built, that they rise unequally, that they continue to increase,
that in composition and character, in form and disposition, they resemble the
calcareous formations of the earth now far removed from the ocean, as is
demonstrated by the vast regions of Africa and Asia ; and that they are con-
tinually adding to the earth. Upon examination we find certain species of
hardy madrepores rising to the level of the tide, and bidding the breakers
defiance ; that almost invariably they replace some species and give place
to others ; that at nearly the greatest depths sounded, some of these
lime-secreting species are found ; and that every region, beneath every lati-
tude, has its peculiar vegetation, or peculiar animal species. The polypifers,
checked in their growth by currents and depositions of sands, build laterally,
towards the surface of the waters, to the right and to the left. Jn the shal-
lows of the Red Sea there are numerous circular reefs formed exclusively by
one particular reef species throwing their branches out on every side; in the
valley between these reefs, formed by clusters of such reefs, we see a variety
of species in solitary clumps, or intermingling with each other, and appa-
rently struggling for existence ; but however circular the reef may appear
above the waters, this peculiar form soon ceases beneath, for on that side of
it not allected by the currents, and in very quiet parts within the barrier or
mcircling reefs, the growth of the coral is nearly uniform, and the spaces
between each group becoming rapidly filled with living coral, the crowning
islets always preserve their tabular appearance: thus, when they have
spread to a vast extent, they sometimes become partially or wholly destroyed
by sudden involutions of sand thrown upon them by tempests, and the whole
family is thereby destroyed. In general they dip with a gentle inclination
into deeper waters, and sometimes they exhibit epochs of general destruction,
whole fields having been suddenly destroyed, from which, in the course of
time, fields of lesser extent again spring up, to be destroyed in turn: thus
many of the vast atolls or islands dip by a succession of steps or ledges into
the ocean depths : the barrier, encircling, and fringing reefs, always present
one or more precipitous sides, varying from a few inches to some hundreds
of feet in thickness.

Ehrenberg, whose authority appears to stand high with some people, has
made many unwarrantable assertions regarding the phenomena of the Red
Sea, of which, from his very slight acquaintance with it, he could know, and
evidently does know, little or nothing. He states that the corals only coat
other rocks in a layer from one to two feet in thickness, or at most to a
fathom and a half ; there are thousands of elevated islets in this sea. and
vast tracks flinging its shores, prove the direct negative to this assertion.
I have seen many families of tubiporse standing above high water mark full
30 feet in height and many yards in diameter on every side, and there is
every reason to believe that their bases, several fathoms beneath the waters,
are of the like composition. He speaks of massive corals which he imagines
to be of such vast antiquity that they might have been beheld by Pharoah —
these are large clumps of meandrina, the growth of from 30 to 50 years ; he
tells us harbours fill. up with sediment, sand, and shell, proving thereby that
he had never visited the principal ports; 1 believe that his visits were con-
fined to Massouah. It is true, in calculating the growth of coral, latitude,
dip, and inclination, must be taken into account, and also the many destroy-
ing or retarding causes of increase of the calcareous mass, for like the grass
of a meadow, the gelatinous or living portion is liable to be continually
cropped by the coral and other fishes, which continually feed upon them.

The experiment of Dr. Allen, of Forres, as related by Darwin, who, having
20 species of living coral of 10 lb. weight each, found that after seven months
they had become immoveably fixed, and many feet in length, stretching in
the directi n of the parent reef, is a demonstrable proof of the rapid growth
of many species of reef coral ; again, the relation of Lieut, Welstead, in
which he says, that a ship in the Persian Gulph had her copper bottom in-
crnsted, in the course of 20 months, with a layer of coral two feet in thick,
ness, which it required great force to remove ; also, the incrustation of
anchors and other substances exposed for a short time in deep waters, are
further confirmation of the rapid growth of coral tinder favourable circum-
stances. Captain Moresby speaks of knolls, in the Maldiva amphitheatre, of
not less than 100 yards in diameter, and 250 feet to 300 feet deep, and in the
shallows of the Red Sea these knolls are beyond number, consisting of
branching madrepoiae of one particular family, growing up like one huge
pillar, with branches radiating from every side, and festooning from the
summit, knoll with knoll, until they fairly entwine with each other; the
general structure has been formed by the successive growth and death of
individuals, or from the base of the trunk and lower branches, madrepore or
millepore having consolidated. It is not from the branches being accidentally
broken off that the reefs receive increase, but principally, from the general
struggle for existence of species with species; thus, if the red coral attain the
height of three feet in 10 or 15 years, other species springing up immediately
around its base, enclose it within their stony folds, and they, in turn, be-
come buried beneath rising generations : thus the millepora in the Pacific
encroach upon the porites and millepora complanata, and the latter upon
the strongly branched madrepora. Matilda atoll, described by the crew of a
wrecked whaling vessel as "a reef of rocks," was, when Captain Beechcy
visited it 34 years afterwards, a lagoon island fourteen miles in length, ami
having one of its sides covered with high trees ; and although, from disturb-
ing causes, some of the islets and islands of the Red Sea do not exhibit a
sensible increase during a long interval of time, the native duellers on the
coasts relate m.iny remarkable instances of addition to the main land, and
to islands which they resort to for the purpose of fishing for pearl, and tor-
toise-shell.

As the tidal action gives the direction to the outside of the barrier, so
does it very often, by being introduced therein, give form to the interior of
the reef, the hollow or central basin, resulting from accident, being preserved
from filling up by the tides, and by constant depositions, which prove fatal to
the polypifers, and prevent their extending over the basin. It is well known
that almost all the large lagoons communicate with the ocean by one or
more openings, and by these passages the waters bring in quantities of sand
and marl, which constitute in varying proportions the bottom of these la-
goons ; but if the encircling reef prevent the intrusion of these matters, the
lagoon is soon filled up with living coral and shell fish. The larger atolls, as
they are termed, are, more properly speaking, vast amphitheatres, some-
times formed of harrier coral, at other times of sand banks, calcareous mat-
ters, and dead coral or limestone rock ; the interior being very rugged and
unequal, numerous islets appearing above or beneath the surface, sometimes
united at their base, forming groups and chains of hills, at other times running
along the shores of the main land, as though marking out its future boun-
dary in that quarter : the circular form of these reefs is a necessary conse-
quence of their continued increase ; for having fixed itself in the ocean bed
without reference to the nature of the bed, the polypifers radiate on every
side, as well as upwards, consequently, if no disturbing causes interfere,
its assumption of the circular form is certain: such indeed is the mode of
growth of astire, meandrina, and other clump-like corals, the branchilorm
differing in giant growth alone : but there is no law commanding this form,
for many clumps are square, oblong, or irregular : in fact, these stupendous
edifices are produced by very feeble and minute creatures, of the lowest or-
ganization, powerless, and depending upon favourable circumstances of lati-
tude, dip, and inclination, for their existence and propagation, and whether
they extend laterally, or around the level surlace of a submarine mountain,
or from clumps of rock, or sand, depends upon the chance of circumstances
more than upon design. Many of the lagoons open down into the valleys of
the deep, others are formed from the multiplied depredations of coral fish,
adapted by the thick scaly coats, to glide through the coral branches with
impunity, like the more delicate corals living within the encircling
reefs, feeding upon the latter, and thus retarding their growth, permitting
only the more hardy and quicker growing madrepores to build up their pe-
culiar edifices until they reach the surlace of the waters.

Mr. Darwin speaks of the limited depth at which reef building polypifers
can llourish, at the same time he quotes Captain Beechey, who informs us-
that off Keeling atoll all the soundings, even the deepest, were on coral, and
what I have previously slated is quite sufficient to prove that according to
the laws of light and heat, which regulate their existence, composition, and
character, they must exist in much greater depths than in the Mediterranean.
-•Egean or Adriatic seas. Most of the atolls in the low Archipelago ate of
an elongated form; thus, Bow Island, which is 30 miles broad, is not more
than 5 miles w ide ; numerous other islets and atolls bear the like proportions.

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Admitting then, that in by far the greater number of cases an atoll consists
of a simple elongated ring, we are still as far as ever from embracing the
idea of these atolls being formed on the summits of volcanos, as is presumed
by Mr. Lyell ; that they cap submarine mountains is very evident, that vast
numbers have one general base is equally evident, thus in Marshall group
many atolls are united together by linear reefs : and in the shallows of the
Red Sea most of them are thus united in groups or in a linear direction, the
barrier reef polypii'ers being pre-eminently the architects of the atolls and
the circular reefs, formed in entirely by the one particular family. Upon
examining the early development of some of these encircling and barrier
reefs, we find that the polypifer fixes itself almost indifferently to the level
and to the slope, always affecting growth perpendicular to the plane of its
position ; this circumstance alone must have some influence on its extension :
thus, for instance, if it take root on the side of the sand bank, it fixes that
portion of the sand to which it is attached, and in growth takes the form of
the upper portion of the bank, fringing it more or less all round : advancing
thus, and radiating towards the surface of the waters, and outwards it con-
tinues to advance while, the interior or apex of the sandbank experiences in
many instances little or no alteration, the tide passing through it by con-
stant disturbance, preventing the polypifers from extending in that direction :
that this is one cause of the hollow in the centre in the reef or island is
proved by the nature of the material which forms the bottom of the basin,
which is ocean marl, sand, or such matters as are cast by the waters upon
the reef. On the other hand many of the islets and atolls covering vast
areas spring up as table land, within an equal surface which have no lagoons,
and other lagoons when open to the sea rapidly fill up with the living coral.
Wherever soundings were obtained off Egmont Island and the neighbouring
atolls, the bottom is found to be invariably sandy, and the currents run with
great force around them ; this alone is sufficient to account for the precipi-
tous appearance of these formations, for, in the live or moving sands, it is
impossible for the polypifers to extend their edifice over the area thus dis-
turbed, and consequently their labours are confined to building upwards.

Again, there are other causes which tend to give form to the reef, thus the
polypifers spread over the submarine plain, covering a large area ; they
build upwards and attain a considerable height, uhen a sudden evolution of
sands or calcareous matters partially or wholly destroys them : if partially
destroyed, the disturbing causes having ceased, they again spring forth in
detached groups upon the parent bases, forming fields of lesser extent, and
continue to advance towards the surface until a second catastrophe has the
like effect: thus the building arises from vast depths by a succession of steps.
Wherever sands can accumulate upon a bed of coral, then the polypifers are
necessarily subject to partial or entire destruction. That the tidal currents
have much influence in forming the reefs, is manifest by its form and growth ;
within tranquil waters the reefs ha\e a gentle inclination from summit to
base, the natural consequence of uninterrupted and expanding growth, and
in a chain of reefs they may be often seen overhanging until their upper parts
meet, vast caverns or arches are formed, which, if not filled up with deposits
from the waters, may continue thus, age upon age; for no sooner is light and
heat excluded than the polypifer ceases to perform its functions. It appears
evident that ihe law of forces is the law of growth of coral, that the poly-
pifer taking root within a quiet area, will enlarge its parts on every side
until it fill th it area, embracing in its rising structure all the inequalities of
that plain : that if a tidal current bounds that plain at one or more of the
cardinal points, and brings with it sands or other matters, and thus forms
accumulating beds, such formations must prove natural barriers to the ad-
vance of the coral in these directions, so long as this action continues ; the
general steepness of the Chagos and Maldive atolls is produced by these
causes : the uniform distribution of the reefs on the leeward side of the Mau-
ritius and in the extensive shallows of the Red Sea, demonstrating that qui-
etude is essential to their expansion. Again, that where the sands or ocean
marl accumulate over a given space of a reef, then without consideration of
the depth, the polypifers cease to build, so long as the disturbance continues ;
it is indeed an admitted fact, that the greater part of the bottom of most la-
goons is formed of sediment, varying in its nature, but having the one effect
the destruction of the artificers of the reef.

Mr. Darwin says the islets placed to leeward are liable to be occasionally
swept entirely away by gales, equalling hurricanes in violence, and therefore
their absence is a comparatively unimportant fact : it is true that the action
of the waves does often wash away so much of new islets as appears above
the surface, but beyond this the most tempestuous seas can have no influ-
ence, consequently if islets did exist in this direction, as he would have it
understood, they would still present themselves to the view as submerged
reefs, but in reality the polypifers do not extend themselves in the disturbed
line, or if they do, they are very small compared with those to windward.
The circumstance of there being no living coral on some submerged reef, is
anything but proof that those reefs were once elevated above the surface
of the waters, but is rather demonstrative of the destroying effects of sands
when thrown by occasional disturbances upon the living barriers, for where-
ever these depositions lie, there the polypifers cease to build, until new gene-

rations spring from the sandy base, hiving no relationship in many in-
stances to those who have gone before them : however thin the coating of
sand may be, a sufficient cause exists as in the case of the Great Chagos
Bank, Speakers Bank and numerous others, for the appearance ot dead rock
in quantities more or less.

That tidal action as well as accidental disturbances has much ;o do with
the form of reefs, is manifest in the numerous openings of reef's, and in their
geographical distribution ; the fringing reefs encircling the Mauritius havea
straight passage open in front of every river and streamlet running into the
ocean, and at Great Port there is a channel like that within the barrier reef
extending parallel to the shore, each end being entered by a river, the two
streams bending towards each other. The Australian barrier extending
nearly 1000 miles, bending to the sinuosities of the coast, would appear to
have its basis .on a submarine mountain range on either side; its boundary
of growth from the bottom appears to lie defined by sands ; it has few open-
ings sufficiently large for vessels to pass through, and from its general dis-
positions it has the appearance of being one vast submarine mountain chain
varying in its composition beneath but capped throughout with coral reefs
the polypifers being unable to extend their breadth in consequence of tidal
action and shifting sand, throughout this vast range there is no evidence of
extensive dislocation such as might be expected had it been elevated by vol-
canic action, but its sinuosities and genera] character give it a striking simi-
litude to many of the calcareous formations on the main land, all of which
bear evidence of their elevation above the present sea ; tidal action is a so
manifest in the fringing reefs of Eastern Africa, and in fact all other places
where those formations abound.

The coral formation appearing above the waters is violently a;:acked by
the element which gave it birth, and before the repeated attacks of tempests
it falls piecemeal, and the upper portion being washed away, ii once more
becomes a sunken reef, and the polypifers may be once more observed busily
building up the edifice ; again, from the effects of currents, many islets are
washed away as is recorded of the Maldives, and as I have repeatedly ob-
served in the Red Sea : but this destruction is far from being general, for the
increase of coral reefs, coral banks, and calcareous beds, in adding to the
earth, is infinitely beyond the decrease occasioned by the destroying powers
of flood or fire, and every island and every barrier reef standing above the
waters, from its unbroken appearance, and the simplicity of its material
demonstrates the vast increase the earth constantly receives principally from
the labours of these minute forms of life.

Of the largest lakes disposed within coral groups, such as the Atoll Suadiva
which is 44 miles in length, and 34 in breadth, and encloses a great expanse
of water from 250 to 300 feet deep, other and more extensive views may be
taken of their mode of formation such as the peculiar form of their submarine
bases, the effects of the currents, and of depositions, and when above the
surface, the effects of storms. It is observed as a peculiarity and exception
to the general rule, that many of them have a greater number of openings on
the leeward than on the windward side, thus on the near sides of Ari, and
the two Nilandoo atolls which face S. Male, Phaleedoo and Mologue Atolls,
there are 73 deep water channels, and only 25 on their outer sides, this dif-
ference is attributable to the action taking place while the reef was far be-
neath the surface of the waters, the more numerous lodgments of sands,
marls, &c, inimical to polypius life, being deposited on the extreme edge of
the reef in the tidal line, which occasioned more numerous separations or
openings on the less exposed side of the reef.

From whence then, are derived the vast quantities of calx requisite to supply
the building of these enormous formations, constituting mountain groups and
chains, and filling the ocean valleys and the valleys of all seas, with calca-
reous beds many hundred feet in thickness, and many thousand miles in area
constituting also, so great a portion of the surface of terrestrial earth?
Dr. Buckland says " It is difficult to account for the source of the enormous
masses of carbonate of lime that compose nearly one eighth part of the
superficial crust of the globe; but until it can be shown that these animals
have the power of forming lime from the elements, we must suppose thai
they have been derived from the sea, either directly or through the medium
of its plants ; " — this is a very unphilosophical way of disposing of the ques-
tion, for, admitting that it cannot be proved that the lime is elaborated within
the living body, we can still demonstrate that it cannot be derived from
springs or through the medium of plants : the quantity of lime held in sus-
pension by the ocean waters is very trifling, and as nothing compared to the
chlorides of sodium and magnesia— and to furnish these three earths in the
quantities required, the whole interior of the globe would be insufficient:
again, was it derived from springs, what an enormous supply would be re-
quired to fill up the bed of the Mediterranean alone, which, according to
Uonati. is 900 feet in thickness in calcareous matter : again, fuci are not to
be found in the lowest depths ; they follow animal species in the order of de-
velopement, and abound principally in those regions where eoral formations
are wholly unknown ; they do notsecrete lime, although in the shallows they
sometimes become coated with this material by polypifers.

The sraa 1 portion of lime held in suspension by the waters of different seas

420

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

and, on the other hand, the vast quantity of chloride of sodium, increasing
warm and tranquil seas. Where the coral reefs are most abundant, naturally
gives rise ;o another question — whether, elaborated within the living system>
the sodium is not converted into calcium: it is true that chemistry sheds no
light upon the subject, the earths being classed as undecompounded bodies'
•widely apart in their nature from each other : but observation and experi-
ment inform us that the earth undergoes many modifications, and, as in-
stanced in metals, permanent changes: but, admitting a negative to this
supposition, we have still to look for its elementary constituents in the living
body. Mr. Lyell supposes that it is supplied by thermal springs, but if so,
why are the lower regions wholly destitute of lime-secreting species? hy
warmth they are produced, and, deprived of the requisite degree ol warmth,
most of the species perish : again, the genera, orders and species multiply ra-
pidly in the shallows, and the quantities of calcareous matter increase faster
and more extensively there than in the deeper waters; numerous species of
the more delicate coralims existing only where the reflecting and radiating
heat is greatest : again, in the vast shallows, whose \ulleys are covered with
sand or ocean marl, the increase of calcareous matter is still more rapid and
extraordinary thi'ii within the ocean bed : the law of formation and secretion
being palpably light and heat, under all circumstances, or. more pi
speaking, galvanic action produced by the conjoint operations of light, heat,
and life . again, that they do not derive their lime from the base on which
they rest, is evidenced by the continuous increase of this calcareous base, as
it derives accession of matter from the living and the dead : thus, the entire
beds of inland seas are rapidly filling up, and hy the tilling up of the ocean-
is uniform over vast regions.

To those who ask the question—" Whence comes calcium t" — ] would say.
— whence comes the perhaps, equally enormnis quantities of animal oils —
gelatine, albumen, and other compounds, manifest in organic tortus, being in
quantities constituent of the animal and vegetable frame-work, each of which
in aggregate, w mild form mountains and probably mountain chains '.' Whence
come the mineral oils and bitumens of Ava, Persia. America, and England P
Whence, but from the chemical and mechanical operation of life : as is tes-
tified by the vasl i 'tis of the earth, and by the changes that are
continually U--I.ii g place before our eyes. In the fossil we identify the once
living body, its peculiar species, and, consequently, its peculiar habit and
character; we observe that its calx is remodified in combination only, but its
gelatine and alhumen have become convi rth : again, the
tree is converted into coal and the animal blending therewith is also converted
into coal : again, the fossil is silidfied U i' at, in like manner as the madrc.
pores and ml'.ipores consolidate and become converted into rock. The ana-
lytical chemist, to whom all men are indebted for many of the most impor-
portant discoveries, explanatory of the nature and properties of bodii
of their elementary constituents, tells you that, however nun
nomena of natural bodies, however complicated their organic or im
structure, however dense or subtle their material : all of them are resoluble
into the four 1 Is,— hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon I
all of tb .tores of these four Elements. Why, then
should it be made a matter of surprize, that neiple, which is
universally present and directs these numerous combinations, should be the
primary cause < calcium within the living system. Animals u'
even the lowest organization, elaborate ammonia, which is the distinguish-
ing chracterislic of animal life ; animals elaborate albumen, gelatine, and
carbon; and vegetables absorb the latter, giving it furm and consolidation,
and transmitting it in this state to the fossil and mineral kingdom, the one
and the other of the undecompounded bodies are mechanical mixtures in ma.
thematica) exactitude of primary elements, or of these united w ith secondary
qualities. Admitted that many terresti abstract tbe portion of
|imc they contain from the earth, still this is manifest proof that such is the
general law of nature; the complex organization of the higher orders of
animals is produced by abstraction of some compounds from other bodies,
and bv the elaboration of others, hy the mechanical and chemical union ot
these abstracted compounds within the living system : thus bile, red blood
fibrin, ana other laminar products arc- generated.

Proposed Docks on the Cheshire Side of the Mfrsey. — The leading
topic of conversation in Liverpool has been the avowed project of the com-
missioners of Birkenhead to construct a dock on the Cheshire side of the
Mersi . . It -ci in > thai the intention is not a new one, hut has been cherished
a considerable time, and the parties only waited until the corporation of
Liverpool had disposed of their land there, or a portion of it, for other pur-
)>oscs, previous to announcing it to the world. The consent of the Admiralty
has been obtained for enclosing the whole of Wallasey Poo), from the bottom
of the Woodside Ferry to Seacombe — an area of not less than 340 acres. It
was intended to have gates, a tidal basin of 30 acres, 12 feet of water at all
times of tide, for vessels to float in, and dock space to the extent of 1 20 acres
also an additional tunnel under the township, to connect the tunnel extend-
ing from the station of the Biikenhead and Chester Railway, at GraDge-lane,

to the Monk's Ferry, with the dock. The cost of the work was estimated at
near 300,000?. All the pecuniary advantages derived from the dock are to
be appropriated to the measure itself, and if ever,from the sale of part of the
land, or otherwise, any other revenue should arise, it is to go in the reduction,
first of all of the dock rates, and afterwards of the cost of construction, until
finally tbe dock should be open to the whole world free of charge. Plans
had been prepared, sections taken, bearings made, levels obtained, notices
ready, and everything in a state of forwardness.

WesTMiNSTER-BBiDGE. — Since the carriage-way of this bridge was
closed, the workmen have been engaged in removing the great body of
loose sand and rubble walls which loaded the east pier of the centre arch
unnecessarily, and are preparing to substitute brick arches, &&, for this, as
described in Mr. Walker's letter to us, and as was done to the sunken pier
on the Middlesex side. Mr. Nixon, the superintendent of the works, informs
us that the lessening of the weight upon each pier by this operation, and by
the proposed lowering of the roadway, will not be less than 1,700 tons, and
that since this lightening began there has not been the smallest movement
in any part; whether, however, this -will continue so, time only can prove.
Messrs. Walker and liurges have thought it prudent to take the opinion of
two other eminent engineers. Messrs. Cubitt and Rendel : we understand
their opinion also to be, that the sinking of the piers of the bridge is caused
by the great load upon the clay foundation, their being no piles under this
bridge, and the ground on the Surrey side being of a loose nature. Supposing
this to be correct, to lessen the load appears the direct remedy. The masonry
of three of the arches being laid bare gives an opportunity fur taking out
any suken stones, and stopping the cracks from the upper side, and is uow in
progress. Many of our readers may not be aware, that when Westminster-
bridge was begun, the intention was to have wooden arches, and that the
thickness of the piers was enlarged for carrying stone arches without adding
to the foundation, lleuce perhaps their general weakness. It appears from
the plans, which \vc have seen, that there is a thickness varying from 2 feet
to ', feet, of sand and gravel between the bottom of the caissons and the
clay. — Times.

Till: Ni:\V AMERICAN STEAMER "PRINCETON'," AND THE
"GREAT WESTERN."

It appears that Brother Johathan is in ecstacies, because he baa
produced a rival vessel to the (-ireat Western, and beaten her in a
trial, when the latter vessel was leaving New York at her last trip to
England. The only information we can collect is horn the news-
papers, the first announcement appearing in the Times: —

A trial of speed between the Great Western and the American steamer
of war Princeton is very minutely described in the United States papers.
The result was a decided victory by the Princeton, though it is said the
Great Western sailed faster than on any former occasion. The Americans,
as might lie supposed, have not lost so excellent ail opportunity of display-
ing their talent for boasting, and speak of tbe victory in nine!) the same
terms as would have been used if they had conquered an important province.
This eulogy of Captain Stockton of the Princeton, and under whose imme-
diate direction the ship and machinery were constructed, appears in the
official paper, the MaduomAn.

Our friends across the Atlantic have forgetten to tell us that it was a
" Britisher " who designed her engines and the propeller, both being
the invention of Captain Ericsson formerly connected with the re-
spectable firm of Messrs. llraithwaite and Co. of London, and patented
by him in this country; the engines are of the vibratory principle
(not oscillating). The following particulars we extract from a Liver-
pool paper: —

The Princeton is propelled by the Ericsson propeller— her tonnage is
about 6S(), and the engines equal to the power of 2.50 horses : the diameter ol
the single propeller, which works amidships, 14 feet. The rudder is bung on
a metal rudder-post, resting to a prolongation of the keel under and f
the propeller, and. of course, beyond the hull of the vessel. Above the pro-
peller, the cabin, ol light basket-work, projects, and through it the rudder
comes up. The (Ireat Western is double the tonnage ol the Princeton, and
her engines are eons! to the power of 120 horses. Sjhe draws four feet less
water than the Princeton, arising probably from the great diameter of tbe
propeller, and the necessity of its beins> submerged. The propeller makes 3t>
revolutions in the minute : the Great Western's wheels at the utmost 16.

From this comparison, it appears that the Great \\ estem ought (?) lo have
had the best of the race ; but Cap;, llosken has affirmed, in extenuation, that
his ship was •' deep." and that it was " rather more so than usual ;" and be
further alleges that, during the time the Princeton was sailing with the
Great Western, the lattei an hour, con-

veying apparently an idea that she was not g u i -pee- 1, whereas

we have the testimony of F. B. Ogden, Esq., of this town (Liverpool), an au-
thority of Indisputable veracity, (who was present on board one of the
vessels at the time, and saw and n oted everything specifically) that "the
distance from where the eli.sr I . dy book, is perfect!} w, -II known.

and capable el bein| ei and that " by die course the

Great Western took the distance was 18 miles, while that taken by the
Princeton was 21. the former performing the 18 miles in 1 h.28m. ami the
latter the 21 miles, in 1 h. 31m. against a strong Hood tide and adverse cur-
rents." This, therefore, would give the Great Western twelve miles an hour,
and the Princeton fourteen, the diilerence being two miies an hour, instead
of three quarters of a mile.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

421

CONDUCT OF EUROPEAN NATIONS TO THEIR
MEN OF SCIENCE.

Project for an European Temple of Science.

Shortly before the present Prime Minister of England assumed the
reins of Government, lie delivered an address at Tamworth, highly
eulogistic of the various "Mechanic." and other Institutions for im-
proving the working classes. That address excited much attention at
the time it was published, and on the exaltation of its author to power,
it was naturally expected that the opinions of the Premier would take
some practical shape. Such, however, has not yet been the case.
Nevertheless, when it is considered what vast commercial and other
measures have occupied the attention of Government, — what diffi-
culties Sir Robert Peel has had to grapple with in China, in India, in
Scotland, in Ireland, & in Wales, — what a variety of complicated and
conflicting interests he has had to encounter, or to conciliate, it will
argue no Want of zeal in the cause of science and public improvement
because he has not hitherto taken up the subject. Moreover, it is
but seldom that governments do take up matters that are not forced
upon their notice from without. Men of science must begin the work
themselves, which if they do with energy and unanimity, we are per-
suaded they will have no unwilling listener in Sir Robert Peel.

The Premier has expressed in terms his delight with, and his de-
sire to support, Institutions for the promulgation of Science. Let it
be our task to point out to this great statesman and to the world, what
it is that would most benefit science, what it is that science most
requires — what it is that would foster and furnish an impetus to the
progress of valuable invention and popular improvement, beyond any-
thing ever yet established or proposed. In a word, let us put Sir
Robert Peel in the best practical way of carrying out his own professed
opinions.

The late Mr. Rothschild called England "The workshop of the
World." Now to the extent that England has deserved this compli-
ment she has been mainly indebted to her coal, her iron, her capital
the industry of her workmen, and most of all to the inventions and im-
provements of our men of science. Without such men as Arkwright,
James Watt, Richard frevithick, Henry Bell, Dr. Cartwright, Charles
Tenant, and a few others what would her manufactures or her com-
merce have been? The first multiplied to an immeasurable extent
the products of the cotton factory ; the second formed that grandest
of all modern discoveries, the improvement of the steam engine: the
third (his apprentice) successfully applied the great motive power of
steam to navigation. Without these three men and their inventions,
without the Steam Engine, without the spinning jenny, without the
steam ship, where would have been our superiority in manufactures,
in commerce, or navigation? To those three men we owe more of
our national wealth, and our national renown, than to all other men
and all other circumstances that shine in the pages of our history.
Yet how was one of those three men rewarded, and what inducement
is there for others to "go and do likewise?"

Henry Bell was declared in the report of a select committee of the
House of Commons appointed to take evidence upon steam navi-
gation to have been the first successfully to apply steam to navigation.
He had conquered vast obstacles by vast perseverance. He proposed
Ins plan of applying steam to navigation upon a largesc.de to the
Lords of the Admiralty. It was with great difficulty their Lordships
could be induced to listen to the proposition, and when they did so,
they laughed at it. With the exception of a Scotch member of the
board, who from a kindred nationality took a slight interest in the
success of his countryman, there was an unanimous feeling that steam
could not be applied successfully to navigation. The author of the
project, nothing daunted, thought otherwise and went on upon his own
resources. After a long ordeal, and a great expenditure of time and
money, the "Comet" was built and sent through the Clyde to the
" lochs," and the mountains of the highlands. The simple inhabitants
were ama/.ed, but not so men of science and capital. Henry Bell had
not taken out a patent. He had discovered and invented, but he had
no exclusive right to the discovery and invention. What was the
result? Companies were formed to adopt and carry out his inven-
tion. Those companies had capital which he had not. They com-
peted with his boat and defeated it, simply by making their boats more
elegant and convenient, and what eared the traveller for the claims
of the first inventor? Henry Bell had built carriages in which others
already began to ride.

While the struggle was going on, Henry Bell, in his ardour for im-
provement, occasioned a boiler to burst, which made him a cripple
for life. Nevertheless, he invented a plan for deepening the Clyde,

and the magistrates of Glasgow awarded him £50 per annum for life,
for the valuable impovement to the navigation of their city. Fifty
pounds per annum, however, did little for a man who dedicated year
by year a much larger amount to the promotion of his grand plan of
steam navigation. He saw it succeed, but from it derived no benefit.
At 6S years of age he found himself occupying the Heleashey Baths,
involved in debt, with a prison or a workhouse in prospect. Yes, he,
the conqueror of the winds and the tides, the creator of the wealth of
millions, the greatest benefactor to commerce that ever lived in this
kingdom — he, aged, crippled, and destitute, applied to the British
Government for relief, and his memorial was signed by -15 members of
Parliament, provosts, and chief magistrates of maratime districts.
The late Right Honorable George Canning was then the Prime Mi-
nister, but that distinguished statesmen h.ul not made a Tainworth
speech in favour of science. Henry Bell danced attendance upon him
for three months; he occupied apartments at No. "22, Downing Street.
Poor man, his hopes were fed but. to be blasted — he was ultimately
told that he was too imtirm fur a country Post Office, and that he
could not be placed on the Scotch Pension list, seeing, no doubt, that
his services were not of that" parliamentary" nature which were ge-
nerally so rewarded. He went home and died of a broken heart !

Another striking case is that of Richard Trevithick— a man of tran-
scendant talents, gorgeous conceptions, and gigantic energies. Origi-
ally a miner in Cornwall, he invented, or was the first to carry into
practical operation, the high pressure engine, was exalted to the rank
of a Marquis and Grandee of Spain — almost worshipped as a demi-
god in the Indies; his inventions "annihilating space in the old world,
controlling the current of the great Mississippi, and displaying the
mountain riches of the Cordilleras* in the new, he returned to his
own country to find support and found none — to seek for sympathy
where there was nothing but apathy — possessed of princely property
which he could not make available; his countrymen wondering and
admiring, but none aiding or assisting — and returning many thousands
of miles, " far away from children, wife, and sacred home," to perish
poor, unfriended, comparatively unknown!

Now had an European Temple for Science, existed, could it be
believed that such men as Richard Trevithick and Henry Bell would
have been permitted to pine and linger out their latter days in help-
less indigence ? Is it right? — is it wise? — is it politic, that the great
creators of national wealth should be so treated? All the common
and ordinary trades and avocations of life have their asylums and in-
stitutions— why not science? Those who till lately were deemed " va-
gabonds" by the law, the actors of our theatres, have, nevertheless,
"funds" patronised by princes and supported by millionaires — none
for science! The very chimney-sweepers are not allowed to be
swept from the earth by the besom of destruction, without a society
to aid and protect — none for science, Sir Robert Peel — "None for
Science '."

Well, indeed, has it been said by a great poet: —
" In the land of the North there are insects that prey

On the brain of the elk till its very last sigh;
Oh Genius, thy patrons, more cruel than they,

First feed on thy brains and then leave thee to die '. "

* See Civil Engineer, vol. 11, page 93, for a lengthened and interesting
memoir of Trevithick.

( To be continued.)

Bridge or Notre Dame, Paris. — At the Academie <les Sciences a com-
munication was read from M. Fourneyron explaining the application of
lloodgates to one c.i the bridges of Paris. A committee of the municipal
council of Paris, of which M. Arago was president, was formed some time
since for discussing the practicability of closing the arches of the Pont Neuf,
or the bridge of Notre Uaine, with gates, by which the current of the river
could be regulated at will, and which, by raising the level at a certain purt.
would give a fall of I rifficierj't force to work powerful turbines for the supply
of Water lo all parts of Paris. In 1841 M. Fourneyron submitted a pi n ol
gates of' such construction that they could he worked with ease by one Maui;
but as it was impossible to pronounce fairly on the merits of his inve
without absolote experiments, the Academy and the committee ol -
of Paris resolved to suspend d of opinion uiuil experiments

could be tried. M. Fourneyron I10«l announces that for more than t»o
months past one of his gales has been in use at Uisors, and that it has
prove I successful.

422

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

NENE ESTUARY EMBANKMENT.

This undertaking was designed for enclosing from the sea a tract
of most valuable land, about 4,000 acres, which will, when en-
closed, be principally the property of the Commissioners of the Nene
Outfall, under whose auspices the works are being carried into effect,
and in which they are assisted by the professional services of that
eminent engineer, Sir John Rennie. The embankment is nearly three
miles and a half in length, and for some distance averages 28 feet in
height, and at some parts of the line of works there is a depth at high
tide of 14 feet. About one mile and three quarters, or one-half the
whole length, is already completed, and from this portion of the work,
as a specimen, it is allowed by experienced persons that it will be one
of the best examples of a sea-wall to be found in England. The land,
it is estimated, will vary in value from 50/. to SO/, per acre, and as a
maiden soil, would be a fine site for a model farm of one of the agri-
cultural societies of England. The works are rapidly progressing
under the superintendence of Mr. H. H. Fulton, resident engineer, and
the contract, we understand, was taken in August, 1842, by Mr. H.
Sharp, for 60,000/. The Nene Outfall Commission, composed as it is
of some of the most public spirited men of the day, headed by Mr.
Tycho Wing, as chairman, has already effected great improvement in
the condition of part of the fens of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire,
by procuring a natural drainage for the lands in lieu of the inefficient
and expensive system of drainage by windmills and other mechanical
means, at the same time improving the navigation of the river Nene
from the sea to Wisbech, to such an extent that formerly Humber
keels of 70 or 80 tons could with difficulty reach that port, whereas
now vessels of 400 or 500 tons can, without the assistance of a pilot,
owing to the straightness of the channel, get up to Wisbech without
the slightest difficulty. This navigation, as an artificial tidal channel,
is said to be the finest of that description in the country. It was
designed and executed under the direction of the late Mr. Thomas
Telford and the present Sir John Rennie, and so important has been
the result of these works that the trade of the port of Wisbech has
been trebled during the last ten years. In the course of last year it
amounted to 140,000 tons of shipping, though the shipping trade was
in a worse state in 1842, than it has been in for many years past.

CONCRETE FOR WALLS.

Sir — I have lately observed in your Journal several communications
from correspondents on the subject of Concrete for Walls. They ill
refer to what has been done in France, as specimens of that kind of
building, without, I presume, being aware that our own country can
afford many examples of buildings, the walls of which are of a very
similar construction. Most of the roads in Dorsetshire are formed
of chalk and flints — the scrapings of these roads the people collect,
leave in a heap to dry, and when about to use it, they temper it with
water. Their walls are formed in a wooden frame, forming about a
foot in height at a time, rather thicker in proportion than would be
necessary for a brick wall. I entered several farm-houses, the walls
of which were entirely composed of this material, and seemed to
stand well. Perhaps amongst your numerous correspondents there
may be some found able and willing to afford you full particulars rela-
tive to the method employed, cost, &c, that is if you should consider
the subject of sufficient interest for your Journal.
I am, Sir,

Yours verv truly,

35, Nen Strut, T. Withy.

•Vor. 10, 1843.

ON STOVES.

Sir — A letter appeared in your last Journal, on warming and ven-
tilation, signed W. G., evidently written by one understanding the
subject. The pith of his long letter is contained in his four last lines,
where he says: — "It is evident that an ordinary fire fulfils all the
principal objects of warming and ventilation, better than any of the
unnatural modes which science, ingenuity, necessity, or desire of
novelty, has yet given birth to."

As a stove manufacturer, I have watched the various fallacious
modes of warming houses without entering into the use of them, the
result of my observation goes to confirm the four lines quoted, The
first introduced was by Dr. Arnott, to suit every description of room ;
for certain places, and with proper care and attention, this is the best
of all the new stoves, but for use in a room inhabited by human
beings, nothing can be worse. Ill health and disease attend them ;
these remarks are not made through prejudice, as I have had one in
use 5 years, and find it superior to any other stoves, most economical

in expense, and no trouble to attend ; but it is put in a warehouse,
with an abundant supply of fresh air. The various stoves, Vesta,
Chunk, &c, or by whatever name they are palmed on the public, are
all founded on the Arnott Stove, and are non ventilators, as are all
modes of warming by hot air or hot water.

It is now only requisite to obtain the support of a Doctor of some-
thing, (music would do) or the certificate of a Chemist, so worded as
to say nothing, and the more noxious the vapour, the more anxious are
the public to inhale it : it was stated, in 1S10, that an open fire stove,
with appendages, was to be placed in the British Museum, to show
future generations the mode of warming made use of bv the English
in the present age. Will all the fallacies of the years JS3S to 1843,
be deposited there? They would not do much credit to the common
sense of John Bull. Excuse these remarks, they are from vour con-
stant reader, and one who combines

Ventilation with Warming.

Sir — Many of the fires that took place in and about London last
winter, and a few this winter, have been attributed to the defective
mode of fixing the warm air stove, or whatever apparatus the house
may be warmed with ; this is a stigma on the stovemakers of London,
which in justice to them should be removed ; the fact is simply this,
the most important part of a stovemaker's business, is entrusted to
persons totally unacquainted with it. A gentleman wants his hall
wanned, a tradesman his shop, or a churchwarden the church ; he does
not ascertain who will do it most effectually or economically, as regards
consumption of fuel, or which man best understands his business, but
who will do it cheapest. He therefore purchases the thing most
puffed by the quacks, and sets a bricklayer to put it in its place. He
is ignorant alike of the maker's intentions, and how to fix it ; the next
week the place is burnt to the ground, it is laid to the stove, the man
who sold it lays it to the bricklayer, so no one bears the blame, it falls
where it should fall, on the purchaser. I was once called into a case
of the kind, where a hot air stove was fixed in a drying room, heated
to a very great degree, and standing on a wood floor; the regret was
not that the house was burnt down, but that it fell on the Fire Office
to make good the loss ; about eight years since, I was applied to for a
design and estimate for warming a church in the city, I gave both, but
they were returned to me as much too high; the parties purchased two
things, I believe, called Scott's, (or some such name,) after using them
five or six years, they paid me my price for fixing a stove in the
church — sent their two things to the furnace, and now find they have
more warmth at a third or fourth the consumption of fuel, so much for
cheapness; let the parties who wish their houses warmed, employ
efficient persons only to do it, and we shall hear but of few houses
being burnt down by flues being overheated.

Yours truly,

A. Smith.

PRIORY CHURCH OF St. BARTHOLOMEW, SM1THFIELD.

Sir — From the cirenmstance of an interesting article appearing in
your last number, on the parish church of Saint Bartholomew the
Great, West Smithfield,! take the opportunity of directing further at-
tention to that interesting structure.

The writer of the article referred to, suggests various Restorations
which every architect must rejoice to see carried into effect ; but it is
chimerical to suppose that the expense which would have to be in-
curred thereby, could be defrayed by the parishioners. The funds
absolutely required from time to time, for maintaining the fabric in a
state of ordinary repair, are raised with considerable difficul-
ty ; and the few restorations which have been made, consisting of
partially re-opening the Triforium, and Prior Bolton's window, were
accomplished by means of a private subscription. To restore the
choir to its former extent and in its original style, would, 1 consider,
require an outlay of nearly two thousand pounds, to say nothing of the
expense attendant on the alterations which such a restoration would
necessarily involve, viz., the removal of the parochial schools, which
are placed over the north aisle, and of an erection (used as a manufac-
tory) situate over the east aisle.

Under these peculiar circumstances, it is uselsss to hope that any
important steps towards a perfect restoration can be taken, unless i
general interest in the subject rje first excited; and although it would
undoubtedly be a great boon co ferred on Art, were this valuable relic
of Anglo Norman Architecture restored to its primitive grandeur, I
fear it is by the public only, that so desirable an object can be carried
into effect.

Yours obediently,

John Blyth.

113, Aldersgate Street, City, November, 1343.

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

423

THE WIER ACROSS THE SHANNON.

Sir — If your correspondent who furnished the. article on tlie great
Weir across the Shannon, in the October number of your Journal,
would favour the public with a few more particulars of that work, I
think it would be highly interesting to your readers, especially as he
appears to make an assertion which in its present form I cannot admit
to be true, viz., " that a bar or weir may be constructed across a river
in such a manner as to give an increased discharge." At the same
time I am aware that the channel of a river may be widened or
deepened, so that, notwithstanding the impediment of a weir (of cer-
tain dimensions) an increased discharge may be obtained.

Supposing the Shannon at Killaloe to be in its former condition and
flooded to the level of nine feet above the present level of the weir,
I apprehend your correspondent does not mean to say that simply
placing the impediment of u weir in a certain position would at once
reduce the level of the water six feet. Under such circumstances
there would not be any perpendicular fall over the weir, merely a
slight rapid, the stream preserving iis former direction, which being
the case, the cross section must be taken in all places at right angles
to the stream, to give the true sectional area of the river, which area
would of course be reduced by the weir. If the weir were placed at
right angles with the stream, and the river widened till the sectional
area of the water passing over the weir was equal to the area of the
river above, or if the weir were placed, as shown in the plan accom-
panying the communication, and the channel below deepened, so as to
give a perpendicular tall over the weir, (in which case the area of
discharge must be taken in the line of the weir,) then the advantages
mentioned by your correspondent would be obtained : but unless the
channel is widened, or deepened so as to give a perpendicular fall
over the weir, the discharge must be impeded by any obstruction op-
posed to the stream.

I remain, Sir, &c,

H. C.

ON CONTOURING OF MAPS.

Sir — In your Journal for this month I have read a description by
Dr. Livesay of an instrument invented by him in 1839, for copying
medals, &c. and in which he speaks of my " important application " of
the principle of contouring, which he thinks may be subsequent to
his invention. I only trespass on your pages to say, that if Dr. Live-
say attributes to me the application of contours to the representation
of ground, he gives me a very undue merit. They have been so
applied for more than half a century, especially to military plans,
where the relative command of ground is of great importance; for
which purpose alt officers of engineers are instructed in contouring.
In France and Bavaria, and I believe in some of the States of America,
they are used in the national surveys. In Ireland, Mr. Bald, the
eminent civil engineer, contoured a part of his Map of Mayo. The
application of accurate contouring to the representation of ground on
the Ordnance survey of Ireland, commenced in 1S33, under the di-
rection of Lieut. Bennet, R.E., and the trials have proved that the
system may be applied without incurring any such addition of cost as
should preclude its general adoption, to which this question of ex-
pense had long been the only objection. There are many valuable
papers on contouring in the Memorial du Depot de la Guerre ; and a
concise chapter on the subject in Williams' Practical Geodesy.

I have only to add that 1 had nut heard of Dr. Livesay's instrument
till I read the account in your Journal fur the present month.
I am, Sir,

Dublin, Your obedient servant,

November 20, 1S43. T. A. Larcom, Capt. R. Engineers.

REMARKS ON SHIP'S FASTENINGS AND STEAM BOATS.

BY J. S. ENTS, ESQ.

The necessity of great strength in the hulls of steam boats, has long
been acknowledged, in consequence of the concentrated weight of the
engine and boilers. In recent instances, however, a portion of this
weight has been removed by the introduction of wrought iron framing
in lieu of cast iron; more especially in large direct action engines.
This objection to cast iron framings increases with the size of the
engine, since a framing formed of this material, is liable to break when
subjected to a variety of cross strains, at the junction of different masses
of cast iron, at which points unequal contraction in cooling is apt to
produce weakness.

Engineers have been accustomed to guard against injury from the

weakness of the ship, by placing the engine on the floors in a framing,
as independent as possible of the hull of the vessel, and left the ship-
builders to provide a remedy against the sagging, or sinking of the
centre part of the hull.

Though much has been done to strengthen steamers, yet enough
remains undone, to render it a legitimate object of inquiry, whether the
limit of strength has been reached in ship-building, while the severe
and rapidly increasing competition of iron vessels, renders it of im-
portance to the builders of timber ships, to consider everv practicable
means of improvement and reduction of cost. Conceiving the iron
strap used by miners in connecting together the main rods in shafts,
and common in all framing designed by engineers, stronger than the
ship-builder's knee fastening, a frame was submitted to the society
for the midship section of a steamer, in which a strap wes used for the
purpose of connecting the deck beams to the side ; this strap passes
round one or more timbers, and is then bolted to the deck beams.

A similar method was shown for strapping an internal series of
timbers to the floor heads and deck beams (forming two internal sides
at the position of the bunkers). The arrangement of the coal boxes
of large steamers on each side of the engine and boilers, would faci-
litate the adoption of a plan of this nature, without the loss of space
exceeding one foot in the internal breadth of the vessel. The plan of
four sides in this portion of the vessel, could be adopted in iron ves-
sels with the greatest ease, in consequence of the facility with which
the fastenings could be effected.

As regards the strength of the strap, it may be remarked that the
straps connecting together the main rod employed in pumping water
from deep shafts in the Cornish mines, have been known to bear the
sudden repetition, for thirty million times, of a steam strain exceeding
eighty tons (six strokes per minute average during ten years.)

The difficulty of effecting repairs will be made an objection to the
employment of the iron strap in shipbuilding. Important as such se-
condary objections are, yet they are too often brought forward as the
prominent features, in opinions that are given against the success of
proposed alterations in shipbuilding. Time would alone prove whe-
ther the less tendency to require repair, where the iron strap is used,
would equalize their average cost in repairs. — Report of the Cornwall
Polytechnic Institution.

REMARKS ON FLOATING LIGHT VESSELS.

BY J. S. ENYS, ESQ.

The comfort of the light keepers on board floating light vessels will
be increased, I apprehend, by the same means that would tend to
produce greater safety in the vessel itself. It has been proposed to
employ a larger vessel constructed of iron, to enable it to ride more
easily at anchor — and such would be the result, if the same breadth
was allowed, from the lessened draught of water. The form in which
I am disposed to consider the subject is the relative proportion of the
depth and breadth (outside measure), for the sake of comparison, of
iron and the common system of timber vessels, and that of three series
of planks fastening together. Taking the least possible depth at 7£
or 8 feet, the breadth should not be less than IS or 20 feet, and at
3-3 to 4 times the breadth for the length, from GO to 80 feet long. The
form of the midship department should be similar to that of a water
fowl or of a light Dutchman. The former, however, does not ride at
anchor as the latter does in bad weather, and we should look for the
conditions of safety to some modification of these forms.

The floating light vessels I have seen, resemble the Dutchman only
in their heavy appearance, and seem constructed to resist as an oak,
rather than to bend as a willow. It is essential, I conceive, that a
vessel suited for this purpose, should possess a large proportional
surface department; in other words, that a light vessel should be
lightly loaded. To enable her to rise with greater facility to the sea,
she might be anchored by the keel by iron straps, passing round it and
one or more of the deck beams. If the double plan was used, by
changing the length of the chains more or less ease could be given to
the bow in rising over waves. Perhaps a keel deepening aft would
prove advantageous in some positions, though perhaps objectionable
in cross tides and seas, and sharp bows might be used u ider some con-
ditions. Ihe species of knowledge required for mooring small craft in
rough water, is seldom acquired by parties accustomed to large ships
in the Atlantic or other open seas, and an apprenticeship on board a
Dutchman, or experiments on board a trial vessel with tanks, by means
of which a variable displacement could be obtained, seems to offer the
best means of procuring the data required for a complete solution of
the question, of the best form for a floating light vessel.— Ibid.

424

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

ON THE MEANS OF PREVENTING THE APPEARANCE OF
SALTPETRE ON WALLS.

Communication from C. H. Smith, Esq., in reply to Questions proposed to
him by the Commissioners on the Fine Arts, respecting Causes of and
Means of Preventing appearance of Saltpetre on Surface of Walls.

The mineral substances chiefly used in building, consist of lime, sand, and
different kinds of stone, neither of which contain any saline or deliquescent
matter as an integral part of their composition. No trace of salt or alkali is men-
tioned in the analyses of various stones that were examined with reference
to the selection for building the New Houses of Parliament. Bricks are made of
clay, which consists principally of alumina and silica, hut generally containing
some portion of lime, in the state of carbonate or sulphate ! carbonate of mag-
nesia; iron in the state of oxide, or combined with sulphur; and commou
culinary salt : these various materials, when exposed to a red heat, act che-
mically on each other ; the magnesia most probably will combine with the
sulphuric acid, which it obtains partly from the iron pyrites mixed with the
clay, and partly from the fuel, if coal is used. It is this sulphate of mag-
nesia (common Epsom salt) which is occasionally found to cover the surface
of newly built walls with an efflorescence like hoar frost.

The presence of saline or deliquescent matter on the surface of a building,
either internally or externally, may, to a certain extent, be attributed to
carelessness, ignorance, or inattention of those who superintend the con-
struction of an edifice. Salts, alkalies, or acids, according to the usual ac-
ceptation of such terms, do not necessarily form any part whatever of build-
ing materials. Nearly all animal and vegetable substances, when in a state
of putrefaction or decay, produce a certain quantity of saline or alkaline mat-
ter, which absorbs moisture rapidly; therefore every precaution should be
to avoid admitting such substances into a building where damp walls
are likely to be of serious importance. It has long been a practice among
builders to "parget "all the flues in a building: for this purpose cartloads of
excrement, frequently of many kinds, are procured from a cow-shed, and
mixed with a little mortar, to put a coating throughout the interior of the
chimneys. Another objectionable practice is common during the time
that the carcase of a building is progressing, and partially until the " finish-
ing" is nearly completed, which is that of allowing workmen to urinate in-
discriminately against the angles and recesses of the interior of a new build-
ing : no pari is more frequently selected than the fire-places before the stoves
are placed therein; anil in an extensive building, where hundreds of work-
men are employed during several years, the quantity must be quite sufficient
to saturate certain parts of the structure beyond all remedy. Both these
causes undoubtedly increase the presence of salts, &c, on such parts of the
interior of buildings as are elevated above the influence of the ground. To
show that dung and urine have long been considered to yield saltpetre abun-
dantly, a proclamation of Charles I., in 1625, ordered all persons to save the
urine of their families, and as much as they could of that of their cattle, to
supply saltpetre for the manufacture of gunpowder; and in 1627 the salt-
petre-makers were authorized to take away the ground of all dove-houses,
stables, lairs, or others places where cattle were kept. There are many
other sources bj which salts are conveyed into or communicated to the walls
of a building, but those already mentioned appear to he the most copious,
and which may be considerably decreased.

Under ordinary circumstances it is scarcely possible to get rid of the vari-
ous saline or deliquescent substances that have once been admitted into the
walls of a building. The fixed alkalies (potash and soda) may probably be
considered imperishable; no length of time can injure them ; they may efflo-
resce, or, more properly, the) may crystallize on the surface of a wall, and
totally or partially disappear again and again, as often as a change in tempe-
rature or of dryness or humidity takes place ; these changes may he daily, or
the salts may remain inactive (luring ages, and, from some favourable cause,
a crop of crystals may be produced as flourishingly as if the wall had been
recently erected. The only way to abate the evil, is to brush off the crys-
tals, dry, whenever they appear in the most flourishing condition. If potash
has been introduced into the walls, either from the putrefaction of animal or
vegetable substances, such as have been named, or from other sources, bow-
ever thick the wall may be, it will make its way to the surface, and then
absorbing nitrogen from the atmosphere, which contains 7(1 or 80 per cent,
of it, nitrate of potash (or saltpetre) is produced.

If we may imagine the possibility of salts in a crystalline state getting to
the interior of a dry wall, beyond the influence either of moisture or consi-
derable variation ot temperature, in such case they would unquestionably
remain crystallized as they were deposited ; hut such a state of things is never
likely to take place : salts are generally communicated to a building in weak
solutions; the water very gradually evaporates, carrying with it, from the
interior of the wall, the molecules which con-pose salt. The solution having
arrived at the surface, so as to be freely in contact with the atmosphere
(which is always essential to crystalization), evaporation continues until the
solution is sufficiently strong to crystallize, leaving only the mother-water in
the wall, which is indicated by a certain dampness.

Lime, mortar, or some other sort of calcareous earth, seems to act as a
vivifying principle to set the molecules of salt and water in action; if no lime
were present, crystallization would certainly be much less active. An in-
crease of temperature, or a humid atmosphere, will slowly dissolve the salts;
if both th se causes occur at the same time, liquefaction will be rapid, and
the newly formed fluid will be absorbed into the wall as fast as the salts are

dissolved. These changes will take place with every variation oj atmosphere:
a cool dry air, in a state of absolute rest or stagnation, is favourable to crys-
tallization ; a warm one, charged with aqueous vapour, will facilitate solu-
tion. It is extremely probable that several kinds of salts may be formed on
the same wall, with their crystals intermixed so as to escape the discrimina-
tion of a casual observer, and that each will crystallize and liquefy at diffe-
rent times, according to the temperature and the quantity of moisture in the
atmosphere : should, this be the case, perhaps the wall may never appear per-
fectly free from efflorescence, so long as the various stimulants of air, mois-
ture, light, heat, and other causes of attraction are in activity; and, since all
attraction is mutual, it may readily be understood, that as the particles of
water attract those of the alkaline sal£, and retain them in solution, so the
particles of alkaline salt will attract those of the water, and hold them in
crystallization.

It is difficult to state with precision the relative power of different bodies
to attract moisture from the atmosphere ; that such power exists indepen-
dentlv of temperature is scarcely probable, as thermal influence appears ge-
nerally diffused over the face of nature. Some substances are more suscep-
tible of sudden changes of temperature than others, and thereby may occa-
sion a rapid precipitation of vapour, from the serial or invisible state in which
it exists in a warm atmosphere, to the fluid form on the surface of cold bo-
dies ; this circumstance arises solely from the solid mass of the wall requiring
a much longer time to attain the same elevated temperature as the atmos-
phere. Bodies in contact with each other in due time arrive at one common
temperature, by the hotter communicating the requisite proportion of the
excess of its heat to the colder ; the velocity of this communication varies in
different bodies, some being quickly heated, and as quickly cooled ; others
undergoing these changes much more slowly. It is probable that the atoms
or completely solid parts of all simple substances have exactly the same ca-
pacities for heat, and that the perfect or imperfect conducting power of sub-
si, meet will be proportioned to their porosity, sponginess, or the quantity of
vacant space contained in their interstices. Deuce bodies are generally the
best conductors of beat; those which are the most porous, conduct it very
imperfectly ; the metals, which arc substances of the greatest density, trans-
mit beat most rapidly; stones and earthy substances conduct it more slowly;
wood is a bad conductor; aud the natural clothing of animals — fur, hair,
featners, &c., are inferior to every other material in their power of commu-
nicating heat. These remarks are applicable only to the conducting power
of solid substances ; liquids are all very bad conductors of heat ; therefore,
independently of evaporation, a cold damp wall will continue at a low tem-
perature much longer than a cold dry one; and hence it will influence the
condensation of vapours during a greater length of time than if it were dry.

\ si inns circumstances seem to infer the probability that voltaic electricity,
considered as a chemical agent, may act some part in conveying moisture
from the atmosphere to the walls of a building. All substances naturally
possess electrical energies, which are inherent in them; probably there may
not be two substances, or even two distinct surfaces of the same substance,
that are not in different electrical relations to each other ; and it is a law of
electricity that bodies in opposite states attract each other. Lime, sand, bricks,
and hair, materials with which walls are usually constructed and plastered,
are all, when dry, bad conductors ; whereas water is a good conductor of
electricity; and whenever the atmosphere, or water, or any part of the sur-
face of a body, gains accumulated electricity of a different kind from the con-
tiguous substances, there is an immediate tendency to bring the parts in
contact. In this manner, other circumstances being favourable, floating
aqueous vapours may perhaps be imparted to a wall, and absorbed into it
by capillary attraction.

Electric influence, as connected with the preceding inquiry, is merely offered
as a hint, with the view of inducing scientific men to investigate the sub-
ject. Hitherto the public are not in possessiou of any facts which have im-
mediate reference to this important object.

C. II. SMITH.

2D, Clipstone Street, June 2, 1843.

. OPEN SEATS IN CHURCHES.

So great is the present demand for good models of open seats, consequent
upon the strong and fast-spreadirrg dislike and condemnation of pews, and
so numerous are the applications made to us for advice and assistance in
restoring to churches their more Catholic arrangement for the accommoda-
tion of worshippers, that we propose to offer a few remarks on the. proper
proportions of this kind of seats, and the best method of fixing and disposing
them.

The standards or ends of ancient open seats are generally distributable
under three heads : (1) those which are sloped off with a shoulder and ter-
minate in a boldly carved finial : (2) those that have an elbow, generally (as at
Chesterton and Histon churches,) wrought into the device of a cumbent lion,
dog, or griffin, but sometimes (as at Ketton, Rutlandshire) having a plain curva-
ture ; (3) those which are simply square or parallelogrammic panels. The last
are usually the latest in date, though it may be observed in general of open
seats, that they scarcely ever bear the marks of great antiquity. Whether
any are to be found as early as the fourteenth century we do not know ; but
there is every reason to believe that, till the conclusion of the Edwardian
period, the area of churches was quite free and unincumbered, and that if

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

425

seats were used at all, they were moveable, and only placed in the Nave on
occasion, of service. The square panels are peculiarly common in Somerset-
shire, where they are carved in the richest and most varied devices, as may
be seen in a valuable series of sixty -seven drawings of them recently pre-
sented to the Society.

The average height of the standards in ancient examples, measuring
from the ground to the top of the ritual, is from three to four feet, by from
fifteen to eighteen inches wide. Those, however, described under the third
head are usually from eighteen to twenty-four inches wide. In this case, the
back is of the same height as the ends ; in the others, the tinial and shoulder
project above the back, the capping of which is usually about two-and-a-half
feet above the floor. The standards are of oak, seldom much less than three
inches thick : and they are fixed by having the lower ends morticed into a
rill or sleeper of oak, four or five inches square. The distance apart in the
clear, that is, measuring from back to back, is usually three-and-a-half feet.
Two-and-a-half feet is the very smallest distance that can be allowed. The
seats should be not less than fourteen inches wide, and raised above the floor
or pavement sixteen inches. These will be fouud the most comfortable as
well as convenient proportions.

It is a great mistake to make the backs high or sloping. In the former
case the support is against the shoulders, whereas it is required in the middle
of the spine. In the latter a lolling or easy-chair position is induced, and
the worshipper who kneels behind it is greatly incommoded by the projection
of the upper part : it is moreover necessary that the seats be placed further
apart when they have inclined, than when straight, backs. A kneeling-board
should be placed at the back of each, so as to face the worshipper in the seat
immediately behind, and serve as a desk for books. It is usually about seven
inches wide, and raised one foot and a half above the floor. In some an-
cient seats this is placed only a few inches high, apparently for the wor-
shipper to kneel upon, while the other is to kneel at. Very rarely both occur
together.

Modern bench ends almost invariably labour under the following defects.
(1) They are much too high. We have known them not less than six feet
in height to the top of the finial, and they are seldom less than five. (2) They
are usually of stained or painted deal. (3) They are put together with iron-
work instead of wooden pegs. (1) They are not sufficiently substantial.
(5) They either have block poppy-heads, or are carved of the most incorrect
and scanty detail. (6) They are fixed to the flooring, and not pinned to
cills. (7) They are generally of some ludicrous and fanciful design. We
have seen Norman designs for bench ends, having semicircular tops, and
panelled with semicircular arches with Norman capitals and shafts. Early-
English open seats are equally absurd; since, as we have said, in the twelfth
and thirteenth century the thing itself was utterly unknown.

We are very glad to find that the Oxford Architectural Society have just
published some excellent lithographic prints of the open seats (in perspective,
elevation and section) in Steeple Ashton and Hasely churches, Oxfordshire.
These sheets will prove a valuable contribution to the cause which we advo-
cate in common, and are of themselves a sufficient guide to those who are
desirous of following approved examples.

It should ever be borne in mind that open seats are actually cheaper than
pens, since this is an argument in their favour which is likely to have no
little weight. The cost of a well-carved ordinary standard in oak, including
the material, is about 30,v. The finials may be worked separately, at about
10*. a-piece, and afterwards attached at the collar to the standards. Either
may be executed to order by our wood-carver, Mr. Groom (G2, Sidney Street,
Cambridge), from a series of very excellent models from churches in the
neighbourhood, casts of which are sold by him at 2s. each. We do not how-
ever recommend the latter expedient for general adoption. A far better way
is not to have all the poppy-heads carved at once, but to work the block ter-
minations gradually after the standards have been fixed in their proper posi-
tion. Detached poppy-beads should always be well executed in oak, and if
they are at first fastened to deal standards, these can be afterwards removed
one by one, and 3-iucb oak substituted in their places. A set of well-carved
oaken standards is a peculiarly appropriate gift to a church.

We will suppose now that it is resolved to clear away from the area of an
old church, the motley assemblage of pens, — painted, baize-coveted, short,
tall, square, oblong, flimsy deal or panelled oak, or whatever hideous variety
they may present, — and to restore the ancient arrangement of uniform open
sittings throughout. These, of course, will all face the east ; and a central
passage will be left down the Nave, and another parallel to it on each side
next to the piers in the Aisles, so as to leave the bases perfectly frep and un-
encumbered. Now, what is the best method of procedure after this happy
consummation has arrived ? First, then, we recommend the entire flooring
(which is sure to be in a bad state from the vaults and encroachment of the
pens) to be taken up, and a bed of concrete a foot in thickness to be laid
uniformly over the whole of the interior area. In this a pavement of encaustic
tiles, or at least, of squared stone slabs, must be firmly fixed. When this is
done, and the mutilated bases and piers restored, some idea will be conveyed
of the ancient appearance of our parish churches. Thus the ground will not
easily be opened for graves, and the floor will be kept clean, dry, and whole-
some ; provided, of course, that proper attention be paid to the external
drainage and clearance of the soil from the earth-line. Upon this pavement
cills or sleepers of oak should then be laid loose, in a direction from east to
west ; and to these the standards should be mortised at such intervals that
the backs may be, at the very least, 2 ft. 6 in. apart in the clear. If a
boarded floor be insisted upon, — as it often will be, from an ignorance of
what a dry and level pavement beneath the feet really is, — stout planks may
be laid over and upon the pavement from cill to cill, into which they may be
made to fit by a groove, in such a manner that they can at any time be readily
removed for the purpose of cleaning and thoroughly drying the floor underneath.
Thus also, if the occupants of one seat consent to try the withdrawal of the
boards, and find no inconvenience therefrom, others will certainly follow the
example, and the plan which we have ever recommended, namely, to have a
stone or tiled floor under the seats as far preferable to boarding, will be gra-
dually achieved. We can assure our readers that we have seen many ancient
churches in which no 'boarding has ever been placed under the open seats,
and the appearance is much better, and the comfort to the worshipper cer-
tainly not less, for the absence of it.

Name of Place.

Apart.

Total
Height of
Standards.

Width of
Standards.

Width of
Seat.

Height of
Seat.

Height of
Back.

Height of
Kneeling
Board.

Width

of
ditto.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

in.

Ketton, Rutland

3 71
2 11/
2 6

4 0

1 6

1 3

1 3

2 9

1 9

8

Boston, Lincolnshire

2 n

1 3

10-11 in.

1 4

2 6

Chesterton

3 01
3 6/

3 3

1 5

11-12-13 in.

1 4

2 4

1 6-7

6

7

Impington

2 8

3 6

1 6J

1 0

1 4

2 3

0 9

Histon

3 6\
3 2/

3 7

3 2

1 4-5

12-14 in.

1 6

2 5

Fletton, Huntingdon

3 G

1 2

0 11

1 5

2 6

1 6

9

Stanground, Huntingdon. .

3 6

3 7

I 2

0 11

1 4

2 7

Broomfield, Somerset

2 10

2 9

1 4

1 0

1 6J

3 li

0 6

54

Bishop's Lyd, Somerset . .

2 6—2 8

2 7

1 4

0 11

1 5

3 0=1

0 8

8

Cotbelstone, Somerset . .

2 11

2 9

1 4

1 0

1 54

2 10

0 9

7

Bagborough, Somerset . .

2 34

2 10

1 4

o 114

1 8

3 1

0 10

54

Fulbourn ..

2 4

3 10

1 2J

0 11

1 5

2 7

1 9

4i

Landbeach

3 9)
3 2f

3 2

2 1

1 0

1 4>
1 6/

3 2

1 10

94

Comberton

4 Oi
3 10 V
3 8)

3 3

2 0

1 1

1 4>
1 9/

3 3

1 61
1 10/

7

4 0\
3 6/

3 5

1 7

1 12

1 3>
1 6/

2 4-G

1 7

7

Harlton

3 4.

3 6-7/

2 6h\

3 0/

1 9l

2 0/

0 10^

1 0/

1 4,
1 7J-

3 4 I
3 6-7 i

1 7)

2 0)

7

426

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

We add some measurements of ancient seats, taken from several counties,
which will probably be serviceable to many of our readers. We would call
attention to the remarkable uniformity of proportion which generally charac-
terises those of the same kind. Indeed it would be useless to multiply exam-
ples to a great extent, since any important difference from the above ad-
measurements must be regarded as an exception. In conclusion, we would
urge all who are about to replace open seats in their churches to follow faith-
fully ancient models, which are. happily, even yet sufficiently abundant in our
parish churches. — Ecclesiologist.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
June 13. — The President in the Chair.

" Description of a Plan, adopted for carrying off an accumulation of
Water front the TJ'arehouses, Cellars, 6fC, near the Wet Dock at the Port of
Ipswich." By George Hurwood, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The paper states that in consequence of the formation of the wet dock at
Ipswich, the water from the land-springs, which was formerly carried away
by the river, accumulated to such an extent, as to cause serious inconve-
nience to the owners of the warehouses, cellars, &c, many of them being
beneath the level of the ordinary tides. It was difficult to find a remedy for
this, as nearly the whole of the line, affected by the water, was at so low a
level, that a discharge could only be effected at the lowest ebb of the tide,
and a general sewer could not have been constructed at a moderate expense,
because from the lowness of the level, water would have accumulated con-
stantly in it, and any casual increase from rain or other causes, would have
been sufficient to inundate the adjoining buildings.

The plan designed by the author, and which has been executed, had for
its object, the construction of a sewer which should drain these buildings
alone, and at the ebb tide should carry off the accumulated water, being at
the same time of sufficient size to contain the water, which was prevented
from being discharged by the flowing tide. It was required therefore to be
water-tight, and branch drains were necessary from all the points where
water penetrated.

To insure the success of the plan, every precaution was taken for pre-
venting the influence of the tide in the general sewer, retarding the discharge
or operating upon the lateral sewers.

At the end of the main sewer was placed a cast-iron frame, upon which
were hung three tide-flaps with brass facings, accurately fitted, and balanced
by levers and counterweights. By this means the water was discharged at
any height, and without any considerable head of water being required to
open the flaps. Each cellar was connected with the main drain by an iron
pipe, with a well-balanced valve at its end, so that the water could have an
easy exit ; but as soon as any accumulation within the sewer occurred, the
valves closed.

The sewers were built of brick, in mortar made from blue lias lime. The
dimensions varied from 12 inches to 21 inches in diameter, and the cost of
the latter size was 12s. $d. per yard, including excavating, laying, filling, &c.

The plan is stated to have proved very successful, and as particular regu-
lations are enforced, to prevent any admission to the sewers, of other than
the water which filter through the natural strata of the chalk. basin, the
water in the sewers is fit for domestic or manufacturing purposes.

The communication is illustrated by a drawing, showing the situation of
the town and dock of Ipswich, with the extent of the lines of sewers, and
the details of their construction, and that of the tide and other flaps.

" On the Formation of Embankments for Reservoirs to retain Water."
By Robert Thorn, M. Inst. C. E.

After describing a model, designed to show that the proper slope for reser-
voir embankments, should not be less than three to one on the water-face,
and remarking that waves act more severely on the pitching or paving of the
inner face, in proportion to the steepness of the slope, the author proceeds
to describe in detail the mode of forming embankments. The foundation is
excavated to such a depth as is found firm and capable of preventing the
passage of water, then spreading alternate layers of puddled peat, or alluvial
earth and gravel, and beating them together with wooden dumpers, until
they are completely mixed ; the slopes are covered with a puddle made with
small stones or furnace-cinders mixed with clay, so as to prevent the possi-
bility of moles or other vermin penetrating into the embankment. He con-
demns the practice of forming embankments with puddle-trenches, and refers
to many reservoirs made by him at Greenock, Paisley, and elsewhere, the banks
of which have stood the test of time without having any puddle-trenches in
them, and particularly mentions one at Greenock which remained firm and
sound, after a rush of water passing over it at a height of ten feet, caused
by the breaking down of the embankment of a reservoir situated about ISO
yaids above it. He recommends, instead of the puddle-trenches, that the
whole of the inner part of the embankment should be made water-tight

during the formation of it, by which means it will more effectually resist
either any casual injury, or any effect of the swelling of the puddle-trench.
The paper is entirely of a practical nature, and is intended to illustrate the
author's peculiar views founded on his long experience. It is accompanied
by a diagram of the model used in his experiments.

June 20. — The President in the Chair.

A Pressure- Gauge was presented for the Museum of the Institution by
Alfred King, M. Inst. C. E.

This gauge, which has been used at the Liverpool gas-works for more than
ten years, for indicating small amounts of pressure, consists of a close cistern
containing water, in which is a cylinder having in it a hollow float, connected
with a balance-weight, by a fine silken cord, passing over a pulley, on the
axis of which is fastened a pointer, one end of which marks the amount of
pressure upon a dial divided in such a manner, that as each division is equal
to a column of water of -^th of an inch, a difference equal to ^yh, or
even -nnyth of an inch, may be estimated.

The action is very simple, the float being elevated by the rising of the
water within the cylinder, when the surface is depressed in the cistern by the
pressure of the current of gas from the inlet pipe.

The description was illustrated by a diagram showing the interna! con-
struction of the gauge.

" Description of a Machine for raising and loxccring Miners." Bv John
Taylor, M. Inst. C. E.

The author states that the great depth in which the copper and tin mines,
in Cornwall, and in Germany, had been worked, had drawn simultaneously
in the two countries, the attention of engineers to some mode of facilitating
the ascent and descent of the miners, whose strength was exhausted, and
their health seriously affected, by the fatigue of going to and returning from
the scene of their labours by nearly vertical ladders, as the men could not be
raised and lowered by the rope of the winding engines, as in the coal dis-
tricts. The Polytechnic Society of Cornwall offered premiums for machines
for effecting this object, and in 18.14 three prizes were respectively awarded
to Mr. Michael Loam, Capt. \V. Nicholas, and Capt. W. Richards for plans,
the two first of which embraced the principle which has since been adopted
with modifications, both in Germany and in Cornwall. A premium was also
offered by Mr. Tremayne for any new method, or for the most available im-
provement on the former plans, and was awarded in 1838 to Mr. John Phil-
lips for a method, differing, however, from that which has been put in prac-
tice. About this time it was ascertained that a machine, somewhat similar
to that designed by Mr. Michael Loam, had been applied with success to one
of the deepest mines in the llartz; and drawings, with a description, were
published in the Report of the Polytechnic Society of 1838. Mr. Charles
Fox also commenced a subscription, for the purpose of awaiding a sum of
money to any proprietor of mines, who would first bring into active opera-
tion, efficient machinery adapted for the purpose in question.

At length the adventurers of the Tresavean copper-mines, undertook to
erect a machine from the designs, and under the superintendence of Mr.
Michael Loam : it was first used for a depth of 27 fathoms, on the 5th of
January, 1842; has since been extended to 204 fathoms; and it is now con-
templated to carry it to the lowest part of the mines, which is 288 fathoms
deep.

The machine, which is worked by a steam-engine, with a cylinder of 36
inches diameter, consists of two rods, to which are attached, at intervals of
6 feet throughout their length, platforms upon which the men stand : these
rods receive an alternating motion from two cranks, which give them a
stroke of 12 feet ; the men, either in ascending or descending, step from one
platform to the other, as the rods remain fur an instant almost stationary,
when the cranks are going over top and bottom centres; and as the plat-
forms are half the length of the stroke apart, one set of men can ascend
while another set is descending, without at all interfering with each other.
Each rod makes three strokes per minute ; and when once the platforms are
filled with men, they are landed at the rate of six men per minute, either
going up or down ; the speed of travelling being about 72 feet per minute,
or 240 fathoms in 20 minutes. By the ordinary mode of ascending by lad-
ders it would have occupied 48 minutes to mount from the same depth, as
the usual speed is about 30 feet per minute, so that more than 50 per cent,
of time is saved, independent of the diminution of fatigue.

The rods at the Tresavean mine act vertically for the first 70 fathoms,
below which they follow the direction of the vein, diverging from the per-
pendicular from 6 inches to 18 inches in 6 feet. The action of the ap-
paratus is stated to be perfectly successful ; no accident has occurred in the
use of it, and the miners are convinced of the safety as well as the ease
afforded by it.

The paper is illustrated by two drawings by G. B. W. Jackson, Grad. Inst.
C. E., showing the details of the machine; they are copied by permission of
Sir Henry De la Beche, from the model now in the Museum of Economic
Geology.

Remarks. — Mr. Taylor observed, that there was an extraordinary coinci-
dence of time in the appearance of this invention, as the public attention,

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL

427

both in Germany and in England, seemed to have been directed to the sub-
ject simultaneously, without any correspondence between the engineers of
the two countries. There had been many competitors for the premiums of-
fered in Cornwall for the best method, but the only successful plans were
those mentioned in the paper; and the machine therein described was a
combination of the plan proposed by Mr. Loam and that actually in use in
the llarlz mines.

Mr. Buddie recollected many years ago seeing a model of a somewhat
similar machine, which had been in use in Germany for fifty years: it con-
sisted of two rods, upon whose sides were hooks, at given distances, which
on receiving a reciprocating motion were alternately engaged on the oppo-
site handles of the "kibble" containing the ore, which was thus raised to
the surface ; it was prohable that the idea of raising the miners had been
taken from this old machine.

Mr. Taylor replied that he did not think Mr. Loam knew of the existence
of any machine of the kind, and that the first impulse given to the subject
was by the premiums offered for the best method, which had directed the
attention of engineers to it. An American machine somewhat similar to
that described by Mr. Buddie had been exhibited in London by Mr. Slade ; it
was designed for raising ore and water, but Mr. Taylor thought it applicable
to raising the miners, and directed the attention of the patentee to the sub-
ject, but the machine was not successful.

In answer to a question from the President, Mr. Buddie said that the
system was not applicable to the mines at Newcastle, as the men went up
and down by the rope. By the use of guides and slides, the rate of drawing
the coal to the surface was generally about 18 feet per second, which was
not, however, considered sufficient, and a greater velocity was contemplated.

" Description of Annular Valves used for Pumps for Water-works, Sfc."
By Richard Hosking.

The annular valve consists of three concentric rings, arranged pyramidally,
and resting one upon the other, thereby affording a free passage for the
water around the circumference ; the upper ring is attached to a stalk, and
the two lower ones have internal wings, which serve as guides when the
rings are in motion.

The chief advantages afforded by these valves are stated to be an increase
of water-way and a reduction of concussion, for as the concussion occa-
sioned by the shutting of pump-valves is in proportion to the surface in
contact, and the square of the height or distance passed through while in
the act of shutting, the greater the number of parts of which the valve is
composed, the greater will be the freedom of water-way, and consequently
the burthen on the engine and the concussion will be proportionally dimi-
nished.

These valves were first used in two 30-inch pumps at the Waldersea
Drainage, near Wisheach, and they have since been introduced into the
Royal Polborro Consols Mine and the Vauxhall Water-works.

The description is illustrated by a drawing, showing the construction of
the internal parts.

" On the construction of Valves used in Pumps for raising Water." By
Samuel Collelt Homersham, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The author first describes the original leather flap valves which are in
common use, shows their defects, the modifications which have been intro-
duced in them, and the reasons why a better kind of valve was necessary,
particularly for large pumps appended to steam engines, quoting from Mr.
Wicksteed's work on the Cornish engine, x that by the closing of the valves
at the East London Water-works, the whole of the engine-house was shaken.
This led to the application, by Messrs. Harvey and West, of a modification
of the double-beat steam valve,2 only making it self-acting; by this, it is
stated, the concussion is so much reduced that little inconvenience is felt
from it. No air is required to be admitted beneath, as is frequently the case
with common valves, consequently the pump when at work lifts its full com-
plement of water.

The author states that in this valve the diameter of the top seating is
somewhat smaller than the lower, for the purpose of allowing a sufficient
area for the pressure of the water to act against in lifting it. He remarks
that the pressure required to open these valves appears to vary from 2 lb. to
51b. per square inch, and that it does not seem to follow any uniform rule.
The seatings which answer best are composed of pieces of wood fitted in a
groove with the fibres in a vertical position. The principal advantages of
this kind of valve, as to durability, slight concussion on closing, facility of
repair, &c, are then enumerated ; hut it is urged against them that the pas-
sage for the water is circuitous, and therefore the power required to force
the water through, is cousiderahle, and that in a large valve the height to
which it rises is too great.

He then states that Mr. James Simpson, who has had great experience in
the difficulties attendant upon the use of large pumps, some years since con-
ceived the idea of obtaining valve openings nearly equal to the full area of
the clack chambers, by means of a conical valve formed of rings shutting

1 " An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Cornish and Boul on &
Watt Pumping Engines," by Thomas Wicksieed. Weale, London, 1841.
3 See drawing ana description of these valves in the Journal, Vol. Ill, p. 41.

down upon each other; this was afterwards modified into a valve with sepa-
rate seatings for the rings to fall upon, allowing a passage for the water both
inside and outside the rings, thus obviating the necessity of their lifting
more than one-half the space of the width of the openings in the seating,
and it was found that in valves of large diameter, by increasing the number
of openings, the height of lifting in opening could be further reduced ; the
closing was necessarily more rapid, the concussion was nearly avoided, and
the passage of the water was rendered direct and free from bends and inter-
ruptions. A valve on this construction was adapted to the engine at the
Lambeth Water-works, and it was found on setting it to work, that a coun-
terbalance weight of upwards of one ton, required to be moved from the
pump side of the beam, to some distance on the steam piston side; the
saving of steam consequent on this and the action of the valve, amounted
to about seven per cent, of the quantity previously used. The same effect
was observed at the Chelsea Water-works, where similar valves were substi-
tuted for those of Messrs. Harvey and West.

It is stated that in consequence of the galvanic action between the brass
rings and the iron seatings, wood seatings were adopted, and have been
found very preferable. The dimensions of all these valves are given in de-
tail, and also of several other large valves which have been made.

The question of the proper weight of valves in proportion to the height
of the column is then examined at great length, and the following rule is
given : " The mean velocity of the water in feet per second through the
valve, being ascertained, one-half more is added to this velocity and consi-
dered as the maximum velocity of the water through the valve ; and the
height of the head of water being found that would produce this velocity,
every If inch of such height is considered equal to one ounce weight avoir-
dupois, acting upon each square inch of the area of the valve, against which
the water impinges, in its passage to the pump barrel, allowance being made
for the difference of the weight of the ring, when immersed in water, com-
pared with its weight in the air." By this rule, it was found that a consider-
able weight required to he added to the valves which had been erected, and
that addition rendered the concussion scarcely perceptible.

The author advocates a large area in the valve passages for the water to
flow through, in order that the power of the engine may not be expended
inputting the fluid in motion to fill the pump- barrel. He states that the
proper area, depends on the diameter of the pump and the working velocity
of the plunger ; and that if the maximum velocity of the water up the
suction pipe, is not allowed to exceed 6 feet per second, but little advantage
will in ordinary cases be gained by reducing that velocity ; that an increase
of speed is often unavoidable, but that it causes a great expenditure of
power ; and he quotes Mr. Wicksteed's experiments in support of this po-
sition. He urges from this, the importance of reducing the velocity of the
water in entering and in quitting the pump barrel ; and also that the lift of
the valve should not exceed 2 inches, and should be as much less as possible,
as the valve in that case closes quickly before the return stroke of the en-
gine commences. Short lifts are then examined, and it is stated that the
valves will not close rapidly, unless they are weighted sufficiently to resist
the maximum velocity of the water flowing through them and are carefully
adjusted to it ; and that if they are too heavy there is a loss of power in
working the pumps.

Several modifications of these valves, adapted to various uses, are then
described, and the author states that his intention is, to lay before the Insti-
tution, an account of such valves as had been found to answer well in prac-
tice; and to direct attention to the correct principles for constructing them
of proper proportions and of durable materials.

The paper is illustrated by eight detailed drawings of different construc-
tions of valves, and by three models of some which have been in use and
are found successful.

Remarks. — Mr. Simpson corroborated the account of the advantages of
the valves described in the paper ; he bad found them practically useful and
economical.

Mr. Wicksteed said that with Messrs. Harvey and West's improvements, a
valve 4 feet in diameter which formerly rose between 4 inches and 5 inches,
now only lifted If inch ; the concussion was diminished and the durability
insured; the latter was increased by substituting wooden faces for metal
ones; by this means also the corrosion, attendant upon the contact of two
metals, was avoided. One of these valves had already lasted three years,
and was still quite good. The principal improvement consisted in making
the water pass all round the circumference, instead of through the centre of
the valve. The difficulties which had been experienced at Old Ford had not
arisen from the form of the valves,3 but from the situation in which they
were placed ; he argued, therefore, that when experiments were made upon
these valves, new boxes and suction pipes should he made expressly for them,
and they ought not to be adapted to the pipes from whence the old shaped
valves had been taken. He approved particularly of the form of the double-
btat valves as possessing great strength, and reducing the liability to frac-
ture.

Mr. Tavlor said, that the meeting was much indebted to the author, for
laying down positive rules and principles, on a subject which had not hitherto

3 We rather suspect that Mr. Wicksteed must have been misunderstood in
bis remarks, for we understood that be alluded to the use ot two valves,«and
that he said the lower valve rose 4 or 5 inches, while the upper one rose from
1} in. to 1 1 in. only.— [Ed. C. E. & A. Journal.]

428

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[December,

been sufficiently attended to. He fully approved of those forms of valves in
which the area was divided into several openings ; the loading the valve pro-
portionally was also of importance. All the ring valves, among which he
would include that of Mr. Hosking, tended to diminish the concussion ; hut
however good they might appear theoretically, there were some practical ob-
jections against most of them ; for instance, Harvey and West's valve was
not applicable for mines, because, as the two lifting faces were connected, a
chip or any sand being interposed between either of them would cause con-
siderable leakage in both ; the ring valves were not liable to this objection,
and therefore were preferable for mines or situations where the water con-
tained any foreign substances. The old butterfly leather valve had been
much improved, and recently a modification of it had been introduced which
promised to be very effective. The area of the valve was divided into eight
compartments, each covered by a triangular flap of leather, hinged to the
circumference of the bucket, and all meeting in the centre on a raised apex.
By this arrangement nearly the whole area of the pump-valve was opened ;
the cost of construction was also diminished, because, instead of cutting the
large flaps only out of the finest and largest hides of leather, small pieces
could he used : valves thus constructed, had been in use in mines for upwards
of seven months, without repair. The improvements in the valves had pro-
duced a corresponding increase in the height of the column of the pumps:
it formerly was about 15 fathoms; Woolf had gradually increased it to 40
fathoms; and now a column of 50 fathoms was sometimes used, lie was
an advocate for giving a very large area to the suction-pipes; for instance,
in one mine under his direction, to a valve 20 inches in diameter, two
suction pipes, each of 20 inches diameter, hail been adapted, with great ad-
vantage to the engine ; the pump drew more water and worked much more
steadily.

Mr. Parkes remarked, that the concussion arising from the closing of the
valves of low-lift pumps, was more destructive than in the high-lifts ; an en-
tirely different system was therefore pursued in pumping. The engine
started very rapidly, and was generally worked much faster, which altered
the condition of the pumping. At the engine of the Wahlersea drainage,
near Wisbeach, there was a pump of 6 feet diameter, with a length of stroke
of 8 feet, the valves were formerly destroyed more rapidly than in any mine
in Cornwall ; recently, Mr. Hosking, had adapted to it a larje box, having
in the centre a valve of 30 inches diameter, and around it five other valves,
the sum of the area of the six valves being greater than that of the pump :
the result was a great diminution of concussion, and consequent increased
durability of the valves.

Mr. Glynn agreed with Mr. Taylor, in thinking that Messrs. Harvi \ and
West's valves, were not so well adapted for mining purposes as they were for
water-works, or for situations where only clean water was passed through
them. Mr. Darlington had introduced a modification of the valve, which be
thought would be very efficacious; it was being constructed by the Butterley
Iron Company, and he would send a description of it to the Institution.
This principle of large valves had been extended to blast engines; the size
of the air-valves having been much increased, a corresponding advantage had
been found in their duration, as well as in the work of the engine.

June 27. — The President in the Chair.

" On the present State of the Streets of the Metropolis, and the im-
portance of their amelioration." By Charles Cochrane, President of the
Association for the Promotion of Improved Street Paving, &.C.

This paper first refers to a Commission formed by tic present Govern-
ment, " for inquiring into and considering the most effectual means of im-
proving the Metropolis, and of providing increased facilities of communica-
tion therein ;" also to a Report of a Committee of the House of Commons,
which recommends '• that an institution should be formed expressly for as-
certaining, by a succession of experiments, the best mode of constructing
roads and keeping them in repair."

A brief history of the different kinds of carriage-ways and foot-pavements,
is then given, showing that the resources of art and science have been but
little consulted in their construction, which is illustrated by the system of
making macadamized roads, their formation being nearly dependent upon
the amount of traffic upon them. It is also stated that few, if any, im-
provements have been made in the method of forming granite pavements;
the system practised twenty years since being nearly the same as at present,
whicli is, to imbed the stones in the earth by means of mere manual strength,
although, of late years, the aid of grouting has been occasionally brought
into use. That in foot-pavements the same fault is perceptible, namely, the
want of a good foundation, as the masons generally seem to think, that so
long as the edges of the flags are well covered with mortar, and the work
when completed presents an uniform surface, the chief objects are accom-
plished.

It is stated that wood paving, of which 100,000 yards have been laid down
in the metropolis, appears likely, from the successful trials which it has
undergone, to he generally adopted, the only objection against it being, that
it is slippery in wet weather ; this evil is chiefly attributed to the mud which
is brought from the other kinds of paving anil allowed to remain on it. In
all other respects, wood appears a superior material to any other hitherto
employed, for making roads, both as regards its general economy and du-

rability, as well as its facility of traction, and more especially its extreme
cleanliness.

The question of cleansing streets is then entered upon, when it is shown
that the oftener streets are cleansed, the less mud is created, whilst the at-
tendant expenses are not increased and the roads are kept iu better preser-
vation. From calculations made by the municipal authorities at Manchester,
on the relative advantages of machinery and manual labour, in cleansing the
streets, the results of which are given in a table, it is shown that the extent
of surface swept is the same, although not the extent of streets, arising from
the more or less frequency of sweeping over the same surface; so that by
cleansing the streets with Whitworth's street-sweeping machine, three times
a week, the quantity of mud produced on the surface is five times less, than
when they were swept by hand, twice in three weeks, and thirteen times less
than when swept but once a week.

District swept by machine three times^

By manual labour : —
Twice in 3 weeks, township, 1841-2
Once a-week „ 1838-9

Number
of Yards
swept.

Number
of Loads
removed.

Average

No. of

Ys. swept

to pro-
duce a Ld.

5,500,000

5,500,000
5,500,000

1,285

6,400

17,000

4,338

S59
343

The losses caused by the dust and dirt in the streets are stated to be very
great ; Mr. Mivart, of Mivart's Hotel, estimates his actual loss at about £865
per annum, whilst shop-keepers in Oxford-street and Regent-street, state that
they lose annually from £30 to £300 per annum, by the destruction of their
goods bj the dust, &c.

Some suggestions are given for improving, repairing, and cleansing the
streets, and it is stated that there are abundant means at present available,
for keeping them comparatively free from mud, if machinery was properly
employed.

" On the relative merits of Granite and Wood Pavements and Macadam-
ized ltoads ; derived from actual experience." By D. T. Hope (Liverpool).

In this communication the author alludes to the inefficiency of many of
our finest specimens of paving, arising from the desire of reducing the out-
lay, hut which, in teality, are executed and maintained at a great expendi-
ture, without securing the advantages which the material is capable of af-
fording, or the qualifications requisite for streets ; — and to the cleanliness,
comfort, and true economy, in having the work performed in the best man-
ner, and employing material best calculated for producing all those advan-
tages, which may he reasonably expected in streets of the present day.

The following requisites that a good road or pavement ought, in some de-
gree, to possess, are laid down down as a standard, by which the respective
systems are compared; and a certain value (according to the experiments on
the several modes) attached to each, for the convenience of more obviously
contrasting their several qualities, viz. —

1. A solid and compact structure, capable of resisting the effects of
traffic, without being cut up into ruts and inequalities from other causes
than mere abrasion.

2. Not requiring to be frequently repaired.

3. As much elasticity in the material, as may he useful in aiding the
power in draught.

4. A firm and smooth surface, that the power employed may not require
to be ever vaying.

5. Although comparatively smooth, to be free from slipperiness.

6. To afford a sure foot-hold for the horse.

7. Not liable to be seriously affected by the changes of the atmosphere,
or by repairs.

8. An absence of mud and dust.

9. A freedom from noise.

10. To afford economy in transit.

1 1. An economy in the construction and maintenance, consistent with the
preceding advantages.

12. Not subject to rapid abrasion.

It is shown that macadamizing has few, if any, advantages for public
thoroughfares — arising from its rapid abrasion, the frequent application of
new metal — the uncertainty of its condition, varying with every change of
weather — the abundance of mud and dust — and the great expence of main-
tenance; and from the power employed in draught requiring to be so vari-
able, that the cost of transit is not only increased, but the horse is ofteu
compelled to exert more power at one time or in one part of the street, than
should ever he required of it. And also, that the advantages which may be
claimed for macadamizing in streets, are attainable in other descriptions of
paving, if proper attention be paid to their construction.

1843.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

429

It is contended, from experience, tliat granite pavement can be laid down,
so that the results will be superior to macadamizing, not only as regards
economy of construction and maintenance, and power in draught, but also
of the other qualities, with the single exception of noise, which, it is shown,
need not he so great a disadvantage as to warrant its rejection ; if the sets
be well dressed, and properly laid, on a sufficient substratum, and if the sets
are not used too broad, a sure foot-hold for the horse can at all times be
had, besides contributing more to the solidity of structure, than the broad
and shallow blocks so frequently employed.

By experiment, it appears that wood is a more efficient and durable mate-
rial for paving, than stone of any description, and that it is capable of af-
fording all the qualities required (or our finest streets. In order to ascertain
the best position ot the fibre, for securing all the advantages which wood
can afford, a minute table is given of the results of experiments, during a
period of eighteen months, upon blocks with the fibre placed vertically and
horizontally, and leaning at the intermediate angles; from this it appears
that vertical blocks sustain less abrasion and less injury than those in any
other position. A sound concrete substratum, is held to be an essential
feature, in the successful application of wood for paving; and if blocks in a
vertical position, be laid down in a dry state, with close joints, the surface
and structure can be maintained, under any change of weather, in a condi-
tion to resist any amount of traffic and heavy loads. It is shown that cohe-
sion is not a fluctuating quality, for the blocks in the pavement are, in
reality, not liable to become wet and dry with atmospheric changes. In wet
weather they absorb as much moisture as they can contain, which increases
their volume, and from which moisture they are never after totally free, even in
the driest weather, as they still remain damp, and retain an excess of volume
over the dry state iu which they were originally laid down, more than suffi-
cient for supplying perfect cohesion under any change of the atmosphere.
It is also shown that wood does not produce mud and dust, and that slip-
periness is therefore foreign to wood pavement ; that its economy in main-
tenance, power in draught, cleanliness and comfort, are favourable recom-
mendations ; — and that wood is an efficient material for paving, whether
subjected to wet, dry, or frosty weather.

Tables are then given, showing the results of the experiments in a con-
densed form, ami from which it appears, that, the power of traction being
in each 1001b., the weight drawn on a level macadamized road, is on an
average 27 cwt.; on a level granite pavement, 30J cwt. ; and on a level wood
pavement 54J cwt.

" On the Ventilation of Lighthouse Lamps; the points necessary to be ob-
served, and the manner in which these have been or may be attained." By
Professor Faraday, L.L.D., Hon. Mem. Inst. C. E., &c.

The author states that the fuel used in lighthouses for the production of
light is almost universally oil, burnt in lamps of the Argand or Fresnel con-
struction ; and, from the nature and use of the buildings, it very often hap-
pens that a large quantity of oil is burnt in a short time, in a small chamber
exposed to low temperature from without, the principal walls of the chamber
being only the glass through which the light shines ; and that these cham.
bers being in very exposed situations, it is essential that the air within should
not be subject to winds or partial draughts, which might interfere with the
steady burning of the lamps.

If the chamber or lantern be not perfectly ventilated, the substances pro-
duced by combustion are diffused through the air, so that in winter, or damp
weather, the water condenses on the cold glass windows, which, if the light
be a fixed one, greatly impairs its brilliancy and efficiency, or, if the light be a
revolving one, tends to confound the bright and dark periods together. The
extent to which this may go, may be conceived, when it is considered that
some lighthouses burn as much as twenty, or more, pints of oil in one
winter's night, in a space of 12 or 14 feet diameter, and from 8 to 10 feet
high, and that each pint of oil produces more than a pint of water; or, from
this fact, that the ice on the glass within, derived from this source, has been
found in some instances an eighth, and even a sixth, of an inch in thickness,
and required to be scraped off with knives.

The carbonic acid makes the air unwholesome, but it is easily removed by
an arrangement which carries off the water as vapour. One pound of oil
in combustion produces about 106 pounds of water and 2'86 pounds of car-
bonic acid.

The author's plan is to ventilate the lamps themselves by fit flues, and
then the air inside the lantern will always he as pure as the external air, yet
having closed doors and windows, a calm lantern, and a bright glass.

In lighthouses there are certain conditions, to which the ventilating ar-
rangement must itself submit, and if these are not conformed with, the plan
would be discarded, however perfect its own particular effect might be.
These conditions are chiefly, that it should not alter the burning of the oil
or charring of the wicks — that it should not interfere with the cleaning,
trimming, and practice of the lamps and reflectors — that it should not ob-
struct the light from the reflectors — that it should not, in any sudden gust
or tempest, cause a downward blast or impulse on the flame of the lamp —
that, if thrown out of action suddenly, it should not alter the burning ; and,
added to these, that it should perform its own ventilating functions perfectly.

Lighthouses have either one large central lamp, the outer wick of which
is sometimes 3J inches in diameter, or many single Argand burners, each
with its own parabolic reflector. The former is a fixed lamp ; the latter are

frequently in motion. The former requires the simplest ventilating system,
and is thus described : —

The ventilating pipe or chimney is a copper tube, 4 inches in diameter,
not, however, in one length, hut divided into three or four pieces : the lower
end of each of these pieces, for about 1 J. inch, is opened out into a conical
form about 5i inches in diameter at the lowest part. When the chimney is
put together, the upper end of the bottom piece is inserted about \ an inch
into the cone of the next piece above, and fixed there by three ties or pins,
so that the two pieces are firmly held together; but there is still plenty of
air-way, or entrance, into the chimney between them. The same arrange-
ment holds good uit'n each succeeding piece. When the ventilating chimney
is fixed in its place, it is adjusted, so that the lamp-chimney enters about
half an inch into the lower cone, and the top of the ventilating chimney
enters into the cowl or bead of the lantern.

With this arrangement it is found that the action of the ventilating flue,
is to carry up every portion of the products of combustion into the cowl;
none passes by the cone apertures, out of the flue into the air of the lantern,
but a portion of the air passes from the lantern by these apertures into the
flue, and so the lantern itself is in some degree ventilated.

The important use of these cone apertures is, that when a sudden gust, or
eddy of wind, strikes into the cowl of the lantern, it should not have any
effect in disturbing or altering the flame. It is found that the wind may
blow suddenly in at the cowl, and the effect never reaches the lamp. The
upper, or the second, or the third, or even the fourth portion of the venti-
lating flue might be entirely closed, yet without altering the flame. The
cone junctions in no way interfere with the tube in carrying up all the pro-
ducts of combustion ; but if any downward current occurs, they dispose of
the whole of it into the room, without ever affecting the lamp. The venti-
lating flue is. in fact, a tube which, as regards the lamp, can carry everything
up, but conveys nothing down.

In lighthouses with many separate lamps and reflectors, the case is more
difficult and the arrangement more complicated, yet the conditions before
referred to are more imperatively called for, because any departure from
them was found to have greater influence in producing harm. The object
has been attained thus : — A system of gathering pipes has been applied to
the lamps, which may be considered as having the different beginnings at
each lamp, and being fixed to the frame which supports the lamps, is made
to converge together and to the axis of the frame by curved lines. The
object is to bring the tubes together behind the reflectors, as soon as conve-
nient, joining two or more into one, like a system of veins, so that one venti-
lating flue may at last carry off the whole of the lamp products. It is found
that a pipe |ths of an inch in diameter is large enough for one lamp ; and
where, by junction, two or more pipes have become one, if the one pipe has a
sectional area, proportionate to the number of lamps which it governs, the
desired effect is obtained.

Each of the pipes Jths of an inch in diameter, passes downwards through
the aperture in the reflector over the lamp, and dips an inch into the lamp-
glasses; it is able to gather and carry off all the products of combustion,
though, perhaps, still 2 inches from the top of flame, and therefore not in-
terfering in any respect with it, nor coming as a shade between it and any
part of the reflector : the flame and reflector are as free in their relation to
each other as they were befDre. Neither does this tube hide from the
observer or mariner, a part of the reflector larger than about li square inch
of surface, and it allows of a compensation to two or three times the
amount ; for, when in its place, all the rest of the aperture over the lamp,
which is left open and inefficient in the ordinary service, may be made effec-
tual reflecting surface, simply by filling it up with a loose, fitly formed, re-
flecting plate.

At this termination of the ventilating flue an important adjustment is
effected. If the tube dip about an inch into the lamp-glass, the draught up
it is such that not only do all the products of combustion enter the tube,
but air passes down between the top edge of the lamp-glass and the tube,
going, finally, up the latter with the smoke. In this case, however, an evil
is produced, for the wick is charred too rapidly ; but if the ventilating flue
descends until only level with the top of the lamp-glass, the whole of the
burnt air does not usually go up it, but some passes out into the chamber,
and at such times the charring of the wick is not hastened. Here, there-
fore, there is an adjusting power, and it was found by the trials made, that
when the tube dipped about half an inch into the lamp-glass, it left the
burning of the lamp unaltered, and yet carried off all the products of com-
bustion.

The power already referred to, of dividing a chimney into separate and in-
dependent parts, and yet enabling it to act perfectly as a whole, as shown in
the single central chimney, was easily applicable in the case of several lamps,
and gave a double advantage; for it not only protected the lamps from any
influence of down draught, but it easily admitted of the rotation of the
system of gathering flues, fixed to the frame sustaining the lamps and re-
flectors in a revolving lighthouse, and of the delivery of the burnt air, &c,
from its upper extremity into the upper immoveable portion of the flue.
This capability in a revolving light is essential, for in all, the support of the
frame-work is of such a nature, as to require that the upper part of the flue
should be a fixture.

The author explains that it is as an officer of the Trinity House, and under
its instructions, that he entered into the consideration of this subject : that,
as to the central chimney, its action has been both proved and approved,
and that all the central lights arc ordered to be furnished with them; that

430

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

as respects the application to separate and revolving lamps, the experiment
has been made under the direction of the Trinity House, on a face of six
lamps, being a full-sized copy of the Tynemouth revolving light, and, so far
to the satisfaction of the Dep ity Master and Brethren, that the plan is to
be applied immediately to two light-houses which suffer most from conden-
sation on the glass; he believes it will be with full success.

A Lock-meter.

11 A model and drawing of a Lock-meter, uied in Lombardy for measuring
Water for Irrigation," were presented by Benedetto Albano, M. Inst. C. E.

The author stated that the necessity for regulating the supply of water for
irrigation, had induced the adoption in Lombardy of a meter, with an aper-
ture of given dimensions, as a standard for the emission of water to the irri-
gating channels — this was terruri the " Bocche Magistrate." This standard
was called " oncia d'acqua magistrate," by which was understood, a quantity
of water flowing through a given aperture, under an unvarying pressure,
permitting only the passage of a certain quantity per minute. This " oncia
d'acqua " has now been ascertained by Krenzlin (Inspector General of Canals,
Milan) to be equal to 2'12 cubic metres per minute, and is now the received
authority; and the system is adopted through the Lombardian and Venetian
Kingdoms, and other provinces of Italy. This quantity is supposing the

flow to be through an aperture 3 oncie 3 wide by 4 high, and with a head of
water of 2 oncie. An oncia is equal to 1*95 inches.

The structure consists of an aperture A, where the water is measured,
nearly 8 inches high, 16 inches broad, and 6 inches long, leading to which
is the channel C, 20 feet long, which has a floor inclined to the supplying
stream B, at an angle of 1 in 15 ; this channel is covered by a horizontal
close boarding or ceiling D, by which the undulatory motion of the water is
checked and any air is prevented from getting into the channel, while the
height of the head is restricted to 4 inches above the aperture A. At the
end is a sluice-gate H, of the same width as the aperture A, to be raised by
a rack I ; on the gate is a block K, to prevent its being raised too high, and
a bolt and lock secure it. The discharge channel F, is about 18 feet long, is
inclined 1 in 108, and widens about 4 inches at each side, diverging out-
wards nearly 6 inches in the entire length. Care must be taken that the
water in the channel at G, is always kept below the bed of the channel F.
The sluice-gate being opened sufficiently to fill the covered channel up to
the ceiling, the quantity of water flowing through the aperture is accurately
measured. Just behind the sluice there is a small opening to see when the
water has reached the proper level. The aperture A, to this metre will allow
a discharge of 1272 cubie metres, or 449 cubic feet, English measurement,
per minute; beyond these proportions the aperture is not allowed to be in-
creased, as there would be a sensible error in the quantity on account of the
vena contracta.

o ■•, c 9 11

£ZL

:l!

o-

H~T

" On the Pressure and Density of Steam, with a proposed new formula
for the relation between then ; applicable particularly to Engines working
with high-pressure Steam expansively." By William Pole, Assoc. Inst. C. E.

The relations between the elasticity, temperature, and density of steam
have long been interesting and important subjects of philosophical research.
The connexion of the two former, namely, pressure and temperature, with
each other, has excited the greatest attention, numerous experiments having
been undertaken to ascertain the values of them at all points of the scale,
and many formulae proposed by English and foreign mathematicians, to ex-
press approximately the relation between them.3

The pressure and temperature being known, the density, or what answers
the same purpose, the relative volume, compared with the water which has
produced it, may be deduced by a combination of the laws of Boyle • and
Gay Lussac;5 and may be expressed algebraically in terms of the pressure
and temperature combined ; whence, by eliminating the latter, by means of

* Upwards of twenty different formula? of this nature are given in the
Encyclopedia Britannica, 7th edition, art. "Steam," where their respective
merits and correspondence with the results of experiment, are amply inves-
tigated.

* That "if the temperature remain constant, the density varies directly
as the pressure."

6 That " if the pressure remain constant, and the temperature change, the
volume receives a certain definite amount of augmentation, tor each degree
of temperature added, or vice versd." This augmentation is equal "00208 ot
the volume at freezing point, for each degree of Fahrenheit, or '00375 for
each degree Centigrade.

the before-mentioned formulae, expressions can be arrived at which will con-
nect at ouce the volume with the pressure.

But there are several difficulties in the way of this process, the equations
which mav be thus obtained being too complicated for practical use ; and
therefore, since it is important in calculations connected with steam and the
steam-engine, to find a tolerably accurate, and at the same time, simple rule
which shall give the pressure and volume directly in terms of each other,
the empirical method has been resorted to.

The paper enumerates three formula; given for this purpose by M. Navier
and M. de Pambour, explaining the peculiar cases to which they are appli-
cable, and those in which they fail ; and the author then proposes a fourth
expression, which is intended to meet a case not provided for by either of
the others, namely, for " condensing engines working with high-pressure
steatn expansively ;" such as the Cornish, and Woolf's double cylinder engine .
The equation is —

24250
V-65'

or reciprocally, V

24250
"~P~

+ 65.

P being the total pressure of the steam in lb. per square inch, and V its re-
lative volume, compared with that of its constituent water.

These formula; may be adopted without considerable error, throughout the
range generally required in such engines, viz., from about 5 lb. to 65 lb. per
square inch.

Two tables are then given showing the pressures and volumes as calcu

843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

431

lated for every 5 lb. pressure in this scale ; they t how a compsu ison of the
results oi' the four formula: with each other, a. id the respective amount of
deviation from irul ' . in each.

The greatest error is —

By M. Navier's formula

M. lie Pamhour's first ditto

„ „ second ditto

The new formula

The mean error is —

By M. Navier's formula

M. de Pamhour's first ditto

„ „ second ditto

The new formula

lb.

1-31 per square inch.
4-12
2-75
0-71

lb.

0-245 per square inch.
1-42
0-35
0-00G2

The tables also show : —

1st. That the new formula is nearer the truth than either of the others
taken separately, iu three-fourths of the scale.

2nd. That it is nearer than all three combined, in half the scale.

3rd. That the greatest error of the new formula, with regard to the pres-
sures, is only about half as great as that of the most correct of the other
three.

4th. That the mean error is only one-fortieth of either of the others, and
only equal to about one-tenth of an ounce per square inch.

5th. That the errors in the volumes are much less numerous and important
with the new formula than with either of the others.

It is also added that the new expression is simpler iu algebraical form
than the others; it is more easily calculated, the constants are easier to re-
member, and that no alteration of the constants in the other formula1 will
make them coincide so Dearly with the truth as the new one does.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
Monday, November 4. — \V. Tite, Esq.. v.i>., f.r.s. in the Chair.

He opened the proceedings of the session by making some observations in
explanation of what be had stated at the concluding meeting of the hist
session. lie alluded to what he had said as to the effect of the growing
tendency to introduce Gothic architecture. What he intended to affirm was
that it was not the duty of the architect to make a servile copy from the
works of the ancients, but to avail himself of them only as exemplifications
of the great principles which would require adaptation for modern edifices.
In allusion to this subject he pointed out the advantage of studying the re-
mains of the domestic architecture of the time of Edward III., as useful
studies in the present day. So far from disapproving of the legitimate study
of Gothic architecture he congratulated the members on the numerous re-
storations of ancient monuments in that style which were daily assuming all
their ancient beauty. All he bad wished to do was to caution junior mem-
bers against tbe exclusive study of that style and the neglect of the classic
monuments of Greece and Italy, which he considered to offer more suitable
types for domestic edifices, and he reminded them of the excellent examples
set them in this respect by Inigo Jones and Wren.

He then proceeded to give some account of his tour into Germany during
the last summer, when he had an opportunity of viewing the Walhalla
(described in our Journal for April and May last, and accompanied with a
view of the exterior & interior). He stated that the building was well
studied, its situation admirable, and the blending of architecture, sculpture
and painting exquisite, while the colouring is not so elaborate or so glaring as
e the contrast too great. In passing through the town of Ulrn in
Wirtemburgh he visited the cathedral which he described as a very fine
building, and well deserving the inspection of architects who may be tra-
velling in Germany; although it is a Lutheran church, there are several
objects well deserving of notice, it has four aisles with arches supporting a
clerestory. The wood carving in the choir is extremely good. There is
also a hue specimen of architecture, the tabernacle for tire host, which
is on the north side of the choir. In Munich he considered colouring was
carried too far, the effect of colouring in external decoration not being good.
I or example the Theatre at Munich is a very fine building; it has a portico
with a pediment, the tympanum of which is painted in fresco; at the back
of this pediment is a second pediment also painted, the effect of which is
extremely harsh. He then referred to the prevailing style of architecture in
Munich, of which he said the two principal buildings were in the Byzantine
style. The Basilica uow being erected is in that style and well adapted to
exhibit the effect of gilding. The library is in the Florentine style, but the
external colouring is not well introduced. Mr. Tite then observed that from
what he saw at Munich, and from the present tendency in England colour
and decoration would be carried too far and likely to run into excess,
although good in interiors the quantity of gold requires light, and conse-
quently is not in some cases so well suited for ceilings. The roof of the Basi-
lica is a queen- post roof and the interior is opened to the hall, the rafters are
decorated as well as the other timbers, but the poverty of the materials is

rather unfortunate as they are not well suited for decoration. The mode of
building adopted in Munich has not the advantage we possess of the use of
iron. Upon this point Mr. Tite advised the ; rt to obtain a

thorough knowledge, and learn the circumstances in which this I
be advantageously introduced. In She course of the pn sen! ; -.. on he pro-
mised To saj something relative to the best, form of beams, and BS to the in-
troduction of iron generally for architectural purposes,

Professor Donaldson then read a paper describing thirl
churches found in Henrj the 5th, Chantry at Westminster Abbey, (Uey were
designs submitted to the Commissioners appointed iu the reign of Queen Aim
for building of fortj churches in the metropolis, but only three out of the
thirteen models had been erected, viz., the New Church,' Strand, Greenwich
Church, and St. James' Westminster; the others were designs of a high class,
and he considered it a ■ ' , ■ he architectural character of the metro-

polis that they were never carried into effei t. Toe models are weH executed
and in good preservation, and it is, to be regretted that tiiey are not opened
to public inspection.

Professor Donaldson also made some observations on the spoliation of
fresco by the old Italian masters to the exterior of buildings for decoration,
and exhibited an original drawing by Poltidori iu illustration, lie then
read a letter from Mr. Crace, of Wigmore Street, .count

of the frescos which had fallen under his notice during a recent tour in Ger-
many and the north of Italy. Mr. Crace observes "that in Italy, Switzerland,
and the south of Germany, the paintings in fresco are so general, that there
is scarcely a town in which, both in the exterior and in the interior of the
houses, some are not to be met with. In Italy this kind of decoration is the
most frequent ; there, in many cases, the architectural effects seem to have
been arranged, with the view of being afterwards aided by painting; the
enrichments of the mouldings and the ornaments being ehiaro

oscuro. In other cases, again, the whole surface of t he ed with

historical or allegorical and ornamental painting. My principal object in
travelling was, firstly, to learn the processes employed in fresco and encaustic
painting ; secondly, to form an opinion as to the effect o produced ; and
thirdly, to judge how far those effects would surpass painting in oil, in ap-
pearance and durability. For the two first reasons it was, therefore, the
modern specimens of the art, to which my attention was principally directed.
At the Royal Palace at Venice, I noticed decorations lately executed in fresco;
but it was at Munich that I saw the art most extensively employed. In this
city it is to be met with in every modern public building. In the church of
St. Louis is the grand picture of the Last Judgment bj Cornelius, and other
frescos of considerable merit by his pupils. In the All Saints' Chapel (Alter
lleilige Capelle) are some beautiful paintings by Hess and his pupils, on a
gold ground. At the basilica of St. Bonifacius, so splendidly decorated, Hess
and others are employed at this time on a series of grand paintings; at the
Glyptothek are the frescos of Cornelius ; at the Pynacothek, those by Zim-
merman and others ; and at the two Royal Palaces, each room is adorned by-
some artist of excellence, either in fresco or encaustic. In addition to these
interiors there are examples of exterior decorations at the Hof Garden, the
facade of the Post Office, and the Theatre. The process of painting iu
fresco, though attended with certain difficulties, is easily learnt with ordinary
perseverance. The effects produced surpass painting in oil, in solidity and
clearness; but owing to the limitation of colours employed, there always
appeared to me a certain yellow brown dry effect, and a want of the richness
of paintings in oil. In the grand fresco by Cornelius of the Last Judgment,
I think this must he felt by all; and in the beautiful composition by Veith at
Frankfort, this defect is still more apparent.

" The manual operation I found, to my surprise, to be by no means rapid,
even by the practised hands. One of the most distinguished artiots 1 noticed
painting a broad fold in the drapery of a monk, he used a small brush, and
gained his effects by repeated touches. The ground of lime and sand re-
quires to be touched with delicacy. The pictures in execution at the Basilica,
take, I was informed by one uf the artists, nearly a twelve month to execute.
The cartoons and pounces are prepared in the winter months, and the paint-
ing is done during the summer. In ornament too, I observed that the work
was not quicker than in oil, and much slower than in distemper to which
it is superior as bearing washing, but inferior in the brilliancy of colouring.
As to the durability of fresco in the older examples that I noticed in Italy,
though the paintings had preserved to a considerable extent their original
colouring, yet the effect was in almost all cases impaired by the decay of the
plaster ground, the surface of which had crumbled through the action of the
atmosphere. At Venice where works on a grand scale have been executed
in both fresco, and oil, I was curious to compare the relative defects and
advantages of each, and found, that though the paintings in oil of some
masters had much darkened, yet that with others, particularly Paul Veronese,
the effects were still clean and fresh, and, upon the whole, being in better
preservation, surpassed the actual appearance of most of the frescos. In the
grand works lately executed at Munich they have been too recently done
of an opinion being formed, yet, in the exterior specimens at the
post office, and the Hof Garden, signs of decay are very evident. Upon the
bring the difficulties of execution, the
liability of decay in the ground, and the impossibility of reparation if injured,
I could not perceive any great advantages over oil; in this country must be
further added the additional likelihood of decay, from our damp climate, and
discolouration through smoke and fig; on the one side it has great advan-
tages in being seen to perfection in all lights, and therefore particularly ad-

59

432

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

December,

vantageous lor paintings of architectural effects in its clearness, and the
soundness of its colour; on the other side, the disadvantages I have enume-
rated above."

After the reading of Mr. Grace's paper some observations were made by
the Vice President and other members on the effect of fresco. An anecd ite
was related respecting Cornelius that when the King of Bavaria was viewing
his famous fresco of the Last Judgment, he observed to Cornelius that it
apneared as if it were three centuries old, Cornelius replied, '• That is just
what 1 wanted.'' It was also observed that it was surprising what a golden
effect was produced by simple colours, although done in dry and unshiuing
materials. In Munich the bricks are well burnt notwithstanding they are ab-
sorbent, the lime is very good and a large quantity of it is used in proportion
to sand. The bricks are laid with open joints, the plastering is first laid on
with a hand float, afterwards the fine coat to take the fresco is laid on by
the plasterer, who comes the first thing in the morning and puts on just
sufficient for the artist to work upon during the same day. and which this
latter must finish before it is dry. The difficulty in England will be to get
rid of the efflorescence of saltpetre, which can be removed by repeated
washing. The frescos by Aglio in Moorfields chapel appears to have failed
on this account.

Mr. Arthur Johnson was presented with a prize consisting of the first
volume of the Transactions of the Institute for the best sketches sent in by
the pupils during the last session.

November 20, 1843.— W. Tin,, Estt. v.r. in the Chair.

A highly interesting and practical paper on Timber and Deals was read'
which is given in full in another part of the Journal.

Observations. — After the paper was read Mr. Tite observed that it was ex-
actly applicable to the practical architect, it is quite useless tor architects to
introduce into their specifications the quality of materials to be used without
they are able to ascertain that the contractor has complied with the stipula-
tions of the contract. He adverted to the proper use of deals ; nothing was
so injurious or vexatious as the introduction of unseasoned deals, although
they appear to be quite dry; this can only be avoided by a practical know-
ledge of the quality of timber and deals on the part of the architect. Re-
specting timber the trifling difference in the price of Baltic and pine timber
was now so trifling that it was not worth while to introduce the hitter, there
is something in it which renders it liable to the dry rot.

In London there is scarcely any other deals introduced but what were
named iu the paper just read, but in other parts of England, and abroad,
there were other materials used ; at Liverpool the floor of the Custom House
consists of narrow hoards cut out of Higa timber which was stacked with
great care for some years; it was laid in widths of five inches with sawn
edges quite close, and afterwards planed. In France they knew of no deals,
they u-eii boards cut out of the best Mciuel timber iu every variety of joiners'
work. In Scotland yellow pine was used to a great extent in joiners' work
without being painted, it is very durable if not covered up. At one of the
meetings during the last session he stated that the Great Western rails were
laid on yellow pine timbers, and that they had been taken up inconsequence
of the failure of the Ivyani/ing ; he has since ascertained that that was not the
case, for the timbers which had been Kyamzed were found to he perfectly
sound when taken up, and that the reason for removing them was to lay
down sleepers of larger dimensions. He observed that in Switzerland, a
country very much exposed to a moist climate, the growth of nio>~, &c.,
that the timbers were not painted, although very much exposed, notwith-
standing that many were 1 ill to 200 years old it was very rare to see any
symptom of decay. Silver pine is used ; it mav be seen growing in tree's
160ft. to 170ft. and even from 200ft. to 230ft. high without a branch. 2Uin.
girth, ( ? ; girth) none of it is converted for the European market. In France
oak is felled in the autumn, and in no other time of the year, under a heavy
penalty, but in England it is felled in the spring with the sap in it for the
sake of the bark, consequently it is very liable to decay, and to be attacked
with the dry rot, the sap being a pabulum for the latter; now that the price
of bark was low, it is hardly worth the practice of felling it in the spring,
considering the difference in the value, with that which is felled in the
autumn.

Mr. Tite also made some observations on the introduction of large timbers
in the construction of warehouse floors, formerly the joists were carried on
girders of whole timber about 14 in. square laid from wall to wall on caps on
top of posts, and he has known where a large knot happened to come near the
bearings the timber to split up ; he has seen the upper floor of ware-
houses which were heavily laden depressed full 15 in. which so compressed
the vertical posts, and caused them to eat iuto the timber girders, that when
the weight was removed the floors sprang up again and all the posts became
quite loose, so much so that it was found necessary to drive a wedge under
• ":' posl on every floor. He never used whole timber for girders but always
forms them of two pieces of timber 14 in. deep by 9 in. or 10 in. reversed, and
lays them on iron caps fitted on to the top of the posts or iron stancheons,
and instead of the posts above standing on the girders, a dowel, or pin, is
inserted between the two pieces of timber forming the girder, and between
the head of the post below and the base of the columns above this discharging

the weight vertically through the posts, by which means the girders have-
only to carry the weight of each separate floor.

A gentleman present observed that there was a great variety of timber
used on the continent unknown to this country, he instanced the mountains
of Switzerland which might supply us with fine timber; in one of the Can-
tons is a timber suitable for lining walls, wainscotting. &c., it is called "stone
pint," it is of slow growth which ensures durability, it also has a peculiar
fragrance. In Scotland a great deal of valuable timber (larch) has been
planted by the Duke of Athol, which being free from duty might be advan-
tageously introduced into England, he also stated that timber might be pre-
served from the attacks of dry rot by washing it over, particularly the ends,
with impure pyralignetnu acid retaining tlie creosote .

It was also noticed by a member that yellow pine was used almost exclu-
sively in Glasgow, and a considerable portion in Liverpool and Manchester,
at the latter place, Mr. Bellbouse, an extensive builder, has given the prefer-
ence to yellow pine for many years'.

Mr. Hiscock stated that two houses being built under Ids direction, at
Stones' end in the Borough, the proprietor did not intend to use any paint for
the joinery, but simply use varnish.

OX THE MODERN PRACTICE OF COMPETITION.

In our number for March, 1S42, we gave a lull report of Professor
Ilosking's Introductory Lecture, then lately delivered at King's Col-
lege, on the Principles ami Practice of Architecture. In this lecture
Mr. Husking took occasion to denounce the system of submitting
designs in competition upon speculation, and he afterwards published
liis lecture in B separate form, and then added to it as an appendix,
"Further remarks on the modern practice of competition." Late in
the last session of the Royal Institute of Brithh Architects] a special
general meeting of the members was summoned to consider a reso-
lution upon the same subject; but the attendance of members was so
thin, that the subject was adjourned until the next session, some time
in the present month being named for it. Although it doe^ no!
appear in the circular with whom the proposed resolution originated,
there seems to be no need for hesitation in attributing it to the author
of the above-mentioned lecture and of the "Further Remarks;" and
as the time is now approaching for the discussion, we have thought
that we may perforin a useful service in transferring some of Mr Hos-
king's "Further Rem irks" to our pages, to prepare the members of
the Institute .it large for the consideration of the subject by a know-
ledge of the reasons upon which the resolution li is been founded.

The resolution is as follows: — "That the modern practice of sub-
mitting designs in competing speculations for premiums, or for
employment, or in any competition for preference without specific or
properly implied promise of certain payment to each and every com-
petitor, operates injuriously upon architecture, and upon the interests
and character of the profession."

" It is a most offensive feature of the modern gambling and degrading >>>-
tern of competition that all Architects are supposed to pursue the game, ;0
that successful intriguers who do follow it, arc supposed to be the only me-
ritorious practitioners, at the expense of those who have never fallen from
virtue, or who, having fallen, have si-en their error, and repented. This fea-
ture of the system is not only offensive to those who see the foil} and avoid

1 Mr. John Miller, a ship-owner at Liverpool, largely engaged in the im-
portation of timber from the colonics, stated iu his evidence before the Par-
liamentary Committee in answer to some questions put to him regarding
North American yellow pine limber : — " 1 know that Mr. Bellhouse, who is
the largest dealer in Manchester, has changed the views he formerly enter-
tained as to the comparative merits of the two timbers, and that he now
gives a decided preference to the timber from the Colonies. For all purposes,
he, in building large warehouses, has latterly consumed Canadian yellow pine
in preference to Canadian red, or Dantzic, or Memel. He states, I think,
that he consumes about fifty cargoes a year ; and even when he can get lengths
of Canadian red timber, or Memel timber to suit the purpose, he uses in
preference Canada yellow pine, and he states his reason that, for the last
fifteen years he has been a close observer of the different qualities of timber,
and the different effects produced upon it by exposure to air and influence of
atmosphere, and he finds that when the yellow pine of Canada is introduced
into brick and mortar, the ends arc little liable to decay, and that the ends
either of t he red pine timber from Canada, or of Memel and Dantzic timber,
are more liable to decay. This opinion of Mr. Bellhouse is the result of long
experience, ami is a change from his former opinion. In Glasgow, where
1 know at fn>t they used for building purposes nothing but Baltic timber,
year (1835) I wrote to Glasgow to a correspondent of my own, a large dealer
in timber, to give me a statement of the proportions of each sort in consump-
tion there, ami he told me that the whole consumption in Glasgow of Baltic-
timber last vear was not 200 loads."

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

433

it, hut it is injurious to the public. Most persons upon whom the duty de-
volves of procuring designs for intended buildings ,vre imposed upon by a
notion that, in advertising for anonymous designs, they secure the advantage
of designs from men of character and matured judgment ; but as few such
ever respond to the call in ordinary cases, the great bulk of competition
business falls into the bands of the intriguing jobbers, and the public and the
profession are both cheated.

•• Even in the case of the houses of Parliament, which has been thought by
many to afford the fullest justification of the system of general or public com-
petition, because of its apparent successful result, the public possibly suffered
irremediable injury. The principal public works of the preceding twenty
or thirty years bad been committed absolutely to a few practitioners, who
ought, therefore, to be supposed the most competent, or at least, among the
most competent, Architects the country afforded. It might be readily deter-
mined that such men would not enter into the sort of competition that was
established; and so it happened that they did not; and the nation lost the
application of the knowledge, experience, and taste of those who were, or
■who ought to have been, the best qualified, when seeking designs for one of
the most important public worksthat a nation can have to devise. Either this
was a great advantage lost, or the nation had been greatly wronged for a long
series of years by the committal of its public works to men whose loss in
such a case was no disadvantage ? But it may be confidently assumed that, if
the successful candidate in the competition that took place for the Houses of
Parliament had been established in practice and reputation at the time of the
competition as be must find himself now, no design would have been
forthcoming from him. The successful competitor for the Houses of
Parliament sent no design for the Royal Exchange, and surely the talent
of the Architect, to whom pre- eminence had been so universally accorded in
the case of the Palace of the Legislature ought to have been secured in pro-
curing a choice of designs for the Forum of Commerce.

•' It must be remembered, nevertheless, that the all-important limitation
of cost was not imposed upon the Houses of Parliament Designs — and the
source of much of the difficulty in ordinary cases did not therefore exist.
With the ISoyalExehange this difficulty presented itself, and, in an endeavour
to act justly, the grossest injustice was done; the viciousness of the system
prevailing against an apparently sincere desire to do well, until, at length,
the matter was decided in a contest of interest between two Architects,
neither of whom was understood to have taken part in the public Com-
petition, and if either had done so, his design had been passed over in the
original selection as of inferior merit ! * *

•' The present writer has already pointed out in the foregoing Lecture the
only efficient remedy, as he believes, for the abuses of the existing system of
competition ; and it is in the hands of the profession to adopt it and leave
the public to seek its remedy. The " profession " cannot, of course, compel
but by the example of individual members of it acting upon all, and by
making it evident that every man must be himself the example who would
bear an honourable standing among his fellows. *

•' The public ought to understand, however, that what is generally requi-
red in a competition cannot be fully and honestly complied with by either
p<.rty. It is one thing to make a design for a building of the kind and ca-
pacity required — it is another thing to arrange such design in detail, that the
co*t of executing it may be accurately estimated — it is still another thing to
specify particularly all the materials, and their various kinds, qualities, and
capacities, the operations to which the materials shall be subjected, and the
quantity and quality of the labour or workmanship that shall be bestowed
upon them respectively — and it is still a further operation to estimate from
the detailed drawings and particularized specifications what the cost of the
building must be. All these things should be done, nevertheless, and by
every competitor, when the cost is a condition; and, moreover, every design
so elaborated should be fully investigated in all its details, or the conditions
of the competition are nut fulfilled by the parties imposing them. Now,
conscientious men, having entered upon a competition, are compelled to limit
the extent and appearance of their design to the means set forth in the
" conditions," and to satisfy their own minds that it can he carried out as
the parties requiring it expect, within those means. The most conscientious,
however, cannot do all that ought to be done to make the conditions com-
plete— cannot, because of the immense disproportion between the labour
and expense which such fulfilment would involve, and the probability that
the labour and expense so applied will not be of the slightest value. But the
practice has been, and is, and it always will he, with bodies of men, be they
small or large, committees, or the public in general, to look at externals — at
the mere outside; and they are influenced by the effect produced in or by the
prettiness of the drawings or models in which the design presents itself; the
merits or demerits of the "plan," as architects understand the term — the
kinds and qualities of materials and workmanship — the extent of enrichment
in detail — and the thousand other things that go to affect the merit of a
design and its compliance or non-compliance with the "conditions," are
neither attended to nor understood ; the effect of the design as to its deco-
rative disposition is the utmost that they perceive, and the decision takes
place accordingly. Hence it is that the conscientious man must always be
an unsuccessful public competitor when cost is a condition. Even in the
notorious case of the Royal Exchange, which might appear to contradict
this, the reputedly successful conscientious competitor was still, for any value
attachable to success, unsuccessful. * * *

" In truth, the public or their committees ask for too Much, having refer-

ence to what they really want. Let the requirement be confined to a ge.
neral design of a building of the particular kind required — of certain capa-
city— and adapted to a particular site — and to be built of certain main con-
stituent materials. — Stipulate for a particular scale, ami that the designs
shall be presented in drawings — in outline, or tinted — and of what particular
tint or tints alone — and, if perspective views are desired — fix the point or
points of view. More will not then be required than mo^t Arc! itects would
be willing to engage themselves upon a comparatively small fee, giving the
public thereby the advantage of Competition, as far as it can he made of any
use, without involving the great expense that elaborated designs must occa-
sion. The one, two, and three hundred pound premiums, now held out to
gambling crowds, might then be divided into twenty, thirty, forty, or fifty
guinea fees, according to the circumstances of the case, anil offered to such
practitioners as might be known, or whose latent " talent," committees, or
individual members of committes, might desire to draw out or encourage j
and as no man educated to a liberal profession is without some connexions
to whom it will happen to be able to give a helping hand, by nominating
him, or procuring him to be nominated, upon one such Competition or other,
all " talent " connected with knowledge and supported by character might
emerge from the greatest obscurity in which it is to be found so associated.
The successful competitor under such circumstances might he trusted to
carry out his design in detail, adapting it to all the circumstances of the case
much better than be could have done in a general Competition.

" In an endeavour to convince Architects, as a profession, in what their
true interest consists, it is, perhaps, but proper to have pointed out to the
public than the present system of Competition represses the honourable can-
didate for reputation and employment, by rendering it impossible for him to
compete on equal terms with the uncrupulous, and that, consequently, the
public are thrown into the hands of the latter ; and to have pointed out also,
that there is a reasonable course that may be pursued by which all the ad-
vantages of Competition are to be obtained, although Architects refuse any
longer to lend themselves to gambling speculations.

The public will, nevertheless, go on as they have gone on until Architects,
as a profession, shall have declined any longer to degrade and beggar them-
selves. It is, therefore, not a question proposed to the public, — and it is
one indeed with which the public have nothing to do, beyond the interest
which the public have in raising the character of the profession of Archi-
tecture, but which they will never recognise while they think they benefit by-
its debasement. // is a matter to be determined by the Architects themselves ;
and it may, perhaps, be hoped that this exposition of the abuse the profes-
sion labour under will induce all who are not quite besotted with the vice
to consider the question in this, its true point of view ; and, having so con-
sidered it, there can be, it may be further hoped, no doubt that all those who
have any sense of honour and virtue, or, indeed any self-respect, re-
maining, will no longer lend themselves to the present degrading system, and
it will soon cease to exist among us.

October, 1842.

REVIEWS.

Penny Cyclopedia. Art. " Window."

The part of this excellent Cyclopaedia, which will be published on
the same dav as this number of our own Journal, is, we believe, the
final one, and thus a very arduous undertaking will have been suc-
cessfully accomplished, after being carried on for eleven years, not
only with the same diligence as at first, but, if anything, with an in-
creased degree of it. We have, indeed, seen querulous and even re-
proachful observations as to the extent to which the work was being
carried on; but we think all — even the most impatient, roust now re-
joice that it was not brought to a close within the number of volumes
originally contemplated, and which it has exceeded by three. Had
there been any kind of stoppages, or want of punctuality, there would
have been some grounds for complaint, and there might have been
great uncertainty as to when it would be finished, yet it has invariably
been brought out regularly from its first commencement, which is
much more than can be said for every other work of the kind.
Others, too, there are, which have been hurried on towards their close
that they may be said to have been finished without being completed,
the articles in the later letters of the alphabet bearing no sort of pro-
portion to those in the earlier ones; and such has been the case in re-
gard to two architectural dictionaries.

Fortunately it is quite the reverse with this Cyclopedia, since the
two last volumes contain several articles which, interesting as they
arc in themselves, might have been omitted, as the omission could
have been neither detected nor complained of. Among them are
several additions to architectural biography, including the names of
VoronihUm., Weinbrenner, IVitbtkii'g, Wd'kins, and Wood of Bath,
the last of whom has found no place in any English biographical

59*

434

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

work — at least none of the many we have referred to for it — although
lie lias been dead these eighty vears; nor can it be alleged that lie
was too obscure in his profession for notice, since the man who made
nearly an entire city his own monument, dpserves to be recorded quite
as much as the illustrious Nash — we do not mean the architect, but
the " beau."

" Walhallu " — the so-called structure npar Reginsburg, which is
here fully described, is also an article which it was not absolutely in-
dispensable to give, and the same may be said of " Windsor Castle"
yet articles of this class are a very great improvement upon what was
done at first. We. shall confine ourselves, however, for extracts, to
the article "Window," although it is one that ought to be read
entire.

" If is one very great advantage of the Gothic or Pointed style,
that there the windows derive strong architectural expression from
the apertures themselves; which, with the mnllions, transoms, and
tracery inserted in them, mainly form the design and decoration;
while the external mouldings and ornaments contribute to them only
in a subordinate degree. Consequently, if others (piiie plain, the
windows can never appear mere vacant spaces. Widely different is
it in those styles where the ornament. d design is confined to the mere
exterior or framing' of the aperture: therefore, however the; n
so decorated, the openings will, if of very large dimensions, always
have a vacant, look, and the glazing of the windows will appear to be
in want of adequate support. Sub is the case with the windows of
St. Paul's, where the apertures are filled in only with very ordinary
glazing in small panes, and consequently are so far from being pli
as to produce a sombre, dingy appearance; whereas in Gothic win-
dows the glazing shows itself to be firmly supported by the mulliou,
and is never extended over such large unbroken surfaces, let the size
of the window be what it may, as to pr ' of blankness.

It is another advantage peculiar to that style that it allows windows
to be of any dimensions — of the smallest as well as the largest, and
windows of very different sizes and proportions to be introduced into
the same elevation. For further remarks on this subject the reader
may refer to what has been said on Gothic Architecture) p. 334, and
Oriel; since we must here confine ourselves to windows in the Italian
or modern style generally."

After speaking of the various modes of treating windows according
to the floor they occupy in a facade, the writer proceeds with remarks
of his own, referring to various examples.

" In the basement of the Strand front of S House, which,

althoujj to the order, is almost of equal import i

effect in the genera] composition, the windows are more than usually
decorated, having lioric pilastep*, entablatures, and pediments, and
their sills resting upon bold consi they are

set within arcades, and therefore preparation is so far made for their
dressings, which are thus framed in from the rusticati
that their richness does not seem at variance with the latter; the
richness itsell too is of a bold character. When the ground-floor is
not a distinct basement, its windows require to be equally dri
von nearly so, with those of the principal floor, with little other dif-

■ as to proportion an 1 di sign than wh ,t is necessary foi
ving some distinctii ing monotonous repetition ; bi

though it is desirable that all the windows on a floor shoo,
uniform design, except that a centre window may occasionally be
■more decorated and rendered a more conspicuous feature i
rest, it is hardly less desirable to avoid the 9ameness arising from ill
the windows of a front being too nearly alike. Where the ground-
floor is the principal one also, as is now frequently the case in villa
aces, in which all the chief rooms are below, and perhaps only
a single chamber-floor over them, the lower windows
the most important in design ; yet, w hethpr the print i pal or seci
they ought to be in keeping with the res! of the design. This rule,
or rather this law of aesthetic composition, has been admira
led to by Mr. Barry in the Travellers' and Reform Clul
Lou, Ion, and, on the contrary, violated in the exterior of (i. Idsroitbs'
where, although there are two ranges of windows included
within the same order, and the upper windows are decorated in an
uuusual degree, almost to excess, those below have no dressings, not
even any kind of rusticated borders in lieu of Ihein, but are merely
so many plain apertures on a surface scantily streaked with hori-
zontal .. According y, while the lower di
frout r, and is deficient in boldness, the upper wind,
overloaded with ornament.

" What has been said in regard to the sequence of the different
tiers of windows in an elevation, is to W understood only generally,
there being many exceptions, and not a few anomalous cases. In the

facade of the Palazzo Massimi at Rome, one of Pernzzi's best works,
there are two tiers of mezzanine windows above those of the prin-
cipal floor; in the celebrated Palazzo Farnese, on the contrary, the
second-floor windows (which are also the uppermost) are somewhat
loftier than the others, at least in their apertures, owing to these last
being arched, and are further remarkable as having pediments, which
are seldom used for windows higher up than the first-floor. In San-
gello's facade of the Palazzo Sachetti, there is a range of mezzanines
between the windows of the first and the uppermost floor, and instead
of being made priucipal in the design, the former are considerably
less than those of the ground-floor, and are moreover singular as
being Allicurg — a term applied by some to those doors and windows
which are narrower at top than at bottom, as in the Erechtheum.
[Door, p. So.] The facade of the Palazzo Negroni, by Annnanati, is
similar in its general character to the preceding, there being a row of
mezzanine and square windows between the first ami third floor ; and
it also resembles it in the importance given to the ground-floor win-
dews. In regard to windows of the last-mentioned class, the Palazzo
Bnoncompagno at Rome, a work attributed to Bramante, offers an
unusual example, for there the lower floor and its windows are made,
the next principal features after those immediately aoove them : in
both the apertures themselves are round-headed, with imposts and
archivolts, but flanked by pilasters supporting an entablature, w hereby
the general form of the. chambrank, or dressing, becomes square-
headed : the chief difference between these two tiers of windows is,
that those above have pediments (alternately angular and segmental),
while the others have <

That the writer in the Cyclopaedia has not the same horror of small
"gables" oxer windows as Dr. Pulton has, is evident from the fol-
lowing remarks, with which we must close our extracts.

" In addition to the above, there are many other parts which enter
into the composition of window-dressings, and among them a prin-
cipal one is th" pediment, applied byway of finish to the whole.
Some critics have urged objections against pediments to windows, as
being contrary to strirt propriety: bypercriticism oi that kind might
be directed against a great deal in every style, on which its particular
character and expression more or less depend. It is enough for us
that the application of the pediment form to such purpose is so fully
established that no i 1 uity attends it, am! that, considered

with regard to its artislical effect, it contributes to variety in various
ways. At the same time we cannot admit as legitimate more thau
two distinct varieties of it, namely, the angular, and the curved or
tal; for as soon as we begin to disturb the outline, we violate
nciples of the style from which such decorative feature is de-
rived. Broken pediments, scrolled-shaped ones, &c are therefore to
be put into the same category with twisted columns and other extra-
vagances of that kind, which, so far from displaying invention, rather
betray sterility of ideas, and the inability to attain originality other-
wise than by adopting what the least educated taste rejects as vicious.
aients ought to b' very sparingly introduced — ■
perhaps only for the sake of variety, ill alternation with angular ones,
they being in themselves rather heavy in appearance. One great
value of the pediment as a decorative feature of windows is, that its
sloping lines c mtr i*t with those of horizontal mouldings, and occasion
variety of outline in the general form of windows : and lb it such ad-
dition serves to distinguish and give due importance to the windows
of the principal floor of a building, to which, in good composition,
they are generally confined. In the Palazzo Farnese both the upper
rows of windows have pediments; the first alternately angular and
segmental, the other only angular ones; and there, owing to the very
great space over the windows, the numerous pediments do not seem
to overload the design, as would be the case if the upper ones were
to come nearly immediately beneath the superior cornice. * * *

" We now come to another mode, quite distinct from any of the
preceding, namely, that which consists in applying a small order
either in columns or pilasters, with a regular entablature, sometimes
with the usual architrave also surrounding the aperture of the window,
at others not. And though some o i mycrostyle composi-

; inconsistent, with the original purpose of columns, their
impropriety is at hast redeemed by richness and beauty. At all
events, (lie impropri ty is not so great as that of applying small or-
ders successively to the di of a building, thereby ren-
dering diminutive, parts which, if introduced, ought to be propor-
tioned to the entire edifice; where.;-., in the case ul columns to win-
dovvs, they show themselves to be intended only as decorations, and
though really small, yet being distinct and independent features, in-
stead of giving an air of littleness to the eutire composition, they ra-
ther give greater dignity and importance to the win tows. As to the

1843.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

435

actual effect produced by them, that depends upon the judgment and
taste with which such decoration is applied. Windows of this kind
are certainly not suited for any except astylar composition, since if
there be also a large general order to the facade, while the columns to
the windows look rather insigniticaut by comparison, there is too
much of repetition and monotony, and the whole decoration seems to
consist only of columns of different sizes. Still worse is the effect
when, as is the case with the Atlas Office, Cheapside, London, the
building consists of more than one order, because then, as the win-
dows must he l.uge in proportion to those orders, the columns to the
windows cause the others to look petty, and the whole to appear both
crowded and confused — a defect most strikingly exemplified in the
structure alluded to, nor is it at all decreased by the windows to both
the upper floors being columniated. On the contrary, Barry's two
clubhouses in Fall-Mall are truly beautiful examples in regard to win-
dows thus decorated ; for there they are treated in a most masterly
manner, and applied with the happiest effect, aud so as to produce a
felicitous union of sobriety and simplicity with a very high degree
of decoration. Instead of being mere copies, those windows are
original and admirably studied compositions, beautifully and even ela-
borately finished, whereas in the other instance just mentioned, and
also in the front of the Clubhouse Chambers, Regent Street, though
there are columns to the windows, there is a very sorry entablature to
them — neither architrave nor frieze, but meerly a plain lintel in lieu
of them, without mouldings of any kind, which, besides being offen-
sively lumpish and heavy, look mean ;u what professes to be decora-
tion of a superior kind."

The article ought to have been more fully illustrated with cuts, and
no doubt would have been so, had the writer of it not been at all con-
trolled in that respect.

Glenny'a Garden Almanac for 1814. London : R. Groombridge

The Gardener or the Amateur will find much useful information
relative to the cultivation of the flower and kitchen garden in this al-
manac.

The Mechanic's Almanac and Engineer' a Year-book for 1S44. Pub-
lished by the Stationers' Company, contains a great variety of statis-
cal and scientific information, collated from various works of the
present year.

.7 Cosmoramic Vien of London. Engraved by J. H. Banks.

This is a novel, and at the same time, an interesting view of the
great metropolis, it not only shows the line of streets, squares, &c,
but also the. elevation of the houses, bridges, and all the public build-
ings ; it is a work of great labour and deserves encouragement.

Polygraphia Curiosa. — Mr. Jobbins, the lithographer, is collecting
together the various alphabets of writers of by-gone days; many of
them are of a beautiful form and in colours ; he intends to publish them
in parts, two of which have already appeared ; it will be a work of
considerable interest, and deserving of support, particularly by the
architect.

Davies' Reconnoitering Telescopes are very compact, being only 3>J inches
long, an inch diameter, and of great power ; they are particularly convenient
to carry in the pocket on a ramble or tour.

RAILWAY CHRONICLE OF THE MONTH.

Amalgamation is still the great topic of the day. We closed the last
month by announcing the conclusion of the arrangement between the Eastern
Counties and Northern and Eastern railways. Since then meetings have
been held of the North Union and Bolton and Preston for a similar object.
The terms are, that the North Union shall have twice as much per cent upon
the amount of their capital as the Bolton and Preston have on theirs, until
the dividends to the North Union reach 6 per cent, and the Bolton and
Preston 3 per cent, then the remaining profits to he divided equally. The
subscribed capital of the North Union is to be taken at £477,539, and of
the Bolton and Preston £262,002; the total £730,541. The asserted inten-
tion of amalgamation between the Grand Junction, Liverpool aud Man-

chester, aud Manchester and Birmingham, is now formally denied. With
regard to the Hull and Selhy, however, feelers arc being put out by Mr.
Hudson; and he will no doubt succeed, as he holds out a prospect, of G per
cent. The Newcastle and Darlington have, we may observe, purchased the
Durham Junction.

It is again stated that the Birmingham and Glo'ster have offered to sell
the Glo'ster end of their line to the Great Western, but, nothing certain can
be depended on, as to the probability of such a transaction being immedi-
ately entered into.

Branch lines and new lines form another leading topic, particularly as the
last 'lay for giving notices of applications to Parliament is just. past. We will
briefly enumerate some of those as to which active measures are in progress.
A branch from the South Eastern to Canterbury, Ramsgate and Margate, to
be laid with a single line, cost about JL'300,000. This will be carried inn
effect. Another branch, the Hastings, live, aud Teuterden Railway is started
by an independent company, but as the parties are quarrelling among them-
selves and are not strongly backed, nothing is likely to he done. An oppo-
sition branch from the Brighton Railway to Hastings has been surveyed; but
it is a mere campaigning movement. A line to Salisbury is talked of, and a
number of local meetings have been held, hut little is known as to the pros-
pects of the project. The Great Western district is principally interested in
the Devon and Cornwall line, which has been progressing favourably, but
the definitive arrangements have not yet been made. The Great Western
company have given notices for a branch to Newbury, and extensions into
the railroads of Cheltenham and Glo'ster, showing their intention to conso-
lidate their interest in that direction. The Holyhead line is moving, but is
in a precarious state. The Manchester and Birmingham have made the ar-
rangements for the branch to Macclesfield, whether, however, they will take
steps as to a southern extension does not yet appear. A mineral line in
Fnrness is well supported, and perhaps a continuation of the Maryport
and Carlisle Railway to Whitehaven may be expected. A line is talked of
to Blackburn. The A'100,000 required from the local interest for the Lan-
caster, Kendal and Carlisle Railway, has been subscribed, and the other
i'100,000 will consequently be supplied by the Great Southern companies,
and the scheme be prosecuted. A branch iu Scotland, from the Edinburgh
and Glasgow Railway to Stirling, has been asked for, but its prosecution is
by no means certain. The only other proposed lines of interest in Scotland
are the continuation of the Edinburgh, Leith, and Newhaven Railway to
Granton Pier, and the formation of the line from Edinburgh to Newcastle,
called the North British. The completion of these is also matter of uncer-
tainty. A junction between the Newcastle and Darlington and Brandling
junction will be carried out. The York and North Midland propose branches
to Harrowgate, and to join the Whitby and Pickering. In south Yorkshire
and Lancashire, however, the greatest vigour prevails, branches being pro-
posed from the Manchester and Leeds, Sheffield and Manchester Railways
to Asbton, Huddersfield, Chesterfield, and numerous other places.

"in the eastern districts a line is proposed from Blackwall to Tilbury, being
a resuscitation of the Thames Haven ; but the other lines proposed depend
upon the ultimate arrangements of the new Eastern Counties amalgama-
tions. Such is the case with the Eastern Union, Harwich, Norwich and
Brandon, &c.

A very curious meeting took place at Sunderland of the Durham and Sun-
derland company, which was for the purpose of removing a gentleman from
the directors, whose proceedings very closely resembled those of a mau ntm
compos. The resolutions were carried unanimously.

The Bricklayers Arms branch is going on with rapidity, and will, it is
expected, be ready by the Spring.

The Maidstone branch is announced to be ready by September of next
year.

The Soutb-Eastern half-yearly meeting took place on the lath. All the
works were declared to be getting on well, and all contractors accounts
settled up, a fact which does great credit to Mr. William Cubitt. The traffic
had got on well, but it was considered premature to declare a dividend. The
Brighton accounts are still unsettled, they were said not to be satisfactory,
and the Directors of the South-Eastern Railway showed no disposition to
settle without some beneficial arrangement being made for their company.

THE AMSTERDAM AND ARNHEIM RAILWAY.

Rhvn Spoorweg.

The Journal des Cfiemin dc Fer contains an account of this line, of which
we have availed ourselves to give the following particulars. This railway
proceeds from Amsterdam to xrnheim by Utrecht, and is in communication
with the Amsterdam and Rotterdam Railway. It is intended to he put in
connexion with the Prussian Railway. It i» in an advanced state, an experi-
mental trip has been made on S miles of it, and :t is intended to open for
traffic towards the end of the year, a section 22{ miles long between Amster-
dam and Utrecht. In the con, ! that the whole
of the line to Arnheim will be completei tance of 56 miles. The
line is laid out with very good gradients, without any violent curves. The
maximum inclination is 1 in 300. The distance between Amsterdam aud
Utrecht is laid out in three lines only, united by curves of about '270 yards

436

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[Dkckmber,

radius, and some minor curves on approaching the Utrecht station. The soil
through which the line passes is generally a thin stratum of mould of about
a foot thick, under which is a kind of light turf. Sand for forming the em-
bankments had to be got from a distance of some leagues from the dunes or
sand-hills. The embankments vary from a yard to 4 yards in height, and
are carried down to the natural soil of the polders or marshes. In the parts
which are least solid, being a distance of 6 miles, the embankment, entirely
of sand, rests on a bed of fascines 11 yards wide, and about 2 feet thick Not-
withstanding this precaution many slips took place. This want of consistency
or firmness, of the ground is indeed one principal reason why the original
engineer Mynheer D. H. Goudridan, adopted a gauge of 2 metres (6ft. 6Ain.)
with rails of 25 to 30 kilogrammes per metre run (about 60 lbs. per yard),
supported on a continuous framing of Baltic pine, of which the longitudinals
are from 7 to 12 inches square, and the cross-sleepers placed a yard apart
are from 6 in. to 12 in. square, witli a length of 3 metres (about 3 yards).
For the same reason this system has also been adopted on the Amsterdam and
Rotterdam railway, However extensive this framing may be, it was neces-
sary to use it to obtain a firm way for heavy trains. The country being a
level there are no sensible slopes, but as the canals (large and small) fre-
quently intersect, the engineers have been obliged to form a number of bridges
and aqueducts, among which are three large swivel bridges of cast iron made
at the Hague and two draw-bridges. The others are fixed wooden bridges,
with abutments in masonry (? brick). All these works of art, as well as the
Amsterdam stations, are built on piles. From Utrecht to Arnheim the road
goes through a rougher country, and passes several heaths, requiring cuttings, of
which five or six have a depth of from 30 to 65 ft., sometimes extending
over a length of 300 yards. The total quantity of cutting is about 3,000,000
cubic yards, which has to be carried a mean distance of about two miles..
In general the cuttings are in mere sand mixed with loose pebbles. The
inclination of the slopes, 36 to 50 feet high, is 45 degrees, and they are co-
vered with heath sod ( : grass sod). After standing two years it has been
found that the rains have not at all affected the embankments. Between
Utrecht and Arnheim the road is laid out with much the same kinds of curves
and straight lengths as in the previous part, and among the works are a large
cast iron swivel bridge, broad enough to carry two lines of rails, some smaller
bridges in cast iron, and a number of occupation bridges, viaducts and
culverts.

The act for this company was granted in 1838, and the capital was raised
under the personal guarrantee of Ij per cent, by the ex King Win. 1st., he di-
viding with the shareholders the surplus profits. The direction of the works was
entrusted to the government engineers, who, on account of the state of the
law, had great difficulty in getting possession of the land, and settling with
the landowners. Their difficulties were such that towards the end of 1842,
they were still at law with a great number of them, and unable to prosecute
the works with efficiency. Indeed, it was not till last Spring that all the
landowners were pacified — then the works were proceeded with at a rate
almost unprecedented in foreign engineering enterprises, under the guidance
of the present engineer, M. Vauderkun. The estimate for the whole line,
60 miles long, i'81 0,240, and it is not expected that the excess expenditure
will be more than 3 or 4 thousand. The line is, for the most part, laid out
for a single way — a double way being laid only on 6 miles between Amster-
dam and Utrecht, and 6 miles between Utrecht and Arnheim. Sidings are,
of course, provided at the several stations. All the bridges, and other works
of art, are laid out for a double line, which will be laid down throughout
where the extent of the traffic may require it.

The working plan consists, at present, of 6 locomotives, made by Sharp
and Roberts, of Manchester, and 4 made at Amsterdam. They are all six-
wheelers, with driving wheels of 6 ft. 6 in. Six locomotives on Robert Ste-
phenson's new patent have also been ordered of Messrs. Van Ylissengen and
Co., of Amsterdam. The number of passenger carriages and goods trains i-
now seventy, and will be next year one hundred and forty; they have been
manufactured in the neighbourhood of Utrecht, and arc all six wheels with
flanges. All the engineers are Dutchmen.

NEW INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

NAPIER'S PATENT COPPER CLOTH.

A new material under the above name has lately been brought under our
notice, which, as it promises to be, ere long, in very general and extensive
use, we propose giving some account of it to our readers. It consists of stout
linen cloth, on one side of which has been deposited, by electricity, a thin
covering of copper, fibres from which, interlacing with those of the cloth,
bind the whole firmly into one mass. The minute quantity of metal requi-
site to form a perfectly covered water-tight texture may be judged from this
fact, that a square yard when perfect, weighs only 18 ounces; the cloth itself
weighs 6 ounces, consequently 12 ounces of copper is sufficient to coat tho-
roughly a square yard of cloth ; whilst the thinnest rolled copper at present
in use weighs about 4} lb. per square yard. The thickness of the metal,
however, may be varied at pleasure, according to the purpose for which it is
required. This production is the result of another beautiful application of

electro-metallurgy — an art which, no sooner had it issued from tbe hands of
the man of science as a mere experiment, than it stepped with giant strides
into our arts and manufactures, and is now extending and ramifying itself in
all directions, at one time gilding a pin, at another coppering a slap's bottom,
or multiplying indefiuately the delicate lines of the sngraver.

The mode of manufacturing the copper cloth is as follows : on to a sheet
of copper paste, very evenly, with as little paste as possible, stout linen cloth;
and when thoroughly dry, attach it to the negative pole of a galvanic battery,
and immerse it in a solution of sulphate of copper connecting a piece of
copper to the positive pole to be dissolved. Decomposition rakes place,
copper is thrown down on the cloth, and, endeavouring to read, the copper
plate, insinuates itself into all the pores of the cloth, forming one perfect
whole. The time requisite will vary according to the thickness required,
but in general five or six hours is quite sufficient to give a good coating. But
a battery is by no means essential, as, by tbe following means, it may be dis-
pensed with. Attach tbe copper, with the cloth pasted on it. to a sheet of
amalgamated zinc, round which has been wrapped a stout piece of brown
paper, with the ends sealed down, so as to form a kind of bag ; immerse the
whole into the solution, and a deposit immediately takes place, zinc being
dissolved, and a nearly equal weight of copper deposited. This is a very
cheap and simple method, and is well worthy the attention of the electro-
typist. The sulphate of zinc formed remains within the paper bag, and very
little of the copper solution finds its way into it. If the copper does not
spread fast enough on the cloth, it may be rendered a better conductor of
electricity by rubbing it over with a little blacklead, or what is better, a new
conducting material, produced by heating pieces of zinc and iron together, to
a heat a little below that at which the zinc sublimes; a crystalline compound
is formed, which can be reduced to a very fine powder, and may be used
either alone or with blacklead ; when alone, it should be used wit'- something
adhesive : glycerine has been found to answer perfectly.

The process is not confined to covering the surface all over, as, by cutting
the underneath copper into various shapes, devices of any kind may be struck
into the cloth, which, being afterwards silvered or gilt, produces a ^ery beau-
tiful effect.

The numerous applications of this useful material will suggest themselves
to the reader, not only for out-door works, such as for covering roofs, veran-
dahs. &C., on account of its lightness and water-tightness, but also for or-
ii.iTiit.it.il purposes within doors; and we feel sure that it has but to he well-
known to be very generally adopted.

NEW LIGHT.

It is now four years since the first experiment on the subject of rendering
continuous, and fixing at a given point, the electric fluid, and making it ap-
plicable to the general purposes of lighting was made in Paris, but the dis-
coverer was not able to induce any person to advance even l,000f. for an
apparatus on a sufficiently large scale (or a public experiment. A public ex-
periment was made at tbe Place de la Concorde, in the presence of the au-
thorities, and from four to five thousand of the inhabitants of Paris, on the
20th inst. On one of the bases of the statues at the Pavilion ue Lille, a
glass globe of apparently twelve or thirteen inches diameter, with a moveable
reflector, was fixed in connexion with a voltaic battery, and at a little before
nine o'clock the electric fluid was thrown into it by a conductor. At this
time all the gas lights in the place, about 100 in number, were I ■ ning. As
soon as the electric light appeared, the nearest gas light bad the same dull,
thick, and heavy appearance as oil lamps have by the side of gas. Soon af-
terwards the gas lights were extinguished, and the electric light -hone forth
in all its brilliancy. Within 100 yards of the light, it was easy to read the
smallest print ; it was, in fact, as light as day. The astonishment of the as-
sembled multitude was very great, and their delight as strong as their aston-
ishment. The estimate made by scientific persons who were present, was
that the electric light was equal to twenty of the gas lamps, and, conse-
quently, that live of these lights would suffice to light the whole place most
brilliantly. As regards the expense of production, nothing positive has tran-
pired, but it would be considerably less than that of the generation of gas,
whilst the first outlay for machinery and conductors would not amount to a
twentieth part of that required for gas-works. There would also lie another
great advantage in the electric light. It gives out no bad smell : it emits
none of those elements which, iu the burning of gas, are si injurious to
health, and explosion would he impossible. The only danger would be at
the battery itself, but that would be under the control of compete:;' persons ;
and, even in this respect, there would he no danger, even to unskilful persons,
with an apparatus of moderate size. Internal lighting would be as practi-
cable as external lighting, for by conductors the fluid would he conveyed to
even part of the house. This experiment was with a voltaic battery of two
hundred pairs, composed as follows: — 1st, an outer globe of glass; 2ndly, in
this globe a cylinder of charcoal, open at both ends, and plunged in the nitric
acid contained in the outer globe; 3rdly, in the charcoal a porous porcelain
vase, containing acidulated water (with sulphuric acid) — this replaces the
cloth in the common battery; 4thly,in the porcelain vase a cylinder of amal-
gam of zinc plunged in acidulated water. The pile was on the Pavilion de
Lille ; tbe two copper conductors from the two poles, and pointed with char-

1SJ3.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER aND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

437

coal, lead to an empty globe from wliicli the air has been exhausted. The
two fluids on meeting produce a soft but most intense light. The
experiment was considered highly successful by the authorities who were
present, and it is to be repeated on a larger scale. Should the thing work as
well as in a general way as it did last night, and the cost be less than that of
gas, which it must he, there will be a dreadful revolution in gas works. A
company for supplying the electric light would realize a handsome profit on
charging only a sixth of what is now paid for gas. The strength of the elec-
tric light did not appear to exceed that of the hydro-oxygen ; but tlren how
much more simple is the apparatus; how much less costly the expense
of production ! The hydro-oxygen light requires a double and most
expensive apparatus, and is only applicable to a few localities ; the electric
light may lie applied externally and internally in any place.

[The above description, copied from the French Journals, has been inserted
by many English papers, without comment, like several other paragraphs of
new and woiuierful inventions, which, if we are to believe them, are to su-
persede the present arrangements ; and yet, from that time forward, we
never hear anything more of them, they having been proved to be either per-
fectly impracticable, or. as is our opinion in the present instance, far more
expensive than that which is already in use ; conclusions to which every rea-
der could arrive at once, if the whole of the evidence were given instead of
ouly that portion which just suits the inventor or projector to give. Al-
though we consider that the consumption of nitric and sulphuric acids
and zinc, in 200 cells of a battery, would cost much more than the gas re-
quisite for the 20 lights which it is said to be equal to, we cannot state so for
certain without more data. But what we find most fault with is, the stating
that to he new, which has no novelty about it, and which every tyro in
galvanism has himself performed. The battery is an ordinary Grove's ar-
rangement, with charcoal substituted for the platinum, an improvement which
was made immediately after Grove's first announcement, and of which the
younger Silliuiau has long ago published a very simple arrangement. The
new light produced thereby between the charcoal poles, is almost as old as
the science itself, and is described in every treatise on the subject. Besides
which, in connexion with a cheaper battery, the whole process has been pa-
tented in this country with much better arrangements, and has not been
carried out, we suspect, on account, of the increased expense over gas.
As to the bad smell being given oft", there certainly is not at the light
itself, but at the proposed battery there are nitric acid fumes given oft", which
are not only offensive, but highly corrosive to anything it comes near, ani-
mal, vegetable, and mineral. It would he requisite to keep it in a place
by itself, if used in houses, as proposed, and then comes the increased
resistance to the cuirent produced by length of conducting wires. Al-
though well-disposed to encourage any plausible scheme for improving or
cheapening public lighting, we cannot, in the present instance, see much
to give us hopes of its success. At all events, we wish it to be stripped of a
claim which it does not possess, viz., untried novelty — and to place it in
the light of an experiment for public adoption, that which has been long
known and conducted both in the laboratory and at the lecture table. —
Editor C. E. & A. Journal."!

NEW MANUFACTURE OK LIME.

I'ateutcd by Messrs. Daniell and Hutchinson, May i, 1843; Specification
enrolled, November 4, 1843.

Lime is at present usually manufactured from limestone, or chalk, or other
substances in which it exists in an indurated state, or state of solid combi-
nation with other bodies. The nature of Messrs. Daniell and Hutchinson's
invention consists in their having discovered that there are large tracts of
sand on the coasts of this kingdom, and particularly on the coasts of the
county of Cornwall, which are at present either treated as valueless or made
use of, like other sand, for purposes of mechanical intermixture merely, as in
the making of mortar, breaking up of tenacious soils, &c. ; but from which,
nevertheless, lime of an excellent quality, applicable to building, agricultural,
manufacturing, and other purposes, can be manufactured in large quantities.
The patentees state that they have ascertained, " by numerous and careful
analyses of the sand referred to, that it usually contains more than 70 per
cent, of carbonate of lime." The mode of reduction which they adopt is thus
described : — " In the first place, in order to test whether the sand on which
we propose to operate is of the proper quality, we put an ascertained quan-
tity into a retort, and pour dilute muriatic acid upon it ; if it contain car-
bonate of lime, a violent effervescence ensues, and carbonic acid is rapidly
evolved (the presence of which may be readily detected by its reddening
litmus paper.) "We then neutralize the muriatic acid by the addition of
liquid ammonia, and precipitate the lime by addiug the carbonate of ammonia
in excess. We next weigh this precipitate, which gives us a measure of the
average quantity of lime which may be extracted from larger quantities of the
sand of which that experimented upon was a sample. If the weight of the
precipitate is from six to eight tenth parts of the original weight of sand
tested, then the sand is of a proper quality for the purpose of our manufac-
ture ; but if much under that, the product will in some places not be sufficient
to defray the expenses of reduction. In manufacturing the lime on a large
scale, we proceed as follows: — we make use of reverberator? furnaces, vary-
ing in size according to the quantities operated upon, but the bodies of which
are generally from 20 to 30 feet in length, from 0 to 10 feet in their greatest

width, but gradually contracted towards the end, where they open into the
chimney, and from 13 inches to 2 feet in height. The sand is laid upon the
bed of the furnaces to the height of the bridges, which are made a little
higher than usual, in order that they may protect the sand from being blown
forward by the direct action of the current of flame upon them. The high
degree of heat to which the sand is here exposed expels the carbonic acid so
quickly, that in about two hours the process of conversion is generally per-
fected The lime is then withdrawn from the furnace through doorways
made at intervals, either in the sides, end, or bottom, for that purpose. It
is now in a proper state to be employed as a manure; but to fit it for the
various other purposes to which it may be applied, we first pass it through
tine sieves to separate any extraneous substances which it may contain."

When it is desired to convert the lime so obtained into hydrate of lime,
the patentees add the necessary equivalent of water; if into sulphate of
lime, or gypsum, they add the necessary equivalent of sulphuric acid ; and so
on through all the various combinations of which lime is susceptible —
Mech. Mai/.

MISCELLANEA

North Shields. — The Old Gas Company. The North Shields Gat, works
have resolved to divide their capital stock into 1300 shares of 5/. each, and
to allot them in lots of not more than 10 shares each to gas consumers and
reduce the rates of burners and of gas to Is. per 1000 ft. from January 1st.
1844. The New Company " Borough of Tynemouth Gas Co." in which 1395
shares are taken by consumers, and 433 by non-consumers, offer to take the
prices the old company have reduced them to in Oct. 1844. The old com-
pany was established in 1821, and the new company assert that up to 1831
they were receiving 12| per cent, more than companies generally. Feeling
runs very high, and whether the truth of the adage of " two of a trade"
will be verified, time will show.

Case of Lawastoopening out New Window Lights. — Atan adjourned
quarter sessions held at Guildhall, Newcastle-on-Tyne, October 30th, to de-
cide a dispute as to compensation to be paid to an individual by the corpora-
tion for setting his house back on a line with the other buildings. His house
projected before the adjoining house to the extent of 5^ feet. The adjoining
house was set back by the corporation thirty years ago. The counsel for

the defence said : — " If Mr. had a right to windows in the side wall,

why had he never had them there before. The fact was, that he could not
put out windows overlooking another person's property, and if he had made
windows in the side wall, the corporation, or the person whose property was
overlooked, could screen them up and obstruct the light. The plaintiff had
no right to ask compensation for a side frontage that did not belong to him,
and that he would not be permitted to have." The Recorder in summing
up said, " that there was only one point of law to which he would direct
the attention of the jury, which was, the right to put out windows on the
flank wall. He was of opinion the proprietor had not the right to do so
and, therefore, whatever benefit they might think would arise to the property
from having this additional light must be left out of the account in awarding
damages." It was a special jury case, and the offer of the corporation was
130/. the sum claimed was 900/. and the verdict 22.")/. The setting back of
the property was compulsory under the powers of a town improvement act.

Newcastle-on-Tyne.- — There are now three projects for a high Level
Bridge at Newcastle, at least notices of intended application to Parliament
have been given, but the site as proposed by Mr. Green is that sanctioned by
Mr. Hudson, and Mr. Geo. Stephenson, the other two are by Mr. Grainger
and the Carlisle and Brandling Junction Railway.

Chatham, Nov. 10. — The Admiralty have given directions for metal
mills to he erected in this dock-yard, similar to those at Portsmouth, for the
purpose of supplying the eastern yards with copper holts and sheets of copper.
It is also rumoured that the Admiralty have it in contemplation to enlarge
the yard, and also to make a large wet-dock for the reception of first-class
ships. The Watt steam-frigate is fast progressing, owing to the number of
hands on her.

Flat Roofs. — Mr. I.oat of Clapham, builder, has lately obtained a patent
for what he calls an improved mode of constructing floors and roofs, which
are formed by a seties of hollow vessels of earthenware, that have been in
use for many years in forming arches ; hut instead of laying them with a
curve, Mr. Loat lays them flat on boards and combines them together with
cement, and when the roof or floor is completed and the cement set, the
boards are removed ; the upper suiface is covered with flat tiles or s'aK-s
bedded in cement. The under surface, be states, can he lathed with iron
laths or hoops, and plastered over with lime and hair; why not dispi
with the laths, would there not be sufficient key for the plastering with

Paper Cloth. — Mr. Chapman of Arundel-street, Strand, lately obtained j.
patent for covering one or both sides of any fabric, such as canvas, muslin,
calico, or linen, with paper suitable for writing, printing, or drawing; it is
made by pressing the pulp on the fabric with a solution of gum. glue, or
other adhesive material, and passing it between rollers, by which mean
cloth and paper are firmly united.

438

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[December,

Tut. Iron Steamer Nimrod. — This iron steamer, built by Messrs.
Thomas Vernon and Co., for the Liverpool and Cork station, took her trial
trip on Thursday the 23d nit., proceeding several miles out to sea, and per-
forming in the most admirable manner. There was none of the usual vi-
bration perceptible from her engines, which were manufactured by Messrs.
Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, and it is remarkable that although they occupy
so much less space than the ordinary side lever engines, as to leave 10. WU)
feet more capacity in the holds, they worked to a speed which has already
stamped her as a fast-sailing vessel. It is a fact worthy of being recorded,
that her keel was only laid on the 6th of May, and she is now ready for her
destined vovages — a vessel of 600 tons burthen, and 300-horse power. —
Liverpool Mercury.

Neapolitan Steamer.— On Saturday the ISth ult., the war-steamer
Roberto, built in this country for the Neapolitan Government, made her trial
trip from Blackwall to Gravesend, which she performed admirably. The
revolutions were 21| per minute, and her speed rather more than 12 miles
an hour. Her tonnage is 1,056, horse power 300, length 190 feet, breadth
34, depth of hold 10. Her reported armament is two large swivel guns, to
carry hollow shot, and four 32-pounders. She is the last of the four ordered,
and will leave shortly for Naples. She was built by Mr. Pritchard, of North-
fleet, and her engines were made by the patentees. Messrs. Maudslays and
Field. They are the double cylinder engines. The Roberto hears a close
resemblance to the live war-steamers built and litted with engines (by the
same parties) for the Russian Government some time since.

Iron Keei. Plates.— Mr. Boydell, of the Oak Farm Works. Stafford-
shire, has obtained a patent for forming keel plates, by rolling instead of
hammering, bv taking two pieces of angle iron for the sides, and a flat plate
for the bottom from 7 to 9 feet long, which are held together by wooden
cramps, and then placed in a furnace and heated to a welding heat ; by this
means the cramps are consumed, and the edges of the metal are melted just
sufficiently to unite the three pieces; they are then taken from the furnace
and passed between rollers, of the requisite form of the keel for securely
■welding them together.

LIST OP NEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List, i

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM OCTOBER 27 TO NOVEMBER 21, 1843.

Sir Months allowed for Enrolment, unless otherwise expressed.

Jonathan Bell, Jan., of Abbey-street, Bethual-green-road, trimming manu-
facturer, for " improvements in machinery for manufacturing elastic braid."
— Sealed October 27.

Alonzo Grandieon Hull, of Clifford-street, Bond-street, doctor of medicine,
for " irnprovemtuts m mnnufrir'nring Or improving fermented and distilled
Honors." — October 27.

John Kibble, of Glasgow, gem., for " uuprovtmenU in apparatus for pro-
pelling vessels." — Nov. 2,

Matthew Leach, of Manchester, mechanic, for " improvement* in rotary
steam engines, which improvements ore applicable to pumps for lifting and
forcing mater." — Nov. 2.

Joseph Dickinson Stagg, of Middlcton. in Teesdale, Durham, manager of
smelting works, for " n new and improved plan for collecting, condensing and
purifying the fumes of lead, copper, and other ores and metals, also the par-
ticles of such ores and mplals arising, or produced from the roasting, smelting,
or manufacturing thereof, and also the noxious smoke, gases, salt and
soluble and absorbable 'ted in treating and working such ores

and metals." — Nov. 2.

David Evans, of Colesbill-street, Eaton-square, engineer, for "improve-
ments in sweeping and cleansing chimneys ami flue*, and in increasing the
draft therein, and in preventing the same from smoking." — Nov. 2.

Joshua Proctor Vcsthead, of Manchester, manufacturer, for " a new or
improved fabrics, or new and improved fabrics, and also certain modifications
of machinery for making the same, which modifications of machinery are ap-
plicable to the manufi ■■ a of woven fab. Ie lost. 2.

Frederic Isaac Welch, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for "on improvement
or improvements in I he manufacture of leather." — Nov. 2.

Robert Davison, of Brick-lane, Spitalfields, civil engineer, and William
Symington, of Easl Smitbfield, civil engineer, for " a method of cleansing,
purifying, and sweetening cash ■•" — Nov. 2.

William Edward Newton, Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for "improvements
m furnaces or fire-places." (A communication.) — Nov. I.

Robert Raynsford Jackson, of Blackburn, cotton spinner, for "improve-
ments in the machinery or appal atus Iv he used in the preparation of cotton
andolh >"/'' — Nov. 4.

Pierre Armand Lccomte de Fontainemoreau, of Skinners'-place, Size-lane,
London, for ' crone called " Dynamomctric.' (A communi-

cation.)— Nov. 4.

\\ illiam Rowan, of the firm of John Rowan and Sons, of Doagh Foundry,
Antrim, engineer, for " improvements in axles." — Nov. 7.

Benjamin Parsons, of York-road, Lambeth, engineer, and Edward Esdaile,
of the City San Mills, City-road, machine sawyer, for " an improved machine
for cutting leaves of wood, such as those commonly called "scale board." —
Nov. 9.

Charles Drury llazen, of Nottingham, merchant, for "improvements in
machinery for knitting stockings and other articles." (A communication/' — ■
Nov. 9.

Arthur Dunn, of Rotherhithe, soap-boiler, for "improvements in the ma-
nufacture of soap." — Nov. 9.

William Bush, of Union-street, Deptford, engineer, for " improvements m
. magnetic needles less prejudicially influenced bg local attractions."
Nov. 9.

Thomas Clarendon, of Great Brunswick-street, Dublin, sent., for an " rra-
proved method of shoeing horses." (A communication.) — Nov. ;>; two
months.

Samuel Archer, of Rochdale, flannel manufacturer, for "improvements in
the mam; 'I."— Nov. 9.

Walter Hancock, of Stratford, Essex, engineer, for " improvements in the
manufacture of caoutchouc and caoutchouc in combination with other sub-
stances, and in machinery or apparatus for preparing caoutchouc and other
materials." — Nov. 9.

George Holmes, of Stroudwater, engineer, for " improvements in furnaces
or fire-places." — Nov. 9.

Samuel lleseltine, jun., of Bromley, Middlesex, engineer, for ''improve-
to be worked by air or other gases." — Nov. '.'.
William Edward Newton, of Chancery-lane, civil engiueer, for " improve-
ments in machinery for preparer) ■ other fibrous
substances." (A communication.) — Nov. 16.

John Withers, of Smethwich, Stafford, manufacturing manager, for " an

vent or improvements in the manufacture of glass." — Nov. 16.
Luke Smith, of Manchester, mechanic, for " improvements in, or applicable
to. looms for weaving various kinds of fabrics,"— -Nov. 16.

Edward Buxton, of Bnsinghall-street, merchant, for " improvements in
spinning wool, cotton, and other fibrous materials." i A communication.] —
Nov. 16.

George Scott, of New Citj Chambers, Bishopsgate-street, London, gentle-
man, for " improvements in the manufacture, purification, and combustion of
gas or gases." — Nov. 16.

James Smyth, of Peasetihall. Suffolk, machine maker, for " improrements
in the CO grain, seeds, and manure." — Nov. 16.

George Gwymie, of Putney, gentleman, and George Fergusson Wilson, of
Belmont, Vauxhall, gentleman, for "improvements in the manufacture of
candles, and in apparatus for, and processes of treating fatty J ■ wb-
stancesfor the making of candles, and other uses." — Nov. lti.

Ramsay Richard lieinagle, of llowland-street, civil engineer, for "improve-
ments in applying atmospheric air as a motive power '." — Nov. 16.

Arthur Wall, of Bisterne-place, Poplar, surgeon, for •• improvements m the
manufacture oj iron." — Nov. IS.

James Roose, of Birmingham, gentleman, for "ok improvement or im-
provements in the mode or method of manufacturing gun barrets and ord-
nance."— Nov. Is.

William Shepherd, of Kingston-upnn-Hull, joiner and builder, for " an
improved four port slide-valve, and an improved controller for
steam-engines, and for working the sleam expansively in the cylinder" —
Nov. IS.

Edward Elliott, of the Tower Royal, engineer, for "a means of adding
power to the steam engine, and other machinery." — Nov. Is.

Moses Poole, of Serle-street, gentleman, for "improvements in the manu-
facture of parts of knives oud other culling instruments." (A communi-
cation.)— Nov. 1

Edmund Snell, of liridge.road, Lambeth, Surrey, medical student, for
'• improvements in the manufacture of soap." — Nov. 21.

Thomas Hancock, of Goswell-mcws, Goswell-road. waterproof cloth manu-
facturer, for " an improvement or improvements in the preparation or manu-
facture of caoutchouc, in combination with other substances, which prepara-
tion or manufacture is suitable for rendi ring I other, doth, and other fabrics
waterproof, and to various Other purposes for which caoutchouc is emplaned."
Nov. 21.

John Coope Haddan, of Liverpool-street, King's-cross, engineer, for " im-
provements in the mode of manufacturing papier mache, and other articles
made of vegetable pulp" — Nov. 21.

William Palmer, of Sutton-street, Clerkenwell, manufacturer, foi
provements in the manufacture of pills." — Nov. 21.

Octavius Dillingham Mordaunt, of Clifford-street, Bond-street, gentleman,
for " improvements i:i apparatus for obtaining the profile of various forms or
V communication.) — Nov. 21.
Moses Poole, of Lincoln's-inn, gentleman, for "an improved machine for
towing or propelling vessels, which can also be used as a boat." (A ci
nication.) — Nov. 21.

Antonio Francis Jean Claudct, of High Holborn, glass merchant, for " im-
provements in the process and means of obtaining the representation of oljecls
of nature and art." (A communication.) — Nov. 21.

Francis Higginson, of the town of Rochester, Lieutenant in the Roya
Navy, for " improvement* in fastenings for part of ships and other vessels]
which improvements are also applicable to other building purposes." — Nov. 21,

r'<~ -.-

JtH

— * — +-

Fi g. 8.

A

J R.Jebbuis, ^.Warnick

ISM.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

43!)

A PILE-CUTTING MACHINE USED IN BELGIUM.

(With an Engraving, Plate XVII.)

The method of laying foundations of piers by caissons lias been so
well and minutely described by Labelye and Milne, in their account
of the building of Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges, and by other
writers on the subject, that it would be useless further to advert to the
peculiarities, advantages or disadvantages of that system, than is es-
sentially necessary to show the utility of the pile-cutting machine,
represented in the accompanying engraving, which is copied from
the working drawings, through the kindness of our correspondent
Mr. Flanagan.

The failure of some of the piers of Westminster and other bridges
built on the caisson principle, has brought it into disrepute with many
English engineers, whilst in France and on the continent in general,
the cause of these accidents having been ascertained and a remedy
applied, caisson foundations are considered as secure and solid as the
more expensive and troublesome syslem of founding by coffer-dams;
indeed, a French engineer would consider it more difficult to construct
such a coffer-dam as that at present round a pier of Westminster
bridge, than to make the bridge itself on the caisson principle. The
great desideratum in all hydraulic structures especially, is to have a
solid and sound foundation; in England this is generally obtained in
such rivers as the Thames, by piling the site of the piers, having
previously surrounded it by a coffer dam, and cutting off the piles
quite level close to the bed of the river, laying on them a platform of
timber, and the interstices filled in with rubble stone, upon which the
pier is raised. Now this can be effected by using the machine exhibited
in the plate, without incurring the great expense of constructing a cof-
fer-dam. The piles are driven au refus, or as far as possible, without
injury to them, at a distance of about three feet apart; they are then
cut off quite level by the pile-cutting machine, and on them the
caisson is laid with the greatest facility.

Every one who has seen the bridges over the Meuse, the Ourthe,
the Vesdre, on the railway between Liege and the Prussian frontier,
and who is acquainted with the nature of these rivers, will acknow-
ledge that if such structures could be raised on this principle at a very
slight expense, when compared with those erected by coffer-dams, it
may also with advantage be adopted in this country ; and it must be
recollected that the failures of works constructed on the caisson prin-
ciple, have been caused either by not piling the site of the piers, as
at Westminster Bridge, where the action of the stream washed the
gravel from under the caisson, or by leaving the piles too long above
the bed of the river and placing them too far apart, as at the. bridge
of Tours. It is curious that Labelye, in his description of Westmin-
ster Bridge, recommends piling under the caissons where the founda-
tions are bad, and yet never adopted it, although he even designed a
machine for cutting oft" the piles underwater; it is probable that,
had he acted according to his recommendation, the settlements which
have taken place in the piers would never have occurred.

It is evident that in the system here recommended of foundations
by caissons, it is necessary to have a very perfect pile-cutting ma-
chine, particularly in deep rivers. The accompanying drawing re-
presents that which has been used in the erecting of Val Beuvit
Bridge, and has been used at the Boveni Bridge, now built across
the Meuse at Liege ; it has been found to answer its purpose verv
well, and may safely be recommended.

Fig. 1, a transverse section; Fig. 2, the plan; and Fig. 3, a longi-
tudinal section; the same letters refer to the same parts in each
figure. This machine consists of a horizontal moveable framing of
timber A, supported on four wheels C, which move on two longi-
tudinal beams D D, parallel to each other; one of these beams is
moved as each row of piles is cut off, and is fixed by iron straps to
moveable transverse beams E, Fig. 7 ; from this horizontal platform

No. 76.— Vol. VI.— January, 1841.

is suspended, by four screws F, passing through " cogged nuts " a,
a vertical framing of iron, C ; about half way down this framing at r,
is the pivot on which the arm H, of the saw s, moves; g, are guide
bars to change the circular motion of the arm H, of the saw s, into a
rectilinear motion: g', an iron stay bolt. Round the four "cogged
nuts" a, and a cog wheel placed in the centre at C, passes an endless
chain e; on motion being given by the winch handled, to the cog-
wheel in the centre, by means of the endless chain passing round the
" cogged nuts" a, the vertical framing is raised or lowered as it may
be required. The small mill-headed screw n, Fig. 2, adjusts the
tightness of the endless chain. By this ingenious method the saw is
lowered equally to the necessary depth. As the platform is shifted,
the bar m, is spiked to the longitudinal beams D; the screw K, turned
by a winch handle, and passing through this bar, gives the forward
motion to the whole machine. Fig. 4 is an enlarged view of the ho-
rizontal iron stay of the framing G, to which is attached a guide fot
the handle. Figs. 5 and 6 are a horizontal view and section ot her
centre cog-wheel a, with the adjusting screw n, for tightening the
chain. Fig. 7 is a plan of the site, showing the piles and stage upon
which the machine travels. Fig. 8 is a side view, and Fig. 9 a trans-
verse view. The other details may be better seen on the drawings than
explained. It may, however, be necessary to describe how the ma-
chine is worked. Having erected a framing, such as is shown in
Fig. 7, round the site of the pier, and placed the transverse balks L,
the longitudinal beams D, are suspended from them by iron straps,
and adjusted by screws, and the whole made perfectly level, then the
machine is placed close to the first pile of the row to be cut; the bar
m, is then spiked to the beams D, and the saw is lowered to the pro-
per depth, as previously described, and is worked by two men, one at
each side of the handle H; the whole machine is kept constantly ad-
vancing, by means of the propelling screw K. It is thus seen that
three men are required to work the machine, two at the saw and one
at the propelling screw.

The machine was designed by the celebrated Belgian engineer, M.
Simons. Perhaps it may be well to state that M. De Ridder intends
to use the caisson syslem of foundations for a bridge projected to
cross the Meuse at Antwerp, where it is fully as deep and wide as the
Thames at London Bridge.

ON STOVES.

Sir — I have been pleased to observe, in your late numbers, two or
three letters on the above subject, since I consider it to be one of
great importance and interest buth to the profession and the public,
and one hitherto but little understood by either. It appears to me,
however, that there is yet scope for an unprejudiced writer to render
asting service to the cause of practical science, by an accurate and
lucid comparison of all the stoves which are daily competing for our
preference in such endless and perplexing variety. For I imagine
there are few of us who will join your three correspondents in their
very summary condemnation of all the new stoves of the last 10 years.
It would be strange, indeed, if so much talent and ingenuity as has
been directed to the subject during that period had been wholly fruit-
less and abortive, and if we really were now in a worse condition than
before. But we cannot fall into such an error. We have too lively
a recollection of our old " hot air stoves," with their enormous and
expensive Ifires, overheating the chimney and scarcely thawing the
air at a yard's resistance, choking us with volumes of burnt air, and
requiring almost incessant attention, not to be abundantly thankful
for our present efficient, economical, and controulable stoves with thei.i
steady heat and automaton regularity. We can all of us now afford
to warm our staircases, our halls, our offices, our places of worship ;
we can be supplied with stoves for rooms of all sizes, from a vestibule
to a Chinese museum, and, in fact, nobody now need be cold in doors.

But still, Sir, we want more information, we require to know the
merits and demerits of each individual stove. It will uot do to consult

CO

440

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

the inventors themselves, sanguine men — we have tried that already
to onr cost. Dr. Arnott, though not as he would have us believe, the
first in the field, was the first to get the public ear— taking his advice
too readily, we had several explosions, many accidents, and much
vexation. Next came Mr. Joyce, and set us all a-gape, but in very
little time his stove, too, had to be set aside— Chunk, Vesta, Olm-
steed, Solar, and a score more, have been successively tried, and in
many instances have caused bitter disappointment. And in connexion
with all these, have undoubtedly been many accidental fires, some of
a very serious character. In all these cases, possibly, a little more
perseverance or a little more information, would have taught us that
the fault was not in the stove but in its unsuitable application.

Will you then, Sir, endeavour to induce some clear-sighted prac-
tical man to give us such a handbook as shall prevent the repetition
of such mistakes, and at the same time bring into notice such stoves
as are best suited for each situation. Not only shall we, the public,
be benefited thereby, it would prove, I doubt not, a valuable boon to
architects, and to the stovemakers themselves.
I am, Sir,

London, Dec. 1843. Your obedient servant,

J. B.

ON THE EFFLUX OF GASEOUS FLUIDS UNDER
PRESSURE.

By Charles Hood, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., &c.

Read be/ore the Institution of Civil Engineers.

The theoretical determination of the velocity with which gaseous
fluids are discharged through tubes and apertures under pressure, has
often been submitted to mathematical investigation; and the subject
being of importance in various branches of practical science, it is to
be regretted that considerable differences exist in the results of the
several formula; which have been propounded for its elucidation. Dr.
Papin,1 in 1G8G, first showed that the efflux of all fluids follows a
general law ; and that the velocities are inversely as the square roots
of the specific gravities. Dr. Gregory2 has likewise given various
formulae for calculating the velocities of air in motion, under different
circumstances ; and Mr. Davies Gilbert,3 Mr. Sylvester," Mr. Tred-
gold,5 and many other writers of equal authority, have also investi-
gated the subject.

The hydrodynamic law of spouting fluids has, by all writers, been
applied in the calculations for the determination of this question.
This law, it is well known, is the same as that of the accelerating
velocity of falling bodies; and is proportional to the square root of
the height of the superincumbent column of homogeneous fluid. But
although the various writers all agree in this fundamental principle,
they differ materially in the mode of applying it, and in the several
corrections introduced in their theorems ; and the results they have
arrived at are of a very contradictory character.

Dr. Gregory's formula for calculating the velocity with which air
of the natural density will rush into a place containing rarer air, is
based upon the velocity with which air flows into a vacuum. This is
equal to the velocity a heavy body would acquire by falling freely
from a height equal to that which a homogeneous atmosphere would
have, whose weight is equal to 30 inches of mercury. The height of
this homogeneous atmosphere is 27.S1S feet; and the velocity which
a body would acquire by falling from this height (and consequently
the velocity with which air will flow into a vacuum) is i/(2?818x
64-36} = 1339 feet per second. The density of the rarefied air,
divided by the density of the natural atmosphere, and this number
subtracted from unity, represents the force which produces motion;
and the square root of tins number multiplied by 1339 feet (the ve-
locity with which air rushes into a vacuum) is the velocity with which
the atmosphere will rush into any place containing rarer air."

The method employed by Mr. Davies Gilbert is also based upon the
velocity with which air rushes into a vacuum, when pressed by a
homogeneous atmosphere, equal to the weight of the natural atmo-

1 Phil. Transactions, 1686. - Gregory's Mechanics, Vol. II, p. 513.

* Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. XIII, p. 113.
•* Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XIX, p. 408.

* Tredgold on Warming Buildings, p. 76.
" Gregory's Mechanics, Vol. I, p. 515.

sphere at the earth's surface. This supposed homogeneous atmo-
sphere is, according to Mr. Davies Gilbert's calculation, 26058 feet;
and the velocity with which air would rush into a vacuum, when
pressed by this weight, will be V(2o058)X8= 1295 feet per second.
When this calculation is applied to two columns of air of unequal
density — as, for instance, the discharge of air through a chimney
shaft— the height of the heated column of air divided by the height
of this homogeneous atmosphere, and the square root of this number,
multiplied by the velocity with which air flows into a vacuum, and
this product again multiplied by the square root of the number repre-
senting the expansion of the heated air, will give the velocity in feet
per second. The expansion of air when heated is found, (by Mr.
Gilbert's method) by raising the decimal 1-0020S3 (which represents
a volume of air expanded by 1° of Fahrenheit) to the power whose
index is the number of degrees which the temperature of the air is

4s7)"
raised ; or it is equal to the fraction - | n being the number of

degrees of Fahrenheit, which the temperature of the ascending
column exceeds that of the external atmosphere.7

Mr. Sylvester's method of calculation proceeds upon the suppo-
sition that the respective columns of light and heavy air represent
two unequal weights suspended by a cord hanging over a pulley ; and
this mode of calculation gives a result very much less than by any
other method.

The unequal weight of two columns of air is found by Mr. Sylvester
nearly in the same manner as by Mr. Gilbert. The volume of air
expanded by 1° of heat, is equal to 1-00208: and this number, when
raised to the power whose index is the excess of temperature of the
heated column, gives the expanded volume of the air ; and assuming

the atmospheric density to be unity, we have 1 — i,,,oncig = ^'

(1*001.08) '

e being the excess of temperature of the heated column, and d the
difference of density between the two columns. This difference of
density, multiplied by 8 times the square root of the height of the
tube or shaft containing the heated air, gives the velocity in feet per
second.6

In Mr. TredgoM's theorem for calculating the efflux of air, the force
which produces motion is assumed to be the difference in weight of a
column of extern. d and one of internal ;\ir, when the bases and heights
are the same. The difference of temperature of the two columns by
Fahrenheit's scale, divided by the constant number 150 plus the tem-
perature of the heated column, and this quotient, multiplied by the
height of the tube or shaft, gives the difference in weight. Then by
the common theorem for falling bodies, 8 times the square root of this
number will give the velocity in feet per second ; or accurately,

V= A /■ A. (l~z\ h being the height of the tube, t the tem-
perature of the internal, and x the temperature of the external air."

The method of calculation proposed by Moutgollier, appears, how-
ever, by recent experiments, to be the most accurate, as it is also the
most simple, of all the modes of determining this question. The diffe-
rence in height must be ascertained which two columns of air would
assume when the one is heated to the given temperature, the other
being the temperature of the external air; and the rate of efflux is
equal to the velocity that a heavy body would acquire by falling freely
through this difference of height.

The space which a gravitating body will pass through in one second
we know to be 16-09 feet; but by the principle of accelerating forces,
the velocity of a falling body at the end of any given time, is equal to
twice the space through which it has passed in that time; or, the
velocity is equal to the square root of the height of the fall, multiplied
by the square root of 64-36 feet ; or, again, to the square root of the
number obtained by multiplying 6 i-3t> feet by the height of the fall
in feet.

When the via rira is the difference in weight between two columns
of air caused by the expansion of one of these columns by heat, the
decimal -00208 which represents the expansion of air by T of Fah-
renheit must be multiplied by the number of degrees the temperature
is raised, and this product again by the height of the heated column.
Thus, if the height of the column is 50 leet, and the increase of
temperature 20°, we shall have 20 x -00208 X 50 = 2-08 ft., or
52-OS ft. of hot air will balance 50 ft. of the cold air ; and the velocity
of efflux of the heated column when pressed by the greater weight

7 Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. XIII, p. 113.

8 Annals of Philosophy, Vol. XIX, p. 408.
8 Tredgold on Warming Buildings, p. 76.

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

441

of the colder column will be equal to V (2-08 X 64) = 11-55 ft. per
second.

The efflux of air under any given pressure can also be calculated
by the same means. For the pressure being known, it is only neces-
sary to calculate the height of a column of air which would be equal
in weight to this pressure. Thus if the pressure be equal to 1 in. of
mereurv, water is 827 times the weight of air, and mercury 13-5 times
the weight of water; therefore, 827 X 13-5 == 11 164 in. or 930-3 ft. ;
and according to the preceding formula V (930-3 X 64) = 244 ft. per
second for the velocity of efflux under this pressure of lin. of mer-
cury.

In all these cases the velocity thus ascertained is independent of
any loss by friction. A certain deduction must be made for this loss,
wliic!) will vary greatly according to the nature and size of the tube
or shaft through which the air passes as well as with the velocity of
the air. Like all other fluids the retardation of the air by friction in
passing through straight tubes of any kind, will be directly as the
length of the tube and the square of the velocity; and inveriely as
the diameter. This question, however, becomes very complicated
under these circumstances, and particularly so when there are angular
turns in the tubes through which the air passes. The present state
of our knowledge on this subject does not allow of any very accurate
determination of the amount which ought to be deducted for friction
from the initial velocity obtained by calculation; and it is only by
empirical means we can arrive at an estimate of its amount.

We shall proceed now to ascertain how far these theoretical calcu-
lations agree with the results obtained by experiments.

In some new furnaces which Sir John Guest has lately added to his
extensive iron works at Dowlais, some experiments have been made
on the quantity of blast injected into the furnaces. In these experi-
ments, the machinery employed being new and of the best construc-
tion, the loss occasioned by the escape of air through imperfections
of the apparatus, was perhaps as small as possible. The engine for
blowing the furnaces made, at the time of the experiments, 18 double
strokes per minute. The diameter of the blowing cylinder was 100
inches, and the effective length of the stroke 7 ft. 6 in. From these
dimensions, therefore, it appears that 14726 cubic feet of air were
taken into the blowing cylinder per minute ; and the tubes through
which it was discharged from the receiver were six of 4 in. diameter,
and six of li in. diameter: the area of all these tubes was therefore
•5747 of a square font ; and the pressure of the blast measured by a
mercurial gauge was equal to 44 inches of mercury. Calculating by
the formula already given, we shall have V (827 X 13-58 X 4-5 -J-
12 X 64) = 519-2 ft., which is the velocity per second; and this
number multiplied by 60, and then by the area of the tubes, will give
519-2 X 60 X -5747 = 17903 cubic feet of air discharged per minute.
From this amount some deduction must be made for friction. The
velocity of the discharged air is 354 miles per hour; and with this
immense velocity, and through such small pipes the friction is no
doubt considerable. By deducting 18 per cent from the calculated
amount of 17903 cubic feet, we shall have 14G81 cubic feet, which
agrees within a fraction (namely 45 ft.) with the quantity obtainad by
measurement.

In other experiments made at the same place, the followi*g were
the results. The quantity of air which entered the blowing cylinder
was the same as before, namely, 14726 cubic feet : the total area of
the tubes which discharged the blast was -5502 of a square foot, and
the pressure of the blast was equal to 4 in. of mercury. The calcu-
lation therefore, will be a/ (827 X 13-58 X 4 -f- 12 X 64) = 489-5 ft.
per second: and therefore 489-5 X 60 X -5502 = 16159 cubic feet
discharged per minute. The velocity of the blast in this case was
333 miles per hour; and if we deduct for friction 9 per cent from the
calculated amount, the remainder is exactly the quantity of air which
is ascertained by experiment to be discharged through the tubes.

In a work published in 1634 by M. Dufrenoy, being a report to the
Director-General of Mines in France, on the* use of the hot blast in
the manufacture of iron in England, the results are given of many similar
experiments to the above; but with two exceptions the details are
not sufficiently ample to found any calculations upon. The two ex-
ceptions named are the furnaces at the Clyde and the Butterley iron
works, when they were blown with cold air. Both these blowing ma-
chines are described as having been in use for several years; and it is
therefore natural to suppose the various parts were more worn, and
fitted less accurately, than in those experiments already described.
The experiments were also made with less care. They show a dif-
ferent result to those already detailed ; as in these the calculated
quantity of air appears to be less than the quantity which entered
the blowing cylinders, in about the same proportion as it exceeded it
in the former cases. This difference no doubt arises from the imper-
fect fitting of the piston of the blowing cylinder, which by allowing

a portion of air to escape, would diminish the apparent pressure on
the mercurial gauge, placed at the further extremity of the appar-
atus, and thence the calculated rate of efflux would of course be di-
minished.

In the experiments at the Clyde works, the quantity of air which
was discharged into the furnace when estimated by the quantity that
entered the blowing cylinder, was 2827 cubic feet per minute. The
pressure of the blast was equal to 6 in. of mercury, and the area of the
tubes -0681 of a cubic foot. Calculating the discharge of air under
this pressure, it amounts to 2450 cubic feet, being 13 per cent less
than the measured amount, supposing no loss to occur by imperfect
fitting of the apparatus.

At the Butterley works the quantity of air discharged into the fur-
nace, estimated by the contents of the cylinder, was 2500 cubic feet
per minute. The pressure of the blast was equal to 5 in. of mercury,
and the area of the tubes -0681 of a cubic foot. The quantity by
calculation appears to be 2235 cubic feet, being less by 10i per cent
than that shown by experiment. In both these last cases, however,
there is but little doubt that the loss of air from the cylinder caused
the pressure on the mercurial gauge to be less than it would have been
had the apparatus been perfectly tight ; and a very small diminution
in the observed height of the mercury would account for a much
greater difference in the velocity of efflux than is here shown.

We are fully warranted in the conclusion, from these experiments,
that this method of calculation is as accurate as any theoretical de-
termination of such question can be; but from the results so obtained
an allowance must always be made for friction, which will necessarily
vary with the peculiar circumstances of each case.

The following table will exhibit the results of the preceding ex-
periments at one view : —

Pressure of blast in in-
ches of mercury . .

Area of tubes (square
feet)

Velocity of blast — miles
per hour . . . .

Quantity of air by expe-
riment (cubic feet) .

Quantity of air by calcu-
lation (cubic feet)

Difference in quantity
per cent . . . .

Place and No. of Experiment.

Dowlais,
No. 1.

Dowlais,
No. 2.

Clyde,
No. 3.

Butterley,
No. 4.

4-5

•5747

354

14726

17903

+ 18

4

•5502

333

14726

16159

+ 9

6

•0681

408

2827

2450

- 13

5

•0681

372

2500

2235

- 10-5

In order to show the results of the several modes of calculation
which different mathematicians have adopted, the following table has
been calculated from the data given in experiment Dowlais, No. 2, of
the preceding table, and it shows how far the several modes differ
from each other in their results: —

Place of experiment, Dowlais.

Pressure of blast in inches of mercury

Area of tubes in square feet

Quantity of air by experiment, in cubic feet
Quantity of air discharged (by calculation).

Montgolfier

Gregory

Gilbert

Sylvester

Tredgold

14726

16159
15152

14855
5017
15555

•5502

Considering the amount of friction which must result from the dis-
charge of air at the immense velocity which was obtained in this ex-
periment, namely, 333 miles per hour, and also that some of the tubes
were only li in. diameter, it will probably be considered that the
highest of these calculations is nearest the truth, as it only allows of
a deduction of 9 per cent being made for friction, to reduce the cal-
culated amount to the quantity obtained by experiment. It may
therefore be concluded that the method which gives this result, is the
most accurate as it is also the most simple for general use.

60*

442

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

THE PHILOSOPHY OF OCEANIC FOSSIL FORMATIONS.
Chapter IV.

Having in the preceding numbers given (be Philosophy of Coral
Formations and their Architects, we now pass, bv a natural transition,
to the consideration of fossil bodies as generally diffused through the
superficial strata of the earth.

Fossil, in Natural History, according to learned commentators of
the present day, denotes in genera], every thing that is dug out of the
earth, whether it be native thereto, as metals, stones, salts, earths, and
other minerals, or extraneous, as the bones of animals and the like;
this understanding of the term Fossil is, however, attended with very
great inconvenience to the student, who thus finds the two grand
divisions of the earth confusedly blended together, without any just
reason being assigned for removing the barrier erected by nature ; and
again, it is highly objectionable as perpetuating error and miscon-
ception of natural phenomena. The simple term fossil ought to be
exclusively confined to those bodies or fragments of bodies of animals
and vegetables, which, from their peculiar disposition and association,
have maintained their integrity of form and quality with very slight
alterations, and so much so, as to enable the naturalist to identify
their species, and consequently the conditions under which thev pre-
viously existed. The coral rag, sea shells, bones and teeth of fishes,
trees or parts of trees, herbaceous plants and fruits, the bones, tusks,
horns and other exuviae of land animals, found in lias, chalk, oolite,
and other formations of the northern hemisphere, so long aa their
elementary constituents remain unchanged, belong to the fossil king-
dom ; but the silicified and other mineralized bodies, which, although
they retain their primary organic configuration! have undergone a
complete change in their atomic structure or elementary constituents,
ought to bear the designation of secondary fossils, up to that point in
which they enter into and become absolutely one with the mineral
kingdom ; we are therefore compelled to adopt Mr. Parkinson's appel-
lation of Primary Fossil*, and Secondary Fossils, not for the reasons
assigned by him, but in order to denote the natural or mineralized
state of organic bodies. By many naturalists the term petrift
has been applied indiscriminately to all fossils: hut, independently of
the term petrifaction being an absurdity as applied to bodies in the
act of silicifying or otherwise mineralizing, it conveys erroneous im-
pressions to the mind respecting this class of phenomena; for many
organic bodies, as, for instance, the skeletons of lizards, elephants, and
other Species, some of which are now extinct, are converted into blue
lias, the human skeleton found at Guadaloupe is converted into .• ir-
bonate of lime ; others are found variously silicified, or as alunrin
organic bodies also pass by transition into shell limestone, or in
plot-' decomposition, into various species of marble, or into loams,
chalk, calcareous matter, clays and earths: again, wood is silicified as
wood opal, bituroenized as coal, or passes by decomposition into earth.
The stone of which Westminster Bridge is built, was quarried from

one vast fossil formation, and carefully examined, will he found to
consist of calcareous matter, sea worms, shell fish, and other lime-
secreting species, slightly held together by the common cement of
calx; trom this cause it soon undergoes disintegration when exposed
to excess of moisture; the material of London Bridge is also fossil
formation, but its larger shells have passed into nodules of spar, and
the siliceous crystalline base fits it well for the purposes to which it
is applied.

Fossils are Ancient, Modem, Recent, and Still Producing : in con-
tradistinction to modern geology, they are natural or primary earths,
from whence all extraneous bodies, such as sands, stones, rocks, salts,
and other minerals, derive their existence: they are divisible into
oceanic, or those exclusively belonging to sea waters, lacustrine or fresh
water, and terrestrial (here used to signify creatures of the drv Ian 1 1;
and inasmuch as there are living species peculiar to the earth, and
living species peculiar to the waters, so there are also proximate prin-
ciples and compounds produced by, and proceeding from these species,
peculiar to each, as is palpable to' all men, both from the nature of the
respective fossil beds, and from the nature of the earths produced bv
the decomposition of these fossils : thus, lime formations, the presence
in large masses of sodium and magnesium, of sea shells and other
marine exuviae, denote oceanic formations; vegetable earths, vegetable
lossil beds, and fossil bodies in whatever state of change they may
appear, are equally true indications of terrestrial action and of terres-
trial influences ; while beds of mixed qualities denote the combinations
of the one with the other. These distinctions, upon which natural
philosophy must eventually rest, have hitherto been lost sight of, for
although organic beings have been classified according to their re-
spective elements, no right conception has hitherto been formed of
the fossil or mineral kingdom, the latter proceeding from or gene-

rating under local influences from the former, and consequently the
fossil kingdom, in the primary sequence of events, taking precedence
of the mineral kingdom.

It must be generally understood, that entire change in configu-
ration or properties of organic bodies is far from being a necessary
or invariable consequence of the cessation of life ; for as is de.-
moustrated by nature in various parts of the earth, years, ages,
nay, revolutions of time may pass away, and still organic bodies
remain constant to their original form and qualities; thus, much
of the strata of Europe, formed in periods extending far beyond
the records of man, consist wholly of peculiar families, uniting and
united with the fragments and comminuted particles of other species
common to the age, temperature, and element in which they lived and
propagated their kind. These extensive fossil formations bear uner-
ring testimony to the gradual development of oceanic, lacustrine, and
terrestrial beds, to the laws of force and combination by which they
were produced, and to the laws of nature which govern their produc-
tion : they also speak of the progressive development of life as advo-
cated by many learned writers, of genera branching into orders, and
of orders blanching into species, as the accidents of climate, asso-
ciation, and conformation inav determine. A great portion of oceanic
soil is of necessity hidden from our view by reason of the depth of
the waters, or from being covered in by terrestrial matters, and another
and still larger portion escapes the immediate cognizance of the
from the changes it has undergone in decomposition and recom-
bination of its parts; but the vast extent of fossil beds, and their
general diffusion in and throughout the superficial strata, are the
enduring memorials that such things were, and that to them this
iv body we inhabit is indebted fur its present form, compo-
sition, and character: to the relics of these once living generations
we must, therefore, look for explanation of the causes of effects mani-
fest in the varied phenomena of creation, destruction, and re-pro-
duction. As in life and throughout the great chain of existence, the
living arc subservient to the living, so do we find all, the living and
il, subservient to the great end of nature, the increase of con-
solidated matter, and the ultima:.' maturity of the earth.

The transition from life to death is natural; of the numerous com-
pounds el alienated by living species, nothing is lost ; portions thereof
may return to the elements from whence they were abstracted, but
the bulk of the body remains as the building material in the hands of
nature, with which the edifice el beauty is built : thus the matters of
which the various beds of the earth is composed, whether in com-
minuted particles or in fossil or mineral forms, boast of one common
parent ige, and become in the end subservient to the one common
purpose. It is, indeed, singularly beautiful to observe the countless
changes, and modifications of change, the capacities, powers, attri-
butes, quantities and qualities, proceeding from the one common
fountain, Ian. — still increasing in its quantities, and in its varieties as
it rolls onward in the trackless paths of eternity, increasing in its
qualities and powers by multiplication of qualities and powers, its end
being lost sight of in the fathomless regions of space.

The earth we inhabit, so far as the discoveries of man extend, con-
sists of innumerable beds horizontally, vertically, or otherwise dis-
posed, being sometimes of homogeneous and at other times of mixed
qualities, and divisible into the living, tin Joxsi/, and tin mineral king-
doms. In the natural changes which take place, we observe, ou the
largest possible scale, the gradual or sudden transition of the one of
these divisions into the other; thus the trees of a forest are swept
away from their native resting place, the coral polypifers cease to
perform the functions of life, and the one and the other enter into the
fossil state, and according to their local disposition and arrangement,
if favourable to such further development, into the mineral state.
Thus the bases of many of the madrepore structures consolidate with
the grow th of the polyps into limestone rock, trees mineralize as coal,
peats are converted into an adhesive clay, and eventually into clay
slate, &e., there being one indivisible chain of results from the organic
to the mineral body; the living kingdom, in the primary sequence of
events, taking the precedence of and being the proximate cause of
production of the fossil and mineral kingdoms, the latter being the
inevitable consequence of the former, which preserves its entirety
only so long as it is enabled to resist surrounding influences; fur on
absorption of elementary and gaseous products, on exposure to atmo-
spheric influences, to flood, or to fire, a change inevitably takes place
in its organic arrangement, and it then becomes a body of other nature
and of other name. The living system is the secreting power, for by
the functional operations of life, the elements of air and water, and
the compound properties of other bodies, are converted into earths
and gaseous matters; which being thus generated, continue to exist
as compound products after the cessation of life, preserving their
primary qualities or uniting with each other in variable proportions,

1S44.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

443

the several combinations being governed by the laws of affinity, and
the chemical and mechanical action of the living body. In the living
kingdom are the elements of the alkaline earths, and according to
peculiar organizations, so do these elements more or less abound ;
thus from some plants we extract sodium, from others potassium, some
animals are simply gelatinous, others combine gelatine and albumen,
and others secrete lime, phosphorus, oils, acids, bitters and sweets,
these various products being sometimes abstracted from the earth,
and finally returned to the earth, or, as is generally the case, they are
secreted within the living system, as the result of living action, pe-
culiar food or peculiar temperature. When these organic creatures
pass into the fossil kingdom, the peculiar acid or alkaline earth is
produced, but not necessarily so, for the after changes of bodies are
contiugent and uncertain, always depending upon their inherent quali-
ties, and the accidental affections or combinations to which they may
be exposed when they cease to be living beings ; thus the tree may
become vegetable earth, clay, clay slate, jasper, wood opal, bitumen,
coal, jet, or other well known products, as the accidents of association
may determine.

These few remarks are absolutely necessary to the right under-
standing of natural phenomena, for unless the primary nature of fossil
and mineral matter be distinctly recognised, no real conception can be
formed of the origin of bodies generated in the various unions of
matter with matter. Geologists of the day admit none of the strata
of which this earth is composed to be of organic origin, but such as
abounds or is wholly composed of organic remains, not taking into due
consideration the natural tendency of bodies to decompose, when
chemically or mechanically acted upon, and to enter into new com-
binations according to the laws of force or affinity which govern pro-
duction ; but men of even common understanding see the tree
converted into earth, the earth into clay, the shells of animals secreting
calx into simple carbonate of lime, and also preserving their organic
form in chalk, pyrites, petrifactions, &c. ; many of the hills of Egypt,
for instance, are wholly composed of mummelites, but others, formed
by coral polyps, entirely consist of decomposed bodies of polvpifers;
the oolite formations of the British strata, exhibit various stages of
animal decomposition, myriads of creatures differing in species and
organic, formations uniting as one definite and inseparable result.

Many of the superficial beds ol the earth consist wholly of fossil
organic bodies, and in these fossil beds the mineral bodies are gradu-
ally or suddenly generated and moulded into form, as rocks, stones,
metalline earths and other substances. The fossil kingdom, in fact,
embraces full one half of the superficial crust of the earth, its aggre-
gate masses extend over the whole bed of the waters, forming in some
localities mountains and mountain chains, entire islands and vast
portions of continents ; on the other hand, terrestrial earth is covered
with forests, savannahs and meadows, insects, birds, and beasts, all of
which contribute to increase the soil on which they tread. The nu-
merous islands of the Pacific and Southern oceans, still increasing in
their numbers and magnitude, the islands of the Red Sea and portions
of the great continents of Asia and Africa, the broad band of reefs
encircling the newly discovered continent of Australia, and the Wes-
tern Archipelago, are all composed of coral polypifers and other
lime-secreting species, including the relics of myriads of creatures
inhabitants of the waters, which in death deposit on the respective
beds their elementarv constituents, such as lime, soda, magnesia,
animal oil, fatty matter, iron, and other compounds, the whole being
heterogeneously disposed in this general reservoir of the living and
the dead ; and therefore it is, that, wholly composed of organic mat-
ter, these very extensive formations most truly come under the term
and appertain to the fossil kingdom ; the earths which form the
clothing and skeleton of bodies, the proximate principles generated
by or developed within the living system or in union with each other
after the functions of life are ceased, passing, by a regular sequence
of changes into the mineral kingdom, the nature of species and of the
changes produced by the cessation of life determining the nature of
the mineral bodies or beds. These oceanic formations extend over
the beds of all seas, distinct of themselves, or variably uniting with
the terrestrial matters which are carried into seas by fresh water
streams, or are formed from the abrasion of rocks and earths by the
force of the winds, waves, or tidal currents.

Again, if we look over the surface of the earth, the same pheno-
mena may be observed in all parts of it; upon the remains of oceanic
species, beds of oysters, coral formations, and commingled material
of countless tribes, the trees, shrubs, and grasses make their appear-
ance, generating products peculiar to their natures, or becoming the
food of an infinite variety of animals, the artificers of other forms and
combinations of matter generated in the living system, and transferred
unaltered or altered to the fossil or mineral kingdom. Geologists
may contend that the sum of consolidated matter of this earth does

neither increase nor diminish, but all the phenomena of terrestrial
and oceanic beds give a decided negative to this assumption ; for not
only are tropical seas rapidly filling up with the remains of oceanic
and terrestrial bodies, but the terrestrial earth itself, in localities, is
continually increasing from like causes, the generation of vegetable
mould being demonstrable to all men. The fossil formations of which
I more immediately speak, embrace not only the vast extent of coral
formations, but also all the great deserts and steppes of the earth,
including all ancient, modern, and recently formed coral reefs and
islands, the greatest portion of Africa, and large tracts in Asia,
America, and Australia.

In a general view, the coral formations embrace the bodies and
reliqure of myriads of creatures, whose elementary constituents, re-
ceived during life from the medium in which they are disposed, are
set free from each other, or enter into new combinations, or are given
forth to the waters ; changes without number taking place so soon as,
from the decrease of the waters, the reef or island appears above the
surface. Exposed to tropical heat, the surface soil of the newly
created land, consisting of the comminuted parts of corals, fishes and
weeds, of beds of shell fish, and of consolidated madrepore structures,
undergoes a rapid change into sands, siliceous pebbles, carbonates and
sulphates of lime, and other products peculiar to the fossil soil and
the surrounding influences acting thereon; and this excitement of
change, of decomposition and re-combination in bodies and fossil beds,
is not confined to the surface soil, but extends to the inner beds, vary-
ing in direction and force; thus other phenomena are simultaneously
or progressively produced at this local commencement of the mineral
kingdom ; the generated acids produced by the recombination of the
separated elements of bodies, evolve through the dry and porous
strata, uniting in their passage to various alkaline earths, or uniting
and contending with each other, are the primary agents of change
from the fossil to the mineral state.

That many mountains owe their origin to volcanic action, is an
unquestionable fact, but the bulk of aggregate is produced most un-
doubtedly by the moving force of waters, by depositions of organic
matter chemically or mechanically precipitated, and by the gradual
accumulation of oceanic species dispersed in groups and families in
particular regions: there are submarine chains of mountains, embracing
a geographical range of many thousand square miles, disposed beneath
the waters of the Pacific anil Southern oceans, which owe their origin
and continuous increase to the living occupants of the waters, the deep
laid foundations of these extensive accumulations having, most pro-
bably, never been affected by volcanic action ; and there is one great
truth practically manifest to the accurate observer of nature, that the
waters are continually diminishing from the face of the whole earth,
and more particularly so beneath the tropical band, where seas are
shallowed by the vast increase of calcareous bodies, the living and the
dead. This affords a ready solution of the many singular phenomena
which are otherwise inexplicable, or are only to be explained by doing
violence to nature.

The experiments of Sir Humphrey Davy led him to believe that
heat was generated in the inner beds of the earth by accidental mix-
tures of the inflammable gases and oxygen ; but, unacquainted with
the phenomena of fossil soils he was disqualified from proving the
soundness of his views. In these soils embracing recent formations,
and also soils produced in earlier epochs, particularly when disposed
in high and dry climates, in rainless regions, or within the tropical
band, the electric fluid is generated in vast quantities in the interior
of the earth, and, more especially, in those beds, which, in their
primary fossil state contain the metals in their uncombtntd state.
The virgin soils or fossil beds abounding in ad parts of the superficial
crust of the earth, consist of the elementary compounds of organic
life, changed and perpetually changing in their unions and conse-
quently in their properties, after they have entered the fossil kingdom,
which is of necessity, before they enter the mineral kingdom: in their
primary fossil state they do not embrace what, strictly speaking, may
be termed mineral bodies, but they embrace the elements of many
mineral substances, and under favourable circumstances, do eventually
produce them, abstracting the oxygen necessary to effect these changes
irom the atmosphere and from the waters: for instance, an island
which is formed of the comminuted particles or entire skeletons of
myriads upon myriads of the inhabitants of the deep, no sooner rises
its head above the waters, than it becomes exposed to new and pow-
erful influences: the effect depending upon the nature of those influ-
ences is at once strikingly beautiful and important : a universal and
intense chemical action ensues, the process of decomposition and re-
combination embracing every fossil body, hydrogen is driven off to
form other unions, and oxygen, nitrogen or carbon supply its place,
the marine acids now generated are set in motion, moving to and fro,
uniting with alkaline bodies forming a very important class of salts,

444

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

or having metailoidal bases forming other mineral compounds, or con-
tending with each other, continue for a very long period in their un-
combined state. In these vast chemical changes, in this conflict of the
elements and elementary compounds, is it to be wondered at, that a
great and intense heat is produced, and that this heat existing within
bodies of a most inflammable nature, shculd very often increase to the
heat of combustion. Once called into action, its duration must depend
upon the nature of the material by which it is surrounded, combustion
being produced, it will be carried on so long as the causes of action
continue to exist, or beds of inflammable matter continue the supply
of fuel. Again, these virgin soils, besides the nncombmed minerals,
abound with vast accumulations of animal oils, alrsady mineralized
as bitumens, or in union with the alkaline earths entering into the
condition of rock, stone, and other ponderable substances. This ma-
terial, attacked by the chlorides, oxygen, Sc, is likewise the subject
of incessant change, and sulphurous acid in particular is generated in
nbundance, the vast quantities of sulphur in the inner beds of the
eartli being demonstrated by its evolution from all the great volcanoes,
and its continued evolution is a very decisive proof that combustion
is going on in the bituminous beds and animalized rocks, the skeletons
or cinders of the latter being ejected as pumice and ashes.

Removed from the immediate vicinity or far above the waters, the
virgin soil presents to the view one vast chaotic mass of fossil bodies
and their comminuted particles, and the progress of change from this
chaotic state depends entirely upon the local and general affections
which govern and direct them ; thus some formations undergo an al-
most immediate transformation, while others, protected from atmos-
pheric and aqueous influences, remain for ages in an unchanged «tite.
The organic remains of oceanic animals are at all times variably dis-
posed in localities, and the nature and qualities of each stratum de-
pends on the nature and qualities of the bodies of which it is com-
posed, or by which it is surrounded. In the British strata we see this
truth illustrated to an amazing extent, extensive districts being co-
vered with fossil exuviee, variously changed, but evidently the pro-
ducts of the same era, some of them hermetically sealed for many
ages past from atmospheric influences, exhibit the same state of
nature as when deposited in this their resting place, others exposed
to percolating fluids have become silicified or metalline, and in this
state, although the organic form and configuration of the body is pre-
served, as previously observed, they most truly and strictly belong to
the mineral kingdom; all silicates are in fact mineral bodies, and all
petrifactions belong to the mineral kingdom, the act of petrifi
being the act of silicification and consequent change of the organic
body; thus the silicified ammonite is a mineral body — in its natural
state alone can it be considered as a fossil.

The organic remains of oceanic animals and plants are at all times
variably disposed in localities, and the nature at.d qualities of strata,
necessarily depend on the nature and qualities of the separate or
conjoint species of which they are composed, and the after combina-
tions of matter with matter. The primary qualities of beds are
rarely preserved unchanged for any very prolonged period of time;
for exposed to atmospheric influence, or communicated or generated
chemical action, the matters in union undergo a partial or complete
change in their disposition and qualities, and many new substances
are produced: thus the oceanic fossils under peculiar aspects soon
loose their identity of character and composition, particularly when
exposed to the changing influences of climate, to percolating waters,
the intrusion of mineral bodies, the oxygenic action of the atmos-
phere, or to volcanic action; and when terrestrial matters blend those
which are exclusively oceanic, the modifications of forms and sub-
stances become still more numerous and diversified. Uninterrupted
by disturbing causes, there is a general simplicity in the arrangement
of oceanic iossil beds within and above the waters, by which we are
enabled to ascend without difficulty from effects manifest to the pri-
mary causes thereof; the cord structure, the vast bed of oysters,
the hills composed wholly of particular species, cirrhipedes, the
calcareous bed consisting of calcareous matter uniting with the
exuviffi of marine bodies, the marl or chalk-like substance covering
immense areas of the earth and abounding with fossil shells and
fishes, all speak an intelligible language of causes long extinct or at
present existing, and of changes common to the several peculiar for-
mations, changes evidently brought about by causes as evidently ex-
isting or previously in operation.

Every coral built reef undergoes changes common to all, depending
upon climate and association; from the living it gradually and peace-
meal enters into the fossil state, and from thence its further transition
is slow or rapid according to these laws : sometimes its transition into
limestone rock keeps pace with its rapidity of growth, at other times
the, bodies and comminuted particles of bodies undergo changes in a
manner independent of each other ; thus, for instance, the oceanic hills

which form the boundaries of upper Egypt, exhibit an almost endless
diversity in the change of their constituent parts : thus some of the fossil
shell fish are converted into soft chalk, others present various stages of
silicification, otherwise termed petrifaction, others decompose, and
united together, are know as marble, porphyry, &c; the like changes
are observable in all newly created islands and portions of continents.

" In the province of South Australia," says Mr. Binney, "a vast
fossil formation extends from about 13'}° 15' of longitude, with an
imperfectly known width towards 14 12, the western boundary of the
province; and from about 32J 40' of latitude to at least the latitude
of the sea mouth of the Murray. Its greatest elevation may be stated
at 400 feet above the level of the sea : its upper strata are beds of
three or four feet in thickness, composed entirely of common oysters
and oyster shells, not broken or exhibiting marks of attrition. Below
there are much deeper beds of mixed coral, echini, pectens, spirals,
and other small marine shells, generally much broken and deposited
in sand, limestone, and sometimes splenite, alternating, with beds of
saml without shells. At the base of these, or beneath them, are ves-
tages of fishes, teeth, and nautili, of four and five inches in diameter.

The recent discoveries which have taken place in the United
States prove the amazing extent of fossil productions, beds of coals
covering a vast extent of the superficial strata, bituminized limestones
saturated perse with animal oil, beds of fossil organic remains still
retaining their primary disposition of parts, and sliales, marls, and
clays evidencing by their character and composition their organic
origin. "Near Newark," says Dr. Silliman, " the whole valley is one
vast cemetery of animal and vegetable remains. A Petroleum oil
urll has lately been discovered while boring for salt water near Buck-
Nil e, Kentucky, after penetrating through solid rock upwards of 200
feet thick, a fountain of pure oil was struck. The coal beds in Ohio
State extend over a space of 12.0J0 square miles." "The rocks in
the western States, below the coal formation, have evidently," says
Dr. Lock, " been deposited in the bed of a deep primitive ocean, and
consist of alternations mostly in thin layers varying from one inch to
twenty-four inches. The crystalline strata are mostly carbonate of
lime, the sedimentary strata are mostly in the lower portions clay
and marl, and in the upper portions clay and sandstune, in the supe-
rior portions lime, clay, and sand form an arenaceous limestone — all of
them contain fossil remains. The arrangement of the rocks, beginning
from the bottom, is, 1, blue limestone; 2, clay; 3, flinty limestone;
•1, clay marl; 5, cliff* limestone; t>, black bituminous slate; 7, Waveriy
sandstone, the whole depth 186S feet. The blue limestone region is
SOO feet above low water mark of the Ohio : the limestone is some-
times ^00 feet in thickness. In Indiana the black bituminous siate is
above lou feet thick ; there is also a vast bituminous coal formation,
the whole of the beds being evidently oceanic or of oceanic and ter-
restrial deposits, with beds of salt forming the lowest strata, rising in
their line upwards of 3000 feet. The brine springs of New York are
llngly numerous, and the gypsum deposits are exceedingly ex-
tensive. On digging the Erie Canal, at the depth of 42 feet were
found several hundred living shell fish, species of mussel; living toads
have also been found in millstone grit.

Of the fossil formations of Europe and portions of Asia, much has
recently been written by geologists, to which we refer for information,
concerning their extent, and the important part they perform in the
economy of nature in forming strati and crystalline rocks— the phe-
nomena of the deserts to which tlie following chapter will be devoted,
are almost exclusively oceanic.

The gradual development of life as genera, orders and species, is
inferred by philosophers of the present day, from tlie known fact,
that the lower we pursue our researches into the bowels of the earth
the less we observe traces of organic bodies, and the more simple are
the orders, genera, and species, both in their qualities and properties:
this is the truth as far as observation is concerned ; but men err
greatly when they assert that organic matter entirely disappears at a
certain depth. It is true that the animal frame-work can no longer be
distinguished after we have descended a certain depth: but, it is
equally true, that whatever may be the nature of the lower strata,
whether it be sand disintegrated, or united as sandstone, lime, or lime-
stone, granite, or any other compact body, all and erery portion of such
strata is composed of, and proceeds from organic bodies. The philo-
sopher overlooks or otherwise is ignorant of the fact that vegetable
earth produced in the decomposition of vegetable and animal bodies,
retains no traces within its bulk of aggregate of thuse bodies, death
levels all distinction, confounding ten thousand organic bodies in one
undistinguished ruin. Every atomic particle, every proximate pun-
ciple and compound body, all that is cognizant to the senses of man —
all proceed from the elementary compounds, air and water — all enter
the mineral kingdom when life has departed.

M.

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

445

ARCHITECTURE:— THE PUBLIC AND THE PROFESSION.

I. Preliminary Discourse, $c, on Architecture. By T. L. Donaldson,
Professor of Architecture, University College, London.

II. Encyclopedia of Architecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Prac-
tical. By Joseph Gwilt.

III. Klenze Entwiirfe. Heft VII & VIII.

"The importance which architecture has assumed in this country
within the last twenty years, and the deep interest taken by all classes
in its progress, have been most remarkable and striking. Disquisitions
upon those monuments of our art which rise up around us, occupy the
public mind, and form a distinguished portion of the literature of the
day. Pamphlets, newspapers, and other periodical publications, pass
in review the productions of our artists." Such are the opening
remarks of Professor Donaldson in his "Preliminary Discourse " (pro-
nounced before the University Collpge, London, Oct. 17, 1842) ; and
they may very appropriately be made use of, by way of introduction
to the present article, if merely to show that the subject we have
taken up, is held to be not without attraction for others besides pro-
fessional readers. Indeed, we might say that the latter class is the
least numerous one ; and also, that very few belonging to the pro-
fession have at any time taken up their pen with the view of instruct-
ing the public, or recommending the study of the art as deserving to
be cultivated for its own sake. Even may it be questioned if the
profession, taken generally, cordially approve of that sort of popularity
conferred upon their art, after the manner described by Mr. Donaldson.
At any rate some there are, who, so far from encouraging a taste for
architectural study on the part of those who apply themselves to it
merely as laymen, manifest a decided disapprobation of such "irregu-
lar " proceedings. Fain would they suppress all inquiry, all criticism,
all opinion, except what emanates directly from themselves. And as
far as themselves alone are concerned, they may be allowed to display
sound policy at least, though the reverse of liberality, of generous
feeling, and of zeal for the advancement of architecture as a branch of
fine art. No doubt it is not to the interest of every one who follows
it as his employment, that the public should have any clear under-
standing of it in the latter capacity, or be able to discriminate between
what is merely mechanical and matter of routine, and what gives
aesthetic value to an edifice, converting it from the mere manual work
of a builder iuto the production of an artist.

Convenient as it may be in many — perhaps the majority of cases, to
have to do with a public who are nearly all but quite in the dark as
to what architecture, properly so termed, is or ought to be, and who
are, therefore, ready to admire whatever is palmed upon them as
works of art, merely because it is mechanically shaped secundum artem,
but may, nevertheless, bear the same relation to art that paste does to
diamonds ; convenient, we say, as such state of things may be, there
are, at the same time, considerable disadvantages attending it, and
extending to all parties, to the profession as well as to the public, and
certainly not least of all, injurious to the art itself. While its impor-
tance in the latter character is stoutly insisted upon, and endeavoured
to be supported by dint of assertion, architecture is virtually thrown
out of the ranks of fine art, by being represented as one too far re-
moved from ordinary sympathy to be appreciated by, or even intelli-
gible to those who have not been rpgularly initiated into it. To a
certain extent some kind of preparatory training is, undoubtedly,
requisite, because its beauties being more or less conventional, without
any positive type in nature, some knowledge of the signs it employs,
and of the principles by which it is governed, becomes indispensable;
but such knowledge is quite independent of, and runs in a different
channel from, that which belongs to building and construction.
Neither is the acquisition either difficult or tedious — at least would
not be so, were a suitable course of study provided for those who
require to learn no more than the ajsthelie branch of the subject, leav-
ing practical matters to the practical man. Works, indeed, there are
which profess to be expressly framed for such purpose, but among
them all we have not met with one that is really well adapted to it.
Some are little better than ordinary and even slovenly compilation or
abridgment ; and under the pretence of being easy and popular, nearly
all are defectively meagre, dry, and uninviting. Thev lack that
familiar but intelligent explanation which would really fa'cilitate the
progress of the nonprofessional student. There appears to be a fear
of communicating too much information — a greater desire to mystify
than to simplify. What is learned, must be learned doggedly and by
rote, for however well the writers may be acquainted with the subject
himself, they either want, or do not care to employ, the art of con-
veying instruction to others in such manner as to invest it with interest,
and forcibly bring out its attractions.

On the part of the profession nothing has been done towards fur-
nishing a popular course of instruction for lay students and the public;
neither have they advocated any scheme for throwing open the study
of the aesthetic department of their art, and extending it beyond the
pale of their own order. Only one solitary instance occurs to us of an
architect's earnestly recommending the adoption of such views. With
no less of sound policy than generous liberality, Mr. G. Wightwiek
has urgently pointed out how desirable it is that a due acquaintance
with architecture should be cultivated as one of the accomplishments
of education, and that, too, for females as well as men; which is so
contrary to the prejudices established by custom, that on the first
blush of it, it appears to carry with it some degree of chimerical
extravagance, if not of actual absurdity, and may easily be turned into
ridicule by wilful representation of the purpose in view. It may be
sneeringly hinted that dabbling in brick and mortar would not be a
very ladylike amusement, nor even a very gentlemanly pursuit ; with
much more to the same effect. To meet idle objections of that kind
formally, would be itself idle, since they proceed from sheer ignorance,
or from still more incorrigible malice prepense, and from the determi-
nation to mistake and pervert, and to set matters in a ridiculous light.

With respect to architecture as an esthetic study, and so far capable
of being pursued apart from the mechanical processes of building, the
usually awkward Cui bono ? is not a very formidable question. It is
the pursuit itself which is the prize, the labour which is the gain, the
occupation which is the reward. Else why should the sportsman risk
his neck in the chace, and willingly encounter both danger and
fatigue — to say nothing of the expensiveness of his amusement, which
makes every hare cost him about as much as a horse ? The value
of architectural study as a mere study, consists in the mental occu-
pation it furnishes, and in its opening a source of gratification from
which we are else debarred, because without such study we can but
imperfectly relish what requires to be viewed by the mind as much as
by the eye. Where preparatory education is wanting, the finest
buildings will be looked at either with listless indifference or ignorant,
perhaps merely affected, admiration, certainly not witli that lively
interest and enjoyment felt by those who possess a cultivated taste.
Without some study of the art, people are actually unable to see a
very great deal that is to be considered in a building or a design;
there are an infinitude of circumstances, more or less influential,
which they can neither distinguish, nor perceive, nor take note of.
To be convinced that such is really the case, we need merely open
almost any tourist-book where architectural description or comment
is attempted ; for seldom do we meet with more than confused, im-
perfect, and bungling description, or what is intended for such, and
with crude, hasty, shallow, haphazard remarks, which too evidently
show that the writer has no real knowledge of what he professes to
speak of.

It is true that, by opening our eyes, the study of the art drives us
out of the "fool's paradise" of stupid wonder, where ignorance is
bliss; yet if, on the one hand, it renders us more fastidious, and apt
to be shocked at defects and imperfections that do not interfere with
the satisfaction felt by ordinary spectators, on the other it greatly en-
hances our enjoyment of what is excellent, imparting to it a fulness,
an intensity, and a gusto, which can else hardly be conceived, much
less be felt. While enjoyment, too, is thus increased in degree, it is
also greatly extended as to duration ; instead of being an object
merely to be glanced at, or inspected once for all, a fine piece of
architecture is to the educated man, whether amateur or profession-
alist, a work of art which, however often it may have been viewed, is
again contemplated with refreshened feelings of delight, and whose
image is faithfully stored up in the memory, where it remains both
for instruction and gratification. Unless it be useless to have some
study or pursuit, affording both innocent and intellectual occupation,
the question as to the value of that of architecture among others may
be considered, after what has been said, completely settled. So far
from having at all less, it has rather more to recommend it than
several— botany, mineralogy, and some others, which are now applied
to by females, inasmuch as it exercises the critical faculties, leads to
the valuable habit of discriminating observation, and forms and refines
taste or Esthetic feeling ; whereas other studies, of the kind above
alluded to, have comparatively little value as mere accomplishments,
since they are too positive and material, too remote from general
sympathies, and partake of that Darwinism which renders them as
unfit for conversation as for poetry.

For what we have been saying, we admit that there ought to be no
occasion : it should long ere tiiis have become so self-evident, as to
incur for us the reproach of bringing forward stale and common-place
remarks. Yet, be the remarks themselves what they may, most cer-
tain it is that the views we advocate are not those entertained by
the public, no, nor even by the profession. Accordingly, instead of

446

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

being upon the same footing as the other fine arts, architecture has
scarcely any public sympathy — there being few, except those who prac-
tise it — and not every one among them, who can truly appreciate the
powers of architecture, and its poetical value, apart from its prose one of
actual utility. Even when the importance of the former happens to
be urged on the public on some particular occasion, it is more with
reference to disp'av of public spirit, and regard to our dignity as a
people, and our national credit, than for the sake of any particular
enjoyment proposed to be derived to ourselves from the contemplation
of a noble work of art. No one, however, seems to be aware that if
architecture is to flourish among us as a fine art, it must be recognised
as such, not in words alone, but in a real feeling for it, and that feeling
cultivated bv studv. It is rather unreasonable to expect that the
public should warmly patronize what they have no real relish for, and
what, indeed, their present ignorance renders them incapable of pa-
tronizing properly, were they even disposed to do so. They have
hitherto been taught to regard the merest plodding mediocrity as
talent — the servile mechanical copying of individual features and
parts, as praiseworthy correctness, though even nothing of the
spirit or character of the originals should be preserved, or if so far
at all kept up, be entirely lost sight of in whatever is not immedi-
ately borrowed. ' Hence the minimum of talent has frequently suf-
ficed for distinguished professional reputation, provided its possessor
has been able to get into full employment, and establish himself with
the public as the " fashionable architect " of the day. It is not the
quality, but the quantity of his works, and their importance as large
buildings, which recommend him, and impose upon general opinion.
Of those who have been thus "successful," if mere prosperity in
their profession can here be termed success, most have shown them-
selves to be little more than men of business, and as such clever
enough, but as artists, more or less deficient in nearly all that goes to
constitute one; for their productions too plainly show no earnest con
amore labour — no thorough artistlike study of the subject has been
bestowed upon them, no spirit infused into them, and that what merits
they may chance to possess are merely those of mechanical routine.
Tolerably secure of satisfying their employers, few architect* have
laboured to satisfy themselves, or to aim at higher and more durable
fame than that which they find comes to them upon cheaper terms.

Although they might be, seldom is it that moderate opportunities
are so turned to account, as to be thereby rendered important ones,
so as to give us highlv-finished gems of art — such, for instance, as is
the monument of Lysicrates — where the effect attending grandeur of
dimensions is out of the question. Even in Gothic architecture,
where magnitude and extent are generally held to be indispensable in
order to produce due character, many of the choicest and most elabo-
rate specimens are to be met with either in moderate sized buildings,
or the subordinate parts of larger ones— such as porches, chapels, chan-
tries, oriels, and the like, anyone of which shows more study of design,
more regard to artistical feeling and principle, than is generally con-
sidered requisite for an eutire fabric, let it be as extensive as it may.
Whatever an architect has in hand, he should consider it of impor-
tance, and endeavour to render it so, by the attention bestowed upon
it, as he will always retain a sort of mental property and authorship
in it, even should he never afterwards behold his own work. If, con-
trolled by circumstances, he cannot do all he could wish, let him at
least show that he is capable of producing things far superior; if he
cannot indulge, his imagination, or fully carry out his ideas, he may
convince us that he has some ideas of his own, and may put in those
artist-like touches which — supposing him to be worthy of the name
of artist — would cost him very little — nothing, it might be presumed,
in comparisou with his self-forbearance in abstaining from them.

At any rate we ought not greatly to wonder at finding that, as it is
not usually employed upon ordinary occasions, architectural talent is
frequently found very rusty and out of order when suddenly called
for by some extraordinary one. We then obtain little, more than some
common-place and hackneyed ideas as usual, only on a larger scale,
and spread over a greater surface. Harsh as this opinion may seem,
it is but too strongly borne out by the three architectural competitions
for the Houses of Parliament, the Nelson Monument, and the Royal
Exchange. On each of those occasions, all the designs sent in were
exhibited, and the greater majority of them too plainly told that their

1 As a notable instance of ibis. ue may refer to that extravagantly
praised building, St. Martin's Church. The portico and the body of the
structure (including the inner wall of the portico, seen through the columns)
are most offensively at variance with each other in point of style and taste ;
so much so that it may fairly be questioned if the architect really understood
or felt the character of what he professed so far to follow. Besides its in-
congruity with the portico, all the rest of the exterior is most tasteless in
itself— heavy without grandeur, and not only heavy but barbarously un-
couth.

authors had no pretensions whatever to come forward, unless, indeed,
they calculated more upon the imbecility of others, than on their own
strength. Some of the designs for the Houses — and those not exactly
the worst of all, were little better than wdiolesale plagiarisms, un-
skilfully put together. It is not to be denied that the subject was a
most difficult one — one requiring no ordinary grasp of mind, and fer-
tility of ideas ; neither was the Exchange by any means an easy one,
considering the very awkward form of the site, and other restrictions.
Not so, however, with regard to the Nelson Monument : that was a
perfectly ad libitum affair, and altogether free from any conditions,
nothing more being required than a noble and appropriate archi-
tectural object, full scope was allowed to invention and taste — and to
a species of talent that rarely has opportunity of displaying itself at
all. Whether the requisite talent kept itself hoarded up, we pretend
not to say, but certainly little — if not the minimum of it, showed
itself upon that occasion. Of invention there was hardly anything
but of tasteless and preposterous ideas, not a few ; some, indeed, that
if they did not partake of downright insanity, betrayed hopeless
idiocy. What renders that competition the more remarkable is, that
a second trial was afforded the artists, after the first one, but with no
greater success — at any rate with precisely the same result as before,
merely a fluted Corinthian column upon a pedestal — very poor and
now somewhat stale conceit in itself, and in this case without any re-
deeming qualities in the design to reconcile us to it.

11 we learn nothing else from competitions, we learn from them
that whenever they take place, the profession becomes sensible of one
very great disadvantage which their art has to struggle against
namely, the all hut entire iguorauce of the public in regard to it, and
their inability to form any judgment, although every one is, of course,
at liberty to express his own opinion — even those who can scarcely
read a plan or elevation. To say nothing of the unfairness so fre-
quently imputed to committees and those appointed to decide on such
occasions, of their incompetence generally there can he little doubt ;
indeed, it would rather be strange were it otherwise — if men, who
perhaps have never taken up the studv at all, were able duly to examine
all the several designs, and maturely deliberate upon their respective
faults and merits.

This picture of tilings is neither a very flattering, nor particularly
encouraging one, but we will venture to assert, neither is it an exag-
gerated one. We have pointed out where the main root of the evil
lies, and though we cannot look for its being very speedily corrected,
there is some prospect of its being overcome. Already are there
favourable symptoms and manifestations abroad; and although it yet
forms no part of the usual course of education, architectural study is
beginning to make its way among the educated classes; as is proved
by the various elementary publications, intended for the use of ama-
teur students. Hut it also behoves the profession itself to encourage,
or to show that they are disposed to encourage, this growing but not yet
sufficiently confirmed taste ; and to endeavour to render the study of
their art more popular and attractive. It would seem, however, that
professional men either are incapable of writing upon matters con-
nected with their art in an intelligent and engaging manner, and put-
ting oil' the solemn ex-cathedra tone they usually fall into whenever
they appear in print; or else consider it beneath them to accommo-
date themselves to general or non-professional readers. Those who
1 ave published at all, have rarely had in view more than an exceed-
ingly limited class of purchasers — wealthy amateurs, who can afford
to purchase works which are not only so costly, but so inconveniently
large, that their form as well as their price operates almost as a
prohibition upon them to all others. This may have arisen from
the idea that no class of the public could take interest in or have oc-
casion for works of the kind, except those who were likely to have oc-
casion to build for themselves in a superior style, and who have ac-
cordingly been looked up to as patrons: which appears to us to be a
mistaken notion, and withal, rather short-sighted policy. It may
fairly be questioned whether the study of Gothic architecture would
be a tenth part so popular as it has now become, had most of the
publications relating to it been upon the same scale as the Cathedrals,
edited by the Antiquarian Society : unimportant as the circumstance
may seem in itself, there is little doubt but that the adoption of the
ordinary quarto size — which is large enough for almost any purpose,
provided there be plates of details, as well as general elevations and
sections — has greatly diffused a taste for it, by bringing the study
within the reach of those who would else have been debarred from it,
or might never have become acquainted with it.

The time is gone by for that species of literary exclusiveness and
ostentation, which was affected in the days of colombier and elephant
folios. Like many other branches of literature, architecture must now
condescend to consult the convenience and the pockets — not exactly
of the " million," but of the " many," unless it not only disclaims

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

447

but can afford to dispense with popularity. That it can do so may be
the opinion of some, but hardly of the majority of the profession, or
of those who are attached to the art; else they are inconsistent in
deploring at the same time the indifference, or obstinacy, which has
so frequently marred some of the noblest projects ; and the ignorance
which has either wantonly destroyed, or suffered to fall into entire de-
cay, many interesting monuments of former times. However great
may be our regret at such acts of " barbarism," their occurrence is no
more than quite natural, when the " respectable " and well-informed
classes have no idea of the value of, and no taste for, what in their
eyes appear no better than so many masses of old walls and rubbish.
As far as the profession itself is concerned, the hitherto all-but-entire
ignorance on the part of the public, may occasionally have been found
convenient enough ; but then the art has suffered accordingly, and our
national reputation likewise, as far as it is at all connected with the
state of architecture among us. Were the study to be generally cul-
tivated to the extent that we — and not only ourselves, but some be-
longing to the profession, desire, the public would probably soon
begin to be more difficult to please ; to be more exigeant, and less in-
dulgent than heretofore; and to look for some manifestation of artist-
like talent and power on the part of those who claim to be considered
artists — a rank now held by many of them merely by courtesy, as a
sort of brevet title. Yet this would be so far from being matter for
regret, that it is precisely what would materially contribute towards
the advancement of architecture, by spurring on its followers to keep
a-head of the public, in taste; so as to be able not merely to fulfil all
that improved taste may require of them, but even go beyond that
point to which we are content at present to limit our views.

That the idea of an impulse being given to architects, by those
who do not belong to their body, and who if they cannot exactly be
called the public, are at least a section of it — is not a chimerical one,
is evident from the fact that the study both of Grecian and Gothic
architecture was in a manner forced upon the profession, in conse-
quence of the attention bestowed on those styles, by dilettanti, anti-
quaries, and amateurs, at a time when Grecian architecture was un-
known to the profession except by name, and when Gothic was so far
from being known that it was utterly misunderstood, and condemned
as being contrary to all sound principles of taste, and all beauty of
proportions! It was not architects who first opened the eyes of the
public, but literary students and others, who, free from professional
prejudices, opened the eyes of architects themselves, as well as those
of the public, to the merits and importance of the Gothic style : and
it is to such writers that we still continue to be indebted for many in-
teresting publications relative to the subject of the architecture of
the middle ages, both in this country, and upon the Continent. In cal-
ling attention to this circumstance, we would not have it supposed
that we do so for the purpose of casting any reflection upon the pro-
fession for their supineness in not investigating for themselves, that
truly wonderful and beautiful style of the art: on the contrary, what-
ever reproach of the kind may justly apply to those of a former day,
we feel piide in being able to say that we have some living architects
who not only perfectly understand, but are thoroughly at home in that
style; wdio are not only conversant with all its varied elements, but
who can enter fully into its spirit, with that genuine artist-like gusto
and feeling, which are immeasurably superior to mere literal fidelity.

So very far is it from being our object to excite any jealous and
unkindly feelings between the profession and the public, that it is our
most earnest wish to see them amicably united in one common aim —
the advancement of architecture. Yet such is not likely to be the
case if those who belong to the profession, affect to treat with scorn
those who do not, assuming a tone most arrogant, contumelious, and
disrespectful tone towards that part of the public, which they ought to
look upon as their friends — at least as engaged in the same cause as
themselves. This, however, has been done premeditatedly and for
the nonce by the author of a work whose very title would seem to in-
dicate, that it is intended to facilitate and popularize the study of ar-
chitecture, and thereby increase that very class of persons towards
whom he displays such strange, and we might almost say, savage
hostility. In his " Encyclopaedia," Mr. Gwilt has seized on every op-
portunity of sneering or snapping at all who presume to write upon,
or apply to the study of, architecture, without being duly qualified by
a professional education, and by an acquaintance with the mechanical
processes which, though indispensable for the practical man, are as
far as art is concerned, of no more moment in architecture than in
any other of the fine arts. Instead of expressing any satisfaction at
finding that architecture receives from persons of taste and liberal
education the homage due to it in its quality of a fine art, and that it
is considered worthy of being studied for its own sake, he has vented
his spleen in remarks that may fairly be called suicidal, they being
calculated to obtain for his book a character anything but favourable

from that part of the public whose opinion of it is likely to be of most
weight. Most assuredly he has not cared to conciliate the good
opinion of either Oxford or Cambridge, for speaking of the attempts
to ascertain the origin of the pointed arch, he says, " the question his
furnished employment to many literary idlers, especially at the Uni-
versities, whose time might have been more usefully employed in
looking alter the young men under their charge, especially as they
have all, except Whittington, done little if anything towards advancing
a knowledge of the subject, which involves information possessed by
few of them, of whom the latest have done the least."

Here we see that, not satisfied with bringing against such persons
a sweeping charge of incompetency, and applying to them the sneer-
ing epithet of "literary idlers," Mr. Gwilt carries his illiberality so
far as to insinuate or rather assert, that they neglect positive and
more important duties, in order to amuse themselves with architec-
tural studies, or what they fancv to be such ! We suspect, however,
that the fierce enmity here displayed towards that class of writers and
students may be, in a great measure accounted for by their having
contributed to spread a taste for Gothic architecture, and thereby
bring that style again into vogue, to the neglect of the Vitruvian and
Palladian — Mr. Gwilt's favourite schools of the art. That such is
really the case appears pretty plainly when we afterwards read :

" Among the architects of Wren's time, there was a triad of ama-
teurs who would have done honour to any nation as professors of the art.
The first of these was Henry Aldrich, D.D., Dean of Christ Church,
Oxford, who died in 1710. He was attached to the Venetian school, as
we may see in the three sides of the Peckwater quadrangle, and the
garden front of Corpus Christi College, a facade which, for correct
taste, is not surpassed by any edifice in Oxford. The second of these
amateurs was Dr. Clarke, one of the Lords of the Admiralty in the
reign of Queen Anne. This distinguished amateur sat for Oxford in
fifteen sessions. The library of Worcester College, to which he be-
queathed his valuable collection of architectural books and MSS. was
from his design. He built the library at Christ Church. The third
was Sir James Burroughs, master of Caius College, Cambridge, by
whom, in 1703, the chapel of Clare Hall in that University was beau-
tifully designed and executed."

It is consolatory to find from this that "amateurs" are not, as might
be inferred from other passages, necessarily superficial pretenders,
and mere idlers who might employ their time to better purpose.
Nay, the opinion expressed of that illustrious " triad " appears to us
to err almost as much on the side of liberality, as other remarks in the
book do in the contrary extreme. But then they were safe men —
orthodox in their architectural creed, and did not set themselves up as
instructors of the public; for though the Dean published a treatise on
architecture, it was written in Latin. It is only living or recent ama-
teurs and writers on architecture that Mr. Gwilt would, if possible,
put down — those of a former day are, of course, past doing any mis-
chief; and we are wicked enough to fancy that the highly commen-
datory passage we have quoted was partly intended to heighten by
contrast, the censure so liberally or rather so illiberally heaped upon
the present generation of architectural amateurs and dilettanti stu-
dents. Though the author of the " Encyclopaedia" has not mentioned
names, it is very easy to discover many of those whom he classes
among the " last " and least worthy, for in the catalogue of works
recommended to the student, he has omitted several publications,
which, so far from being unimportant or obscure, are very popular,
and now regarded as standard authorities. Among them are Hope's
History of Architecture; Rickman's valuable work on Gothic Archi-
tecture; Parker's Glossary, a book which Mr. Gwilt would have done
well to take as a model for his own Glossary ; Professor Whewell's
Architectural Notes ; Willis on the Architecture of the Middle Ages ;
Wood's Letters; Wilkins' Atheniensia, Magna Graecia, &c. — in fact
so many, foreign ones included, that they would form an appendix of
considerable length. Hardly can it for a moment be supposed, that
such and so numerous omissions were other than intentional ; or could
it be proved that they arose either from sheer oversight, or ignorance
of the existence of the above-mentioned publications, it would not be
saying much for Mr. Gwilt's industry. But the omissions are so re-
markable, and of so peculiar a kind, that we can attribute them only
to a determination to suppress the titles of publications which, for
some reasons or other, are obnoxious to him; and thus markedly,
though silently, express his condemnation of them. Here again, then,
he has suicidally injured his own book, rendering that catalogue an
exceedingly defective and imperfect one, in order to gratify his own
splenetic whims; and he has, in some instances, mentioned earlier
and inferior editions of architectural publications which, in subsequent
ones, have been materially enlarged and improved.

Nowhere, however, has he carried his exclusiveness or principle of
exclusion to greater length, and more palpably betrayed his jealousies

448

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[January,

and prejudices, than where no feelings of the kind should have been
allowed to interfere with the plain duty of a chronicler: we allude to
the List of Architects, which record we naturally expected to find
tolerably copious towards the end of it. Instead of which, it gives but
a very meagre sprinkling of names for the last 50 or 60 years, and
those appear to have been merely picked up by chance, and inserted
without any regard to principle or system. At all events, it must
have been a most singular principle of selection, which, while it ad-
mitted many names of far inferior note, rejected those of James
Wyatt, Sir Jeffry Wyatville, Wilkins, and Rickman. Although we
ourselves do not estimate his talents very highly, the first of these
established for himself a historical name in the annals of our archi-
tecture, if only as the reviver of the Gothic style — on which account,
perhaps, it is that he is here excluded, and perhaps, again, both Sir
Jeffry and Rickman for their attachment to the same style. But then
how is it that the "Palladian" Calderari is passed over, Temanza,
who was also the biographer of the Venetian architects, and Pier-
marini and Cagnola ? — and that, though there have been several of
considerable note, there is not the name of a single Italian architect
who has died within the last half century ? Again, why has one who
professes to think so very highly of modern French architecture as
Mr. Gwilt does, omitted so many names belonging to that nation-
above all that of Durand, whose system of interaxal divisions of a
design, which to us appears a very mechanical and plodding one, he
so warmly recommends, and has brought forward in his Encyclopaedia?
That he should have black-balled Schinkel as undeserving of being
admitted into the company of his "worthies," is no more than we
expected, after his laboured attempt, some years ago, to depreciate,
not only that eminent architect, but all the rest of the modern German
school. Here again, then, Mr. Gwilt has suffered bis prejudices,
piques, and antipathies so far to get the better of him, that he has
wilfully maimed that List, and deprived it of much of the value and
interest it else might have had ; nor would it have been less service-
able had the dates of births and deaths been given, as they are in a
much fuller table of the kind, though commencing only from the be-
ginning of the 18th century, printed in the " Ciril Engineer and Archi-
tect's Journal." Does Mr. Gwilt really hope to extinguish the name
of Schinkel by the marked omission of it, not only in that List of
Architects, but in his chapter on German architecture? If so, he is
likely to be disappointed, since the course he has adopted is calcu-
lated to excite surprize, and to force that name more strongly into
notice than if lie had mentioned it as matter of course. Great, too,
must be his vexation at learning that it is now proposed to erect a
public monument to the "Great Schinkel," and that since his death
more has been written throughout Germany on him and his works
than has appeared relative to any other architect of the present or
last century.

Having thus far touched upon the subject of German architecture,
we may now as well turn at once to that chapter of the Encyclopaedia
which professes to give some historical account of it. In what degree
it performs the promise its title implies, what information it affords,
and what pains have been bestowed upon it, may easily be conceived,
when we say that it amounts altogether to no more than a single page
and a few lines! In fact it consists of only a few slight unconnected
and desultory remarks such as almost any one unacquainted with the
subject could have picked up and patched together. It is not without
reason therefore, we suspect, that Mr. Gwilt was unable to go to any,
even the most ordinary sources of information in the language itsel'f,
for had he done so he might easily have compiled a good deal of in-
teresting matter that would have been almost quite fresh to the
English reader, and would have formed a tolerably satisfactory outline
sketch. What few names he does mention — and they are bare names
— VOX el praterea nihil, are, with one or two exceptions, comparatively
obscure and of minor interest, for they belong to a period when the
art cannot be said to have had a school of its own in Germany, but
merely adopted the routine established in Italy and France. It is only
within the present century that architecture has there produced mo-
dern works that have attracted the notice of all Europe, not only by
their number, their magnitude, and their importance, but by their
quality, and by the artistieal study they display. Yet these are'passed
over entirely; not even the names of anv such buildings or their
authors are mentioned; for which most provoking silence, that is,
provoking, not to ourselves but to those who are unable to obtain for
themselves information of the kind,— the following most extraordinary
apology is offered: "The circumstance of the principal works of
Germany, at Munich, Berlin, &c, having been executed by artists still
living, we feel precluded here from allusion to them, because if we
were to enter on an examination of them we must detail their defects
as well as their beauties."

A flimsier excuse can hardly be imagined, or one more illogical and

contradictory: it would appear from what is here said that "allusion,
to" and "examination of any of those works would be the same
thing; at least that they could not be alluded to, or mentioned at all
without some further examination of them being gone into ; nevertheless
this formidable difficulty has been completely got over by Mr. Gwilt
in every other chapter of the kind in his work, for among all the
buildings enumerated, mentioned, or " alluded to," by him, scarcely
any can be said to be "examined" or commented upon. So far indeed
from their "defects as well as their beauties" being detailed, he has
contented himself with asserting merely the one or the other, as the
case may be, without entering into any critical investigation, or even
attempting to relieve the dryness of a mere muster-roll, by occasional
description and remark. As to the other scruple, namely that of passing
any opinion upon the works of "living artists," it is extravagant in
itself, and absolutely ridiculous coming from one who made no scruple
whatever of pouring unqualified censure, and even coarse abuse, on
the whole living race of German architects, in his so called "Elements
of Criticism." On that occasion, he not only undertook his task quite
voluntarily, without its being expected from him by any one, but so
far from feeling the exceeding delicacy of the office he so imposed
upon himself, inasmuch as it required him to point out " defects as well
as beauties," he did not even think it incumbent on him to point out
beauties as well as defects, for it then suited his purpose to see no-
thing but the latter!

New and singular doctrine at all events it is, that the works of
living artists are not fair subject for criticism — in fact, cannot be
spoken of at all without violating propriety, and risking the giving
offence. Though artists as well as literary men be of the genus irri-
tabile, we do not imagine that either the one or the other are so ex-
cessively sensitive and thin-skinned, so exceedingly averse to be
alluded to even by name, or have their works spoken of in print, as to
look upon silence as compliment and favour; on the contrary, very
many of both are eager to be spoken of as much as possible while alive,
knowing there is not much chance of their being so after they are dead.
According to such ultra-refined notions of delicacy and propriety as
those which are pretended to be entertained by the author of "the
Encyclopaedia, we ought as yet to fiud nothing iu print relative to the
works of Thorwaldson, Cornelius, Hess, Schnorr, Schwanthaler, Klenze,
Gartner, and many others who are still living, but have nevertheless
been spoken of in various publications, and some of them at consider-
able length. In fact there would be an end at once to all contemporary
criticism and contemporary biography, both which Mr. Gwilt is so fear/ul
of even approaching, that he has deemed it prudent not to attempt to
bring down the history of English architecture later than the time of
Revely who died in 1799, which he, by-the-bye, is pleased to call bringing
it down to "the end of the reign of George 111" ! Some may think that
the reign of George IV., when a fresh impulse was certainly given to
architecture in this country, might very well have been included also;
but no, "further," says Mr. G. " we should not be able to pursue our in-
quiry (?) without coming into contact so with our cotemporariesand their
connexion*, that our office, if not dangerous and fearful, might be un-
Bt." Yi't many since Revely's time have gone olfthe stage so
ln.iuv years ago, that they might have been spoken of without the
slightest danger of giving umbrage to any of their surviving connexions,
unless made the subject of highly offensive and improper remark ;
whereas, at present, it looks as if they were all such a degenerate
race that nothing whatever could be said of them and their works,
except in the shape of censure.

If he was withheld by delicate considerations of that kind from no-
ticing any of the recent architects of his own country, hardly can Mr.
Gwilt have been deterred by any such feelings from speaking of fo-
reign ones, of those still living as freely as ol those who are lead, in
regard to them he could have expressed himself impartial v, without
suspicion of his praise being dictated by flattery, or his ceusure
pointed by jealousy of professional rivals. In criticising literary pro-
ductions it is not always possible to avoid remarks which more or less
atl'ect the personal and moral character of their writers; but from this
inconvenience, if such it be, architectural criticism i* altogether free.
Besides, mere matter-of-fact information aud description would have
sufficed, and while they would have been perfectly innocent, they
would undoubtedly have been most welcome. An Encyclopedia is
expected to contain if not the fullest, the latest and freshest informa-
tion, yet so very far is this from beiug the case with Mi. Gwilt's, that
it in that respect lags behind even some general encyclopedias, whose
architectural articles show more industry of compilation and research,
and contain a good deal of matter altogether wanting in hi*. Most of
those in the Penny Cyclopaedia are very interesting, and there are also
several articles in that work, belonging to architectural biography
which there appear for the first time, we believe, in an English dress.
Among others those on Ventura Rodriguez, and yuarenghi; neither

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

449

of whose names are ones mentioned by Mr. Gwilt, although the one
was the Spanish architect par excellence, of the last century, so highly
extolled by Ponz, and the other hardly less celebrated at the opposite
extremity of Europe, where he was extensively employed at St. Pe-
tersburg.' After this, the reader will not be very much surprised at
our saying that the two chapters respectively appropriated to the ar-
chitecture of Spain and Portugal, and that of Russia, are exceedingly
meagre, stale in matter, and unsatisfactory in execution. In fact they
add nothing at all to what might be picked up out of very common
books ; and although Mr. G. may not be acquainted with Spanish, and
therefore not able to avail himself of Llaguno's " Noticia de la Arqui-
tectura de Espana," he would have found many valuable materials for
his purpose in Cook's Spain. However well qualified upon the whole
for so extensive an undertaking, we do not think anv individual can
do justice to every one of the multifarious subjects it comprises; yet
if so far demerit is removed from the writer or compiler, it still at-
taches to the work itself, therefore it would have been more satis-
factory had assistance been obtained for those portions of the
" Encyclopaedia," where it was evidently required.

But to return to German architecture, — for we consider it deserving
far greater attention than Mr. Gwilt has bestowed upon it, or thinks
that it merits, — it is truly singular that one who may be presumed to
take a generous pride and interest in the art, should evince such sullen,
chilling indifference — or worse than indifference — towards the noble
and splendid architectural achievements by which Germany has dis-
tinguished itself within the course of the last thirty years. Even if
the architects themselves have not, in every instance, acquitted them-
selves in a manner perfectly satisfactorily, or so well as might have
been expected from the opportunities afforded them, still they who
provided those opportunities are entitled to our grateful admiration.
Under their auspices a new sera in the art has commenced ; a new
generation of talent has sprung up, — one endued with vigour of mind,
and which, abandoning the drowsy routine of the last century, ventures
to think for itself, and is less observant of rules than of principles.
Whether he himself was altogether the great artist his countrymen
hold him to be, or not, Schinkel's influence not only was, but continues
to be, very great ; and to that influence may be ascribed the higher
views now taken of the art, and its aesthetic principles. To him be-
longs the merit, of introducing Grecian architecture, not only in greater
purity as to style, but with less violence as to its native character and
original elements than it had been before applied on any part of the
continent. Yet, though he opened that track for himself, it must be
confessed that he did not make that further progress in it, which some
of his earlier works promised. Had he carried out to greater extent,
and with more freedom, the system he appears to have originally
laid down for himself, there is every reason to suppose that he would be
degrees have formed astyle consistent in itself,and atthe sametime pro-
viding for all those circumstances which must be imagined/or Grecian
architecture, if it is to be employed by us moderns, since they cannot
be immediately borrowed/rom it. How tastefully he could modify, or
we might even say invent, classic ornament and detail, is proved by
the capitals designed by him for the columns in the sculpture room
of the Berlin Museum ; and it is therefore to be regretted that he did
not treat with similar if not exactly equal freedom the entablature of
the external order, where he has strictly adhered to authority in what
we cannot help holding to be its defect. The cornice of the Hellenic
Ionic, always appears to us to be unsatisfactory, and at variance with
the character of the order in all other respects : owing to its want of
depth, and the comparative plainness as well as fewness of its mem-
bers, it rather disagreeably contrasts than accords with the fluted co-
lumns and their luxuriant curling and otherwise highly enriched capi-
tals ; in which the greatest degree of embellishment is obtained, and
there stops ; so that that which is or ought to be to the whole order
what the capital is to the column itself, — its completing decoration,
looks comparatively poor and unfinished.

An examination of all Schinkel's buildings and designs, would be — ■
we will not say a wearisome task, certainly not so to ourselves, — but
one of such length that we must here forego it, merely referring our
readers to what is said of them by Dr. Kugler in his "Karl Friedrich
Schinkel: eine Characteristik seiner Kiinsterichen Wirksamkeit."
There is also another memoir or similar "Characteristik" of him by
O. F. Gruppe, which is in some respects more complete, and which
speaks at some length of one of his latest, and it would appear, most
successful labours,— the designs for a most magnificent villa for the
Empress of Russia, at Orianda, in the Tauridan Chersonesus, between
Katfa and Baktschisarai. The spot selected by the Empress for this
summer retreat is upon a rocky declivity, at a height of about 1,500
feet above the level sea, and in a horizontal direction about 2,000 feet
from the sea beach. There either is to be, or was to have been
erected— for that point is left doubtful by the writer, an extensive

pile, seated on a terrace platform, and consisting of various pavilions,
connected by colonnades. Unfortunately, such detailed description
as would enable us to form some tolerably clear idea of what appears
to be no less varied and complete than extensive in its plan, is not at-
tempted ; therefore from what is said we can collect little more than
that there would be atria and open courts, surrounded with columns,
with occasional vistas from one to the other, and embellished with
' mosaic columns,' inlaid pavements, fountains, flower-beds, and choice
plants growing in vases, &c. ; and in the largest or central cortile there
would be a lofty insulated structure, towering above all the rest, so as
to form a striking feature in the general composition. In this project
Schinkel, we are told, gave free scope to his fancy, and availing him-
self of the unusually favourable opportunity the peculiar nature of the
subject presented, endeavoured to combine all the scattered rays of
Grecian architecture, and also concentrate in one work some of his
own happiest ideas.

One thing is certain, that whatever change of opinion may take
place as to his merits and talents, Schinkel will henceforth be a pro-
minent name in architectural history, although he has been passed
over as if he was the merest cypher, in the " Encyclopaedia ;" and that
he should have been so, is all the more strange, inasmuch as there
would else have been an opportunity of touching upon the subject of
Grecian architecture, properly so called, with reference to its applica-
bility for modern purposes, and the attempts made to revive it in
original purity, and so as to preserve its poetical character.

Mr. Gwilt, or any one else, might stand excused for not attempting
— we will not say to describe, but to enumerate all the monumental
structures which have of late years been erected not only in those two
foci of art, Berlin and Munich, but in various other capitals and cities
throughout Germany. Yet that he should not have named any, shows
an excess of caution, — a consciousness that their bare names would
suggest themes of admiration to many — to those at least in regard to
whom he is pleased to remark, that "an extraordinary species of
bigotry has laid hold of them " in favour of German architecture : an
observation, by-the-bye, that does not come with peculiar grace from a
writer who shows himself throughout his work to be bigotted and
dogmatical in an offensive degree.

There is at least one edifice to which Mr. Gwilt might have referred,
if only as an instance of what German energy and perseverance can
accomplish, and also to convince his readers, by so doing, that he en-
tertains no bigoted prejudices agairist German architects, — we mean
the Walhalla, — a structure not likely to be passed over in silence
by any other historian of the art, let him be of what country he may;
for its fame will outlast the solid masonry of which it is built, if not
the hill on which it stands. Although only one of the many magnificent
architectural schemes, begun and accomplished by Ludwig of Bavaria,
it would have sufficed for his fame, and proved how justly he is en-
titled to the epithet of " Kamtliebend." The idea of erecting a tem-
ple to the universal genius of Germany, where should be assembled
the images of all its most illustrious sons, who signalized themselves
and their country, in arms or in art, as sovereigns or as legislators, as
philosophers or as poets, had long been a favourite one, cherished by
him for many years before he came to the throne.

It was in February 1814, that a programme was first issued, and ar-
chitects invited to send in designs, none of which, however, proved
satisfactory; wherefore nothing further was done until the beginning
of 1821, when Klenze (the architect of the Glvptothek) was in-
structed to prepare a fresh one. Even this last was greatly modified
afterwards, nor was it begun to be carried into execution until 1830,
when the first stone of the substructure was laid October 18th. But
if up to that time there seems to have been a good deal of procrasti-
nation— easily accounted for by the number of other important works
then in progress at Munich itself, no want of diligence and energy
showed itself in carrying on the building wdien once commenced, tor
it was finished before October 1812, and solemnly inaugurated on the
19th of that month. Thus within somewhat less than twelve years
has been successfully completed one of the noblest w?orks of art un-
dertaken in modern times, and one that, considered merely as to its
magnitude, exceeds many a building that has been the labour of an
entire century. The edifice itself is a work of great magnitude,
not so much on account of its mere size — for in that respect it is not
at all remarkable, as of the extraordinary solidity of its construction
and material, the astonishing care with wdiich every part both of the
exterior and interior is finished up. Many other edifices of note are
more or less imperfect on their exterior; some present little more
than a facade, and in scarcely any is the same degree oijinmh — which
is not to be confounded with decoration — kept up throughout. But,
though if taken only by itself, the Walhalla would still be an asto-
nishing work, the Doric peripteral edifice is only a part of the general
external design, it being reared upon a lofty and colossal substructure,

CI*

450

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

consisting of Cyclopean walls, flights of steps, terraces and platforms,
and containing within a spacious souterrain of massive vaults, to
which there is an extrance from the first terrace. Measured from the
lower step of the bottom flight to the bases of the columns of the
portico, the height ot this vast and widely spreading-out basement is
138 feet, and from that level to the apes of the pediment 57, making
the entire height 195 feet. The ascent is first by a single flight (G4
feet wide), ihen by tw^o others right and left, at right angles to it,
which bring us to the lower terrace. From this two similar flights
returning in a contrary direction to the others, meet at the bottom of
the last or upper flight, which leads immediately up to the portico.
Thus, as shown in elevation or geometrical drawing, the building ap-
pears to be raised on a vast pyramidal mass 210 feet wide below, and
138 high; but except the whole be viewed from a considerable dis-
tance, the actual appearance is altogether different, because the ter-
races are so lofty (the lower one li7, the next 37 feet), and extend so
far forward in front (above 200 feet) that the building itself is quite
lost at first, and does not come into view until the last flight is reached,
when its magnificent pediment filled with statues burst upon the eye
with an effect infinitely superior to what it would have been had the
pnitico been visible during the whole ascent. No general view of the
building conveys any idea whatever either of this, or of the terraces
themselves, because in every representation of the kind, the whole
must be shown from such a distance, and from so preposterously ele-
vated an horizon, that while it is falsified by this last circumstance,
it looks quite insignificant upon paper — no belter than a little
model. In order to convey an adequate idea of the grandeur and
variety attending this portion of the design, at least a dozen strictly
architectural drawings would be required, describing both the terraces
themselves, the views obtained from them at different progressive
heights, looking towards the building or the contrary, and one within
the portico, showing the prospect seen through the columns. But
this would be requiring a good deal beyond the power of the pencil
to accomplish, it being impossible to express the effect of looking
immediately vp or down — up to the portico as seen towering above, as
soon as seen at all, and down upon the terraces which have been as-
cended.

The interior of the Walhalla certainly does not fall short of the
promise held out by its exterior, for if in'the latter, the architect Ins
aimed at no more than producing a faithful likeness of one of the most
celebrated structures of antiquity, he has here shown his invention in
the happiest manner, and united to the beauties of the original struc-
ture, others not possessed by it. Of interior architecture, the Greeks
appear to have had very little— their theatres were uncovered, and
therefore partook more of the nature of an open court, than of the
inside of a building, and the eel!® of their temples either hail no other
light within than what they received from the door.orwere hyi<ethral,
that is, open to the sky, not entirely, but in the centre, in which case
they also must have had the character of an open court, with no
shelter hut within the colonnades along the sides. Although it is still
matter of dispute with some, the Parthenon is generally supposed to
have been by pajthral, but whether it were so or not, the interior could
by no means have corresponded in architectural beauty, with the
exterior. Of the German Parthenon, on the contrary, the interior
affords an example of a perfect architectural climax, it being as much
characterized by splendour and richness, as the exterior is In graceful
severity. All that is not marble, is bronze and gilding; the pavement
is of marble, inlaid in a pattern of various colours; the walls and
shafts of the columns and antE, are of brownish red marble, from
.Salzburg; the entablatures, capitals, &c, of white marble, partly
relieved by gilding and colours, while the ceiling is entirely covered
with plates of bronze highly gilt. Were no other part of the interior
worthy of notice, the ceiling alone would call for special examination,
since there Klenze has fallen upon a most happy idea, one entirely
origin. il, yet so natural, and so perfectly in accordance with what is
one of the most characteristic forn.s in Grecian architecture, that the
wonder is it should never have been adopted before, — although it was
perhaps hardly practicable before the use of cast-iron for roofs. In-
stead of being either flat or vaulted, the ceiling is here of precisely
the same form as the external roof, being, in fact, identical with it, in
(ike manner as the open timber ceilings of Gothic buildings, conse-

0 Not to encumber the description with too many details of the kind, we
here note some further particulars relative lo the exterior of tbi building,

uliich is nearly a lac-simile of the Parlhemn, being not only of precisely

the same order, but like that edifice an octastyle peripteral, anil with the
tame number of columns on its flanks, viz., seventeen, including those at the
angles, or 1G intercolumns. 'Ihere are therefore 46 columns, or including six
others torming the piunaos within the entrance portico, 52 in all. Measured
along the buses of ihe columns the plan is CJ8 ft el by 232, which dimi usions
are as nearly as may be those of the Parthenon.

quenfly, while there is no masking of any kind, greater loftiness is
obtained than there otherwise would be. And as in the Gothic style
roofs of that description are made to exhibit arches, curved and
pendant beams, tracery, &c. ; so here the pediment form is introduced
internally, not merely in outline at each end, but in two intermediate
pediments, whose architraves rest upon the massive piers which pro-
ject from the walls, so as to divide the plan into three compartments,
and thereby without interrupting the vista, serve to impart to it
greater variety, to produce a succession of spaces, instead of merely
a single one, and to break up what might have been rather disagree-
ble monotony and formality, had the busts been arranged in continued
rows, from end to end. The pediments are therefore seen in perspec-
tive, one behind the other, and besides being otherwise embellished,
their tympanums are divided into compartments filled with figures and
arabesques, in open work. Here, then, Klenze has most felicitously
solved an important problem, and without other authority than that
supplied him by his own invention, has produced what will henceforth
be an authority and standard for others to follow. What he has here
done, may indeed be compared to Columbus' breaking the egg; for
now that it 18 done, people may say that the idea was obvious enough:
nevertheless, obvious as it may have been, it was beyond their grasp and
reach. Such being the case, architects would do well to think a little
more for themselves, than the generality of them now appear to do,
and to consider whether there may not be other latent ideas to be
seized hold of and brought out, applied and developed; — which, how-
ever, they are not likely to do, so long as they continue to look
chiefly to precedents and authorities, without seeking to venture
beyond them. We do not mean to say it is at all desirable that every
one should attempt what is beyond the power of most to accomplish:
let those who have no ideas of their own — of course we mean ideas
of anv value — stick to established precedents ; but let not therefore
those who are more gifted, who can penetrate into the resources of
their art be deterred from exercising their originality, by the ap-
prehension of being charged with innovation. The time was, when
what is now authority and precedent, was innovation : without inno-
vation, we should not have had the Ionic order in addition to the
Doric, nor the Corinthian in addition to the Ionic. Does not Gothic
architecture very forcibly display progressive innovation from first to
last ? and if, at last, invention seems to have been quite worn out, it
was partly owing to accidental circumstances, and to the not pursuing
any further the same course, guided by the same principles. But we
are neglecting the Walhalla.

In combination with the ceiling, is the mode employed for admitting
light, viz. through an open space (but filled in with plate glass) over
the centre of each compartment; by which means, while many incon-
veniences are avoided, many positive advantages are secured. Win-
dows in the walls would have been almost, or we may say, quite fatal
to the exterior, for however managed, they would at once have de-
stroyed the character and the effect of pyenostyle Doric colonnades.
Even in the interior, side windows would have proved highly objec-
tionable, if only on account of their producing cross lights, and too
many separate spots of light, thereby destroying that breadth of light
and shade, which so greatly contributes to the effect of architecture.
A light admitted directly from above, is certainly that which the
artist's eye most approves: it is that to which the preference is given
for galleries and studies; nevertheless, architects in this country seem
determined never to give it us, if they can possibly avoid doing so.
As far as we are aware, not a single church professing to be in the
classical style — whether Grecian or Roman — is so lighted — at least,
only partially; notwithstanding that windows prove almost invariably
blemishes, in what may be otherwise satisfactory in design. It would
seem, that because windows are highly characteristic and ornamental
features in churches in the Gothic style, they must be retained as
matters of course in all churches, however ill they may accord with
the style selected for them. Had the interior of the Walhalla been
lighted by windows on its sides, very different and decidedly much
inferior would the effect have been from what it now is; besides
uliich, many of its embellishments would have been very indistinctly
seen. Such would have been the case in regard to the magnificent
frieze or relipf, by Pettrich and Schopf, after Wagner's designs, which
forms a line of sculpture beneath the entablature, extending altogether
to about 30U feet. The order of the interior is Ionic, but only in antaj
or pilasters at the angles of the piers between the divisions of the
plan, except at the further or North end, where is an open screen — a
distyle in antis, through which is seen a fourth division answering to
the opisthodomus of an ancient temple. Over this Ionic order, there
is another, of Caryatides, representing Valkyntx, and these colossal
female genii (ten feet high) are in imitation of the chryseo-elephant-
ine statues of antiquity, the naked parts being made to resemble ivory,
and the draperies blazoned with gold and colours. The busts, which

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451

» present amount to about eighty, or half the number proposed, are
1 uniform in size, and in the Hermes fashion; and in regard to them
e mav here endeavour to meet an objection likely to be made. That
there should be no statues, but only busts, may at first strike as rather a
strange circumstance, inasmuch as the latter maybe thought somewhat
insignificant, and merely accessory objects in comparison with the
sple"ndid building in which they are deposited. No doubt they are so,
if considered individually, but certainly not, when considered collect-
ively, for then they make a prodigious sum total, and their importance
and interest become in keeping with the architecture around them.
Certain it is that not one half of the same number of statues could have
been properly arranged within the same space, and what is not least
of all deserving consideration is, that by busts being adopted, one ex-
ceedingly great difficulty has been entirely got over, we mean that of
costume. In this respect, some of the earlier figures might have
proved suitable enough for sculpture, but then the later ones would
have contrasted very disagreeably, not to say ridiculously, with them.
So represented, would Mozart and Goethe have seemed to have been
of the same race, of the Germanic stock, as Otto der Grosse, and
Friedrich der Rothbart? The sculptors employed upon the former
would consequently have worked at a very great disadvantage com-
pared with those who were favoured by the costume of the other
figures, which, besides being more picturesque in itself, admits of being
treated more freely. However skillfully managed, Goethe's coat
would have been in our eyes, merely the very prosaic outside of a
great poetical intellect. In most, if not all of the modern statues there
would have been too much of the tailor and frizeur, unless they bad
been put into "night-gown and slippers" deshabille. The Gordian
knot which has hitherto caused so much perplexity, and given rise to
such very opposite opinions in regard to the adoption of modern cos-
tume and sculpture, has therefore been on this occasion, if not un-
ravelled, dexterously cut through.

Another knotty point, however, there still remains, — at least, what
has been made such by those who object to the Walhalla, — that its
architectural character — noble as it is in itself— is quite at variance
with the name and purpose of the building. These, they say, lead us
to look for a monument in a very different style of the art — not Gre-
cian, but Germanic. And as far as names and their influence go, this
sounds, well ; hut then if the objection is a natural one, it is so much so
that it seems to have been adopted at once, without a second consider-
ation beirg bestowed upon it, and as if it could not possibly be met by
any counter-objection. It may fairly be questioned whether anything
nearly equally satisfactory would have been produced in the Gothic
style; for that is one in which the Germans of the present day have
not been eminently successful. Besides which, not only would a
Gothic structure upon the same scale, have appeared comparatively
small and deficient in bulk and majesty, but would, in all probability,
have borne too close a resemblance to a church, and have looked more
like a building dedicated to religion, than to art. The applying any
such form for a secular purpose, might therefore, have been construed
into a desecration of it; whereas that of a Greek temple is not asso-
ciated, in our minds, with any ideas of particular sanctity, nor does it
excite other feelings of veneration than of those for art. Admitting
that the Walhalla — that is, its exterior, is scarcely more than a repe-
tition of the Parthenon, it is also the only one — that which alone of all
the things pretending to be 'after' the Parthenon, convevs an ade-
quate impression of what the original was in its pristine state. Were
the Athenian structure still perfect, it might have been a question if it
was worth while to erect a duplicate of it elsewhere, and for a very
different purpi.se. Yet such is not the case; neither is the Walhalla
a mere copy of it, and no more; because while it is so far a truthful
copy of it as to exhibit the grandeur derived from loftiness of site,
this last circumstance is here treated more architecturally, the ascent
up to the building being immediately combined with it, and made a
very principal and striking portion ol the entire composition.

We have now dwelt so long upon the subject of the Walhalla,
nevertheless passing over much which we could have introduced into
what we have said, that we have left ourselves no space for noticing
other productions of German architecture, although some of them
would furnish equal matter for remark, for description perhaps still
more. Among them is the Resident at Munich, a vast pile, forming
not only a pa Lice, but almost a cluster of palaces, comprising as it
does the Konigebau, the FestLau (with a facade nearly SOU feet in
extent), the jillerhedigen-Cajielle, &c. Much, very much more, also,
could we say on the subject of the Encyclopaedia were we not here
obliged to ecu elude. Which being the case, greatly as he dislikes
German architecture, Mr. Gwilt has, upon this occasion, some reason
to be satisfied with it, inasmuch as the notice we have bestowed upon
it has diverted our attention from his own work. As it is, what we
have said will at least serve to show what sort of matter and infor-

mation he has thought fit to pass over, and likewise to prove that
much as he may affect to despise " anonymous critics," and all who
w rite for periodical publications, some of them are quite as much, if
not more an courant da jour than himself, and certainly understand
equally well what is now likely to be expected, both by the public and
the profession, from a work styling itself "An Encyclopedia of
Architecture."

OBSERVATIONS ON ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURE

By Henry Fulton, M.D.

No. 4.

CONCILIATION HALL, PUBLIN.

Scale 10 feet to the inch.

1st Clown. — Who builds stronger than a mason, a shipwright or a car-
penter ?

2nd Clown. — Marry now I cannot tell.

1st Clown.- — Cudgel thy brains no more about it, for your dull ass will
not mend his pace with beating; and when you are asked this question next,
say a grave maker, for the houses that he makes last till doomsday.

Hamlet.

It is not to a grave maker that the inhabitants of Dublin are in-
debted for the design of the Conciliation Hall (intended as the place
of meeting for the Repeal Parliament), else doubtless it would have
been erected with more durable materials than brick and plaster, yet
from certain curly-cues on the summit, such as frequently ornament
the last portable receptacle of frail humanity, we may form a tolerably
correct notion of the enterprising undertaker of the design. But far
be it from me to insinuate that any calling or profession should debar
a man from studying the noble science of architecture, I only impeach
the judgment of those committees of selection who do not cause to-
be produced something more worthy their country and their age. It
matters not to the public by whom produced, or whether the artist has
or has not half the alphabet as a sequence to his name, provided the
design does credit to his taste and to the discernment of his em-
ployers.

The architect has given us a pleasing variety of the emblems of
war and peace in military cocked and opera hats above the windows,
the warlike being in proportion to the peaceful as three is to two, and
thus following the example of the facade of Antrim House in Meirion
Square, erected for the late President of the late Royal Institute of
the Architects of Ireland, Then we have a sham pediment, which
does not mark the outline of the gable, but defines just nothing at all,
as the ridge of the roof is on a level with the top moulding of the

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[January,

pedestnl which rises from its apex. On each side of this sham pedi-
ment we have a balustrade for no other purpose that I can see, unless
to put balusters out of fashion, and if this be the object I sincerely
wish it may be successful. It may be observed in this design, how
effectually the balustrades and parapets swamp the pediment ; which
will afford a good study for those who admire the expedient of con-
verting a real pediment into a sham one.

II. A writer under the signature of J. W. R., in the last number of
this Journal, p. 416, objects to the proposal of making an Egyptian
facade to the Museum, on the grounds that the style is not European.
This line of argument is so like what my good old aunt Marabella
would urge, that I trust I shall be excused, if mistaken, in assuming
the signature J. W. R., to be that of a fair incognita, and reply, "Ah,
ma'am, are you aware that the same geographical reason would apply
against the introduction of the beloved congu on your breakfast table?"
It is true the Museum is a national one, that is, national property, but
the geographical character of its contents have only the limit of the
globe itself. What J. W. R. says of a Gothic facade is quite incom-
prehensible, for I cannot suppose the existence of such a thing, the
style depending upon the development of parts impossible to be
brought into a mere facade.

Of what is called Grecian architecture with its Palladian deformi-
ties, we have enough. The Egyptian style is free from the polluting
touch of Palladio or his school. In the one case we know what to
expect; in the other hope opens a door in the unexplored field of
Egyptian antiquities for the expectation of something better. The
Greeks are supposed to have learned the art from the Egyptians, and
why may not we ? if the like success shall attend our exertions,
great will be our reward.

Oh, Madam, there be edifices called Grecian, which I have seen,
and heard others praise, and that highly, that neither having the form
of Grecian, nor the proportion of Grecian, Ren i . nor G thic, so
pedimented, so rusticated, so bustled, so balustraded, so polytri-
glyptaed, so distorted, so perverted, that I thought some architect's
journeyman hid designed them, and not designed them well, they
imitated the style so abominably. But I would recommend to you,
ma'am, and the Palladians, an attentive perusal of the entire charge,
of part of which the foregoing is a parody, it is as applicable to
architecture as to the drama — to Sir Robert Smirke as to Hecuba.

III. Although the exterior of the Roman Pantheon, with the ex-
ception of the noble portico, is an unsightly mass, yet it affords an
important lesson worthy the consideration of us moderns. Where (it
may be asked) is the architect who could make anything of it in the
way of ornament? Or who could design an edifice of the same form
and dimensions, in the Greek or Roman styles at least, anil make it at
all ornate without being at the same time absurd? This, it would
appear, was the feeling of its architect, and hence, with the exception
of the portico, all ornament was reserved for the interior, which, for
beauty, when restored in imagination to its pristine state, far surpasses
the interior of any edifice in the world, unless it be some of the
Gothic cathedrals, if things so dissimilar may be compared. Might
it not be well in all cases where, from the required interior accommo-
dation the exterior cannot be made in good taste, to follow the ex-
ample of the Pantheon and leave it unornamented ? this would tend
to save the credit of the architect, the purse of the employer, and
the feelings of amateur critics. The beauty of the portico forbids us
to suppose that it was a lack either of taste or talent which caused
the tambour to be left as we see it: perhaps it was the intention to
hide it by other separate and distinct buildings, for no means of in-
ternal communication were left in the plan to favour the idea of
some antiquarians, that it was intended as a hall appertaining to the
baths of M. Agrippa. It need scarcely be remarked that the two
excrescences, which rise like asses' ears behind the pediment of the
portico, are modern.

- See interior of the new Exchange.

A RECENT GLANCE AT THE WORKS AND THE GEOLOGY
OF THE SOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAY.

The travelling on the Croydon Railway is very smooth and agree-
able, an effect which, I understand, is due to the system of construc-
tion adopted for the permanent way. The rails on this line are
laid upon longitudinal sleepers, which are placed in a continuous un-
interrupted line under each rail. The train has, therefore, an equal
and uniform support at every point, and is not subject to the jolting
motion which is experienced on many other railways.

The Croydon Railway, I need scarcely say, is used in common by
the trains of the South-Eastern and the Brighton Railways, both of
which approach the metropolis by means of this line, which may,
therefore, be considered as the trunk for the south-east of England.
The country adjoining the Croydon Railway between the Forest Hill
summit and Croydon is delightful. The railway is flanked by several
noble woods, the property of Lord Dartmouth and Lord St. Germain,
and the whole country is studded over with innumerable pleasant
cottages and villas, most of which command an extensive prospect
from the elevated position which they occupy. The Croydon Canal,
which wis formerly a favourite resort of the angler and a famous
place for boating parties and water frolics, for which, indeed, it was
more distinguished than for any commercial benefits which it ever
realized, has been quite forced out of existence by the railway. Some
put of the canal has been tilled up, its bridges pulled down, and its
locks dismantled, while in other parts, the railway actually passed in
the same line, and the ancient bed of the canal was lowered in order
to suit the convenience of the usurper. In a few places, however, as
Sydenham and Annerley, short lengths of the old canal still re-
main, and these having been stocked with fish by the proprietors of
the neighbouring taverns, are still frequented by many metropolitan
anglers whose occupations do not alfoid them time for a sojourn at any
-i ml fishing station.

We left New Cross at a quarter before 10 and arrived at Croydon
just a quarter past. About half a mile nearer London than the joint
station of the South-Eastern and Brighton lines, the Croydon Railway
turns off to the right towards its own station north of the town. At
Croydon we enter upon the Brighton Railway, which is used by the
Dover Company as far as Merstham, where the South-Eastern line
branches off. Shortly beyond Croydon there is an interesting section
for geologists, in a deep cutting where the Brighton Railway passes
through the lower sands of the plastic clay formation. This sand re-
poses immediately upon the ch.dk, the junction with the latter being
1 in the cutting. After leaving this cutting, which occurs at
Coombe Hill, just south of Croydon, the line enters the chalk district
of the Surrey Downs. This is a gradually rising tract of country
from Croydon to the summit of the chalk range at Merstham.
Tiie surface of the chalk is varied by numerous alternate valleys and
ridges, the former of which have been washed out by the mighty rush
i - ancient ocean long before the earth was peopled by its pre-
sent race of inhabitants. These valleys are, notwithstanding, quite
dry at the present time, if we except that in which the intermittent
stream called the Ravenshourne occasionally breaks out and Hows for
a few weeks. This chalk district is distinguished by a very light and
shallow soil, and the land is much covered by flints. Except in some
of the valleys the soil is much too shallow and porous for the growth
of corn, and is, therefore, devoted to pasturage, the grass being very
short, but of a Bweet flavour, and well adapted for sheep like that of
ordinary mountain districts. Few tracts are more difficult of im-
provement than one with a dry absorbent subsoil of chalk with a very
shallow covering of mould. The clay and sand proper ior mixture
with such a soil for the object of improving its mechanical structure,
have to be conveyed up lull from valleys which are already too low,
and from which the earth can ill be spared out of any occasional ex-
cavations. Nevertheless, the judicious application of capital to the
object of strengthening the soil and rendering it more retentive of
moisture, would effect great improvements even in the most unpro-
ductive chalk districts.

Between Croydon and the Merstham tunnel there are several minor
stations at which only the Brighton trains stop, those of the South-
ii company making no stoppage till they arrive at the other end
of the tunnel.

From Croydon to Merstham, at which place is the summit of the
chalk country, the Brighton Railway rises all the way at the rate of
■20 feet in a mile, and very heavy cuttings through the chalk have
been found necessary to secure even this, which, in the language of
engineering, is by no means a favourable gradient. Before entering
the Merstham tunnel particularly, the cutting is very deep, and the
sides of the excavation being nearly upright, have a very formidable

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THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

453

appearance, suggesting the idea of considerable danger, even from
the fall of a very small mass of rock from the top of the cutting,
should it happen to alight upon a passing train.

At Red Hill, which is about two miles south of the Merstham
tunnel, the South-Eastern Railway diverges from the Brighton line liv
a short curve, which forms an arc of a circle one mile in diameter.
The first work which attracts attention on the South-Eastern line is
the great tunnel through the green-sand formation at Bletchingley
3| miles from the junction with the Brighton line. This tunnel is 1326
yards in length, and is built in the form of an ellipsis with a circular in-
vert. The width of the tunnel in the widest part, namely, in the minor
axis of the ellipse is 24 feet, its width at the invert is 22 feet 3 in.,
the versed sine of the invert is 3 feet, and the full vertical height of
the tunnel is 25 feet, measured from the hollow of the invert to the
crown of the arch. I take these dimensions from the report of
General Paslev on the opening of the railway. In the neighbourhood
of Bletchingley, and in the same range of sand hills as that of which
Red Hill forms a part, are the famous Fullers' earth quarries at Nut-
field. This mineral is extensively carried into the clothing districts
of Yorkshire and the west of England, and is of great importance in
the woollen manufacture.

It is worthy of notice that the first public railway constructed in
the south of England, was that laid down from Wandsworth to
Merstham, for the purpose of conveying the lime, firestone, and ful-
ler's earth of Merstham, Gatton, and Nuffield, to Croydon and Wands-
worth, from which places these minerals were sent by barges up the
Thames and through the Croydon Canal. This ancient railway was
called the Surrey iron tramroad, and was the work of Mr. Jessop a
celebrated engineer, who designed it about the beginning of the pre-
sent century. The minerals formerly carried by this tramroad are
now conveyed by the Brighton Railway and by carts along the public
road. The old tramway has been bought up by the Brighton Railway
• company, and all the iron and stone blocks sold off. The fullers' earth
pits are highly interesting to geologists, and are well worth a visit
from any one who has an hour to spare at Red Hill. The peculiar
earth known by this name is a variety of clay possessing highly ab-
stergent properties, which renders it of great value in the process of
cleansing woollen cloths from grease and other impurities. Fullers'
earth contains 53 per cent of silex, a larger proportion than most
other clays, and is distinguished by a remarkable property of falling
to pieces and readily passing into the state of impalpable mud on the
addition of water. In consequence of this it is necessary to preserve
it with great care from the injurious effects of rain, and the carts
containing it are commonly covered with tarpaulin for this purpose.
Some of the embankments on the Brighton Railway were partly com-
posed of fullers' earth in a wet condition, and this material being soon
reduced to a fluid state run out from its place in the embankment, which
as a matter of course, gave way, and subsided to an aiarming extent.
The fullers' earth of Nuffield is of two kinds, the blue and yellow,
the latter being esteemed the best. The pits contain great quantities
of a semi-transparent massive spar, termed by mineralogists the
ponderous earth or sulphate of baryles, (from ftapos weight.) Besides
the Bletchingley tunnel there is another short tunnel SS yards in
length, just before coming to Tunbridge, and a succession of cuttings
and embankments, some of which are of considerable extent. There
are also several large viaducts over branches of the Medway in the
neighbourhood of Tunbridge.

The strata between Bletchingley and Tunbridge belong to the
weald clay formation, but at Tunbridge several of the cuttings
present sections of the Forest series, thus proving the interesting
fact that these latter strata encroach more upon the weald at this
place than shown on Mr. Greenough's and other geological maps.
The true weald clay is almost uniform in its appearance, consisting
commonly of the blue or brown varieties, with occasionally a thin bed
of imperfectly aggregated shelly limestone, whereas the Forest strata
consist of numerous alternations of sand and sandstone, with beds of
clay extremely various iu thickness, separating the layers of rock
from each other. This appearance, which is presented by the cut-
tinge near Tunbridge cannot be mistaken for that of the weald clay,
and hence ample reason appears to exist for examining into the ac-
curacy of the geological maps of this district. The principal works
between Tunbridge and Ashford are a deep cutting at Postern be-
tween that place and Headcorn, with several viaducts over the Teise
and the Beult feeders of the Medway, and one over the Stour, which
flows by Canterbury and falls into the sea at the Reculver. These
viaducts are principally built of timber, by which, of course, their
cost has been considerably diminished, although, at the same time, it
must be borne in mind, that they will decay much more speedily, and
probably prove not cheaper in the end than structures of masonry.

The stations on this line have also been designed with a strict view

to economy. Those at Tunbridge and Ashford are of considerable
size, the others consist of small wooden buildings stuccoed on the
outside, lined on the inside with canvas, and painted or papered in a
handsome manner. At each station there is a booking office on each
side of the railway, and these offices are not opposite to each other,
that intended for the down train being nearest to Dover, and that for
the up trains nearest to London.

The permanent way on this line is constructed in a peculiar manner.
The rails weigh about 71 lb. per lineal yard, and are fixed in chairs
which are supported by transverse sleepers of timber. The chief
peculiarity consists in the form of the sleepers, two of which are
made by sawing a square log of Baltic fir diagonally through the
middle, so that each sleeper is a triangle in section. These triangular
sleepers are laid with the edge or vertex downwards, and the chair is
bedded upon the flat upper surface. The advantages of this plan are
said to comprise superior facilities for packing the sleepers so as to
secure them from disturbance, at the same time that its economy is
said to be greater than any other that has been tried. Considerable
difficulty has been experienced in procuring ballast for the permanent
way. This was originally supplied by the sand cutting at Red Hill,
but the material used was" of far too fine a quality, and is blown away
in great quantities during windy weather. I hear that the company
is now about either partially, or entirely, to re-ballast the line with
gravel from Croydon, the expense of carriage by the railway being so
small that thev can afford to go all this distance for a superior material.

I have already said that the railway commences by a curve when it
leaves the Brighton line, and with the exception of this curve the line
may be considered straight all the way to Ashford, a distance of
nearly forty-five miles from its junction with the Brighton Railway.
Throughout this long distance, with the exception of the small pro-
trusion of Forest strata at Tunbridge, the line lies entirely in the
weald clay, which forms a flat belt of country about seven miles wide,
risino- to the north towards the sand range which accompanies the
north Downs, and bounded on the south by the gradual slope of the
Forest district, which assumes in central Kent an elevation of GOO or
800 feet. The weald thus lies in a valley between the sand range on
the north and the Forest country on the south. It is everywhere
covered by abundance of fine oak timber, which flourishes in such
luxuriance upon the weald clay, that William Smith the geologist,
wdio first traced the succession of strata in this part of England,
adopted the name of the oak tree clay for this formation.

Whoever has paid any attention to the physical geography of this
country must have been impressed by the important connection be-
tween the Wealden district and the surrounding barrier of chalk
which everywhere accompanies it. A series of cold wet clays, re-
markablv adhesive and retentive of moisture, composes the subsoil
of the Wealden country, a soil so mechanically constituted as to be
almost incapable of cultivation without the action of frost or of some
other acrent capable of producing a mechanical division and sepa-
ration of its adhesive particles. Just such an agent is quick lime,
which being mixed with the stiff heavy clay, bursts and splits the
clods into many pieces, and produces a soft mellow soil which is ca-
pable of being cultivated to great advantage. For many years it has
been the practice of the best farmers in the wealds both of Kent and
Sussex to transport large quantities of chalk either burnt in the state
of quick lime, or in the native state of chalk, to be burnt on their
own land, for the purpose of mixing with the soil. It is a well-
known fact that lime is even carried to some parts of the weald,
a distance of 20 miles or more over such execrable roads, that the
cost of carriage alone must exceed 1/. per ton. Now mark the cir-
cumstances of the great extent of wealden clay through wdnch the
South-Eastern Railway passes. On one part of the line, namely, ad-
joining the great cutting and tunnel at Merstham, there is a million
tons of chalk lying absolutely waste and useless, encumbering the land
by its presence, and forming unsightly heaps of spoil by the side of
the railway. Why is not this chalk burnt into lime and conveyed by
the railway into the clay districts, where it would produce such ob-
vious improvement? Chalk maybe bad in equal abundance from
the southern extremity of the line at the works beyond Folkstone, so
that the distance of carriage to no part of the clay district on the
direct line would exceed 25 miles, and the cost at the ordinary charge
for carrying lime would be about 8s. per ton for the whole distance.
If the railway were employed in this service it would prove of incal-
culable advantage to the agriculturists of Kent, as it runs directly
through the middle of the wealden district in its longest direction, and
the carriage by wagon from the sides of the railway would not exceed
four or five miles in the most unfavourable cases. I did not observe
a single ton of lime!) on the railway when I passed over it, and I
greatly fear that hitherto the agriculturists of this district have been
grossly negligent of the advantages within their reach.

454

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

Besides the deficiency of lime to mix with the soil, there is another
circumstance which seriously deteriorates the prosperity of this dis-
trict. The various streams and rivers flowing through it, as the Stour,
the Beult, and the Teise, with the various branches of the Medway,
afford a drainage so little below the general surface of the country,
that collateral drainage cuts would produce little or no advantage, as
the water stands in all the water courses at a level so high as very
injuriously to saturate the adjacent lands. Under these circumstances,
embanked watercourses on a high level would be required to carry
off the drainage water, which would consequently have to be pumped
up by steam or other mechanical power. It will probably be long
before the circumstances of the country will permit of such extensive
measures in agricultural engineering being carried into effect, but the
means pointed out of procuring lime for dressing the land are ob-
viously within the reach of all, and it can be esteemed nothing less
than criminal to neglect them.

The railway company is carrying on extensive works in connexion
with the harbour of Folkstone. A splendid hotel has been erected
close to the harbour for the accommodation of passengers to and from
the Continent. An elegant and substantial brick viaduct is being
built from the railway station outside the town down to the harbour,
and this when completed will afford great accommodation for em-
barking and landing both passengers and goods. The harbour was
formed many years since by the inhabitants of the town, who, in order
to complete the works, were obliged to borrow money from the Ex-
chequer Loan Commissioners; as the interest of this loan was not
regularly paid, the harbour, like many other public works in similar
circumstances, was seized by the Commissioners, it was lately sold
to the South-Eastern Railway Company at a very low price. This
bargain was no sooner closed than the company undertook exten-
sive measures for the deepening and general improvement of the
harbour. When it came into their possession vessels could only
lie at one particular place inside the harbour, namely, alongside the
western pier, there being no sufficient depth in other places, even it
high water. From the numerous lines of temporary railway laid
down from the harbour to the beach on the east side, the earth-wagons,
and the horse runs erected at various places, it appears to be the inten-
tion of the company to deepen the whole area of the harbour, so as to
give the same depth of water inside as there is upon the bar at the
entrance. The area of the harbour is about 12 or 15 acres, and it is
enclosed by sea walls of a peculiar construction, the stones being laid
not in horizontal courses but at an angle of about 43°. All the courses
regularly rake up at this angle from the base of the wall to the top,
and the stones are pitched in dry without mortar, so that the sea is
allowed free access through the numerous cavities in the wall. The
stone of which the sea wall is built belongs to the green sand forma-
tion. It corresponds with the Kentish rag so extensively quarried in
the neighbourhood of Boughton Malherbe, Sutton Valence, and other
places in the northern part of the county. The stone is a very hard
calcareous grit interspersed with numerous small specks of the pecu-
liar mineral called silicate of iron, from the colour of which the for-
mation takes its name. The stone is procured abundantly in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the harbour; indeed the beach hereabouts
exposes the hare rock which pitches down at a considerable angle to
the north. The action of the sea upon the rock is to tilt large masses
of it up from its natural bed, and many huge blocks may be seen
resting in this altered position which the violence of the waves has
caused them to assume. It was probably from observing this natural
fact, and finding that the rock on which the sea walls were to be
founded, was already formed by nature into steps, which the new con-
struction would most readily unite with if the stones were laid at an
angle, that the peculiar method of building, I have referred to, was
adopted in these works. The walls appear to stand remarkably well,
and though during the recent gales immense mountains of shingle
have been raised against the. groin at the western entrance of the
harbour, no damage appears to have been sustained by any of the
walls. The blocks of stone are of very great area, some of them
more than 100 square feet; but their thickness is not great, few of the
bi'ds being more than S or 9 inches in depth. The bar at the entrance
of this harbour is quite dry at low water, and renders the entrance
impracticable except for a few hours before and after high water.

I had intended to extend my observations to the yet unfinished
works of the railway between Folkstone and Dover, but the whole of
the day which I had at my command was so fully taken up at the
former place, that 1 must defer an examination of the remaining part
of the line until it is open to Dover, which I am informed will be in
the course of a few weeks. H.

THE RAILWAYS' TERMINUS, LONDON BRIDGE.

A statement having apeared in the Journal of the last month, re-
lative to the building of the London Bridge Station of the Brighton,
Croydon, Dover, and Greenwich Railways, which is calculated to mis-
lead, in consequence of it not being exactly expressed in accordance
with the facts ; we therefore deem it right to state that the whole of
the works of the three first-named companies have been under the
joint direction of Messrs. Rastrick and Cubitt as Engineers, and of
Mr. H. Roberts as architect and that Mr. Turner to whom especial
reference has been made was employed at the recommendation of the
"Joint Engineers and Architect," as " resident superintendent," and
to prepare the drawings according to the directions received from
them, which drawings were of course subject to their constant super-
vision and alteration. The facade building combining the offices of
the Greenwich Railway Company was designed in conjunction with
Mr. G. Smith the architect to that Company although the details were
left more immediatelv under the direction of Mr. Roberts.

THK STEAM PLOUGH.

On Saturday, Dec. 9, we had the pleasure, says the Dumfries Courier, of
seeing this truly remarkable machine in operation ; and a more striking proof
of what can be accomplished by human skill and perseverance can hardly be
imagined. In the month of August last, a description of the machine ivas
given in our columns, with a sketch of the improvements projected by Mr.
W\ J. Curtis, civil engineer (an old correspondent of this Journal) ; and these
have been brought in tin' interim to such a state, that the plough is now in
full trorking order. Those who have paid any attention to the subject are
aware that the steam engine which drives the plough is contained in a
wooden house, borne on the moss by two flexible endless hands or wels,
formed of timber and fastened by bands of hoop iron. By this arrangement '
the great weight of the boiler, engine, and other apparatus, is distributed
over a considerable surface, and the m >ss enabled to hear a pressure which,
in ordinary circumstances, would force it to sink. By the application of
wheels and moveable railway bars, on a principle formerly explained, the
Imuse can be conveyed along at a slow rate, moving in curves ; and
indeed since the date alluded to, it has been removed to a part of the moss
nearly a quarter of a mile distance from its original situation.

The prevalent belief on the subject is that the plough travels on the moss
propelled by the engine in the same manner as a locomotive on a railway.
This is not the case, however; the engine remains stationary (or at least
comparatively so), while the plough is propelled on the principle of the end-
less rope, somewhat akin to what may be seen at the stations of the Liver-
pool and Manchester, or Edinburgh and Dalkeith railways, where trains
ascend and descend the adjoining tunnels by means of a stationary engine.
In a right line opposite the engine-house, and at the distance of the furrows'
length, there is a wooden framework on wheels, also moving on a moveable
railway. It is betwixt these apparatus that the plough, detached alike from
both, or at least only connected by the rope, moves along. The rope of
great strength, being composed of wire twisted together, passes round two
drums in front of the engine, and round a pulley in the centre of the wooden
frame work. The p'ough is also connected with this rope, so that when the
engine is put in operation, by which the drums revolve, the rope being'coiled
round one of them and off the other, impels the plough from the engine
house towards the wooden frame work, which acts as a point d'appui. The
plough is double in every respect, so that when the wooden frame work has
been reached, or in other words the length of furrow completed, another
furrow is formed by the plough returning to the engine house. The plough,
be it distinctly understood, alone moves in forming the furrow, the engine
and frame work merely requiring to be shifted the breadth of the furrow for
each one which the plough forms in length ; or to make a comparison with
the common process, the engine moves along the head rig, while the plough
goes up and down the field. In the plough itself the improvements made by
Mr. Curtis are particularly conspicuous. The instrument consists simply of
a share at either end moving on two small wheels, with a wooden framework
below and an iron one above, which distribute the weight over a considerable
surface. The steersman sits within, and by means of a novel invention,
directs the course of the plough at pleasure ; for, by turning a wheel, he
coils or uncoils part of the rope upon a small drum attached to the machine,
which brings the force of the engine to bear obliquely on either side desired,
and guides the apparatus in the same manner as a ship is steered. A code
of signals has also been established, by means of which the steersman can
communicate with the individuals in charge of the engine and those stationed
at the pulley framework, according as circumstances may require. One great
step in this interesting experiment has now been made. The plough ploughs
well and steadily, at the rate of between two and three miles an hour, turning
over its huge furrow in a perfectly straight line, in a piece of moss where
ho could not even stand, far less draw.

RAILWAY COMMUNICATION WITH IRELAND.

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

455

RAILWAY COMMUNICATION WITH IRELAND.

The Report op James Walker, Esq.., C.E.
(Slightly Abridged, with an Engraving, Plate XVIII.)

To Sir John Barrow, Bart., Secretary to the Admiralty.

* * I now proceed in the order pointed out to me in your letter. First,
to give my opinion of Holyhead for a packet station, and also for a harbour
of refuge ; these being two distinct questions. My instructions may be
taken as having reference chiefly to the engineering part of the subject ; but
it was impossible for me to do justice to this, without extending my consi-
deration out to sea, and even across the channel, and considering how the
day and night beacons, the land-marks, and the shoals, affect the passage
and the entrance into the harbour. I have, therefore, examined the charts
and pursued the reports on this subject, particularly that of Sir James
Gordon and Captain Beechy, which, with the observations on the petition of
Mr. Ormsby Gore, and others, and the replies to these observations, together
with the opinions of the various naval officers, including Lieutenant She-
ringham, appear to me to have completely exhausted the naval part of the
question, and must be well known to the Lords of the Admiralty, and all
who have attended to the subject ; so that very little need be said by me on
that head. The natural advantages of Holyhead are described to consist of
its being the nearest point of land to Dublin, being situated under a pro-
jecting and very conspicuous head-land, giving facilities for keeping out at
sea in case of missing, or being unable to enter the harbour, the Skerries
forming another good sea-mark, the entrance being free from bar, and the
shelter which the bay affords to vessels from all winds, excepting between
north-west and north-north-east.

Holyhead Harbour. — This bay, and the shallow estuary now forming the
inner Holyhead harbour, appear always to have been a shelter for coasters ;
and the creation of a town there, before art had done almost anything to
assist nature, confirms the opinion. It was not until 1715 that a light was
shown upon the Skerries, nor was the South Stack lighted until 1809. These
lights being one on each side of the harbour, at the distance of eight miles
from each other, together with the pier, and the excellent light upon it, be-
tween the two outer leading lights, have much added to the natural advan-
tages of Holyhead, and mark the direct course to, and the entrance into, the
harbour in a superior manner.

The Stag Rock, which has now fifteen feet upon it at low water of spring
tides, and the platters, which are within half a mile of the shore, are the
only sunk rocks in the direct course of the entrance. There is one uninter-
rupted course, clear of shoals, between Holyhead and Kingstown, with the
exception of the Burford Bank, which has upon the shoalest part two fa-
thoms at low water spring tides.

The prominent disadvantages (within the "head") of Holyhead in its
present state, as a harbour of refuge, are, that the bottom of the bay is bad
holding ground, so that vessels at anchor there are exposed, during heavy
northerly gales, to great danger of their anchors dragging, and their being
driven upon the rocks, which, with some exception, encompass the bay ;
also, that from the pier pointing so much towards the shore, there is not
room for a vessel to work in with a strong westerly, or to get out with an
easterly wind, without danger of getting upon the rocks. I have not re-
ceived a list of the losses and damage that have occurred. The depth along-
side the pier for 300 feet is 10 feet at low water: this decreases rapidly,
leaving but little space, even near the entrance, covered with water at low
water of spring tides, and one half of the estuary or inner harbour is dry
before half ebb.

As a harbour of refuge, therefore, Holyhead has at present but little pre-
tensions, and yet it is much used by wind-bound coasters. I was informed
by Captain Evans, the harbour-master, that during the three first months of
this year, 394 vessels used the harbour for shelter, or being wind-bound or
laid up.

As a mail-packet station, Holyhead has, even now, much to boast of. The
certainty has indeed been extraordinary. Lieutenant Jones informed me
that during the six years he has been on the station, there has been no in-
stance of his packet, in the very worst weather, not having started so soon
as the mail was on board, or of having put back after having started, or of
being unable to enter after approaching the harbour. A few of the
crossings have however been long. During the six years he has had
one passage of 21 hours and two or three of eighteen hours. Com-
mander Kaines also, the agent for all the packets, stated, that the Holyhead
packets had never missed starting, and that they can make the passage at all
weathers. Lieutenant Smail, of the Zephyr, said, that, excepting about six
times in winter, during excessive gales, his longest time has been 7$ hours,
the quickest 5}, and the average 6} hours. This information, added to the
letters which are attached to Sir James Gordon and Captain Beechey's re-
port, from the same, and from other officers who had left the station, is very
strong as an argument in favour of Holyhead, in even its present state. *

I beg now to refer you to the accompanying design for improving and en-
larging Holyhead harbour. It maybe considered as of three divisions: —
1st. A steam-packet pier, sufficient to give accommodation to the proposed
larger packets. 2nd. A break-water pier, to form, upon a cheaper plan, a
shelter to shipping from the northerly winds ; and 3rd. The further extension
of the landing-pier in the same direction as before, and returning the end
over the Stag Rock, towards the termination of the breakwater, thus forming

an inclosed harbour for refuge and the convenience of trade. Each of these
stages may be considered an independent work, and would be useful without
the other. The third or last division is a larger work.

Returning to the packet-pier (lettered A B on the design No. 1) its direc-
tion will be east-by-south nearly ; its length 700 feet, and width 80 feet —
both sides walled anil faced with ashlar, as the north side will form also one
side of the future harbour. The depth at low-water spring tides, at the
inner end, 12 feet, and at the outer end, 18 feet. A return jetty of 100 feet
is proposed at the outer end. The estimate of this division is .€78,000.

Second. The breakwater (lettered E F G on the drawing No. 1) is de-
signed to be carried out from the rocks at the north end of Salt Island, in
an east-by-south straight direction 500 yards, and there returned by a curve
to a southerly direction. Its termination or head will bear north-east-by-
uorth of the Stag Rock, from which it will be distant 250 yards. This arm
as will be seen by the plan, will shelter a large space (upwards of 70 acres)
from all the heavy seas to which it is open. The low water depth, excepting
for a very small space ou the west side, will exceed 18 feet, the average
being 24 feet. It will also protect the north side of the steam-packet pier,
so that vessels may come alongside it. The estimate of this work, including
the removal of the inner platters, is £177,000. These two works, therefore,
amount to £255,000.

By the third division it is proposed to extend the packet pier 750 feet
(from B to C on the drawing No. 1), and to project a jetty 150 feet to the
southward. Thus the present pier, with the pier before described, and this
extension, will form the south side of the harbour of refuge. A return in a
north-east-by-north direction for a length of 900 feet (lettered C D on the
drawing No. 1), will leave an entrance of 300 or 350 feet wide between it
and the termination of the breakwater, making a complete harbour of refuge
of about 80 acres, in which the large-class ships will be afloat at the lowest
water. The cost of this work will be £145,000.

The amount of the three works is thus £400,000. When they are done
the accommodation will be of the first order for steamers, the length of deep
water quay being not less than 3900 feet, of which 2900 feet are within the
inclosed harbour. There will also be an excellent harbour of refuge, which
ships of the largest class may enter and leave with almost all winds, be al-
ways afloat, and in perfect safety while in the harbour. As I before said,
each may be finished independently of the other, and each will be most
useful after its kind, but not perfect as a whole, because the breakwater
alone would not give such complete refuge as when made an inclosed har-
bour, by the completion of the third division. The two first divisions,
amounting to £255,000, correspond nearly with what I have afterwards to
submit for Porth-dyn-llaen, where an inclosed harbour is not proposed. *

Having already described the disadvantages of Holyhead in its present
state, it is but justice to say now, that I think the works I have just described
will almost entirely remove them. Thus, the bad holding ground outside the
harbour will be of very little consequence, if vessels, by entering the har-
bour, have little or no occasion to anchor outside ; and the same reason
renders the rocks round the bay comparatively harmless. I am not aware
that in my department there can be an objection to the plan but the expense ;
and as doubling the expense quadruples the area, and diminishes the swell,
I consider that if made at all the harbour should be capacious. * * *

Porth-dyn-llaen Harbour. — Having thus given my opinion of Holyhead,
with its capability of improvement, I have now to state the result of my ob-
servations upon Porth-dyn-llaen. Its present state may be considered as a
state of nature, scarcely anything having been done to improve it ; nor does
it appear that any one connected with shipping has thought it his interest to
settle or build near it for furnishing supplies to the vessels that may have
frequented it. There is no shop or store of any kind nearer than Edern
(one mile) ; nor is there the appearance of their having been one ; a proof
that if on occasions a great number of ships have taken advantage of the
harbour, these occasions have not been frequent, or the ships must have re-
mained a very short time. Yet this may not be conclusive against Porth-
dyn-llaen having important natural facilities, for developing which a judicious
application of science might do much. There are points in which I consider
it has advantages. * * * *

In its present state there is nothing to recommend Porth-dyn-llaen as a
station for packets. Everything would have to be done ; and it cannot be
denied that the elevation of the surrounding sandhills, which is 80 to 100
feet above high waeer, close to the sea, would cause considerable labour and
expense to make convenient buildings, approaches, and communications. An
example of this is given in the level at which Mr. Yignoles and Mr. Purdon,
the engineers, have proposed to terminate the Porth-dyn-llaen Railway near
the point, being 70 to 80 feet above the level of the sea at high water.
This may be lowered, but the inclination would be increased.

Your instructions to me are, to prepare plans for a harbour, for a packet
station, and for a refuge harbour at Porth-dyn-llaen, as well as at Holyhead,
I have done so, and by enlarging Lieutenant Sheringbam's chart, have to
present a design for a pier and breakwater at Porth-dyn-llaen, drawn to the
same scale as that for Holyhead.

Firstly. — For a packet station, the design proposes to form a pier from the
east angle of Porth-dyn-llaen point to Carreg-y-chwislan (lettered A B on
design No. 2), a length of about 300 yards, in an east-by-south direction,
which is terminated by a return jetty upon Carreg-y-chwislau. This would
give good length for steamers; the depth inside it, is ample. The width of
the quay or pier, exclusive of parapet, is shown to he 50 feet. I have sup-
posed a quay wall at the west end of the pier to le requisite for the purpose

456

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

of giving between it and the rock a site for buildings, and other conveniences
necessary for connexion with the packets. This is drawn to go southward
from the west end of the harbour wall, at A on the plan, and to extend to D,
a length of nearly 200 yards. The amount of the works I have described
to form this packet station is estimated at £120,000.

Secondly.— A harbour of refuge is supposed to be obtained by forming a
sloping breakwater (from B to C on the plan) 600 yards in continuation of
the pier. The area sheltered from the worst winds, and of which no part
would have less than 12 feet water at low water, is about 100 acres, which
from the apparent facility of procuring stone, » might be executed for about
£90,000. Thus the engineering works for the packet harbour and refuge
harbour would be £210,000, exclusive of all other buildings and accommo-
dation, the expence of which would raise the total cost above that for all the
works which I have designed for Holyhead, and then Porth-dyn-llaen would
be more contracted in quay room, and inferior in other conveniences, but
would have a larger deepwater harbour. * * *

The relative positions of Holyhead and Porth-dyn-llaen harbours, and the
adjacent coast lighthouses, are shown on drawing No. 3. The advocates for
Porth-dyn-llaen place in the foreground the objection that Holyhead is often
in fog, and point to the excellent land mark afforded by the " rivels," and
other high ground in the bay. The reply from the other side is, that there
is deep water to the foot of the " head," which is often clear when the sum-
mit is in a fog; that it is the land-mark which is of all others best known,
which a seaman coming into the channel generally attempts to make : tliat
the rivels in Caernarvon Bay are not to be seen in foggy and thick weather
until approaching them, when if a mistake has been made, it is difficult to
correct it ; and that the rivels at the bottom of the bay, are by no means
equal to the head at the projecting point, as a land mark. * *

On referring to the objections to Holyhead, it may be noticed that they
chiefly apply to the harbour as it is. Now, if the measures I have proposed
would remedy these defects, which I think they would do, and render it
nearly a perfect packet station and harbour of refuge, it is in this improved
state that it should be compared with Porth-dyn-llaen in its improved state;
for, in a national question of this kind, the true policy I take to be, to select
what is capable of being made the best, and if there has been an error in
hitherto using Holyhead, to proceed no further, but at once to adopt Porth-
dyn-llaen. After, however, doing the best in my power in planning for both
places, and supposing the land facilities equal, I have been unable to discover
anything like sufficient grounds for preferring improved Porth-dyn-llaen to
improved Holyhead for a packet station ; I should say this if the sea dis-
tance were equal, which is not the case, Holyhead being nearer by six geo-
graphical or seven statute miles. Sir JamesGordon and Captain Beechey
state the virtual difference in making the passage, owing to the influence of
the tides and to clear the kish sand, as several miles greater than the actual
difference ; and on the average of cases the fact will, as I have said before,
be so.

If, then, Holyhead be the better station, independently of the town, the
pier, the dock, the government yard, and the present land communication —
all these come in to add to the weight of the arguments in its favour — 1 do
not think it possible to have at Porth-dyn-llaen so convenient a site for a
dock-yard establishment, as I have them upon the plan on west side of the
proposed new harbour at Holyhead. For these purposes also, the nearer dis-
tance of Holyhead to Liverpool by sea, for the conveyance of materials, is a
consideration.

Notwithstanding all this, a harbour at Porth-dyn-llaen, on the plan I have
proposed, would be found very useful as a harbour of refuge for wind-bound
vessels, or ships in distress, driven into or near to Caernarvon Bay, or going
to Caernarvon, or to the Menai Straits for cargo, and waiting to cross the
bar. * * * * * *

The Railway. — I have now to comply with the part of your instructions
that has reference to the communication by railway from the two harbours,
and. as I have already stated, this branch must be imperfect, from mv not
having vet received any plans of an inland or south line. To the coast line
I have given considerable attention. Mr. Stephenson and Mr. Giles have
each proposed a line from Chester to Holyhead, and each has been reported
on in detail by Sir F. Smith, and Professor Barlow. I have marked npo
Ordnance sheets which will be delivered with this report, Mr. Stephenson's line
by yellow, and Mr. Giles's by red lines. Nearly the same line was suggested,
and is described by Mr. Vignoles, in his report of .November, 1837, to the
Commissioners for inquiring into the subject of railwavs in Ireland.

Both lines, after leaving Chester, follow the west shore of the estuary of
the Dee, through Flint, pass under Holywell to Mostvn quav, go round inside
the point of Air, thence straight to the south of Rhyl, and continue ahmg
the coast until Within a few miles of Conway, when they proceed to the
south side of Conway ; after passing which, they again approach the coast,
and continue along it to near Penrhyn Park, which they leave on the north
or sea-side, and proceed through or near Bangor to the present Menai Bridge,
after crossing which they leave the turnpike-road to get to the low ground
on the south side of Anglesea, the greatest distance from the road being at
two miles west of Mona, where they are 3) miles to the south. From this
point they again approach gradually the turnpike-road near Holvhead.

My decided opinion of the railway, as of the harbour, is that the best line

' I have not supposed any stone to be taken from the Portb-dyn-llacn
Point, which it would be injudicious to do.

should be selected : and that the railway should be made in a good manner
as a great public work. I believe that the cheapest way might be to do the
work well, even if the traffic expected upon it were for some time small ; hut
I think the traffic upon this line will be great and increasing ; iudeed, that
for all but the lowest class of passengers, it will be the general mode of con-
veyance from all parts of Ireland to England. The north of Ireland is the
most out of its influence, and yet five hours between Belfast and London will
be saved by going by the railway from Belfast to Dublin when completed,
crossing to Holyhead, and then taking the railway to London. The case for
the south and west of Ireland would, of course, be still stronger. Then there
is the trade of passengers and goods to and from Holyhead, should the har-
bour be extended and used as I have referred to. It is a mistake, therefore,
to suppose, that carrying the mails will be the principal business, or that the
mail-trains will be the only trains. The Holyhead and Chester line, if this
be the line finally adopted, may, when it has attained the same maturity, be
nearly as good a line for trade as some of the lines which it will join now
are ; and that it will be at once a valuable tributary to all of them, cannot
be doubted. I name the above, from seeing in Mr. Bidder's evidence on
Mr. Stephenson's plan, that there has been a proposal of haviug only one
line, w ith passing places ; an expedient which may have a saving in the first
cost to recommend it ; but which the danger, the difficulty of repairing, the
uncertainty, and the delay, ought much to outweigh. Also, in place of the
very circuitous lines which have been proposed at Bangor, and the Menai
Straits, and drawing the trains by horses, or by a fixed engine, up the slope
and along the present bridge, which was built, and should be kept for a turn-
pike road, I think the line should be continued direct to the Straits, and the
Straits crossed by an arched bridge built for the railway. The unfitness for
a railway, uf the present suspension-bridge, which is approached by a slope
of 1 in 25 ; the interference by engines and trains with the present use of it,
which interference will, I am sure, be more frequent and annoying than ap-
pears to have been contemplated ; the delay at all times, and particularly in
stormy weather; the having to cross Bangor with an embankment of 70 feet
in the deepest part ; the numerous curves to reach the bridge, and the repe-
tition of similar curves on the Anglesea side, are all objectionable. I think
neither the Holyhead road, nor the Menai bridge, should be injuriously in-
terfered with. The district, and the traveller who does not wish to go at
railway speed, ought not to be deprived of the facilities they have had upon
the turnpike roads, which the change of fashion may make more used than
they are at present, besides being some check upon tendency to monopoly
and its effects. I have shown the circuitous line, and the more direct line
recommended by me upon the accompanying plan (No. 4). The railway
bridge may cross at the Swelly or Gorred Goch rocks. The position and
width of the latter are taken from a survey by Mr. Vignoles; tliey arc nearest
the direct line. The late Mr. Kennie and Mr. Telford both proposed fixed
bridges over the Straits; the cost was, I believe, the objection. The iron-
work of bridges may now be done at half the cost, and the traffic will be
very much greater than was then calculated upon.

I think Mr. Stephenson's plan- of terminating on the west, better than
that of Mr. Giles, which takes the east side of Holyhead harbour. Mr. Giles'
plan of leaving the Chester and Crewe line before reaching the city of
Chester, is much to be preferred to Mr. Stephenson's, which passes to the
west of the city, and turns back through it by curves and works of consider-
able difficulty. These, if not objectionable to the citizens, are of an expen-
sive nature. The distance from Holyhead to London, and to all the principal
towns, excepting Liverpool, is one mile shorter by Mr. Giles' than by Mr.
Stephenson's plan here ; and of all places, Liverpool is, from having the
direct sea communication to Dublin, least interested in the question. By
Mr. Giles' line there is one mile less of "railway to make here. The accom-
panying plan (No. 5) shows the directions of the two lines near Chester.
Short tunnels through the points of Penman Back and Penmau Mawr will,
in my opinion, be preferable, in respect of despatch and safety, to embanking
outside the perpendicular cliffs, which are heavily struck by the seas. The
gradients for both lines are unobjectionable. A very detailed and clear
account of each line is given in Sir F. Smith's and Professor Barlow's report,
which contains also a proof of the sufficiency, as a question of statistics, of
the chains of the Meuai Bridge to carry the railway trains. Mr. Stephenson's
line, through Anglesea, is not so straight as Mr. Giles', but the difference in
cost would, in some places, be greater than the advantage by the straightness;
a medium course may he the best. Near the Menai and approaching Holy-
head, Mr. Stephenson appears to keep unnecessarily near the road for the
safety of travellers upon it.

I avoid troubling you with further details. If the Government be a party
to any contract, the line as well as the terms will, no doubt, be settled with
due reference to the public in the conveyance of passengers as well as mails.
If the harbour works be done in a good manner at the public expense, the
railway to it should correspond ; whatever is expended in improving and
enlarging the harbour will be beneficial to the railway by increasing the
traffic upon it; and if the railway is to he made by a Joint-stock Company,
there will, I apprehend, be no difficulty at present in obtaining offers from
parties who would be ready, with the aid of a fair compensation for carrying
the mails, to undertake the work upon a plan approved by the Government.

- If there is any inaccuracy in my statement of Mr. Stephenson's line, it
must be ascribed in part to my not receiving from him any explanation of
his line, beyond what the documents which he had previously sent in afforded

1S44.J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

457

To have parties who are influential upon the present lines, so that the public
convenience may be secured for the whole length, might be an advantage.

Working of the Railway. — As the survey of the inland line of railway is
unfinished, I have not inquired into the working of the Great Western Rail-
way, hut I have into that of the London and Birmingham, and I have re-
ceived every facility and attention in doing so from Mr. Glyn, the chairman,
Mr. Creed and Mr. Bury, with an expression of readiness to consider liberally
any suggestion that might lie made. A few which I named, and will now
state, were received in this spirit. Ten minutes are allowed for the first mile
from Euston- square, on account of the stationary engine work; this is at the
rate of six miles per hour; it may be done and often is done in less time,
but the difference is lost at the first stoppage, as the train must wait its time
there. Now it is agreed that the locomotive engine might go to the terminus
and start at once. This would save five to seven minutes. In two hours
after starting there is a stoppage of ten minutes at Wolverton, where refresh-
ments are supplied and invitingly served ; less than half the time would do
for changing the engine. There is no similar stoppage between Liverpool
and Birmingham, although Birmingham is nearly equidistant from London
and Liverpool. The arrangements near Birmingham are still more unne-
cessary and more tedious. Here the up and down trains are taken off the
direct course to the Birmingham station, to a point which obliges the car-
riages to be turned round upon turn-plates ; half an hour is usually allowed
for this and for refreshments. These operations being finished, the train
returns along a curve upon the Grand Junction Railway to the valley of the
Tame. In addition to the stoppage, we have had 2£ miles of unnecessary
travelling, the straight line or base of the triangle being 2£ miles, the two
sides which are travelled 4§ miles. I see no reason, except " the good of the
houses," why the mail, or a traveller to Liverpool or Dublin, should be kept
ten minutes at Wolverton, and then be carried two miles out of his way in
two hours afterwards, to be refreshed for half an hour at Birmingham.3
Delicate persons, requiring frequent and long stoppages, will have the oppor-
tunity of travelling by other than the mail trains. Between 8 o'clock p.m.,
when the mail coaches upon the road leave London, and the same hour next
morning, no time is allowed but for changing horses. If a few minutes be
taken at some one place, it has to be made up for on the road. This may be
the other extreme, and insufficient ; it is worse than having no stoppage,
exceeding five minutes, between London and Holyhead. Even Birmingham,
for the sake of conciliating which the Birmingham detour was made at the
time, will, I think, agree, that its convenience would be answered by having
the Birmingham carriages to detach from the train. The accompanying
plan (No. 6) illustrates my remarks on the Birmingham detour. In justice
to the Railway Companies themselves, and to such of their passengers as are
desirous of " getting on," the cut ought to be made now. The Companies
can afford it ; I have had it surveyed. The execution would not be expen-
sive, considering its importance. There are no buildings in the way. By the
above plan, and the alterations lower down to which I have referred, the
worst curves between London and Holyhead will be avoided, and the distance
reduced nearly five miles.4

Speed. — Then as to speed. The London and Birmingham Company began
very prudently at 18 mdes per hcur; the work was new to them; they rose
to 20, then 22 J- ; the last return of their mail trains was 20^. "With the
exception of their power being occasionally too small for their loads to en-
sure punctuality, their work has been regularly, safely, and creditably done,
so far as I have observed or heard, and has progressed steadily ; their con-
cern has paid well, and they appear disposed to attend to what the public
convenience requires of them. The present Great Western speed is 29.
These include stoppages. There is, in my opinion, nothing in the difference
of gage of the two railways to prevent the Birmingham and Grand Junction
being as quick as the Great Western, if they would apply sufficient power.
That the Directors think so, is evident, from their allowing a speed of 40
miles per hour to be run when the inclination is in favour. The Northern
and Eastern return 30 miles as their speed exclusive of stoppages. My
observations upon this railway, and part of the Brighton, and also the South
Eastern, make the speed vary from 36 to 40, and occasionally 42. The
Great Western is often 45 ; on special occasions, it is still more.

The following calculations of time and speed are meant to refer to the mail
and fast trains only. I propose to show, that after the extension and im-
provements to which I have referred are made, the journey between London
and Dublin may generally be made in about 14 hours, and that the answers
to letters posted in the evening may be received by the morning delivery,
after one day's interval. By the received measurements of the present rail-
ways, and of the Ordnance map from Chester to Holyhead, the distance be-
tween London and Holyhead, allowing for the straightening at Birmingham
and other places, will be 207 miles, which, at 30 miles per hour, is 7 h. 25 min.

Add for one stoppage of 15', two of 10', two of 5', and five of 4' 1 5

Makes between London and Holyhead stations . . . . 8 30

or 31^ miles per hour, including stoppages.
Allow for crossing to Kingston and reaching the Dublin Post Office 5 30

Is from Euston station to Post Office, Dublin . . . . . . 14

Allow time in Dublin .. .. .. .. .. ..5

Journey hack to Euston-square .. .. .. .. ..14

Making the journey from Euston-square to Dublin, and back to
Euston-square 33 hours.

According to this, if the train leave the Euston station at 8 30'5 p.m., the
present time for departure. The mail would be in Dublin Post Office at
10 30' on the following morning; it would leave at 3 30' in the afternoon,
and arrive at Euston-square at 5 30' next morning, being the present time
for arrival there. Some modification may be required in the detail, but a
very small allowance upon the present speed is required to justify the con-
clusion as being practicable. Whether the Great Western course will pro-
duce something still superior, remains to be shown when I have the mate-
rials for making the calculations ; but to have taken the Birmingham and
Grand Junction lines, without including the improvements of which they are
capable, would" have been unfair, as I think the Birmingham and Grand
Junction companies will see it, to be their interest to make these improve-
ments, because, without them, the above results for the time of the mails
between London and Dublin could not have been brought out.

I named having inspected the country between Bangor aud Porth-dyn
Uaen, which has been surveyed by Mr. Vignoles and Mr. Purdon for a rail-
way. A higher level near Penryhn Castle must be kept to accommodate this
line ; but, after getting through the hill above Bangor, which, according to
my opinion, the Holyhead as well as the Porth-dyn-llaen line should en-
counter, therctiis no difficult feature for a great length. The line keeps
within a short distance of the turnpike road which skirts the Menai Straits
an dCaernarvon Bay, except near Caernarvon, which it passes 1£ mile east of
the town. The country is favourable, very much more so indeed than its
vicinity to mountains would have led me to expect. The only difficulty of a
formidable nature is the Rivel mountain, which the engineers manage by
keeping close to the shore, where the mountain is so narrow that only two
short tunnels, together one mile in length, are required. There is also a
deep and difficult cutting west of the Rivels, two-thirds of a mile long,
through rock. The greatest inclination is 1 in 400. The length from Ban-
gor to Porth-dyn-llaen is four miles greater than to Holyhead, but of the
two, I consider that to Porth-dyn-llaen the easier ; and if an inland line to
Holyhead, whether through Worcester or Shrewsbury, can be shown, which
shall be as good as by far the greater portion of the Bangor to Porth-dyn-
llaen line, it will be superior to the coast line, which has some heavy rock in
parts, and which, in some places upon the coast, will be much exposed to
storms.

3 There is no Post-office arrangement requiring so great a delay.

4 The line that was projected from Stone to Rugby would save 7 miles,
by making 00 miles of railroad.

= All Greenwich time. Dublin time is 25' 22" later. Much confusion
and disappointment would be prevented by the clocks in the United Kingdom
being all kept to Greenwich time ; the true time for astronomical purposes
might also be shown upon the dial.

GILDING AND SILVERING BY IMMERSION.

The following new methods of gilding and silvering by immersion have
been adopted on the Continent. Their easy execution puts them within the
reach of persons who have hitherto been strangers to this kind of operation.

Gilding on Silver. — Silver is gilt very readily by means of neutral chloride
of gold added to a solution of sulpho-cyanide of potassium till the precipitate
formed at first is redissolved. It is necessary that this liquid should preserve
a slightly acid reaction, and if it has lost it by too great an addition of sulpho-
cyanide, it must be rendered so by adding a few drops of hydro-chloric acid.
In order to gild, the silver is plunged into this liquid nearly boiling and
tolerably concentrated, in which state it is kept by pouring, from time to
time, some hot water to replace that which has evaporated. In this manner,
inconveniences which would result from too great concentration of the acid,
is avoided, whose pressure is, nevertheless, useful to oppose the formation of
an auriferous precipitate which takes place by elevation of temperature, when
alkali predominates.

To Gild and Silver on Copper, Brass, and Bronze. — The solution of the
cyanide of gold or silver has been already pointed out for silvering and gild-
ing under the influence of electric forces, but it has been found that the same
solutions, brought to a temperature near their point of ebullition, can also
gild and silver by dipping. With regard to their preparation, if it were
necessary to obtain them chemically pure, it would be expensive, without
any advantage being obtained ; the operation can be simplified and rendered
much less expensive, by adding directly, either to the chloride of gold, or to
the nitrate of silver, neutral, the cyanide of potassium in excess, so as to
obtain the soluble double cyanides.

Silver cannot be gilt by this method, but as has already been stated, the
6ulpho-cyanide of gold and potassium gilds this metal very well.

The solution of the cyanide of copper in the cyanide of potassium, will not
copper silver, even in contact with zinc ; however, it will copper this latter
metal in a very solid and perfect manner.

It must, however, he stated, that these processes, though so very conve-
nient, because they always succeed and require hut a few minutes for their
preparation, deposit, unfortuately, but a very thin coating of the precipitated
metal. This is an inconvenience common to all methods of coating by
simple immersion.

453

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

ON VENTILATION OF SHIPS.

Suggestions for the better Ventilation of Sailing and Steam Vessels. By
Robert Ritchie, Esq., F.R.S.S.A., &c, C.E., Edinburgh.

(Abridged from a paper read before the Royal Seottish Society of Arts, April 10'

1843, and reported in their Transactions. Illustrated by Diagrams ami

Models.)

The ctimmencement of the paper is occupied with a history of the various
contrivances and means proposed for ventilating ships from 'the year 1741
to the present time.

The failure, however, of so many ingenious schemes, extending over so
many years, for improving successfully the ventilation of ships, has tended
very strongly to impress me with the idea, that any method to be extensively
useful, especially as regards sailing-vessels, must enter into the original con-
struction of ships. And with this view I would suggest the introduction
into timber and iron-built ships, of a thorough and efficient system of spon-
taneous or self-acting ventilation, affording at all times an ample supply of
fresh air in every part of a ship, by means of a judicious arrangement of
air-flues in the former, and pipes in the latter. In a large class of vessels
ow afloat, hy application of the openings or interstices between the timbers
(presently in use for airing the frame-work.) where the plan of close timbers
has not yet been adopted, a free circulation of air might be effected at all
times in lower-decks and cabins. As regards the airing of the frame-work
itself, its importance has long been a point of much interest for the preser-
vation of the parts below the surface, though much difference of opinion
among practical men Is entertained on this point, one class advocating a free
circulation of air about the timbers, and another the exclusion of air. ' In
a communication to the Royal Society of London in 1820, by Sir Robert
Seppinga, F.K.S., wlun giving suggestions for a new principle of construction
of ships for the mercantile navy, he alludes to the ventilators of Dr. Hales,
and the utility of general ventilation, but attaches importance to the exclu-
sion of atmospheric air for the preservation of the frame-work, though he
was not inattentive to the value of admitting air to the interior of ships.
Another view is taken of this subjpet in the able treatise on ship-building in
the Encyclopedia Brittaunira. where the suggestion is made that the preser-
vation of the timbers might be assisted by ad. pting the openings between the
timbers themselves, for the purpose of circulating air about them ; and it is
staled that, in the year 1S27, the author had proposed this plan to the Ad-
miralty. This opinion strengthens the vim 1 entertain of the practicability
of combining in a very simple way the general ventilation of the ship, with
due attention to the ventilation of the frame-work.

The defect at present in airing the frame, where the interstices of timbers
arc made use of, arises from the difficulty of obtaining a current or circula-
tion, from the inlet for the air being placed between decks, and no outlet
being provided. But were it so contrived as to allow at all times a free
current of external air by points of ingress and egress, the effect would be
very different. It seems often overlooked, but there is no point more impor-
tant to be attended to in spontaneous ventilation, than that where openings
are provided for the escape of impure air, others must also be provided foi
the supply of fresli air, and vice versa. It must not be forgotten that air,
like other fluids, can only fill a given space, or, as one of the earliest writers
remarks, '• that unless openings are properly adapted to suffer air to pass
freely through, the external air proves a stopper to the internal, and only
mixes with the next in contact." The same law which regulates the effect of
currents in natural caverns, and which has been successfully applied to the
ventilation of mines, will apply with equal force here. We know that the
air in a well remains stagnant and pent up ; but as has been remarked,2 if
two wells or shafts are sunk at a given distance from each other, and a
horizontal passage cut from the botiom of one well to the other, so soon as
the communication is made, there will be a tendency in the air to descend
one shaft and ascend the other, whenever the temperature of the external
air varied from that below. Applying the principle to the general ventila-
tion of ships, there is nothing to prevent the converting of the open spaces
between the timbers or ribs, into fresh or foul air flues or conduits. One se-
ries of these being arranged to convey down pure air— not to be taken from
below, but from above the upper deck— to points of discharge at the floors
of the gun and orlop decks, cabin-floors, or wherever requisite, and another"
series of openings entirely separated from the first, to commence at the beams
or ceilings of these respective places, and pass upward above decks as high
as convenient, for the escape of the foul or vitiated air. The points of in-

1 Captain Symmonds, Surveyor-General of Dock Yards, has, in a man of
war now ready for launching at Woolwich, carried the timbers solid about
as high as the lower gun purls. Mr. Lang, who is naval architect for the
;„"!i ' i V; 12°Su"S.now building, I am informed, does not intend carrying
up the solid frame nearly so high. ' °

2 Letter of John Buddie, Northumberland, 1815.

gress or egress for the air between decks may be in the form of a horizonta i
slit covered with perforated sheet copper or zinc, to break the force of the
current. The points of inlet and outlet for the air above deck might have
their effect increased, by having the orifices so arranged, that, while pro-
tected from the weather, the former would open to, the latter from, the wind.
A portion of the interstices of the timbers similarly arranged, communi-
cating directly with the open air, could be made to circulate fresh air for the
timbers of the ship : but the apertures for the ventilation requisite for crews
and passengers, must have no communication with the former, so as to pre-
vent the corrupt gases from the bilge entering the latter. Inconveniences
may be experienced practically in having the air openings, as described,
from the difficulty of constructing those on the upper-deck so as to keep out
the water ; but were the principle adopted and carried into practice, the
skill and ingenuity of ship-builders would soon overcome any such slight
obstacles. Ventilation cannot be attained unless fresh air is admitted from
above.3 When air is made to enter the openings between the timbers below
the hatches, as is now done, it must be useless when the latter are put on, as
must be obvious to the most cursory observer. Admit, however, the external
air, as proposed, and whether hatches were secured down, or side-ports closed,
in whatever state of weather, there would be pure air conveyed to the in-
mates below ; and although in some cases this mode of ventilation might be
imperfect, yet it possesses the advantage of being always in operation, re-
quiring neither attention nor labour, nor incurring expense. To make it
more complete in winter, the external air openings would require to be pro-
vided with means for regulation.

Were it necessary to attain a greater certainty of perfect ventilation, at
all times and in all climates, recourse .may then be had for increasing the
circulation to the plan I have alluded to, of artificial suction by heat ; and
instead of allowing the foul air to escape upwards from the tubes or pipes,
the air might be collected from these into one horizontal trunk, and con-
veyed in the galley.

In iron-built ships, and in all vessels w here there are no interstices between
the timbers or ribs, or where these cannot be made use of, iron, copper, lead,
i r zinc pipes may be substituted instead. Nor would the space these occupy
form any obstruction or ground of objection, as the air-pipes could be made
flat or square, keeping the line of the inner wall of the ship. By some such
simple arrangements as these, I can hardly doubt very considerable improve-
ments would be effected generally in the ventilation of ships, and the ob-
stacles to the permanent use of any machine, however perfect, in sailing
vessels, must make the view I here take of it more important. It can, how-
ever, only be brought about by ship-owners and others giving encourage-
ment to the combination or incorporation of ventilating arrangements with
the construction of ships, such as have in a similar way been successfully
done in domestic and public buildings. (See observations by me on this
subject, Arch. Mag., July 1837J

I do not wish, however, to be understood as inferring that even any such
mode of spontaneous ventilation as could be incorporated with the frame-
work of ships would prove at all limes sufficient for the ventilation of an
wded vessel. The immense deterioration of atmospheric air, by 600
to 800 persons crowded inlo a small space, where the cubical contents bear
no proportion to the cubic feet of air required for each person (10 cubic feet
being considered as requisite per minute to afford a wholesome atmosphere),
renders such arrangement next to hopeless without mechanical agency. So
long as vessels are overcrowded, hardly any plan can be devised which can
afford an adequate supply of fresh air to lower-decks during night ; all that
can be done, without artificial means, is to prevent positive injury to health,
by affording a constant and uniform supply of fresh air below decks at all
times, which surely is deserving of the most serious consideration.

In very crowded ships, such as troop-ships and others, whether any ar-
rangements, such as alluded to, are provided or not, the wind-fan, as im-
proved, could be advantageously made use of. Two or more of these ma-
chines, worked by hand, would speedily renovate the air of a lower deck, by
means of flexible pipes communicating with different parts of the vessel ; in
emigrant ships, the passengers would, doubtless, very gladly work these ma-
chines for the sake of fresh air in warm latitudes.

Another ventilator could likewise be advantageously applied in many
cases in sailing ships, namely, an exhausting pump, with a hose or pipe, on
the principle of pumping out the foul air, or a condensing or force-pump to
throw in atmospheric air, worked like the pump of a ship or fire-engine.
One of the earliest recommendations of a pump for ventilaiing purposes
noticed, is by Dr. Desagulier. He mentions in his experimental Phil., that
in the year 1727, he brought before ithe Royal Society an attempt to show
how damps or foul air may be drawn out of every sort of mine by an engine

8 The advantage of conveying air directly downwards fiom the upper
deck, has been recently fully established in the Apollo Troop Ship fr 01
China, (and one or two other instances,) whose merely small openings at the
gunwales, with lids to shut down in wet weather, are made use of. How
easily might this principle be extended, and rendered most efficient, as above
described !

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

45D

■which he contrived, " The engine consists of a Iriple crank with three
pumps, which hoth suck out and force in air hy means of three regulators,
and are alternately applied to drive air into, or draw it out from, any place
assigned, through square wooden trunks which, being made of slit deal, and
ten inches wide inside, are easily portable, and joined to one another without
trouble." 4 Dr. D. illustrates his description with notices of several experi-
ments. At every stroke, eleven cubic feet of air was driven in, or as many
sucked out ; if the axis of the cranks turn sixty times in a minute, one man
in that time might change a whole cubic space of eight feet ; and by his esti-
mate, a man breaths a gallon, about 287 cubic inches, of air per minute, and
a candle, six in the pound, will burn nearly as long in the same quantity.
This agrees with modern calculations, at the lowest estimate— 300 cubic
inches are contaminated by a man per minute, although Trcdgold and others
take the quantity at 800 cubic inches, and a single candle alone at 300 cubic
inches. These facts go far to prove the necessity of ventilation, and in expe-
riments made on board ships' lower decks (Philosophical Transactions, Vol.
47), it is stated that a candle burned 67 grains in thirty minutes where there
had been no ventilation for twenty-four hours; after six hours' ventilation,
it burned 94J grains in the same time. Combustion could barely be main-
tained in the former atmosphere.

If the utility and convenience of Dr. Desagulier's hand- pumps realized
the description given of them, they might still be usefully employed in the
ventilation of the lower parts of ships. Many other mechanical contri-
vances might be noticed. For instance, the double air force-pump, worked
by two or four men, on the principle now in use for diving-bells, which is
worked by a lever, upon a standard, on the plan of Dr. Hales' ventilator.
Triewald's ventilator (page 383} was probably on this principle. It may also
be noticed here that the success which attends forcing down air, into mines,
by means of a fall of water, points out how the foul air. which accumulates
in the well of a ship, might in a great measure be discharged by letting
down to and pumping out fresh water from the well. As the use, however,
of mechanical ventilators has been generally, and still may be, even when
they are restored to, of temporary duration in sailing vessels, no doubt,
chiefly from the want of a motive power, my object in directing attention to
a thorough system of spontaneous ventilation has been to show that in my
opinion it is most likely, if properly achieved, to be permanently useful.5

In steam-ships, however, there can exist no obstacle to the expelling of
noxious air mechanically, or the application of a perfect system of mechan-
ical or artificial ventilation, nor can there be any reason why they should
not be properly ventilated. Yet I question much if anywhere an efficient
system has been introduced. I have, indeed, observed of late years an at-
tempt to introduce ventilation into the cabins of a few steamers by provi-
ding small iron pipes from the ceilings, passing upwards through the deck ;
but, unaccompanied as these usually are, with fresh air inlets from above
they cannot prove efficient, and only tend, perhaps, to create annoyance !
however the introduction of these acknowledges the necessity for ventilation
being provided.

In the common arrangement of steam-ships conveying passengers, the
sleeping births enter from the saloon or main cabin ; hence it may be said
that eating, drinking, and sleeping go on in the same apartment. The at-
mosphere from such causes soon becomes noxious, which is generally farther
increased by what Mr. Dickens, in his American Notes, so strongly con-
demns, the red-hot sulphurous stove, the inconvenience of which is increased
by passengers crowding round it. No wonder the air in such cabins and
saloons is sickening and unpleasant for respiration. During the day, if the
weather be fine and hatches open, matters may go on pretty well ; but in bad
weather, or during the night, the case is very different. If proper air con-
duits or pipes were provided to bring down an ample supply of fresh air
from above, distributed at the floors or decks of every cabin and sleeping
berth; and from the ceilings of the respective cabins, or vacant spaces be-
tween the beams, branch-pipes conveyed the vitiated air to one large trunk,
which might be made with proper precaution to communicate with the chim-
ney, the engine-boilers, or pass through a steam chest, or encircle the steam-
pipe — a constant renewal of the entire air between decks would go on. The
current might be checked and regulated by valves, working in a very simple
manner, before entering the chimney. In winter, the comfort of the passen-
gers might be materially increased were the air warmed before being dis-
charged into the cabins — cold oliensive currents would thus be avoided. It
is singular that the same idea had occurred to Buchanan, when he wrote, in
1810, on heating by steam. "It is worthy of the consideration.'' he says,
" of those acquainted with nautical affairs, how far it is applicable to ships,
particularly to men-of-war.'' There is generally in steamers very little spare
steam; but a very small portion would be requisite to warm the cabins ; or
hot water could even be more eflectively employed. In this case, the ex-

4 The machine was cheaply made— the pumps of copper, and crank of
iron.

5 See " On conducting air by forced ventilation," &c, by the Marquis of
Chabannes, London, 1S18, and remarks on ditto, by J. Arnot.

ternal air, before entering the cabins, might pass through boxes or cases
filled with iron or copper pipes heated with hot water or spare steam from
the boiler ; or the air itself might pass through the interstices of iron cases
similarly heated, and then enter into the cabins through numerous small
apertures. Thus warmth and the supply of fresh air could in winter be com-
bined.

I have alluded to the wind-fan having been made use of to supply fresh
air or cool the furnace-room, the power being taken from the paddle-shalt.
The fan admits of easy extension to the general ventilation of the steamer.0

In some recent instances, ventilators, on the principle of the Archimedian
screw, have been tried for this purpose. Ventilators or revolving fans, on
this plan which I have seen, are stated to have long been in use in factories.
In an extensive flax-mill in Yorkshire, a very powerful fan on the principle
of the screw propeller, driven by steam power, has been most successfully
adopted, and the plan there in use for imparling moisture to thea'r, is highly
deserving of general application, and ought never to be overlooked in ven-
tilating arrangements.

The importance of keeping the furnace- room cool is of great consequence,
especially in warm climates, as the heat is injurious to the health— the cold
air rushing to the furnace, falis like lead on the heads of the stokers. To
remedy the over-heating, though it cannot prevent the draught, a plan, pro-
posed by Mr. Holdsworih of [Dartmouth, has recently been tried in the
Victoria and Albert, Royal Steam Packet, of having the bulkheads of two
plates of sheet-iron, and a stream of cold water kept constantly flowing
between.

Another plan of ventilating, suitable for steam-ships, which the small
space it occupies recommends, is the very ingenious method adopted by Mr.
Oldham at the Bank of England, of forcing in fresh air, by an air-eon-
densing pump, through the interstices of iron cases heated by steam, the
power being taken from the steam-engine, as described in the Civil Engineer's
Journal, March 1839. This plan gives both fresh air and a modification of
its temperature.

Mr. Taylor's plan, described in the Transactions of the Society of Arts,
London, 1810, of pumping out impure air from mines by an air-exhausting
cylinder, likewise admits of application to steam-vessels. Mr. Taylor's
engine discharged more than 200 gallons of air per minute. ' The idea of a
motive power to work ventilators is of very old standing. A plan is given
in the Phil. Trans. 1758, of using the fire-engines at mines for this pur-
pose.s Various other suggestions might be made to apply ventilation to
steam-ships— even the suction from the motion of the paddle-wheels might
be made subservient to this purpose; but it is superfluous to say more on
what admits of so many ways of attainment.

It is unquestionable, that the same share of attention has not been paid
to the advancement of ventilation, as to other branches of the arts and
sciences. A wide field is therefore open for improvements. But to be suc-
cessful, these things must not be left to chance ; they must form part of the
construction of ships and steamers, and the naval architect and ventilator
as has been well observed by Dr. Reid, " must work together."

While undue currents of cold air must be avoided — which are often
troublesome, and must be injurious— ventilation, to be perfect, should be so
arranged as to admit of being increased or diminished, according to the
number of inmates. In our climate, in steamers, whether in coasting or long
voyages, it would be of importance to have the power of raising the tempe-
rature of fresh air before admission to cabins; merely giving it, however,
that slight degree of warmth that will not be injurious to its hygrometric
condition. This would insure a larger volume of air being admitted. The
plan is so easily attainable, that it might lead to the dispensing, iu a great
measure, with close arid stoves, so detrimental to the health in confined
situations. It is remarked, that even C'elsus, amongst the ancients, recom-
mended large rooms for the sick, or a fire in the chimney to draw off bad
air. Where fire-heat is made use of in cabins, it ought, if possible, to be in
open fire grates. An ample exposition of the injurious etiects of close
stoves will be found in the Architectural Magazine, May 1838, p, 231, by
Julius Jeffreys, Esq.

0 In September 1842, a patent was granted to Robert Hazard, of Clifton,
near Bristol, for improvements in ventilating carriages and cabins of steam-
boats. He proposed to remove the vitiated air within a carriage by means of
a fanner fixed at a convenient place, and set in motion by the revolution of
the wheel, or by other motive-power. He does not specily bow he intended
to apply his fans to cabins, but as regards the application to the latter, there
is little scope for novelty. — Rep. of Arts, May 1843.

7 Mr. Taylor's plan consisted in attaching a pump of simple construction
to a small fall of water of about 12 feet. Steam-power could be substituted
for water.

8 It was first proposed by Erasmus King, to have ventilators worked by
the fire-engines ol mines; and Mr. Fitzgerald, in 1758 (see Phil. Trans ),
suggested an improved method of doing so. I have alluded to the similarity
of mine-ventilation with that of ships; thus, by having a series of flexible
pipes connected with a wind-engine, or an air-pump attached to a steam-
engine, immense supplies of air might be driven in, or drawn out, where
required.

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It is important for nautical men to know the great value of fire-heat as a
purifier of the air of lower decks and close places, in the estimation of many
of the most experienced navigators and naval commanders : Cook and Nelson
may be named.9 How conspicuously the importance of sanatory regulations
were illustrated in the remarkable voyage in 1773-75, of Captain Cook, who,
during three years, out of 118 persons on board, lost four, and of these enly
one by sickness. 10 Me have likewise several similar examples in the arctic
and antarctic voyages. See Expeditions of 1821, 1824, and later ones,
where the advantages of warmth combined with ventilation, are clearly
shown.

A very simple contrivance might be found useful for purifying lower decks
when unoccupied ; a grate, formed like a circular basket, hung in gimbals,
which, like a pendulum, has its point of rest in the perpendicular.

The value of lime and vinegar washings and fumigations in destroying the
bad effects of impure air, did not escape the older philosophers.11 The
knowledge of these facts was of vast utility in the days of Howard. Pro-
fessor Daniel, and other chemists, have, in these times, recommended the
use of chlorine gas and chloride of lime for a similar purpose. In com-
bination with ventilating arrangements in ships the value of such antidotes
— especially where sickness prevails — should not be overlooked.

If we turn to the graphic pages of Smollett, we may at once perceive, by
contrasting his description of a man-of-war with the inspection of one now-
a-days, what great improvements have been made. But still, much is yet to
be done in ship-ventilation generally throughout the world. The air, being
invisible, deceives many a one, leading us to consider it pure, while it may
be stagnant and corrupt ; hence the necessity of impressing the admission
of fresh air at all times, as we do light ; and the absurd idea cannot be too
soon exploded, of people enclosing themselves in an air-tight box oi
With improved means of ventilation of^hips and steamers, the energies ol
all on board will be promoted. By inhaling pure air during night as well
as day, in cold or warm climales, increased longevity will be attained, and,
at all events, the general comfort improved ; and as Britain has outstripped
most nations in ihe application of steam-power to useful purposes, why
should she not take the lead in cultivating those arts which the physiologist
has proved to be essential to the advancement of the physical condition of
mankind ?

0 An excellent paper on this subject, written nearly a century back, will
be found in the Unit. Magazine, on the method of Preserving the Health of
Seamen in long cruizes ami voyages, where ventilation and lumigation are
strongly enforced. Vol. xvii., 1747-8.

• o Maval History, 1773, p. 34y.

11 Dr. Stephen Hales made many experiments recorded in his Statical
Essays, London, 1731, vol. l, with a view lo clear the air from noxious va-
pours. He found nothing so efficacious as a solution of potash, lie says,
page 2U7, "Sal Tartar should Le ihe best preservation against noxious W
pours, as being a strong imbiber of sulphuros acid and watery vapour, as is
also sea-salt." A solution of caustic alkali will take up fixed air as last as it
is produced.

The rapid absorption of ammonia by water, and the avidity of fresh lime
for carbonic acid, point out the utility ot water with lime recently dissolved
in ii, fot neutralizing the effects ol impure air, either by the use of frequent
fresh lime-washings, or exposing, in shallow vessels, frequently stirred, sola-
lions of fresh lime. In factories, the sulphate of lime or gypsum is in
general use fur the absorption of ammonia, or removing the smell of the
soil-pipes.

DECORATION.— HOUSE-PAINTING.

[We wish to direct the especial attention of Architects to the following
paper extracted from the .■llhenamm ; it is a subject that we hae often in-
tended to have taken in hand, but it is here treated with so much judgment
that we safely leave it with our talented contemporary and trust that the
papers will be speedily followed up by others as hinted at in the conclusion
of the present article.]

The British School of Painting is already distinguished as a school of
colour, and we islanders arc said to delight in full toned and positive colour-
ing : a proposition we are not disposed to controvert, though it is rather
puzzling to find satisfactory evidence of it at the present time. We do not
see our public buildings, our churches, our places of assemblage for lay
purposes, our private dwellings, our dress, or our furniture, generally ani-
mated with the fascinations of colours. Truth surely would compel us to
admit, in spite of growing exceptions which might be quoted to the contrary,
that we have little else but frigid white-washings and sombre neutral tim-
ings in our buildings, and show little knowledge and appreciation of colour
in the more mechanical productions of art. Yet in none of Nature's domains
is she more bountiful in specimens of colour and its endless varieties, than in
our country. During the revolution of a year, we are treated with blue
skies rivalling those of Italy — (not frequently, perhaps, yet we do have them)
and red fiery sunsets, not inferior in depth and intensity to those of Libya,
and between these extremes, arising from the modification of light, we may

collect every variety of cold colouring on the one hand, and warm on the
other. The colouring of our vegetation too, is, of infinite diversity; and
where is the clime that shows such delicate varieties in the colouring of com-
plexions and eyes ? Yet somehow, if we view the use and employment of
colours at the present time, we cannot be said to be following up in our
own works, the bountiful gifts and suggestions of Nature. Time was when
we seemed in our practice more sensible of the influences of colour. The
old Papistical Chapter of the metropolitan cathedral painted the walls of Old
St. Paul's ; whilst the new Protestant Chapter actually refused to receive
paintings as a gift. Such remnants of Middle Age furniture as are preserved
to us, indicate a much more extensive employment of bright colouring, than
the furniture of our own time. Perhaps no very early specimens of the use
of colouring in the interior of our domestic dwellings, can now be produced,
yet as we know well, that the outskles of houses were hung on high days
with brilliant tinted tapestry, we are surely justified in inferring, that the
insides of houses had other tints than neutral ones. Even so near our times
as the Commonwealth, our dress was far more coloured than it is now. It
might be proved, that before the Reformation, English people delighted in
strong and bright colours, and perhaps the temporary suppression of the
taste (a suppression but temporary, though its duration has been so long)
might be shown to have been owing to that event : we will not, however,
discuss the point here. From some cause, it is certain, that we have ceased,
for a long period, to use colours as much as we formerly did, and we may
welcome that general revival in the employment of them which is assuredly
taking place, and which first began to show itself markedly in pictures. It is,
therefore, little matter for surprise, if we find in so subordinate an application
of colouring as the decoration of our dwellings, either very little positive
colouring, or very little knowledge or taste displayed in the employment of
so much as we do find. In a paper on the subject of painting, in the
Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, the following remarks occur on the present state
of House-Painting, very apposite to what we have here advanced : —

" With us, the practice is chiefly confined to that of a mere handicraft,
where little refinement is sought for, beyond the simple usage of the painter's
shop, the mixing up of colours and their smooth application to the wall.
Whereas, in Italy, the study and acquirements of a house-painter are little
inferior to what is requisite for the higher branches of the art; and, in fact,
the practice of both is not (infrequently combined. They are more conver-
sant with the science, as well as the practice, of colouring, with the rules of
harmony and with the composition of ornamental painting in all its branches :
so that their works might be transferred to canvass, and admired for their
excellence. In fact, the great frescos of the first masters, which have been
the admiration of ages, were but part of the general embellishment of the
churches and palaces of Italy. And the most celebrated names in the list
of artists, have left memorials of their fame iri the humble decorations of the
arabesque, in which all the exuberance and playfulness of fancy is displayed,
as well as the most enchanting harmony of brilliant colours. It is in this
essential point of harmony, that our practice is particularly defective ; we
rarely see, in the simple painting of our apartments, any combination of
colours that is not in some part offensive against even the common rules of
art ; if there are any rules observed, save those of mere caprice or chance —
although there are certain combinations pointed out by the laws of optics,
which can as little be made to harmonize as two discordant notes in music.
The unpleasant effects arising from such erroneous mixtures and juxta-
positions, we are often sufficiently aware of, without having the skill requisite
to assign the reason any more than the painter who chose them. This ac-
counts for the prevalent use of neutral colours in our ornamental painting,
which is less liable to offend by whatever bright colour it may be relieved,
and likewise the safer and more agreeable combination of the different shades
of the same iudefinite colour. But no sooner do our painters attempt any
combination of decided colours than they fail. The ornamental painting, in
Italy, is almost entirely in decided colours of the most brilliant hue, and yet
always inexpressibly pleasing in the combinations, because the rules of harmony
are known and attended to. Neither is this proficiency confined to the deco-
ration of palaces, or the more elaborate and expensive works ; we have seen
in dwellings of a much humbler cast, and indeed in general practice, the most
graceful designs of ornament painted, not in the simple manner of Camayeu,
but displaying every possible tint of bold and vivid colouring, and melting
into each other with all the skill and harmony of a piece of brilliant
music."

For our parts, we are disposed to believe harmonious colouring, consistently
employed in the decoration of all buildings — inhabited buildings especially,
where we spend a great part of our lives — not to be either slight or unim-
portant in its influence on the moral tone of the inhabitants. As we may
read to some extent the character of individuals in their dress, so we believe
we might do so in the character of their dwellings. Hence, a very dull-
minded, tasteless people we may be pronounced to have been during the
eighteenta century. A room of bright and cheerful appearance surely tends
to dispel gloomy and melancholy associations, whilst a dark and dismal cell
provokes them. Glitter and tawdriness disturb thoughtfulness, whilst quie-
tude in colouring tends to suggest it.

" Experience," says Goethe, " teaches us that particular colours excite
particular states of feeling." It is related of a witty Frenchman, " II pre-
tendoit que son ton de conversation avec Madame etoit change depuis qu'elle
avoit change en cramoisi le meuble de son cabinet qui etoit bleu."

The great majority of domestic apartments at the present time, even in
houses of the first class, have scarcely any marked features of decoration

1844.]

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461

about them which indicate taste or knowledge. They present a monotonous
sameness and deficiency of any principles of taste, — the varieties of character
which occur, from time to time, being regulated only by the caprices of
fashion. Sometimes every room you enter is of one colour. In one of the
most splendid of modern houses in the metropolis — we mean in Sutherland
House — we have been especially struck with the monotony of white and
profuse gilding, in the forms of the Louis Quinze period. Sometimes the rage
is for warm shades of colouring, at others for cold, though the preponderating
taste seems to take refuge in dull, characterless, neutral colouring. " People
of refinement" to quote Goethe again) "have a disinclination to colours.
This may be owing partly to weakness of sight, partly to the uncertainly of
taste, which readily takes refuge in absolute negation." During one season
salmon colour, as it is called, reigns supreme ; then sage colour succeeds
salmon ; drab follows sage or slate ; and then all varieties of crimson put out
the drabs. Each is employed in its turn, without the slightest reference to
any of the questions which should determine its appropriateness or other-
wise. It is the same with ornamental patterns. One year you will find
every drawing-room papered with patterns of flowers, another year scrolls
will be all the rage. One year small patterns are correct — in the following
large only can be tolerated ; and whilst each fashion reigned, each was ex-
clusively used. Crimson walls in south aspects, leaden coloured ones in
north aspects. Small patterns applied to rooms large and small, and large
patterns to rooms small and large. A like absence of any recognized prin-
ciples is seen in the carpets and hangings. When crimson walls were
oftenest seen, then was the call for drab and light-coloured carpets. More
by luck, than anything else, it is now the fashion to have the carpets darker
in colour than the walls. We may often enter a room which, preserving
something of each shifting fashion of the few past years, exhibits a viola-
tion of every principle of harmonious decoration. Walls of a hot and
positive colour in a room with a southern aspect — blue ceilings fuller of
colour than the drab carpets, with curtains and hangings of scarlet — and
perchance a huge sofa covered with black horse-hair. Not a single thing
appropriate or consistent, but the whole a medley of unsuitableness.

Having watched this subject with interest for years, we have arrived at
some conclusions which, we think, it may possibly be useful to submit to
our readers, and we shall endeavour to do so, in such a shape, that they
may be turned, perhaps, to some practical account. It appears to us, that
certain principles of decoration may be laid down, which, if recognized
and applied, would make our dwellings much more cheerful and comfort-
able ; which might make them comparatively beautiful, not only without
any additional cost, but would make the keep of them more economical, by
rendering them, to a great degree, independent of the caprices of fashion.
It is the absence of correct principles which causes decoration and furni-
ture to be out of fashion — tiresome — palling to the eye, and subject to
constant change, — whereas, what is really beautiful, being based on ever-
lasting principles, is subject to no change. We think the greater part of
the painting of a house might he a work to last for a life, with benefit
even to journeyman painters, and infinite satisfaction to the house inha-
bitant. A truly melancholy suspension of comfort is the work of painting
a house. Your whole little world so turned upside down, that it hardly rights
itself before the work has to be done again. What a comfort it would be to
undergo the penance only once in a life, instead of every seven years.

It seems to us quite a mistake — though a very common and popular one —
to imagine that Beauty is necessarily costly in its production. Nothing
could be cheaper in material or manufacture, than the earthenware pots
of the ancient Etruscans, yet they have perfect and everlasting beauty in
their forms. The preference of one colour to another, within a very wide
range of colours, is not at all a thing of greater or lesser cost. So far from
beauty being costly, it would more often happen that in a given number of
existing specimens of decoration, the greater beauty and harmony would he
obtained at a smaller cost of labour and material, than what are expended
to produce ugliness and confusion. Take, at random, a dozen patterns of
paper hangings of various colours and devices, and in the majority of them,
we believe it could he shown, that their cost of production might be materi-
ally lessened, whilst their beauty should be greatly enhanced.

Before we proceed further in the discussion of any practical rules for co-
louring interiors of houses, we must find room to quote, from Mr. Hay's
work on Decorative Painting, some of his statements of the principal defects
which he has observed in internal decorations. A conviction that our prac-
tice is not what it ought to be, and a humble recognition that there may
exist rules for our guidance, though we may not he cognizant of them, are
the first steps in amendment. The popularity of Mr. Hay's excellent work
renders any further commendation on our part superfluous, and its arrival at
a fourth edition affords a good sign of increasing attention to the subject.
We wish it had been somewhat more specific and practical in its details for
general use. It is essentially a work of principles. Mr. Hay considers the
first and most obvious defect to be when there is no particular tone or key
fixed on for the colouring of an apartment ; " that is, when one part of the
furniture is chosen without any reference to the rest, and the painting done
without any reference to the furniture. This generally produces an incon-
gruous mixture." The reader will understand what is meant by " tone or
key " by what follows.

The " tone or key is generally fixed by the choice of the furniture ; for as
the furniture of a room may he considered in regard to colouring in the same
light as the principal figures in a picture, the general tone must depend upon
the colours of which it is composed : for instance if the prevailing colour be

blue, grey, cool green, or lilac, the general tone must be cool; but if, on the
other hand, it is red, orange, brown, yellow, or a warm tint of green, the
tone must be warm." We may give an example of the principles here in-
sisted on. The important masses of colour, independent of those on walls
in most rooms, are furnished by the carpet, the covering of the sofa, chairs,
&c., the draperies of the curtains, and the covering of the tables. The co-
lours of all these are too frequently chosen without any reference one to the
other. If the colour of the furniture be light blue, then it would be bad
taste to colour the walls crimson, or select a carpet with any amber colour
or much warm brown colour in it. There is a very apt illustration of this
in a drawing-room in the Reform Club, which we have noticed for another
purpose below. So with the objects vice versa. The blue furniture might
fitly he surrounded with any colour in which its own colour predominated,
or even with a lemon colour — full toned or light in degree according to the
tone of the key fi. e. the blue) colour. Mr. Hay's advice is perfectly sound
in this case ; and, as a case often occurs, where the decoration has to be
adapted to furniture already existing, it is wise to lay down the proper prin-
ciple for its mode of treatment. But it must not hence be inferred that fur-
niture of any colour may be chosen at random, and then the decorative co-
louring of the apartment suited to it. In cases where both the furniture and
decoration are to be newly provided, where the whole department of deco-
ration is to begin ab initio, then the choice of colours for all objects should
be determined upon principles mutually applicable to all. In such cases (of
which we shall have to speak hereafter), the tone of the general colouring
should be fixed with reference to much broader principles than any one de-
pendent merely on the accidental colouring of the furniture.

" A second and more common fault," proceeds Mr. Hay, " is the predo-
minance of some bright and intense colour either upon the walls or floor.
It is evident that the predominance of a bright and overpowering colour
upon so large a space as the floor or wall of a room, must injure the effect
of the finest furniture." Very often indeed do we meet with illustrations of
this fault. Look over half the paper-hangings in London, and it is most
palpable in them. Nothing more common than to find a paper with a cool
leaden-coloured ground or surface covered over with staring bright yellow
scrolls. It is a defect no less prevalent in carpets, which are everywhere to be
seen strewn with flower-patterns, Louis Quatorze scrolls, and affected imita-
tions of forms manifested in intense brightness. " A third error is introducing
deep and pale colours, which may have been well enough chosen in regard to
their hues, but whose particular degrees of strength or tint have not been at-
tended to. Thus the intensity of one or more may so affect those which they
were intended to balance and relieve, as to give them a faded and unfinished
appearance. This may proceed from applying the fundamental laws without
any regard to the minutia; ; for although it is always necessary to subdue
and neutralize such colours as are introduced in large quantities, yet when
they are reduced by dilution alone the effect cannot be good. This error is
also very common in the colouring of carpets and paper-hangings. In such
productions the degree of intensity of the individual colours is seldom taken
into account. A pale tint of blue is often introduced as an equivalent to
the richest orange colour, and sometimes a small portion of lilac — one of the
lightest tints of purple — as a balancing colour to a quantity of the most in-
tense yellow. This is inverting the natural order of colours altogether.
Every one may understand by this, that if it is desired to contrast effectively
one colour with another — say a crimson with green — if one is deep toned or
dark, so should be the other."

Having thus briefly stated what appear to be the most obvious defects of
the present modes of coloured decoration in our domestic residences, we
shall submit some hints for the consideration of any of our readers who may
contemplate employing the House Painter and Decorator. We must how-
ever premise, that in treating a subject like the present, the absence of po-
sitive and practical illustration places us under much disadvantage. To il-
lustrate fully the force of our observations, this paper should be read hand
in hand with specimens of colours. The house-painter, states Mr. Hay,
" must take into consideration not only the style of architecture, the situa-
tion, whether in town or country, but the very rays by which each apartment
is lighted, whether they proceed directly from the sun or are merely reflected
from the northern sky." Without undervaluing the importance of attending
to the architecture and situation, it appears to us that Mr. Hay places that
consideration which has tbe greatest weight last in order — namely that which
depends on the aspect of the room to be coloured. To us it appears, after
bearing in mind the nature and characteristics of the climate, that the first
question to be asked before commencing any work of internal decoration is,
What is the

Aspect

of the room to be decorated ? In considering Climate, Nature herself seems
to offer us abundant analogies for our guidance. In countries where light
is least abundant, there the objects of nature have tbe least dark colouring.
Near the North Pole, where the darkness of night is almost perpetual, nature
clothes the ground and animals in snowy whiteness. In the regions of the
Tropics, where the light is strongest, the deepest colours, approaching to
black, are most frequent. In countries advanced in art, where the light is
abundant and powerful, we find the greatest employment made of deep-toned
colouring. The ancients, in brightly lighted countries, as at Pompeii, were
accustomed to paint large surfaces of their interior habitations positive
blacks. In those cases where we find such examples, the rooms were en-
tirely open above to the heavens, and the supply of light was altogether un-

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interrupted. In a climate like that of any part of Great Britain, we should
never dream of covering large surfaces with black or even with very dark
blue, or purple, and scarcely with very deep crimson, unless under peculiar
circumstances. During three-fifths of the year, the light in our country is
subject to constant obscuration. We therefore say, as a general rule, let the
colouring be light. We do not mean to exclude the judicious use of any
positive strong colours, or even of black itself, which may be employed
most successfully in details, but we content! that the first general impression
of rooms in England should be light rather than dark. As our climate also
inclines rather to cold than warmth throughout the year, the general rule
should be to have warm colouring in preference to cold, though our present
practice tends more in a contrary direction.

It may not, perhaps, be unnecessary to put, in an untechnical form, a
meaning of the terms warm and cold colouring, which may be at once un-
derstood. Some colours are called primary, some secondary, some tertiary.
Every reader, we assume, knows a blue from a red, red from green, yellow
from purple, and the most obvious and common distinctions of colouring.
Without entering into any theory on the subject, we say that blue, red, and
yellow are primitive colours — that is, that they are self-created colours, be-
cause the compounding together of no other colours will produce them.
Green, orange, and purple are secondary colours, and result from the admix-
ture of the three primitive colours. The tertiary mixtures, such as olive,
brown, slate, are formed by the union of the secondary colours themselves,
or the colours which make them, in the same proportions. The two colours
which represent the extremes of heat and cold are red and blue. Yellow
stands midway between them, and by itself is neither positively warm nor
cold, though it rather more inclines to warmth than coldness, as we see illus-
trated in the green colours. As greens contain blue, they are cold looking,
as yellow warm. Mixed colours, in proportion as they contain red, incline
to warmth — as they contain blue, to coldness. It is true, we may have the
effects of both warmth and coldness, and strong effects too, without using
any positive colour at all ; but this requires a peculiar treatment. We pur-
posely avoid entering upon the effects which an artistic knowledge of con-
trasts may realize. We are writing rather for those who are ignorant of re-
finements, and our object is to deal with the most general principles rather
than any exception of them. Our first canon, therefore, for all general
purposes in internal decoration in this country is, that the general colouring
be both light and warm ; leaden and cold neutral tints should be altogether
eschewed, if our aim he to banish gloom and chilliness from our houses, and
to have cheerfulness and warmth instead. We are far less liable to error by
leaning to warm rather than to cold colouring.

We have now to show what are the circumstances modifying the applica-
tion of this general rule. The first and most important considerations, as
we have already said, are those arising out of astect. Bearing in mind the
general necessity for the employment rather of warm and light colours than
of cold and dark ones, the circumstances of the aspect of the room to be
decorated should regulate the inclination to the use of one or the other.
You are going to decorate your drawing-room or dining-room both with
furniture and colouring. Before you speak to your upholsterer or house
painter, have a perfect understanding and recognition of what is the aspect
of the room. Let no circumstances make you regardless of this fundamental
consideration. No cost will remedy the forgetfulness. Spend what you
will, you will always repent having a cold colour in a room lighted from the
north, or a very hot colour in a room lighted from the south. If the aspect
be north, north-cast, north-west, or due-east, the general tone of colouring
should be positively warm. Blues, greens, and all shaded colours which in-
volve any predominant use of blue, must be avoided. There is a drawing-
room in the Reform Club, looking north, which may convince any one of the
mistake of forgetting aspect. The walls and curtains are blue ; with all its
elegance — and its ceiling and cornice are beautiful — the effect of this room
by daylight is always chilly. It would be just the reverse if it looked upon
Carlton Gardens. There is also a room in Windsor Castle, looking on the
North Terrace, called Queen Adelaide's room, which is decorated with blue
and silver — a most frigid looking room even in the midst of summer. In
such aspects the choice should tend towards reds, and all their various com-
binations with yellow. As the aspect approaches east and west, so the co-
lours should verge towards yellow rather than red tints. In an eastern as-
pect, tints of light yellows, lemon colours, &c. are always effective and
cheerful. If the aspect of the room be south, south-west, and west, and
open to the direct rays of the sun, then we may venture on the use of cooler
colours — even on positive blue, should our taste lead us in that direction.

Shall the colour chosen be used in tones dart or light— full or faint .'
The supply of light, the size of the room, and its purpose, appear to be
the chief circumstance which ought to regulate the strength or depth of the
colours to be used. Where the light is strong, unohscurcd, and plentiful,
the tone of the colouring may be full ; on the other hand, where the supply
of light is small, the tone of colouring should be light. In the houses of
the ancients the strongest and darkest colours — even blacks, as we have al-
ready observed — were used on large surfaces, when the apartment received
a direct and full light from above. Under a strong and abundant light, full-
toned colours preserve their brightness and distinctive character, but when
the light is feeble, and the supply of it limited, they become dull and gloomy.
Full-toned colours lessen the apparent size of the room : light colouring en-
larges it. A little attention to the proportion between the space to be co-
loured, and the depth of the colouring, becomes, therefore of great import-

ance. If you wish to make your room appear as large as possible, then ex-
clude dark colouring, not only on the large surfaces, but even in the patterns
of the paper-hangings, and in the mouldings and ornamental parts. The
nature of the use to which the room is applied should also influence the de-
cision as to the tone of colouring. If the room is used mostly by artificial
light, which, being less pure than daylight, materially modifies the appear,
ances of most colours — much or little, according to their strength — then
keep the colouring light. If, on the other hand, it is a room for occupation
during daylight, then the tone of colouring may be deep. Of the peculiar
treatment which should be applied to colours when employed in the several
sorts of domestic apartments, we shall speak more in detail hereafter. At
present we have been dealing only with general principles, which cannot be
recapitulated too often. First select the colours — warm or cold — active or
passive, on the plus or minus side, as some writers call them respectively —
according to the aspect ; and next, remember that the depth or lightness of
the colour ought to be no less subjected to regulation by certain principles.

The particular choice of colours seems to be the next branch of the sub-
ject to be examined, and on this point we would particularly refer the reader
to Mr. Hay's work; but lest that work should not be at hand, we shall ex-
tract a few of the most practical and useful observations on each colour. la
Mr. Eastlake's edition of Goethe's Theory of Colours, we also find many re-
marks on the peculiarities, influences, and associations of the principal co-
lours, and as these remarks seem to us calculated to be of some use in di-
recting the selection of colours, we shall abridge from Goethe's work those
portions which appear applicable to the subject under consideration, omitting
the more questionable and fanciful theories with which they are sometimes
intermingled.

In respect of White, Mr. Hay snys, that " in Symes' Nomenclature of
Colours there are no fewer than eight different tints of white enumerated,
and although the terms reddish white. Sic. are rather anomalous, yet there
seems to be no other way of denominating the lightest tints of colours.
For instance, when the lightest tint of any colour is placed beside the most
intense, it will appear to the eye a pure white, hut when placed beside the
purest white, the colour will appear with which it is tinged. Still, it should
be understood, that if it be a single shSde beyond the first remove or grada-
tion from pure white, its name must be altered to a light tint of the colour
with which it is tinged." A principle is here suggested, which is important
in the treatment of most colours. They may be made to appear light or
dark, positive or negative, by contrast. Mr. Hay suggests, that if white be
used, the colours brought into contact with it "should be light and cool,
amongst which grey and green are the most suitable. Very light yellow, of
the tint of the primrose, forms also a pleasing arrangement with pure white.
Where white is much used, the colouring of the furniture should be re-
latively light, and bamboo and satin wood are the best in respect of appro-
priate colour." Some years ago it used to be the fashion to use white and
black in direct contrast. Panels painted white, with the headings and
mouldings picked out in black — most disagreeable in effect, and a practice
that must be entirely avoided. If pure white is used, it suits best with a
south aspect; but if a white is wanted in a north aspect, then it should be
so far warmed in tone, as to be at least a cream colour. White is often used
sparingly to contrast with violent colours in carpets and hangings : in such
cases the effect is confused and crude.

Yellow, says Goethe, is the colour nearest light. In its highest purity it
always carries with it the nature of brightness, and has a serene, gay, softly-
exciting character. In this state, applied to dress, hangings, carpeting, &c.
it is agreeable. " Gold, in its perfectly unmixed state, especially when the
effect of polish is superadded, gives us a new and high idea of this colour ;
in like manner, a strong yellow, as it appears on satin, has a magnificent and
noble effect. We find from experience, again, that yellow excites a warm
and agreeable impression. Hence, in painting, it belongs to the illumined
and emphatic side. This impression of warmth may be experienced in a
very lively manner if we look at a landscape through a yellow glass, parti-
cularly on a grey winter's day. The eye is gladdened, the heart expanded
and cheered ; a glow seems at once to breathe towards us. The following
assertion appears to us rather too broad in its application. There are surely
circumstances, when the yellowish brown of the fallen leaf, as it is termed,
might be most judiciously employed ; but Goethe's account is rather more
poetical than practical. He says, " When a yellow colour is communicated
to dull and coarse surfaces, such as common cloth, felt, or the like, on which
it does not appear with full energy, the disagreeable effect is apparent. By
a slight and scarcely perceptible change, the beautiful impression of fire and
gold is transformed into one not undeserving the epithet foul, aud the colour
of harmony and joy reversed to that of ignominy and aversion. To this im-
pression the yellow hats of bankrupts, and the yellow circles on the mantles
of Jews, may have owed their origin. As no colour can be considered as
stationary, so we can very easily augment yellow into reddish, by condensing
or darkening it. The colour increases in energy, and appears in red-yellow
more powerful and splendid. All that we have said of yellow is applicable
here in a higher degree. The red-yellow gives an impression of warmth
and gladness, since it represents the hue of the intenser glow of fire, and of
the milder radiance of the setting sun. Hence it is agreeable around us ;
and again, as clothing in greater or less degrees is cheerful and magnificent.
A slight tendency to red immediately gives a new character to yellow, and
while the English and Germans content themselves with pale yellow colours
in leather, the French, as Castel has remarked, prefer a yellow enhanced to
red ; indeed, in general, everything in colour is agreeable which belongs to

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

463

the active side. As pure yellow passes very easily to red-yellow, so the
deepening of this last to yellow-red is not to be arrested. The agreeable
cheerful sensation which red-yellow excites, increases to an intolerably pow-
erful impression in bright yellow-red. The active side is here in its highest
energy, and it is not to be wondered at that impetuous, robust, uneducated
men should be especially pleased with this colour. Among savage nations
the inclination for it has been universally remarked, and when children, left
to themselves, begin to use tints, they never spare vermillion and minium.
In looking steadfastly at a perfectly yellow-red surface, the colour seems
actuallv to penetrate the organ. It produces an extreme excitement, and
still acts thus when somewhat darkened. A yellow-red cloth disturbs and
enrages animals. I have known men of education to whom its effect was in-
tolerable if they chanced to see a person dressed in a scarlet cloak on a grey,
cloudy day." In reference to this effect, we are inclined to ascribe great
part of it to the strength of the contrast between the scarlet and the sur-
rounding cool tones. Yellow is not distinguishable from white in most ar-
tificial lights, which are themselves of a yellow tone, and cause white to ap-
pear so yellow that it is undistinguishable from yellow; and though the fact
is often recognized in the preference of lemon-tinted gloves over white, as
they serve both for morning and evening wear, it is not so often remembered
when papering a room, or selecting a chintz furniture. Mr. Hay recom-
- mends that both pure yellow and orange should be avoided in large masses,
and used chiefly as heightening colours.

The colours on what Goethe calls the minus side, are blue, red-blue, and
blue-red. "They produce a restless, susceptible, anxious impression. As
yellow is always accompanied with light, so it may be said that blue brings a
principle of darkness with it. As the upper sky and distant mountains ap-
pear blue, so a blue surface seems to retire from us. Blue gives us an im-
pression of cold, and thus again reminds us of shade. It has some affinity
with black. Rooms hung with pure blue, appear in some degree larger, but
at the same time empty and cold." The blue room at the Reform Club again
comes to mind as an illustration in point. The appearance of objects seen
through a blue glass is gloomy and melancholy. Red-blue, in an attenuated
state, or lilac, is pronounced to be " something lively without gladness."
Blue-red generates an unquiet feeling. A carpet of a perfectly pure deep
blue would be intolerable. " As the higher dignitaries of the church," con-
tinues Goethe, " have appropriated this unquiet colour to themselves, we may
venture to say that it unceasingly aspires to the Cardinal's red, through the
restless degress of a still impatient progression."

" In Red we must forget everything that borders on yellow or blue. We
are to imagine an absolutely pure red, like fine carmine, suffered to dry on
white porcelain. The effect of this colour is as peculiar as its nature. It
conveys an impression of gravity and dignity, and, at the same time, of grace
and attractiveness. The first in its dark deep state, the latter in its light
attenuated tint, and thus the dignity of age and the amiableness of youth
may adorn itself with degrees of the same hue. History relates many in-
stances of the jealousy of sovereigns with regard to the quality of red.
Surrounding accompaniments of this colour have always a grave and magni-
ficent effect. The red glass exhibits a bright landscape in so dreadful a hue
as to inspire sentiments of awe. The French prefer generally scarlet which
inclines to yellow, whilst the Italians choose a crimson with a tinge of blue."
The employment of red requires skilful management, and it is often used too
indiscriminately. " We have only," observes Mr. Hay, " to look at nature
for the proper use of this colour. We shall see that red seldom appears in
its full intensity, and when it does so, it is at that season when its effect is
balanced and neutralized by the general verdure which clothes the earth."
Neither pure red nor scarlet should be used in large masses — it ought not to
be contrasted with bright green unless in the smallest quantity. Where the
direct light falls upon the ground, and not on the walls, Mr. Hay recom-
mends a bright scarlet on the walls, heightened with gold, with deep-toned
colours on the carpet. Crimson makes a capital background for the hanging
of pictures, but care should be taken that its tint does not approximate to
scarlet or pink. This approximation to pink is a common error. In the
new decorations at St. James's Palace, now in progress, where the walls of
the state rooms are covered with crimson flock paper, the colour is much too
near pink.

Purple, though a good colour by daylight, is much injured and neutralized
by artificial light. Greeyi is the result of mixing blue and yellow. If mixed
"in perfect equality, so that neither predominates, the eye and the mind re-
pose on the result of this junction as upon a simple colour. The beholder
has neither the wish nor the power to imagine a state beyond it. Hence,
for rooms to live in constantly, the green colour is most generally selected."
Goethe remarks, that "the juxtaposition of yellow and green has always
something ordinary, but in a cheerful sense ; blue and green, on the other
hand, is ordinary in a repulsive sense. Our good forefathers called these
last fools' colours." " The colours on the active side (yellow and yellowish)
placed next to black, gain in energy; those of the passive (blue and blueish)
lose. The active, conjoined with white and brightness, lose in strength, the
passive gain in cheerfulness. Red and green, with black, appear dark and
grave, with white they appear gay." We see these effects strikingly illus-
trated in book-wrappers. Black letter-press is applied indiscriminately to
red, blue, lilac, green, and yellow covers. A publisher of taste would do
well to consider how much the purchase of a book is affected by the first im-
pression it makes.

In the practical application of the foregoing observations to the colouring
of surfaces, it seems to us that Nature herself suggests to us those parts

Where Colour shall be lightest — where darkest.

If we look at a landscape, we find three distinct gradations of colour. The
greatest light comes from above, the next gradation of light lies in the put
between the sky and the ground, and the darkest part is on the ground. The
exceptions to this statement, arising from partial obscuration of the direct
rays of light, and from reflexions, do not materially affect the principle here
laid down, and which we think is applicable to the artificial use of colour in
interior decoration. In accordance with it, we say, let the ceiling be the
part lightest in colour and tone, the walls darker than the ceiling, the fl>or
darker than the walls. The reverse is too often found in practice. In the
Reform Club, the mouldings of the ceilings of the upper and lower quad-
rangles surrounding the great ball, and those of the upper library, are pa nted
to imitate bronze, and in the quadrangles especially they are much heavier in
colour and appearance, than the walls by which they are supported. In the
drawing-room floor where the colouring of the frieze and festoons is light
and mean, the ponderous look of the ceilings is objectionable. And here,
though we are not considering especially the decorations of the Reform Club,
we take the opportunity of remarking on the poverty of invention, not to say
the contradiction, of colouring the ceiling of the lower quadrangle as if to re-
present blue sky, when it is palpable to the eye at the time, that it supports
the floor of the passage above it. In the upper drawing-room of the same
Club, the light maple wood book-shelves are much less positive in colour
than the beautiful ceiling above them, which is of bright blue, heightened
with gilding between the bronze-painted divisions. Fortunately, the dark-
green furniture and the deep crimson carpet in this room, are some balance
against the full tones of the ceiling, or we should have here an example of
the reverse of the principles which Nature seems to suggest. In the great
drawing-room, it appears that the decorations are far more consistent. There
the ceilings, being shades of white and light pink with gilding, are elegant
and rich, yet lightsome and cheerful ; less coloured than the walls, which are
of a yellowish brown damask, the colour Goethe seems to reprobate, and the
walls again are subordinate in the strength of their colouring to the fl 'or,
which is a deep-toned maroon in its masses. We are not unmindful of the
full-toned colouring of the Venetian ceilings, which might be quoted appa-
rently in opposition to what we have here advanced. For the present, without
discussing particular instances of the practice of painting ceilings in intensely
full tones, it is sufficient to point out, that what might be tolerated or even
defended in the works of a Paolo Veronese, is not to be safely upheld as a
precept for the common house-painter, whom alone, and not the poet-painter,
we are attempting to influence. It may be as well to observe, that accord-
ing to the depth of colouring in the ceiling, so the apparent height of the
room is lowered and brought near to the eye: and, as in London houses, the
height of the rooms is seldom suitably proportioned to the size of the room,
this artificial lowering becomes a consideration, which ought not to be disre-
garded. Not only, to our mind, ought the ceiling to he the lightest in point
of tone, but it ought to he the least decorated part of the room — What ?
venture to say this with Michael Angelo's Sistine Chapel in remembrance ?
Certainly — and we would call in evidence all who have seen this marvellous
work, the strongest case perhaps that can be produced, to testify their regret,
that those wondrous works are on the ceiling, and the extreme difficulty, no
less than lying flat on the back, which is experienced in viewing them. But
because we object to having the chief decoration on the ceiling — the part
obviously most difficult to see, we would not have it imagined that the ceil-
ing is to be left bare, as it generally is in practice. On the contrary, we
desire to see special attention bestowed on the —

Decoration of Ceilings,

and Mr. Barry is to be thanked for the good example he has set at the Re-
form Club, although some of the details do not seem, in our judgment,
to be quite right. The coloured decoration of this part of a room, generally
extends little beyond the tinting in one or two faint colours the cornice or
the plaster ornament in the centre; though sometimes, indeed, we meet
with the hideous practice of painting artificial skies and clouds — a miserable
conceit, always to be eschewed. We are convinced, from actual experi-
ments, that very effective and cheap decorations might be used in ceilings,
The colouring of mouldings and cornices by the hand, and indeed all hand
labour on a small scale, is slow, and therefore costly, but the plan we would
recommend, and hope to see extensively used for the adornment of ceilings.
is much more simple and easy of performance. Ceilings may be treated as
easily as walls. Papers may be prepared expressly with suitable patterns,
and "they may be attached, afterwards, to the walls like common paper
banging. After making some little allowance for the extra trouble in affixing
the paper to the ceiling, there seems to be no reason why the ornamental
papering of ceilings should be more costly than that employed on the walls.
In one experiment, we directed a paper surface of about ten fen in diameter
to be prepared, which contained Pompeian forms expressed in four colours,
and which cost, in its preparation, about forty shillings. Had the same de-
sign been executed in great numbers, there is no doubt that it might have
been produced for half the money, or even less. On the other hand, bad
the design been painted on the ceiling itself, by the hand, the cost would
have been much increased. The economy of the process of affixing the or-
nament in a large surface at once to the ceiling, is obtained precisely on the
same principle as that of laying the tessera in blocks on pavements, accord-
ing to Mr. Singer's patent, instead of laying tessera; one by one on the floor.

02

464

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

Leaving out of the account the additional beauty which tasteful colouring
on the ceiling confers on a room, we would recommend the practice as eco-
nomical— a charm oftentimes more attractive in these money-making times
than beauty itself. In the course of every three or four years, the ceiling of
a London house requires re-colouring. There is little doubt that the deter-
mined lines of the positive colouring in an ornamental design, and also the
paper itself, would tend very much to conceal the ordinary cracks and mark-
ings in the ceiling, caused by the dirt and smoke, and thus reduce the neces-
sity of re-colouring. In addition to the experiment already mentioned, we
had a simpler one prepared in two shades of deep straw-colour, for the
centre of a room, the cost of which experiment was only five shillings. In
the prosecution of these experiments, it is only just to mention that we had
the assistance of Mr. Clarke, a paper-stainer, of 60, High Holbcrn, who
seemed well disposed to carry them much farther, if any public taste could
be generated for them. In the preparation of decorations for ceilings, and
until we can enter upon the subject of pattern in detail, a word of caution
may be whispered against all and every sort of imitation of raised surfaces.
Let there be no sham cornices or rosettes for centres — no sham festoons,
draperies, or tassels. Whatever is done, should be limited to the expression
of agreeable forms in colour, and much more effect may be produced under
this limitation than is generally obtained by the plaster mouldings and or-
naments themselves which are commonly attached to ceilings. The choice
of the colours and peculiar treatment of them in ceilings must, of course,
be regulated by the circumstances of the room, and the character of the de-
corations used in it.

The particular treatment of colours which should be applied to rooms of
various purposes, seems to follow next in order for consideration. We are
much disposed to agree with Mr. Hay, when he insists that the decorations
of rooms should be subordinate in importance to the furniture, which he
appears to regard in the same relative importance to a room as figures stand
towards a picture. Mr. Hay says: — " In toning and harmonizing the colours
in a picture, the artist has the assistance of light and shadow, and can make
his shades accord with the tone in such a manner as to improve the general
harmony; but as the colours of the house-painter and manufacturer are all
liable to be placed in a full light, they must be toned in themselves, to pre-
vent that unnatural crudencss so annoying to the eye. How, then, can we
account for the prevalence of those gaudy paper-hangings, which impinge
the most obtrusive rays in .ill their vigour, or those carpets where the pre-
ponderance of bright yellow and red attracts the eye, and injures the effect
of everything which is placed upon them ? And if, according to the rules
which regulate the higher branches of art, simplicity of arrangement pre-
vents confusion where a variety of colours are introduced, the colours in the
generality of such articles are most erroneously arranged. These rules must
proceed from a general negligence of the rules of harmony. I do not mean
by this that bright and vivid colours are always offensive. I have already
said, that they add richness and grandeur when used in their proper places
ami in proper quantities; but they should by no means cover the floor or
walls of an apartment unless under very peculiar circumstances. It may
here be observed, that in all pictures representing interiors, when a group of
figures is introduced, there may occasionally appear a piece of rich drapery,
or furniture painted in equally vivid and bright colours with the figui
Which may, in a great measure, improve the general effect and harmony ;
but who ever saw, in a work of merit, the colours on the walls of the apart-
ment or carpet on the floor making a monopoly of attraction, and causing
those upon the figures and furniture to fall into insignificance ':" lint we
have no more space at present, and the suggestions touching the appropriate
colouring of particular rooms must be reserved to a future opportunity.

RAILWAY CHRONICLE OF THE MONTH.

Tjie events of the month principally concern the movements in respect to
new lines, a spirit of activity manifesting itself in connexion with them
strongly indicative of improvement. Not only is the number of lines pro-
posed far greater than for years past, but they are of greater importance, and
supported in a much more powerful manner, being principally branches fos-
tered by the great lines. There is however, of course, a want of definite
information as to what will really lie done, so that it is dangerous to specu-
late as to results.

The monetary operations of the month afford a strong proof of the im-
proved position of railways; not only have the transactions in shares been
much more numerous and "at better prices, but loans have been effected by
the large companies at a much lower rate of interest.

The Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway Company have borrowed £100,000
from the Bank of Scotland for ten years at 3J per cent., and the Manchester
and Leeds have received large sums at 3] per cent., the loans being subject
to repayment on twenty-one days' notice. Altogether the state of affairs
promises well for employment next year in the engineering profession and in
the pursuits dependent on its exertions and connected with it.

The York and North Midland directors have been authorized to purchase
the Leeds and Selby line, and to construct a branch to Whitby and Scar-
borough.

Captain Moorsorn, the Chairman of the Birmingham and Glo'sterRiilwnv,
has at last resigned in disgust. He is succeeded by Mr. Samuel Bowlv, the
Deputy Chairman.

The Manchester and Leeds Railway Company have agreed to amalgamate
with the Hull and Selby Railway Company.

One of the most striking circumstances has been the defeat of the Bristol
and Exeter Directors at a special meeting for the purpose of giving support
to the Devon and Cornwall lines, when a cabal of 3S Exeter shareholders
holding 300 shares, managed, by superior numbers, on the show of bands to
repel the resolutions. It is not expected that this will stop the scheme.

The Epsom traffic is the subject of competition between the Croydon Rail-
way Company on the one band, and the South Western Railway on the other.
The South- Western branch would be the shorter, less costly, and accommodate
west end passengers, but the distance from the terminus of the Croydon
branch is not greater, it would be worked as cheaply and would also accom-
modate a great extent of local traffic, while it comes close to the city popula-
tion at London Bridge. It was anticipated that great opposition would be
made by the Croydon shareholders to engaging in this speculation, but it
turned out that they gave their unanimous adhesion to it, at a meeting spe-
cially convened for the purpose. At the same time strong wishes were ex-
pressed for an arrangement with the Greenwich Company which is now
within a narrow compass. It was also reported that a proposition had been
made from the South Eastern Railway Company to lease the Croydon, which
had been refused, the Croydon Directors considering amalgamation as the
more eligible measure. With regard to the South Western Epsom opera-
tions they remained to be seen, but it is very probable that both lines will
be carried into effect, and an arrangement come to for working them. The
Middlesex and Surrey Junction is a scheme also for goiug to Epsom, but it
moves very slowly.

THE NEW ROYAL EXCHANGE.

Mr. Tin;, the architect of the New Royal Exchange, sent in, on the 20th
ult., a further report of the progress of the works, to the Joint Grand Com-
mittee ; it is extremely satisfactory. It states that, with respect to the ex-
ternal works, the grasshopper vane, repaired and rcgilt, was deposited in its
place on the 8th ult.; that the tower was completed to the cleaning down of
the stonework, a process which will be effected as the scaffold is being re-
moved. At the west facade the columns and architraves of the great Vene-
tian windows have been set, and the carved shields and festoons over the
opening and over the whole of the central arch have been finished. As to
the internal works the report touches first upon the basement, and states
that the vaults over the basement have been completed, with the exception
of an arch which is to be formed under the staircase leading to Lloyd's. In
the London Assurance portion of the building, on the one-pair floor, the
whole of the fire-proof arches have been turned, and the joists and partitions
in the western end are in their places. In other parts the plates are laid.
On the two-pair floor the joists have been laid all through. The roof has
been nearly completed, both plumbers' and slaters' work being almost wholly
finished. In the Royal Exchange ground-floor the fire-proof arches have
been turned throughout, and the joists and partitions have been nearly all
deposited in their places. In the two-pair floor the joists have been all laid
and the quartering is in a forward state. The lead-work to the roof of the
portico has been within a third completed, and this department will require
very little more labour generally. In the unappropriated room on the one-
pair floor the fire- proof arches have been completed as well as the joists and
partitions. In the two-pair floor similar progress has been made. In Lloyd's
room on the one-pair floor all the fire-proof arches.have been turned. The
reading-room and other rooms on each side of the tower remain in the same
condition in which they were represented to be at the time the last report
was made. In the roof the plumber's and slater's work is throughout ex-
ceedingly forward, and but little remains to complete that portion of the work.

With regard to the sculpture, Mr. Tite expresses his satisfaction to be able
to report that every figure has been transferred from the model to the stone,
and that a month's labour will complete the work, so as that it will be ready
for hoisting within that period. When the sculpture shall have reached its
appropriate position, the finishing touches will be given to it by the sculptor.
Judging from its present advanced state, the architect entertains no hesita-
tion in assuring the committee, that if necessary, it could all be in its place
and completely finished within two months from the date.

The dials and hands of the clock have been prepared, and will be placed
as soon as the scaffold has been sufficiently removed to enable the men to
place them with safety. The machinery of the clock is very nearly com-
pleted, and the only thing remaining unsettled is the arrangement with
respect to the actual tunes of the chimes. Upon that subject Mr. Tite had
consulted Professor Taylor, the Gresham Lecturer on music, and he hoped
that before the next meeting of the committee he should be prepared to re-
port the result. The moulds for some of the bells have been prepared, and
in the course of a month several of the bells will be cast. Mr. Tite concludes
with congratulating the committee, at the close of the third year of the work,
on the generally favourable state of the seasons throughout the whole period.
The mildness of last winter, and the unusually fine spring which followed,
were greatly in favour of building operations, aud though the early part of
the summer was wet, yet since August up to the present time scarcely a day
has been lost by interruption from the weather. He could see nothing at
present, unless some unusually severe weather should occur after Christmas,
to prevent the realization of his hopes that the contract would be completed
in the time originally agreed upon.

1844.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

4G5

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

ROYAL ACADEMY.

On Saturday Dec. 9, being the 75th anniversary from the foundation of
the Academy, a general assembly of the Academicians was held at their
apartments in Trafalgar-square, for the annual election of officers and other
business, amongst which was the ceremony of delivering the prizes to the
successful candidates in the various classes of students. The distribution
took place in the grand saloon of the Academy, before a very numerous
assemblage of royal academicians, artists, and persons of distinction.

In consequence of the sudden indisposition of the President, Mr. Jones,
R.A. (the Keeper of the Academy) took the President's chair, and announced
officially and with regret the cause of their accomplished President's absence,
which he truly stated they all felt as a great disappointment, but the cause
of which he could assure them would not be of long duration. Of course, it
fell to his lot as the senior officer to go through the duties of the evening,
however unprepared he might be for that purpose. The prizes were fewer
this year than on any former biennial distribution, for there was not a single
candidate in the first class (historical painting). This incident had, doubtless,
arisen from the exertions to get up the cartoons having occupied the time of
those who were in a condition to compete for these prizes. The chairman
then bestowed the prizes on the following students : —

Mr. E. B. Stephens, for the best composition in sculpture — The gold
medal, and the Discourses of the presidents Reynolds and West.

Mr. Henry Bayly Garling, for the best architectural design — The gold
medal, and the Discourses of the presidents (as above).

Mr. J. Harwood, for the best copy made in the school of painting — The
silver medal, with the Lectures of the professors Barry, Opie, and Fuseli.

Mr. A. Ranckley, for the next best copy made in the painting school — The
silver nv'dal ; but, this student having received a similar medal in 1842, this
medal, though adjudged to him, could not be given.

Mr. A. Solomon, for the best drawing from the living models — The silver
medal. There was only one medal given in the class this time.

Mr. G. Perry, for a drawing of the west wing of Greenwich Hospital — The
silver medal.

Mr. J. E. Millais, for the best drawing from the antique — The silver medal
and the Lectures of professors Opie and Fuseli.

Mr. G. E. Sintzenich for the next best drawing from the antique — The
silver medal.

Mr. J. Engel, for the best model from the antique — The silver medal and
the Lectures of professors Opie and Fuseli.

Mr. A. Gatley, for the next best model from the antique, the silver medal
was adjudged, but not bestowed, as he had already (in 1842) received a
similar medal.

Mr. W. Thomas, for the next best model from the antique — The silver
medal.

On the audience retiring, the Academicians proceeded to the election of
officers, &c., for the ensuing year, when Sir Martin Archer Shee was unani-
mously re-elected President.

INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.

The Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers have awarded the fol-
lowing Telford and Walker Premiums, for Papers read during the last
session, 1843 : — A Telford medal in silver to F. W. Simms, for his papers
" On the application of horse-power to raising water, &c.," and " On brick-
making." A Telford medal in silver, to W. Pole, for his papers " On the
friction of steam-engines, Sec." and " On the pressure and density of steam
&c." A Telford medal in silver to T. Oldham, for his " Description and
drawings of the automaton balance, invented by Mr. Cotton, and used at the
Bank of England for weighing sovereigns." A Telford premium of hooks to
D. Mackain, for his paper " On the supply of water to the city of Glasgow."
A Telford Premium of hooks to D. Brimner, for his " Description and draw-
ings of the Victoria Bridge over the river Wear." A Telford Premium of
books to D. T. Hope, for his paper " On the relative merits of granite and
wood pavements, and Macadamized roads." A Walker premium of books to
Robert Mallet, for his paper " On the co-efficient of labouring-force in water
wheels, &c." A Walker premium of books to W. J. M. Rankin, for his
papers and drawings " On laying down railway curves," " On the spring-con-
tractor for railway carriages," and " On the causes of the fracture of railway
axles, &e." A Walker premium of books to W. L. Baker, for his " Descrip-
tion and drawings of the water pressure engine, at the Alte Mordgrube mine,
(Freyberg)." A Walker premium of books to S. C. Homersham, for his
paper and drawings "On the construction of valves for pumps, &c." A
Walker premium of books to J. 0. York, for his paper " On the comparative
strength of solid and hollow axles." A Walker premium of hooks to G. D.
Bishopp, for his " Description of the American locomotive engine, ' Phila-
delphia,' used on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway," communicated
by Captain \V. S. Moorsom. A. Walker premium of books to G. B. W. Jack-
son, for the drawings illustrating " The description of machiucs for raising
and lowering miners," by John Taylor.

In the report of the proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, in
last month's Journal, p. 427, we stated that we rather suspected Mr. Wick-
steed had been misunderstood in his remarks on the Construction of Valves.
We have since made inquiries and believe the following statement will be
found to contain a correct report of Mr. Wicksteed's observations : — •

Mr. Wicksteed observed, that with two valves made according to Harvey
and West's patent, and fixed in the pump work at Old Ford, each valve being
4 feet in diameter, the lower valve rose 4 or 5 inches, while the upper one
rose from 1£ io If inches only. The concussion in these valves was much
less than in the ordinary valves — that although the wooden faces in the seat
of the upper valve, where the lift was so little, had lasted for three years,
they would not rjtar.c' in the lower valve, where the lift was greater ; for
which latter he considered metal far superior to wood, and he considered
metal better for the upper one also ; — he had not found any corrosion atten-
dant upon the contact of the two metals. The reason that the lower valve
of the pump at Old Ford had not answered so well as the upper valve was
owing to the difference in form of the valve boxes ; the lower valve box was
of an irregular shape on the plan, while the valve was circular ; in addition to
which, the exit pipe branched from the box at a level with the seat of the
valve, and this is of even greater importance. The passage of the water
therefore through the valve was irregular, a greater quantity passing on one
side than on the other, which caused the valve to cant and to wear out the
guides ; but on the contrary, in the upper valve, the exit pipe was above the
top of the valve, and of a circular form, allowing the water to pass more
equally on every side of the valve, and hence the guides were not worn as in
the lower valve ; and in the cases of above 40 valves which had been intro-
duced by his recommendation into pumps made by Boulton and Watt, and
other firms at various dates, the boxes being circular and the delivery pipes
above the valve, they had worn as well as the upper valve at Old Ford (and
in a commercial point of view it is important to remark that in none of those
instances was it necessary to alter the boxes, or pipes connected therewith),
he therefore recommended that in all new constructions where these valves
were required, the form of the box and the position of the delivery pipe
should be carefully attended to. He considered that the form of the double-
beat valves, being cylindrical, possessed greater strength, and made the lia-
bility to fracture less than in the ring valves, as originally designed by Mr.
Homersham, and he considered that the model on the table, which as nearly
as possible resembled the form of Messrs. Harvey & West's valves, was a
decided improvement ; at the same time, it made it evident that the actual
difference between these valves and Messrs. Harvey & West's was the appli-
cation of two valves, one placed above the other, instead of one, the advan-
tages of which he could not perceive. He at the same time, gave Mr. Ho-
mersham great credit for the ability displayed in the paper just read, and
thought that if the same talent had been applied to the proper proportioning
of Harvey and West's valves to the locality or circumstances in which they
were required, he would have effected the good object he had in view at less
cost, as there could be no doubt that, if not properly proportioned, the valves
could not work so well.

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

December 4. — W. The, Esq. v. p., in the Chair.

A letter was read from C. R. Cockerell, Esq., R. A., giving some account of
the Foundations of the Church of St. Bartholomew, near the Bank of Eng-
land, removed in 1841, under his direction. The letter was accompanied
by a plan, and two elevations of the north and east walls, which ex-
plaining the principle of their construction, were of very great interest,
as showing the rude, but efficient manner of building adopted by our fore-
fathers, as also the masterly judgment and skill with which Sir C. M ren,
availed himself of these foundations, in his new structure, after the fire of
London. In the east wall, the piers, a swell as those under the pillars of the
nave, were formed by digging a pjt, into which a mass of well made concrete,
consisting of chalk, fragments of tile, stone, pebbles, and lime, were cast,
the surrounding grouud being left undisturbed: this concrete penetrated
about one foot into a good stratum of sound gravel. Where arches were
required, as in the east and north wall, in order to continue the course of the
wall without the expense of so much foundation, the natural soil was left
undisturbed, and formed a rude centering from pier to pier, on which the
voussoirs of the arches, in chalk, were at once placed. From the springing
of the piers, which took the form of the pit into which the concrete was cast,
the masonry in chalk and rag, battered on the face, was of a superior kind, the
centre however being filled with concrete. The side walls of the church
were of a better masonry, with upright faces. The north wall rising with
the natural bed of gravel, was found to be inferior to the rest, being often
composed of pebbles, or shingles laid in loam instead of mortar. Such was
the simple manner of building adopted in the old church, the date of which
may have been the 12th or 13th century. But the judgment, skill, and eco-
nomy of Sir C. Wren, in the employment of this rude substructure, and
erecting upon it a finely proportioned church of the Tuscan order, cannot he
sufficiently admired. His argument here, was doubtless the same he cm-
ployed at St. Paul's. "If," said he, "these foundations have carried the
ancient superstructure without failing, I will take care, by lessening the
weight of the new, that they shall suffice for my purpose, and I shall econo-
mise all the expense which new foundations would occasion ;" and the sound

63*

466

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL.

[January,

state in which every part of Sir C. Wren's Church was found, after standing
about 170 years, has fully borne out his argument. The tower of the
church was built in a very superior manner, with thicker walls of flint aud
chalk.

Mr. T. W. Papworth exhibited a volume containing a collection of deco-
rations or a chapel in the Cathedral at Lisbon, made at Rome in 1755. It
appears, from these drawings, that the architect sent his general designs to
Rome, and that the details were there filled up by the most eminent decora-
tive artists. The name of Pompeio Battoni, who was to supply some paint-
ing of the higher class, occurs among the number. There are designs for the
pavements, railings, hangings, and every description of decoration and fur-
niture to make the work complete. The artistical knowledge displayed in
these drawings throughout the variety of operations necessary to carry out a
work of this kind, and the unity of purpose with which it is brought together
and applied, is what is principally deficient in our modem system of architec-
ture.

December 18, 1843.— W. Tite, Esq., v. p., in the Chair.

The following communication was read from Mr. Benj. Ferrey, Fellow,
on Mr. Silvkster's " Process for repelling moisture from external watts "

It will be in the recollection of many members of the Institute, that Mr.
Sylvester, at a meeting during the hist session, directed attention to the dis-
covery of a process by which bricks might be made impervious to moisture,
and exhibited some experiments, placing bricks of a very porous description
which had been Subjected to the process, into water, allowing them to he
immersed' for some time, and showing, when taken out of the water, tli.it
they had imbibed no moisture. These experiments, at the time, were con-
sidered satisfactory, and the cheapness and ease attending the application
to the process, were strong recommendations in its favour.

It happened dining last summer, that I was called upon, in a distant part
of Dorsetshire, to suggest some means by which the wet might he prevented
from penetrating the external walls of a school-house that had n O ntlj bl en
built in a very substantial manner, with bricks of the best quality; but
where, owing to the elevated and exposed position of the building, it was
found that neither increased thickness of walling, nor internal battening would
answer, to make the school habitable, and nothing but an external coating of
cement, was by the proprietor of the building, thought capable of remedy ing
so serious an evil.

It occurred to me that this was a good opportunity of testing the merits of
Mr, Sj Ulster's recommendation, and, it being a favourable period of the year
fur external colouring, I ordered the operation to he commenced, availing
myself of the services of a clerk of the works, whom I had in the neighbour-
hood, to see that the liquids were carefully and properly applied.

1 shuuM mention that the walls of the school-house were built of kiln-
burned bucks from a village called Broad-mayne, will known as supplying
tin- bcsl bricks in Dorsetshire: in situations protected from the sevn
of south-west storms, these bricks are found to be proof against the ordinary
effects of weather, but in many hilly parts of Dorsetshire, nothing but the
most compact and indurated material will resist the violence of the tempests,
anil I have remarked hew many ancient brick building, with stone dressings,
have, in various parts of this country , been disfigured by coatings of cement
or blue lias. This practice has evidently been resorted to, as the general
cure wherever the wet penetrated the walls, and it would have been adopted
in the present case but for my interposition.

As it is probable tli.it main Gentlemen may he present when this letter is
read, who were not at the Institute when Mr. Sylvester described the mate-
rials of his solutions, I will state how they were composed by us, in accord-
ance with Mr. Sylvester's directions.

The ingredients were mixed in the following proportions: — | lb. of mottled
soap to 1 gallon of water. This composition, when in a boiling state, was
laid over the surface of the brickwork steadily and carefully, with a large flat
brush, so as not to form a froth, or lather on the surface.

This wash was permitted to remain 24 hours to become dry and hard.

Another mixture was then made in these proportions: — i, lb. of alum to 4
gallons of water, which, after standing 12 hours, in order that the alum
should be completely dissolved, was then applied in like manner, with aflat
brush over the coating of soap. I need scarcely mention, that we availed
ourselves of settled and dry weather during July, for these operations.

I have now to speak of the result up to the present time, as to the success
of the process. Within a month after the trial, there happened one of those
tremendous SOUth-west gales, accompanied by heavy, driving rain, such as
had formerly drenched the school-bouse, and obliged the inmates to put pails,
cloths, &c, to catch the drippings inside. It is satisfactory to state that the
walls were completely proof against the rain ; not a drop penetrated through,
during 48 hours of the most severe weather, nor from that time to the pres-
ent, though repeatedly subjected to like trials, have the walls admitted the
least moisture, nor has the artificial coating suffered apparently the slightest
injury.

The liquid when applied, formed a complete thin scaly, or gummy look-
ing integument, perceptible only upon close inspection, causing no discolor-
ation, but producing rather a mellow appearance, such as a building obtains

when covered with lichens ; the rain splashes against the walls as against
glass, and runs down the face in a similar manner.

Upon communicating to Mr. Sylvester, this satisfactory result, I was glad
to hear from him of other useful purposes to which this simple process has
been applied ; at the same time I learnt that about ten years since he advised
this method to be applied to the north front of a stone-building near London,
where the damp and discoloration were very offensive. His suggestion wa9
attended to, and with complete success.

It certainly appears to be a simple, cheap, and useful discovery, performing
its purpose without discolouring the material on which it is laid, and being
therefore unobjectionable on this account. Although from the nature of
the thing, it may be more frequently wanted for brickwork, it is said to be
equally effective on stone, for precisely in the same degree that the structure
of the stone admits moisture through its imperfect formation, will it receive
that solution ; so that the pores or vesicles on the face of the stone became
filled with insoluble particles,. — it is therefore immaterial whether the stone
be of lime, sand, or oolitic formation. The value of a process which may
give an indurated surface to many kinds of stone that before were unfit for
building purposes, by reason of rapid disintegration under the effects of wet
and frost, will be duly appreciated by the architect, and though it may be
hazardous to use at once material;, of doubtful quality, relying upon this
remedy, yet it is a subject quite worthy of our best attention, and I think it
right to mention what has been told me in reference to this most important
object.

From the perfect success which attended experiments in other parts of the
country similar to what I have described, the County-Surveyor of Kent mads
a bold trial of the process.

A block of the Cation or Reigate stone, when taken from the quarry in its
green and soft state, was worked into a cistern to contain water, and after
becoming hardened and dry by the exposure to the atmosphere, it was well
covered all over, both within ami without, by the wash of soap and alum ;
this being properly done, it was at once filled with water, and used for the
ordinary [mi poses of a leaden cistern; this was done about three years since,
and the cistern is now in use, never having leaked in the slightest degree
from the day it was fust used, although exposed through the winters, with-
out any protection whatever.

Perhaps no substance could put the process to a severer proof, than Gatton
stone: — It is described in the Parliamentary Report of the Commissioners,
as composed of fine siliceous grains, with a calcareo-silicious cement, contain-
ing green silicate of iron, and plates of mica. It is a stone that will not
stand the weather, and though it has in former times been much used, all
the exposed portions of such edifices, are destroyed.

I have had some experience of the unfitness of this stone for building,
having used it, at the strong solicitation of an employer, and against my own
conviction, in some court halls and external screenvvork, and where, within
two years after its use, the greater portion bad split and become shattered,
from the effects of frost. 1 need scarcely say, that it was near to the
Gatton quarries, and that its cheapness was the recommendation in the eyes
of my employer.

Any composition for the preservation of stone, having a lasting effect, must
he most valuable. It is true that nothing but time can prove whether the
effect is permanent ; this difficulty attends ail schemes. It is an argument
employed to depreciate the use of those processes by which timber is pro-
tected from decay, and it is an objection which, if permitted to operate too
strongly, may go far to discourage scientific men from directing their ener-
gies to most important purposes.

It would indeed be a great point gained, if the architect, by the use of a
simple chemical solution, superficially applied, to protect the external faces
from the effecis of weather (for it is obvious that decay occurs chiefly upon
the exposed surfaces,) could employ stone, extensively to be met with in dif-
ferent parts of the country, but which, at present, he dare not use. from the
established fact of its early tendency to decay, — thus, the Tottcnhoe, Rei-
gate, the Chinch, the Malm Hock, and other formations, though suited
for internal work, are utterly unfit to be used out of doors. It would not be
difficult to enumerate a great many more kinds of stone prohibited at present.
1 have alluded particularly to this, because it is a favourite notion of Mr.
Sylvester's, that these stones may be brought into use with a certainty of
their durability if they are subjected to the process which so effectually
secures bricks.

Both oil and hees'-wax are much used even now to stop the pores, when
there is a suspicion that the stone not being sufficiently seasoned, may he
shattered by the frost, it is however obvious that such applications can only-
serve a very temporary purpose. It is to the contact of two soluble ingre-
dients whereby a new and insoluble chemical substance is produced, that we
can reasonably look for important results.

There is no inherent cause for decay in either stone or brick ; two blocks
of stone from the same quarry, but from different parts, will be equally sound
for building purposes, secured from weather; but the same pieces, if placed
side by side on the south west side of a building, would be very differently
affected, and one might speedily exhibit a rotten tendency, when the other
would stand sound.

If stone or brick contain within itself substances which, by chemical
agency, could destroy their structure, it might seem a hopeless matter to
devise a preparation for the surface that could stop such natural disruption,
or if it were ascertained that either of these materials exuded moisture,
from saline particles forming part of their substance, whereby the action of

1844. J

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

467

frost might in that manner lead to pulverization, there might he difficulty in
counteracting such effects — it is however a well ascertained fact, that no such
tendency exists. I cannot do hetter than refer you to some very able
remarks by Mr. C. II. Smith, in answer to questions put to him by the
Commissioners on the Fine Arts, in reference to the causes of damp upon
the internal surfaces of walls, where it is clearly not produced by the pene-
tration of rain ; that gentleman attributes these defects to accidental circum-
stances, such as are mentioned by him ill his reply to the Commissioners, —
(See Journal for last month (p. 424.)

I have extended these remarks beyond my first intention, which was
simply to mention the result attending the use of Mr. Sylvester's pre-
paration. It appeared to me proper to communicate the facts here men-
tioned, to my professional brethren, and I have only further to add, that
since I commenced writing this communication, 1 have heard that the same,
process has been applied to a large building having a frontage of 100 feet,
and to another school-bouse, and that the cost of the ingredients for com-
pletely coating these buildings, was 45 shillings only.

SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON.

Nov. 8. — The commencement of the session for reading papers was occu-
pied by a paper on the various means for preserving life in case of shipwreck ;
there were many ingenious devices and models exhibited. The paper was
ably drawn up by Mr. Whishaw, the indefatigable Secretary of the Society.

Nov. 15.- — A communication by Mr. Pellat, on Coating Iron with Zinc and
Copper, was read; it was similar to the paper read at the Institution of Civil
Engineers and leporteil by us in the November Journal. Mr. Pellat slated
that the cost of coating iron with zinc was about 3rf. per superficial foot,
and with copper Sd.

Nov. 22. — The Secretary read a paper accompanied by models and dia-
grams, illustrating Mr. Charles Wye Williams's argand furnace and con-
ductor pins for boilers.

Nov. 29. — Benj. Rotch, Esq. V. P. in the chair. A paper by Mr. Dyer, on
Patent Metallic Sand Cement, was read by the Secretary. It stated that the
cement was composed of blue lias lime, mixed with the metallic sand.
This sand is produced by grinding copper slag by means of powerful ma-
chinery, and consists of iron, zinc, arsenic, and silica, the iron predominating;
the slag is procured in abundance in Swansea, In chymical analysis it is
very similar to the pozzolann, and in point of durability it is found to be
equal to the latter. With blue lias lime, which is used for hydraulic works,
the metallic sand readily enters into combination, and these having been
used toget her for external works, exposed to all the changes of the atmo-
sphere, have proved the indurating quality of the metallic sand, after an ex-
perience of eight years. Specimens were laid on the table : 1st, brickwork
of a fresh-water tank, which had been erected six years, was removed by a
pick-axe; the bricks yielding to the strokes of the axe, but the cement re-
maining solid ; 2nd, imitations of marble executed by a painter on the face
of stuccoed-work, formed of metallic cement, in conjunction with common
chalk, lime, and putty, and afterwards polished ; 3rd, a specimen of fresco-
painting, also executed on a face similar to the above; 4th, a vase, the figures
on which retain their original sharpness, although it has been exposed to the
atmosphere for many years.

Dec. 6. — A paper was to have been read by B. Roteh, Esq., on a new turn
table for railways, and a new weighing machine, but, owing to the sudden
indisposition of that gentleman, the subjects were postponed to a future
evening. The information only reached Mr. Whishaw a very short time be-
fore the hour of meeting, but, not to allow the visitors to be disappointed,
with his usual tact, bad a large assortment of the various locks, models of
which have been, for many years past, sent to the society, placed on the
tables, and the principles of which were ably explained by Messrs. Solly and
Varley, two members present. Barron's, Mnrdan's, Chubb's, Duke's, Bra-
mah's, and various other earlier patents, were described ; and the wooden
model of a lock was exhibited, the original of which was brought from
Egypt, and supposed to have been in use 2000 years ago — yet, strange to
say, it exhibits, in its workings, though of rude construction, a close simi-
larity to more than one of the modern patents. — Mr. Varley exhibited a spe-
cimen of wheat straw, taken from a specimen which had been purchased by
him, from which he had gleaned nearly as much wheat as would pay for the
whole truss of straw. This, he said, he was convinced was frequently the
case, and he attributed it to the imperfect mode of thrashing, as generally
adopted, although so many excellent machines exist. The evening closed
with the society's usual routine business.

Dec. 13.— B. B. Cahbell, Esq., V. P., in the chair.— The Secretary read a
paper on Mr. Johnstone's plan of forming afixed breakwater.

The plan is as follows : a series of distinct and separate caissons — each
representing in external form one half of the pier of a bridge, with its cut-
water presented to the sea — is to be formed ill four to six fathoms water,
according to localities. Each caisson to consist of cast-iron plates of large
size, and one inch in thickness (prepared with coal-tar, so as to resist corro-
sion), bolted together by means of four inch flanges; the whole to be filled
with concrete, granite, or other suitable material. The lower part of each

caisson, to the height of thirty-two feet, having a foundation platform of
wood, to be completed on shore, and when prepared to be launched, and
towed out to its position, and then lowered ; the whole to be secured to the
bed of the sea by means of cast-iron piles, driven through tubes of the same
material. — As the upper part of the caisson is put together, so is the interior
to be filled up with the solid materials, and to be coped with clamped ma-
sonry. The weight of each caisson, complete, would he 4,500 tons ; and the
cost of a breakwater on this principle, extending to nearly a mile in length,
is estimated at 297, 800/.

The Secretary next read a paper by Mr. Claudet, " On the Daguerreotype
Art" including a complete history of its origin and progress; one of Mr.
C'laudet's assistants showing, by means of artificial light, the whole process
of producing a picture. The most important pan of this communication re-
lated to an improvement lately applied ; it is a process i f engraving on a
metallic plate. M. Fizeau is the discoverer of this new mode of engraving.
Professor Grove has tried the process, which consists in dissolving, by the
electrotype process, those parts of the picture which consist of i ore siher.
Thus the plate is etched in, and transformed into an engraved plate for
printing; the action, however, of the galvanic battery sometimes extends to
those parts which should remain unattacked.

Dec. 20. — W. H. Hughes, Esq. V. P. in the chair. The Secretary ex-
plained the Automaton Calculator invented by Dr. Roth, of Paris, by which
any number, either simple or compound sums, may be rapidly and accurately
added together, provided the whole amount does not exceed 999,099, or
999,999/. 19s. llf. The instrument consists of an oblong mahogany box,
lu£ inches long, 1\ inches wide, and 1 inch thick, having a metal plate at
the top. in which are 9 semi-annular perforations, beneath which are fixed
the requisite trains of wheels. Round the perforations are engraved the
index figures, opposite to which, in the perforations, are the teeth of corres-
ponding wheels. Under the indexes are 9 circular holes, in which the num-
beis set down appear as if written on paper or a slate. To set down any
required figure, a pointer is inserted in the notch corresponding with that
figure on the index, and by pressing the pointer against the left-hand tooth
of the notch, it is moved down to the left extremity of the annular perfo-
ration, and the figure is at once exhibited in the circular hole beneath.
When the operation of adding up any amount within the range already men-
tioned is finished, it is requisite that 0 should be shown in each of the semi-
circular holes, before another operation can be performed ; this is done by
pulling out a slide at the left end of the instrument, which first gives
999,999/. 19*. \\\d., and by adding h/. the nine 0s are obtained at once.

Mr. G. A. Hughes, who has been blind for seven years, exhibited his sys-
tem of Stenography. — The system consists of two dots, the one smooth and
the other rough, which, with the aid of a guide line, are so arranged that all
the letters of the alphabet, as also the numerals, are readily represented,
merely by impressing the paper, either with the smooth end or rough end of
the embossing instrument, in squares, regulated by what Mr. Hughes calls
the formula, consisting of a brass frame, furnished with vertical and horizon-
tal bars.

Mr. Taylor exhibited two Fire Escapes ; and Mr. Higgs explained his im-
proved Monochord, in which measurement has been applied to sound, and
the actual relation of one tone to another is shown on a scale of two feet.

REVIEWS.

The Companion to the Almanac, 1S44.

The Companion is always a welcome visitor, affording, as it does, a
retrospective review of what has been done in the past year. It con-
tains an able paper ''On Arithmetical Computation," by Mr. De
Morgan ; the progress of railways in England, an epitome of the
railways in America ; a chapter on pavements of towns, in which an
able notice is taken of most of the wood pavements, and other modes
of paving; an abstract of all the principal Acts of Parliament passed
last Session, and its usual report on "Public Improvements," which, on
account of its critical acumen, is especially entitled to the notice of
architects; it has some appropriate remarks on the facade of the
British Museum, which has already occupied our pages — also, notices
of the buildings, in Lothbury — the Doric Screen of the Marquis of
Westminsters, Grosvenor Street; engravings of the Taylor and Rau--
dolph Institution, at Oxford, by Mr. Cockerell, with an engraving;
the Proprietary College at Cheltenham ; Lincoln's Inn hall and
Library, in the style of Hampton Court Palace, by Mr. Hardwick ; and
the Joint Railway Terminus, in the Italian style, at London Bridge, of
that portion which has been erected, — a view of the whole appeared
in last month's Journal, and the Com Exchange at Glasgow. Liesnles
what we have already enumerated,— the ' Companion' contains a great
mass of valuable statistical information.

468

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

Ancient and Modem Architecture. By M. Jules Gailhabaud. Series
the First. London : Firmin Didot & Co..

The first series of these interesting sketches of ancient and modern
monuments, is now complete, comprising an extensive range of
studies. The number of plates is forty, and containing a great number
of details, they afford a good synopsis of the graphic history of archi-
tecture. The Hindoo, the Egyptian, and the Persian, are well illus-
trated. So are the Pelasgic and Celtic styles, but as these latter are
rather subjects of arcbeeological than professional interest, we could
well have compounded for a more restricted treatment, as compared
with Greek art. The only monument of Greece at present, is the
Temple of Segesta ; the deficiency, we hope, will be made, as pro-
mised, in the subsequent series. Indeed we see that the Parthenon
has been already published. The Roman and early Italian styles afford
several illustrations, as does the Byzantine. The Arabian style has
its representative in the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, at Cairo ; neither have
the medieval monuments been neglected.

The text has been confided to the hands of Messrs. Gailhabaud,
Albert Lenoir, Raoul Rochette, Jomard, Langlois, Leon Vaudoyer,
Dr. Franz Kugler, and others, names which are guaranteed for the
artistic and antiquarian treatment of the subject.

In the subsequent series we are promised an extended treatment of
the various styles, but we think it hardly necessary to go to the extent,
with regard to modern works, of republishing St. Paul's Cathedral,
the Docks, and other edifices, &c, well known, and so often described.
Still, perhaps some sacrifices must be made to the public, and when
we consider that it is only by a very large sale, that a work so cheap
as the present can be made to remunerate, we must not complain, if
the professions do not have it all their own way. Undoubtedly the
present work forms one of the cheapest and most available works of
reference yet afforded to the student and the profession.

Lithographic View of Cottages and School in the Village of Bourton
Berks, erected on th property of Hi mlv Tucker, Esq., by Fkld. W
Oruisii, Architect.

In these buildings, a praiseworthy endeavour has been made to
revive in the ordinary labourers cottages and village schools, that
character which is so perfectly and alone in harmony with our En-
glish country, an humble endeavour to re-diffuse a few sparks of that
spirit of the bygone, which has lain asleep so lung, anil in the delight-
ful anticipation, that the time for the erection of bastard incongruous
heathen soulless buildings, 1ms had its day, ami that now is the repawn-
ing of better and nobler desires, of delight to spread far and wide,
buddings suited to the recluse and the wordling, of which few, though
very beautiful specimens, remain in ruins.

Each cottage is provided with a lobby, living room, open stairs,
kitchen pantry, with two bed-rooms and closets to each, above ; the
whole, throughout, is in good keeping: the three single lights to the
living room, arc fixed in deep an ho I recesses, with pointed B
sufficiently spacious to accommodate a person reading, in the end
recess of each habitation, the ancient custom of chaining the Scrip-
tures, will he conformed to.

The schools are sufficiently spacious to accommodate the whole of
the children of the village, and are well ventilated, being 121 feet high.
The roof has all its timbers framed, boarded, and exposed, springing
from stone corbels, on which are cut the initials of the several bene-
factors, the floors are also of stone ; the windows, ground glass ; oppo-
site, are recesses for books. The end window contains the armorial
bearings of the family at whose expense this portion has been erected,
in the gable thereof, and the gloom of the timber, is formed an antique
cross of stained glass; the school is also provided with lobby, cloak
room, and masters' house complete, over the centre of the latter, is
the inscription, JE. X. 1S42., in the scroll work over the stone fire-
place, is another, embodying the object of the donors.

These buildings are to be opened in July next, for public use, and
are erected in the village of Bourton, near Shrivenham, Berks, in the
parish of the Archdeacon Berens, at the expense of the family of
"Tuckers" formerly inhabitants. The cottages are the sole property
of Henry Tucker, Esq., the total expense of the whole, exclusive of
the gift of the rough stonework, only cost 750/.

PARSON'S PATENT.

Sir — In No. 74 of your Journal (November, 1S43) you furnish
extracts from the specification of a patent granted to P. M. Parson,
of Waterloo Bridge Road, Surrey, for "certain improvements in
steam engines and boilers, and in motive machinery connected there-
with," &c.

At the bottom of the second column, page 39G, you say, "The third
claim in this branch is, we believe, perfectly new, whether useful or
not, remains to be proved ; we allude to the double-acting air pump
with separate valves and offices, the one at bottom to remove the
condensed water, that at the top to pump away the air and uneon-
densed vapour accumulating in the condensers," &c.

The date of Mr. Parson's patent being Sth December, 1S12, I beg
leave to refer you to a patent granted to John George Bodmer, of
Manchester, dated 10th June, 1841, and entitled for "certain improve-
ments in machinery for propelling vessels in water, part of which
improvements apply also to steam engines to be employed on land."
There, with reference to Sheet III. of drawings, Figs. 1 S: 7, you will
find described a double-acting air pump, the object of which is to
remove the condensed water at the bottom, and to pump away the air
and uncondensed vapour at the top.

Whether or not such an air pump would tend to produce a more
perfect vacuum, I do not at present pretend to determine ; but I
should think it would materially influence the speed at which an
engine may be worked.

At all events there has been one of Mr. Bodmer's double piston
steam engines (of 30 horse power i whose air pump is constructed upon
the princi ile in question, working in this town for the last two years;
its crank shaft in ikes from 70 to 80 revolutions per minute, the steam
being used at 301b. pressure in the boiler and expanded ; and I doubt
whether a common air pump would hear such a speed.
I am, Sir,

Manchester, Your obedient servant,

Dec. 7,184a R. B.

Mr. Weale recently visited Holland for the purpose, of obtaining the
original and only set of drawings of the extraordinary collection of
painted glass in Gouda, in Holland, which he has succeeded in pur-
chasing and bringing to England.

OBITUARY.

JOHN CLAUDIUS LOUDON.

-■\iter several months of impaired health, and latterly a rapid decline

arising from a pulmonary disorder, this gentleman 'Heel at his house, Por-

er, on the 14th of December, leaving a name that

is a very conspicuous one in the necrology of the year 1843, and which "ill

I rred to the more permanent record of biography. Many

and varied are his claims to honourable mention by the last, since, high as

he stood in his more immediate profession as a landscape gar. Ii

botanist and horticulturist, lie extended his studies to other pursuits, and

y diligence and success; nor must it be supposed,

divers ty of attainments, that his knowledge in some of them was

UUl slight and superficial. Sucdl was mo:.: assuredly nol the case with
to his architectural studies, and it is with reference to them that he is more
entitled here to notice from ourselves.
To him we are indebted for the very first periodical expressly devoted to
our art, viz. the "Architectural Magazine," which was commenced by him
and carried on till the end of 1838, when he discontinued it, although
luctantly, and not so much from want of encouragement, i
then established in character, as because it occupied lime which he could ill
spare from other engagements, among which was the editorship of the
iziw ; and to conduct two periodical works, both of them
monthly ones, simultanccusly, is a task almost too great for the most inde-
fatigable. Previously to the appearance of tie Magazine, there
was no one known and fixed point of rendezvous to which professional men
or others couU resort, whether for lite purpose of seeking or commun
information We do not saj thai until then architecture hail been cutin 1} ex-
cluded from the periodical literature of die day ; on the contrary, papers of the
kin I, si mcof them, of considerable merit and interest, hail appeared in literary
ji ui n ils;1 but only occasionally, and scattered through a range of di
publications. Then, for the first time, did Architecture enter the ranks of
journalism, certainly in this country, nor as tar as we are aware, did there
at that time exist any thing Of the kind in other countries, although several
foreign architectural journals have since arisen.

1 We may here observe that i; was in consequence of being struck by an
article of the kind, that Mr. Lou Ion sought i ut and made acquaintance with
its author— one who. by this time, must be tolerably familiar to our readers
by the pseudonym ol Candidas.

184-J.]

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL

469

Of good omen in itself, as indicating the spread of architectural study and
the increasing interest taken in it, Mr. Loudon's " Magazine " gave such
study a favourable impulse, and that in the proper direction. Liberal and
enlightened in his views, and perceiving the real interests both of the art and
its professors, better than many of the latter seemed to do themselves, he
sought to remove the prejudices which had operated as obstacles against a
general intelligent appreciation of the former as an aesthetic or fine art. The
more, we have heard him say, the public can be brought to understand, and
to have a real taste for architecture, the better able they are to reason upon
its productions, to enter into their particular merits, and to discriminate
between beauties and defects, all the better will it be for architecture itself,
and for those who practise it — not, indeed, for all alike individually, but as a
class. People would then be disabused of their implicit respect for mere
names, they would be better able to recognise talent, and better disposed to
encourage it. A taste for architecture should be cultivated by all persons
of liberal education, for the sake of the interest and enjoyment it affords ;
and the wider such taste spreads itself and becomes that of the many instead
of being limited to the very few, all the better must it prove for the art, for
public apathy and indifference towards it arises mainly from ignorance of it
on the part of the public; and the shallow criticism and one-sided views of it
which now pass current with the mass, will no longer impose upon their
judgment.

Subsequent experience has confirmed the correctness of these views, if not
in the fullest extent, as far as could be expected within so short a period.
And to them we may add, that one very great advantage, although not the
main and professed one, attending a journal of such nature, is that attention
is kept alive to the subjects treated of by it ; our ideas are not allowed to
remain stagnant ; opportunity is afforded for discussion, and for testing the
soundness of opinions that have been indolently adopted as matter of course,
and allowed to pass current as incontrovertible merely because they have
not been controverted, but uniformly looked at from the same one-sided
point of view. Another advantage and that not the least of all, is that
through the medium of a periodical, valuable matter is frequently elicited
from those who, but for the facility of communicating it so afforded, would
never have thought of communicating it at all ; in fact, could hardly have
brought it before the public in any other shape, it being too little in mere
bulk for the substance of a separate volume, while in the shape of a pam-
phlet it would appear only to pass unnoticed. It may, indeed, occasionally
happen that a similar opportunity is afforded a writer, in a literary journal ;
but then it is very rarely, and only under particular circumstances ; those
which admit articles of the kind at all, are not open to mere casual corre-
spondents ; nay, some of them are so utterly inaccessible, and their editors
so thoroughly impracticable, that for any one who is not actually of their
own corps and coterie to offer any thing in such quarters, is to incur the most
insolent treatment.2

But we are now digressing too widely, although what we have been saying
shows the essential service which Mr. Loudon rendered architectural study
by starting his " Magazine," more especially as he conducted it on liberal
principles, allowing all opinions to have a fair hearing, aware that the sound-
est are likeliest to prevail in the end, and are rather confirmed than weak-
ened by having first to encounter established prejudices and fallacies.

In the way of personal memoir, little can be expected so very recently
after his decease beyond a few facts and dates ; for the authenticity of which
we can vouch ; yet even that little will make evident that should adequate
materials for the purpose be in existence, the earlier part of Mr. Loudon's
life would form an interesting and instructive narrative.

John Claudius Loudon was born in Lanarkshire, April 8th, 1782, but very
soon afterwards the family removed into the neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
wdiere his father carried on a respectable farm. The son, however, chose for
himself a different pursuit, one, indeed, not wholly out of the same direction,
but more congenial to an imaginative mind, — that, namely, of Landscape-
gardening, in which nature is contemplated with somewhat more poetic eyes
than those of an agriculturist. He was accordingly brought up with a view
to his following such profession ; and first commenced it on his own account
in 1803, when he came to England furnished with letters of introduction to
several of the first landed-proprietors in the country. Yet although he con-

= We know of one tolerably strong instance of the kind on the part of the
editor of the Quarterly Review, who detained a MS upwards of two years
and a half, although the party offering it had desired that it might be re-
turned at once if not approved, or if retained for further consideration, to be
informed to that effect, yet notwithstanding repeated applications in the
interval, no tidings could be gained of it, not even a single line, either from
the editor or any one in Mr. Murray's establishment j and in this suspense
he might have continued as many years longer, had not the intervention of
a friend personally known to Lockhart obtained the restoration of his MS,
accompanied, not with any explanation as to the reasons for its being re-
jected, or with any adequate apology, but with merely the trumpery and
evidently shamming excuse that it had been " laid by and forgotten"! After
the numerous remembrances he had had in the interim, such an excuse was
little short of a direct insult.

tinued till nearly a twelvemonth before his death to give professional advice
in laying out grounds and gardens— those of the new cemetery at Cambridge,
were, we believe, the last for which he was consulted— lie did not make land-
scape gardening his exclusive practice for any great length of time, for about
1809 he took a large farm in Oxfordshire, which seems to have been a not un-
profitable concern, nor was it incompatible with professional engagements at
different 'places.' Not quite so compatible with farming pursuits was his desire
to visit other countries and behold their scenery, which led him to travel
through the North of Europe in the memorable years 1813, 1814, and 1815,
which he spent in Sweden, Russia, and Poland. He did not, however, pub-
lish any account of that residence abroad, although from his protracted stay
and his own habits of intelligent and close observation, he would, no doubt
have been able to communicate a mass of interesting information, and far
more trustworthy than that afforded by the herd of modern tourists. The
remark also applies to his travels through Italy, in 1819, and through France
and Germany in 1828. These different visits to the Continent probably form
no small portion of the seventeen volumes of Journals, which, we understand
he has left; yet whether they are recorded sufficiently in detail for any
gleanings from them to be given to the public, may be questioned.

Most assuredly it was not aversion to literary labour which deterred him
from writing a narrative of his travels abroad, rather, perhaps, was he hin-
dered from so doing by the magnitude of other works he hail undertaken, for
immediately after returning from his tour, he set about compiling his
" Encyclopedia of Gardening," and subsequently another elaborate work,
the " Encyclopedia of Agriculture,'' both containing an immense mass
of information ; and whilst so employed he had an attack of rheumatism
which ultimately led to the most disastrous consequence. Being advised
to try the effect of shampooing, he went the following year to Brighton,
and submitted to that process in Mahomet's Baths ; when, in the operation,
his right arm was broken near the shoulder, nor did it afterwards properly
unite. He nevertheless continued to use his right hand for writing till 1825,
when, by another accident, the same arm was again broken in two places,
and he was obliged to have it amputated ; nor was this the full extent of the
calamity, for he was also obliged to lose two fingers of his only remaining
hand. Even in this crippled state, the energy of his mind overcame all ob-
stacles, nay he would seem to have been impelled by it to undertake still more
laborious tasks, and to engage in more than a single one at a time. Among
those of the last ten years of his life were his " Encyclopedia of Cottage and
Villa Architecture," " Suburban Gardener," "Arboretum Britannicum," and a
popular edition of all "Repton's works on Landscape Gardening,' 'in a closely
printed octavo volume, intended to be the first of a series of similar reprints
of other authors on the same subjects, besides the "Architectural Magazine,"
and the " Gardener's Magazine," which last, he carried on till his death. All
of them may be said to have been successful : the " Encyclopaedia of Villa
Architecture," has already gone through two if not more editions,— yet owing
to the immense outlay attending it— not less than fifteen thousand pounds— the
" Arboretum," was so far from being a profitable concern that it has not yet
paid its expenses by about £2500 which yet remains to be cleared off : and this
and more than this, it is to be hoped, will be accomplished within a short time,
now that the circumstances of the case are known, for the benefit of his
willow and daughter. A work of that kind well merited the patronage of
Government, and would no doubt have obtained such patronage in any
country where literature and science are at all encouraged by the state.

DAVID HAMILTON, ARCHITECT.

" Our obituary," says the Glasgow Citizen, " contains the name of Mr. Ha-
milton, the eminent architect. About two years ago he had an attack of para-
lysis, from which he never thoroughly recovered ; and for some time past
he had been in a declining state of health. His death took place at two
o'clock on the morning of Tuesday, 5th Dec. last, to the deep regret of his nu-
merous friends. He was in the 76th year of his age, being born in Glasgow,
on 11th May, 1768.

Mr. Hamilton's professional abilities were of the first order ; and in private
life he was distinguished for the singular amiability of his character, the un-
affected modesty of his disposition, the vivacity of his conversation, enlivened
as it often was with anecdotes of the olden time, and for his genuine worth of
heart, disinterestedness, and nice sense of honour. With the national sin of
" mammon worship," he was in no way tainted. Had he cared more for
money he must have died rich. His professional charges were considerably
below what his distinguished merits entitled him to claim, and his purse was
always open to assist the needy and unfortunate. It is doubtful whether he
has left an enemy behind him, or whether indeed he ever had one. Certainly,
few men had more attached friends or were more warm in their friendships.
By his professional brethren he was much esteemed : and jealousy or un-
worthy rivalry had, it is believed, no place in their intercourse. He has

470

THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL.

[January,

passed from tlie scene of his earthly labours ; but he has bequeathed to all
who knew him the memory of a good example— he survives in the affections
of his friends— and the numerous splendid works he has left behind, may be
regarded as so many monume.its c mmemorative of his genius.

The number of elegant or splendid structures designed by Mr. Hamilton,
particularly in the west of Scotland, is very great. Independently of Hamil-
ton Palace, the princely seat of the Duke of Hamilton, which is enough of
itself to stamp his reputation as a great architect, he produced the splendid
Royal Exchange of Glasgow j the Western Club-house ; the British Linen,
the Glasgow and Ship, and other magnificent banks; Toward Castle, ihe
seat of the late Kirkman Finlay, Esq.; Dunlop House, Ayrshire, the seat of
Sir John Dunlop. Bart.; the elegant structure of Lennox Castle, the resi-
dence of John Kincaid, Ksq. of Kincaid, so much admired by all professional
men: and numerous other buildings, remarkable for their taste and effect.
Mr. Hamilton was also a competitor for the New Houses of Parliament ; and
although his design was not adopted, it was so highly esteemed by the Go-
vernment that it was rewarded with a prize of 5002. In this competition he
was the only Scotch architect who was successful, although several of them
sent in two or three different sets of plans, while he submitted only one. In
July, 1840, Mr. Hamilton was entertained at a public dinner in this city,
when he was presented with an elegant service of plate, together with a con-
siderable sum of money enclosed in a gold box. a distinguishing proof of the
estimation in which he was held by his fellow-citizens. Mr. Hamilton is
succeeded in business by his son, who possesses, we believe, much of his
father's fine architectural taste and talents.

NEW CHURCH, BROADWAY, WESTMINSTER.

This church, designed by Mr. Poynter, was consecrated on 14th Decem-
ber, by the Bishop of London. This edifice is the first of the recent Gothic
churches erected in the Metropolis, which is built with stone. The exterior
is lace 1 wiih K ntish rag, with Ba h stone quoins, windows and dn
anil the whole of the arches and of the moulded and carved work within side
is also of Bath stone. Another peculiarity is the undisguised ad &pl
cast imn columns to the style of architecture, which is that of the hi
of the 13th century. The early tracery of the east and west windows is of a
highly ornamental character. The chancel is raised by six steps above the b y
of the church, and forms an apsis, the ceiling and walls of which are richly
decorated in colours. There is also some very fine stained glass, and the font
is one of the most elaborate specimens of carving that has of late been exe-
cuted. The general effect of the building, both externally and internally,
is strikingly ecclesiastical, and exhibit the skill of the architect in a
the materials to produce the greatest effect without too large an expenditure in
labour. As the neighbourhood in which this church is situate will
undergo a very beneficial alteration, in pursuance of the contemplated im-
provements in the property of the De I of Westminster, it has
been designed with 'a spire, which will place it among the most important of
molern ecclesiastical edifices. The proposed height is 200 feet, but it has as
yet advanced little beyond a fourth of that elevation for want of funds. It is
to be hoped that those who are disposed to encourage ecclesi .slical architec-
ture, will not suffer the work to languish from this cause.

LIST OP HEW PATENTS.

(From Messrs. Robertson's List.)

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM NOVEMBER 24 TO DECEMBER 28, 1843.

Six Mont/is allowed for Enrolment, unless othencise expressed.

James Connell. of Dublin, gent., for " improvements in the manufacture of

,.' candlewiclts." — Sealed November 24.
Richard Garrett, of Leiston Works, Suffolk, agricultural implement maker.
for " ini pro vmeiiis i'i machinery, far drilling thrashing, find cutting agricultural
produce." — Nov. 25.

John Frith, of Sheffield, architect, for " improvements in the manufacture of
cannon.''— Nov. 25.

William Irving, of Regent-street, Lambeth, engineer, for "improved ma-
chinery and apparatus for cutting and carving substances to be applied for inlaying
and other purpost s. — Nov. 25.

Edward Tann the elder, Edward Tann the younger, and John Tann, of Mi-
nerva Terrace, Hackney-road, iron-safe manufacturers, for " improvements in
larks and latches, and in iron rooms, doors, safes, chests, and other repositories."
—Nov. 25.

Alexander Vivian, of Gwennap, Cornwall, gent., for " an improved apparatus
for dressing ores." — Nov. 25.

Joseph Rock, jun., of Birmingham, factor, for " improvements in locks and
latches. — Nov, 25.

George Edmund Donnistborpe, of Bradford, York, top manufacturer. " for
" improvements in combing wool and other fibrous substances." — Nov. 25.

William John Hay. of Portsmouth, operative chemist, for " improvements in
producing light by percussion, for signals awl other purposes. — Nov 25.

Thomas Drayton, of Brighton, gent." improvements in coating glass with sil-
ver for looking glasses, and other uses" — Nov. 25.

John Richard Lund, of Cornhill, chronometer-maker, for " improvements in,
tin- construction of compensation balances of chronometers. — Nov. 25.

James Cooper, of St. John-street, Clerkei.well, prov sion merchant, for
' of peculiar construction, and on apparatus for the purpose of preserving
various articles of provision far the use of families. — December, 5.

John Hicks, of Bolton-le-Moors; Lancaster, engineer, for " improvements in
steam-engines, and in apparatus to be connected therewith, for driving machinery,
part of which improvements arc applicable to forcing, lifting, ami measuring
water. — Drc. 5.

Joseph Robinson, of Old Jewry, solicitor, for " improvements in the construc-
tion and modi of working engines by the agency of air or gases for obtaining or pro-
ducing motive power. (A communication. J Dec. 5.

William Wardrope, of Welneek-street, surgeon, for " improvtmtnts in the
forms, or construction of hooks and cues fur fastening dresses, and for other uses."
'Dec. 5.

William Newton, of Chancery-lane, engineer.for " improvements in extract-
ing certain metals from ores and other compounds of these metals some part, or
parts of which improvements are also applicable to obtaining another product, or
lucts from such ores or compounds, (A commun cation). — Dec. 5.

Lawrence Holker Potts, of Greenwich, doctor of medicine, 'or "improve-
in the construction of piers, embankments, breakwaters, and other similar
• —Dec. 5.

.1 lin Reed Hill, of Chancery-lane, civil engineer, for " improvements in a

i or machines, for letter-press printing. — Dec. 8.
William Brockedon, of Devonshire-street, (> een square, gut., for "im-
provements in th> Pills "'"I me, Heated lozenges, mill in preparing
or In a.'ing black lead — Dec. 8.

Joseph Lamb, ol Manchester, spindle and fly manufacturer, for an - im-

provemeo is in machinery used fa , ' -.pinning cotton,

wool, Hat als. — Dec. 8

John Bishop. Poland -street, Westminster, jeweller, for " improvements in

paving roads, streets, and other places. — D«. 8.

ipher Nickels, "f York-road, Lambeth, gent., for " improvements in
apparatus for facilitating the cut t ' of materials for making gloves

-Dec. 8.
William Baddeley, of Lombard-street, for " i
(A c immunication.) — Dec. 8.

Schottlaender, of Si. Swifh'm's-lane, merchant, for " improvements in

. ,1 and other fabrics. — Dec. 8.

Si i I :i f . i Birmingham, wine merchant, for "im-
provements in the manufacture of gl ks for ihe

easily applied, and more effectually retained in ., where

Hip/ids tire used : also in the manufacture ofarti h S, and .'he applica-
tion of the same to that P ' SO as to
secure the cork : Uus for extracting such corks when required to
d — Dec. 8.
Henry Vingoe.and William Henry Vingoe, of the town of Penzance, Corn-
provements in apparatus for planting or selling, drilling
or dibbling corn, grain, seed, pulse, ormanure, parts of which improvements arc

, . , .
■ -1 ne, mi ch one il draft! man, for "im-
provements in Ihe manufacture of cyanogen, and its compounds, particularly the
prussiates of potash and soda — (A ci mmunication.) — Dec. 13.

I Ireal Russell-street, engineer, for •' improvements in ap-

phi'iii:' heal to brine. Or 0/',. u 'I in vessels. — Dec. 13.

Henry Purser Vaile, of Blackfriars-road, genl , for " improvements in manu-
■ ■■■' I eiili oilier matters, for the covering if floors and other
surfaces — 1 I

Kirby, of Cambridge-terrace, Hyde Park. Esq. for " improvements in
materials for, and in the modes of applying coverings to coffins for the dead.
Dec. 13.

William Y'oung, of Queen-street, Cheapside. lamp-maker, for ".improve-
ment.: in i re of lamps ami gas burners. — Dl c. 13.
Samuel Parlby, of Rutland Gate, Knfghtsbridge. retired major, for " tm-

ritS in the construction of wheels far carriages. — Dec. 18.

Benjamin Cook, jun., of Birmingham, merchant, for "improvements in
coating or covering the surfaces of metals if various forms, and of applying the.
same to a variety of useful purposes. — Dec. 18.

Francis L'Estrange. of Dawson-street Dublin, surgeon, for " improvements
in hernial trusses, to prevent the descent of hernia through the internal as well as
the external ring— Dec. 21.

Pierre Frederick Ingold, of Dean-street. Soho, watchmaker, for " improve-
ments in machinery for making purls of watches and other time keecpers, as well
as parts of instruments for malhemalieal . optical, astronomical, nautical and mu-
sical purposes — Dec. 21.

Thomas Murray Gladstone, of New Swan Garden Iron Works, Wolver-
hampton, for "improvements in machines for cutting or shearing iron or other
metals — Dec. 28.

Richard Archibald Brooman, of the Patent Office, 166, Fleet-street, Lon-
don, gent., for " improvements in figure weaving machinery." (A .communcia-
tioiv)— Dec. 28.

End of Volume VI.

INDEX.

Academy, Roval 20, 57, 93, 130,

194, 231, 465.
jErial transit machine 159, 187, 219.
Albano, B., on a lock-meter, 430.
American marine engines, 16.

excavating machine, 147.

locomotive engine, 241.

engineering, by W. R. Casey, 299.
Amsterdam & Arnheim Railway 435
Ani cathedral 183.

Antiquities see Architecture, Eccle-
siastical Buildings.

Armenia 183.

Architectural 57, 93.

Baths of Titus 291.

Cora 292.

Egyptian 142, 199, 412.

Institutes 200.

London Wall 230, 362.

I.ycian marbles 67, 203.

Magnesia 30.

Parthenon 292.

Pactum 292.

Pompeii 7.

Pyramids of Egypt, 142, 337.

Yucatan 133.

Romsey, 414.

St. Bartholomew, Smithfield 379.

Spalatro 334.

Tomb of Absalom 93.

Winchester 414.

Yucatan 133.
Arabesque decorations, remarks on, 1.
Arches, see Bridge, Gothic 67

Remarkable 162.

Transverse 211
Architect, trial of, for negligence, 339.
Architects and architecture, observa-
tions on by Dr. Fulton, 333, 373,

403,451.
Architects, Royal Institute of

67, 104, 109, 118, 160, 173, 183,

211, 246, 255, 231, 291, 431, 465.
Architects.

Barry, 297.

Chronology of 94.

Cockerell, Professor, 9, 93, 13 ,
165.

Donaldson, Prof. 10.

Gwilt, Joseph 36, 74, 99, 447.

Italian 99.

Ludwig 449.

Schinkel 449.

Wightwick 75.

Wren 298.

Architectural principles, Vitruvius 246

Society extraordinary 10.

Society, Lichfield 104.

Society, Yorkshire 14, 51.

taste in large towns, remarks on
315.
Architecture, see Building, Can-
didus, Competition, Decoration,
Ecclesiastical,

Causes which have ennobled, by F.
Lush, 153, 261.

Chronological table of 94.

Corinthian capital 185.

Early English style in churches,
319.

Egyptian 412.

Expression in, 36.

Gothic architecture, by E. Hall 255.

George III.'s reign, 310.

Italian 61, 99, 155.

lectures on, Cockerell's 57, 93,
130, 165.

mouldings 298.

propriety of style 255.

Quarterly papers on, 397.

roofing 147, 210, 227, 392, 437.

synchronism in, 158.
Armstrong's Hydro-electric machine,
Artesian Well, see Well.

at Sea 56.

at Grenelle 81, 322.

theory of 81.
Arts, Society of 467.
Asphalte, Seyssel 31.

Parisian, 106.
Axles, see Locomotive.

wrought iron 48.

strength of 209.

breakage of 242.

journals for, 385.
Bain on electricity 283,

electric telegraph 300.
Balance for weighing coin 278.
Barry's report on Westminster Bridge,
281.

Houses of Parliament, 173.
Beacon, iron, Steward's 402.
Beams, see Arch.

iron, strength of 27, 67, 100.
Belgium, building in, 7, 33.
Bielefeld, dressing glass stand, 398.
Biography: —

Anderson, W. D. 101.

Bell, Henry 421.

Collinge, Charles 101.

Biography — ( coutinued) .

Congleton, Lord 101.

Cotton, Mr. 103.

Ewart, Peter 102.

Foster, Capt. R. 101.

Hakewell, J. 324.

Hick, Benj. 101.

Huddart, S. 103.

Parnell, Sir H. 101.

Rennie, John, 102.

Seaward, Samuel, 101.

Smeaton, John, 101.

Trevethick, Richard, 101, 421.

Watt, James, 102.

Wilkie, Sir David, 225.

Woolf, Arthur, 101.
Bitumen see Asphalte.
Blast engine, 27, 441.
Blasting bv gunpowder, 68, 420, 144,

165, 187,337,398.
Boccius light 223.
Bog, roads through, 273.
Boiler, apparatus to supply, 269.
Break, railway carriage 309.
Brick making, cost of, by F. W. Simms

348.

Egyptian 386.
Brick machine 202.
Bridge see Arch.

beton 229.

cast iron 75, 106.

draw, Bowcombe 170.

Hoskiug, Professor, on 211.

Loudon 207.

Notre Dame 421.

Pont du Carrousel 75.

Stockton 106.

suspension, Dredge's 142.

Victoria 240, 253.

Westminster 250, 281, 420.
Bristol, St. Mary Redcliffe. 11.
British Association 323, 352.
British Museum, 262, 297, 299, 308,

358,373,375,411,416.
Bude light 233.
Building act 214, 309.
Building, notes on, see Arch, Archi-
tectural, Beam, Brick, Cement,
Chimney, Materials, Roof, Stone,
Tile, Window, Wood.

acoustics 323.

cement, Keeue's marble 28.

cement, metallic 467.

concrete, 46, 156, 229, 355, 369,

422.

Building — fcontinuedj .

contractors 91.

drains 45, 243.

hoisting machine 289.

roofing 147, 210, 227, 392, 437.

scaffolding 410.

schedules 91. -

sewers, 25, 43, 87.

tenders 21.
Buildings see also Ecclesiastical.

Baden, pump-room 137.

Bank of England 296.

Belgian, by George Godwin 7.

British Museum 262,297,299,308.
358, 373, 375, 411, 416.

City Law Courts 26.

Conciliation hall, 450.

Conservative club 26, 331.

Exchange Royal 19, 30, 73.

Florence 108*.

Gresham college 270.

Grosvenor house 229.

Lincoln's inn 26.

Mansion house 26.

Parliament house 18, 142, 173, 181,
324, 374.

Pompeian house 193.

St. George's Hall, Liverpool 329.

Travellers' Club 26.

Vatican 1.

Walhalla 109.
Buoys, Elme's mooring and signal 302
Butterley blast furnaces, 277.
Burnettizing timber, 206.
Byrne, Professor, new mode of com-
puting spherical excess, 221.

new mode of computing height of
mountains, 271.
Calculator, automaton 426.
Canadian board of works 152, 249.
Canal : —

American 52.

Beauharnois 52.

Bentley 218.

boats 214, 388.

Canadian 52.

Cornwall 52.

Erie 53.

France 366.

Grand Junction canal 24 1.

Hereford and Gloster 79.

Lachine 53.

lockmeter 430.

Nottingham and Derby 254.

towing boats 244.

Candelabra 292.

Candidus's Note Book 9, 35, 74,
117, 155, 193, 227, 264, 296, 331,
411.
Cartoons in 1819-1843, 274.
Casey, W. R. on engineering in North

America 299.
Casting iron 75.
Cast iron, see iron.

Causes which have ennobled architec-
ture 153, 261.
Cement, Keene's 28.

metallic 467.
Chalk basin, reservoir in 350.
Chancels 71.

Chapels, see Ecclesiastical Building.
Chapter houses 162.
Chimney flues 66, 143.
Circular dividing engine 303.
Chromatype, by R. Hunt 322.
Church, see Ecclesiastical Building.
Clay's process for wrought iron 207.
Clement's nautical inventions 28, 248.
Clifford, H. E., C. E., on the educa-
tion of an engineer 54.

On lone and short connecting
rods 307.
Coating metals 303, 386, 457.
Cockerell, Prof, lectures on archi-
tecture, 57, 93, 130, 165.
Coke, Belgian 400.
Colonial engineering and surveying

394.
Colour, see Decoration.
Competition : —

Ipswich 176.

Kentish Town 15.

remarks on, 432.

Conciliation Hall 450.
Concrete, articles on, 29, 46, 229,

355, 369, 422.
Connecting rods, by H. F. Clifford 307
Contoured maps 355, 422.
Contracts 91, 181.
Copper cloth 430.
Coral formations, philosophy of 345,

383, 417, 142.
Corinthian capital, by Hakewcll 185.
Cork harbour, remarks on 367.
Cotton W. automaton balance 278.
Culverts 45.

Damp, to prevent 382,466.
Daguerrotype engraving 167.
Davies' railway break 309.
Deals, qualities of 404.
Decorations, see Fresco, Paper.

arabesques l. 291,

baths of Titus 291.

candelabra 292.

Eastlake on 340.

house painting 460.

new houses of parliament 1 42, 173,
235, 313.

Beats 293.

tiles 200.

tripods 292.

Travellers' club 318.

s, registration of 366.

school of 253.
Dividing engine, self-acting 303.
Dock see Harbour.

E lesmere port 401.

Lii rpool 4 20.

Middlesborough 106.
land 20.

Woolwich 282.
Donaldson, Prof, preliminary dis-
course 445.
Drawing from models 197.
Dredging machine, invention of 16.
Dressing glass stand 399.
Earthwork, notes on 22, 91, 251,

Eastlake, C. L., report on decotation,
140.

Ecclesiastical Buildings.
Alexandria church 107.
Ani cathedral 183.
chancels 71.

chapter on, by G. Godwin, jun. 71.
Chapter houses 162.
church building regulations 126.
Derby chapel 218.
Duomo, Parma, 392.
ecclesiologist 105.
font, 127, 414.
Glasgow cathedral 328.
hagioscope, 415.
Knowsley church 107.
Louvain cathedral 34.
Malmsbury abbey 281.
Manchester new church 286.
Milan cathedral 258.
open seats in 424.
Parma 392.
pews 424.
pulpits 34.
Ripon cathedral 118.
Romsey abbey 415.
Rothwell church 257.
St, Bavon, Ghent 34.
St. Bartholomew, Bank 465.
St. Bartholomew, Smithfield, 379,

422.
St Cross, Winchester, 414.
St. George's, Windsor 357.
St. John's, Winchester 414.
St. Mary, Redcliffe 10.
St. Peter, Colebrooke 415.
Salisbury cathedral 294.
Chapter house 161.
simplicity of composition in 319.
tiles 200.

Toumay cathedral 7, 33.
Weill cathedral 260.
Westminster abbey 114, 295.
Wilton church 22.
Winchcorabe church 294.

Winchester cathedral 414.
York cathedral 258,
Ecclesiologist 105.
Edge's gasometer 105.
Elasticity of materials, experiments

on 354.
Electric telegraph 103, 107,213,283,

300, 389.
Elmes's signal buoys 302.
Embankment. Nene 422.

Long Sutton 364.
Engineering see also arch, beam,
buildings, gas, hydraulic, loco-
motive, machine, material, ma-
rine engine, mining, paving, rail-
way, steam engine, tile, tunnel,
water, well, wood.

blasting 68.

bogs, roads in 274.

concrete 16, 156, 229, 355, ; 69,
422.

contracts for 91.

culverts 45.

cutting 22.

draining 243.

earth wagons 265.

earthwork 22, 91, 251, 265.

embankment 22, 426.

excavation 22, 91.
Engineers, Civil see Institution.

lectures on, by Prof. Vignoles 128

measurement 22.

puddling 426.

schedules 91.

tenders 91.
Engineers : —

Bidder, G. P. 86.

Brailhwaite, John, 86.

Brunei, I. K. 86.

Cubitt, W. 86.

Gibbs, Jos. 86.

Giles, N. 86.

Hartley, 103.

Lock. J. 86.

Rastrick, J. N. 86.

Rennie, G. 86.
Sir Jno. 86.

Stephenson, George S6.
Robert 86.

Vignoles, C. 86.

Walker, James 86.

Report on Irish railway commu-
nication 455.

Wicksteed 426, 463.
English, early, style in churches 319.
Excavating machine 147, 268.
Exchange, Royal 19, 30, 73, 464.
Explosion, Dovor cliffs 68, 165.
Expression in architecture 36.
Fairbairn's rivetting machine 115.

direct action engine 71.

metal ships 304.
Faraday's lamp burner, 196.
Fine arts, commission of 142, 313.
Fire escape 143.

Flaxmill at Cassano, 143, 181, 191.
Floating light vessels 423.
Flues, chimnev 66, 143.
Font 127.

Forge hammer, Nasmyth's 40.
Forrester's direct action engine 367.
French and Belgian railways, cost 237.
Fresco.

Eastlake on, 340.

houses 155.

Italian 340,431.

Munich 431.

Pompeii 7.

saltpetre, means of preventing 424.

Thomson on 24 7.

Vatican 1.

Wilson on 3S9.
Fulton, Dr. observations on architects,

333, 373, 403, 451.
Furnace, blast, Uulterley 277.

Williams's 204.
Gas see Light.

cost of 31

improvement in 51

meter, Edge's 105

self-generating 288

Leathley's burners 323.

pressure engine 427
Geodesical instruments 122.
Gaseous fluids, efflux of 440
Geology — South Eastern Railway 452,
Gibson ihe sculptor 85
Gilding and silvering by immersion 457
Glass, ornamented 281, 304.
Glasgow, supply of water 3, 20.
Godwin, George, jun. on buildings in

Belgium 7, 33.

ancient structures at Winche ster 4 1 4

Chapter on church building 17.

chat about Westminster Abbev 114.

Old London wall 230, 362.
Goethe on decorative painting 460.
Gordon on marine engines in the royal

navy 311.
Graphimeter 377.
Greenwich pier 253, 270.
Crenelle, artesian well 81, 322.
Gresham College 270.
Grosvenor House 227.
Gunpowder, explosive force of 120.
Gwilt, Joseph 36, 74, 99.
Encyclopedia 24, 61.
Hakewell, A. W. on the Corinthian

capital 185.
Hakewell, J. obituary 324.
Hall, E. on gothic architecture 255.
Hamilton, David, obituary 468.
Handcock on journals of axles 385.
Harbour, Aberystwith 139.

Cork 367.

Dover 30.

Ellesmere port 401.

Liverpool 401, 420.

Middlesborough 106.

Sunderland 29.

Warkworth 253.

Woolwich 282.
Hay on decorative painting 460.
Haydou, B. R., Life of Wilkie 225.
Heliotrope Graham's 303.
Hermitage museum 338.
Hoard nuisance 19.
Hood.Chas.efflux of gaseous fluids 440.
Ilodgkinsou on the elasticity of ma-
terials 354.
Hoisting machine, Spurgin's 302.
Holtzapffel on turning 25, 66.
Horse power, see marine engine.
Hosking on bridges 211.
House painting 460.
Hutchinson on Electro-galvanic blast-
ing 337.
Hydraulic engineering, see canal, dock,

harbour, pier, water, weir, well.
Hydro-electric machine 399.
Ice-boat, Ballard's 79.
India, advantages of steam navigation
381.

railways in 408.
Institution of Civil Engineer's 29, 101,
139.170, 207, 240, 277,320, 348,
383, 426, 465.

distribution of prizes 465.
Ireland, Mr. Walker's report on railway

communication with 455.
Iron, see materials.

beacon 402.

Hudd's process 304.

cast 75.

experiments on 279.

contraction of 75.

galvanized 106, 386.

houses 124.

preservation of 386, 387.

ships 218, 388.

use of in architecture 291, 316.

wrought, Clay's process 207.

zincing 106,386.
Jones Inigo, windmill 298.
King's College 2 IS.
Kyani/ing timber, 205, 283, 300, 356,
Lichfield architectural soeietv 104.
Light, Boccius 223.

Bude 223.

Faraday 196.

electric, in Paris 436.
Lightning conductor 48, 313.
Lighthouse, Bell rock 31, 138.

Breakwater 289.

Wyse 299.

Goodwin 359.

lamps 429.
Light vessels, floating 423.
Lime, new process 20b, 137.
Liverpool improvements 164.
Lock meter 430.
Locomotive, see axle, valve :

Man of Kent 31.

self-acting slide valve 49, 77, 233.

orifice of blast pipe, determination
of 77.

reversing apparatus 148.

Philadelphia 241.
Loudon, drainage of chalk basin 350.
Loudon, J. C. obituary 468.
Ludwig 449.

Lush on architecture 153, 261.
Machine :

hiick 202.

dredging 138, 181, 203.

excavating, American 147, 268.

forge hammer 10.

hoisting 2*9, 302.

hydrostatic engine 32.

miuer's, raising 426.

pile cutting 440.

rivetting engine 115.

INDEX.

Machine — (continued).

street sweeping 144.

tile machine 202.

water pressure 322.
Main's, street, observations on 335.
Maitland's safety valve 305.
Mallet on overshot wheels 140.

on corrosion of iron and steel 386.
Marble 141.

Cement 28.
Marine Engine:

American 16.

beam 17, 171.

comparison of 171.

direct action, 170. 335, 367.

double cylinder 367.

Fairbairn's 71.

Forrester's, 367.

horse power, 79, 139.

long and short connecting rods,

comparison of 307.

Mather's 219.

oscillating 219.

Royal navy 311.

slide valve, how to calculate 86.

Virago 145.

Yarborough 335.
Markets 286.
Martin Chuzzlewit 75.
Materials, elasticity of, by E. Hodg-
Mather's oscillating engine 29.
Metals, changes in structure of 354.
Metropolitan improvements 26, 200.

Society 104.
Miners, machine for raising 426.
Mountains, method to find the height

of, 271.
Mushet's experiments on iron 279.
Napoleon's Tomb 30.
Nasmyth's forge hammer 40.
Nelson monument 143, 327, 410.
Nile, improvement of 29.
Nuisance hoard 19.

windows 27, 43.

smoke, report on 305.
Ordnance Survey 362.
Oxides of metals 303.
Painting decorative 460.
Paper, ornamental 305, 400.
Paris improvements 30.
Parson's patents in engines, rev. 396.
Patent, infringement of 19.
Patents, new 32, 70, 108, 146, 182,

218, 254, 328, 366, 402, 438, 470.
Parliament, new houses of, see fresco

18, 142, 173, 181,313,324,374.
Pavement, tesselated 125.
Paving act, metropolitan 60
Paving, remarks on 428.
Payerne's Dr. process, 106.
Payne's patent for preserving wood

217, 314.
Pews 424.

Photographic process, by R. Hunt 32
Pier, Greenwich 253, 270.
Pile cutting machine 439.
Pipes of iron for water and gas 3352.
Plans, charge for 19.
Plough, steam 454.
Pocock, W. W., architecture by Vi-

truvius 246.
Pole, W., on friction of steam engines

170.
Pont du Carrousel 75.
Powder magazine, fire proof, 304.
Professional charges 19.
Propeller, see steam boat.
Pugins' apology, rev. 178.
Pulpits 34.
Pump, Roe's 180.

Liverpool Screw 217, 212.

Rennie's 217.

screw 217, 219, 420.

Woodcroft's 219.
Pyramids of Egypt 142, 375.

Railway, see Axle, Locomotive.

American 64.

Amsterdam 436.

Atmospheric 328.

Belgian 327.

Birmingham & Derby 326.

Birmingham & Glo'ster 326.

Blackwall 326.

Bolton & Preston 326, 400.

Brighton 325.

Bristol & Exeter, 326, 400.

Bristol & Glo'ster, 326.

Chester & Birkenhead 325.

Construction of, 129.

Croydon 326.

Curves 243.

Darlington Junction 400.

Devon & Cornwall 326.

Dublin & Drogheda 364.

Durham Junction 240.

Eastern Counties 326.

Eastern Union 326.

Edinburgh & Glasgow 364.

French 237.

Glasgow & Ayr 365.

Glasgow & Greenock 365.

Grand Junction 325.

Great Western 326, 400.

Greenwich 325, 365.

Great North of England 325.

Holyhead 455.

Hull & Selbv 364.

India 408. "

Irish 455.

Liverpool & Manchester 182.

London & Birmingham 227, 325.

Manchester & Birmingham 365

Manchester & Leeds 365.

Manchester & Bury 325.

Maryport & Carlisle 365.

Midland Counties 325, 400.

Newcastle & Darlington 326.

North Midland 325.

North Union 325, 400.

Northern & Eastern 325, 366.

Sheffield & Rotherham 325.

South Eastern 31, 68, 253, 326,
435, 452.

South Western 365.

Taff Vale 364.

West London 365.

York and North Midland 325.

Yarmouth and Norwich 365.
Railway Chronicle 325, 364, 400,

435, 464.
Railways, Weale, ensamples on 63.
Reform Club decorative painting 460.
Restorations —

St. George's, Windsor 357.

St. Mary, Redcliffe 11.

St. Mary, Nottingham 254.

Tournay cathedral 8.
Reviews —

Bain on Electricity 283.

Basire's locomotive engine 362.

Bergin's atmospheric railway 66.

Black's tourist 361.

Blunt's civil engineer 65.

Bourns's surveying 65.

British traveller's guide 286.

Chapman's diagrams 66.

Companion to the almanac 23, 466.

Danson's inventor's manual 285.

Diagrams of useful knowledge so-
ciety 286.

Doric order, antique, 3 engravings
292.

Ecclesiastical architecture 398.

Fisher's photogenic manipulations
286.

Guide to Hayling 201.

Gailbaband's architecture 25, 137,
285, 466.

Gutch's pocket book 66.

Gwilt's Encyclopedia 24, 61, 441.

Glenny's almanack, 436.

Holtzapffel's turning 25, 66.

Kittoe's Indian architecture 360.

Klenze's entwurfe 445.

Knipe's geological map 286.

Le Grice, Count, studij of sculptors
at Rome 85.

Loudon's cemeteries 199.

Marine steam engine in the navv
311.

Martin Chuzzlewit 137.

Mechanic's almanack 436.

Nicholl's encaustic tiles 137.

Norman's Yucatan 133.

Oldham's tiles ISO, 200.

Parson's steam engine 396.

Pease's geometry 201.

Pictorial history of England 310.

Pritchard's patents 180.

Penny cyclopaedia 4:3.

Pugin's apology 178.

railways, their use and manage-
ment 86.

Sopwith's economic geology 312.

student's guide to measuring 200.

topographer and genealogist 137.

Tower's Croton aqueduct 360.

Tredgold on the steam engine 31.

Wathen's Egypt 199.

Weale's ensamples of railways 63.

Weale's quarterly papers 397.

Wilme's hand book 86.

Williams's elementary drawing 180,
197.

Yearbook of facts 86.
River improvements.

Shannon 106, 360, 423

Clyde 362

Tyne 402
Rivetting machine, Fairbairn's 115
Roads, mode of constructing in bogs,
273

Parma 392

Buckingham palace 210
Roe's pump 180.
Roof, Newcastle 117

London and Birmingham railway
227

flat 437
Rope, wire 27, 48
Romsey Abbey, 415
Royal Academy see Academy.

distribution of prizes 20, 465.
Royal Exchange 19, 30, 73, 464
Russell on sound 322.

tidal observations 323, 352.

form of ships 353.

Buckingham palace 210.
Safety cape 347
Salisbury chapter house 160.
St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield 379,
422

Bank 465.
St. George's Hall, Liverpool 329
St. Mary Redcliffe 10
Saotape nosing 234
Scaffolding, Nelson monument, 410
Scales, drawing 105
Schinkel 449
School of design 253
Science, European temple of 421
Screw pile lighthouse 299.
Seats, open, in churches 124.
Sewers of the metropolis 25, 43, 87
Shipbuilding- —

bulkheads 389

fastenings, remarks on 423

form of 353, 372

iron 218, 388, 438,458

iron keel plates 438

metal, Fairbairn's patent 304

sheathing, new 143

ventilation 458
Signal buoy 302
Sillometer 28, 248

Simm's collimator 122

on horse power 243.

on brick making 348.
Smoke, consumption of 26

nuisance report 305.
Society of Arts 467
Sound, laws of 323,
Spherical excess 224.
Spring contractor 245
Spurgin's hoisting machine 302.
Statue of Queen Victoria 30
Steam boat : —

Alecto 312.

Bentinck 107, 287

Congress 17

Cyclops 312

Devastation 312

Duke 106

Fire Queen 402

Garrv Owen 388

Gevser 312

Great Britain 79, 145, 287, 313

Great Northern 70, 401

Great Western 420

Helen Macgregor 367

Heme 288

Hibemia 107

Hindoftan 145.

Infernal 234.

iron 26, 163, 181, 327, 362, 366,
388, 401, 402.

Iron Queen 163.

Liverpool screw 217, 219.

Magician 30.

Mermaid 218, 28S.

Neapolitan 69.

Nimrod 401, 438.

PeikiTijaret 217.

Penelope 145,288.

Pfalzgraf 402.

Polyphemus 312.

Prince Albert 107.

Princeton 420.

Prince of Wales 327, 302.

Prometheus 312.

Princess Alice 366.

Red Rover 181.

Regent 17.

Roberto 438.

Severn 181.

Stromboli 312.

Temperador 107.

Terrible 145.

Tourist 101.

ventilating 459.

Vesuvius 312.

Victoria and Albert 218, 288, 459.

Virago 145.

Vulture 71.

Waterman 145.
Steam engine, see Marine Engine.
Locomotive, Machine, Valve.

apparatus for supplying water 270.

Ball's 288.

indicator 28, 248.

meter 314.

pumping 182.

safety valve, Maitland's 305.

valve, Edwards's 49, 181.
Steam navigation, inland, in India
381.

notes on, 87.
Steam plough 454.
Stone, see Marble.

marble 141.

quarrying 31.

Sylvester's process 67, 465.
Stoves 422, 439.
Surveying : —

contouring maps 355, 422.

inaccessible distances 355.

measurement 22.

mode of computing the height of
mountains 271.
Surveyor's charges 19.

Synchronism of style in architecture

158.
Telegraph, electric 103, 107, 213, 283,

300, 389.
Tesselated pavements 125.

notes on 87.
Thames Tunnel 103, 143, 207.
Thermography, hy Robert Hunt 20.
Thermometer, nautical 248.
Thorwaldsen, 85.
Tidal observations, hy J. S. Russell

323, 352.
Tile machine 202.
Timber, see Beam. Wood.
Timber and deals, observations on,

404, 432.
Tournay Cathedral 7, 33.
Tweeddale hrick and tile machine 202
Travellers club 26, 318.

Valve, Medhurst's 26.

Edwards' 49, 77, 233.

annular 427.

construction of, 427.
Velocity of water in pipes 37, 122,

149.'
Ventilation 371, 422.

of ships 458.
Vessels, sunk, raising 356.
Wagons, earth 266.

Maitland's
Walker, J., on railway communication

with Ireland 455.
Walhalla, with engravings 109, 449.
Walls, lateral, means of securing 104.
Warming 371, 422.
Water, electricity of 289.

mains 335.

pressure engine, Freyburg 322

raising by horse power 243.

supply of in Glasgow 320.

velocity of in vertical pipes 37, 122,
149.'

wheels, labouring force of 140.
Weir, Trent, 253, Shannon 423.
Well-sinking 139 ; law of, 289.
Westminster Abbey 114,295.
Westminster bridge 420.

Walker & Burgess's report 24.

Mr. Barry's reply 281.
Wheatstone on electro-magnetic tele-
graph 389.
White, S , C.E. on Cork harbour 367.
Whiltshire Topographical Society 24 7
Wilkie, Sir David, life of 225.
Wilson on fresbo painting, 389.
Windmill by Inigo Jones 298.
Window nuisance 27, 43.

contrivance for, 381.
forms of, 434.
light, 437.

Wire rope 27, 48, 382.

Wisbeach Cemetery chapel 332.

Wood, Kyanizing 283, 306, 356, 432.
Payne's process 217, 314, 465.
qualities of timber and deals, 405.
preservation of, by sublimate of
mercury, and sulphate of zinc 205.

Woollen factory for Turkey 279.

Woolwich new graving dock 282.

Xanthiau marbles 203.

Yarborouirh, Lord, direct action en-
gine 335.

York's experiments on axles 209.

Yucatan, Norman, on, rev.

LIST OF ILLUSTR IONS.

Ani Cathedral, Armenia, 183.
Apparatus for supplying water to

boilers, 3 cuts. 270.
Arabesques, 6 cuts. 3.4, 5. 6.
B-ms's electric apparatus. 2 cuts. 284
Baths of Titus. 291.
Blasting by Gunpowder. 3 cuts, 68.
Boccius li^ht. 2 cuts. 234.
Break, carriage. Davies's 309.
Brush machine, 202.
Bridge. Punt du Carrouse . 76.

Beton, 2 cuts. 230.

British Museum, 375.
Candelabra, antique. 2 cuts. 292.
Clay's iron furnace, 2 cuts. 208.
C lumn, Nelson's 3 cuts. 409.
Conciliation Hall, 451.
Dressing-glass stand, 2 cuts. 349.
Duomo, Parma. 392.
Earthwagons, 10 engravini
Electric Telegraph, 214. 284, 300.
Elmes's signal buoys. 302.
Excavating machine, 147.268
Faraday's burnei. 2 cuts. 196
Farnese palace. 02.
Flax -mill at Cassano, 191.
Fresco painting. 6 cuts, 389.
Gasmeter, Edge's 2 cuts, 105.

Graphimeter, 2 cuts, 378.
Ground plans, 23, 109, 256, 329. 375.
403.
•■ Haddenham church. 256.
Harbour. Cork. 368.
Hoisting machine. Spurgin's. 302.
Iceboat. Ballard's 70.
Lighthouse. Goodwin. 359.
Lockmeter, 2 cuts. 430.
Locomotive engine. slide valve. 3 cuts.
49.

blast pipe, 78.

revising apparatus, 147.
Marine engine beam. 17.

Fairbairn's. 4 engravings. 71.

Forrester's, 3 engravings. 3b7.

Mather's. 3 engravings, 219.

oscillating. 219.

direct action. 5 engravings. 335.
367.
Milan cathedral. 258.
Mouldings, Gothic, 295.
Nasmyth's direct action, steam lorge

hammer. 3 cuts. 41.
Nautical Thermometer. 248.
Nelson monument, 3 cuts, 409.
Handolfini palace. 61.
Pantheon, 404.

P. ■). Britia. ..iiseum, 375.

'antheon. 404.
P ,.. Roe's. 2 C ts. ISO.

aids of Egypt. 2 cuts. 357.
Railway terminus, London Bridge, 2

ngs, 403.
Railway communication with Ireland,

6 engravings. 455.
Rivetting machine. Fairhairn's, 116
Roof of the Newcastle riding School,

147.
Roof of the London and Birmingh im

Railway engine house. 2 engravings.

227.
Roof of the Duomo Parma, 392.
Rothwell church, 257
St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, 13 en-

gravinga 379.
St. Bavon. Ghent, 35.
St. George's Hall. Liverpool, 4 en-
gravings. 329.
St. Mary, Redcliffe. 2 cuts. 11, 12.
Salisbury Lady Chapel. 3 cuts, 294.
Saotape Dosing, 3 cuts, 235.
Sawing machine for cutting timber

under water. 9 engravings. 439.
Scaffolding, Nelson's column, 3 cuts,

409.

Seats, antique, 2 cuts, 293.
Sewers, 5 cuts.
Sillometer. 248.
Spalatro, 334.

Steam engine, Edwards's, 40.
Sham, in impro-oments. 360.
Street sweep' .; lone. 144.

Terminus. London .ridge, 2 engray -

ings. 403
Tilting hammer. 41.
Tile machine. 202.
Tiles. Irish. 200.
Tournay Cathedral, 2 engravings, 8.

33.
Tripods, 2 cuts, 293.
Valve, steam engine, 4 cuts, 17, 39.
Vatican, 6 cuts. 3,4, 5, 6.
Vulture marine engine, 71.
Walhalla, 2 engravings. 109.
Well's cathedral. 260.
Wilton church. 23.
Winchcombe church. 391.
Westminster abbey, 2 engravings,

295.
Windmill, by Inigo Jones. 7 cms. 298.
York Cathedral. 257.258.
Yucatan antiquities, « engravings'

136.

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.

Platel.— Arabesque Decorations of the Vatican at
Rome,

. . 2 & 3.— Details of the Marine Engines of the
Vulture, by Messrs. Fairbaim

. . 4 & 5.— The Walhalla.

.. 6.— American Excavator.— Roof of the Riding
School. Newcastle on Tyne. — Reversing
Apparatus for Locomotives

. . 7 — Ani Cathedral. Armenia

.. 8. — Flax Mill at Cassano

. . 9.— Mather's Oscillating Marine Engine

.. 10. — Root o' Engine House, London and Bir-
mingham Railway

147
is;;
191
219

.. 11.— Gresham College, •• 270
.. 12.— Plan and Elevations of St. George's Hall,

Liverpool • • 329
.. 13. — Forester's Double Cylinder Direct Action

Marine Engine • • 367

.. 14— St, Bartholomew's. Smithfield .. 379

.. 15.— Joint Railway Terminus at London Bridge .. 403
.. 16. — Nelson Monument, with Scaffolding

.. 17.— Saw Machine for Cutting Timber under Water .. 439

.. 18. — Railway Communication with Ireland .. +5

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